SubjectW: POWERPLANT GUIDE FOR 

CERTIFICATION OF PART 23 

AIRPLANES AND AIRSHIPS 

Date: 2/23/04 

Initiated By: ACE-100

AC No.: 23-16A 

Change:

1. WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THIS ADVISORY CIRCULAR? 

a. This advisory circular (AC) provides information and guidance about acceptable means, but 

not the only means of compliance with Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) 

part 23, subpart E, applicable to the powerplant installation in normal, utility, acrobatic, and 

commuter category airplanes. This AC consolidates existing policy documents, and certain 

AC’s that cover specific paragraphs of the regulations, into a single document. Material in 

this AC is neither mandatory nor regulatory in nature and does not constitute a regulation. 

b. The guidance in this AC has been reviewed for suitability as an acceptable means, but not the 

only means, of compliance with the Airship Design Criteria (ADC), document FAA-P-8110-

2. This document notes when guidance is considered applicable to the ADC requirements and 

cross-references the applicable ADC paragraph with the 14 CFR part 23, subpart E paragraph. 

Applicability of this guidance to airship projects that do not use the ADC, or that are not 

noted as applicable, must be determined by the certifying office. 

c. Wherever there is no written policy or guidance material applicable to a specific paragraph, 

the phrase, “No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002,” is used. AC’s and 

policy memos approved after this date may be included as reference material only. 

2. WHAT IS INCORPORATED IN THIS AC AND, THEREFORE, SUPERSEDED? 

The following AC’s and policy statements have been incorporated into this revision in whole or 

in part and are superseded: 

a. AC 23-16, Powerplant Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes, dated September 21, 

1999. 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

b. Policy concerning Unusable Fuel Tests and Prolonged Sideslip Maneuvers (23.959), dated 

November 17, 1999. 

c. PS-ACE111-2000-23.901(d)(2), Notice of Compliance with the Engine Ingestion 

Requirements Applicable to Turbine Powered, 14 CFR Part 23, Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, 

and Commuter Category Airplanes, issued December 14, 2000, published in the Federal 

Register January 5, 2001. 

d. PS-ACE111-2001-23.1093(b), Compliance with Induction System Icing Protection for Part 

23 Airplanes, issued October 23, 2001, published in the Federal Register November 7, 2001.

e. PS-ACE111-2000-23.1155-01, In-Flight Operation of Propellers at Pitch Settings Below the 

Flight Regime for 14 CFR Part 23/CAR 3 Airplanes, issued December 22, 2000, published in 

the Federal Register January 12, 2001.

f. Policy Guidance for Extrapolation of Propulsion Data for Showing Compliance with 14 CFR 

Part 23, § 23.45(d) Thrust Lapse Rate and § 23.939 Powerplant Operability Requirements, 

dated December 1, 1998, applying to § 23.939 only.

g. Policy on Fuel Tank Outlet Strainer (§ 23.977), dated April 9, 1996.

h. Policy on Confirmation of Definition of Maximum Weight in § 23.1001, dated June 24, 1999.

i. Policy on Certification of Small, Single-Engine Piston or Turbopropeller Airplanes used for 

Special Purpose Agricultural Operations, dated December 1, 1997, pages 4 and 5, referring to 

§§ 23.954, 23.1043, 23.1093, 23.1141(e), and 23.1163(a)(1).

3. WHAT IS THE BACKGROUND FOR THIS AC AND WHAT TIME PERIOD 

DOES THIS AC COVER? 

The AC is current through Amendment 23-55, effective February 22, 2002. Policy 

released before December 31, 2002 is included in this AC. This material spans nearly 

38 years of Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) aviation history. 

4. HOW SHOULD THE INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THIS AC BE APPLIED? 

a. The guidance provided in this document is directed to airplane manufacturers, modifiers, 

foreign regulatory authorities, and Federal Aviation Administration small airplane type 

certification engineers, and their designees. 

b. This material is neither mandatory nor regulatory in nature and does not constitute a 

regulation. It describes acceptable means, but not the only means, for showing 

compliance with the applicable regulations. The Federal Aviation Administration will 

consider other methods of showing compliance that an applicant may elect to present. 

While these guidelines are not mandatory, they are drawn from extensive FAA and 

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

industry experience in determining compliance with the relevant regulations. If 

circumstances convince us that following this AC would not result in compliance with 

the applicable regulations, we will not be bound by the terms of this AC, and we may 

require more substantiation or design changes as a basis for finding compliance. 

c. This material does not change, create any, authorize changes in, or allow deviations from, 

regulatory requirements. 

d. If the implementing office becomes aware of reasons that an applicant's proposal that 

meets this guidance should not be approved, the office must coordinate its response with 

the office that issued the guidance. 

5. HOW IS THE INFORMATION IN THIS ADVISORY CIRCULAR ORGANIZED AND 

ARRANGED? 

This advisory circular (AC) is organized and arranged by section of 14 CFR part 23, subpart E, in 

a hierarchical format. This arrangement provides generally applicable information about each 

section under each major header and continues with information specific to each paragraph under 

a given section. The outline below shows the format and explains each portion of the information 

contained under each section heading. The advisory material is given in a question and answer 

format with each of the questions in bold text followed by the answer in plain text. Except for the 

section header and the CAR 3 Cross-reference, the other portions will only be shown as 

applicable. In general, this AC provides policy for the most recent amendment of a given section. 

Section Header – Bold text banner that includes section number, section title, and current 

amendment level 

CAR 3 Cross-reference – The CAR 3 regulation the section was drawn from

ADC Cross-reference – The Airship Design Criteria paragraph

General Information – Advisory material that is generally applicable to the entire 

section 

Related Material – More sources of information generally applicable to the entire section 

Paragraph – The number of the paragraph under the section 

ADC Cross-reference – The Airship Design Criteria paragraph

Paragraph Specific Information – Advisory material that is specific to the paragraph 

Related Material – More sources of information specific to the paragraph 

6. WHAT OTHER REGULATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS ARE RELATED TO THIS AC? 

a. Regulations: Part 23 through Amendment 23-55. While this AC specifically addresses only 

those regulations in subpart E, the following additional regulations are commonly associated 

with the airplane powerplant and should be considered with the regulations in subpart E by 

the users identified in paragraph 4a above: 

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Subpart B ⎯ Flight 

§ 23.33 Propeller speed and pitch limits 

 § 23.45 Performance 

 § 23.55 Accelerate-stop distance 

 § 23.75 Landing distance 

§ 23.239 Spray characteristics 

Subpart C ⎯ Structure 

 § 23.307 Proof of structure 

 § 23.361 Engine torque 

§ 23.363 Side load on engine mount 

Subpart D — Design and Construction 

 § 23.611 Accessibility provisions 

 § 23.771 Pilot compartment 

 § 23.777 Cockpit controls 

§ 23.779 Motion and effect of cockpit controls 

§ 23.781 Cockpit control knob shape 

§ 23.859 Combustion heater fire protection 

§ 23.863 Flammable fluid fire protection 

§ 23.865 Fire protection of flight controls, engine mounts, and other 

flight structure 

§ 23.867 Electrical bonding and protection against lightning and static 

electricity 

Subpart F ⎯ Equipment 

§ 23.1305 Powerplant instruments 

§ 23.1309 Equipment, systems, and installations 

§ 23.1311 Electronic display instrument systems 

§ 23.1321 Arrangement and visibility 

§ 23.1322 Warning, caution, and advisory lights 

§ 23.1337 Powerplant instruments installation 

§ 23.1419 Ice protection 

§ 23.1431 Electronic equipment 

§ 23.1435 Hydraulic systems 

§ 23.1437 Accessories for multiengine airplanes 

§ 23.1461 Equipment containing high energy rotors 

Subpart G ⎯ Operating Limitations and Information 

§ 23.1501 General 

§ 23.1521 Powerplant limitations 

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

§ 23.1522 Auxiliary power unit limitations 

§ 23.1527 Maximum operating altitude 

§ 23.1529 Instructions for Continued Airworthiness 

§ 23.1541 General 

§ 23.1543 Instrument markings: General 

§ 23.1549 Powerplant and auxiliary power unit instruments 

§ 23.1551 Oil quantity indicator 

§ 23.1553 Fuel quantity indicator 

§ 23.1555 Control markings 

§ 23.1557 Miscellaneous markings and placards 

§ 23.1581 General 

§ 23.1583 Operating limitations 

§ 23.1585 Operating procedures 

b. Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR): The rules of the JAR part 23 have been harmonized 

with those in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) part 23 to the extent the 

powerplant installation requirements are essentially the same. The numbering scheme is the 

same between JAR and 14 CFR part 23 so they are easily cross-referenced. With the coming 

of the European Aviation Safety Authority (EASA), the rules will be embodied as 

Certification Specifications (CS), which, in the beginning, are created directly from the JARs 

with the same numbering scheme. 

c. FAA Orders, Advisory Circulars, and Technical Standard Orders: Copies of the current 

FAA Orders and Advisory Circulars listed below can be obtained at no charge from: 

U.S. Department of Transportation, Subsequent Distribution Office 

DOT Warehouse, SVC-121.23 

Ardmore East Business Center, 3341Q 75th Avenue 

Landover, MD 20785 

Telephone 301-322-4779 

or by faxing your request to 301-386-5394 

These documents are available for viewing via the Internet by following the aircraft 

certification links from the FAA homepage (www.faa.gov). 

FAA Order 8100.5A Aircraft Certification Service Mission, Responsibilities, 

Relationships, and Programs 

FAA Order 8110.4B Type Certification 

AC 20-29B Use of Aircraft Fuel Anti-icing Additives 

AC 20-32B Carbon Monoxide (CO) Contamination in Aircraft⎯Detection 

and Prevention 

v
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

AC 20-43C Aircraft Fuel Control 

AC 20-53A Protection of Aircraft Fuel Systems Against Fuel Vapor Ignition 

Due to Lightning 

AC 20-66A Vibration and Fatigue Evaluation of Airplane Propellers 

AC 20-73 Aircraft Ice Protection 

AC 20-88A Guidelines on the Marking of Aircraft Powerplant Instruments 

(Displays) 

AC 20-100 General Guidelines for Measuring Fire-Extinguishing Agent 

Concentrations in Powerplant Compartments 

AC 20-107A Composite Aircraft Structure 

AC 20-116 Marking Aircraft Fuel Filler Openings with Color Coded 

Decals 

AC 20-119 Fuel Drain Valves 

AC 20-122A Anti-misfueling Devices: Their Availability and Use 

AC 20-124 Water Ingestion Testing for Turbine Powered Airplanes 

AC 20-128A Design Considerations for Minimizing Hazards Caused by 

Uncontained Turbine Engine and Auxiliary Power Unit Rotor 

Failure 

AC 20-135 Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire 

Protection Test Methods, Standards, and Criteria 

AC 20-136 Protection of Aircraft Electrical/Electronic Systems Against the 

Indirect Effects of Lightning 

AC 20-144 Recommended Method for FAA approval of Aircraft Fire 

Extinguishing System Components 

AC 20-18A Qualification Testing of Turbojet Engine Thrust Reversers 

AC 21-37 Primary Category Aircraft 

AC 21.17-3 Type Certification of Very Light Airplanes Under FAR 

21.17(b) 

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

AC 23-2 Flammability Tests 

AC 23-10 Auxiliary Fuel Systems for Reciprocating and Turbine Powered 

Part 23 Airplanes 

AC 23-11A 14 CFR Part 23 Type Certification of an Airplane Originally 

Certificated to Joint Aviation Regulations – Very Light 

Airplane (JAR-VLA) Standards 

AC 23-14 Type Certification Basis for Conversion from Reciprocating 

Engine to Turbine Engine-Powered Part 23 Airplanes 

AC 23-15 Small Airplane Certification Compliance Program

AC 23.1309-1C Equipment, Systems, and Installations in Part 23 Airplanes 

AC 23.1311-1A Installation of Electronic Displays in Part 23 Airplanes 

AC 23.1419-2B Certification of Part 23 Airplanes for Flight in Icing Conditions 

AC 23.1521-1B Type Certification of Automobile Gasoline in Part 23 Airplanes 

with Reciprocating Engines 

AC 23.1521-2 with Type Certification of Oxygenates and Oxygenated Gasoline 

Change 1 Fuels in Part 23 Airplanes with Reciprocating Engines 

AC 25.939-1 Evaluating Turbine Engine Operating Characteristics 

AC 33-2B Aircraft Engine Type Certification Handbook 

AC 33.28-1 Compliance Criteria for 14 CFR § 33.28 Aircraft Engines, 

Electrical and Electronic Engine Control Systems 

AC 33.28-2 Guidance Material for 14 CFR § 33.28, Reciprocating Engine, 

Electrical and Electronic Engine Control Systems 

AC 33.47-1 Detonation Testing in Reciprocating Aircraft Engines 

AC 33.74/92-1A Turbine Engine Continued Rotation and Rotor Locking 

AC 35.37-1A Composite Propeller Blade Fatigue Substantiation 

TSO-C80 Flexible Fuel and Oil Cell Material 

Copies of the current Advisory Circulars listed below may be purchased from: 

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Superintendent of Documents 

P. O. Box 371954 

Pittsburgh, PA 15250–7954 

These documents are also available for viewing via the Internet by following the aircraft 

certification links from the FAA homepage (www.faa.gov). 

AC 23-8B Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

AC 23-17A Systems and Equipment Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

d. Policy Memoranda: Copies of the current Policy Memoranda listed below can be 

obtained at no charge from the Small Airplane Directorate Regulations and Policy 

Branch, 901 Locust St., Room 301, Kansas City, MO 64106. These documents are 

available for viewing via the Internet by following the aircraft certification links from the 

FAA homepage (www.faa.gov). 

PS-ACE100-2002-004, Diesel Engine Installation 

PS-ACE100-2002-008, Propeller Testing Vd Versus VNE

e. Other Publications: 

Copies of the Design Standards for Advanced Ultra-light Aeroplanes (DS10141) may be 

purchased from: 

L.A.M.A.C. ~ Light Aircraft Manufacturers Association of Canada

880 St-Fereol 

Les Cèdres, Québec 

Canada J7T 1N3 

Tel.: (450) 452-4772 or 1-888-977-1447 

Fax: (450) 452-2694 

A copy of Airship Design Criteria (FAA-P-8110-2) is available for viewing via the 

Internet by following the aircraft certification links to airships from the FAA homepage 

(www.faa.gov). 

Copies of the following Society of Automotive Engineers documents are available for 

purchase via the Internet by following the store link on the SAE homepage 

(www.sae.org). 

SAE ARP 5904, Airborne Icing Tankers 

SAE ARP 5905, Calibration and Acceptance of Icing Wind Tunnels 

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

7. WHAT ARE THE DEFINITIONS FOR THE COMMON TERMS USED IN THIS 

ADVISORY CIRCULAR? 

This advisory circular uses the definitions listed below. Some of these terms are used throughout, 

and will only be defined here. Sometimes, the term definitions may be repeated in the relevant 

document section as an aid to the reader. More definitions and abbreviations are included in 14 

CFR part 1, §§ 1.1 and 1.2, respectively. 

Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM) 

The documentation detailing the operating limitations and instructions for an aircraft. 

Airship Design Criteria (ADC) 

The design criteria for airships in document number FAA-P-8110-2. 

American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) International 

The ASTM is an international body of producers, consumers, and regulators that develops, 

maintains, and administers material standards. 

Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) 

A device, separate from the aircraft propulsion system, that produces power (i.e., electrical, 

pneumatic, hydraulic) for aircraft systems. 

Cabin Pressurization Systems 

The collection of components used to pressurize air for airframe services. These systems 

can have air supplied by any number of means (including turbochargers, engine bleed air, 

and ram air). 

Certificate Management Aircraft Certification Office (CMACO) 

The CMACO is the office responsible for aircraft certification. The term is usually shortened 

to ACO. These offices are located throughout the United States and are each responsible for 

projects in different States. A listing of these offices can be found by following the 

certification and design approvals links from the FAA homepage (www.faa.gov). 

Civil Air Regulations (CAR) 

The body of rules governing aviation before being recodified by final rule on September 28, 

1964. 

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

CAR 3 

Part 3 of the Civil Air Regulations as amended through March 25, 1964. 

Electronic Engine Control (EEC) 

An EEC engine functions electronically in either a supervisory (electronic adjustments to 

manual inputs) or full authority capacity (see FADEC definition below). 

Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) 

A FADEC contains all the engine control functions and exercises full control over engine 

operations within the pilot selected operating parameters. 

High Intensity Radiation Fields (HIRF) 

HIRF is electromagnetic fields that emanate from electrical components and occur in nature 

that can induce current flows in aircraft systems. 

Instructions for Continued Airworthiness (ICA) 

The documentation detailing “how to” maintain the aircraft, engine, or propeller. 

Intercooler 

A device installed in the engine air induction system that lowers the intake air charge 

temperature. The intercooler can be approved either as part of the engine or the engine 

installation. 

Maximum Continuous Power (MCP) 

MCP is the maximum power setting the engine is certified to sustain. 

Normal Ground Attitude 

“Normal ground attitude” is defined as “the aircraft ground attitude that would normally 

be expected in service.” Therefore, consideration of nose wheel strut, main gear strut, 

variation of all landing gear tires, and the apron gradient is necessary. Use a minimum

ground slope of 1 percent. An appropriate slope for seaplanes/amphibian airplanes 

would have to be determined from the worst-case static in-water attitude of the aircraft at 

the most adverse center of gravity location(s).

Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) 

The RVP is a measure of the tendency of a liquid to form vapor. 

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

RPM 

Revolutions per minute 

Supercharger 

A mechanically driven compressor used to provide and maintain a manifold pressure greater 

than sea level pressure to a critical altitude. 

Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS) 

The TCDS is attached to the Type Certificate and contains information about the certification 

basis, design and operating parameters, and limitations for the product. 

Turbocharger 

Any engine exhaust gas-driven compressor that is a component of a Turbonormalized 

Engine, Turbosupercharged Engine, or Cabin Pressurization System. 

Turbonormalized Engine 

Turbocharger used to maintain sea level manifold pressure to a critical altitude. 

Turbopropeller 

A propeller driven by a turbine engine. 

Turbosupercharger 

A turbocharger used to provide and maintain a manifold pressure greater than sea level 

pressure to a critical altitude. This term has been used interchangeably with the term

turbocharger. 

Turbosupercharged Engine 

Turbocharger used to provide and maintain a manifold pressure greater than sea level 

pressure to a critical altitude. 

Unusable fuel 

The largest total quantity of fuel remaining in the fuel system when the first evidence of

engine malfunction occurs because of fuel interruption. Engine malfunction normally 

occurs under the most adverse fuel feed conditions. Each intended operation and flight 

maneuver should be checked for each fuel tank. 

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

VD

Aircraft design diving speed. 

VFE 

The maximum airplane flap extended speed. 

VNE

Aircraft never-exceed speed 

VSO 

The airplane stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration. 

VY

Aircraft best rate-of-climb speed 

James E. Jackson 

Acting Manager, Small Airplane Directorate 

Aircraft Certification Service 

xii
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

CONTENTS 

Subpart E⎯Powerplant 

GENERAL 

Section PAGE

23.901 Installation .................................................................................................... 1 

23.903 Engines .......................................................................................................... 10 

23.904 Automatic power reserve system .................................................................. 17 

23.905 Propellers ...................................................................................................... 18 

23.907 Propeller vibration ........................................................................................ 23 

23.909 Turbocharger systems ................................................................................... 25 

23.925 Propeller clearance ........................................................................................ 35 

23.929 Engine installation ice protection ................................................................. 37 

23.933 Reversing systems ......................................................................................... 39 

23.934 Turbojet and turbofan engine thrust reverser systems tests .......................... 41 

23.937 Turbopropeller-drag limiting systems .......................................................... 42 

23.939 Powerplant operating characteristics ............................................................ 43 

23.943 Negative acceleration .................................................................................... 45 

FUEL SYSTEM 

23.951 General .......................................................................................................... 46 

23.953 Fuel system independence ............................................................................ 49 

23.954 Fuel system lightning protection ................................................................... 50 

23.955 Fuel flow ....................................................................................................... 51 

23.957 Flow between interconnected tanks .............................................................. 63 

23.959 Unusable fuel supply .................................................................................... 64 

23.961 Fuel system hot weather operation ............................................................... 71 

23.963 Fuel tanks: General ....................................................................................... 77 

23.965 Fuel tank tests ............................................................................................... 78

23.967 Fuel tank installation ..................................................................................... 80 

23.969 Fuel tank expansion space ............................................................................ 82 

23.971 Fuel tank sump .............................................................................................. 83 

23.973 Fuel tank filler connection ............................................................................ 85 

23.975 Fuel tank vents and carburetor vapor vents .................................................. 87 

23.977 Fuel tank outlet ............................................................................................. 89 

23.979 Pressure fueling systems ............................................................................... 90 

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS 

23.991 Fuel pumps .................................................................................................... 91

23.993 Fuel system lines and fittings ........................................................................ 93 

23.994 Fuel system components ............................................................................... 95 

23.995 Fuel valves and controls ............................................................................... 97 

23.997 Fuel strainer or filter ..................................................................................... 99 

23.999 Fuel system drains ........................................................................................ 101 

23.1001 Fuel jettisoning system ................................................................................. 102 

OIL SYSTEM 

23.1011 General .......................................................................................................... 104 

23.1013 Oil tanks ........................................................................................................ 108 

23.1015 Oil tank tests ................................................................................................. 110

23.1017 Oil lines and fittings ...................................................................................... 111 

23.1019 Oil strainer or filter ....................................................................................... 112 

23.1021 Oil system drains .......................................................................................... 113 

23.1023 Oil radiators .................................................................................................. 114

23.1027 Propeller feathering system .......................................................................... 115 

COOLING 

23.1041 General .......................................................................................................... 116 

23.1043 Cooling tests ................................................................................................. 117 

23.1045 Cooling test procedures for turbine engine powered airplanes .................... 119 

23.1047 Cooling test procedures for reciprocating engine powered airplanes ........... 120 

LIQUID COOLING 

23.1061 Installation .................................................................................................... 121 

23.1063 Coolant tank tests .......................................................................................... 122 

INDUCTION SYSTEM 

23.1091 Air induction system ..................................................................................... 123 

23.1093 Induction system icing protection ................................................................. 124 

23.1095 Carburetor deicing fluid flow rate ................................................................ 135 

23.1097 Carburetor deicing fluid system capacity ..................................................... 136 

23.1099 Carburetor deicing fluid system detail design .............................................. 137 

23.1101 Induction air preheater design ....................................................................... 138 

23.1103 Induction system ducts .................................................................................. 139 

23.1105 Induction system screens .............................................................................. 140 

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1107 Induction system filters ................................................................................. 141 

23.1109 Turbocharger bleed air system ...................................................................... 142 

23.1111 Turbine engine bleed air system ................................................................... 143 

EXHAUST SYSTEM 

23.1121 General .......................................................................................................... 144 

23.1123 Exhaust system .............................................................................................. 147 

23.1125 Exhaust heat exchangers ............................................................................... 149 

POWERPLANT CONTROLS AND ACCESSORIES 

23.1141 Powerplant controls: General ........................................................................ 150 

23.1142 Auxiliary power unit controls ....................................................................... 152 

23.1143 Engine controls ............................................................................................. 153 

23.1145 Ignition switches ........................................................................................... 156 

23.1147 Mixture controls ............................................................................................ 157 

23.1149 Propeller speed and pitch controls ................................................................ 158 

23.1153 Propeller feathering controls ......................................................................... 159 

23.1155 Turbine engine reverse thrust and propeller pitch settings below the 

flight regime .................................................................................................. 160 

23.1157 Carburetor air temperature controls .............................................................. 162 

23.1163 Powerplant accessories ................................................................................. 163 

23.1165 Engine ignition systems ................................................................................ 165

POWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION 

23.1181 Designated fire zones; regions included ....................................................... 167 

23.1182 Nacelle areas behind firewalls ...................................................................... 169 

23.1183 Lines, fittings, and components .................................................................... 170 

23.1189 Shutoff means ............................................................................................... 172 

23.1191 Firewalls ........................................................................................................ 174 

23.1192 Engine accessory compartment diaphragm .................................................. 176 

23.1193 Cowling and nacelle ...................................................................................... 177 

23.1195 Fire extinguishing systems ............................................................................ 179 

23.1197 Fire extinguishing agents .............................................................................. 182 

23.1199 Extinguishing agent containers ..................................................................... 183 

23.1201 Fire extinguishing systems materials ............................................................ 184 

23.1203 Fire detector system ...................................................................................... 185 

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THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 

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POWERPLANT GUIDE FOR CERTIFICATION OF PART 23 AIRPLANES 

Subpart E⎯Powerplant 

GENERAL 

23.901 Installation (Amendment 23-53) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.411 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.1 

What guidance is there for the certification of powerplant electronic systems 

installations? 

Electronic systems are increasingly used to control different airplane systems including 

powerplant systems. During certification of these installations, § 23.1309 must be used 

to determine the potential failure modes and the resulting severity of a failure event. A 

safety analysis is generated during the engine certification that covers engine and engineairplane interfaces. This engine level safety analysis should be used as input to the 

airplane level safety analysis. Software level requirements for the installed engine should 

be determined early in the process to ensure the software level certificated for the engine, 

according to part 33, is compatible with the installation. The engine manufacturer and 

the Airplane Certification Office should be coordinated with early in the project. 

According to § 11.19, special conditions, may be required for powerplant systems 

installations to comply with the requirements of § 23.1309. These special conditions 

should not require retesting of the engine or its certificated components except as part of 

the airplane. 

What may be required by special conditions? 

Examples of special condition requirements may include, but are not limited to, the 

following: 

1. Lightning test; 

2. High Intensity Radiated Fields (HIRF) testing; 

3. Software level validation testing; and 

4. Environmental testing. 

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

What are some examples of powerplant electronic systems? 

Examples of powerplant electronic systems may include, but are not limited to, the 

following: 

1. Electronic Engine Controls (EEC); 

2. Full Authority Digital Engine Controls (FADEC); 

3. Electronic turbocharger wastegate controls; and 

4. Electronic propeller speed, pitch, and feathering controls. 

Related Material 

AC 23.1309-1C, Equipment, Systems, and Installations in Part 23 Airplanes 

AC 23.1311-1A, Installation of Electronic Displays in Part 23 Airplanes 

AC 33.28-1, Compliance Criteria for 14 CFR § 33.28 Aircraft Engines, Electrical and 

Electronic Engine Control Systems 

AC 33.28-2, Guidance Material for 14 CFR § 33.28, Reciprocating Engines, Electrical 

and Electronic Engine Control Systems 

Policy Memorandum ANE-2001-35.31-R0, Policy for Bird Strike, Lightning, and 

Centrifugal Load Testing for Composite Propeller Blades and Spinners 

Paragraph 23.901(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.1(a)

What components should be included as part of the powerplant installation? 

Examples of powerplant installation components may include, but are not limited to, the 

following: 

1. Engines; 

2. Propellers; 

3. Gearboxes and engine driven accessories; 

4. Nacelles and inlets; 

5. Engine oil systems; 

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

6. Fuel tanks, lines, manifolds, and controls; 

7. Ignition system components; 

8. Propulsion control and monitoring devices; 

9. Exhaust nozzles, mufflers, plenums, etc.; 

10. Fluid collectors and drain lines; 

11. Pneumatic bleed valves and ducting; 

12. Engine fire protection systems; 

13. Engine and propeller icing protection systems; and 

14. Thrust attenuating or reversing installations 

Components that are part of an engine or propeller type design certificated under parts 33 

or 35, respectively, are considered part of the powerplant installation. Any findings of 

compliance with part 23 requirements should take maximum advantage of the relevant 

findings made in support of part 33 or 35. 

What regulations should be considered for powerplant installations using technologies 

other than the typical spark ignition reciprocating and turbine engines? 

In the future, designs using engines other than the typical spark ignition reciprocating and 

turbine engine cycles, such as fuel cell/electric motor, diesel cycle, or even rocket or jet 

assisted take-off, may be proposed. These designs will require careful selection of the 

applicable powerplant rules and may require special conditions depending on how similar 

they are to the typical engines. 

Related Material 

PS-ACE100-2002-004, Diesel Engine Installation 

Paragraph 23.901(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.1(b)

What are examples of potential inspection and maintenance items? 

Examples of potential powerplant inspection and maintenance items may include, but are 

not limited to, the following: 

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

1. Oil reservoir fill and quantity sight glasses; 

2. Engine control linkages; 

3. Oil, fuel, air filters; 

4. Oil system chip detectors; 

5. Engine mount inspections; 

6. Engine exhaust system components; and 

7. Firewalls. 

What are the typical methods for showing compliance? 

Compliance is typically shown using the following methods either alone or in 

combination: 

1. Review of drawings, schematics, system descriptions, and safety analyses; 

2. Mock-up inspections and demonstrations; 

3. Laboratory and aircraft testing; 

4. Comparison with the service experience on similar designs; and 

5. Comparison with accepted design standards. 

Related Material 

AC 23-10, Auxiliary Fuel Systems for Reciprocating and Turbine Powered Part 23 

Airplanes 

Paragraph 23.901(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.1(c)

What are some of the considerations for complying with this rule? 

To comply with this rule, the powerplant installation should be designed to provide 

access (cowling that is easily opened and closed) for the pilot to visually check the 

following: 

1. Engine oil level; 

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

2. Flammable fluid leaks; 

3. If applicable, the exterior condition of the turbocharger and wastegate installation; 

4. If applicable, tail pipe, multi-segmented V-band clamps, and firewalls; 

5. Electrical wiring; 

6. Fuel and oil lines and fittings; and, otherwise, make a cursory inspection of the 

engine installation; and 

7. Other items as defined by the engine, propeller, or airplane manufacturer. 

For more information refer to § 23.611, Accessibility provisions. 

Paragraph 23.901(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

What special considerations are there for turbine engine installations? 

Paragraph 23.901(d) requires that carcass vibration and rain, hail, ice, and bird ingestion 

be considered for all turbine engine installations. This requirement ensures the 

installation does not degrade the certificated capability of the engine. 

What considerations and methods of compliance are typical for the vibration 

requirements? 

Compliance with rules concerning vibration usually involves instrumentation and testing. 

These tests may consist of a combination of bench vibration tests and full-scale airplane 

tests. Analysis can be used to support the placement of instrumentation and to identify 

the critical test conditions. Coordination with the engine manufacturer may be necessary 

to understand the engine vibration limits and to design the tests to show the installation 

vibration characteristics are within the engine certification limits throughout the airplane 

flight envelope. 

What considerations and methods of compliance are typical for the ingestion 

requirements? 

Compliance with the rain ingestion requirements of § 23.901(d)(2) is typically shown 

with design analysis that identifies areas of concern and tests for those areas of concern. 

Part 33 engine certification testing may be used for part 23 compliance if the engine 

certification testing addressed the areas of concern identified by the installation design 

analysis (for example, use of an installation representative test inlet system). Part 33 

5
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

engine certification testing may also be used for part 23 compliance if specific conditions 

addressed in the rule were addressed during engine certification testing. For airplanes 

with a certification basis before Amendment 23-53, a test is typically required if the 

specific operating considerations contained in the part 23 rule were not addressed during 

engine certification. 

When evaluating areas of concern with the installation, consider areas where water 

pooling with resulting ingestion or shed of localized “slugs” of water normally not 

addressed during engine certification might occur. Some examples are inlet system

channels, indentations, and so forth. These are typical of turbopropeller or S-duct type 

inlets that have complex geometry that can allow water pooling. This consideration is 

usually not a concern with simple pitot style inlets typical of part 23 turbofan/jet engine 

installations. Part 23 turbine engine installations typically require testing since most of 

these are turbopropeller installations. However, if design analysis shows the installation 

will not affect the water ingestion characteristics and engine certification addressed the 

specific conditions addressed in the part 23 rule, this analysis combined with engine 

certification testing may be enough to demonstrate rain ingestion compliance. Because 

of the large diversity of turbine engine installations in part 23 airplanes, all installations 

should be evaluated to determine whether areas of concern exist. Since the rain ingestion 

requirements in part 33 were not added until Amendment 33-6, the airplane applicant 

needs to evaluate the engine's certification basis to determine whether the engine has 

been subjected to part 33 rain ingestion testing. If the engine does not have Amendment 

33-6 or a later amendment as part of the certification basis, the engine must have a safe 

service history of rain ingestion in similar installations, under § 23.903(a)(2)(iv). 

If it is determined that testing for rain ingestion should be performed, flight test is not 

required. The intent of the part 23 rule is to ensure the engine installation has not 

deteriorated the rain ingestion tolerance of the certificated engine. Since a ground static 

engine test normally demonstrates engine certification compliance, use of installation 

ground tests at the required power/thrust settings has been commonly accepted as a 

means of compliance. The applicant can use design analysis to determine critical 

configurations and conditions of the installation. This might reduce required installation 

tests to the critical configurations and conditions instead of repeating the entire part 33 

test conditions. Engine certification should address the results of the critical point 

analysis for the engine; therefore, it is important for the engine installer to research the 

conditions and requirements used for engine certification. 

What are some other examples of issues not addressed by engine certification that need 

to be addressed for installation compliance with § 23.901(d)? 

Amendment 23-53 added requirements for ice, hail, and birds similar to those in part 33. 

Examples of installation issues normally not addressed by engine certification, but that 

should be addressed for installation compliance, include the following: 

1. Ice build-up on areas where ice shed may be ingested by the engines (for example, ice 

shed from wings and airframe sources into aft mounted engines); and 

6
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

2. Consideration of items such as inlet splitters, acoustic liners, and so forth, that may be 

damaged by impact with ice, hail, and birds. 

Paragraph 23.901(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.1(d)

What instructions are typically provided under the engine and propeller type 

certificates? 

Sections 33.5 and 35.3 list the requirements for engine and propeller installation 

instruction manuals. Examples of subjects typically provided under the engine and 

propeller type certificates may include, but are not limited to, the following: 

1. Engine and propeller operating limitations; 

2. Engine and propeller mounting provisions; 

3. Allowable fuel and oil specifications; 

4. Allowable fuel and oil temperatures; 

5. Fuel inlet pressures; 

6. Allowable accessory temperature limits; 

7. Vibration limits; 

8. Accessibility requirements; 

9. Turbine engine inlet distortion limits; and 

10. Abnormal engine failure load conditions such as turbine engine fan blade failure. 

It is important to identify and accommodate all engine and propeller certification 

dependencies with the aircraft installation to ensure compatibility of the hardware and 

operational limitations. 

Is it possible to certificate an airplane to use a fuel other than one certificated for use on 

the engine? 

No, the fuel used in the airplane must be certificated for use in the engine as well as the 

airplane to comply with § 23.901(e). Other fuels such as automobile gasoline have been 

certificated for use in an airplane with a separate certification for using the fuel in the 

7
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

engine. All applicable sections of 14 CFR part 33 and part 23 must be considered when 

certificating a fuel for use in an engine and in an airplane, respectively. 

Related Material 

AC 23.1521-1B, Type Certification of Automobile Gasoline in Part 23 Airplanes with 

Reciprocating Engines 

AC 23.1521-2 with Change 1, Type Certification of Oxygenates and Oxygenated 

Gasoline Fuels in Part 23 Airplanes with Reciprocating Engines 

AC 20-24B, Qualification of Fuels, Lubricants and Additives for Aircraft Engines 

AC 20-122A, Anti-misfueling Devices: Their Availability and Use 

Paragraph 23.901(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

What should be considered when determining the applicable parts of these regulations 

as applied to Auxiliary Power Units (APU)? 

The typical Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) is a combustion cycle powerplant operated 

primarily to generate electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic power for ground and limited 

flight operations and not thrust for flight. Each of the rules applicable to powerplant 

installations must be considered carefully relative to the design features and operating 

requirements for a given APU. Below are three examples. 

1. APUs typically do not have propellers connected to them and, in such a case, it is 

obvious, the portions of this part that apply to propellers should not be considered for 

such an installation. 

2. APUs generally have a much smaller operating envelope than do thrust producing 

powerplants and, as such, due consideration should be given to the requirements in 

areas such as induction system icing (§ 23.1093). 

3. An APU that is used to provide emergency power to meet the requirements of 

§ 23.1351 would be considered differently than an APU intended only for ground use. 

What regulations should be considered for Auxiliary Power Units using technologies 

other than the typical combustion cycles? 

In the future, designs using exotic technologies to produce auxiliary electrical, 

pneumatic, and hydraulic power, such as fuel cells, may be proposed. These designs will 

8
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

require careful selection of the applicable powerplant rules and may require special 

conditions depending on how similar they are to the typical combustion cycle designs. 

Related Material 

AC 20-128A, Design Considerations for Minimizing Hazards Caused by Uncontained 

Turbine Engine and Auxiliary Power Unit Rotor Failure

9
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.903 Engines (Amendment 23-54) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.415

ADC Cross-reference: 5.2

What guidance is available for replacing a reciprocating engine with a turbine engine? 

Guidance for turbine engine airplane conversions is provided in AC 23-14, Type 

Certification Basis for Conversion from Reciprocating Engine to Turbine EnginePowered Part 23 Airplanes. This AC highlights the differences between the two engine 

installations that must be accounted for including, but not limited to: 

1. Fuel system compatibility with turbine fuel; 

2. Fuel Gelling and icing; 

3. Part 34 fuel and venting requirements for turbine engines; and 

4. Inlet icing and falling and blowing snow requirements. 

What guidance is available for certification of the installation of unique types of 

engines? 

Typical airplane engines fall into two categories: spark ignition reciprocating and turbine 

engines. These types account for most airplanes in service today, but other types such as 

compression ignition reciprocating (diesel cycle) and sinusoidal cam spark ignition 

engines have been proposed. When certifying an airplane with engines that are different 

from the typical engines, the unique features of the new engines should be carefully 

considered relative to the rules of 14 CFR part 23. Special conditions may be necessary 

to account for these unique features. Suitable guidance material will be written as 

necessary to capture any certification experience and other considerations about these 

installations. For example, Policy Memo PS-ACE100-2002-004, Diesel Engine 

Installation, was released in May 2003 in response to current engine and airplane 

certification projects involving diesel engines. 

Related Material 

AC 23-14, Type Certification Basis for Conversion from Reciprocating Engine to 

Turbine Engine-Powered Part 23 Airplanes 

PS-ACE100-2002-004, Diesel Engine Installation 

10
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Paragraph 23.903(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.2(a)

Does an engine(s) require a type certificate if the airplane is to be certified under 14 

CFR part 23? 

Yes, the engine(s) must have an approved type certificate (according to 14 CFR part 33 

or CAR Part 13) for normal, utility, acrobatic, and commuter category airplanes 

certificated under part 23. The airplane, with the engine(s) installed, must also comply 

with 14 CFR part 34, § 34.11. 

Is it possible to certificate an airplane under 14 CFR part 23 with an engine(s) that does 

not have a type certificate? 

No, it is not possible to certificate an airplane under 14 CFR part 23 with an engine(s) 

that does not have a type certificate under 14 CFR part 33. There are rules other than 

part 23 that do allow engines that are not certificated under part 33. Engines may be 

approved as part of the airplane for airplanes originally certificated in the Primary 

Category under 14 CFR part 21, § 21.17(b), or airplanes certificated under Joint Aviation 

Requirements―Very Light Airplane (JAR-VLA), or Sport Plane (Transport Canada 

Design Standard TP10141E). 

Related Material 

AC 21.17-3, Type Certification of Very Light Airplanes under § 21.17(b) 

AC 21-37, Primary Category Aircraft 

AC 23-11A, 14 CFR Part 23 Type Certification of an Airplane Originally Certificated to 

Joint Aviation Regulations – Very Light Airplane (JAR-VLA) Standards 

Is it possible to affect the type certificate of the engine by its installation in an airplane? 

This section requires compliance with the engine manufacturer’s installation drawing, 

installation manual, and engine specific operating instructions. Non-compliance with the 

engine manufacturer’s installation requirements can invalidate the type certification 

status of the engine, making the engine non-compliant with § 23.903(a)(1). This, in turn, 

would prevent certification of the airplane under part 23. Examples of engine 

requirements that could be affected by the airplane installation may include, but are not 

limited to, the following: 

1. Fuel delivery flow and pressure requirements; 

2. Allowable turbine engine inlet aerodynamic distortion; and 

11
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

3. Compliance with 14 CFR part 34, Fuel Venting and Exhaust Requirements for 

Turbine Engine Powered Airplanes. 

Paragraph 23.903(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.2(b)

What is the intent of this rule? 

Airplanes with turbine engines should be designed to minimize the hazard to the airplane 

if a maximum energy rotor burst (typically the energy level associated with a one-third 

sector of the engine rotor at the critical rotating speed) occurs. Airplanes with turbine 

engines should also be designed to minimize the hazard to the airplane if any other 

uncontained turbine engine failure (i.e., fan blade), including engine case burn through, 

occurs. It is impossible to protect any design in an absolute sense, but good engineering 

judgment must be used to minimize the effects of these failures. This requires a design 

with features that protect structure, systems, and components from the adverse effects of 

heat, pressure, and loads associated with these failures. Minimizing the hazard has been 

interpreted through the years as allowing continued safe operation, with emergency 

procedures that allow for landing the airplane. 

Airplanes using new technology materials or novel designs should be carefully evaluated 

for their ability to minimize the effects of engine rotor burst and case burn through. A 

Small Airplane Directorate policy letter dated April 7, 1989, defined the word 

“minimize” as used in § 23.903(b)(1) as “to reduce to a minimum, decrease to the least 

practical amount.” The “least practical amount” has to consider what is attainable with 

current technology and materials. In these cases, the standard has become the existing 

certificated airplanes. These airplanes used discrete source damage analysis to select the 

most effective and suitable design precautions and to substantiate that these precautions 

minimized the rotorburst hazard to the least practical amount. A typical design case 

minimizing the effects consists of a crown skin cut with a limit gust load that then is used 

as the ultimate load when analyzing the remaining structure. Advisory Circular 20-128A, 

in the Related Materials below, contains information on the discrete source damage 

analysis. 

Information on engine case burn through is contained in the related material. 

What compliance methods are generally acceptable? 

At the most basic, a review of drawings, schematics, system descriptions, hazard 

assessments, and a rotor burst analysis with inspections of the installation are acceptable 

means of compliance. Design similarity and service experience can also be considered 

with the means above to comply with this rule provided a clear link to the similar 

airplane can be established. Advisory Circular 20-128A provides guidance on methods 

to mitigate the hazard to critical systems such as engine and airplane control cables and 

12
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

wiring, flammable fluid tanks and lines, pneumatic ducts, and hydraulic lines if a rotor 

burst occurs. 

Related Material 

AC 20-128A, Design Considerations for Minimizing Hazards Caused by Uncontained 

Turbine Engine and Auxiliary Power Unit Rotor Failure 

AC 20-135, Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire Protection 

Test Methods, Standards, and Criteria 

Paragraph 23.903(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.2(c)

What do the words “...in at least one configuration...” mean? 

The intent of this rule is to ensure that, during any one flight, any initial failure condition 

that could prevent the continued safe operation of one engine will not prevent the 

continued safe operation of the other engine(s). Compliance with this rule requires there 

should be no immediate crew intervention necessary for continued safe flight. 

Related Material 

AC 23.1419-2B, Certification of Part 23 Airplanes for Flight in Icing Conditions 

Paragraph 23.903(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.2(d)

What concerns are there with starting and stopping a piston engine? 

The intent of the rule relative to starting is to ensure the engine(s) can be started without 

creating a hazardous condition. Procedures and limitations must be established and 

documented in the Airplane Flight Manual and on proper airplane placards to cover all 

allowed conditions for starting engine. These conditions must include ground starts for 

all airplanes and in-flight restarts for multiengine airplanes. 

The intent of the rule relative to stopping an engine is to ensure that any engine on a 

multiengine airplane can be stopped in flight if necessary to prevent a hazardous 

condition without creating an airplane hazard. According to § 23.901(d)(2), commuter 

category airplanes also require the stopping system components to be fire resistant. 

While the rule does not explicitly state any requirements for stopping an engine in normal 

conditions, such as ground shutdown at the end of operations, there should be no hazards 

associated with these conditions. Conditions that may require stopping an engine in 

flight include: 

13
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

1. Engine compartment fires; 

2. Turbocharger or exhaust system failures; 

3. Engine or accessory failures resulting in excessive vibration; and 

4. Propeller malfunction. 

The design of the system should consider and minimize hazards during both starting and 

stopping, such as the following: 

1. The collection of flammable liquids and vapors; 

2. Any adverse affects on engine accessories from reduced rotation, starting and 

stopping; 

3. Vibrations that adversely affect the structural integrity of the engine, its components, 

or aircraft structures; and 

4. Any conditions that would prevent safely restarting the engine. 

Paragraph 23.903(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.2(e)

What concerns are there with starting and stopping a turbine engine? 

The intent of the rule relative to starting is to ensure the engine(s) can be started without 

creating a hazardous condition. Procedures and limitations must be established and 

documented in the Airplane Flight Manual and proper airplane placards to cover all 

allowed conditions for starting the engine. These conditions include ground starts as well 

as in-flight restarts. Provisions and procedures for in-flight restarts must be established 

and documented in the Airplane Flight Manual. 

The intent of the rule relative to stopping an engine is to ensure that any engine on an 

airplane can be stopped in flight if necessary to prevent a hazardous condition without 

creating an airplane hazard. Conditions that may require stopping an engine in flight 

include: 

1. Engine compartment fires; 

2. Engine rotorburst; and 

3. Engine or accessory failures resulting in excessive vibration. 

14
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

The design of the system should consider and minimize hazards during both starting and 

stopping, such as the following: 

1. The collection of flammable liquids and vapors; 

2. Any adverse affects on engine accessories from windmilling; 

3. Vibrations that adversely affect the structural integrity of the engine, its components, 

or aircraft structures; and 

4. Any conditions that would prevent safely restarting the engine. 

Related Material 

AC 23-2, Flammability Tests 

AC 33.74/92-1A, Turbine Engine Continued Rotation and Rotor Locking

Paragraph 23.903(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.2(f)

What differences are there between reciprocating and turbine engines when showing 

compliance with this rule? 

The requirement to define the in-flight restart envelope applies to all normal, utility, 

acrobatic, and commuter category airplanes. A full complement of tests to define the inflight restart envelope may not be necessary. For example, normally aspirated 

reciprocating engine in-flight restart procedures typically only specify the airspeed to 

restart the engine. In this case, the “restart envelope” is the entire flight envelope for the 

selected airspeed. On the other hand, defining a turbine engine restart envelope typically 

requires data from a comprehensive altitude/airspeed envelope test program. Review the 

engine installation manual to understand the engine limitations relative to the starting 

envelope. We recommend you coordinate with the engine manufacturer to determine the 

start testing performed during the certification of the engine. 

1. Airplanes powered by reciprocating engines. 

The amount of in-flight restart envelope testing is dependent on the particular design 

features of the engine installation. Comprehensive in-flight restart envelope testing is 

not usually necessary for single-engine airplanes powered by conventional 

reciprocating engines. The service experience of these airplanes with typical 

reciprocating engine installations is that a reliable in-flight engine restart can be 

made, provided the airplane is equipped with an adequate engine starting system. 

Thus, in-flight restart envelope testing has not been necessary provided a 

mechanically sound engine can be restarted under typical power-off flight conditions. 

15
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

However, if the engine installation contains new or non-conventional design features, 

more extensive in-flight restart envelope testing may be necessary. This is 

particularly the case when the flight conditions impact the ability to restart the engine 

in flight. For example, consider the effects of new or unusual engine designs or 

operating cycles, propeller feathering systems, engine control systems, fuels or fuel 

system arrangements, engine starting systems, etc. Any in-flight restart envelope 

limitations and/or starting procedures should be defined in the proper areas of the 

Airplane Flight Manual (AFM). This information is required for compliance with 

§ 23.1585. 

As with conventional designs, extensive in-flight restart envelope testing may not be 

required provided the applicant can substantiate this position on the new or nonconventional design features. Flight tests are generally the most appropriate means to 

develop this substantiating data. 

2. Airplanes powered by turbine engines. 

Turbine engine starting is sensitive to small differences in flight conditions, primarily 

pressure altitude, speed, temperature, and attitude. Therefore, it is necessary to test 

the engine restart envelope to ensure that turboprop or turbofan engines can be 

reliably restarted in flight. These flight conditions and the associated starting 

procedures (windmill, starter assisted, or otherwise) should be defined in the proper 

areas of the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM). This information is required for 

compliance with § 23.1585. 

Paragraph 23.903(g) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Related Material 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

16
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.904 Automatic power reserve system (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

17 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.905 Propellers (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.416

ADC Cross-reference: 5.3 

Related Material: 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

PS-ACE100-2002-008, Propeller Testing Vd Versus VNE 

Paragraph 23.905(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.3(a)(1) 

What regulations cover propeller certification? 

Propeller certification is covered under 14 CFR part 35. These rules set the minimum

requirements for propellers in a manner similar to that for engines. Installation 

information from the propeller manufacturer is used to comply with § 23.901(e)(1). 

Do the rules in 14 CFR part 35 cover propeller blades that are constructed of composite 

material? 

The rules in 14 CFR part 35 were written to cover wooden and metal propeller blades, 

and do not, by themselves, address all issues unique to blades constructed of composite 

materials. The following airworthiness issues are typically addressed with special 

conditions, according to § 11.19, as part of the propeller certification under part 35. 

1. Safety assessment 

2. Centrifugal load tests 

3. Fatigue limits and evaluation 

4. Bird impact 

5. Lightning strike 

Paragraph 23.905(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.3(a)(2) 

What should be considered when determining compliance with this rule? 

Evaluate the maximum propeller power and shaft rotational speed for each airplane 

installation throughout its normal operational envelope. The installed limits must be at or 

18 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

below the certificated propeller and engine power and rotational speed limits (listed on 

the propeller and engine type certificate data sheets) that are typically based on static 

ground testing performed before flight test. 

Engine power and propeller shaft rotational speed limits must not be exceeded during 

transient events. 

14 CFR part 23, § 23.33, contains additional requirements pertaining to the installed 

propeller speed and pitch limits. 

Paragraph 23.905(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.3(a)(3) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.905(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

How do I know if a propeller blade pitch control system has been approved for use with 

my propeller? 

The propeller Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS) identifies operationally compatible 

components of the propeller blade pitch control system that may or may not be included 

in the propeller type design. If the propeller blade pitch control system components are 

included in the propeller type design (verify this with the propeller manufacturer or the 

FAA office controlling the propeller type design), the components have demonstrated 

compliance with 14 CFR part 35, § 35.42, Blade pitch control system component test. 

How do I get approval for a propeller blade pitch control system if it has not been 

approved as part of the propeller type certificate? 

The propeller manufacturer may not have tested components that are not included in the 

propeller type design according to § 35.42. For components that have not been 

previously tested, demonstrate compliance with § 35.42 either by testing or by similarity 

to prior approved components. 

Paragraph 23.905(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

19
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Is an airplane required to comply with § 23.905(e) if it is not being certificated to fly in 

icing conditions? 

Yes, compliance with § 23.905(e) for pusher propeller airframe icing protection is 

required for all normal, utility, acrobatic, and commuter category airplanes certificated 

under part 23 even if the airplane is not being certificated for flight in icing conditions 

(§ 23.1419 compliance). Service experience has shown that airplanes can inadvertently 

encounter icing conditions even if the airplane is not approved for flight into icing 

conditions. 

What type of icing encounter should be considered when showing compliance with 

§ 23.905(e) if the airplane is not being certified to fly in icing conditions? 

In the case where the airplane is not being certificated to fly in icing conditions, 

compliance with § 23.905(e) should be shown for an inadvertent encounter with icing 

conditions. Ice accumulations and shapes should be based on a typical inadvertent 

encounter of five minutes duration. The five minutes in the icing condition is broken 

down as follows: 

1. 1 minute for detection of the icing condition. 

2. 1 minute for the pilot to take actions necessary to exit the icing condition. 

3. 1 minute to execute a 180-degree turn. 

4. 2 minutes to exit the icing condition. 

Does the type certification of a propeller account for any foreign object damage 

requirements? 

Propeller type certification does not include any type of foreign object damage 

requirements, unless accomplished with special conditions or special tests. 

What foreign object damage concerns are unique for pusher propeller installations? 

Most propeller installations are subject to ice being shed into them. The source of the ice 

for tractor propeller installations is the ice accumulated and shed from the propeller 

spinner. Typically, for tractor propellers, the amount of ice results in no significant 

propeller damage. Airplanes with pusher propellers that are very close to the fuselage 

and well back from the front of the airplane's nose can be subject to ice shed from the 

forward fuselage and from the wings. The ice from these areas may cause significant 

propeller damage. 

Related Material: 

AC 23.1419-2B, Certification of Part 23 Airplanes for Flight in Icing Conditions 

20
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Paragraph 23.905(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

Why are pusher propellers required to have visible markings and tractor propellers are 

not? 

Visibility of the propeller disk is of concern during ground operations. Because ground 

personnel and boarding and deplaning passengers are accustomed to tractor propellers, 

there is a significantly higher probability of inadvertent contact with a turning pusher 

propeller. Increased visibility of tractor propellers could also enhance ground operations 

safety. However, any additional visual distractions in the pilot's normal viewing area 

could adversely affect collision avoidance. 

Paragraph 23.905(g) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

Do the requirements for propeller certification cover engine exhaust impingement? 

Propeller type certification does not include any type of engine exhaust requirements, 

unless accomplished with special conditions or special tests. 

What are the concerns for engine exhaust impingement on pusher propeller 

installations? 

In most pusher propeller installations, the engine exhaust pass through the propeller disc. 

The affects of the exhaust temperatures and composition on the materials of the propeller 

are of major concern. Factors affecting the exhaust vary with the flight conditions and 

must be considered relative the propeller’s ability to withstand them. 

Paragraph 23.905(h) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

What other concerns are there for pusher propeller installations? 

Similar to the concerns with ice in § 23.905(e), there is increased potential of foreign 

object damage because the propeller is aft of major portions of the airplane. Therefore, 

21
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

the design of parts like those used to meet § 23.901(c) are required to ensure that they 

will not separate from the airplane such that they could contact the propeller. 

22
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.907 Propeller vibration (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.417

ADC Cross-reference: 5.3 

What should I consider when showing compliance with this rule? 

For acceptable means of compliance, refer to AC 20-66A, Vibration and Fatigue 

Evaluation of Airplane Propellers. 

The following applies to all propellers except conventional fixed-pitch wood propellers: 

1. The most important part of approving a propeller installation is to demonstrate that 

the propeller steady and vibration stresses do not exceed the safe levels established by 

the propeller manufacturer. It is often beneficial to use approved propeller type 

design data (contact the propeller manufacturer) to approve a propeller for use on an 

aircraft. 

2. Some propeller TC data sheets contain a section called Note 9. This note simplifies 

the vibration compliance for propellers under § 23.907 for normal category, single 

reciprocating engine airplanes in tractor configuration. The acceptable engine and 

propeller model combinations are listed in this note, and they can be used to 

determine compliance within the defined limitations. If the engine or airframe is 

modified such that the power of the stock engine model is increased during any phase 

of airplane operation, the potential exists to increase propeller stresses. Therefore, 

the Certificate Management Aircraft Certification Office (CMACO) should be 

contacted prior to using Note 9 as approval for § 23.907. Such modifications include, 

but are not limited to, the addition of a turbocharger, increased boost pressure, 

increased compression ratio, increased RPM, altered ignition timing, electronic 

ignition, full authority digital engine controls (FADEC), or tuned induction or 

exhaust. 

3. Perform a flight-vibration stress survey. This test typically consists of placing 

instruments on the propeller hub, shanks, and blades with strain gauges and operating 

the airplane both on the ground and in flight to verify that the stress and vibration 

levels are within those certificated for the propeller. 

Generally, reciprocating engines are the dominant contributor to any steady and 

vibration stress levels the propeller will experience in operation, but there are 

exceptions. For example, agricultural and acrobatic category airplane maneuvers 

may exceed the stress levels the engine produces during such operation. Additional 

testing may be needed to show compliance with § 23.907 for special use or unique 

23
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

aircraft categories. Turbopropeller installations have stress levels that are generally 

driven by aerodynamic forces during ground and flight operations. 

The stress survey should identify any operational and maintenance limitations to note 

in either the airplane Instructions for Continued Airworthiness or the Airplane Flight 

Manual (AFM), or both. These limitations may also need to be incorporated into the 

propeller airworthiness limitations section. According to § 23.1549, operational 

limitations are to be made available to the crew by the use of appropriate placards and 

powerplant instrument markings (i.e., red and yellow arcs). 

4. The vibratory stress levels in pusher propeller installations can be much higher than 

on tractor aircraft configurations. Any small change in the airplane configuration can 

influence the propeller stress levels, especially if the change is upstream and in the 

propeller inflow area. Engine exhaust locations and nozzle shapes can impact 

propeller-operating temperatures. Engine exhaust flows that impinge on the propeller 

blades can introduce potential corrosion issues and affect propeller blade life. Small 

changes to the propeller spinner shape and size can change the inboard propeller 

blade and hub operating temperatures. For these reasons, perform the vibration 

survey under the same caustic and high temperature environmental conditions 

identified in § 23.905(g). 

5. The Airplane Instructions for Continued Airworthiness (ICA) should require regular 

calibration of the tachometer to ensure that the limits are not exceeded. 

Related Material: 

AC 20-88A, Guidelines on the Marking of Aircraft Powerplant Instruments (Displays) 

AC 20-66A, Vibration and Fatigue Evaluation of Airplane Propellers 

AC 35.37-1A, Guidance Material for Fatigue Limit Tests and Composite Blade Fatigue 

Substantiation 

Paragraph 23.907(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.3(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.907(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.3(b)(4) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

24
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.909 Turbocharger systems (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.5 

What paragraphs of § 23.909 apply to a turbocharger installation that is not 

certificated as part of the engine under part 33? 

Apply § 23.909(a) through (e) to a turbocharger system (or portions of the system) that is 

not certificated as part of the engine under part 33. 

What paragraphs of § 23.909 apply to a turbocharger installation that is certificated as 

part of the engine under part 33? 

Apply § 23.909(b) through (e) to a turbocharger system (or portions of the system) that is 

certificated as part of the engine under part 33. 

Related Material: 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

AC 23.1521-2 with Change 1, Type Certification of Oxygenates and Oxygenated 

Gasoline Fuels in Part 23 Airplanes with Reciprocating Engines 

AC 33-2B, Aircraft Engine Type Certification Handbook 

AC 33.47-1, Detonation Testing in Reciprocating Aircraft Engines

What are the definitions of some of the common terms used relative to turbocharger 

systems? 

Turbocharger System 

Includes the following: 

1. The turbocharger; 

2. All components necessary to control the turbocharger and the associated 

engine/installation connections; 

3. All ducting, heat exchangers, and other plumbing between the turbocharger to the 

engine intake and exhaust interface points; 

25 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

4. All plumbing and control devices between the turbocharger and the aircraft; and 

5. Mounting provisions for these components. 

Turbocharger 

Any engine exhaust gas-driven compressor that is a component of one or more of the 

following systems: 

1. Turbonormalized Engine: Turbocharger used to maintain sea level manifold 

pressure to a critical altitude. 

2. Turbosupercharged Engine: Turbocharger used to provide and maintain a 

manifold pressure greater than sea level pressure to a critical altitude. 

3. Cabin Pressurization Systems: Turbocharger used to pressurize air for airframe

services. 

Intercooler 

A device installed in the engine air induction system that lowers the intake air charge 

temperature. The intercooler can be approved either as part of the engine or the engine 

installation. 

Paragraph 23.909(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.5(a) 

What engine affects should be considered when adding a turbocharger to a normally 

aspirated engine? 

Adding a turbocharger to a normally aspirated engine will have the following affects on 

the engine. 

1. A turbocharged engine will have different endurance and reliability characteristics 

than the non-turbocharged engine. 

2. A turbocharged engine will have different overhaul characteristics and intervals than 

the non-turbocharged engine. 

3. A turbocharged engine will have different detonation characteristics than the nonturbocharged engines. Detonation margin is affected by the following: 

a. Induction air temperature and pressure; 

b. Exhaust back pressure; 

26
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

c. Ignition timing; 

d. Fuel grade and flow; 

e. Carburetor or injector metering characteristics; 

f. Compression ratio; 

g. Cooling; and 

h. Exhaust gas temperature. 

4. A turbocharger has high speed rotating components similar to a turbine engine. 

Consider the effects of low-cycle fatigue on turbocharger rotor integrity and 

durability. The installation should be designed to minimize the effects of an 

uncontained turbocharger rotor burst event. 

5. Expect higher pressures and temperatures with a turbocharged engine induction 

system due to heat generated from adiabatic compression. An intercooler between 

the turbocharger and the engine will lower the induction air temperature. 

6. Expect higher rates of oil consumption, contamination, and deterioration due to the 

more severe operating environment. These items may shorten oil change intervals. 

7. Expect higher flow rates of hot exhaust gas with a turbocharged engine’s exhaust 

system, which will increase the temperature of the metal and raise internal pressure. 

Consequently, the durability of the exhaust system components is important. 

Increased or mandatory inspections of the exhaust system components may be 

necessary. 

8. Both the engine and propeller vibration characteristics of the turbocharged engine 

installation might be altered by changes in horsepower and by changes in 

horsepower-to-altitude relations. Readdress the propeller vibration compatibility 

according to § 23.907 or determine if propeller recertification is necessary. 

What are the typical means of compliance with § 23.909(a)? 

Turbochargers certificated as part of the engine may use the findings of compliance from

the engine certification. 

Turbochargers that have not been certificated as part of the engine require analysis and 

testing. Endurance tests should be conducted to meet the reliability standards established 

by the 150-hour endurance test under § 33.49 for the engine and turbocharger 

combination. In addition, the engine and turbocharger combination should be tested to 

determine the effects on the service life of the engine and engine components as required 

27
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

by § 33.7. Any component of the engine and turbocharger installation not substantiated 

by endurance testing as capable of operating in all normally anticipated flight and 

atmospheric conditions should be subjected to additional tests or investigations to 

substantiate this capability as required by § 33.53. 

Affects of low-cycle fatigue on turbocharger rotor integrity and durability: A rotor 

without prior service history should be subjected to a 1,000-cycle start-stop test under the 

most adverse operating conditions to provide a basis for establishing initial service life. 

The applicant should provide instructions for the installation, operation, service, 

maintenance, repair, and overhaul of the turbocharger and related items as required by 

§ 33.4, Instructions for continued airworthiness, and § 33.5, Instruction manual for 

installing and operating the engine. Particular attention should be given to component 

life limits for both the engine and turbocharger. 

The exhaust system and supports should be capable of withstanding all vibration and 

inertia loads at the higher temperatures and pressures to which they are subjected by the 

turbocharger installation as required by § 23.1123, Exhaust system. Tests or 

investigations, as necessary, should be conducted to substantiate that the exhaust system

meets the standards of airworthiness established by the basic engine 150-hour endurance 

test as required by § 33.49. 

Turbocharger mounts and supporting structure should withstand all vibration and inertia 

loads to which they are subjected in operation as required by § 23.307, Proof of structure. 

Conduct calibration tests and investigations to establish the sea level and altitude power 

characteristics of the engine and turbocharger combination. 

Conduct flight tests to demonstrate that the engine operates throughout its anticipated 

operating range without exceeding detonation limits at limit temperatures and fuel flow, 

using the minimum-grade fuel. If necessary, establish the minimum fuel flow required 

for proper operation. Also, consider the limitations specified in the installer's instructions 

and as required by § 33.47, Detonation test. 

Turbocharger and engine mount provisions should have sufficient strength to withstand 

loads arising from the conditions prescribed in § 33.23, Engine mounting attachments 

and structure. Because of relative motion and fire concerns in the event of a failure, 

experience has shown that turbochargers should not be remotely mounted on the firewall. 

Paragraph 23.909(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.5(b) 

28
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

What should be considered when certificating the turbocharger control system? 

A turbocharged engine requires additional systems necessary to control the turbocharger, 

such as the wastegate and wastegate controller. The effects of cold oil on the operating 

characteristics of the turbocharger wastegate and any oil-operated flow control devices 

should be considered when certificating the turbocharger control system. 

The design of the turbocharger control devices should be such that any probable failure 

does not result in engine or turbocharger limits being exceeded, which should preclude 

damage to the turbocharger compressor or turbine. 

Guidance for electronic wastegate controllers is contained in AC 33.28-2. 

Related Material 

AC 33.28-2, Guidance Material for 14 CFR § 33.28, Reciprocating Engines, Electrical 

and Electronic Engine Control Systems 

Paragraph 23.909(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.5(c) 

What guidance is available when determining compliance with § 23.909(c)? 

A turbocharger has high speed rotating components similar to a turbine engine. Consider 

the possibility of damage from turbine or compressor rotor failure. 

If the turbocharger case alone has not demonstrated compliance with § 23.909(c), then 

the installer may provide additional containment shielding to preclude damage due to 

rotor failure. 

No additional containment shielding is required for turbochargers approved with the 

engine provided the following conditions are both met. Information concerning the 

testing for part 33 certification should be obtained from the engine manufacturer. 

1. Containment has been demonstrated during part 33 certification. 

2. The containment testing was performed at operating conditions appropriate to the 

airplane and its engine installation. 

Related Material 

AC 20-128A, Design Considerations for Minimizing Hazards Caused by Uncontained 

Turbine Engine and Auxiliary Power Unit Rotor Failure 

29
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Paragraph 23.909(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

What affect does a turbocharger have on the engine induction air temperature at 

altitude? 

A turbocharged engine has higher induction air temperatures at altitude because of the 

increased compression required to maintain engine manifold pressure. Turbocharger 

speed and compressor discharge temperature increase up to critical altitude. 

What should be considered relative to the turbocharger system discharge? 

Turbochargers on engines with carburetors produce combustible mixtures (at elevated 

pressure and temperature) in portions of the induction system. Induction system leaks 

should be minimized. Consider the relation of the turbocharger to the point of fuel 

introduction into the induction system. For turbocharged engines with carburetors, a 

combustible mixture at elevated pressure and temperature exists in portions of the 

induction system and should require special precautions. Consider that engine backfire 

combined with combustible mixtures in the induction system might produce fire in the 

system. 

What methods of compliance are typical for § 23.909(d)? 

Demonstrate the strength of the intercooler and mounting provisions as required by 

§ 33.23. 

Evaluate the intercooler installation for adequacy of: 

1. The intercooler and mounting provisions; 

2. Vibration response; 

3. Engine cooling; 

4. Additional instrumentation required for the intercooler to ensure that the engine 

ratings are not exceeded; and 

5. Any cowling or airframe protrusions located in front of the firewall for fire resistance. 

Demonstrate that the induction system can withstand pressure differentials (positive and 

negative) and temperature levels resulting from the turbocharger under the most critical 

operating conditions expected. 

30
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Determine the effect of turbocharger installation on ice accretion characteristics of the 

induction system according to § 33.35(b). The induction system should meet the 

requirements of § 23.1091 and incorporate means to prevent and eliminate ice 

accumulation within the engine and turbocharger induction system, as required by 

§ 23.1093. Associated heat rise requirements should also be evaluated. 

Paragraph 23.909(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

What methods of compliance are typical for § 23.909(e)? 

It is difficult to thermodynamically match a turbocharger to an engine by analysis alone. 

A combination of test data and analysis is required for performance predictions and 

correction factors. 

Power (Performance)

For airplanes required to comply with the performance requirements of § 23.45, 

Amendment 23-21, establish the actual calibrated power available at all altitudes. If 

performance information is required by § 23.45, Amendment 23-50, determine the actual 

engine power at altitude. 

Investigate each engine installation at all operating points to ensure engine power output 

at the specified manifold pressure. 

On intercooled installations, evaluate the effects the intercooler has on the engineapproved limits. These installations may require redefining the engine ratings. For 

example, increased engine horsepower output at the same manifold pressure and engine 

speed would require a method of limiting engine horsepower. 

The Maintenance Manual should identify any turbocharger control system calibration 

checks required to ensure that the engine is maintaining the approved power output. This 

is especially important on installations with automatic turbocharger control systems. 

Cooling 

If turbocharger lubrication is provided by the engine oil system, the capacity of that 

system should be adequate to serve the engine and turbocharger under the most adverse 

combination of oil temperature and bearing clearances. 

External lines and fittings containing flammable fluids as part of the turbocharger 

installation should comply with §§ 23.1017 and 23.863. 

31
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

If the turbocharger oil system is self-contained, the capacity should be adequate to 

provide lubrication and cooling under the most adverse conditions of turbocharger oil 

temperature and bearing clearance. 

Powerplant cooling provisions should be capable of maintaining the temperature of all 

powerplant components, parts, and fluids at or below the maximum established safe 

values under all ground and flight operating conditions as required by § 23.1047. 

All portions of the engine exhaust system and turbocharger should be isolated from lines 

or components carrying flammable fluids, the accessory section, and primary structure by 

firewalls and shrouds, or by adequate separation as required by § 23.1121. Where 

required, adequate cooling air should be provided so that there is no adverse change in 

service life or failure rate of adjacent components. 

Any ducting that bypasses the firewall and/or cowling should be fireproof. 

Operating Limits 

Define all operating limitations or instructions in the AFM and revise placards as 

required. 

Demonstrate, using an engine conforming to type design data, that the approved power is 

not exceeded at any altitude. 

Demonstrate through test that engine and turbocharger limits are not exceeded under any 

intended operating condition. In particular, establish that the turbocharger is operating 

within its speed and turbine inlet temperature limits. 

Establish turbocharger oil temperature and pressure limits according to § 33.39, 

Lubrication system. 

Specify temperature limits for any components requiring special cooling as required by 

§ 33.21, Engine cooling. 

Determine whether propeller blade, crankshaft, and prop shaft stresses are within 

acceptable limits. The applicant should readdress the propeller vibration compatibility 

according to § 23.907. Additionally, propeller recertification may be required. 

Demonstrate compliance with § 23.955 if the maximum fuel flow has increased or the 

operating condition where maximum fuel flow is required has changed. 

Operating Procedures 

Demonstrate compliance with § 23.939(b), which includes a demonstration that the 

engine installation is free from compressor surge at all operating points. 

32
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Investigate the in-flight restart characteristics of the turbocharged engine. Demonstrate 

engine in-flight restart procedures. 

The fuel system should be free from vapor lock throughout the flight envelope as 

required by § 23.961. 

Because additional moisture might be introduced into the engine crankcase, demonstrate 

that the engine crankcase breather is adequately protected from ice blockage. 

If the turbocharger provides airplane cabin pressurization, a failure of the installation 

should not contaminate the cabin air. Refer to § 23.831 for cabin Carbon Monoxide (CO) 

contamination levels and § 23.1121(a) for design requirements to prevent engine exhaust 

leaks that would allow CO to enter into the cabin area. 

Evaluate the propeller-engine-airplane vibration characteristics at altitude to provide 

continued compliance with § 23.907. Additionally, demonstrate that the engine 

crankshaft torsion characteristics are within the original engine certificated limits or other 

safe operational limits. 

If the turbocharger installation can affect the windshield defogging system, demonstrate 

continued compliance with § 23.773(b). 

What engine cooling conditions should be considered for a turbocharged engine? 

The peak temperature for a turbocharged engine normally occurs at maximum rated 

power at the altitude above which maximum rated power cannot be maintained. This 

altitude is called the critical altitude. Cooling air is less effective at altitude due to its 

lower density. As a general rule, design the engine cooling capacity for the sea level 

power output, then check the flight envelope cooling capacity at various altitudes. The 

applicant should investigate enough of the operating envelope to ensure that engine 

cooling is adequate. The simplest means to determine compliance is by performing a 

cooling climb test. 

What should be considered relative to the turbocharger effect on the engine fuel 

system? 

The increased heating of the induction system for turbocharged engines can affect the 

vapor lock potential for the engine. In addition, diaphragm-type fuel pumps might be 

inadequate to supply fuel to the turbocharged engine under all operating conditions. It 

might become necessary to add a fuel boost pump or make other changes to the pumping 

system to ensure freedom from vapor lock. The critical conditions should be determined 

by test, and acceptable fuel system vapor lock characteristics should be demonstrated 

under all desired operating conditions. 

33
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

What should be considered if the turbocharger is used to supply pressurized cabin air? 

The possibility of contamination of the cabin air during normal operation and after a 

failure in the system should be considered. 

Can the turbocharger lubrication system use pressurized engine oil? 

Turbocharger lubrication systems may be self-contained or require oil from an external 

source. If pressurized engine oil is used, the following effects should be considered: 

1. The additional oil requirements should not exceed the capacity of the engine oil 

pump. 

2. Heat rejected by the turbocharger to the oil should not exceed the engine oil system

cooling provisions. 

3. Air entrained in the turbocharger scavenge oil should not exceed the capability of the 

engine breather or scavenge systems. 

What should be considered relative to turbocharger failures? 

The operating procedures to minimize the potential hazards relating to fire and/or loss of 

engine power due to a turbocharger failure should be specified in the AFM. In particular, 

the in-flight restart characteristics of the engine with a failed turbocharger should be 

considered. 

34
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.925 Propeller clearance (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.422

ADC Cross-reference: 5.3(c)

Paragraph 23.925(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.3(c)

What is the basis for the minimum clearances specified for ground clearance? 

The clearances of seven and nine inches have been in the rules since the 1930’s and are 

probably based on experience. The primary purpose of these minimums is to provide 

enough clearance to limit the amount of foreign object damage from debris kicked up 

from the runway surfaces by the propeller wash and no propeller strike probability. The 

rule sets out the minimums as well as the airplane and propeller configurations to limit 

the number of potential test conditions required to demonstrate compliance. 

What is the purpose of the positive clearance at the end of the rule if the minimums are 

met? 

The minimums are for normal operational conditions whereas the positive clearance 

portion of the rule applies with the critical tire deflated and deflected struts. This portion 

of the rule is used to ensure that in such a condition the propeller will not strike the 

runway surface. Although tire is singular, the intent of the rule is that the airplane be in 

the most critical condition necessary to prevent a propeller strike. Thus, for airplanes 

with more than one critical tire, the interpretation is that tire could be plural. 

Paragraph 23.925(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

If the positive ground clearance from § 23.925(a) is met, why are there additional 

requirements for aft-mounted propellers? 

The positive ground clearance in § 23.925(a) is for a condition with a deflated tire, 

whereas this rule is used for normal takeoffs and landings. Propellers mounted aft of the 

center of gravity of the airplane will be naturally closer to the ground with the airplane 

nose pitched up as for takeoff and landing. Thus, this rule is used to ensure that aftmounted propellers will not contact the runway surface during these conditions. 

Compliance with this paragraph is required in addition to § 23.925(a). 

35
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Paragraph 23.925(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

What is the basis for the minimum clearances specified for water clearance? 

The eighteen-inch clearance has been in the rules since the 1930’s and is probably based 

on experience. The primary purpose of these minimums is to provide enough clearance 

to limit the spray kicked up from the water by the propeller wash. The rule sets out the 

minimum to limit the number of potential test conditions required to demonstrate 

compliance with § 23.925(c) and § 23.239. 

Paragraph 23.925(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.3(c)(2) 

What is the basis for the minimum clearances specified for structural clearance? 

These minimum clearances have been in the rules since the 1930’s and are probably 

based on experience. The purpose of these minimums is to provide enough clearance to 

prevent the propeller from striking any other part of the airplane during operations and to 

limit propeller induced fuselage fatigue. These are considered the minimums, but care 

should be taken to identify any propeller or structural vibration modes that occur during 

operations that may lead to propeller strikes. 

36
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.929 Engine installation ice protection (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.4 

What components of the engine installation does this apply to? 

This section applies to propellers, and cooling inlets for oil, generators and other 

components, when the applicant has requested certification with the ice protection 

provisions of § 23.1419. This section does not apply to engine induction system icing 

protection, which is covered under § 23.1093. 

Who is responsible for engine installation ice protection certification? 

Ice protection is the responsibility of the type certificate applicant. Propeller type 

certification requirements do not include any type of propeller ice protection 

requirements, unless accomplished with special conditions or special tests. In most 

instances, the propeller ice protection components are not included in the propeller type 

design. 

Since the ice protection equipment is normally mounted on the propeller, include the 

propeller manufacturer in the process of assuring that the installation or failure of ice 

protection equipment will not harm the propeller. For example, an electrical short on a 

deicing boot could burn a hole in a composite blade or locally change the heat treatment 

of an aluminum blade. The resulting damage could make the propeller un-airworthy. 

Can a deicing system that is certificated as part of the propeller be used to show

compliance with § 23.929? 

Deicing systems that are certificated according to the requirements of 14 CFR part 35 do 

not fully meet the requirements of § 23.929. Part 35 requirements address only propeller 

structural and vibration characteristics and require that the system functions. System

failure modes are not addressed with part 35 certification of deicing systems. 

The typical analysis report from the deicing boot manufacturer is not sufficient by itself 

to show compliance to § 23.929. The typical report calculates intercycle ice thicknesses 

for various flight and icing conditions, but it does not calculate the effect on propeller 

efficiency, which must be done to show no appreciable loss of thrust. It would be 

acceptable to show that intercycle ice is equal to or less than the accretions obtained on 

the same propeller on an airplane that was flight-tested in icing conditions and shown to 

have no appreciable loss in thrust. 

37 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

The typical deicing boot manufacturer report also contains a caveat that it does not 

address propeller runback ice. Similarity to another propeller that was flight tested in 

icing conditions is usually done to address runback. Similarity would include propeller 

and deicing boot aerodynamic and thermal similarity, deicing timer, propeller RPM, and 

flight conditions. Note that metal and composite propellers have different thermal 

masses. 

As a final qualitative check for both intercycle and runback ice on new airplane 

programs, airplane performance is checked during flight tests in icing conditions. 

Related Material 

AC 20-73, Aircraft Ice Protection 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

AC 23-1419-2B, Certification of Part 23 Airplanes for Flight in Icing Conditions 

38
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.933 Reversing systems (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

What are the origins of this rule? 

This rule reads exactly the same as § 25.933, which was developed in response to 

uncommanded, in-flight deployments of thrust reversing systems in turbine powered 

transport airplanes. 

Paragraph 23.933(a) 

If the reversing system can be restored to forward thrust, why must the airplane be 

capable of continued safe flight with the reverser in any possible position? 

During uncommanded reversing system deployment, there is a possibility of damage to 

the system due to the dynamic nature of the deployment that might prevent the system

from being restored to forward thrust. The nature of this damage is considered 

unpredictable, and it is necessary that the airplane be capable of continued safe flight in 

such an event. 

Paragraph 23.933(b) 

Is propeller reversing system certification covered as part of the propeller certification? 

The requirement of 14 CFR part 35, § 35.21, applies to components of the propeller 

reversing system. If the reversing system components are included in the propeller type 

design (this can be verified with the propeller manufacturer or the FAA office controlling 

the propeller type design), the components have demonstrated compliance with § 35.21. 

The compliance data used to certify the propeller may be used to support the 

demonstration of compliance with § 23.933(b). 

Components that are not included in the propeller type design may or may not have 

demonstrated compliance with § 35.21. Those components that have not been 

certificated as part of the propeller are covered under and must show compliance with 

§ 23.933(b). 

39
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Are there other rules in 14 CFR part 23 that are related to § 23.933? 

Requirements related to the operation of propeller reversing systems are contained in 14 

CFR part 23, § 23.1155. 

Related Material 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

40
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.934 Turbojet and turbofan engine thrust reverser systems tests (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

Are there other rules in 14 CFR part 23 that are related to § 23.934? 

Requirements related to the operation of thrust reverser systems are contained in 14 CFR 

part 23, § 23.1155. 

Related Material 

AC 20-18A, Qualification Testing of Turbojet Engine Thrust Reversers

41 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.937 Turbopropeller-drag limiting systems (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.6 

Paragraph 23.937(a) 

Is a failure probability analysis an acceptable means of showing compliance to 

§ 23.937? 

A failure probability analysis may be used to show compliance with this paragraph. 

Show that the probability of an accident occurring because of any failure of a propeller 

drag limiting system (either automatic or manual) is extremely improbable. 

Related Material 

AC 23.1309-1C, Equipment, Systems, and Installations in Part 23 Airplanes 

Paragraph 23.937(b) 

Is there any policy available for compliance with § 23.937(b)? 

This paragraph was added at Amendment 23-43 in 1993 to define a propeller drag 

limiting system as manual or automatic devices that, when actuated after engine power 

loss, can move the propeller blades toward the feather position to reduce windmilling 

drag to a safe level. This does not include negative torque sensing systems. Prior to this, 

there was confusion as to whether these systems included negative torque sensing 

systems or only propeller feathering systems. 

42
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.939 Powerplant operating characteristics (Amendment 23-42) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.7 

Related Material 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

AC 25.939-1, Evaluating Turbine Engine Operating Characteristics

Paragraph 23.939(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.7(a) 

Is it possible to extrapolate engine operability compliance for airfields at higher 

elevations than those tested when showing compliance with § 23.939(a)? 

There currently are no extrapolation procedures for showing compliance with the 

requirements of § 23.939(a) for airplanes certificated to part 23. Traditionally, testing up 

to the field elevation for which the airplane is to be approved has been used to show 

compliance. This is the most desirable method since it does not require parameter 

variation analysis to account for the higher airfield elevations. Extrapolations have been 

used for part 25 airplanes, and the same considerations may be used for part 23 airplanes. 

When considering extrapolation for compliance with § 23.939(a), data must be presented 

that substantiates the proposed extrapolation procedures. This data should include 

supportive flight test and engine operations data. The applicant should determine, 

understand, and substantiate the critical operating modes of the engine including a 

determination and quantification of the effects the installation and variations in ambient 

conditions have on these modes. Advisory Circular 25.939-1 may be used for turbine 

engines to determine and evaluate the engine critical operating modes. If the proposal is 

appropriately substantiated, the extrapolation of the engine data for compliance with the 

operability requirements of § 23.939(a) may be performed up to a maximum of 3,000 feet 

above the airfield elevation tested. 

Paragraph 23.939(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

43 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Paragraph 23.939(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

44
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.943 Negative acceleration (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

What methods of compliance are acceptable? 

This requirement can be satisfied by flight test demonstrations that consider critical 

airplane, engine, and APU configurations (for an APU approved for use in flight). 

Guidance concerning these tests is included in AC 23-8B. The durations of the tests 

specified in Chapter 196 of AC 23-8B are intended to represent anticipated abnormal 

operational events such as atmospheric upsets and collision avoidance maneuvers. Fuel, 

oil lubrication, and electrical systems are typically monitored during these tests. Fuel 

tanks should not be more than half full to allow room for fuel to lift and uncover fuel line 

inlets and boost pump pickups during the negative accelerations. 

Related Material 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes

45
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

FUEL SYSTEM 

23.951 Fuel System General (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.429, 3.430

ADC Cross-reference: 5.8 

Related Material 

AC 23-10, Auxiliary Fuel Systems for Reciprocating and Turbine Powered Part 23 

Airplanes 

AC 23.1521-2 with Change 1, Type Certification of Oxygenates and Oxygenated 

Gasoline Fuels in Part 23 Airplanes with Reciprocating Engines 

Paragraph 23.951(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.8(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.951(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.8(b) 

Under what conditions can fuel be drawn from more than one tank at a time? 

Section 23.951(b) allows fuel (for the purpose of direct engine feed) to be drawn from

more than one tank at a time provided: 

1. There are means to prevent introducing air into the fuel system; and 

2. The pilot has a means to draw fuel from a single tank. 

What are some of the considerations for such systems? 

Fuel systems that supply engine fuel from more than one tank at a time do not consume 

fuel at the same rate from both tanks. This is attributable to differences in vents, filter 

condition, line losses, pumps, fuel return flow, fuel consumption rates (multiengine 

airplanes), etc. It is probable that one tank will run out of usable fuel while there is still 

usable fuel on board. To prevent air being drawn into the engine fuel supply line, use a 

method to seal the fuel tank outlets whenever the tank is out of usable fuel. 

46
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Substantiation tests are required for systems that draw fuel from more than one tank 

demonstrating that air is not drawn into the fuel system. 

A series of fuel tanks can be interconnected to function as a single tank. For example, 

two left-handed wing tanks using gravity to feed from one to the other with 

interconnected vent lines function as a single tank provided that fuel is drawn from only 

one location. For the purposes of this discussion, these tanks may be treated as a single 

tank. 

Interconnecting the vent lines on two independent tanks (i.e., left-hand and right-hand 

wing tanks feeding to a common fuel selector valve) does not cause the tanks to function 

as a single tank. As above, this configuration may allow air into the fuel system when 

either independent tank has consumed its usable fuel unless there is a means to prevent 

the introduction of air. 

(Many in-service airplanes were certified under the Civil Air Regulations (CAR). For 

background, CAR § 3.430, which preceded § 23.951(b), required the fuel system

arrangement to “permit any one fuel pump to draw fuel from only one tank at a time.” In 

the past, this has sometimes been interpreted (incorrectly) as “a fuel pump may only draw 

fuel from one tank at a time.” The CAR regulation is actually more permissive than 

§ 23.951(b) as it did not address the possibility of introducing air into the fuel system.) 

Paragraph 23.951(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

Is the use of fuel anti-icing additives an acceptable means of compliance for § 23.951(c)? 

Yes, the fuel icing requirements of § 23.951(c) may be satisfied by using the anti-icing 

additives as specified in AC 20-29B, Use of Aircraft Fuel Anti-icing Additives.

Related Material 

AC 20-29B, Use of Aircraft Fuel Anti-icing Additives 

Paragraph 23.951(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

47
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Is this requirement covered under § 23.903(a)(1)? 

The portion of the fuel system that is certificated with the engine is covered under 

§ 23.903(a)(1). The remainder of the airplane fuel system, including the tanks, pumps, 

fuel lines, and firewall shutoff valves, is covered under § 23.951(b). 

48
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.953 Fuel system independence (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.431

ADC Cross-reference: 5.9 

What parts of the fuel supply system should be considered when assessing its 

independence for each engine? 

The independence of a fuel supply system for each engine should be assessed starting at 

the fuel supply pickup point within the tank and continue to the fuel inlet at the engine. 

Related Material 

AC 23-10, Auxiliary Fuel Systems for Reciprocating and Turbine Powered Part 23 

Airplanes 

Paragraph 23.953(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.9(a) 

What is the intent of requiring no immediate action by the pilot to prevent the loss of 

thrust to more than one engine? 

In the event a multiengine airplane experiences a loss of thrust on one engine as a result 

of a fuel system failure, the pilot will be occupied with flying the airplane in the new 

thrust configuration, as well as trouble shooting the problem engine. The intent of 

§ 23.953(a) is that the system should be designed such that, in this event, the remaining 

engine(s) will not be affected by the failure so the pilot will not be required to deal with 

another engine thrust loss during this time of increased workload. 

Paragraph 23.953(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.9(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

49 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.954 Fuel system lightning protection (Amendment 23-7) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.10 

Is it possible to comply with § 23.954 with operational limitations only? 

Operational limitations only are not acceptable means of compliance for standard 

category airplanes. However, this has been allowed for special purpose, restricted 

category, single-engine agricultural airplanes using the normal category requirements of 

part 23 as a certification basis. A limitation in the Airplane Flight Manual, such as 

“Operation of the airplane in and around thunderstorms is prohibited,” has been 

determined to be sufficient to address this regulation for these non-standard category 

airplanes. 

Related Material 

AC 20-53A, Protection of Aircraft Fuel Systems Against Fuel Vapor Ignition Due to 

Lightning 

AC 23-15, Small Airplane Certification Compliance Program

AC 23.1521-2 with Change 1, Type Certification of Oxygenates and Oxygenated 

Gasoline Fuels in Part 23 Airplanes with Reciprocating Engines 

Paragraph 23.954(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.10(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.954(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.10(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.954(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.10(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

50
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.955 Fuel flow (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.433, 3.434, 3.435, 3.436, 3.437(e)

ADC Cross-reference: 5.11 

Paragraph 23.955(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.11(a) 

What are the acceptable means for showing compliance with § 23.955(a)? 

Demonstrate fuel-flow characteristics with the entire fuel system installed in the airplane 

during the airplane type certification program. A suitable mock-up of the fuel system can 

also be used to demonstrate fuel-flow capacity. Analysis may be used to reduce the tests 

required, provided the analysis has been validated through appropriate tests. 

Some applicants may modify their airplanes in such a way as to affect the original fuel 

system. Changes in the type of fuel used are also considered a change to the fuel system. 

In these cases, additional fuel-flow testing may be required to substantiate continued 

compliance of the fuel system with applicable regulations and engine manufacturer's 

requirements. 

In-service fuel that has the correct physical properties and octane ratings should flow at 

the rate specified by regulation and at the pressure established in compliance with 14 

CFR part 33, § 33.7, Engine ratings and operating limitations. This information is 

provided in the engine installation manual. 

As stated in § 23.955(d), the test conditions and tests provided in this section are also 

applicable to auxiliary fuel systems and their associated fuel transfer systems. 

What test conditions should be considered? 

1. Airplane Attitude 

Flow tests should be conducted at the critical attitude for the airplane. The critical 

attitude may be determined with the use of an inclinometer by flying the airplane at 

critical weight. 

Conventional tractor airplanes normally have fuel tanks aft of the carburetor or 

engine injector inlet. Conditions grow less favorable for fuel flow as the airplane 

rotates in the “nose-up” attitude. Likewise, pusher airplanes normally have the fuel 

tanks forward of the carburetor or engine injector inlet making conditions less 

favorable for fuel flow as the airplane rotates in the “nose-down” attitude. 

51
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

2. Minimum Inlet Pressure 

The engine manufacturer typically establishes the minimum and maximum fuel 

pressure limits necessary to obtain acceptable engine operation during certification to 

14 CFR part 33, §§ 33.7(b)(5)(i) and 33.7(c)(6)(i). These limits are on the applicable 

FAA Engine Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS). 

The fuel pressure limits are shown in a number of different ways: 

a. Minus or plus “x” pounds per square inch (psi); 

b. “y” psi above true vapor pressure; and 

c. “z” inches fuel head differential between carburetor fuel inlet fitting and float 

bowl chamber. 

Most of these inlet pressure limits require no conversions. Some turbine engine 

manufacturers specify either the minimum inlet fuel pressure as “x” psi above the true 

vapor pressure of the fuel used with a Vapor/Liquid (V/L) ratio of zero, or as the 

maximum V/L ratio for emergency use that should not exceed a specific value. These 

fuel pressure limits will require an analysis of the fuel to determine true vapor 

pressure of the fuel with the corresponding V/L. Alternatively, a laboratory test may 

be conducted to determine the engine minimum fuel inlet pressure. 

3. Supercharged Engine Fuel System Inlet Pressure 

This applies to engines using either a mechanical or an exhaust-driven (turbocharger) 

device to pressurize the intake air charge. 

The required fuel pressure at the carburetor or injector inlet is stated on the engine 

TCDS and is normally referenced to the engine inlet air (manifold) pressure. The 

manifold pressure is an absolute pressure and is typically stated in inches of mercury 

(Hg). Be sure to use compatible units when calculating the (carburetor or injector) 

fuel pressure minimum limit. 

The inlet air (or upper deck) pressure is maintained up to the critical altitude, while 

the fuel tank pressure decreases with increasing altitude. This usually results in the 

greatest difference between the fuel tank pressure and the inlet air pressure at the 

critical altitude. Therefore, conduct pressure and flow tests at conditions that account 

for the difference between the tank pressure at the actual test altitude and the critical 

altitude. The pressure and flow tests may be done in two ways: 

a. Reduce the fuel tank pressure, or 

52
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

b. Add the difference to the pressure that the engine TCDS indicates the pump is 

required to deliver to the carburetor or injector. 

How can the minimum inlet fuel pressure for reciprocating engines be determined if it 

is not available from the engine manufacturer? 

Should the minimum carburetor or injector-inlet fuel-pressure figure not be available 

from the engine manufacturer, the following process may be used to determine the 

acceptable inlet pressure: 

1. Connect a gravity flow fuel tank to the engine inlet that can be varied in 

height in relation to the carburetor inlet. Large tubing may be used to 

minimize the effects of fluid friction; 

2. With the airplane in the ground attitude position, run the engine at full 

takeoff r.p.m. and manifold pressure. Consider using a propeller that 

will allow full takeoff r.p.m. and satisfactorily cool the engine; 

3. Start with the fuel tank high enough to permit proper operation of the 

engine. Vary the fuel level by lowering the tank until the first 

evidence of engine malfunction occurs, then measure and record the 

fuel head available to the engine. This measurement is to be made 

from the carburetor fuel inlet to the top of the fuel level in the tank; 

4. Engine malfunction may be detected by use of an exhaust gas 

temperature indicator, which will indicate change in the fuel-air 

mixture. Any change in fuel-air mixture will result in an exhaust gas 

temperature change and impending engine malfunction. Also, any 

noticeable change in engine r.p.m. or manifold pressure will indicate a 

change in engine horsepower; and 

5. Establish the minimum fuel pressure 10 percent above the measured 

fuel pressure (at the carburetor inlet) required for acceptable engine 

operation. 

Are there any special considerations? 

If a fuel flowmeter is installed, block the flowmeter during the flow test and measure the 

fuel flow through the bypass according to § 23.955(a)(2). 

If a fuel filter with bypass provisions is installed, block the fuel filter during the flow test 

and measure the fuel flow through the bypass. 

For engines operating on kerosene (jet) or diesel fuels, evaluate the effects of fuel 

density, low temperature, altitude, attitude, and water saturation. 

53
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Paragraph 23.955(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.11(b) 

How can I demonstrate the fuel flow rate compliance for a gravity fed fuel system? 

This method is applicable only to airplanes with reciprocating engines. Use this method 

only if the airplane is being certificated without the use of airplane supplied fuel pumps 

for normal operation. The airplane may be equipped with optional auxiliary or 

emergency pumps provided they are installed but not used during this test. 

This test demonstrates the adequacy of the engine fuel supply under the most adverse 

operating condition. Measure the flow directly at the carburetor inlet (for example, if a 

reducing nipple is used at the carburetor inlet, measure the fuel flow through the nipple). 

Position the airplane on the ground with the thrust or fuselage level line at the most 

critical attitude for fuel flow. A bench test using the pertinent fuel system components 

located at relative elevations to represent actual airplane critical attitudes may be used. If

the airplane is tested in the level flight attitude, determine the appropriate fuel head for 

the critical attitude by analysis and test, and add this fuel head to the fuel system in the 

level flight attitude. 

Reduce the fuel pressure to the minimum operating pressure for an acceptable takeoff 

power mixture as recommended by the carburetor and engine manufacturer. An 

acceptable method of simulating the minimum pressure required at the carburetor inlet is 

to disconnect the fuel-feed line at the carburetor and raise the end of the line above the 

carburetor a distance equal to that of the required minimum operating pressure in inches 

of fuel. 

Compensate for the differential pressure (calculated as shown below under Normally 

Aspirated, Carbureted, Reciprocating Engine Fuel System Pressure Differential), by 

subtracting it from the required minimum carburetor inlet pressure. For example, if the 

minimum permissible fuel inlet pressure is 19 inches of fuel and a system pressure 

differential is 7 inches (produced between the fuel tank vent space and the carburetor 

float bowl airspace), then run the test with the fuel line assembly raised 12 inches above 

the fuel inlet fitting of the carburetor. (The pressure, in psi, can be estimated at 

approximately one psi for each 40 inches head of fuel.) 

Alternatively, compute the sum of the head pressure associated with best rate-of-climb 

and carburetor inlet requirements, and demonstrate (with the fuel restricted by a valve 

installed at the engine-end of the system to simulate this pressure) that fuel flow is at 

least equal to the regulatory minimum.

Completely drain the fuel system before beginning the test. Set the system to feed from

one tank only. Slowly add fuel to the tank until a steady flow is established at the inlet to 

the carburetor or fuel injector unit. Steady flow should be established when slightly more 

54
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

than the unusable fuel supply has been added. When steady flow has been established, 

add an additional gallon (or the fuel quantity necessary to complete the flow test) to the 

tank. 

Record the time in seconds for at least one gallon of fuel to flow from the feed line. The 

time for one gallon of fuel to flow should not be more than the figure computed from the 

following equations: 

1. For reciprocating engine powered airplanes, certificated under Part 3 of the CAR or 

14 CFR part 23, at the rate of 150 percent of the actual fuel flow to the engine at 

maximum takeoff power: 

Seconds per gallon = 14,400/(SFC)(TOHP) 

Where SFC = Engine Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) 

(at Takeoff Power (TOPH)) expressed in (lb./bhp/hr.) 

 TOHP = Engine brake horsepower (bhp) at takeoff 

2. For reciprocating engine powered airplanes certificated under Part 04a of the CAR, at 

the rate of double the normal flow required for takeoff engine power: 

Seconds per gallon = 10,800/(SFC)(TOHP) 

NOTE 1. For the purpose of this discussion, engine fuel flow has been defined by the 

calculated term (SFC)(TOHP). If the engine manufacturer has specified a higher 

maximum fuel flow rate, then use that fuel flow rate in place of the calculated term. 

These calculations are based upon a fuel density of 6 lbs. per U.S. gallon. 

NOTE 2. The fuel flow for airplanes powered by a turbine engine(s) under part 23 

should meet the requirements discussed under Fuel Flow Rate for Pressure Regulated 

Systems below.

How do I account for the Normally Aspirated, Carbureted, Reciprocating Engine Fuel 

System Pressure Differential? 

A pressure differential normally exists between the fuel tank airspace and the carburetor 

float bowl airspace at various climb attitudes and climb speeds. Account for this pressure 

differential when calculating the minimum fuel head for conducting fuel-flow tests. One 

way to determine the fuel system pressure differential is as follows: 

1. Connect a calibrated airspeed indicator between the fuel tank vent and the carburetor 

float bowl airspace. Connect the pitot pressure connection to the fuel tank vent 

airspace and the static connection to the carburetor float bowl airspace. Use a liquid 

trap on each side of the airspeed indicator. The carburetor float bowl should be 

vented to the atmosphere at the normal carburetor air passage during the test. 

55
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

2. With the airspeed indicator installed as described above, fly the airplane at critical 

weight (using the regular airspeed indicator) at the best angle-of-climb airspeed (VY) 

with the carburetor inlet air heat off and a full rich mixture setting (if mixture is 

controllable). Record the airspeed indicated on the instrument connected between the 

fuel tank and the carburetor. 

3. Calculate the pressure differential (∆H) between the fuel tank vent airspace and the 

carburetor float bowl using this equation: 

 ∆H = 6.81 (V/100)2

 Where ∆H = Pressure differential in inches of fuel 

 V = Airspeed indicator reading in miles per hour 

56
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

4. The ∆H obtained may be subtracted from the minimum carburetor inlet pressure 

specified by the engine manufacturer to determine the minimum pressure to be 

substantiated by the fuel flow tests. (See Figure 1 below in this AC section.) 

FIGURE 1

Vent

Vent Space

Fuel Tank

Carburetor

Venturi

Vent

Carburetor

Float Bowl

Fuel

Liquid Traps

Airspeed

Indicator

Line from fuel tank vent

space to pitot pressure

side of airspeed indicator

Line from carburetor float

bowl air space to static

pressure side of air speed

indicator

57
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

5. A U-tube manometer (see figure 2 below in this AC section) containing actual fuel or 

any other appropriate fluid may be used instead of the airspeed indicator to determine 

the pressure differential. Use of the manometer allows reading pressure differential 

directly in inches of fuel or the chosen fluid. If some other fluid is used, correct the 

differential height for the specific gravity of the test fluid. A U-tube manometer is 

generally commercially available or can be constructed of clear plastic or glass 

tubing. 

Vent

Vent Space

Fuel Tank

Carburetor

Venturi Vent

Carburetor

Float Bowl

Manometer

Pressure

Differential

Fuel or other

test fluid

Fuel

FIGURE 2 

6. Installation of a U-tube manometer, containing fuel, in the cabin can be hazardous; 

therefore, take special precautions to prevent damage or spillage. Incorporate 

provisions to collect and drain any fuel spillage overboard. 

Paragraph 23.955(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.11(c) 

How can I demonstrate the fuel flow rate compliance for a pump fed fuel system? 

These tests are required to demonstrate that the airplane fuel system can deliver an 

adequate fuel supply to the engine. 

58 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

1. Fuel Flow Rate for Pressure Regulated Systems 

Conduct these fuel-flow rate tests by placing the airplane in the same attitude as 

outlined in the procedure for gravity-feed fuel system tests. Operate the fuel pump 

either driven by the engine with the pump mounted on the regular engine-fuel pump 

drive pad or driven by a separate external power source. 

If conducted with the pump mounted on the engine, use a separate source of fuel, 

external to the airplane, to operate the engine at takeoff r.p.m. 

If an external power source is used to drive the fuel pump, conduct the test with the 

pump operating at the same speed as the pump operates when the engine is running at 

takeoff r.p.m. Mount the pump at the same height as it would be if mounted on the 

fuel pump pad on the engine. 

In either case, measure the pump discharge flow rate using a calibrated flowmeter and 

correct for inlet condition if necessary. 

Completely drain the fuel system before beginning the test. Set the system to feed 

from one tank only. Slowly add fuel to the tank until a steady flow is established at 

the inlet to the carburetor or fuel injector unit. Steady flow should be established 

when approximately the usable fuel supply has been added. When steady flow has 

been established, add an additional gallon of fuel to the tank. The fuel-flow tests 

should be made on the main fuel-pump system followed by a test on the emergency 

fuel-pump system with the main pump inoperative in the critical mode for fuel 

delivery. 

Part 23 airplanes using aviation or automobile gasoline 

For airplanes certified under part 23 using aviation or automobile gasoline, the time 

for one gallon to flow should be less than or equal to the smaller of the following: 

a. At the rate of 0.9 pounds for each TOHP: 

Seconds per gallon = 24,000/TOHP 

b. At the rate of 125 percent of the actual fuel flow to the engine at maximum

takeoff power: 

Seconds per gallon = 17,280/(SFC)(TOHP) 

Airplanes using jet or diesel fuel 

For airplanes using jet or diesel fuels, the time for one gallon to flow should be less 

than or equal to the following at each intended operating condition and maneuver: 

59
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

At the rate of 100 percent fuel flow: 

Seconds per gallon = 24,480 (JP-5)/(SFC)(bhp or lb. thrust) 

23,400 (JP-4, Jet B)/(SFC)(bhp or lb. thrust) 

23,760 (JP-7)/(SFC)(bhp or lb. thrust) 

24120 (JP-8, Jet A, Jet A-1)/(SFC)(bhp or lb. thrust) 

NOTE 1. For the purpose of this discussion, engine fuel flow has been defined by 

the calculated term (SFC)(TOHP) or (SFC)(bhp or lb. thrust). If the engine 

manufacturer has specified a higher maximum fuel flow rate, then use that fuel flow 

rate in place of the calculated term. 

NOTE 2. Jet fuels vary considerably in density. For example, at 60 °F: 

JP-4, Jet B range is 6.27 to 6.69 lbs./U.S. gallon 

JP-5 range is 6.58 to 7.05 lbs./U.S. gallon 

JP-7 range is 6.50 to 6.73 lbs./U.S. gallon 

JP-8, Jet A, Jet A-1 range is 6.47 to 7.01 lbs./U.S. gallon 

Since the flow rates for turbine-powered airplanes are 100 percent, account for the 

effects of cold fuel, blocked filters, altitude, attitude, maneuvers, acceleration, etc. 

Part 04a airplanes using aviation or automobile gasoline 

For airplanes certified under Part 04a of the CAR using aviation or automobile 

gasoline, the time for one gallon to flow should be less than or equal to the following: 

At the rate of double the normal flow required for takeoff engine power: 

Seconds per gallon = 10,800/(SFC)(TOHP) 

2. Fuel Flow Rate for Unregulated Fuel Injection Pump Systems 

Some fuel injection systems utilize an integral speed-sensing pump, approved as part 

of the engine type design, that delivers fuel at an unregulated pressure proportional to 

engine speed. A fuel injection system with an integral speed sensing pressure pump 

(refer to AC section on § 23.991) is normally capable of suction lift at the inlet to the 

pump; therefore, an emergency pump may not be required. Use care in selecting and 

operating emergency pumps with these types of systems as engine malfunction (as 

defined in the AC section on § 23.959) can also occur due to excess fuel when 

operating under high fuel pressure. 

Conduct these fuel-flow rate tests by placing the airplane in the same attitude as 

outlined in the procedure for gravity-feed fuel system tests, with the following 

exceptions or additions: 

60
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

a. The fuel-injector system normally has an engine-driven fuel-injector pump that is 

approved as part of the engine. It is necessary to show that the fuel system, 

excluding the injector pump, complies with the applicable regulations. Therefore, 

any fuel pump capable of providing the flow capacity may be used to conduct the 

fuel-flow tests. Pressure indicators installed in the fuel lines will be necessary to 

determine that the system will maintain the pressure specified by the engine 

manufacturer. 

b. Some engine fuel injector systems have a bypass or return-flow fuel system. 

These systems may be evaluated by determining that the system can conduct fuel 

back to the tank at the required flow rate without exceeding the back pressure 

established by the engine manufacturer at the bypass exit port. 

c. When conducting the fuel flow test with a separate fuel pump, the fuel flow 

requirements of the main fuel system should include the quantity of fuel 

consumed by the engine plus the quantity returned to the fuel tank. 

Airplanes equipped with engine-driven integral speed-sensing pressure pumps can 

experience engine misfire, stall, or other engine malfunction attributable to excess 

fuel should the optional emergency fuel pump produce too high an output pressure. 

In these cases, the optional fuel pumps are not required by the regulation as 

emergency pumps but are used to supply fuel pressure at the engine-driven injector 

pump inlet for engine starting, vapor suppression, and, in some cases, maintaining 

engine power after an engine-driven fuel injector pump failure. These optional 

pumps may have a sufficiently high fuel output pressure to adversely affect engine 

operation when the pump is turned on with the engine-driven pump operating 

normally. To ensure that the optional fuel pump operates within the maximum

allowed fuel pressure limit at the inlet to an engine-driven injector fuel pump, an inflight evaluation with both pumps operating or a ground pressure check is 

recommended as follows: 

a. Block the engine-driven fuel pump outlet line and operate the airplane’s electric 

fuel pump under a no-flow condition, then 

b. Take a pressure reading to ascertain that the fuel pressure falls within the pressure 

limits specified for the engine at the inlet to the fuel injector or compare the pump 

manufacturer's no-flow performance pressure with the injector pump's inlet limit. 

Is it possible to certify component changes without a full fuel system test? 

Changes in components, such as an engine-driven fuel pump or a wobble pump, can often 

be substantiated by comparative tests of the components themselves without testing the 

entire airplane system. For example, a replacement fuel pump should be capable of 

delivering at least the same flow as the original pump when operating at the same speed, 

suction lift, and delivery pressure. 

61
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Paragraph 23.955(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.11(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Related Material 

AC 23-10, Auxiliary Fuel Systems for Reciprocating and Turbine Powered Part 23 

Airplanes 

Paragraph 23.955(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.11(e) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Related Material 

AC 23.1521-1B, Type Certification of Automobile Gasoline in Part 23 Airplanes with 

Reciprocating Engines 

AC 23.1521-2 with Change 1, Type Certification of Oxygenates and Oxygenated 

Gasoline Fuels in Part 23 Airplanes with Reciprocating Engines 

Paragraph 23.955(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.11(f) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

62
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.957 Flow between interconnected tanks (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.439

ADC Cross-reference: 5.12 

Paragraph 23.957(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.957(b) 

Can fuel tank vent lines be used to transfer fuel between tanks? 

It is not advisable to use the fuel tank vent lines to transfer fuel between tanks as a 

normal procedure because this will prevent the vent lines from venting and expose the 

tanks and lines to higher pressures.

63
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.959 Unusable fuel supply (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.437

ADC Cross-reference: 5.13 

Paragraph 23.959(a) 

What is the definition of unusable fuel supply? 

The following definitions are for terms used throughout this section. 

Unusable fuel is the largest total quantity of fuel remaining in the fuel tank(s) when 

the first evidence of engine malfunction occurs due to fuel interruption. Engine 

malfunction normally occurs under the most adverse fuel feed conditions depending 

on such things as tank geometry, fuel system geometry and operating characteristics, 

and operating maneuvers. Each intended ground operation and flight maneuver 

should be checked for each fuel tank. See figure 3 on the next page in this AC 

section for common fuel tank configuration definitions relative to unusable fuel. 

VFE is the maximum airplane flap extended speed. 

VSO is the airplane stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing 

configuration. 

VX is the best angle-of-climb speed.

VY is the best rate-of-climb speed. 

VYSE is the best rate-of-climb speed with one engine inoperative. 

64 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

A

B

C

E

D

Usable

Fuel

Unusable Fuel

Drainable Sump

Undrainable

Vent Expansion Space

Tank

Capacity

Sump Drain

Vent Fuel

Filler

Pump

Inlet

Fuel to Engine

Fuel Level Representations

A Completely empty tank. 

B Remaining fuel after draining tank using sump drain. (Normal ground attitude) 

C Remaining fuel after fuel pump has run dry. (At most adverse fuel condition in flight) 

D Fuel quantity after tank has been “topped off.” (Normal ground attitude) 

E Fuel quantity where fuel first enters vent system. (Normal ground attitude) 

FIGURE 3

What are acceptable means of compliance for § 23.959? 

The applicant must conduct tests to determine the most adverse fuel feed flight condition 

and the in-flight maximum unusable fuel amount. This will define the Red Line 

identifying ZERO on the fuel quantity indicator according to section 23.1337(b)(1). 

Further tests must be conducted to determine if any additional indicator marking in the 

form of a Yellow Arc is needed to assure satisfactory fuel flow during taxi turns and 

turning takeoffs. 

The fuel system and tank geometry should be analyzed to determine what flight 

maneuvers, appropriate to the airplane flight envelope, are critical for the specific tanks 

being tested. Radical or extreme maneuvers are only investigated if they are part of the 

airplane’s flight envelope. Ground tests using equipment that accurately simulates the 

65
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

airplane fuel systems and in-flight effects may be used. Alternatively, the applicant may 

establish a conservative unusable fuel quantity and conduct necessary tests to show that 

engine malfunction will not occur. 

A tank that is not used in all flight regimes need only be tested in the flight regime where 

it is used (e.g., cruise). Either the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) or placards, or both, 

may be used to provide limitations for the use of this tank. 

The guidance presented in this AC is based on service experience. It is the applicant’s 

responsibility to conduct sufficient tests to determine the most adverse fuel feed 

condition that is appropriate to the airplane. 

What are the general guidelines for testing? 

 

When testing an airplane with a single fuel tank, an auxiliary tank must be installed. 

Many general aviation airplanes have symmetrical fuel systems. Test planning should 

determine, on a symmetrical system, that the unusable fuel results from one side are 

applicable to the other or whether one side could be more critical and if the results are 

applicable and conservative for the other side. 

The test configuration must be able isolate the test tank after each test condition to not 

alter the resulting quantity of unusable fuel. Consider isolating vapor return flow to 

prevent crossover flow through vent interconnects and loss of fuel due to attitude changes 

into header tanks from the tank being tested. 

The airplane best angle of climb (Vx) airspeed adjusted to light weight, should be 

determined and used for flight tests where high positive deck angles are desired. Also, 

the airplane configuration and airspeed that results in the most negative deck angle 

should be determined. 

What criteria should be used to determine engine malfunction due to fuel interruption 

during the testing? 

For the purpose of these tests, only malfunctions attributable to fuel flow interruption are 

considered. Some examples are the following: 

1. Engine roughness; 

2. Partial or total loss of power; 

3. Fuel pressure reduced below minimum; or 

4. Fuel flow fluctuations. 

To ensure the most conservative unusable fuel supply value for each tank, another fuel 

tank should be selected at the first indication of engine malfunction due to fuel 

66
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

interruption. During the test, the system should be configured to direct the fuel return 

lines from the engine to the non-test tank. The fuel remaining in the test tank at the time 

of malfunction is the unusable fuel. If header tanks (small tanks that accumulate fuel 

from one or more fuel tanks and supply the engine directly) are utilized, the fuel 

remaining in the header tank should be added to the unusable fuel, but it is not shown on 

the fuel gauge marking. 

What flight maneuvers are typically used to determine the unusable fuel quantity, 

according to § 23.959, for establishing the gauge marking, according to § 23.1337(b)(1), 

on the fuel quantity indicator? 

The following tests should be performed as applicable to determine the unusable fuel 

supply at the most critical condition during flight. The unusable fuel quantity is the 

largest quantity of fuel necessary to accomplish the critical maneuvers. This quantity 

should be used to set the fuel gauge zero mark. 

1. Level Flight: Maximum Recommended Cruise Power 

NOTE. If the airplane manufacturer does not specify Maximum Recommended 

Cruise Power, then operate engine at the maximum allowable power for continuous 

operation. 

Condition a.—Straight coordinated flight. Perform the following until the first 

indication of interrupted fuel flow is observed: 

Maintain straight coordinated flight (bank angles not exceeding 5 degrees). 

Condition b.—Turbulent Air. Perform the following until the first indication of

interrupted fuel flow is observed: 

Simulate turbulent air with +/- half-ball width oscillations at approximately the 

natural yawing frequency of the airplane in pitch, roll, and yaw. 

Condition c.—Skidding turn in the direction most critical with respect to fuel feed. 

Repeat the following until the first indication of interrupted fuel flow is observed: 

Maintain a skidding turn with 1-ball width skid for 30 seconds and return to 

coordinated flight for 1 minute. 

2. Climb: Maximum Climb Power at Best Angle-of-Climb Speed, VX 

The climbs at Maximum Climb Power and Vx should be performed uninterrupted to 

obtain the most conservative results. 

NOTE. If the airplane manufacturer does not specify Maximum Climb Power, then 

operate engine at either the maximum allowable power for takeoff operation 

67
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

(maximum airplane weight over 6,000 lbs.) or maximum allowable power for 

continuous operation (maximum airplane weight 6,000 lbs. or less). 

Condition a.—Straight coordinated flight. Perform the following until the first 

indication of interrupted fuel flow is observed: 

Maintain straight coordinated flight (bank angles not exceeding 5 degrees). 

Condition b.—Turbulent air. Perform the following until the first indication of

interrupted fuel flow is observed: 

Simulate turbulent air with +/- half-ball width oscillations at approximately the 

natural frequency of the airplane. 

Condition c.—Skidding turn in the direction most critical with respect to fuel feed. 

Repeat the following until the first indication of interrupted fuel flow is observed: 

Maintain a skidding turn with 1-ball width skid (or full rudder if 1-ball width 

cannot be obtained) for 30 seconds and return to coordinated flight for 1 minute. 

3. One-Engine-Inoperative Climb: Maximum Climb Power at One-EngineInoperative Best Rate-of-Climb Speed, VYSE 

NOTE. If the AFM does not specify Maximum Climb Power, then operate engine at 

either the maximum allowable power for takeoff operation (maximum airplane 

weight over 6,000 lbs.) or maximum allowable power for continuous operation 

(maximum airplane weight 6,000 lbs. or less). 

Set the critical engine to zero thrust to simulate a critical engine-out condition (do not 

shut down the critical engine). Conduct a straight climb at the best rate-of-climb 

speed for one engine inoperative (VYSE). Utilize the bank angle and ball 

displacement used in determining single-engine performance. Continue climb until a 

malfunction occurs. 

4. Descent and Approach 

Condition a.—Emergency descent or rapid descent. Perform the following until the 

first indication of interrupted fuel flow is observed: 

Make a continuous power-off straight descent at VFE with gear and flaps down or 

follow emergency descent procedures contained in the AFM. 

Condition b.—Perform the following until the first indication of interrupted fuel 

flow is observed: 

68
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Make a continuous power-off glide at 1.3 VSO. Simulate turbulent air or smooth 

condition, whichever is most critical. 

Condition c.—Transition from power-off glide. 

Starting from the most critical condition established in condition b above, verify 

that there is no interruption of fuel flow when making a simultaneous application 

of Maximum Continuous Power (MCP) and a transition to best rate-of-climb 

speed, VY, from a power-off glide at 1.3 VSO. 

Condition d.—Sideslip on approach. Perform the following for 30 seconds or until 

the first indication of interrupted fuel flow is observed, whichever comes first: 

Establish a 1.3 VSO descent in a landing configuration. Maintain at least a 11⁄2-

ball or full rudder steady heading sideslip in the direction most critical for the fuel 

feed system. (Use the maximum sideslip anticipated for the airplane if it is less 

than 11⁄2-ball.) Maintain a constant heading using sufficient aileron. 

Condition e.—Sideslip on approach with balked landing. Perform the following test. 

Establish a 1.3 VSO descent in a landing configuration. Maintain at least a 11⁄2-

ball or full rudder steady heading sideslip in the direction most critical for the fuel 

feed system for 60 seconds. (Use the maximum sideslip anticipated for the 

airplane if it is less than 11⁄2-ball) followed by a maximum power straight ahead 

balked landing climb for 1 minute. Maintain a constant heading using sufficient 

aileron. 

What ground operational maneuvers are typically used to determine the necessity for 

further gauge markings? 

After determining the unusable fuel supply using the tests above, perform the following 

tests to determine the need for additional fuel gauge markings and restrictions. 

Taxi Turns and Turning Takeoffs 

Choose the minimum fuel quantity sufficient to perform the maneuvers described 

below. This quantity should not exceed the flight unusable fuel supply plus 30 

minutes of fuel supply at MCP (see NOTE below). Turns should be in the direction 

most adverse for the tank being used. Load the airplane to the approximate minimum

flying weight or its critical weight. Any engine malfunction due to fuel interruption 

during this test sequence is not acceptable. 

Make a maximum lateral gravity (g’s) 90-degree turn rolling takeoff. (The maximum

lateral g’s turn is where lateral skidding is evident.) Immediately follow the takeoff

with a 3-minute climb at best angle-of-climb speed for single-engine airplanes or 

speed determined under § 23.51 for multiengine airplanes. Follow normal flight 

69
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

procedures and maintain operating conditions necessary for safe operations (i.e., 

proper engine cooling). 

Make a 360-degree clearing turn at a rate appropriate to the airplane, immediately 

followed by a takeoff and a 3-minute straight climb at best rate-of-climb speed for 

single-engine airplanes or the speed determined under § 23.51 for multiengine 

airplanes. Follow normal flight procedures and maintain operating conditions 

necessary for safe operations (i.e., proper engine cooling). 

Make a 180-degree turn at normal taxi speed, immediately followed by a takeoff and 

a 3-minute climb at best rate-of-climb speed for single-engine airplanes or a speed 

determined under § 23.51 for multiengine airplanes. Follow normal flight procedures 

and maintain operating conditions necessary for safe operations (i.e., proper engine 

cooling). 

NOTE. If the initial fuel quantity used during the above tests exceeds the 30-minute 

fuel supply at MCP, take the following actions: 

1. Mark the fuel quantity gauge with a yellow arc (appropriately placarded) from the 

unusable fuel (“zero“ level) to a level corresponding to the amount of fuel used in 

the above tests. 

2. Add an AFM limitation restricting takeoff with the fuel quantity less than the top 

of the yellow arc. 

Related Material 

AC 20-88A, Guidelines on the Marking of Aircraft Powerplant Instruments (Displays) 

Paragraph 23.959(b) 

Does compliance with § 23.959(b) require fuel quantity indicator markings? 

The preamble to Amendment 23-51 states paragraph (b) requires that, “The effect of any 

fuel pump failure on the unusable fuel supply be established. This change would not 

require any change in the fuel quantity indicator marking required by § 23.1553.” 

70
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.961 Fuel system hot weather operation (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.438

ADC Cross-reference: 5.14 

What is the primary concern with fuel systems hot weather operation? 

The primary concern is vapor formation resulting in vapor lock in the fuel system. Vapor 

lock occurs most frequently with hot fuel. Evaluate airplanes using aviation gasoline at 

the fuel’s critical temperature with respect to vapor formation. Evaluate airplanes using 

jet or diesel fuel at the more critical temperature with respect to vapor formation of 

110 °F (-0, +5°) or the airplane’s maximum allowable outside air temperature. 

Procedures for conducting hot weather fuel tests on airplanes using automobile gasoline 

(autogas) are contained in AC 23.1521-1B, Type Certification of Automobile Gasoline in 

Part 23 Airplanes with Reciprocating Engines. 

Test results referred to in this section were made at the William J. Hughes Technical 

Center in Atlantic City, New Jersey. 

What considerations are applicable to evaluating hot weather performance for airplane 

fuel systems? 

Several factors are involved in the evaluation of an airplane fuel system for hot weather. 

The applicant should consider at least the following: 

1. Fuel System Design 

Fuel system designs should be in compliance with 14 CFR part 23. In particular, do 

not route fuel lines close to hot exhaust systems as that may cause increased fuel 

temperature in the fuel lines. 

Any fuel system (including gravity feed systems) using aviation or automobile fuels 

is conducive to vapor formation. Systems using a fuel pump with suction lift are 

highly susceptible to vapor formation. 

2. Determination of Critical Fuel Temperature 

The likelihood of vapor formation and subsequent interruption of engine power 

increases with elevated fuel temperature up to 110 °F. The temperature value of 

110 °F was derived from the distillation data pertinent to aviation and turbine fuels. 

71 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

The tendency of various fuels to form vapor is different. Fuels such as automobile 

gasoline (autogas) have an initial boiling point of approximately 85 °F, whereas some

turbine fuels have an initial boiling point of approximately 120 °F. 

The distillation data for any other fuel should be analyzed and the appropriate test 

temperature chosen. If, for example, an applicant wanted to test an airplane with 

liquid hydrogen fuel, it would not be reasonable to require the fuel to be heated to 

110 °F since the boiling point is -423 °F at one atmosphere pressure. The same logic 

should apply, regardless of what alternate fuel is being tested. 

Distillation data, provided from the National Institute for Petroleum and Energy 

Research (NIPER), using the ASTM D-86 distillation method for ASTM D-910 

aviation gasoline and winter-grade automotive gasoline, revealed autogas heated to 

110 °F in a vented vessel (i.e., an airplane fuel tank) will boil off approximately 18 

percent of its mass in the form of non-recoverable vapors. These lost constituents are 

primarily the highly volatile fractions, mainly pentane and butane, the fuel 

constituents that can cause vapor lock problems. In contrast, aviation gasoline will 

boil off approximately 1 percent of its mass when heated to 110 °F. 

Since the initial boiling point is a vapor temperature, the actual fuel temperature for 

the initial boiling point is greater than the vapor temperature. The tendency to form

vapor may be related to Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) with the higher values being 

more conducive to vapor formation. 

3. Test Requirements for Demonstrating Compliance 

A flight test is required for the initial certification of an airplane to complete the hot 

weather operation tests at the critical operating conditions, including the following: 

maximum fuel flow, highest angle-of-attack (for tractor propeller aircraft), maximum

fuel temperature, etc. Supplemental ground testing should closely simulate flight 

conditions. Derivative models of an airplane may use ground testing and analysis 

using the original flight test data to demonstrate compliance. 

In the case of small airplanes with shallow depth fuel tanks, the actual fuel level in 

the tanks has little affect on hot weather test results. 

4. Other 

Fuel temperatures will be significantly higher than the ambient air temperature if the 

airplane has been parked in direct sunlight. 

72
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

What are the definitions of common terms used when talking about fuel? 

Initial boiling point 

The vapor temperature at which the first drop of liquid fuel is observed after passing 

vapor through a distillation test apparatus. 

Fuel volatility 

The fuel’s tendency to evaporate (change to a vapor from a fluid). 

Vapor lock 

Vapor lock is the tendency of a liquid to form vapor in fuel lines, pumps, etc., that 

would restrict liquid fuel flow to the engine and interrupt combustion. 

True vapor pressure 

True vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by its vapor in equilibrium with the liquid 

at a specific temperature with the absence of air over the fuel. 

Weathering 

Weathering is the reduction of fuel volatility when given sufficient time, agitation, 

temperature cycles, and/or pressure changes. 

What are the requirements for running hot weather compliance tests? 

Perform hot weather operation tests only with outside air temperatures at 85 °F or higher 

measured at 4 feet to 6 feet above the runway surface. 

Conduct the tests with the fuel system operating normally according to the Airplane 

Flight Manual (AFM). Do not operate the emergency fuel pumps if they are being 

considered for use as backup pumps. This test may be used to establish the maximum

pressure altitude for operation with the pumps off.

Do not allow the test fuel to weather, which includes exposure to the atmosphere 

overnight, as this may have a significant effect on the RVP. This ensures that the fuel has 

the maximum RVP. Take fuel samples just prior to the test to establish that the fuel’s 

vapor pressure is correct. 

Set the airplane weight with critical fuel level in the critical fuel tank, minimum crew 

necessary for safe operation, and the ballast necessary to maintain the center of gravity 

within allowable limits. If the critical fuel tank cannot be positively identified, then the 

hot weather operation tests should be repeated for the other tank(s). The critical fuel 

level in most cases would be low fuel; however, full fuel can be critical. 

73
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

If required, heat the fuel in the shortest time period possible without causing excessive 

local temperature conditions at the heat exchanger, optimally less than 90 minutes but not 

to exceed 180 minutes. The temperature of the fuel during this time period should not 

exceed the critical values below. Exceeding this temperature will “weather” the fuel by 

driving off the volatile elements. This will make the fuel less susceptible to vapor lock 

and defeat the purpose of this test. It is not necessary to provide additional heat to the 

fuel system after this initial heating is completed. Raise the temperature of the fuel to the 

critical value with respect to vapor formation as follows: 

1. For aviation gasoline, 110 °F (-0 to +5 °F), and 

2. For turbine fuel, 110 °F (-0 to +5 °F). 

There are several methods of heating the fuel such as the following: 

1. Circulating hot water or steam through a heat exchanger placed in the fuel tank to 

increase the fuel temperature, or 

2. Placing black plastic or other material on the fuel tanks in bright sunlight, or 

3. Blowing hot air over the fuel tank. 

NOTE. Do not agitate or excessively handle the fuel during the heating process. 

CAUTION: Heating and handling fuel at elevated temperatures is hazardous to 

ground and flight personnel; therefore, every safety precaution should be taken. 

If the outside ambient conditions interfere with the ability to conduct a valid test, it may 

be necessary to insulate fuel tank surfaces, fuel lines, and other fuel system components. 

Perform the following as soon as possible after the fuel in the tank reaches the required 

test temperature: 

1. Perform a maximum power takeoff and climb. (This ensures maximum fuel flow 

rates.) 

2. Use the same climb airspeed used in demonstrating the requirements specified in 

§ 23.65. 

3. Continue the climb to the maximum operating altitude approved for the airplane. 

NOTE. It is not necessary for the engine oil temperature to be at maximum, although it 

should be at least the minimum recommended for takeoff. 

Record the following data, at minimum, throughout the test: 

74
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

1. Fuel temperature in the tank; 

2. Fuel pressure at the start of the test and continuously during climb, noting any loss of 

pressure, fluctuation, or variations; 

3. Main and emergency fuel pump operation, as applicable; 

4. Pressure altitude; 

5. Ambient air temperature, total or static as applicable; 

6. Airspeed; 

7. Engine power (i.e., engine pressure ratio, gas generator speed, torque, r.p.m.), turbine 

inlet temperature, exhaust gas temperature, manifold pressure, and fuel flow, as 

appropriate; 

8. Comments on engine operation; 

9. Fuel quantity in the fuel tank(s) during takeoff;

10. Fuel vapor pressure for autogas only, determined prior to test; and 

11. Fuel grade or designation, determined prior to test. 

The test is passed if: 

1. The fuel pressure is at or above the minimum prescribed by the engine manufacturer; 

2. The fuel pressure does not fluctuate excessively; and 

3. There is no engine malfunction due to fuel interruption throughout the test. 

If fuel pressure fluctuations occur, but the test is otherwise passed, consider additional 

testing requirements to determine that pressure failure may not occur during any expected 

operating mode. Also, evaluate the fuel system for vapor formation during cruise flight 

at maximum approved altitude in smooth air at low to moderate power setting, and at low 

fuel flow and idling approach to landing. 

Document instructions for proper fuel pump use during hot weather operation in the 

AFM. Also, document any limitations on the outside air temperature in the AFM. 

75
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.963 Fuel tanks: General (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.440

ADC Cross-reference: 5.15 

Paragraph 23.963(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.15(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.963(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.15(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.963(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.15(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.963(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.15(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.963(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.15(e) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

76
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.965 Fuel tank tests (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.441

ADC Cross-reference: 5.16 

Paragraph 23.965(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.16(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.965(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.16(b) 

When is the vibration testing in § 23.965(b) required? 

The vibration tests are necessary for any tank with a capacity of more than 10 gallons 

constructed in a wide flat shape with no baffles. It is acceptable to test the portion of the 

wing encompassing the tank(s) with a suitable amount of structure extending on all sides 

provided the support is representative. If there are several tanks spanwise, it may be 

desirable to test the entire wing, thus substantiating all tanks at the same time. If the 

entire wing span is wet, then test the entire structure. 

The tests may not be required if: 

1. The tanks include internal baffles (not exceeding 15 inches apart in length and 

width); or 

2. The tank is constructed of a .050 inch or more thick aluminum alloy and the tank uses 

“suitable” joints. Joining methods can be determined “suitable” based upon design 

characteristics and relevant service experience. 

The tests are necessary, even if the above are met, if any permanent set is observed in the 

baffles or their attachments during the pressure test. 

Refer to AC 23-15, Small Airplane Certification Compliance Program, for fuel tanks 

with less than a 10-gallon capacity. 

77 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

What test setup and procedures are typically used for the slosh test in §§ 23.965(b)(5) 

and 23.965(d)? 

The test cell is a 24x30x30 inch cell containing fittings representative of those used in 

tank construction for airframe installation. The test cell, complete with filler cap, vents 

and typical outlet fittings, is installed in a suitable mounting structure, which is mounted 

on the support jig and rocker assembly. The cell is oriented such that the 24-inch 

dimension is vertical. Flexible hoses connect the vent and outlet fittings on the cell with 

fittings rigidly attached to the support jig and are installed and supported in a manner 

representative of an actual installation in an aircraft. 

The tank mounting structure is representative of an actual aircraft fuel cell compartment. 

Recommendations of the cell manufacturer for supporting or mounting the fuel cell in the 

aircraft fuel cell compartment are to be incorporated. The interior of the support jig 

should be completely lined with brown paper held in place by a suitable adhesive to 

assist in identifying leakage. 

The test specimen is filled two-thirds full with the applicable test fluid containing a 

suitable dye. For fuel cells, one-half gallon of water is added. At the conclusion of this 

test, the test cell is completely filled with the applicable test fluid and thoroughly 

inspected for leakage or other evidence of failure. 

This test setup and procedure is also used to comply with § 23.1015(b) 

Related Material 

AC 23-15, Small Airplane Certification Compliance Program

TSO-C80, Flexible Fuel and Oil Cell Material 

Paragraph 23.965(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.16(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.965(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.16(d) 

See § 23.965(b).

78
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.967 Fuel tank installation (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.442

ADC Cross-reference: 5.17 

Paragraph 23.967(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.17(a) 

What should be considered when determining if the tanks are sufficiently supported? 

Consideration should be given to installed fuel system components such as fuel quantity 

capacitance probes, fuel level floats, fuel lines, and any other components that could 

induce concentrated loads on primary structure or tank liner attach points during the slosh 

and vibration test in § 23.965. 

What is the definition of minor spillage? 

Minor spillage applies to ground operation only. The definition of minor is “upon 

removal of the filler cap, no fuel makes it from the filler opening to the surface upon 

which the airplane is resting.” 

What operations does this rule apply to? 

Current policy on § 23.967(a)(6) applies the prohibition against fuel siphoning only to 

bladder (flexible) fuel tanks. A legal review of the regulation has concluded that the 

intent of this paragraph is to prevent the fuel loss and associated fuel quantity measuring 

inaccuracies in collapsed bladder cells due to filler openings being left uncovered. This 

policy applies to ground and flight operations. 

Paragraph 23.967(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.17(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

Paragraph 23.967(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.17(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

79
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Paragraph 23.967(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.17(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.967(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.17(e) 

What are acceptable means of compliance with § 23.967(e)(1)? 

Compliance with § 23.967(e)(1) may be demonstrated by analysis alone, provided 

sufficient margin can be shown to ensure that fuel leakage is such that no hazard to 

occupants results. 

Related Material 

AC 20-107A, Composite Aircraft Structure 

80
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.969 Fuel tank expansion space (Original) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.443

ADC Cross-reference: 5.18 

Does this apply to a pressure refueling system? 

Yes, these requirements are applicable, and are related to compliance with § 23.979(b). 

NOTE. Fuel tank expansion space is illustrated in Figure 3 of this AC under 

section 23.959. 

81 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.971 Fuel tank sump (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.441

ADC Cross-reference: 5.19 

Paragraph 23.971(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.19(a) 

What is the purpose of the fuel tank sump? 

The fuel tank sump functions as an operational trap for contaminants. The fuel tank 

sump may be located either within the fuel tank, or outside of the fuel tank, provided the 

tank is drainable to the sump. 

A single fuel tank sump may serve multiple fuel tanks provided: 

1. The fuel tanks are interconnected to function as a single tank, and 

2. The fuel tanks are completely drainable to one tank. 

While part 23 does not require fuel cross-feed capabilities, airplanes with fuel cross-feed 

systems should also incorporate fuel tank sumps to prevent contaminated fuel from

entering the engine. 

Paragraph 23.971(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.19(a)(2) 

Is there guidance as to the time it should take for water to migrate from any part of the 

fuel tank to its sump? 

Design each fuel tank to allow drainage of any “hazardous” quantity of water from any 

part of the fuel tank to its sump, with the airplane in the “normal ground attitude” within 

a reasonable period of time. The amount of time it takes for water in a fuel tank to 

migrate to the tank sump is dependent on many different factors, including temperature 

and size and design of the tank. Because of this, a time limit cannot be assigned. The 

fuel tanks should be designed to provide the most direct path from the different areas of 

the tank to the sump. 

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

What is a hazardous quantity of water? 

A hazardous quantity of water is generally taken to be the amount necessary to affect 

engine operation if it were taken up into the fuel system and made its way to the engine. 

Coordination with the engine manufacturer may be required to determine the quantity of

water. The term “hazardous” was incorporated by Amendment 23-43 (55 FR 40598, 

October 3, 1990) based on service experience that reciprocating engine airplane fuel 

systems are susceptible to water collecting in the fuel tanks. Prior to Amendment 23-43, 

tank sumps or a sediment bowl/chamber arrangement could be approved that does not 

always prevent water from reaching the engine, especially in tank configurations with 

flexible liners. 

Related Material 

AC 20-43C, Aircraft Fuel Control 

AC 20-116, Marking Aircraft Fuel Filler Openings with Color Coded Decals 

Paragraph 23.971(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.19(a)(2) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.971(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.19(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

83
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.973 Fuel tank filler connection (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.445

ADC Cross-reference: 5.20 

Paragraph 23.973(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.20(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.973(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.20(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.973(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.20(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.973(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.20(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.973(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

Why are there fuel-filler opening dimensional restrictions? 

The fuel-filler opening dimensional restrictions specified in § 23.973(e) and (f) were 

incorporated by Amendment 23-43 (55 FR 40598, October 3, 1990) to prevent turbine 

fuel from being put into tanks of airplanes that operate only on gasoline. The dimensions 

were established through discussions with airplane manufacturers, fuel suppliers, and 

pertinent industry associations. In addition, airplanes in production at that time were 

found to comply with the proposed dimensions. 

84 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Related Material 

AC 20-122A, Anti-misfueling Devices: Their Availability and Use 

Paragraph 23.973(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

See paragraph (e) above. 

85
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.975 Fuel tank vents and carburetor vapor vents (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.446

ADC Cross-reference: 5.21 

What other sections of this document are pertinent to § 23.975? 

Some general information on this subject is found in this AC under sections 23.951, 

23.955, and 23.959 of this document. 

Paragraph 23.975(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.21(a) 

What is considered excessive pressure as mentioned in § 23.975(a)(3)? 

Section 23.975(a)(3) refers to excessive pressure differences between the interior and 

exterior of the fuel tank. The characteristics and consequences of excessive difference in 

pressure will depend on the type and material of the tank. For instance, excessive 

differences in pressure for a bladder-type tank would result in deformation in the bladder 

resulting in an erroneous fuel quantity indication. Adequate positive pressure should 

remain within the bladder tank. For an integral tank system, excessive difference in 

pressure may result in collapse or structural failure of the tank and supporting structure. 

What are acceptable means of compliance to § 23.975(a)? 

Compliance with the requirements of § 23.975(a) is typically accomplished through a 

combination of design review, analysis, and testing (both ground and flight testing). 

What are acceptable means of compliance to § 23.975(a)(1) for icing if the airplane is 

not being certificated for flight into icing conditions? 

Compliance to § 23.975(a)(1) for icing if the airplane is not being certificated for flight 

into icing conditions can be shown using an impingement analysis at critical airspeeds 

and angles of attack throughout the flight envelope. The intent is to show that the 

location and design of the vents is such that they are in areas of zero collection 

efficiency. It is possible for ice to accrete on flush inlets and this should be analyzed. 

Similarity to a design that has been either analyzed or tested, or both, may be also be 

used as the method of compliance. If the collection efficiency is not zero, it should be 

shown by either analysis or test, or both, that the critical ice accretion would not prevent 

the vent from functioning. 

86
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Paragraph 23.975(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.21(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.975(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

87
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.977 Fuel tank outlet (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.448

ADC Cross-reference: 5.22 

Paragraph 23.977(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.22(a) 

Why are the requirements different for reciprocating and turbine engine powered 

airplanes? 

The requirement in § 23.977(a)(1) is that the strainer has 8 to 16 meshes per inch. This 

requirement was introduced with Civil Air Regulations (CAR) 3 in 1945, and the mesh 

size was found desirable by field service experience. Section 25.977 has the same

requirement. The § 23.977(a)(2) requirement for turbine engines is different because 

field experience showed that this mesh size produced strainer icing problems with turbine 

engine fuel. Turbine engine fuels have a greater affinity for water than aviation 

gasolines, and there is a greater chance for entrained water to enter turbine engine fuel 

systems. The strainer mesh size for turbine engines and turbine fuel is typically larger (4 

meshes per inch) than for aviation gasoline. Sections 23.951(c), 23.955, 23.997, 

23.1305(b)(4), and 23.1305(c)(8) contain related applicable requirements. For example, 

the requirements of § 23.997, Fuel Strainer or Filter, are in addition to § 23.977 and must 

be considered. 

Paragraph 23.977(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.22(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.977(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.22(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.977(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.22(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

88 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.979 Pressure fueling systems (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.23 

Paragraph 23.979(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.23(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.979(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.23(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.979(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.23(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.979(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.23(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

89
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS 

23.991 Fuel pumps (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.24 

Paragraph 23.991(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.24(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.991(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.24(b) 

How are § 23.991(b) and § 23.991(c) related? 

Paragraphs (b) and (c) are interrelated, and the interpretation of § 23.991(c) should 

consider § 23.991(b). 

Both the main and emergency fuel pumps may operate continuously (simultaneously) 

provided there is a means to immediately indicate to the crew (in-flight) a malfunction of 

either pump. 

A main fuel pump(s) supplies sufficient fuel to sustain the engine(s) during normal 

operations. An emergency fuel pump can sustain engine operation at full power in the 

event the engine-driven fuel-injector pump fails. An auxiliary fuel pump can provide 

some fuel flow during emergency operations but not enough to sustain engine operation 

at full power. Its function is to aid in priming the engine and suppressing fuel vapors. 

Some fuel injection system designs utilize an integral speed-sensing pump, approved as 

part of the engine type design that delivers fuel at a (unregulated) pressure proportional 

to engine speed. Such systems have fuel lift capability that enables the system to 

function with a negative inlet pump pressure within specific limits as indicated by the 

engine type certificate data sheet (TCDS). For these types of fuel systems, an emergency 

fuel pump is not required when the injection pump is approved as part of the engine 

under § 23.991(b). 

Other fuel injection system designs require an essentially constant (regulated) fuel 

pressure to the fuel-injector inlet. The acceptable pressure limits are specified on the 

engine TCDS. In these systems, the engine-driven fuel pump is functionally independent 

of the engine and not tied to the type design (regardless of the fuel pump supplier). 

90 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Consequently, these systems do require an emergency pump (according to 14 CFR part 

23, § 23.991(b)) to ensure engine operation is sustained should the engine-driven pump 

fail. 

Paragraph 23.991(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.24(c) 

See paragraph (b) above. 

Paragraph 23.991(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.24(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

91
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.993 Fuel system lines and fittings (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.550

ADC Cross-reference: 5.25 

Related Material: 

AC 23-10, Auxiliary Fuel Systems for Reciprocating and Turbine Powered Part 23 

Airplanes 

Paragraph 23.993(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.25(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.993(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.25(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.993(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.25(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.993(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.25(d) 

What does the term suitable for a particular application mean? 

The term “suitable for a particular application” was incorporated by Amendment 23-43 

(55 FR 40598, October 3, 1990) to remove the words “must be approved or.” This 

wording made § 23.993(d) more restrictive. All components are “approved” if they are 

installed on a certificated airplane; however, this in itself does not guarantee suitability. 

For example, fuel hoses could be “approved” through the Technical Standard Order 

(TSO) system but still not be “suitable” for the environment of a particular installation. 

92
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Paragraph 23.993(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.25(e) 

How is § 23.993(e) related to the powerplant cooling requirements? 

Section § 23.1041 specified that there be provisions for maintaining the temperatures of 

powerplant components and fluids within their limits during various operations including 

shutdown. One such provision, as specified in § 23.993(e), is to not locate these items in 

areas exposed to unacceptable temperatures. 

93
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.994 Fuel system components (Amendment 23-29) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.26 

What is considered a hazardous quantity of fuel in § 23.994? 

For the purpose of this section, “hazardous quantity” is defined as one quart, except a 

greater amount may escape if that greater amount can be substantiated as non-hazardous. 

What other sections of the regulations are related to § 23.994? 

The following sections are related to § 23.994 and may help determine the acceptability 

of the design. 

§ 23.561 Emergency Landing Conditions, General 

§ 23.721 Landing Gear, General 

§ 23.863 Flammable fluid fire protection 

§ 23.967(e) Fuel tank installation 

§ 23.1189 Shutoff means 

What are some typical methods used in complying with this rule? 

The release of fuel from damaged fuel system components is the most likely cause of fire 

during a wheels-up landing on a paved runway. Therefore, the location and routing of 

fuel system components in the engine nacelle(s) and fuselage should be evaluated with 

respect to runway scraping and the resultant structural deformation. Particular attention 

should be paid to the release of fuel in areas with possible ignition sources such as 

electrical arcing and hot components. The following guidelines should be considered. 

1. Design the fuel system to minimize the spilling or leaking of fuel and migration of the 

fuel into areas with likely ignition sources. 

2. Locate and route the fuel system components as far as practicable from likely impact 

areas and areas where structural deformation may cause crushing, severing, 

punctures, rupture of frangible fittings, or high tensile loads in the lines. 

3. Construct fuel lines to protect their integrity during and after a wheels-up landing. 

The lines should allow stretching or movement with the deformed structure. 

94 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

4. Isolate, separate, and route fuel lines and electrical wiring to the maximum extent 

practicable to minimize hazardous fuel spillage in these potential ignition source 

areas. 

5. Shield and drain areas of potential fuel spillage away from potential ignition source 

areas. 

6. Locate fuel shutoff valves outside areas of potential damage, such as engine nacelles, 

and design the valve support structures to maintain their integrity during and after the 

event. 

7. Install auxiliary fuel tanks and systems based on the guidance in AC 23-10, Auxiliary 

Fuel Systems for Reciprocating and Turbine Powered Part 23 Airplanes. 

95
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.995 Fuel valves and controls (Amendment 23-29) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.551

ADC Cross-reference: 5.27 

What rules are related to § 23.995? 

See § 23.1189 Powerplant Fire Protection, Shutoff Means. 

Paragraph 23.995(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.27(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.995(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.27(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.995(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.27(c) 

What is a typical means of compliance for § 23.995(c)? 

Compliance with this rule is usually accomplished by designing the fuel valve installation 

such that the valve is supported by primary or secondary airframe structure. 

Paragraph 23.995(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.27(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.995(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.27(e) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

96
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Paragraph 23.995(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.27(f) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.995(g) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.27(g) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

97
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.997 Fuel strainer or filter (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.552

ADC Cross-reference: 5.28 

Does the powerplant installation require a fuel filter if the engine has one according to 

its type certificate? 

Turbine engines certificated to 14 CFR part 33, § 33.67, Fuel system, Amendment 33-6 

or subsequent, will include a fuel filter complying with § 23.997, and no airframesupplied filter is required. Turbine engines certificated prior to § 33.67, Amendment 33-

6, may require an airframe-supplied filter. 

Reciprocating engines certificated to 14 CFR part 33, § 33.35 are not required to have a 

fuel filter as part of their certificated fuel system. The engine manufacturer is required 

only to specify the degree of filtering necessary and to verify that particles passing 

through the specified filter will not adversely affect the engine fuel system operation. 

Because of this, an engine with a fuel filter certified to § 33.35 is not sufficient to meet 

all the requirements of § 23.997. To show compliance to § 23.997 for an engine with a 

filter, an airplane manufacturer would have to coordinate with the engine manufacturer 

on the filter installation to provide compliance data or add an airframe filter. 

Paragraph 23.997(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.28(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.997(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.28(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Related Material 

AC 23-15, Small Airplane Certification Compliance Program

Paragraph 23.997(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.28(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

98 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Paragraph 23.997(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.28(d) 

Is there any requirement for a pilot indication system relative to the fuel filter? 

Section 23.1305 requires fuel flow indicators for both reciprocating and turbine-powered 

airplanes and a means to warn the pilot of fuel strainer or filter blockage before it reaches 

the capacity specified in § 23.997(d). 

Paragraph 23.997(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Related Material 

AC 23.1419-2B, Certification of Part 23 Airplanes for Flight in Icing Conditions 

99
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.999 Fuel system drains (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.553

ADC Cross-reference: 5.29 

Paragraph 23.999(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.29(a) 

Where are drains typically located? 

Usually more than one drain valve is required to drain the entire fuel system. These are 

typically located in fuel tank sumps, fuel line low spots, and in fuel filter/strainers. 

Paragraph 23.999(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.29(b) 

May a spring-loaded drain valve be used to comply with § 23.999(b)? 

Spring-loaded drain valves may be used to comply with the positive locking provision of

this paragraph in any region of positive fuel pressure. If a spring-loaded valve is located 

in a negative fuel pressure region (e.g., upstream of an engine-drive fuel pump providing 

suction lift), substantiate the installation by a test. 

Related Material: 

AC 20-119 Fuel Drain Valves

100
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1001 Fuel jettisoning system (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.30 

Related Material 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

Paragraph 23.1001(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.30 

What is the definition of maximum weight as used in § 23.1001(a)? 

The maximum weight to be used in calculating the fuel jettison rate is the maximum

takeoff weight of the airplane. This is supported by Amendment 23-7, which, for the 

most part, used the requirements of § 25.1001 as a new § 23.1001. At the time, 

§ 25.1001 stated that the calculation was to use maximum takeoff weight. 

Paragraph 23.1001(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.30(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1001(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.30(a)(1), 5.30(a)(2), 5.30(a)(3), 5.30(a)(4) 

What methods are typically used to show compliance with § 23.1001(c)? 

Colored fuel or a surface treatment that changes appearance upon contact with fuel or 

fuel vapor has been used to detect surface impingement. Combustible mixture detectors, 

scent, or visual inspections have been used to detect fuel or fuel vapor entering portions 

of the airplane. 

Paragraph 23.1001(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

101 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Paragraph 23.1001(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1001(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.30(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1001(g) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.30(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1001(h) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.30(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

102
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

OIL SYSTEM 

23.1011 General (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.31 

Paragraph 23.1011(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

Can the part 33 certification of oil system components be used to show compliance with 

§ 23.1011? 

Oil systems and components certified with the engine may or may not be suitable for use 

in a specific airplane installation, depending upon the test/analysis performed at the time. 

Also, engines may be originally certified with the intention of being installed in different 

airplanes than where they are eventually used. Consequently, oil systems and 

components approved during engine type certification are only acceptable for use without 

further substantiation when they complied with standards that are equal or more stringent 

than those in this subpart. 

Evaluate each pertinent item in the installation to assess the airplane requirements versus 

the requirements demonstrated during engine certification. Verify the latter with the 

engine manufacturer or the FAA office controlling the engine type design. 

Paragraph 23.1011(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.31(a) 

What are the requirements for continued safe operation of the engine(s)? 

The engine requirements for oil quantities and temperatures are established by the engine 

manufacturer and may be found on the Type Certification Data Sheet or in the engine 

installation manual. The airplane installation must not cause the engine limits to be 

exceeded under normal operations. 

103
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Paragraph 23.1011(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.31(b) 

How much oil must the system contain? 

Paragraph 23.1011(c) requires that, “The usable oil tank capacity may not be less than the 

product of the endurance of the airplane under critical operating conditions and the 

maximum oil consumption of the engine under the same conditions, plus a suitable 

margin to ensure adequate circulation and cooling.” In other words, there needs to be 

enough oil (usable supply) to allow the engine to consume the usable fuel. This should 

be substantiated by a quantitative analysis. 

In addition, a suitable oil quantity margin for system circulation is necessary for all 

engine installations. The oil system should be capable of maintaining the engine within 

its operating limitations (i.e., oil temperature with the minimum oil quantity provided for 

circulation). Cooling tests do not need to be performed with a low usable oil supply 

provided the oil is properly cooled at all oil levels. 

What are the definitions of some of the terms used to determine the required oil 

quantity? 

Usable Oil 

Usable oil is defined as the quantity of oil in the oil tank (or sump in the case of wet 

sump engines) in excess of the minimum quantity of oil required to keep the oil pump 

inlet feed covered under the most adverse operating condition. 

Without any other data, the most severe of the following two conditions may be used 

as the most adverse operating condition (in both cases, with the airplane at a zerodegree roll angle): 

1. The nose-up pitch angle required for the sea level best rate-of-climb speed with 

maximum continuous power, or 

2. The nose-down pitch angle required for the 1.3 VSO power-off landing 

configuration. 

For most wet sump engines, the usable oil quantity for various pitch angles is listed 

on the appropriate engine Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS). This quantity may be 

used instead of a determination of usable oil as described above. If the usable 

quantity is not listed, it may be determined by contacting the engine manufacturer or 

conducting a usable oil test with the critical operating conditions. 

104
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Usable Fuel 

The usable quantity of fuel is established under § 23.959. 

Specific Oil Consumption (SOC) 

The SOC is the maximum oil consumption rates established by the engine’s 

manufacturer, expressed in pounds per brake horsepower per hour (lb./bhp/hr.). If 

such a maximum oil consumption rate is not available, use 0.012 lb./bhp/hr. for 

reciprocating engines. There is no similar “default” maximum oil consumption rate 

for turbine engines. 

You can also establish an oil consumption rate by the following: 

1. Statistical analysis of actual in-service oil consumption rates. The analysis 

should include observed data on the actual oil consumption from statistically 

valid sample engines of the same model. These data should be obtained from

high time engines or those with high oil consumption just before removal for 

overhaul. 

2. Testing according to an FAA-approved test plan. Testing for a lower oil 

consumption rate should include a positive demonstration that a lower oil 

consumption rate will not jeopardize the airworthiness of the engine. 

Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) 

SFC is the fuel consumption established for the engine based on available engine 

power expressed in pounds per brake horsepower per hour. 

What are the acceptable means of compliance for § 23.1011(c)? 

Single-engine Installations 

Determine the minimum allowable usable oil capacity from the airplane’s endurance 

(~total fuel capacity divided by the minimum SFC) and the maximum allowable oil 

consumption rate. For either wet or dry sump engines, this is expressed 

mathematically as follows: 

[Minimum Usable Oil Capacity (lbs.)] = 

[Maximum Usable Fuel Capacity (lbs.)] x [Maximum SOC (lb./bhp/hr.)] 

[Minimum Obtainable SFC (lb./bhp/hr.)] 

A usable oil capacity greater than or equal to the calculated number above is 

acceptable. 

105
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Multiengine Installations 

Calculate the minimum usable oil capacity for a multiengine aircraft as above, except 

modify as follows: 

Account for the additional usable fuel if the airplane has a fuel cross-feed system

or common fuel tank in the event of an engine shutdown. Allocate 50 percent of 

the maximum usable fuel capacity attributable to the shutdown engine as 

available to the other engine(s). For example, for a twin-engine airplane with 

1,000 pounds of maximum usable fuel, 500 pounds of which is attributed to the 

shutdown engine, add 50 percent of that (250 pounds) to the available fuel. 

In addition, adjust the fuel consumption of the remaining engine(s) to reflect any 

power or mixture setting changes made to complete the flight safely. 

Paragraph 23.1011(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.31(c) 

What oil quantity should be used in finding compliance with § 23.1011(d)? 

A conventional system (no transfer system provided) should only consider the usable oil 

tank or sump capacity to determine the usable oil supply. Do not consider the quantity of 

oil in the engine oil lines, in the oil radiator, oil filter, propeller feathering reserve, etc. If

the airplane manufacturer elects to operate the engine with less than total oil capacity, the 

lower oil level should be used in the analysis. 

Paragraph 23.1011(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.31(d) 

Is it possible to consider oil in transfer lines as part of the usable oil? 

When an oil reserve system is installed, additional oil may be available. The system is 

often configured so the transfer pump can pump oil into the main engine oil tank(s) from

the transfer lines. In this case, include the quantity of oil that would be pumped to the 

main engine oil tank(s) to determine the usable oil supply. 

106
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1013 Oil tanks (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.32 

Paragraph 23.1013(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.32(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

Paragraph 23.1013(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.32(b) 

What is the difference between the expansion space requirements in § 33.71(c) and 

§ 23.1013(b)? 

The requirements of § 33.71(c) and § 23.1013(b) are similar, and both the engine 

manufacturer and the installer must show compliance to the oil tank expansion space 

requirement. When showing compliance with § 23.1013(b), data from the certification of 

the engine to § 33.71(c) may be used. Compliance with the installation requirements 

should account for any installation affects including wing dihedral, installed engine 

droop, and yaw angles. This could require ground test of both a left and right wing 

engine if adequate data is not available from the part 33 compliance demonstration. 

Sometimes, the oil quantity in the tank may change with changing engine operating 

conditions such as engine rotation. This condition can result in overfilling the engine oil 

tank resulting in less than the required expansion space if the tank is serviced soon after 

engine shutdown. If conditions like this exist, they can be handled by oil system

servicing limitations in the appropriate manuals with placards near the fill port. 

Paragraph 23.1013(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.32(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

Paragraph 23.1013(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.32(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

107 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Paragraph 23.1013(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.32(e) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

Related Material 

AC 20-135, Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire Protection 

Test Methods, Standards, and Criteria 

AC 23-2, Flammability Tests

NOTE. If there are differences between AC 20-135 and AC 23-2 (see below for AC 

title), the applicant may choose the advisory circular that is either most applicable or 

most advantageous, or both. 

Paragraph 23.1013(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.32(f) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

Paragraph 23.1013(g) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

108
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1015 Oil tank tests (Amendment 23-15) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.33 

Paragraph 23.1015(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.33(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1015(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.33(b) 

What test setup and procedures are typically used for the slosh test in § 23.1015(b)? 

Refer to § 23.965(b) for a description of the test setup and procedure. 

Related Material 

TSO-C80, Flexible Fuel and Oil Cell Material 

Paragraph 23.1015(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.33(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

109
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1017 Oil lines and fittings (Amendment 23-14) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.570, 3.575

ADC Cross-reference: 5.34 

Paragraph 23.1017(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.34(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1017(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.34(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

110 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1019 Oil strainer or filter (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.573

ADC Cross-reference: 5.35 

Paragraph 23.1019(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.35(a) 

Can the engine oil pressure indicator be used to comply with § 23.1019(a)(3)? 

The engine oil pressure indication may be used as a method of detecting oil filter/strainer 

contamination provided the applicant demonstrates a procedure that does the following: 

1. Identifies the oil strainer/filter contamination, and 

2. Isolates the contamination as the sole cause of an indicated oil pressure change. 

The procedure used to comply with § 23.1019(a)(3) should be documented in the 

Airplane Flight Manual. 

Can a red warning light be use to comply with § 23.1019(a)(5)? 

A red warning light is one means of complying with § 23.1019(a)(5). 

Paragraph 23.1019(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.35(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

111
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1021 Oil system drains (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.574

ADC Cross-reference: 5.36, 5.36(a) 

Paragraph 23.1021(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.36 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1021(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.36(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1021(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1023 Oil radiators (Original) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.572

ADC Cross-reference: 5.37 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1027 Propeller feathering system (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.38 

Related Material 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes

Paragraph 23.1027(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.38(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

Paragraph 23.1027(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.38(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

Paragraph 23.1027(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.38(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

Paragraph 23.1027(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.38(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

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COOLING 

23.1041 General (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.581

ADC Cross-reference: 5.39 

When is testing required to show compliance with § 23.1041? 

Sections 23.1043, 23.1045, and 23.1047 require testing to show compliance with 

§ 23.1041. 

What changes to an airplane would require testing to show compliance with § 23.1041? 

Changes to an airplane that would require testing to show compliance with § 23.1041 

could include, but are not limited to, the following: 

1. Engine horsepower increase; 

2. Nacelle changes, including cooling inlet modifications and blockage; 

3. Adding or changing engine accessories such as turbochargers, generators, oil coolers, 

etcetera; 

4. Changing the operating temperature limits of components in the nacelle; and 

5. Propeller changes affecting climb or cruise performance. 

What should be instrumented during the cooling tests on changes to airplanes? 

The tests should be conducted to show the changed components remain within their 

temperature limits. During the testing, if negative impacts on other components are 

found, additional testing may be warranted to investigate these effects. 

What altitudes are typically used for demonstrating compliance with the cooling 

requirements for reciprocating engine powered airplanes? 

For reciprocating engines, cooling climb tests are typically commenced at pressure 

altitudes below 5,000 feet. The applicant should choose test conditions that are the most 

adverse for demonstrating engine and engine component cooling for the installation. 

Related Material 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1043 Cooling tests (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.582, 3.583, 3.584, 3.585

ADC Cross-reference: 5.40 

Paragraph 23.1043(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.40(a) 

What are the typical means of complying with § 23.1043? 

In general, the demonstration of compliance with this section requires analysis to identify 

areas of concern and instrumentation requirements and flight tests to demonstrate 

compliance. The applicant must identify all critical components (electronic components, 

actuators, etc.), fluids (engine oil, hydraulic fluid, etc.), and structures (primary 

composite structural elements, vibration isolators, etcetera) that have temperature limits. 

The limits are typically based on component qualification testing. Each limit may be 

expressed as a fluid temperature, surface temperature, or environmental temperature and 

may have associated time limits. Instrumentation should be installed to provide data 

needed to show the corrected temperature for each critical component, fluid, and 

structure remains below the identified limit. 

Are there any special considerations for special purpose, restricted category, singleengine agricultural airplanes using the normal category requirements of part 23 as a 

certification basis? 

For these aircraft, conduct engine cooling test according to AC 23-8B, except as follows: 

After the temperature has stabilized for the pre-takeoff holding condition on the taxiway, 

feather the propeller and record the data until the temperatures stabilize. 

NOTE: This simulates normal agricultural operational engine running loading 

conditions. These criteria can be disregarded if the propeller is not feathered during 

normal agricultural operations on the ground. 

Are there any special considerations for certificating winterization kits? 

Winterization kits modify an airplane for operation in cold weather environments. These 

kits typically block or baffle air inlets to decrease mixing cold air in the engine 

compartments and keep the temperatures of fluids and components from falling below 

operating range. These kits can allow certification to lower ambient temperature 

operations than the standard 38 oC (100 oF). These limits must be reflected in the 

Airplane Flight Manual and placards on the equipment to indicate when the equipment 

should be removed. Additional guidance is available in paragraph 246 of AC 23-8B. 

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Related Material 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes

Paragraph 23.1043(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.40(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1043 (c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.40(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1043 (d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.40(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Related Material 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1045 Cooling test procedures for turbine engine powered airplanes (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.41, 5.41(a), 5.41(b), 5.41(c), 5.41(d) 

Related Material 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

Paragraph 23.1045(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.41(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1045(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.41(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1045(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.41(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

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23.1047 Cooling test procedures for reciprocating engine powered airplanes 

 (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.587

ADC Cross-reference: 5.41, 5.41(a), 5.41(b), 5.41(c), 5.41(e) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

Related Material 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

LIQUID COOLING 

23.1061 Installation (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.42 

Paragraph 23.1061(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.42(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1061(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.42(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1061(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.42(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1061(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.42(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1061(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.42(e) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1061(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.42(f) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1063 Coolant tank tests (Original) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.43 

Paragraph 23.1063(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.43(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1063(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.43(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

INDUCTION SYSTEM 

23.1091 Air induction system (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.605

ADC Cross-reference: 5.44 

Related Material 

AC 20-135, Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire Protection 

Test Methods, Standards, and Criteria 

Paragraph 23.1091(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.44(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1091(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.44(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

Related Material 

AC 23-2, Flammability Tests

Paragraph 23.1091(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.44(c) 

What is considered a hazardous quantity in § 23.1091(c)? 

A hazardous quantity is defined as one that if ingested into the engine inlet would cause 

the engine to exceed its operational limitations, cause a significant loss of power, or 

otherwise cause the engine to operate in an unsafe condition. 

Related Material 

AC 20-124, Water Ingestion Testing for Turbine Powered Airplanes

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1093 Induction system icing protection (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.606

ADC Cross-reference: 5.45 

Is an airplane required to comply with § 23.1093 if it is not being certificated to fly in 

icing conditions? 

Yes, compliance with § 23.1093(b) for induction system icing protection is required for 

all normal, utility, acrobatic, and commuter category airplanes certificated under part 23 

even if the airplane is not being certificated for flight in icing conditions (§ 23.1419 

compliance). Service experience has shown that airplanes can inadvertently encounter 

icing conditions even if the airplane is not approved for flight into icing conditions. This 

is particularly true for turbine engine powered airplanes, which typically have a greater 

operating flight envelope than reciprocating engine powered airplanes. These 

requirements are also those demonstrated during engine certification (reference 14 CFR 

part 33, subpart E, § 33.68, Induction system icing, for turbine aircraft engines). 

What other icing related sections of 14 CFR part 23 cover the propulsion systems? 

Sections 23.901(d)(2), 23.929, and 23.975(a)(1) address engine ice ingestion capability, 

engine installations including propellers, and fuel tank venting, respectively. 

Are all icing related sections of 14 CFR part 23 that cover the propulsion systems 

required for airplanes not being certificated to fly in icing conditions? 

Airplanes not being certified for flight into icing conditions according to § 23.1419 do 

not have to demonstrate compliance with § 23.929. 

Are there any special considerations for special purpose, restricted category, singleengine agricultural airplanes using the normal category requirements of part 23 as a 

certification basis? 

An exemption to the requirements of § 23.1093 is possible for single-engine piston or 

turbopropeller airplanes certificated under 14 CFR part 21, § 21.25(a), for special 

purpose agricultural operations. A limitation in the Airplane Flight Manual, such as 

“Operation of the airplane in visible moisture below 40 °F is prohibited,” will be enough 

to address this regulation for these non-standard category airplanes. 

What methods can be used to show compliance with § 23.1093? 

Compliance with § 23.1093 can be shown using an appropriate combination of the 

methods listed and described below. 

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1. Compliance with part 33 icing requirements 

2. Similarity and service experience 

3. Analysis 

4. Ground testing 

5. Flight testing with an airborne icing tanker 

6. Flight testing in natural icing conditions 

How can the part 33 engine certification be used to demonstrate compliance? 

Engine certification to part 33 does not fully address all the part 23 engine installation 

requirements. For example, part 33 engine certification does not address snow ingestion. 

It is the responsibility of the airplane applicant and not the engine manufacturer to show 

compliance with the part 23 induction system ice protection requirements. 

An applicant seeking airplane certification should coordinate the installation of an engine 

with the engine manufacturer. The engine manufacturer should be able to identify 

critical points, conditions, and operational requirements that may need to be addressed 

when showing compliance with the installation requirements. Engine type certification 

data can be used as the basis for reducing design risk, analysis, and testing when showing 

compliance with § 23.1093. The airplane applicant should evaluate the engine type 

certification data and demonstrate how the data is applicable to the particular installation. 

For example, the use of an inlet system recommended by the engine manufacturer would 

still require installation substantiation to show compliance with part 23 requirements. 

How can similarity and service experience be used for compliance? 

The use of similarity and service experience is appropriate to lessen the design risk 

associated with an installation. Once an applicant has developed data on an installation, 

the applicant may then use this data, when suitable, for substantiation on later projects 

with similar installations. It is common and proper for an applicant to base analytical 

methods and test point definitions on experience and testing from previous, similar 

certification programs performed by the applicant. Certification is based on the analysis 

and testing of an airplane’s type design. Because of this, it is difficult to show similarity 

to an airplane configuration certified by another applicant without direct access to the 

type design data used for that certification. 

Even if previous experience and data are used, each inlet/engine installation and the 

associated operating characteristics can be different and should be considered 

individually. Therefore, it is not appropriate to use similarity or service experience by 

itself to demonstrate compliance to the § 23.1093 requirements. Rather, such means as 

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similarity or service experience should be supplemented with either analysis, even if only 

basic design analysis to substantiate similarity, or testing, or a combination of both. 

Can compliance with § 23.1093 be accomplished with analysis alone? 

No, analysis alone is not sufficient to show compliance. Testing is normally required to 

demonstrate compliance as analytical methods have been difficult to validate. It is 

possible, for airplanes not being certified to § 23.1419, that flight testing will not be 

required given analysis that is backed by similarity to and service experience of other 

certified installations. 

How can ground testing be used to show compliance? 

Artificial icing conditions can be generated in icing tunnel facilities. Artificial icing for 

compliance to ground ice fog requirements can also be generated with an icing spray rig 

set up in front of the airplane. The icing conditions are very dependent on the calibration 

of the nozzles. SAE ARP 5905 contains calibration guidelines for icing tunnels. The 

personnel operating icing spray rigs should be familiar with the calibration of icing 

nozzles. 

Artificial snow can be generated in some ground facilities to supplement natural snow 

testing. Considerations are provided in the discussion under § 23.1093(b). 

How can tunnel test data be used for compliance? 

An area where there has been much discussion has been the use of tunnel test data instead 

of full-scale, airplane flight test data for showing compliance with § 23.1093. The use of 

tunnel test data is a common, appropriate, and often efficient means to reduce the amount 

of testing required by the applicant for showing compliance. However, the extent that 

this data can be used for compliance is dependent upon how representative the test article 

and test conditions are to the installation and airplane operating conditions. 

It is not uncommon for tunnel testing to be performed on a prototype or test inlet that 

often has design differences from the production inlet used by an installer. When using 

tunnel test data, or any test data for that matter, as a basis for testing or certification, the 

applicant must address the differences and the impact of the differences. Three areas of 

difference usually addressed include the following: 

1. Heated versus non-heated inlets; 

2. Inlets with movable or variable internal devices (for example, movable vanes used to 

select bypass modes on a number of turbopropeller inlets) versus fixed inlets; and 

3. Differences in geometry even if the inlet type (fixed versus variable) is the same. 

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

As an example, if tunnel testing is performed with a heated inlet and an applicant 

incorporates a non-heated inlet, ice runback/refreeze may be reduced, but items such as 

ice accretion characteristics will be different. 

It must be ensured that the tunnel tests were performed at the critical points. Advisory 

Circular 20-73, Aircraft Ice Protection, provides guidance on critical points 

determination. 

How can testing with airborne icing tankers be used for compliance? 

Tanker icing tests are not used as a sole means of compliance, but may be used: 

1. To verify analyses or scaled icing tunnel tests 

2. To obtain data at the limits of the Appendix C icing envelopes 

3. To evaluate ice-shedding characteristics 

SAE ARP 5904 provides useful information on icing tanker testing. 

One limitation of icing tankers in the past has been their inability to generate droplet 

sizes at the low end of the Appendix C envelope, which may be critical for inlets with 

curves and bends, such as some turboprop inertial separation inlets. 

How can flight test in natural icing conditions be used for compliance? 

Airplanes being certified for flight into icing conditions according to § 23.1419 will 

require flight test into natural icing conditions. The results of this testing can be used to 

show compliance with § 23.1093. 

Airplanes not being certified for flight into icing conditions according to § 23.1419 do 

not necessarily require flight test into natural icing conditions to show compliance with 

§ 23.1093. It is acceptable to use analysis backed with sufficient similarity and service 

experience to show compliance. 

Related Material 

AC 20-73, Aircraft Ice Protection 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

AC 23.1521-1B, Type Certification of Automobile Gasoline in Part 23 Airplanes with 

Reciprocating Engines 

SAE ARP 5904, Airborne Icing Tankers 

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

SAE ARP 5905, Calibration and Acceptance of Icing Wind Tunnels 

Paragraph 23.1093(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.45(a) 

What does the term preheat mean and how is it different from heat rise? 

Current interpretation of the term preheat as written in § 23.1093(a)(4) and 

§ 23.1093(a)(6) is that it is a change in temperature above the ambient requirements 

stated in the regulation. Thus, it is interpreted as interchangeable with the term heat rise. 

The regulation is written to provide rules of compliance that can be reasonably 

demonstrated without testing over the whole range of the icing and engine power 

envelopes. According to Appendix C of part 25, the icing temperature envelope extends 

down to -22 °F, a condition that is difficult to attain during a normal flight test program. 

The interpretation of § 23.1093(a)(6) is that a “preheat of 60 °F” requires a change of 

60 °F above the 30 °F ambient baseline temperature. This interpretation ensures that the 

system will always provide sufficiently heated air to prevent icing even if the airplane 

encounters the worse case scenario with –22 °F temperatures and the engines at idle as 

with a descent to landing. 

Related Material 

AC 23.1419-2B, Certification of Part 23 Airplanes for Flight in Icing Conditions 

Paragraph 23.1093(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.45(b) 

Why are the falling and blowing snow requirements separate from the icing and water 

ingestion requirements? 

The falling and blowing snow requirement was incorporated separately from the icing 

and water ingestion requirements due to the unique characteristics of snow. The 

requirement contained in § 23.1093(b)(1)(ii), incorporated initially by Amendment 23-

15, is to evaluate the installed powerplant system to ensure that no hazardous effects are 

encountered when operating in falling and blowing snow. A hazardous effect could be 

unacceptable engine operating characteristics (for example, adverse power loss, surges, 

and so forth) due to inlet blockage or engine damage resulting from conditions such as 

snow, which may accumulate, melt, refreeze, shed, and then be ingested by the engine. 

Therefore, compliance with engine induction system icing requirements does not show 

compliance with the snow requirements in § 23.1093(b)(1)(ii). 

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

What should be considered relative to complying with the falling and blowing snow

requirements? 

The effect of ingesting snow during ground operations and critical in-flight operations 

should be evaluated. Service experience has demonstrated that engine damage can occur 

as a result of prolonged ground operations in falling and blowing snow. Also, in-flight 

service experience has shown that snow, which has melted and refrozen, can shed from

engine, inlet, or airplane accumulation sites, resulting in adverse engine operability or 

engine damage. The critical snow environment is a ”wet, sticky snow,” which 

accumulates on unheated exterior and interior surfaces subject to impingement. 

When showing compliance with § 23.1093(b)(1)(ii), the installation should be reviewed 

to identify potential inlet, engine, and airframe sites where snow accumulation and 

shedding is possible. The airplane ground and in-flight operational envelope should be 

reviewed to determine critical conditions that should be addressed. The information from

these reviews should be used to identify the critical conditions to evaluate compliance. 

The following differences between turbopropeller and turbofan/jet installations should be 

considered: 

1. Typical turbopropeller installations have inlets that incorporate complex geometry 

with features such as particle separators, plenum chambers, screens, oil coolers, and 

so forth, where hazardous snow accumulations may occur. Turbopropeller 

installations normally require testing in operationally representative conditions. 

2. Typical turbofan/jet installations, using simple pitot (straight duct) inlets, have 

minimal, if any, areas for snow accumulation. For these inlets, in-flight icing tests 

have generally been found to be more critical than snow tests. Turbofan/jet 

installation may be found acceptable by inlet design and airplane operation analysis. 

Care should be taken to identify potential airplane accumulation sites that could shed 

into the engine(s), such as in the case of aft-mounted engines. Atypical installations 

with S-type inlet geometries should be treated like the turbopropeller installations 

when finding compliance with § 23.1093(b)(1)(ii). 

What operationally representative condition should be considered? 

When evaluating the conditions for showing compliance, the following airplane 

operations should be considered: 

1. Takeoff power after static operation with the engine at idle for 30 minutes.

This condition is considered critical due to the operational consideration of idling an 

engine on the ground with minimal ability for de-ice/anti-ice. The primary concern is 

the loss of power at takeoff roll. 

It is acceptable to incorporate engine run-up to higher power settings during the 30 

minute period for the purposes of ice/snow shed, provided the procedure does not 

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create any hazards. A potential hazard could be the airplane sliding toward other 

airplanes due to the higher power settings required. If run-ups are performed during 

compliance demonstration, these procedures should be incorporated as limitations in 

the flight manual. 

2. Higher power settings 

Higher power settings, which could result in increased snow ingestion, associated 

with taxi/hold ground operations. 

3. Takeoff run to takeoff speed 

Airplanes with identified sites of possible hazardous snow accumulation and all inlets 

with bypass ducts (for example, typical turbopropeller inlets), should consider a 

takeoff run to takeoff speed. This condition is considered critical since— 

a. Accumulated snow may come loose and the engine can ingest it in this condition; 

and 

b. The static, idle point will not provide the ram effects that create bypass flow for 

bypass ducts. 

4. Takeoff climb 

Airplanes with identified sites of possible hazardous snow accumulation should 

consider a takeoff climb. This condition is considered critical because accumulated 

snow may come loose and the engine can ingest it in this condition. 

5. Extended in-flight operations 

Conditions such as holding patterns should be considered. 

6. Operation when engine rotor speeds are low

Operations with low engine rotor speeds, such as during descent from high altitudes, 

should be considered. An engine is highly susceptible to snow/ice accretion during 

this condition. 

Is a flight test required for all these operational conditions? 

The preceding conditions are operational considerations and not meant to require flight 

test at all the conditions. Each installation may have different critical operational 

considerations and only the critical conditions may need flight testing. 

When appropriately substantiated by the applicant, some of the conditions can be, and 

have been, simulated and accepted by the FAA. For example, for a turbopropeller engine 

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

that incorporates an inlet screen that precludes the ingestion of hazardous quantities of 

materials, the critical concern may only be the effect of snow accumulation and release 

from the inlet and screen. In this case, the inlet, bypass duct, inlet screen, and so forth, 

could be blocked to simulate snow accumulation on an identified area of concern. Since 

accumulation during dynamic operation would be simulated, the effects of snow 

ingestion could be determined through ground tests (for example, effects of operability 

on items such as reverse flow). Such methodologies need to be substantiated by means 

such as design analysis, operational review, tunnel tests, icing tests, and so forth, and 

coordinated early with the FAA. 

How is the actual snow amount quantified for testing? 

When testing in ”falling and blowing snow” the actual snow amount is often difficult to 

quantify. The FAA Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), an official FAA guide to 

basic flight information and air traffic control procedures, may be used as guidance for 

what constitutes falling and blowing snow. According to the AIM, paragraph 7-1-18, 

heavy snow, which is representative of what may be expected in operation, is defined as 

visibility of 1/4 mile or less as limited by snow (not snow and fog). These conditions are 

usually indicative of the wet snow environment necessary for test. When using the 1/4 

mile or less visibility for test, including flight tests, this value can be determined using 

ground conditions. Useful information on snow characterization can also be found in 

FAA Report DOT/FAA/AR-97/66, Snow and Ice Particle Sizes and Mass Concentrations 

at Altitudes Up to 9 km (30,000 ft.). Advisory Circular 29-2C (Certification of Transport 

Category Rotorcraft), section AC 29.1093, paragraph c(4)(iv), also provides information 

on snow quantification, including desired snow concentration, which is acceptable for 

use on part 23 airplanes. Whatever method is used to characterize the snow, as 

mentioned earlier, the design consideration that has been found to be critical is snow that 

accumulates on surfaces subject to impingement. Therefore, the applicant should address 

this consideration when choosing the appropriate snow environment. 

What temperatures are considered appropriate for testing? 

The applicant is responsible for defining the critical ambient temperatures for snow tests. 

The primary consideration is to demonstrate operability in a snow environment that is 

critical as far as snow accumulation on exterior and interior areas of impingement (for 

example, wet, sticky snow). However, for a snow environment indicative of a 

representative concentration expected for the airplane, temperature is also an important 

consideration. 

Typically, in natural conditions, a temperature range between 25 and 34 degrees 

Fahrenheit has been found conducive to the heavy snow environment. However, colder 

temperatures may be critical to some configurations. For example, in some installations, 

colder exterior surfaces may be by-passed, with snow crystals sticking to partially heated 

interior inlet surfaces, leading to melting and refreeze. Company developmental tests or 

experience with similar induction systems may be used to determine critical conditions. 

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2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Is it difficult to locate and maintain the desired conditions for the test? 

Snow concentration corresponding to the visibility prescribed is often extremely difficult 

to locate naturally and it is often difficult to maintain the desired concentrations for the 

duration of testing. Because of this, it is likely that exact target test conditions will not be 

achieved for all possible test conditions. Those involved in certification must exercise 

reasonable engineering judgment in accepting critical test conditions and alternate 

approaches, with early coordination between the applicant and the FAA addressing these 

realities. 

Is it possible to use artificially produced snow for the test? 

Artificially produced snow is an excellent developmental tool and has been used 

successfully to show potential problem areas and critical test points. When the desired 

natural snow concentration is not found, artificial means may be used to supplement the 

snow amount. However, when snow testing is required, the use of simulated snow is 

normally not used as the sole means of compliance. The desired heavy snow 

environment produces ”wet, sticky snow,” which accumulates on unheated exterior and 

interior surfaces subject to impingement. Most artificial means (for example snow 

blowers) produce snow pellets that are dissimilar to the snowflakes associated with ”wet, 

sticky snow.” Also, simulated snow produced indoors does not accumulate moisture 

from snowfall as seen in naturally created snow, with critical temperatures for simulated 

snow varying significantly from natural snow. Therefore, quantification of artificially 

produced snow for critical conditions can be difficult and subjective. If artificial means 

is proposed as a means of compliance, the applicant should provide data and 

substantiation on how the artificial means will effectively simulate the critical, desired 

operational consideration. 

What is the difference between falling and blowing snow? 

The concentration of snow entering the inlet in blowing snow will normally exceed the 

amount in falling snow; hence, the need to address ”blowing snow.” The location of the 

inlets should be considered to determine critical directions of blowing snow in relation to 

snow accumulation on impingement surfaces. Snow blowing in excess of 15 knots is the 

appropriate compliance condition. Means such as use of another airplane's propeller, 

taxiing the airplane in excess of 15 knots, and so forth, may be used to simulate blowing. 

Is it possible to use flight manual limitations to comply with § 23.1093(b)(1)(ii)? 

The only possible flight manual limitation that may be acceptable would be prohibitions 

for ground operations such as taxi, takeoff, engine runs, and so forth. As with all 

environmental considerations, such as rain, ice, hail, lightning, and so forth, operation in 

snow is considered an unavoidable, meteorological hazard that must be addressed 

including flying into snow after deployment. 

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AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

What should be considered relative to complying with the § 23.1093(b)(2) 

requirements? 

The requirement of § 23.1093(b)(2), incorporated by Amendment 23-15, addresses 

running the engine in an atmospheric condition commonly referred to as ”ice fog.” The 

engine is run at idle power in this condition to ensure no ice build-up that produces 

adverse engine operational characteristics (for example, no surges or adverse power 

losses). The § 23.1093(b)(2) requirement is as an extension of the 14 CFR part 25, 

Appendix C, icing envelope addressed in §§ 23.1093(b)(1)(i) and 23.1419. Therefore, 

the methodologies and analysis used for compliance with § 23.1093(b)(1)(i) can be 

extended for § 23.1093(b)(2) compliance. 

It is often difficult to encounter all the ambient conditions required by § 23.1093(b)(2); 

therefore, when testing, one or more of the conditions is typically simulated. For 

example, a common and acceptable method of compliance is using water spray devices to 

simulate the water conditions required while testing at the required ambient temperature 

conditions. Other manufacturers have used thermal analysis combined with dry air tests 

using ice shapes/simulated blockage to demonstrate compliance, which is also acceptable 

if properly substantiated. 

The rule allows an engine run-up periodically to higher power settings to shed ice. As 

with snow testing, if run-ups are performed during compliance demonstration, then these 

procedures should be incorporated as limitations in the flight manual. Also, before runups are accepted, the practicality of the procedures should be evaluated. 

Related Material 

FAA Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) 

FAA Report DOT/FAA/AR-97/66, Snow and Ice Particle Sizes and Mass Concentrations 

at Altitudes Up to 9 km (30,000 ft.) 

AC 23.1419-2B, Certification of Part 23 Airplanes for Flight in Icing Conditions 

AC 20-73, Aircraft Ice Protection 

AC 29-2C, Certification of Transport Category Rotorcraft 

Paragraph 23.1093(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.45(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

132
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1095 Carburetor deicing fluid flow rate (Original) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

Paragraph 23.1095(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1095(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

133
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1097 Carburetor deicing fluid system capacity (Original) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

Paragraph 23.1097(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1097(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

134
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1099 Carburetor deicing fluid system detail design (Original) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

135
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1101 Induction air preheater design (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.610

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

What is the purpose of the induction air preheater? 

Some carburetor and fuel injection system designs do not experience icing. Designs that 

are susceptible to icing typically incorporate a means to preheat the air supply entering 

the system. The purpose of this system is to add sufficient heat to replace the heat lost 

due to vaporization of the fuel such that the mixing chamber temperature cannot drop to 

the freezing point of water. This is typically accomplished with a system consisting of an 

engine exhaust heated jacket surrounding the induction duct, which serves to preheat the 

inducted air. There is a control installed in the flight deck for adjusting the preheater 

valve such that the system may be operated only when required to prevent ice formation. 

Paragraph 23.1101(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1101(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1101(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

136
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1103 Induction system ducts (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.611

ADC Cross-reference: 5.47 

Paragraph 23.1103(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.47(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1103(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.47(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1103(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1103(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1103(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1103(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

137
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1105 Induction system screens (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.612

ADC Cross-reference: 5.48 

Paragraph 23.1105(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.48(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1105(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.48(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1105(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.48(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1105(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.48(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

138 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1107 Induction system filters (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

Paragraph 23.1107(a) 

What should be considered in the design of induction system filters to comply with 

§ 23.1107? 

The filter media, gasket materials, and adhesives used in the induction system should be 

resistant to fuel, oil, water, cleaning materials, and other engine/airplane fluids in the 

powerplant installation. They should be flame resistant and should not deteriorate from

exposure to engine compartment temperatures. 

Paragraph 23.1107(b) 

What design features should be considered for filter installations? 

Design the filter installation to preclude the release of pieces of the filter and/or gasket 

material into the intake airstream. These failures are critical as they can result in a power 

loss. Consider the performance of the filter under the operating conditions of the 

installation such as rain impingement at airplane speeds. One methodology is to provide 

screens or other restraints to prevent failed pieces from moving downstream and 

interfering with the fuel metering components. 

139
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1109 Turbocharger bleed air system (Amendment 23-42) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

Paragraph 23.1109(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1109(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

140 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1111 Turbine engine bleed air system (Amendment 23-17) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.49 

Paragraph 23.1111(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.49(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1111(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.49(b) 

How can the bleed air effects on the engine and airplane be established? 

The engine manufacturer provides information on the engine bleed air limits. This 

information should be used as a starting point for determining the effects on the installed 

engine and the airplane that are usually established through testing. It is important not to 

exceed the certificated engine limits as this could invalidate the engine certification for 

the installation required in § 23.903(a)(1). 

Paragraph 23.1111(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.49(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

141
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

EXHAUST SYSTEM 

23.1121 General (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.615

ADC Cross-reference: 5.50 

Are there any general guidelines for exhaust system installations? 

Use the following guidelines for exhaust system installations: 

1. Provide sufficient clearance and/or heat shielding between exhaust components and 

spark plugs, plug leads, mount isolators, induction systems, engine controls, fuel 

systems, and other heat-sensitive airframe components. 

2. The exhaust system should be accessible for inspections. Adequately support all 

exhaust components such as tail pipes, heat exchangers, and mufflers. 

3. Provide slip joints or other suitable components in the exhaust system to address 

thermal expansion and engine movement. Locate any such components so minor 

leakage does not impinge on components or contaminate the cabin air. 

Related Material 

AC 20-135, Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire Protection 

Test Methods, Standards, and Criteria 

Paragraph 23.1121(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.50(a) 

What are acceptable means of compliance with § 23.1121(a)? 

Compliance with § 23.1121(a) should be demonstrated through testing using any 

acceptable carbon monoxide detection method. The test should be conducted with the 

airplane’s heater system in operation if there is any possibility of the system containing 

carbon monoxide and with aircraft thermal deicing systems, if installed, in full operation. 

The effect of different airplane configurations and flight and ground conditions on the 

induction of carbon monoxide into the passenger cabin should be considered in 

establishing the test procedures. Flight test guidance is provided in chapter 166 of AC 

23-8B. 

142
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Is a system that employs a carbon monoxide (CO) detector to warn the pilot of unsafe 

concentrations during normal operations acceptable to show compliance with 

§ 23.1121(a)? 

No, a system with a CO detector to warn the pilot of unsafe concentrations is not 

sufficient to show compliance. Section 23.1121(a) requires that the system be designed 

to prevent CO contamination of the personnel compartment in the first place. 

Related Material 

AC 20-32B, Carbon Monoxide (CO) Contamination in Aircraft—Detection and 

Prevention 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

Paragraph 23.1121(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.50(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1121(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.50(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Related Material 

AC 23-2, Flammability Tests 

AC 20-107A, Composite Aircraft Structure 

Paragraph 23.1121(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.50(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1121(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.50(f) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

143
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Paragraph 23.1121(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.50(e) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1121(g) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.50(g) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1121(h) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.50(h) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1121(i) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

144
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1123 Exhaust system (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.616

ADC Cross-reference: 5.51 

Related Material 

AC 20-135, Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire Protection 

Test Methods, Standards, and Criteria 

Paragraph 23.1123(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.51(a) 

What are the general considerations relative to compliance with § 23.1123(a)? 

Exhaust components are typically constructed of stainless steel or steel alloys of 

appropriate wall thickness to withstand the highly corrosive high temperature exhaust 

gases in order to comply with § 23.1123(a). Proper material selection and corrosion 

protective design should be performed and validated during certification. Analysis and 

validation tests are done to ensure thermal and structural integrity and to ensure thermal 

expansion does not cause structural overload, failure, unintentional contact of adjacent 

components, or hazardous heating of surrounding components. The thermal expansion 

analysis and test should be done at the maximum in-service temperature excursions 

expected for the installation. 

Related Material 

AC 23-2, Flammability Tests

Paragraph 23.1123(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.51(b) 

What loading cases are typically considered? 

Typically, the worst-case static design load conditions are either the inertia loads from an 

emergency impact, such as that specified in § 23.561, or combined loading from thermal 

expansion, in-flight deflections, and internal exhaust gas flow. The exhaust system

components should be designed and supported to avoid critical frequencies and to 

minimize the effects of the vibration environment. Flight test vibration surveys may be 

necessary to properly define or validate the critical modes and vibration environment. In 

addition, the strength reduction in the system materials at the operating and worst-case 

145 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

temperatures should be properly accounted for during the design and structural 

substantiation. 

Paragraph 23.1123(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.51(c) 

What should be considered in the design of an exhaust system with components having 

relative motion between them? 

Section 23.1123(c) requires that exhaust system components with relative motion 

between them have a means for flexibility. This is typically provided by different types 

of flexible joints employing metal bellows, metal rings, or carbon rings. These 

components typically have limited lives because of the high temperatures and corrosive 

nature of the exhaust gases. For this reason, experience has shown that it is good to 

design the system to avoid relative motion between components to eliminate the use of 

these failure prone components. 

146
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1125 Exhaust heat exchangers (Amendment 23-17) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.617, 3.618

ADC Cross-reference: 5.52 

Paragraph 23.1125(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.52(a) 

Does the heat exchanger require constant cooling airflow?

Yes, the intent of § 23.1125(a)(3) is to require cooling airflow when and where the 

exhaust gasses are in contact with the heat exchanger. 

Paragraph 23.1125(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.52(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

147
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

POWERPLANT CONTROLS AND ACCESSORIES 

23.1141 Powerplant controls: General (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.627

ADC Cross-reference: 5.53 

Related Material 

AC 20-135, Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire Protection 

Test Methods, Standards, and Criteria 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

Paragraph 23.1141(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.53(a) 

Do single-lever power controls comply with § 23.1141? 

Airplanes may be equipped with single-lever power controls (a control arrangement 

allowing the engine throttle, propeller pitch control, and possibly mixture control to 

operate via one lever) where the propeller pitch varies with engine r.p.m. by means of a 

mechanical cam or slider device as a function of throttle position. Any such propeller 

control system must be shown to have the level of integrity and reliability of a typical 

installation with independent propeller and throttle controls. Specific guidance for this is 

contained in the related material listed below under § 23.777. 

Related Material 

AC 23-17A, Systems and Equipment Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

Paragraph 23.1141(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.53(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1141(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.53(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

148 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Paragraph 23.1141(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.53(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1141(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.53(e) 

Are there any special considerations for special purpose, restricted category, singleengine agricultural airplanes using the normal category requirements of part 23 as a 

certification basis? 

It is acceptable for special purpose, restricted category, single-engine agricultural 

airplanes using the normal category requirements of part 23 as a certification basis to 

delete the phrase “or probable combination thereof” when demonstrating compliance 

with the rule as restated below. 

This regulation currently reads as follows: 

For turbine engine powered airplanes, no single failure or malfunction, or probable 

combination thereof, in any powerplant control system, may cause the failure of any 

powerplant function necessary for safety. 

Paragraph 23.1141(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.53(f) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Related Material: 

AC 23-2, Flammability Tests 

Paragraph 23.1141(g) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.53(g) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

149
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1142 Auxiliary power unit controls (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

150
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1143 Engine controls (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.628

ADC Cross-reference: 5.54 

Paragraph 23.1143(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.54(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1143(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.54(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1143(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.54(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1143(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.54(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1143(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Related Material: 

AC 20-136, Protection of Aircraft Electrical/Electronic Systems Against the Indirect 

Effects of Lightning 

151 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Paragraph 23.1143(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.54(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1143(g) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

What is the origin of this requirement? 

This regulation was introduced with Amendment 23-43 on May 10, 1993, and originated 

as a proposal in response to the Small Airplane Airworthiness Review conducted in 1983 

and 1984. This proposal was forwarded by the National Transportation Safety Board as a 

response to a study of single-engine aircraft accidents involving separation of the throttle 

linkages with subsequent loss of propulsive power. The original wording of the proposal 

stated the following: 

“(f) A means must be provided to assure that if throttle linkage separation occurs in a 

single engine airplane, the fuel control will be automatically positioned at: 

(1) The full throttle position for agricultural airplanes. 

(2) An intermediate throttle position for other airplanes which will allow the pilot 

to maintain level flight in the cruise configuration.” 

A review of the minutes of the Small Airplane Airworthiness Review Conference held in 

St. Louis, Missouri on October 22-26, 1984, reveals that the discussion was centered 

around the appropriate settings for different airplane classifications. 

The rule as proposed and subsequently accepted in Amendment 23-43 states the 

following: 

“(g) For reciprocating single-engine airplanes, each power or thrust control must be 

designed so that if the control separates at the engine fuel metering device, the 

airplane is capable of continued safe flight and landing.” 

The generally accepted definition of “engine fuel metering device” is a device that 

controls the amount of fuel flow (fuel control in the original proposal) to the engine 

based on throttle position. The throttle refers to the device the pilot uses to set the 

desired engine power level. 

152
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

The intent of the rule is to keep the engine supplied with a sufficient amount of fuel to 

allow continued safe flight and landing in the event of a control system failure that 

prevents the pilot from setting the appropriate power level (i.e., fuel flow rate). 

Can a design that maintains positive retention of the linkage be used to show

compliance with § 23.1143(g)? 

A number of Equivalent Level of Safety (ELOS) findings have been issued that have 

allowed linkage designs incorporating positive retention means when complying with 

§ 23.1143(g). These ELOS findings have required a higher level of attachment 

reliability, establishment of mandatory inspection intervals, inspection procedures, and 

replacement criteria for the attachments. 

153
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1145 Ignition switches (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.629

ADC Cross-reference: 5.55 

Paragraph 23.1145(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.55(a) 

Does § 23.1145 apply to turbine and reciprocating engines? 

This paragraph applies to both turbine and reciprocating engines. The required ignition 

switch may be used to select any position such as continuous, automatic, on, or off. 

Paragraph 23.1145(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.55(b) 

Is it possible to integrate the required shutoff switch with the engine power lever? 

On turbine engines incorporating an auto-relight system, one acceptable means of 

complying with the shutoff provision would be to have the shutoff switch activated by 

the power lever. Adequate instruction should be available to the pilot.

Paragraph 23.1145(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.55(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

154
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1147 Mixture controls (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.630

ADC Cross-reference: 5.56 

Paragraph 23.1147(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.56 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1147(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

Can a design that maintains positive retention of the linkage be used to show

compliance with § 23.1147(b)? 

A number of Equivalent Level of Safety (ELOS) findings have been issued that have 

allowed linkage designs incorporating positive retention means when complying with 

§ 23.1147(b). These ELOS findings have required a higher level of attachment 

reliability, establishment of mandatory inspection intervals, inspection procedures, and 

replacement criteria for the attachments. 

155 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1149 Propeller speed and pitch controls (Original) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.57 

Paragraph 23.1149(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.57(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1149(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.57(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

156
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1153 Propeller feathering controls (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.58 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

Related Material 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes

157 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1155 Turbine engine reverse thrust and propeller pitch settings below the flight regime 

 (Amendment 23-7) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

What is the history of this requirement? 

The FAA has long recognized the hazard of inadvertent operation of propeller reversing 

systems. Prior to the commercial use of turbine-powered airplanes, a few reciprocating 

engine powered airplane designs included propeller-reversing systems and were 

addressed by Civil Air Regulations (CAR) paragraph 4b. Section 23.1155 was added to 

part 23 with Amendment 23-7 (1969) and applied to turbine-powered airplanes only. In 

the event of a part 23 reciprocating engine powered airplane using propeller-reversing 

systems, special conditions should be developed. 

If the possibility of inadvertent operation can be shown to be remote, does it comply 

with § 23.1155? 

No, the intent is to prevent inadvertent operation in the beta mode, even if the possibility 

of inadvertent operation is remote. If an operation or feature of the design can allow inflight, inadvertent placement of the control below the flight regime, the design does not 

comply with the regulation. The design should be evaluated considering the types of 

operations that will be seen in service, and it should consider items such as hardware 

wear modes or maintenance issues that may cause the control to be unintentionally 

placed or creep into the beta regime over time. 

Amendment 23-7 added § 23.1155 requiring that operations of the propeller controls at 

pitch settings below the flight regime have a means to prevent inadvertent operation. For 

airplanes with a certification basis before Amendment 23-7 that are modified to add inflight beta capability, the provisions of § 21.101(b) should be used to evaluate the 

possible unsafe nature of inadvertent operation of propellers in the beta regime. If it is 

determined that such operation is unsafe, the issue may be addressed by showing 

compliance with § 23.1155. 

What is an acceptable means of compliance with § 23.1155 relative to intentional inflight operation? 

On all future type certification projects, the flight manuals should include the appropriate 

operational limitations and consequence statement for in-flight beta operation. 

158
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Is a Beta Lock-out system acceptable for compliance with § 23.1155? 

To add an assurance that in-flight beta will not occur, some airplanes have incorporated 

lock-out systems. These systems remove the ability to do this operation in flight, even if

intentionally commanded. It is important to note that the installation of a beta lock-out 

system cannot be used instead of the design requirements of § 23.1155 compliance. 

Also, in some cases, propeller beta operation is used to show compliance with stopping 

distances in part 23, subpart B. Under subpart B, when means other than wheel brakes 

are used for determining stopping distances, the means must be ”safe and reliable.” If 

beta operation is used to show compliance with stopping distances, the reliability of a 

system that would prevent in-flight beta operation must be such that this capability, when 

required, will be available to comply with subpart B, and § 21.21(b)(2) or § 21.101(b). 

With a system safety analysis, the applicant can determine the required reliability level 

for the beta lock-out system based on the hazard level (for example, § 23.1309 

compliance). 

Therefore, for new type certificated airplanes that have a beta lock-out system

incorporated or previously certificated airplanes that add a beta lock-out system, the 

applicant should perform a system safety analysis of the installation of this system. This 

analysis should consider hazards such as the inability to command beta on one engine of 

a multiengine airplane. For example, if beta is commanded on both engines during 

landing roll-out, but only one propeller goes into beta mode, this might adversely affect 

ground controllability. 

159
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1157 Carburetor air temperature controls (Original) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.634

ADC Cross-reference: 5.59 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

160 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1163 Powerplant accessories (Amendment 23-42) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.635

ADC Cross-reference: 5.60 

Paragraph 23.1163(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.60(a) 

What accessory provisions are included in § 23.1163? 

Paragraph (a)(1) refers to provisions for mounting items such as brackets, isolating 

bushings, belt tension arms, belts, and other hardware up to, but not including, mounting 

lugs on the accessory. These provisions are to be approved under the engine Type 

Certificate (TC). 

Are there any unique considerations for special purpose, restricted category, singleengine agricultural airplanes using the normal category requirements of part 23 as a 

certification basis? 

Each engine mount accessory must be acceptable for mounting on the engine involved 

and use the proper provision on the engines for mounting. 

Paragraph 23.1163(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.60(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1163(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.60(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1163(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

161
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Paragraph 23.1163(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

162
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1165 Engine ignition systems (Amendment 23-34) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.636

ADC Cross-reference: 5.61 

Paragraph 23.1165(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.61(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1165(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.61(b) 

What are acceptable means of compliance for § 23.1165(b)? 

An electrical load analysis should be conducted to ensure that the capacity of the 

batteries and generator is large enough to meet the highest current demands in the 

system. The analysis should show that there is sufficient electrical power available from

either the battery or the generator to operate all components simultaneously. 

Paragraph 23.1165(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.61(c) 

What are acceptable means of compliance for § 23.1165(c)? 

The requirements of § 23.1165(c) should be demonstrated by a test that has been 

coordinated with the FAA prior to conducting the test. 

Paragraph 23.1165(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.61(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1165(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.61(e) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

163 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Paragraph 23.1165(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

164
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

POWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION 

23.1181 Designated fire zones; regions included (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

What is the intent of § 23.1181? 

The intent of § 23.1181 is to identify areas where a high degree of safety precaution must 

be taken. These areas are designated fire zones because of the presence of both ignition 

sources and flammable fluids where a single failure that releases these fluids may result 

in a fire. Sections 23.1182 through 23.1203 address precautions for areas identified in 

§ 23.1181. 

Paragraph 23.1181(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1181(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1181(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1181(d) 

Can the guidance in § 23.1181 through § 23.1203 be applied to other systems that use 

combustible materials other than combustion heaters? 

Yes, the guidance provided can and should be considered when certificating other 

equipment using combustible materials. Examples of these systems include the 

following: 

1. Smoke, alcohol and dispensing systems that might carry flammable fluids; 

2. Liquid cargo tanks that carry flammable fluids; and 

165
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

3. Other systems that produce heat/flames such as pyrotechnic systems for rainmakers, 

flares, chaff dispensers. 

166
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1182 Nacelle areas behind firewalls (Amendment 23-14) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.64 

What are the acceptable means of compliance with § 23.1182? 

In general, compliance with § 23.1182 must be shown by tests that demonstrate the fireresistant and fireproof properties of the components and their installation. Consideration 

should be given to component temperature limits, structural properties at elevated 

temperatures, and the possibility of gaseous emissions from heated components entering 

the cabin when finding compliance. 

Related Material 

AC 20-135, Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire Protection 

Test Methods, Standards, and Criteria 

AC 20-107A, Composite Aircraft Structure 

167 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1183 Lines, fittings, and components (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.638

ADC Cross-reference: 5.65 

Related Material 

AC 20-107A, Composite Aircraft Structure 

AC 20-135, Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire Protection 

Test Methods, Standards, and Criteria 

Paragraph 23.1183(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.65(a) 

What is the intent of § 23.1183(a)? 

The intent of § 23.1183(a) is to ensure that lines and components in the fire zone carrying 

flammable fluids do not fail in a manner that contributes additional fuel to a fire. 

Compliance with this rule is demonstrated by testing the lines and components under the 

conditions expected in the event of a fire. Conditions such as worst-case flow rates of 

fluids and air, lowest dispatchable fluid quantities, and highest fluid and air temperatures 

should be considered as test parameters. 

Can the fire prevention certification of the engine components under 14 CFR part 33, 

§ 33.17 be used to show compliance with § 23.1183? 

Components certified with the engine under § 33.17 may or may not meet the 

requirements in § 23.1183 for a specific airplane installation, depending upon the 

test/analysis performed to certify them. In particular, the test conditions, such as fluid 

flow rates and quantities used during the part 33 certification, may not be representative 

of the conditions expected during a fire in the airplane fire zone. Consequently, the 

components approved during engine type certification can only be used for compliance 

with the part 23 installation requirements when the test conditions were equal to or more 

severe than those expected for the installation. Coordination with the engine 

manufacturer is generally required to determine the test conditions applicable to the 

original certification of the components. 

To what extent must components be shielded? 

The intent of this requirement is to prevent leaking flammable fluids from contacting 

ignition sources, including hot surfaces and components that produce electrical arcs. 

168
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Compliance with this paragraph has been shown by installation of shrouds around the 

entire high-pressure fuel manifold, installation of shrouds around only the fittings, and 

installation of spray shields to deflect leaking fuel away from hot surfaces. The level of 

shielding necessary depends upon the type of leaks possible and the ignition sources. 

Shielding should be provided for any component that would be an ignition source if 

contacted by leaking flammable fluid. 

It is possible to have complex shroud arrangements that are difficult to maintain and 

result in increased incidence of leaks. In addition, sharp spray shield edges may cause 

damage to fuel lines. Therefore, it is important to carefully consider both the benefits 

and potential hazards of a given shielding configuration. 

Related Material 

AC 23-2, Flammability Tests 

Paragraph 23.1183(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.65(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

169
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1189 Shutoff means (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.67 

Related Material 

AC 20-135, Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire Protection 

Test Methods, Standards, and Criteria 

Paragraph 23.1189(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.67(a), 5.67(b), 5.67(c), 5.67(d), 5.67(e), 5.67(f) 

What are the typical means of complying with § 23.1189? 

The intent of § 23.1189 is to provide a means to shut off lines containing flammable 

fluids in the event of a fire in the fire zone to prevent hazardous quantities of fluid from

entering into and feeding a fire in the zone. Typically, shutoff valves or flow prevention 

means located outside the engine fire zone have been used on fuel supply, hydraulic, 

external oil supply, and deicer lines. If shutoff valves are located within the fire zone, the 

valves as well as their actuation means, including wiring or cables, are required to be 

fireproof. 

What is considered a hazardous quantity? 

The quantity that is considered hazardous depends on the particular engine installation 

design. It is important to consider the potential fuel, the worst-case state of the fluid, 

such as mist, and the other fuel sources feeding the fire during the fire event. Ultimately, 

the intent is to limit the potential fuel sources for the fire such that it loses intensity and 

self-extinguishes. 

Paragraph 23.1189(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.67(g) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

Related Material 

AC 23-2, Flammability Tests 

AC 23-8B, Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes 

170 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Paragraph 23.1189(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

171
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1191 Firewalls (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.623, 3.624

ADC Cross-reference: 5.68 

Related Material 

AC 23-2, Flammability Tests 

AC 20-135, Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire Protection 

Test Methods, Standards, and Criteria 

Paragraph 23.1191(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.68(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1191(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.68(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1191(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.68(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1191(d) 

Reserved. 

Paragraph 23.1191(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.68(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

172
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Paragraph 23.1191(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.68(e) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1191(g) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.68(f) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1191(h) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.68(g) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

173
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1192 Engine accessory compartment diaphragm (Amendment 23-14) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.69 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Related Material 

AC 23-2, Flammability Tests 

AC 20-135, Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire Protection 

Test Methods, Standards, and Criteria 

174 
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1193 Cowling and nacelle (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: 3.625

ADC Cross-reference: 5.70 

Related Material 

AC 23-2, Flammability Tests 

AC 20-107A, Composite Aircraft Structure 

AC 20-135, Powerplant Installation and Propulsion System Component Fire Protection 

Test Methods, Standards, and Criteria 

Paragraph 23.1193(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.70(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1193(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.70(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1193(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.70(c) 

What typical cowling materials are considered fire resistant? 

Cowlings fabricated of Alclad Aluminum Alloy 2024-T3 (minimum 0.032-in. thickness) 

are considered fire resistant. Materials considered fireproof, according to § 23.1191, by 

definition, are also considered fire resistant. 

Many airplanes are constructed from fiber reinforced (carbon, fiberglass, Nomex, Kevlar, 

etc.) composite materials. These materials vary widely in the composition of the fiber 

and matrix materials, the lay-up of the fibers, and their processing, all factors that could 

affect their fire resistance. Because of this, testing of these materials according to the 

methods described in AC 23-2, AC 20-107A, and AC 20-135 is typically required to 

show compliance with § 23.1193(c). 

175
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

Can airflow on the exterior of the cowling be used to meet the fire resistant test 

criteria? 

Conduct tests to substantiate alternate materials using an airflow velocity not more than 

the minimum stall speed of the airplane on the exterior side of the test specimen. 

Paragraph 23.1193(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.70(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1193(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.70(e) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1193(f) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1193(g) 

ADC Cross-reference: None 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

176
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1195 Fire extinguishing systems (Amendment 23-43) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

This guidance may be used for Airship Certification as applicable. 

What methods for complying with the fire extinguishing requirements of § 23.1195 are 

acceptable? 

Flight testing of the engine and APU compartments on the airplane is the accepted 

method for demonstrating compliance with § 23.1195. The tests should be designed and 

performed to show that an extinguishing agent concentration sufficient to extinguish fires 

is attained in all the protected compartments within the nacelle simultaneously. The use 

of an actual fire during the test is not recommended or required, as this is both dangerous 

and destructive. Laboratory testing is used to establish the required concentrations of the 

selected agent to extinguish flames for all of the flammable materials in the protected 

area according to § 23.1197. The concentrations established in the laboratory should be 

used in the flight testing. The flight test should encompass the worst-case operational 

conditions under which the extinguishing system would be expected to operate. The 

instrumentation for the testing should be designed to make sure there is sufficient 

coverage of the nacelle area. Some of the conditions to consider for the testing include 

the following: 

1. Maximum and minimum airflow in the nacelle 

The amount of airflow in the nacelle affects the distribution as well as the 

concentration of the agent over time. 

2. Airflow patterns in the nacelle 

The airflow patterns in the nacelle are generally for meeting cooling and venting 

requirements. An understanding of the patterns is necessary for determining the 

affects on the extinguishing agent concentrations. 

3. Likely fire locations in the nacelle 

The likely fire locations should be considered along with the airflows in the nacelle to 

account for the airflow affects on agent concentration. 

177 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

4. Maximum and minimum temperatures in the nacelle 

The temperatures in the nacelle or APU compartment in which the extinguishing 

agent is expected to work should be considered for their effect on the dispersion of 

the agent. 

5. Maximum and minimum operational temperatures of the extinguishing agent (agent 

soak temperatures) 

Minimum operational temperature testing with the typical extinguishing agents 

cannot be sufficiently simulated with lower pressures in the system because of the 

presence of multi-phase flow in the system during discharge. These tests should be 

performed with agent filled containers that have been conditioned at the appropriate 

temperatures. 

6. Type of extinguishing agent 

Advisory Circular 20-100, referenced under related material below, contains 

minimum concentration values sufficient to extinguish turbine engine fires for five 

different agents (CO2, CH3Br, CH2BrCl, CF2Br2, and CF3Br), except for the carbon 

dioxide all are chlorofluorocarbons. Environmental concerns have led to worldwide 

restrictions on the production and use of the chlorofluorocarbons, and work has been 

ongoing for over a decade to find replacement agents. The use of agents other than 

those currently in use will require special consideration to validate their efficacy. 

Consult with the Small Airplane Directorate in these situations. 

7. Type of fuel 

The majority of aircraft extinguishing systems have been used on turbine-powered aircraft using 

turbine fuel. As a result, the agents and their required concentrations have developed around 

extinguishing fires common to turbine engines and not reciprocating, or exotic engines. Other 

fuels, such as Avgas, alcohol, bio-diesel, and hydrogen, may require additional work to 

determine the appropriate concentrations, measurement, and testing techniques to show 

compliance with § 23.1195. 

Related Material 

AC 20-100, General Guidelines for Measuring Fire Extinguishing Agent Concentrations 

in Powerplant Compartments 

Paragraph 23.1195(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

178
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

Paragraph 23.1195(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

179
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1197 Fire extinguishing agents (Amendment 23-34) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

Paragraph 23.1197(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1197(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

180
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1199 Extinguishing agent containers (Amendment 23-34) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

Paragraph 23.1199(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1199(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Related Material 

AC 23.1419-2B, Certification of Part 23 Airplanes for Flight in Icing Conditions 

Paragraph 23.1199(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1199(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1199(e) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

181 
AC 23-16A 2/23/04 

23.1201 Fire extinguishing systems materials (Amendment 23-34) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: None 

Paragraph 23.1201(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1201(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002.

182
2/23/04 AC 23-16A 

23.1203 Fire detector system (Amendment 23-51) 

CAR 3 Cross-reference: None

ADC Cross-reference: 5.72 

Paragraph 23.1203(a) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.72(a) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1203(b) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.72(b) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1203(c) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.72(c) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1203(d) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.72(d) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Paragraph 23.1203(e) 

ADC Cross-reference: 5.72(e) 

No specific policy is available as of December 31, 2002. 

Related Material 

AC 23-2, Flammability Tests

183