____________

The Authors:

____________

Ted Shear, Assistant Professor; Mike Young, Research

Assistant; and Robert Kellison, Professor Emeritus, North

Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606.

Preface

Old growth is widely acknowledged today as an essential part of managed forests, particularly on public lands. However, this

concept is relatively new, evolving since the 1970's when a grassroots movement in the Pacific Northwest began in earnest to

define old growth. In response to changes in public attitude, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, began

reevaluating its policy regarding old-growth forests in the 1980's. Indeed, the ecological significance of old growth and its

contribution to biodiversity were apparent. It was also evident that definitions were needed to adequately assess and manage the

old-growth resource. However, definitions of old growth varied widely among scientists. To address this discrepancy and other

old-growth issues, the National Old-Growth Task Group was formed in 1988. At the recommendation of this committee, old

growth was officially recognized as a distinct resource by the Forest Service, greatly enhancing its status in forest management

planning. The committee devised “The Generic Definition and Description of Old-Growth Forests” to serve as a basis for

further work and to ensure uniformity among Forest Service Stations and Regions. Emphasis was placed on the quantification

of old-growth attributes.

At the urging of the Chief of the Forest Service, all Forest Service Stations and Regions began developing old-growth

definitions for specific forest types. Because the Southern and Eastern Regions share many forest communities (together they

encompass the entire Eastern United States), their efforts were combined, and a cooperative agreement was established with

The Nature Conservancy for technical support. The resulting project represents the first large-scale effort to define old growth

for all forests in the Eastern United States. This project helped bring the old-growth issue to public attention in the East.

Definitions will first be developed for broad forest types and based mainly on published information and so must be viewed

accordingly. Refinements will be made by the Forest Service as new information becomes available. This document represents

1 of 35 forest types for which old-growth definitions will be drafted.

In preparing individual old-growth definitions, authors followed National Old-Growth Task Group guidelines, which differ

from the standard General Technical Report format in two ways—the abstract (missing in this report) and the literature

citations (listed in Southern Journal of Applied Forestry style). Allowing for these deviations will ensure consistency across

organizational and geographic boundaries.

May 1997

Southern Research Station

P.O. Box 2680

Asheville, NC 28802
An Old-Growth Definition for Red River Bottom

Forests in the Eastern United States

Ted Shear, Mike Young, and Robert Kellison

Introduction

Red rivers originate in the Piedmont or mountains of the

Southern and Southeastern United States (Kellison et al.

1982), where their floodplains are usually narrow and their

waters are generally retained in their channels. After

flowing over the fall line onto the Coastal Plain, the waters

can flood the low ridges along the rivers (the first bottoms).

Sediments are deposited across the bottoms as the waters

lose turbulence, making these sites some of the most

productive in the South. The red river bottom soils are

well-drained loams and silt loams. Tree species found there

include red maple (Acer rubrum L.), river birch (Betula

nigra L.), water hickory [Carya aquatica (Michx. f.) Nutt.],

green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.), sweetgum

(Liquidambar styraciflua L.), sycamore (Platanus

occidentalis L.), willow oak (Quercus phellos L.), laurel

oak (Q. laurifolia Michx.), overcup oak (Q. lyrata Walt.),

water oak (Q. nigra L.), and elms (Ulmus L. spp.). Adjacent

to the first bottoms are higher elevation second bottoms,

where flooding is less frequent. Cherrybark oak (Q. falcata

var. pagodifolia Ell.), swamp chestnut oak (Q. michauxii

Nutt.), hickories (Carya spp.), American beech (Fagus

grandifolia Ehrh.), and yellow-poplar (Liriodendron

tulipifera L.) occur there.

History of Red River Bottomland Development

Red river describes the river water, colored by the large

volume of red clay sediment it carries, particularly after

storms. There is no evidence that red rivers occurred on the

southern landscape before the 18th century—they are a

modern invention. Trimble (1974) described the 1

development of the southern Piedmont from 1700 to 1970.

He found that all the early explorers of the Southern United

States noted that the streams and rivers ran clear. Colonel

Byrd described the Dan River in 1728 as ". . . perfectly

clear, running about two miles an hour." Spangenburg in

1752 called the water of the Catawba River "crystal clear,

so that one can see the stones on the bottom even when the

water is deep" and the water of the Yadkin River "clear and

delicious." William Bartram described the streams he

encountered on the Piedmont as clear, even one swollen

with runoff from a previous day's rain. The few small turbid

streams were considered anomalies. Erosion was very

limited. The river bottom soils were dark, of uniform

texture, and showed no signs of the sediment deposition that

would later color them red and brown.

Extensive upland clearing for farming occurred over the

next two centuries. The soils were highly productive but

very erosive, and were exhausted after several years of

primitive farming. Land was cheap and considered

disposable, so the farms were abandoned with little or no

vegetative cover and continued to erode. By the middle of

the 19th century, much of the South had been deforested

and left to wash into the streams. This erosion led to

dramatic changes in the hydrology and soils of the

bottomlands. Many streambeds filled with sediment to

levels near or above the valley floors. Some sections of

bottomland aggraded dramatically >16.4 feet [>5 meters

(m)]. Bottomlands often became swampy as groundwater

levels rose. Many forests were drowned, and the sediment

deposits often left the land unfit for agriculture.

This process was not interrupted until well into the 20th

century. Conversion of the landscape from agricultural use

back to forest reduced surface water runoff and increased

evapotranspiration, thereby reducing the flow volume

within the streams. Streams then downcut rapidly [more

than 6.6 feet (2 m) in 20 years] as they dissected the

sediment deposits. We believe that these landscape changes

have resulted in streams with deeper channels that do not

flow over their banks as often as they historically did. As a

result, historic floodwater volumes are often contained

within the channel, and the occurrence of floods is

decreased. We expect that the net effect of these factors on

site vegetation is a shift toward less flood-tolerant species

(Shear et al. 1996). Dramatic changes to the red rivers and

adjacent bottoms are still occurring, and the forests there

have not yet stabilized. In some areas, the sediments are still

migrating downstream; where channels continue to fill and

flood, deposition causes the valleys to become wetter. The

Much of this section is based on this excellent description of the modern 1 

development of the southern Piedmont landscape.
2

spatial distribution of this sediment migration has not been Jones et al. (1981) speculated that the stand originated after

quantitatively described but is known to be widespread. a major catastrophic event 180 to 200 years ago and has not

In addition to the effects of massive erosion, extensive areas became established after a later disturbance.

of red river bottomland were cleared for agriculture and

later abandoned. Because these bottoms are good wood The loblolly pines were senescent and dying, with more

producers, wood for fuel and fiber has been extracted from than 50 percent of the large ones [>4.9 feet (>1.5 m) at

them continuously since European settlement. In recent breast height (d.b.h.), apparently older than the five trees

years, many dams have been and continue to be built on the cored] having died in the preceding 25 years. Red maple,

red rivers for flood control and water supply. These also green ash, and sweetgum are regenerating in the resulting

have dramatically altered the hydrology of the bottomlands gaps. The pines die standing, and therefore, do not expose

downstream, mainly by reducing the frequency and bare mineral soil necessary for seed germination by species

magnitude of floods. such as yellow-poplar. However, yellow-poplar is

Because red rivers are a relatively new landscape feature another 100 to 150 years. Sweetgum and swamp tupelo

(most <250 years old), and because of the dramatic changes [Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora (Walt.) sarg.] should respond

to their floodplains that continue to occur, we do not believe favorably to the increased light and grow into the upper

that any old-growth red river forests exist. All the stands canopy on the wettest portion of the site. Shade-tolerant

along these rivers present at European settlement have been species (hickories and some oaks) in the understory will

cut and/or otherwise severely altered. In the dynamic gradually gain importance.

landscape after settlement, there have been no opportunities

for new old-growth forests to develop. Stands older than 50

to 60 years are rare. Therefore, we propose a stand

condition called older growth.

Examples of Older Red River Bottom Forests

Only two older red river bottom stands have been described

in the scientific literature. In addition, we located and

described five stands $100 years old. These stands are

unusual because of the age and size of the trees and species

composition and structure. All have been selectively cut,

periodically burned, and probably grazed. However, none

were ever cleared for agriculture and probably were never

clearcut. We used these stands as the basis for our

descriptions of older-growth red river bottom forests, and

refer to them hereafter as the study forests. Species

compositions are given in table 1.

Boiling Springs Natural Area (as described by Jones et

al. 1981) 

This is a 2.5-acre [1.0-hectare (ha)] stand in the poorly

drained, alluvial floodplain of the Lower Three Runs Creek

within the upper Coastal Plain in Barnwell County, South

Carolina. The soil is wet, mucky, loam atop sand. The tract

was designated as a natural area by the Appalachian Section

of the Society of American Foresters in 1957. The dominant

overstory trees are yellow-poplar, sweetgum, and loblolly

pine (Pinus taeda L.). Five yellow-poplars were 113 to 186

years old, and five loblolly pines were 85 to 105 years old.

been disturbed since. However, we suspect that the pines

long-lived and is expected to maintain its density for

Falling Creek Tract (as described by Edwards and

McNab 1986)

This 2.2-acre (0.9-ha) stand in Jones County, Georgia, is a

bottomland oak association at the confluence of an

intermittent stream and Falling Creek, a major stream that

flows into the Ocmulgee River 1 mile [1.6 kilometers (km)]

downstream. Loblolly pine was the dominant overstory tree

species, although there were no small trees, seedlings, or

sapling individuals. Florida maple (A. barbatum Michx.),

red maple, water oak, white oak (Q. alba L.), yellow-poplar,

green ash, and sycamore also were prominent in the

overstory. Most of the seedlings and saplings were

flowering dogwood (Cornus florida L.), with significant

amounts of American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana

Walt.), eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis L.), and eastern

hophornbeam [Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch]. The

understory was dominated by dense cane [Arundinaria

giganta (Walter) Muhl].

Loblolly pine was declining at a rate of 3 to 7 percent

annually. The oaks were expected to decline, with hickory

and maples gaining in prominence.

Tennessee Valley Authority Tracts (as described by

Shear et al. 1996) 

These three stands are on the first bottoms of two

Tennessee River tributaries: Blood River and Jonathan

Creek. They are in Marshall and Calloway Counties,

Kentucky, part of the northern extension of the east Gulf
3

Table 1—Species composition and structure of the overstories of seven older-growth red river bottom

forests

Relative basal area

Boiling Falling Union Devil's Blood Blood Jonathan

Species Springs Creek Camp Gut River S River N Creek

Liriodendron tulipifera 49.5 5.2 5.0 12.0

Liquidambar styraciflua 23.0 13.7 10.6 30.7 15.3 1.0

Pinus taeda 13.0 21.4 22.4

Quercus laurifolia 3.0

Nyssa sylvatica 2.5 6.3 .2 2.8

Fagus grandifolia 2.0 33.0

Acer rubrum 2.0 2.0 4.6 .3 9.7 13.3 25.2

Magnolia grandiflora 2.0

Carya ovata 1.5 2.7 4.1

C. cordiformis 1.0 .9 .6

Quercus nigra .5 4.7

Other species (not specified) 18.8

Acer barbatum 14.3

Platanus occidentalis 10.6 3.5 .1 9.1

Carya tomentosa 9.9 1.6

Quercus alba 5.5 1.2

Fraxinus pennsylvanica 5.0 17.2 .0 2.9 13.8 9.9

Betula nigra 2.8 11.9

Ulmus americana 21.9 3.4 1.0 20.8 6.5

U. rubra 10.7

Q. phellos 9.6

Celtis occidentalis 7.4

Diospyros virginiana 2.1 1.4

Q. falcata var. pagodaefolia 1.9 18.6 9.1

Acer negundo .4 3.5

U. alata .3

Q. bicolor .3

Carpinus caroliniana 2.2 1.8 1.3

Q. michauxii .7 20.7

Ostrya virginiana .4

Q. lyrata 17.6

Celtis laevigata 1.1 10.1

Prunus serotina .4

Q. palustris 10.1 28.6

Total number of species 11 11 14 15 12 9 11

Total basal area, m /ha 34 20 30 30 32 27 34 2

Density, number of trees/ha 276 339 255 220 400 350 450

Diameter of largest trees, cm 110 69 89 118 68 84 69
4

Coastal Plain bounded on the east by the Tennessee River. pines gradually lose prominence and the oaks gain

We determined from aerial photographs and Tennessee prominence.

Valley Authority (TVA) records that these are the only

remaining bottomland forests in these watersheds not

cleared for agriculture at some time. All are ditched to some

degree for mosquito control. The Blood River South stand This 4.9-acre (2.0-ha) stand is located in Greensville

is a 4.5-acre (1.8-ha) tract on Waverly silt loam. The Blood County, Virginia, on the floodplain of the Meherrin River.

River North stand occupies 7.4 acres (3.0 ha) on Falaya silt The river has no dams and still floods one to four times a

loam. The Jonathan Creek stand is a 5.4-acre (2.2-ha) tract year. The soils are Congaree, a moderately well to

on Waverly silt loam. well-drained fluvial loam soil, and the Riverview series, a

In 1993, the oldest trees were >100 years old. The Blood

River South stand was dominated by sweetgum, with lesser The stand is an undisturbed remnant of an approximately

amounts of overcup oak, river birch, red maple, and 100-year-old tract that was logged. The overstory is

cherrybark oak. The Blood River North stand was dominated by elms, green ash, sweetgum, willow oak, and

dominated by American elm (U. americana L.), swamp hackberry. The elms and hackberry should continue to

chestnut oak, sweetgum, green ash, red maple, and pin oak dominate as the green ash, sweetgum, and oak gradually

(Q. palustris Muenchh.). In contrast, sweetgum was only a diminish.

minor component of the Jonathan Creek stand, which was

dominated by pin oak, red maple, hackberry (Celtis

occidentalis L.), green ash, and sycamore. American elm,

red maple, sweetgum, and hackberry were the predominant

midstory species in all stands.

In the future, the overstories will probably consist of

American elm, hackberry, and red maple. They are

moderately shade tolerant and respond well to release at

advanced ages (Fowells 1965). Since they are vigorous

stump sprouters, future disturbances will not likely alter the

current successional trends toward these species. The

shade-intolerant sweetgum, an overstory dominant, loses

sprouting ability after 50 years of age (Fowells 1965). It

will probably become a minor overstory component as

succession continues.

Devil's Gut Tract

This 49.4-acre (20-ha) stand is in Martin County, North

Carolina, on a Coastal Plain ridge adjacent to Devil's Gut, a

small tributary of the Roanoke River. The soils are of the

Conetoe and Roanoke series, formed in sandy and loamy

fluvial sediments.

The major dominant tree species is American beech, with

lesser amounts of loblolly pine, cherrybark oak, and

sweetgum. Two pines measured were 154 and 162 years

old, and two beeches were 100 and 92 years old. There is

some evidence of selective removal of the loblolly pine

during the past 100 years. The high relative basal area of

beech is typical of second-bottom forests. The stand should

continue to be dominated by beech as it ages, while the

Union Camp Tract

well-drained fine, sandy loam.

Distinguishing Characteristics of Older Red

River Bottom Forests

It is generally recognized that there can be no universally

accepted definition of old-growth forests (Thomas et al.

1988, Hunter 1989). Hunter (1989) outlined a core

definition as "old-growth forests are relatively old and

relatively undisturbed by humans." He proposed several age

and disturbance criteria that characterize an old-growth

forest, each of which is discussed below in relation to the

seven sites we have described.

1. The forest has reached an age at which the species

composition has stabilized (the climax stage has been

reached).

None of the species compositions of the study forests have

stabilized (predictions about changes in species composition

are given in the descriptions). The species composition of

each study stand is expected to change over time, probably

to a climax stage in which the forests are dominated by elm,

hackberry, ironwood (Bumelia spp.), and boxelder (A.

negundo L.).

2. The forest has reached an age at which the average net

annual growth has stabilized.

Held and Winstead (1975) suggested that basal area might

be an indicator of climax status for mesophytic forests, with

basal areas of 130.8 square feet per acre (30 m /ha) for all 2

trees greater than 3.9-inches [10-centimeters (cm)] d.b.h.

representing climax stands. However, basal areas of natural
5

Piedmont bottomland hardwood forests peak at 130.8 to 7. The forest has never been converted to another type of

174.4 square feet per acre (30 to 40 m /ha) between the ecosystem. 2

ages of 50 and 60 years (depending on site index) and then

may gradually decrease over time (Kenney 1983). None of the study forests has ever been converted to

Therefore, we do not believe that the stabilization of agriculture or another type of ecosystem, so far as we can

average net annual growth is a distinguishing characteristic determine.

of older-growth red river bottom stands.

3. The forest is significantly older than the average interval suggested that stands that meet criteria 2 and 6 be called old

between natural disturbances severe enough to lead to growth, while those that meet criteria 3 and 7 be called

succession. simply “old.” Other criteria have been suggested as

The frequency of catastrophic events in these stand types richness and diversity, snags and coarse woody debris, and

has not been adequately described. We believe that a tree-fall gaps (Thomas et al. 1988, Muller and Liu 1991,

disturbance, either natural or man-made, allowed for the Martin 1992).

establishment of the loblolly pine of advanced age in a

number of the stands we examined. No major disturbance Many red river bottomlands were cleared for agriculture and

could have occurred since because the pines would have later abandoned. Shear et al. (1996) compared the plant

been the first species eliminated by minor disturbances or to community structures and compositions of the TVA stands

reintroduce themselves if the disturbance was great enough. to 50-year-old stands that had been restored on agricultural

4. The dominant trees have reached the average life almost entirely of light-seeded species. Importation of

expectancy for that species on that site type. heavy-seeded species (oaks, hickories, etc.) was occurring

All the study stands contain early- and mid-succession restored stands for a long time. A criterion for classification

species (loblolly pine, sweetgum, oaks, etc.) that have as an older-growth red river bottom forest should be that the

reached maturity. However, these tree species are nut species are prominent in the stand.

successional to the elms and hackberry and are not

dominant in a climax stage. Many gaps were noticed in the two stands we measured

5. The annual growth rate is below the average annual fallen trees and standing dead trees and contained large

growth rate. numbers of various tree seedlings and saplings. These gaps

This criterion is met by a forest that has not been cut at the forests.

typical rotation age. All the study stands are older than the

typical rotation age (40 to 60 years) of red river bottom A large accumulation of coarse woody debris is often

forests. Shear et al. (1996) analyzed the patterns of growth considered an important old-growth condition (Parker 1989,

over the past 30 years in the TVA stands. Biomass Muller and Liu 1991). To our knowledge, coarse woody

accumulation was constant during the 30 years and was debris has never before been characterized in an older red

about one-third that of 50-year-old stands. river bottom forest. On a floodplain, woody debris

6. The forest has never been extensively or intensively cut. affects the accumulation of such debris is not known.

This criterion includes not only clearcuts but also selective Camp stand and the TVA stands. In many places, this

cuts that could change species composition. There is removed the leaf litter and exposed bare soil and fine roots.

evidence (stumps, land records, etc.) that there has been Woody debris was piled up in mounds next to standing and

partial cutting in the five stands we measured ourselves. fallen trees, where it was pushed by flood waters. Because

The reports of the Boiling Springs and Falling Creek stands of the constant redistribution by flood waters, with export

indicate that they have been undisturbed but do not apparently exceeding import in the stands we observed, we

elaborate on selective cutting. It is unlikely that any of the do not believe that coarse woody debris is an important

study forests are virgin. characteristic of older red river bottom stands. The Devil's

The study sites meet only criteria 2, 5, and 7. Hunter (1989)

characteristic of old-growth forests, such as high species

fields. They found that the restored stands were composed

slowly (fig. 1), and they were likely to be absent from the

directly and the three TVA stands. The gaps were created by

are not apparent in the typical, younger red river bottom

constantly comes and goes with flood waters. How this

Scouring of the soil surface was apparent in the Union

Gut stand did not show signs of scouring and redistribution 

7

of coarse woody debris. Therefore, we measured the With time and stable site conditions, we believe that

amount of debris (using the method of Brown 1974). The old-growth red river forests can develop from older-growth

stand contained 7.2 metric tons per acre [16.1 megagrams forests. We expect these old-growth forests to have basal

(Mg)/ha] of coarse woody debris, which is about 10 percent areas equivalent or slightly lower than older-growth forests,

of the total biomass of the overstory [81.2 metric tons per lower tree densities, and to be dominated by elms,

acre (182 Mg/ha, calculated from basal area from Gardner hackberry, ironwood, and boxelder. On higher second

et al. 1982)]. This is within the range found for warm, bottoms, beech will also be an important component.

temperate zone, deciduous forests [7.6 to 10.7 metric tons

per acre (17 to 24 Mg/ha)] (Muller and Liu 1991). Muller Landscape changes have altered species composition. Many

and Liu (1991) found 9.7 metric tons per acre (21.8 Mg/ha) wetland forests in which the hydrology has been disturbed

of coarse woody debris in an old-growth upland deciduous appear to develop overstories dominated by red maple. This

forest in southeastern Kentucky, also equivalent to 10 shift to red maple is also apparent throughout the eastern

percent of the overstory biomass [95.3 metric tons per acre deciduous forest, where it replaces oaks in relatively mature

(213.6 Mg/ha)]. forests (Abrams 1992). This is probably a result of fire

We inventoried the understory of the Devil's Gut stand and gaining prominence in red river bottom forests, particularly

also examined the descriptions of the understories of the on the second bottoms. This is apparently a response to

three TVA stands (table 2). There was nothing about the reduced flooding. These conditions of reduced flooding and

species composition that would be characteristic of older- burning are likely to continue. As a result, red maple and

growth forests. Poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans Ktze.) American beech are likely to become more common in

was the dominant understory species in all the stands, bottomland forests than they were before European

equalled in abundance only by spicebush (Lindera benzoin settlement.

L.) in the Devil's Cut stand. The presence of poison ivy

usually indicates disturbance. However, poison ivy occurred

in much greater abundance in the older TVA stands than in

the restored stands mentioned above (Shear et al. 1996). In

addition, sweetgum seedlings were prevalent in the restored

stands but were completely absent from the older stands.

Based on our observations, we define older-growth red river

bottom forests as having the following characteristics:

C Relatively undisturbed for at least 50 years 

C Never converted to field or pasture and abandoned

C The oldest trees are >100 years old

C Low tree densities [<988.4 trees per acre(<400 trees/ha)]

C Trees of all diameters, including >15.8 inches (>40 cm)

in diameter

C A variety of plant species of many seed types, with a

large proportion of heavy-seeded species, including oaks

(cherrybark, swamp chestnut, overcup, and pin),

hickories, and blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica Marshall)

C Well-developed midstories and understories similar to

younger stands, with poison ivy often predominating in

the understory 

C Gaps distributed throughout the stand

suppression. We have also observed that American beech is
8

Table 2—Understory species composition of four older-growth

red river bottom stands

Percent cover

Union Blood Blood Jonathan

Species Camp River S River N Creek

Lindera Benzoin 17.3 9.5

Toxicodendron radicans 16.1 10.5 33.6 20.3

Smilax rotundifolia 8.9 1.8 ‹.1 7.8

Ilex decidua 6.9

Viburnum prunifolium 5.6

Boehmeria cylindrica 3.4 .9 1.0 2.3

Campsis radicans 3.4 .8 7.3

Arisaema triphylum 1.6

Saururus cernuus 1.4 3.2 2.5

Anisostichus capreolata .8 1.5 .7

Viola spp. .7 ‹.1 ‹.1 .2

Urtica dioica .6 9.3

Cryptotaenia canadensis .5 .5 2.3

Grasses .4 1.6 4.6

Tovara virginica .4 .5 .8

Lonicera japonica .4 3.1 .2

Onoclea sensibilis .4

Impatiens capensis .2 2.9 4.3 .3

Arisaema dracontium .2

Crataegus viridus .2

Parthenocissus quinquefolia .1 1.6

Fraxinus pennsylvanica .1 1.7 .3

Passiflora lutea .1

Mitchella repens .1

Oxydendrum arboreum 6.5

Clethra alnifolia 4.0

Asteracea (composites) 2.6

Sambucus canadensis 2.3 2.1

Corylus americana 2.0

Microstegium vimineum 1.6 7.2

Polistricum spp. (moss) 1.5

Agrostis spp. 1.4

Aster dumosus 1.0 5.1 .2

Athyrium asplenioides .8

Carex spp. .8 .7 .1

Geum canadense .7 .1 .4

Clematis virginiana .5

Lactuca spp. .5

Sanicula gregaria .5 .2

Vitis baileyana .5

Smilacina racemosa .3

Acer rubrum .2

Cornus stricta .2 .3

Euonymous americanus .2

Galium triflorum .2 .1

Rubus allegheniensis .2

Hypericum spp. .3

Celtis occidentalis .3 5.5

Asimina triloba .4

Dioscorea villosa .2 .8

Botrychium virginianum .3 .1

Carya spp. .3

Ulmus americana .3 .6 .3

Lycopus virginicus .1

Quercus spp. .1 .4 .2

Pilea pumila .2

Solidago spp. 1.2 .7

Crataegus marshallii .5

Peltandra virginica .5

Carpinus caroliniana .2

Juncus spp. .1

Acer negundo .7

Vitis riparia .7

Stachys tenuifolia .6

Woodwardia aerolata .2

 

Total percent cover 70 66 56 77

Total number of species 24 40 24 30
9

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Gardner, W.E., P. Marsh, R.C. Kellison, and D.J. Frederick. 1982. Yields Parker, G.R. 1989. Old-growth forests of the central hardwood region. Nat.

of natural hardwood stands in the southeastern United States. Hardwood Areas J. 9:5-11.

Res. Coop. Series #1, Sch. of For. Resour., N.C. State Univ., Raleigh.

Held, M.E., and J.E. Winstead. 1975. Basal area and climax status in mature bottomland hardwood forests of southwestern Kentucky.

mesic forest systems. Annals Bot. 39:1147-1148. Restoration Ecology 4(2):111-123.

Hunter, M.L., Jr. 1989. What constitutes an old-growth stand? J. For. Thomas, J.W., L.F. Ruggiero, R.W. Mannan, J.W. Schoen, and R.C.

87(8):33-35. Lancia. 1988. Management and conservation of old-growth forests in

Jones, S., D.H. Van Lear, and S.K. Cox. 1981. Composition and

density-diameter pattern of an old-growth forest stand of the Boiling Trimble, S. 1974. Man-induced soil erosion on the southern Piedmont

Springs Natural Area, South Carolina. Torrey Bot. Club. 1700-1970. Soil Conserv. Soc. Am. 180 p.

108(3):347-353.

regenerating and managing natural stands of southern hardwoods. Bull.

Kenney, K.M. 1983. A growth and yield model for natural stands of

Muller, R.N., and Y. Liu. 1991. Coarse woody debris in an old-growth

Shear, T.H., T.J. Lent, and S. Fraver. 1996. Comparison of restored and

the United States. Wildl. Soc. Bull.16:252-262.
Shear, Ted; Young, Mike; Kellison, Robert. 1997. An old-growth definition for red river bottom

forests in the Eastern United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-10. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 9 p.

Our goal was to develop a description of old-growth red river bottom forests of the Southeastern

United States. We compared the characteristics of forests described in the scientific literature and

forests we examined to various published criteria for old-growth condition. Because red rivers are a

relatively new landscape feature (most < 250 years old, resulting from human-induced soil erosion)

and because dramatic changes to their floodplains continue to occur, we do not believe that any

old-growth red river forests exist. All the stands along these rivers present at European settlement

have been cut and/or otherwise severely altered. In the dynamic landscape after settlement, there

have been no opportunities for new old-growth forests to develop. Stands older than 50 to 60 years

are rare. Therefore, we propose a stand condition called older growth and list the characteristics.

With time and stable site conditions, we believe that old-growth red river forests can develop from

older-growth forests.

Keywords: Bottomland hardwood forests, old growth, red river bottomlands.
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