VA/DoD CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE FOR 

MANAGEMENT OF POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS

Department of Veterans Affairs

Department of Defense

Prepared by: 

The Management of Post-Traumatic Stress Working Group 

With support from: 

The Office of Quality and Safety, VA, Washington, DC 

& 

Quality Management Division, United States Army MEDCOM 

QUALIFYING STATEMENTS

The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and The Department of Defense (DoD) guidelines are based on 

the best information available at the time of publication. They are designed to provide information and 

assist in decision-making. They are not intended to define a standard of care and should not be construed as 

one. Also, they should not be interpreted as prescribing an exclusive course of management.

Variations in practice will inevitably and appropriately occur when providers take into account the needs of 

individual patients, available resources, and limitations that are unique to an institution or type of practice.

Every healthcare professional who is making use of these guidelines is responsible for evaluating the 

appropriateness of applying them in any particular clinical situation.

Version 2.0 – 2010
Table of Contents

 Page

INTRODUCTION 4

Guideline Update Working Group 11

ALGORITHMS AND ANNOTATIONS

CORE Module: Post-Traumatic Stress, Screening 15

Module A: Management of Acute Stress Reaction 30

and Prevention of PTSD

Module B: Management of Post-Traumatic Stress 57

Disorder (PTSD)

TREATMENT INTERVENTIONS

Module I: Treatment Interventions for 

Post-Traumatic Stress 102

I1 – Early Interventions to Prevent PTSD

I2 – Treatment of PTSD

I3 – Management of Specific Symptoms

APPENDICES

Appendix A. Guideline Development Process 199

Appendix B. Acronym List 206

Appendix C. PTSD Screening Tools 209

Appendix D. Participant List 213

Appendix E. Bibliography 222
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

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LIST OF TABLES

Table CORE - 1 Common Signs & Symptoms Following Exposure to Trauma ......................................................25

Table A - 1 Early Interventions after Exposure to Trauma (<4 days after exposure)...........................................35

Table A - 2 Key Elements of Psychological First Aid (PFA)....................................................................................37

Table A - 3 Diagnostic criteria for 308.3 Acute Stress Disorder (DSM-IV) ............................................................41

Table A - 4 Early Interventions after Exposure to Trauma (4 to 30 days after exposure) ....................................46

Table B - 1 Common Symptoms following Exposure to Trauma ..........................................................................59

Table B - 2 Components of Functional Assessment .............................................................................................70

Table B - 3 Diagnostic criteria for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (DSM-IV) .......................................................79

Table I - 1 Early Interventions after Exposure to Trauma (4 to 30 days after exposure) ...................................102

Table I - 2 Brief Psychotherapy Studies to Prevent the Development of PTSD..................................................109

Table I - 3 Pharmacological Studies to Prevent the Development of PTSD........................................................113

Table I - 4 Psychotherapy Interventions for Treatment of PTSD........................................................................115

Table I - 5 Group Therapy in PTSD (Shea et al., 2009)........................................................................................136

Table I - 6 Pharmacotherapy Interventions for Treatment of PTSD...................................................................149

Table I - 7 Pharmacological Studies for Treatment of PTSD ...............................................................................156

Table I - 8 Symptom Response by Drug Class and Individual Drug (based on controlled trials) ........................160

Table I - 9 Drug Details .......................................................................................................................................161

Table I - 10 Adjunctive Problem-Focused Method/Services ..............................................................................168

Table I - 11 Pharmacological Studies - Prazosin for Sleep Disturbances ............................................................188
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Introduction Page - 3 

INTRODUCTION

This update of the Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Post-Traumatic Stress was developed

under the auspices of the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) and the Department of Defense (DoD), 

pursuant to directives from the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). VHA and DoD define clinical 

practice guidelines as:

“Recommendations for the performance or exclusion of specific procedures or services derived 

through a rigorous methodological approach that includes:

Determination of appropriate criteria, such as effectiveness, efficacy, population benefit, or 

patient satisfaction and a literature review to determine the strength of the evidence in relation 

to these criteria.”

This 2010 VA/DoD Post-Traumatic Stress guideline update builds on the 2004 VA/DoD Clinical Practice 

Guideline for the Management of Post-Traumatic Stress. The 2004 Post-Traumatic Stress Guideline was 

the first effort to bring evidence-based practice to clinicians providing care to trauma survivors and patients 

with stress disorders in the VA and DoD. The development of the Guideline originated with recognition of 

the need to diagnose and treat Post-Traumatic Stress among the military and veteran population. The 

Guideline presented evidence-based recommendations that were thoroughly evaluated by practicing 

clinicians and reviewed by clinical experts from the VHA and DoD.

Algorithms:

The VA/DoD also utilized an algorithmic approach for the 2004 Guideline for the Management PostTraumatic Stress. This guideline update has also been developed using an algorithmic approach to guide 

the clinician in determining the care and the sequencing of the interventions on a patient-specific basis. The 

clinical algorithm incorporates the information that is presented in the guideline in a format that maximally 

facilitates clinical decision-making. The use of the algorithmic format was chosen because such a format 

improves data collection, facilitates clinical decision-making, and changes in patterns of resource use.

However, this should not prevent providers from using their own clinical expertise in the care of an 

individual patient. Guideline recommendations are intended to support clinical decision-making and should 

never replace sound clinical judgment.

During the past 6 years, a number of well-designed randomized controlled trials of pharmacological and 

psychotherapeutic interventions for post-traumatic stress have been conducted. Therefore, the goal of this 

update is to integrate the results of this research and update the recommendations of the original guideline 

to reflect the current knowledge of effective treatment intervention. As in the original guideline, this update 

will explore the most important research areas of intervention to prevent the development of PTSD in 

persons who have developed stress reaction symptoms after exposure to trauma.

Target Population:

This guideline applies to adult patients with post-traumatic stress who are treated in any VA or DoD 

clinical setting. 

Audiences:

The guideline is relevant to all healthcare professionals who are providing or directing treatment services to 

patients with post-traumatic stress at any VA/DoD healthcare setting. 

Post-Traumatic Stress:

Post-traumatic stress consists of a spectrum of traumatic stress disorders—hence, this Clinical Practice 

Guideline for the Management of Post-Traumatic Stress. These disorders can be arranged along a temporal 

axis, from Acute Stress Reaction, to Acute Stress Disorder, Acute PTSD, and Chronic PTSD. Each of these 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Introduction Page - 4 

may be associated with serious mental and physical co-morbidities. Some survivors will experience only a 

part of this spectrum, while others will progress through the entire range.

Acute stress reaction (ASR) is not a DSM IV diagnosis and is used in this guideline to refer to a range of 

transient conditions that develop in response to a traumatic event. Onset of at least some signs and 

symptoms may be simultaneous with the trauma itself or within minutes of the traumatic event and may 

follow the trauma after an interval of hours or days. In most cases symptoms will disappear within days 

(even hours). Combat and Operational Stress Reaction (COSR) reflects acute reactions to a high-stress 

or combat-related event. ASR/COSR can present with a broad group of physical, mental, and emotional 

symptoms and signs (e.g., depression, fatigue, anxiety, decreased concentration/memory, hyperarousal, and 

others) that have not resolved within 4 days after the event, and after other disorders have been ruled out. 

Acute stress disorder (ASD), a diagnosis defined by DSM IV, occurs when the individual has experienced 

trauma(s) as described above, has symptoms lasting more than two days, but less than one month after 

exposure to the trauma (may progress to PTSD if symptoms last more than one month), and exhibits reexperiencing, avoidance, increased arousal and at least three out of five dissociative symptoms. 

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a clinically significant condition with symptoms continuing 

more than one month after exposure to a trauma that has caused significant distress or impairment in social, 

occupational, or other important areas of functioning. Patients with PTSD may exhibit persistent reexperiencing of the traumatic event(s), persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma, numbing 

of general responsiveness (not present before the trauma), and persistent symptoms of increased arousal

(not present before the trauma). PTSD can also have a delayed onset, which is described as a clinically 

significant presentation of symptoms (causing significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or 

other important areas of functioning) at least 6 months after exposure to trauma. 

PTSD is further sub-divided into Acute PTSD (symptoms lasting more than one month, but less than three 

months after exposure to trauma) and Chronic PTSD (symptoms lasting more than three months after 

exposure to trauma). PTSD can appear alone (presenting with common symptoms of PTSD) or more 

commonly with other co-occurring conditions (persistent difficulties in interpersonal relations, mood,

chronic pain, sleep disturbances, somatization, and profound identity problems) or psychiatric disorders 

(meeting DSM criteria for another disorder, such as substance abuse, depression, and anxiety disorder). 

OEF/OIF veterans and service members who have sustained a concussion (mild-TBI) in the combat 

environment are often at significantly greater risk of PTSD. Moreover, the diagnosis of either condition 

may be complicated by the fact that PTSD is associated with generalized health symptoms, including 

neurocognitive impairment and other symptoms in the persistent post-concussion syndrome definition.

Evidence-based practices to prevent and treat PTSD include screening, cognitive behavioral therapies, and 

medications. There are many new strategies involving enhancement of cognitive fitness and psychological 

resilience to reduce the detrimental impact of trauma. In terms of screening, evidence suggests that 

identifying PTSD early and quickly referring people to treatment can shorten their suffering and lessen the 

severity of their functional impairment. Several types of cognitive behavioral therapies, counseling, and 

medications have been shown to be effective in treating PTSD. 

The VA and DoD Healthcare systems have undergone significant changes in the past 10-15 years that are

transforming the two into an integrated system that provides high-quality care. In response to the increased 

demands for services to treat OEF/OIF veterans with PTSD, these systems have invested resources in 

expanding outreach activities, enhancing the availability and timeliness of specialized PTSD services.. 

Post-Traumatic Stress in VA population:

The numbers of veterans seeking and receiving treatment for post-traumatic stress in general and PTSD, in 

particular, continue to increase. In a follow-up to a study by Dohrenwend et al. (2006), 9.1 percent of 

Vietnam veterans sampled still suffered from symptoms of PTSD in 1990. During a five year span (2004-

2008), the number of unique veterans seeking help for PTSD in the VA system increased from 274,000 to 

442,000. Also, according to a review of several studies investigating the prevalence of PTSD in U.S. 

Veterans of the first Persian Gulf War, the Board on Population Health and Public Health Practice at the 

National Academies of Science (2008) reported that the PCL-based prevalence of PTSD in a sample of 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Introduction Page - 5 

11,441 veterans was 12.1 percent. This review also cited evidence that ten years after the 1990 Gulf War, 

6.2 percent of a sample of veterans still suffered from PTSD. 

The number of Iraq and Afghanistan veterans who have been separated from service, seen in U.S. 

Veteran’s Administration healthcare facilities, and diagnosed with PTSD was reported by Seal and 

colleagues (2007). Of the 103,788 veterans included in this review, the overall prevalence of PTSD was 13

percent, higher than any other mental health diagnostic category reported by these authors. The VA’s 

Uniform Services Handbook sets standards for mental healthcare across VA facilities and is intended to 

both improve quality of care and facilitate implementation of evidence-based practices. In recent years, the 

exponential increase in clinical services for veterans with PTSD has been driven by the combination of 

improved diagnostic and treatment techniques for all stress-related disorders, the needs of veterans from 

past wars as far back as World War II, the co-morbid conditions many veterans experience in addition to 

PTSD (chronic medical conditions, SUD), and the ongoing nature of the current wars in Iraq and 

Afghanistan. 

Post-Traumatic Stress in DoD population:

A number of studies have been conducted to estimate the prevalence and incidence of PTSD in military 

personnel during the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. These studies have shown high consistency in rates, when 

grouped according to study population (e.g., studies involving Army or Marine combat infantry units 

versus studies involving samples of the deploying population at large, including personnel from support 

units or services not involved in direct combat). 

One of the first and most cited epidemiological surveys to provide estimates of PTSD prevalence in 

military personnel who served in Afghanistan or Iraq was published by Hoge et al. (2004). The prevalence 

of PTSD 3 months post-deployment among infantry soldiers and Marines who returned from high-intensity 

combat in Iraq was 12.9 percent and 12.2 percent, respectively (n = 894 soldiers, 815 Marines), based on a 

stringent definition for PTSD supported in a study by Terhakopian et al. (2008) (PCL score of at least 50 

combined with DSM criteria). By comparison, the rate among soldiers who had deployed to Afghanistan, 

where there was very low-intensity combat at that time, was 6.2 percent, and the baseline rate in a group of 

soldiers before deployment was 5 percent. This study also highlighted the impact that stigma and barriers to 

care have on willingness to receive help. Less than half of the soldiers in need of mental health services 

received care, and many reported concerns that they would be treated differently by peers or leaders if they 

sought care. 

In a subsequent survey involving active and National Guard brigade combat teams (infantry), rates of 15

percent were documented at three months post-deployment and rose to 17-25 percent at twelve months 

post-deployment using the same definitions as in the 2004 article (Thomas et al., 2010). 

In-theater assessments of personnel in ground combat units have been conducted on nearly an annual basis 

in Iraq and several times in Afghanistan since the start of the wars (Army Mental Health Advisory Team 

Assessments–MHATs). These studies have found rates of acute stress or PTSD (based on a PCL ≥50 

points) of 10-20 percent, with a strong correlation to combat frequency and intensity. Rates in units 

exposed to minimal combat were similar to baseline rates in the population (5 percent), and there was a 

linear increase up to 25 percent in units involved in the highest-intensity combat. The Afghanistan theater 

showed lower rates earlier in the war (7 percent in 2005), but they increased to levels comparable with Iraq 

in 2007 and thereafter. 

In addition to studies based on infantry samples, there have been a number of studies based on postdeployment health assessments, healthcare utilization records, and random samples of military or veteran 

populations, including those not engaged in direct combat (Hoge et al., 2006; Milliken et al., 2007; 

Tanielian et al., 2008; Smith et al.,2008; Fear et al., 2010; and others). General population samples that do 

not focus specifically on combat units have resulted in lower rates than reported in infantry samples, but 

estimates approach infantry samples when analyses are restricted to Army or Marine personnel with 

combat experience. While most studies have focused on point prevalence of PTSD, one study has looked at 

the 3-year incidence in a large representative population sample (Smith et al., 2008). The cumulative 

incidence was 9 percent in Army personnel who had experienced combat, which equates to a prevalence of 

approximately 12 percent, including those excluded for PTSD at baseline. Overall, baseline pre-deployment 

rates in military samples have ranged from 3-6 percent, comparable to civilian rates reported in the 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Introduction Page - 6

National Co-morbidity Study (Kessler et al., 2005), and post-deployment rates have ranged from 6-20

percent. The strongest predictors of increased prevalence post-deployment have been combat frequency and 

intensity. There are also many other types of traumatic experience that service members encounter, both in 

their professional military occupations and in their pre-military or off-duty time, including exposure to 

accidents, assault, rape, natural disasters, and other experiences.

Outcome Measures: 

The Working Group (WG) agreed on the following health-related outcomes for management of posttraumatic stress:

• Improvement in quality of life (social and occupational functioning)

• Reduced morbidity/mortality

• Improvement over long term

• Patient Satisfaction 

• Co-morbidity 

• Improvement of symptoms.

Guideline Goals:

The most important goal of the VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of PostTraumatic Stress is to provide scientific evidence-based practice evaluations and interventions. The 

guideline was developed to assist facilities in implementing processes of care that are evidence-based and 

designed to achieve maximum functionality and independence, as well as improve patient and family 

quality of life. The related specifics are:

• To identify the critical decision points in the management of patients with post-traumatic stress 

disorder

• To allow flexibility so that local policies or procedures, such as those regarding referrals to or 

consultation with specialty care (mental healthcare), can be accommodated 

• To decrease the development of complications and co-morbidity

• To improve patient outcomes—i.e., reduce symptoms, decrease co-morbidity, increase functional 

status, and enhance the quality of life.

Development Process: 

The development process of this guideline follows a systematic approach described in “Guideline-forGuidelines,” an internal working document of the VA/DoD Evidence-Based Practice Working Group that 

requires an ongoing review of the work in progress. Appendix A clearly describes the guideline 

development process followed for this guideline.

The Offices of Quality and Performance and Patient Care Service of the VA, in collaboration with the 

network Clinical Managers, and the Medical Center Command of the DoD identified clinical leaders to 

champion the guideline development process. During a preplanning conference call, the clinical leaders 

defined the scope of the guideline and identified a group of clinical experts from the VA and DoD that 

formed the Guideline Development Working Group.

At the start of the update process, the clinical leaders, guideline panel members, outside experts, and 

experts in the field of guideline and algorithm development were consulted to determine which aspects of 

the 2004 guideline required updating. These consultations resulted in the following recommendations that 

guided the update efforts: (1) update any recommendations from the original guideline likely to be affected 

by new research findings; (2) provide information and recommendations on health system changes relevant 

to the management of post-traumatic stress; (3) address content areas and models of treatment for which 

little data existed during the development of the original guideline; and (4) review the performance and 

lessons learned since the implementation of the original guideline
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Introduction Page - 7

Review of Literature and Evidence: 

Recommendations for the performance or inclusion of specific procedures or services in this guideline were 

derived through a rigorous methodological approach that included the following: 

• Determining appropriate criteria, such as effectiveness, efficacy, population benefit, and patient 

satisfaction

• Performing a comprehensive literature search and selection of relevant studies from January 2002 to 

August 2009 to identify the best available evidence and ensure maximum coverage of studies at the top 

of the hierarchy of study types

• Reviewing the selected studies to determine the strength of the evidence in relation to these criteria

• Formulating the recommendations and grading the level of evidence supporting each recommendation.

This 2010 update builds on the 2004 version of the guideline and incorporates information from the 

following existing evidence-based guidelines/reports identified by the Working Group as appropriate seed 

documents:

• ISTSS (2009) - Effective Treatments for PTSD: Practice Guidelines from the International Society for 

Traumatic Stress Studies. Foa EB, Keane TM, Friedman MJ. Cohen J (Eds) 2009. New York: Guilford 

Press.

• IOM (2007) - Institute of Medicine (IOM). 2008. Treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: An 

assessment of the evidence. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

• APA (2009) - Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Acute Stress Disorder and 

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Guideline Watch, March 2009.

Literature searches were conducted, covering the period from January 2002 through August 2009, that 

combined terms for post-traumatic stress, acute stress reaction (ASR), acute stress disorder (ASD), acute 

post-traumatic stress disorder, and chronic post-traumatic stress disorder. Electronic searches were 

supplemented by reference lists, and additional citations were suggested by experts. The identified and 

selected studies on those issues were critically analyzed, and evidence was graded using a standardized 

format, based on the system used by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF, 2007).

If evidence exists, the discussion following the recommendations for each annotation includes an evidence 

table identifying the studies that have been considered, the quality of the evidence, and the rating of the 

strength of the recommendation [SR]. The Strength of Recommendation, based on the level of the evidence 

and graded using the USPSTF rating system (see Table: Evidence Rating System), is presented in brackets 

following each guideline recommendation.

Evidence Rating System

SR

A A strong recommendation that clinicians provide the intervention to eligible patients. 

Good evidence was found that the intervention improves important health outcomes and 

concludes that benefits substantially outweigh harm.

B A recommendation that clinicians provide (the service) to eligible patients.

At least fair evidence was found that the intervention improves health outcomes and concludes 

that benefits outweigh harm.

C No recommendation for or against the routine provision of the intervention is made.

At least fair evidence was found that the intervention can improve health outcomes but 

concludes that the balance of benefits and harms is too close to justify a general 

recommendation.

D Recommendation is made against routinely providing the intervention to asymptomatic patients.

At least fair evidence was found that the intervention is ineffective or that the harms outweigh 

benefits.

I The conclusion is that the evidence is insufficient to recommend for or against routinely 

providing the intervention.

Evidence that the intervention is effective is lacking, of poor quality, or conflicting, and the 

balance of benefits and harms can not be determined.

SR = Strength of recommendation
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Introduction Page - 8

Where existing literature was ambiguous or conflicting, or where scientific data was lacking on an issue, 

recommendations are based on the clinical experience of the Working Group. Although several of the 

recommendations in this guideline are based on weak evidence, some of these recommendations are 

strongly recommended, based on the experience and consensus of the clinical experts and researchers of the

Working Group. Recommendations that are based on a consensus of the Working Group include a 

discussion on the given topic. No [SR] is presented for these recommendations. A complete bibliography of 

the references in this guideline can be found in Appendix E

This Guideline is the product of many months of diligent effort and consensus-building among 

knowledgeable individuals from the VA and DoD and a guideline facilitator from the private sector. An 

experienced moderator facilitated the multidisciplinary Working Group. The draft document was discussed 

in two face-to-face group meetings. The content and validity of each section were thoroughly reviewed in a 

series of conference calls. The final document is the product of those discussions and has been approved by 

all members of the Working Group.

The list of participants is included in Appendix D to the guideline.

Implementation:

The guideline and algorithms are designed to be adapted by individual facilities in consideration of local 

needs and resources. The algorithms serve as a guide that providers can use to determine best interventions 

and timing of care for their patients in order to optimize quality of care and clinical outcomes.

Although this guideline represents the state-of-the-art practice on the date of its publication, medical 

practice is evolving, and this evolution requires continuous updating of published information. New 

technology and more research will improve patient care in the future. The clinical practice guideline can 

assist in identifying priority areas for research and optimal allocation of resources. Future studies 

examining the results of clinical practice guidelines such as these may lead to the development of new 

practice-based evidence.

KEY POINTS ADDRESSED BY THIS GUIDELINE

1. Triage and management of acute traumatic stress

2. Routine primary care screening for trauma and related symptoms

3. Diagnosis of trauma syndromes and co-morbidities

4. Evidence-based management of trauma-related symptoms and functioning

5. Collaborative patient/provider decision-making, education, and goal-setting

6. Coordinated and sustained follow-up

7. Identification of major gaps in current knowledge

8. Outline for psychological care in ongoing military operations

9. Proactive strategies to promote resilience and prevent trauma-related stress disorders

10. Standardized longitudinal care (DoD/VA, Primary Care/Mental Health)
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Introduction Page - 9

OVERVIEW OF GUIDELINE UPDATE

This clinical practice guideline updates the 2004 version of the VA/DoD Guideline on Management of 

Post-Traumatic Stress. The Working Group (WG) developed a revised, comprehensive clinical algorithm.

The objective of the VA/DoD Working Group in developing this revision was to incorporate the 

accumulating experience in the field and information from the original guideline recommendations into a 

format that would maximally facilitate clinical decision-making. Randomized controlled trials and 

systematic reviews were identified and have been carefully appraised and included in the analysis of the 

evidence for this update. Promoting evidence-based treatment ultimately enhances and optimizes treatment 

outcomes, thus contributing to optimal care across institutional boundaries and promoting a smooth 

transition of care between the DOD and the VA healthcare systems.

The current revision incorporates the four Modules of the 2004 guideline into a CORE module and two 

management Modules: 1) Acute Stress Reaction and early interventions to prevent PTSD; and 2) 

Management of PTSD. Where evidence suggests differences in the management of Acute Stress Reactions 

(ASR), Acute Stress Disorder (ASD), and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), specific treatment

intervention recommendations are provided.

The VA/DoD Working Group reviewed the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies clinical 

practice guideline (Foa et al., 2009) and made the decision to adopt several of their evidence-based 

recommendations. In addition, identified randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews published in 

the past 7 years have been carefully appraised and included in the analysis of the evidence for this update.

The first Module incorporates the assessment, diagnosis, and management of symptoms of Acute Stress 

Reaction (ASR) in the immediate period after exposure to trauma, the management of Acute Stress 

Disorder (ASD), and the effective early interventions to prevent progression of stress reactions to full 

PTSD. Additional recommendations were added for the assessment and management of Combat and 

Operational Stress Reaction (COSR), addressing specific actions that the WG considered to be of 

importance for providers caring for service members with symptoms.

The second Module addresses the diagnosis and management of patients with Post-Traumatic Stress 

Disorder (PTSD). The WG revised the algorithm for this module in a patient-centered approach that 

emphasizes the decisions and interventions shown to be effective in treating PTSD, regardless of the 

treatment setting. This approach should allow for the use of the guideline as a starting point for innovative 

plans that improve collaborative efforts and focus on key aspects of care. The recommendations outlined in 

this guideline should serve as a framework for the care that is provided in both, specialty mental healthcare

settings and primary care. The optimal setting of care for the individual patient will depend on patient 

preferences, the level of expertise of the provider, and available resources.

The WG recognizes that PTSD is often accompanied by other psychiatric conditions. Such co-morbidities 

require clinical attention at the point of diagnosis and throughout the process of treatment. Disorders of 

particular concern are substance use disorder, major depression, and post-concussive symptoms attributed 

to mild TBI. The WG also recognizes the fact that few trials have been published that can provide guidance 

on how to manage PTSD that is complicated by co-morbid illness. The revised guideline includes 

recommendations based on the experience and opinion of the experts, providing suggestions for the 

approach to treatment of PTSD in the presence of co-morbid psychiatric conditions.

Working Group consensus-based recommendations are added to the 2010 revision of the CPG regarding 

specific adjunct treatment interventions that target specific symptoms frequently seen in patients with acute 

stress reactions (beyond the core symptoms of ASD/PTSD). These include sleep disturbance, pain, and 

anger. These consensus-based recommendations are aimed to help the primary care practitioners and others 

to provide brief symptom-focused treatment.

Finally, clinicians following these updated guidelines should not limit themselves only to the approaches 

and techniques addressed in the guideline. All current treatments have limitations—not all patients respond 

to them, patients drop out of treatment, or providers are not comfortable using a particular intervention.

Creative integration of combined treatments that are driven by sound evidence-based principles is

encouraged in the field. 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Introduction Page - 10

VA/DoD GUIDELINE WORKING GROUP

VHA DoD

Ron Acierno, PhD

Kathleen Chard, PhD 

Daniella David, MD

Matt Friedman, MD (Co-Chair) 

Matt Jeffreys, MD

Terry Keane, PhD 

Harold Kudler, MD

Todd Semla, PharmD

Sheila Rauch, PhD 

Josef Ruzek, PhD (Co-Chair)

Steve Southwick, MD

Murray Stein, MD

Reviewers and Contributors:

Nancy Bernardy, PhD

LTC Edward Brusher, LCSW

Bruce Capehart, MD, MBA 

Michael Clark, PhD

Kent Drescher, PhD

Carolyn Green, PhD

Barbara Hermann, PhD

Julia Hoffman, Psy.D

Dan Kivlahan, PhD

Eric Kuhn, PhD

Walter Penk, PhD

Paula Schnurr, PhD

James Spira, PhD, MPH

Jennifer Vasterling, PhD

Curtis Aberle, NP

LT Justin Campbell, PhD 

MAJ Debra Dandridge, PharmD 

COL Charles Engel, MD 

Capt Joel Foster, PhD 

CDR Stella Hayes, MD 

Charles Hoge, MD 

MAJ Kenneth Hyde, PA 

CAPT Robert Koffman, MD 

COL James Liffrig, MD 

COL Patrick Lowry, MD (Co-Chair)

LTC Sandra McNaughton, NP 

David Orman, MD 

Alan Peterson, PhD 

Miguel Roberts, PhD 

CAPT Mark Stephens, MD 

CAPT Frances Stewart, MD 

MAJ Christopher Warner, MD 

Lt Col Randon Welton, MD 

LTC Robert Wilson, PhD

Office of Quality and Performance

Carla Cassidy, RN, MSN, NP

Kathryn J. Dolter, RN, PhD

US Army Medical Command

Ernest Degenhardt, MSN, RN, ANP-FNP

Marjory Waterman, MN, RN

Guideline Facilitator: Oded Susskind, MPH

Research and Evidence Appraisal

Hayes Inc. Lansdale, PA

Susan A. Levine, DVM, PhD

Arlene Mann, R.N.

Healthcare Quality Informatics:

Martha D’Erasmo, MPH

Rosalie Fishman, RN, MSN, CPHQ

Sue Radcliff
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Table of Contents Page - 11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CORE MODULE: ALGORITHM 14

CORE MODULE: ANNOTATIONS 15

1. PRIMARY PREVENTION......................................................................15

A. Education and Training to Foster Resilience 15

2. POPULATIONS AT-RISK FOR DEVELOPING PTSD ...............................17

B. Person Exposed to Trauma 17

3. SECONDARY PREVENTION .................................................................18

C. Screen for PTSD Symptoms 18

D. Are Trauma-Related Symptoms Present? 20

E. Educate About Additional Care If Needed; Provide Contact Information 25

MODULE A: ACUTE STRESS REACTION (ASR) and 

PREVENTION OF POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD) 28

MODULE A: ALGORITHM 29

MODULE A: ANNOTATIONS 30

1. ASSESSMENT & TRIAGE.....................................................................30

A. Trauma Exposure (within the past 30 days) 30

B. Assess Briefly Based on General Appearance and Behavior 31

C. Unstable, Dangerous to Self or Others, or 

Need for Urgent Medical Attention 32

D. Ensure Basic Physical Needs Are Met 34

E. Person has Trauma-Related Symptoms, Significant Impaired Function, or 

Diagnosis of ASD 39

F. Assess Medical and Functional Status 42

G. Assess Pre-Existing Psychiatric and Medical Conditions 43

H Assess Risk Factors for Developing ASD/PTSD 43

2. TREATMENT .......................................................................................45

I. Provide Education and Normalization / Expectancy of Recovery 45

J. Initiate Brief Intervention 45

K. Acute Symptom Management 49

L1. Facilitate Spiritual Support 50

L2. Facilitate Social Support 50

3. RE-ASSESSMENT................................................................................51

M. Reassess Symptoms and Function 51

4. FOLLOW-UP .......................................................................................52

N. Persistent (>1 Month) or Worsening Symptoms, Significant Functional 

Impairment, or High Risk for Development of PTSD. 52

O. Monitor and Follow-Up 54
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MODULE B: ALGORITHM 56

MODULE B: ANNOTATIONS 58

1. ASSESSMENT .....................................................................................58

A. Assessment of Stress Related Symptoms 58

B. Assessment of Trauma Exposure 60

C. Assessment of Dangerousness to Self or Others 61

D. Obtain Medical History, Physical Examination, Laboratory Tests 

and Psychosocial Assessment 65

E. Assessment of Function, Duty/Work Responsibilities and 

Patient’s Fitness (In Relation To Military Operations) 68

F. Assessment of Risk/Protective Factors 71

2. TRIAGE..............................................................................................78

G. Diagnosis of PTSD or Clinical Significant Symptoms Suggestive of PTSD? 78

H. Assess for Co-Occurring Disorders 81

I. Educate Patient and Family 84

J. Determine Optimal Setting for Management of PTSD and 

Co-Occurring Disorders 86

J1. Management of PTSD with Co-morbidity 86

J2. Management of Concurrent PTSD and Substance Use Disorder 88

J3. The Role of the Primary Care Practitioner 91

3. TREATMENT .......................................................................................91

K. Initiate Treatment Using Effective Interventions for PTSD 91

L. Facilitate Spiritual Support 93

M. Facilitate Social Support 93

4. RE-ASSESSMENT................................................................................94

N. Assess Response to Treatment 94

O. Follow-Up 95
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MODULE I: TREATMENT INTERVENTIONS 101

Module I-1. EARLY INTERVENTIONS TO PREVENT PTSD.....................102

A. PSYCHOTHERAPY 104

A1. Psychological Debriefing 104

A2. Brief Early Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention 108

A3. Other Early Interventions 109

B. Early Pharmacotherapy Interventions to Prevent PTSD 110

Module I-2. TREATMENT FOR PTSD......................................................114

A. Selection of Therapy for PTSD 114

B. PSYCHOTHERAPY INTERVENTIONS FOR PTSD 115

B1. Therapies that More Strongly Emphasize Cognitive Techniques (CT) 119

B2. Exposure Therapy (ET) 123

B3. Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) 126

B5. Imagery Rehearsal Therapy (IRT) 130

B6. Psychodynamic Therapy 132

B7. Patient Education 133

B9. Dialectical Behavior Therapy 140

B10. Hypnosis 142

B11. Behavioral Couples Therapy 143

B12. Telemedicine and Web-based Interventions 144

C. PHARMACOTHERAPY FOR PTSD 149

D. ADJUNCTIVE SERVICES 167

D1. Psychosocial Rehabilitation 167

D2. Spiritual Support 172

E. SOMATIC TREATMENT 173

E1. Biomedical Somatic Therapies 173

E2. Acupuncture 175

F. COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 176

F1. Natural Products (Biologically Based Practices) 178

F2. Mind-Body Medicine 179

F3. Manipulation and Body-Based Practices (Exercise and Movement) 180

F4. Energy medicine 180

F5. Whole Medical Systems 181

F6. Other Approaches 182

Module I-3. MANAGEMENT OF SPECIFIC SYMPTOMS ...........................183

A. Sleep Disturbances 183

B. Pain 189

C. Irritability, Severe Agitation, or Anger 194
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CORE MODULE: ALGORITHM
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CORE MODULE: ANNOTATIONS 

1. PRIMARY PREVENTION

A. Education and Training to Foster Resilience

OBJECTIVE

Prepare individuals and groups for exposure to potentially traumatic experiences in 

ways that minimize the likelihood of development of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 

(PTSD) and other trauma-related problems.

BACKGROUND

Because exposure to traumatic stressors is part of the expected work experience of 

some occupations (e.g., military personnel and emergency services workers), it is 

sensible to make efforts to prepare individuals in these professions for their 

encounters with traumatic events. This preparation is not explicitly undertaken in 

most workplaces, with some exceptions (e.g., some military training environments). 

To date, research has not examined our capacity to prepare individuals or 

communities for trauma exposure. However, general principles of preparation can be 

outlined that are consistent with theoretical models of the development of PTSD, 

research on risk factors for development of PTSD, and emerging concepts of 

resilience and hardiness.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. In high-risk occupations, for which the probability of trauma exposure is 

moderate or high, efforts should be undertaken to increase the psychological 

resilience of workers to the negative effects of trauma exposure.

DISCUSSION

Although little is directly known about our capacity to prepare individuals or 

communities for trauma exposure, it is possible to identify principles of preparation 

that are consistent with empirical research on risk and resilience factors and with 

current theories of PTSD development. Such pre-trauma preparation can include 

attention to both the ability to cope during the trauma itself and shaping the posttrauma environment so that it will foster post-trauma adaptation.

Some influential theories of PTSD posit that a process of classical fear conditioning 

can lead to development of chronic PTSD symptomatology. In this process, stimuli 

associated with the traumatic experience can elicit responses similar to those 

experienced during the trauma itself (e.g., intense anxiety). Other theories suggest 

that individuals who develop negative trauma-related beliefs (e.g., about personal 

guilt) will be more likely to experience continuing trauma reactions, because such 

beliefs will maintain a sense of threat and personal incompetence. Research on risk 

factors for PTSD indicates that post-trauma social support and life stress affect the 

likelihood of development of the disorder. Protective factors have also been identified 

that mitigate the negative effects of stress. Research is beginning to delineate the 

psychological processes that moderate an individual’s response to stress and to 

explore training programs for increasing resilience to stress. Hardiness (Kobasa et 

al., 1982) is one personality factor that has been demonstrated to buffer against 

traumatic stress and PTSD in military veterans (King et al., 1998; Bartone, 2000). 

Zach, Raviv & Inbar (2007) found that hardiness levels increased for Special Forces 
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trainees over the course of a stressful training/selection program in which challenges 

were gradually more difficult, and leaders were consistently supportive and 

encouraged trainees to view failures as learning opportunities. Hardiness is 

characterized by three key attributes: ability to perceive control over life’s events; 

ability to make strong commitment to tasks; and ability to see stressful experiences 

as a challenge to be overcome. Training programs, personnel policies, and leadership 

strategies that promote hardiness may thereby increase an individual’s ability to 

resist the negative effects of traumatic stress. 

Such findings and theories are consistent with the following principles of preparation:

1. Provide realistic training that includes vicarious, simulated, or actual exposure to 

traumatic stimuli that may be encountered. Examples of application of this 

principle in military training include exposure to live weapons fire, survival 

training, or, for subgroups of military personnel, mock captivity training. This 

principle can be applied to many work roles—for example, those likely to be 

involved in body handling might be trained in mortuary environments. It is 

consistent with classical conditioning theories, in that this can help reduce arousal 

or anxiety associated with particular traumatic stimuli.

2. Strengthen perceived ability to cope during the trauma and with the aftermath. 

Realistic training contributes to this goal. Instruction and practice in the use of a 

variety of coping skills (e.g., stress inoculation training, problem-solving, 

assertion, and cognitive restructuring) may be helpful in enabling workers to 

tolerate stressful work environments. In addition, individuals can be trained to 

cope with acute stress reactions that are common following trauma exposure. 

Such training experiences help to maximize expectations of mastery of traumatic 

situations and their physical and emotional sequelae. Use of positive role models 

(leaders and peers) is also an effective tool for building up the sense of ability to 

cope. The training must include specific, practical actions to change the 

threatening or horrifying situation for the better. Without such positive action 

learning, "simulated" terrifying or horrifying situations and stimuli can induce 

feelings of helplessness that make the training itself traumatizing.

3. Create supportive interpersonal work environments that are likely to provide 

significant social support during and after traumatic events. Efforts to build teams 

and establish group cohesion among work group members are important in this 

regard. Identification and training of peer stress management consultants and 

training and practice in the provision of peer social support may also be useful. 

Families are crucial in post-trauma support and can be given information about, 

and training in, ways of providing social support. Finally, competent, ethical 

leadership at all levels of the organization helps protect against traumatization.

4. Develop and maintain adaptive beliefs about the work role and traumatic 

experiences that may be encountered within it. Key beliefs will be related to 

realistic expectancies about the work environment, confidence in leadership, 

confidence in the meaningfulness or value of the work role, positive but realistic 

appraisals of one's coping ability, and knowledge about the commonness and 

transitory nature of most acute stress reactions. It may be useful to identify and 

discuss negative beliefs that sometimes arise in the specific work environment in 

order to “inoculate” against such beliefs.

5. Develop workplace-specific comprehensive traumatic stress management 

programs. Such programs can be a significant source of post-trauma support 

(e.g., via Chaplains or mental health professionals) that can minimize traumarelated problems among workers. It is important to take steps to increase 
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awareness of such services and to de-stigmatize and reduce the potential 

negative consequences of their use. For example, employees should be helped to 

understand that seeking help in confronting symptoms and problems early in 

their development is likely to be more effective than avoiding them or keeping 

them secret from others but that even long-hidden or persisting PTSD can be 

treated.

Comprehensive preparation programs that target and incorporate these principles 

and that are integrated themselves into existing unit/community programs and 

support systems may be expected to be most helpful (Gist & Lubin, 1999).

2. POPULATIONS AT-RISK FOR DEVELOPING PTSD

B. Person Exposed to Trauma

OBJECTIVE

Assess the nature of the traumatic event and other potential stressors.

BACKGROUND

A number of sufferers with PTSD may recover with no or limited interventions.

However, without effective treatment, many people may develop chronic problems 

over many years. The severity of the initial traumatic response is a reasonable 

indicator of the need for early intervention. Families and care-givers have a central 

role in supporting people with stress symptoms. Depending on the nature of the 

trauma and its consequences, many families may also need support for themselves. 

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Persons exposed to trauma should be assessed for the type, frequency, nature, 

and severity of the trauma. [B]

a. Assessment should include a broad range of potential trauma exposures in 

addition to the index trauma.

b. Trauma Exposure Assessment Instruments may assist in evaluating the 

nature and severity of the exposure.

c. Assessment of existing social supports and ongoing stressors is important. 

DISCUSSION

Although exposure to trauma is common, several risk factors for the development of 

PTSD have been identified. Trauma-related risks include the nature, severity, and 

duration of the trauma exposure. For example, life-threatening traumas, such as 

physical injury or rape, pose a high risk of PTSD (Kilpatrick, 1989). A prior history of 

trauma exposure conveys a greater risk of PTSD from subsequent trauma (Breslau et 

al., 1999).

Post-trauma risks include poor social support and life stress (Brewin et al., 2000). A 

greater risk for developing PTSD may be conveyed by post-trauma factors (e.g., lack 

of social support and additional life stress) than pre-trauma factors.
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3. SECONDARY PREVENTION 

C. Screen for PTSD Symptoms

OBJECTIVE

Identify possible cases of post-traumatic stress

BACKGROUND

Patients do not often self-identify as suffering with PTSD, and patients with 

unrecognized PTSD are often difficult to treat because of poor patient/provider 

rapport, anger and distrust, a focus on somatic symptoms, and other trauma-related 

problems. Research supports the utility of brief screening tools for identifying 

undiagnosed cases of PTSD. Identification of PTSD may help facilitate development 

of rapport, suggest treatment options, and potentially improve outcomes for these 

patients.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. All new patients should be screened for symptoms of PTSD initially and then on 

an annual basis or more frequently if clinically indicated due to clinical suspicion, 

recent trauma exposure (e.g., major disaster), or history of PTSD. [B]

2. Patients should be screened for symptoms of PTSD using paper-and-pencil or 

computer-based screening tools. [B]

3. There is insufficient evidence to recommend one PTSD screening tool versus 

another. However, the following screening tools have been validated and should 

be considered for use. For example: (See Appendix C)

- Primary Care PTSD Screen (PC-PTSD)

- PTSD Brief Screen

- Short Screening Scale for DSM IV PTSD.

- PTSD Checklist (PCL)

4. There is insufficient evidence to recommend special screening for members of 

any cultural or racial group or gender. [I]

DISCUSSION

The benefit of screening is well established for diseases with high prevalence. In one 

study (Taubman et al., 2001), 23 percent of patients presenting in the primary care 

setting reported exposure to traumatic events, and 39 percent of those met criteria 

for PTSD. Screening strategies should, however, balance efficacy with practical 

concerns (e.g., staffing, time constraints, and current clinical practices). Brevity, 

simplicity, and ease of implementation should encourage compliance with 

recommended screening. Care should be exercised in implementing screening in 

ways that avoid social stigmatization and adverse occupational effects of positive 

screens.

Brewin (2005) reviewed published screening instruments for civilian PTSD, consisting 

of 30 items or fewer, that were validated against structured clinical interviews. 

Thirteen instruments were identified as meeting these criteria, all consisting of 

symptoms of traumatic stress. The review concluded that the performance of some 

currently available instruments is near their maximal potential effectiveness and that 

instruments with fewer items, simpler response scales, and simpler scoring methods 

perform as well as, if not better, than longer and more complex measures. 
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Screening Tools: (See Appendix C)

Primary Care PTSD Screen (PC-PTSD): This is a 4-item screen that was designed for 

use in primary care and other medical settings and is currently used to screen for 

PTSD in veterans at the VA. The screen includes an introductory sentence to cue 

respondents to traumatic events. The authors suggest that in most circumstances,

the results of the PC-PTSD should be considered "positive" if a patient answers "yes" 

to any 3 items. Those who screen positive should then be assessed with a structured 

interview for PTSD. The screen does not include a list of potentially traumatic events 

(Prins et al., 2003). Internal consistency (KR20=.79) and test-retest reliability 

(r=.84) of the PC-PTSD were found to be good (Prins et al., 1999). The operating 

characteristics of the screen suggest that the overall efficiency (i.e., optimal 

sensitivity and specificity =.87) is best when any two items are endorsed. The PCPTSD screen has been validated in a military population (Bliese et al., 2008) and has 

been used extensively in post-deployment screening efforts (Hoge, 2004).

PTSD Brief Screen: The PTSD Brief Screen was developed using the rationally 

derived approach, based on data from the National Co-morbidity Survey. Construct 

validity has generally been adequate. The overall efficiency of this screen was good 

(.78), whereas the correlations were significantly lower or negative for other mental 

disorders, indicating good construct validity (Leskin et al., 1999).

PTSD Checklist (PCL): The PCL has been used extensively in military and civilian 

populations, and there are numerous validation studies, including studies in military 

populations (Terhakopian et al., 2008).

Special Screening of Cultural or Racial Groups:

Research has centered on three broadly defined groups—Hispanics, Blacks/AfricanAmericans, and Whites/Caucasians—in the attempt to answer two questions: First, 

are members of one or more groups more susceptible to developing PTSD? Second, 

are the symptoms shown by members of any group more severe or otherwise 

different from symptoms shown by other veterans with PTSD?

There are data to suggest that Blacks/African-Americans and Hispanics experience 

higher rates of PTSD than do Whites/Caucasians (Frueh et al., 1998; Ortega & 

Rosenheck, 2000). But, as Frueh and his colleagues note in a systematic review, 

“secondary analyses within the existing epidemiological studies suggest that 

differential rates of PTSD between racial groups may be a function of differential 

rates of traumatic stressors and other pre-existing conditions. This finding, in 

combination with the general paucity of empirical data and certain methodological 

limitations, significantly moderates the conclusions that should be reached from this 

body of literature.” Studies in military samples have generally shown no or minimal 

race/ethnic differences in PTSD prevalence.

In terms of symptom severity and clinical course, the evidence is also mixed. Among 

the studies reviewed here, the following conclusions were reached:

• Two studies found Black/African-American veterans to be more severely affected 

than Hispanics or Whites/Caucasians (Frueh et al., 1996; Penk et al., 1989)

• The National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study (NVVRS) found higher PTSD 

prevalence among Hispanic veterans than among Whites or Blacks after 

controlling for combat exposure (Kulka et al., 1990; Schlenger et al., 1992).

• One study found Hispanics to be more severely affected than Whites/Caucasians 

but not to suffer from higher functional impairment levels than 

Whites/Caucasians (Ortega and Rosenheck, 2000).
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• Three studies found no significant clinical differences between Black/AfricanAmerican veterans and White/Caucasian veterans (Frueh et al., 1997; Rosenheck 

and Fontana, 1996; Trent et al., 2000).

• One review found no clinical differences among Hispanics, Blacks/AfricanAmericans, and Whites/Caucasians (Frueh et al., 1998)

• One study found that American-of-Japanese Ancestry Vietnam Veterans had 

lower PTSD prevalence than Caucasians (Friedman et al., 2004).

• Among Vietnam Veterans, American Indians and Native Americans have higher 

rates than Caucasian veterans whereas American of Japanese ancestry have 

lower PTSD prevalence than Caucasians (Beals et al., 2002; Friedman et al., 

2004).

These results support Frueh et al. (1998) in their conclusion that “despite the 

prevailing zeitgeist and clinical lore, the limited extant empirical evidence suggests 

that veterans of different races are more similar to each other than they are different 

when it comes to the clinical manifestation and response to treatment of combatrelated PTSD and associated features.”

EVIDENCE

Evidence Sources LE QE SR

1 Screening all patients for PTSD 

symptoms.

Breslau et al., 1999a

Leskin & Westrup, 1999

Prins et al., 1999

Taubman et al., 2001

II-2 Fair B

2 Screening tools:

 Primary Care PTSD Screen

 PTSD Brief Screen

 Short Screening Scale for DSM IV

 PTSD Checklist (PCL)

Breslau et al., 1999a

Leskin & Westrup, 1999

Prins et al., 1999

Terhakopian, et al 2008

II-2 Fair B

3 Special screening for members of any 

cultural or racial group

Frueh et al., 1996, 1997, 1998

Ortega & Rosenheck, 2000

Penk et al., 1989

Rosenheck & Fontana, 1996

Trent et al., 2000

Friedman 2004

III Poor I

LE – Level of Evidence; QE = Quality of Evidence; SR = Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)

D. Are Trauma-Related Symptoms Present?

OBJECTIVE

Identify people exposed to trauma who are at risk for developing acute stress 

reactions (ASR), acute stress disorder (ASD), or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 

(PTSD).

BACKGROUND

Warning Signs of Trauma-Related Stress (APA)

Individuals who have experienced a traumatic event often experience psychological 

stress reactions related to the incident. In most instances, these are common normal 

reactions to extreme situations. Individuals who feel they are unable to regain 

control of their lives or who experience the following symptoms for more than a 
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month should consider seeking outside professional mental health assistance. Some

symptoms to watch out for include:

• Recurring thoughts, mental images, or nightmares about the event

• Having trouble sleeping

• Changes in appetite

• Experiencing anxiety and fear, especially when exposed to events or situations 

reminiscent of the trauma

• Feeling on edge, being easily startled, or becoming overly alert

• Feeling depressed or sad and having low energy

• Experiencing memory problems, including difficulty in remembering aspects of 

the trauma

• Feeling "scattered" and unable to focus on work or daily activities

• Having difficulty making decisions

• Feeling irritable, easily agitated, or angry and resentful

• Feeling emotionally "numb," withdrawn, disconnected, or different from others

• Spontaneously crying, feeling a sense of despair and hopelessness

• Feeling extremely protective of, or fearful for, the safety of loved ones

• Not being able to face certain aspects of the trauma and avoiding activities, 

places, or even people that remind you of the event.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Individuals who are presumed to have symptoms of PTSD or who are positive for 

PTSD on the initial screening should receive a more detailed assessment of their 

symptoms. 

2. Useful symptom-related information may include details, such as time of onset, 

frequency, course, severity, level of distress, and degree of functional 

impairment.

3. The elapsed time since the exposure to trauma should be considered when 

assessing the risk of developing PTSD and determining the diagnosis and 

appropriate intervention.

The following definitions will help providers select the appropriate treatment 

algorithm:

Stress-Related Disorders and Syndromes Definitions

Trauma

An extreme traumatic stressor involving direct personal experience of an event that 

involves actual or threatened death or serious injury or another threat to one's 

physical integrity; witnessing an event that involves death, injury, or a threat to the 

physical integrity of another person; or learning about unexpected or violent death, 

serious harm, or threat of death or injury experienced by a family member or other 

close associate. According to DSM-IV-TM criteria, the person's response to the event 

must involve intense fear, helplessness, or horror. However, there is evidence that 

military personnel do not always respond in the same way as civilian victims of 

traumatic events, and the criteria for “fear, helpless, or horror” are being 

reconsidered in the proposed future DSM criteria (Adler, 2008).
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Acute Stress Reaction (ASR) 

Acute stress reaction is a transient condition that develops in response to a traumatic 

event. Onset of at least some signs and symptoms may be simultaneous with the

trauma itself or within minutes of the traumatic event and may follow the trauma 

after an interval of hours or days. In most cases, symptoms will disappear within 

days (even hours). Symptoms include a varying mixture of the following:

A broad group of physical, mental, and emotional signs and symptoms that 

result from heavy mental and emotional work during exposure to difficult 

potentially traumatic conditions.

Symptoms may include depression, fatigue, anxiety, decreased 

concentration/memory, hyperarousal, or any of the four categories of reactions 

(See Table CORE - 1) that have not resolved within four days after the event, 

after a rule-out of other disorders.

The traumatic events that can lead to an acute stress reaction are of similar 

severity to those involved in post-traumatic stress disorder.

Combat and Operational Stress Reaction (COSR) during an Ongoing Military Operation 

COSR is the term used to describe an acute stress reaction in the combat 

environment and can include virtually any symptom and sign, including physical and 

neurological symptoms, resulting from exposure to extremely stressful events or 

combat experiences. It may result from specific traumatic experiences in combat or 

exhaustion due to the cumulative effects of one or more factors, including sleep 

deprivation, extreme physical stress, poor sanitary conditions, limited caloric intake, 

dehydration, or extremes of environmental conditions. 

Acute Stress Disorder (ASD)

ASD refers to clinically significant (causing significant distress or impairment in 

social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning) symptoms >2 days but 

<1 month after exposure to a trauma, as defined above (may progress to PTSD if 

symptoms last >1 month). Criteria for diagnosis include:

• Exposure to trauma, as defined above

• Either while experiencing or after experiencing the distressing event, the 

individual has at least three of the following dissociative symptoms:

o A subjective sense of numbing, detachment, and/or absence of emotional 

responsiveness

o A reduction in awareness of his/her surroundings (e.g., "being in a daze").

o Derealization (the feeling that familiar surroundings or people are unreal 

or have become strange)

o Depersonalization (the feeling in an individual that (s)he is no longer 

him/herself. His/Her personality, body, external events, and the whole 

world may no longer appear to be real)

o Dissociative amnesia (i.e., the inability to recall an important aspect of the 

trauma).

• The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced in at least one of the following 

ways: recurrent images, thoughts, dreams, illusions, flashback episodes, or a 

sense of reliving the experience or distress on exposure to reminders of the 

traumatic event.
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• Marked avoidance of stimuli that arouse recollections of the trauma (e.g., 

thoughts, feelings, conversations, activities, places, people, sounds, smells, or 

others).

• Marked symptoms of anxiety or increased arousal (e.g., difficulty sleeping, 

irritability, poor concentration, hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, and 

motor restlessness).

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Clinically significant symptoms that are causing significant distress or impairment in 

social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning and occur more than one

month after exposure to a trauma. Symptoms may include:

The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced in one (or more) of the 

following ways:

• Recurrent and intrusive recollections of the event, including images, thoughts, or 

perceptions

• Recurrent distressing dreams of the event

• Acting or feeling as if the traumatic event were recurring (includes a sense of 

reliving the experience, illusions, hallucinations, and dissociative flashback 

episodes, including those that occur on awakening or when intoxicated)

• Intense psychological distress on exposure to internal or external cues that 

symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event

• Physiological reactivity on exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize or 

resemble an aspect of the traumatic event.

Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma and numbing of general 

responsiveness (not present before the trauma), as indicated by three or more of the 

following:

• Efforts to avoid thoughts, feeling, or conversations associated with the trauma

• Efforts to avoid activities, places, or people that arouse recollections of the 

trauma

• Inability to recall an important aspect of the trauma

• Markedly diminished interest or participation in significant activities

• Feeling of detachment or estrangement from others 

• Restricted range of affect (e.g., unable to have loving feelings)

• Sense of foreshortened future (e.g., does not expect to have a career, marriage, 

children, or a normal life span).

Persistent symptoms of increased arousal (not present before the trauma), as 

indicated by at least two of the following:

• Difficulty falling or staying asleep 

• Irritability or outbursts of anger 

• Difficulty concentrating 

• Hypervigilance

• Exaggerated startle response.
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Acute PTSD

The clinically significant symptoms above continue to cause significant distress or 

impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning, lasting

more than one month but less than 3 months after exposure to trauma.

Chronic PTSD

The clinically significant symptoms above cause significant distress or impairment in 

social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. The symptoms last 

more than 3 months after exposure to trauma. Chronic PTSD is unlikely to improve 

without effective treatment.

• Some PTSD patients may exhibit persistent difficulties in interpersonal relations, 

mood, somatization, and profound identity problems. Such presentation may be 

often associated with sustained or repeated trauma during childhood or 

adolescence (such as longstanding incest or physical abuse), but it may also be 

associated with sustained trauma in later life or may appear as a late 

consequence of chronic PTSD, even if the original traumatic stressor was a single 

event.

• Co-morbid – also meeting DSM criteria for another disorder, such as substance 

use disorder, major depression disorder, other anxiety disorder, and mTBI among 

military personal.

PTSD with Delayed Onset

Onset of the clinically significant symptoms above, causing significant distress or 

impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning at least 6 

months after exposure to trauma.

Figure 1. Stress Reaction Timeline.
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Table CORE - 1 Common Signs & Symptoms Following Exposure to Trauma

Physical Cognitive/Mental Emotional Behavioral

• Chills

• Difficulty breathing

• Dizziness

• Elevated blood pressure

• Fainting 

• Fatigue

• Grinding teeth

• Headaches

• Muscle tremors

• Nausea 

• Pain

• Profuse sweating

• Rapid heart rate

• Twitches

• Weakness

• Blaming someone

• Change in alertness

• Confusion

• Hyper-vigilance

• Increased or decreased 

awareness of 

surroundings

• Intrusive images

• Memory problems

• Nightmares

• Poor abstract thinking

• Poor attention

• Poor concentration

• Poor decision-making

• Poor problem solving

• Agitation

• Anxiety

• Apprehension

• Denial

• Depression

• Emotional shock

• Fear

• Feeling overwhelmed

• Grief

• Guilt

• Inappropriate 

emotional response

• Irritability

• Loss of emotional 

control

• Increased alcohol 

consumption

• Antisocial acts

• Change in activity

• Change in communication

• Change in sexual 

functioning

• Change in speech pattern

• Emotional outbursts

• Inability to rest

• Change in appetite

• Pacing

• Startle reflex intensified

• Suspiciousness

• Social withdrawal

E. Educate About Additional Care If Needed; Provide Contact Information

OBJECTIVE

Provide normalization for survivors and responders whose reactions are not clinically 

significant

BACKGROUND

Trauma survivors and responders who are NOT experiencing signs or symptoms or 

who are experiencing few symptoms should receive education. It should emphasize 

that the observed reactions in the symptomatic survivors are common in the 

aftermath of trauma and do not signify personal inadequacy, health problems, 

mental illness, or other enduring negative consequences.

Contemporary approaches to early intervention following trauma exposure 

emphasize the importance of “normalization” of acute stress reactions. Survivors or 

responders who show distressing symptoms or disturbed behavior should be 

educated to understand that their reactions are common, normal responses to the 

extreme events. Such an approach follows from the common clinical observation that 

individuals experiencing acute stress reactions often interpret their reactions as signs 

of “personal weakness” or evidence that they are “going crazy,” which increases their 

demoralization and distress. Normalization is undermined if survivors or responders 

who are not experiencing disruptive distress show a derogatory or punitive attitude 

to others who are.

Also, the persons with distress who most strongly deny or dissociate from their 

distress may be at increased risk for developing acute stress disorder (ASD) and 

subsequent PTSD. The education and normalization may therefore help them 

recognize how to protect themselves better and to seek care early if symptoms do 

interfere with their “self-control.” Even those who go on to develop PTSD may benefit 

from an understanding that their symptoms do not represent “personal weakness” 
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and that although their symptoms may be severe and painful, they are not losing 

control of their minds.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Pre- and post-trauma education should include helping the asymptomatic trauma 

survivor or responder understand that the acute stress reactions of other people 

are common and probably transient and do not indicate personal failure or 

weakness, mental illness, or health problems.

2. Education should include sufficient review of the many ways that post-traumatic 

problems can present, including symptoms in the ASD/PTSD spectrum, 

behavioral problems with family and friends, occupational problems, and the 

potential impact of alcohol or other substance misuse/abuse.

3. Education should also include positive messages by identifying and encouraging 

positive ways of coping, describing simple strategies to resolve or cope with 

developing symptoms and problems, and setting expectations for mastery and/or 

recovery.

4. Provide contact information, should post-traumatic symptoms emerge later. 

5. Routine debriefing or formal psychotherapy is not beneficial for asymptomatic

individuals and may be harmful. [D]

DISCUSSION

Individuals who do not exhibit symptoms may have family members or close friends 

who are symptomatic. The clinician should educate them about their role in 

supporting their loved ones and emphasize that normalization is a concept that can 

incorporate helping asymptomatic survivors to:

• View other people’s (and their own possible future) stress reactions as normal, 

common, and expectable responses to trauma

• Recognize that sometimes peoples’ inadequate attempts to cope with their 

reactions are also within the range of “normal” for the strange situation

• See that it is natural for them to wonder how they are doing and to be surprised 

or upset by the intensity, duration, or uncontrollability of their reactions.

The evidence base for the utility of normalization is weak. Few studies have 

attempted to assess the degree of normalization of survivor attitudes and establish a 

relationship with PTSD and other outcomes. Also unstudied is whether reassurance of 

normality and likely recovery, provided by co-survivor peers or helpers, actually 

serves to promote normalization. Nonetheless, the concept of normalization is 

consistent with theories of the development and maintenance of PTSD and with 

research showing a relationship between negative reactions to symptoms and PTSD 

(Steil & Ehlers, 2000).

Recent literature in the area of trauma has highlighted the potential for interventions 

to exacerbate trauma reactions. Asymptomatic survivors should not be offered 

services that extend beyond delivery of Psychological First Aid and education.

Psychotherapy intervention may actually cause harm in persons not experiencing 

symptoms of acute stress (Roberts, Kitchiner et al., 2009b). The general rule of “do 

no harm” should apply not only to professionals but volunteers alike.
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EVIDENCE

Recommendation Sources LE QE SR

1 Providing pre- and post-trauma 

education can help individuals 

understand and cope with exposure 

experiences.

Working Group Consensus III Poor I

2 Routine single, or multiple,

psychological interventions for 

asymptomatic trauma survivors are 

NOT effective and may be harmful

Roberts, Kitchiner et al., 2009b I Good D

Psychological debriefings are not 

effective

See module I-1: Early 

Interventions

LE =Level of Evidence; QE = Quality of Evidence; SR = Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)

1
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Module A – Acute Stress Reaction / Prevention of PTSD Page - 28

MODULE A: ACUTE STRESS REACTION (ASR)

and

PREVENTION OF POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD)

Although acute stress reaction (ASR) is not defined in the DSM-IV, there has long 

been recognition among mental health professionals that individuals who experience 

a traumatic event react in certain predictable ways. A key point in the World Health 

Organization definition (WHO, 1992) of ASR is the assertion that “the symptoms 

usually appear within minutes of the impact of the stressful stimulus or event and 

disappear within 2-3 days (often within hours).” This view is echoed in a Guideline 

for Evidence-Based Early Psychological Intervention for Victims/Survivors of Mass 

Violence, released in 2002 by a collaborative group of Federal Departments and the 

American Red Cross: “a sensible working principle in the immediate post-incident 

phase is to expect normal recovery” (NIMH, 2002).

Screening and needs assessments for individuals, groups, and populations are 

important for the provision of informed early intervention following a major incident 

or traumatic event. Initial reactions following trauma are varied, complex, and 

unstable. 

The authors of this guideline have formulated the recommendations discussed below 

for the management of persons with acute stress reaction (ASR) following a 

traumatic event. Most of the recommendations in this module are based on group 

consensus. When available, the evidence and supporting research are presented in 

evidence tables.

The approach to triage in the immediate response to traumatic exposure for service 

members with symptoms during Ongoing Military Operations may vary from the 

management of civilians exposed to traumatic events. Combat and Operational 

Stress Reaction (COSR) management is targeted to preserve the fighting force and 

return the service member (SM) to functional status. The annotations for this Module 

include, when appropriate, specific recommendations addressing the service 

members with COSR. 
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MODULE A: ALGORITHM
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MODULE A: ANNOTATIONS

1. ASSESSMENT & TRIAGE

A. Trauma Exposure (within the past 30 days)

Acute Stress Reaction (ASR) is a transient condition that often develops in response 

to a traumatic event. Traumatic events are events that cause a person to fear that 

he/she may die or be seriously injured or harmed. These events also can be traumatic 

when the person witnesses them happening to others. Such events often create feelings 

of intense fear, helplessness, or horror for those who experience them. The traumatic 

events that can lead to an acute stress reaction are of similar severity to those involved 

in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Combat or Operational Stress Reaction (COSR) is an acute stress reaction of service 

members during Ongoing Military Operations. COSR specifically refers to a reaction to 

high-stress events and potentially traumatic event exposure. This reaction is not 

attributed to an identified medical/surgical condition that requires other urgent 

treatment (a service member can have COSR concurrent with minor wounds/illnesses).

Among the common types of traumatic events are:

• Combat in a war zone

• Ongoing military operations

• Rape, sexual, or other physical assault

• Natural disaster (e.g., hurricanes, floods, or fires)

• Child physical and/or sexual abuse

• Domestic violence (battering)

• Motor vehicle accidents (MVAs)

• Exposure to the sudden or unexpected death of others

• Sudden life-threatening physical illness (e.g., heart attack or cancer)

• Continuous or reoccurring exposure to traumatic event(s).

Events specific to COSR:

• Intense emotional demands (e.g., rescue personnel and caregivers searching for 

possibly dying survivors or interacting with bereaved family members)

• Extreme fatigue, weather exposure, hunger, sleep deprivation

• Extended exposure to danger, loss, emotional/physical strain

• Exposure to environmental hazards, such as toxic contamination (e.g., gas or 

fumes, chemicals, radioactivity)

• While a COSR can result from a specific traumatic event, it generally emerges 

from cumulative exposure to multiple stressors.

Onset of at least some signs and symptoms may be simultaneous with the trauma 

itself or may follow the trauma after an interval of hours or days. Symptoms may

include depression, fatigue, anxiety, decreased concentration/memory, irritability, 

agitation, and exaggerated startle response.
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B. Assess Briefly Based on General Appearance and Behavior 

OBJECTIVE

Identify individuals who may be at risk for endangering themselves or others due to 

emotional distress or functional incapacity.

BACKGROUND

The transient symptoms or problems that often develop in response to exposure to 

trauma begin within minutes of the traumatic event and disappear within days (even 

hours). Symptoms vary greatly but can include a mixture of:

• Anxiety symptoms (e.g., sweating, increased heart rate, and flushing)

• An initial state of ‘daze' - narrowing of attention

• Reduced levels of consciousness - disorientation

• Agitation or over-activity

• Depression

• Withdrawal.

There are a number of possible reactions to a traumatic situation, which are 

considered within the "norm" for persons experiencing traumatic stress. These 

reactions are considered ‘normal’ in the sense of affecting most survivors, being 

socially acceptable, psychologically effective, and self-limited. In the early stage (the 

first four days after the trauma exposure), it is important not to classify these 

reactions as “symptoms” in the sense of being indicative of a mental disorder.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Identification of a patient with ASR symptoms is based on observation of 

behavior and function; there is insufficient evidence to recommend a specific 

screening tool.

2. Individuals exhibiting the following responses to trauma should be screened for 

ASR:

a. Physical: exhaustion, hyperarousal, somatic complaints (GI, GU, MS, CV, 

Resp, NS), or symptoms of conversion disorder 

b. Emotional: anxiety, depression, guilt/hopelessness

c. Cognitive/mental: amnestic or dissociative symptoms, hypervigilance, 

paranoia, intrusive re-experiencing

d. Behavioral: avoidance, problematic substance use.

3. Individuals who experience ASR should receive a comprehensive assessment of

their symptoms to include details about the time of onset, frequency, course, 

severity, level of distress, functional impairment, and other relevant information.

4. Assess for capability to perform routine functions.

Assessment specific to COSR:

5. Assess service member’s functional status, to include:

a. Any changes in productivity

b. Co-worker or supervisor reports of recent changes in appearance, quality 

of work, or relationships
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c. Any tardiness/unreliability, loss of motivation, or loss of interest

d. Forgetful or easily distracted

e. Screening for substance use.

6. Document symptoms of COSR and obtain collateral information from unit leaders, 

coworkers, or peers about stressors, function, medical history, and absence or 

impairment in operation or mission.

7. Consider the service member’s role and functional capabilities and the complexity 

and importance of his/her job.

DISCUSSION

An acute stress reaction (ASR/COSR) may appear concurrent with other wounds or 

illnesses. Providers should confirm that the symptoms are not due to identified 

medical/surgical conditions requiring other urgent treatment. ASR may result from a 

specific traumatic event or from series of events.

In the aftermath of any extreme stressful event, most of those suffering from acute 

traumatic stress reactions will be easy to spot. Those who have been injured will be 

obvious. Among the uninjured there will also be many who look stunned, appear pale 

and faint, or can be seen to be shaking. Some of those who appear to be suffering 

from trauma may not even be the actual victims of the disaster but witnesses or 

rescuers who may be deeply affected by what they are seeing. Some may not be 

immediately identifiable as traumatized, because they may be highly active - looking 

for others or looking after others and organizing help and rescue. A percentage of 

these may, in the next days or weeks, develop post-traumatic stress disorder 

(PTSD).

Practitioners who are managing service members suffering from stress reactions or 

COSR should consider a variety of factors when deciding when a service member is 

ready to return to duty including the severity of the condition, the level of 

occupational impairment, nature and complexity of the occupation and level of social 

support. 

C. Unstable, Dangerous to Self or Others, or Need for Urgent Medical Attention

OBJECTIVE

Protect individuals who may be at risk for endangering themselves or others due to 

emotional distress or functional incapacity.

BACKGROUND

Emergency treatment, administered to an injured person before professional medical 

care is available, can be applied to stress reactions of the mind as well as to physical 

injuries of the body. Acute interventions can be envisioned as the mental health 

correlate of physical first aid, with the goal being to “stop the psychological 

bleeding.” The first, most important measure should be to eliminate (if possible) the 

source of the trauma or to remove the victim from the traumatic, stressful 

environment. Once the patient is in a safe situation, the provider should attempt to 

reassure the patient, encourage a professional healing relationship, encourage a 

feeling of safety, and identify existing social supports. Establishing safety and 

assurance may enable people to get back on track, and maintain their pre-trauma 

stable condition.
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RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Address acute medical/behavioral issues to preserve life and avoid further harm 

by:

a. Providing appropriate medical/surgical care or referring to stabilize

b. Evaluating the use of prescribed medications

c. Preventing possible biological or chemical agent exposure

d. Managing substance intoxication or withdrawal

e. Stopping self-injury or mutilation

f. Addressing inability to care for oneself.

2. Arrange a safe, private, and comfortable environment for continuation of the 

evaluation:

a. Assess danger to self or others (e.g., suicidal, or homicidal behavior)

b. Establish a working treatment alliance with the patient

c. Maintain a supportive, non-blaming, non-judgmental stance throughout 

the evaluation 

d. Assist with the removal of any ongoing exposure to stimuli associated with 

the traumatic event

e. Minimize further traumas that may arise from the initial traumatic event

f. Assess and optimize social supports

g. Secure any weapons and explosives.

3. Legal mandates should be followed:

a. Reporting of violence, assault

b. Confidentiality for the patient

c. Mandatory testing

d. Attending to chain of evidence in criminal cases (e.g., rape, evaluation)

e. Involuntary Commitment procedures if needed.

4. Carefully consider the following potential interventions to secure safety:

a. Find safe accommodation and protect against further trauma

b. Voluntary admission if suicidal

c. Restraint/seclusion only if less restrictive measures are ineffective

d. Provide medications managing specific symptoms as needed (e.g., sleep, 

pain).

5. Educate and “normalize” observed psychological reactions to the chain of 

command.

6. Evacuate to next level of care if unmanageable, if existing resources are 

unavailable, or if reaction is outside of the scope of expertise of the care 

provider.

DISCUSSION 

Foa et al. (2000) rank “suicidality” among factors that will affect treatment decisions 

for PTSD. This factor must also be considered in the immediate post-trauma period: 

“self-destructive and impulsive behaviors, while not part of the core PTSD symptom 

complex, are recognized as associated features of this disorder that may profoundly 

affect clinical management. Therefore, the routine assessment of all patients 
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Module A – Acute Stress Reaction / Prevention of PTSD Page - 34

presenting with acute stress symptoms after exposure to a traumatic stressor should 

include a careful evaluation of current suicidal ideation and past history of suicidal 

attempts. Risk factors for suicide should also be assessed, such as current 

depression and substance abuse. If significant suicidality is present, it must be 

addressed before any other treatment is initiated.” Likewise, the patient must be 

assessed for any signs of violence toward others, or threat of violence in the home 

environment (e.g., ongoing battering), and any risk of violence should be an 

indication for immediate treatment.

While there is little research on these issues for acute stress reaction per se, the 

literature suggests some general trends for persons with PTSD that may inform 

clinical management of ASR. For example, individuals with sub-threshold PTSD are at 

high risk for suicidal ideation (Marshall et al., 2001) and, for women, suicide 

attempts (Breslau, 2001; Ferrada-Noli et al., 1998; Kaslow et al., 2000; Prigerson et 

al., 1999). For young adults, aggressive symptoms may be predictive of suicidality in 

men and elevated symptoms of PTSD and/or depression may be more predictive in 

women (Prigerson et al., 1999). Some individuals with stress reactions could be at 

risk for violence toward others. This can be manifested through explosivity and anger 

problems and may predict risk for violent behavior.

Optimizing existing social supports is helpful in settings of acute stress and may 

decrease risk of suicidality in PTSD (Kotler et al., 2001).

For extended discussion of dangerousness to self or others, see Module B:

Annotation C – Assessment of Dangerousness.

D. Ensure Basic Physical Needs Are Met

OBJECTIVE

Ensure that trauma-exposed persons with acute stress symptoms have their basic 

needs met. 

BACKGROUND

Trauma victims often have significant disruption to their routines for sleep, nutrition, 

exercise, access to finances, and healthcare. Their normal shelter, clothing, and 

other basic resources may be destroyed or inaccessible. These disruptions can be 

additionally traumatizing.

Early interventions should typically seek to address the needs of the individual 

person, with the aim of promoting normal recovery, resiliency, and personal growth

and avoiding additional harm (see Table A1-Early Interventions).

Individual persons who were exposed to trauma as members of a group/unit that 

existed prior to the trauma event (e.g., police units, firefighters, or military units), 

may also benefit from interventions addressing the collective outcomes such as 

social order and community or unit cohesion. Some of the acute interventions, such 

as psychoeducation, may be provided in a group format to maintain unit integrity 

and promote continuity with established relationships.
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Table A - 1 Early Interventions after Exposure to Trauma (<4 days after exposure)

Balance of Benefit and Harm

SR

Significant 

Benefit Some Benefit Unknown Benefit No BenefitPotential Harm

I

-- Psychological First Aid

Psychoeducation and

normalization

Social support

Spiritual support --

D Psychological debriefing

SR = Strength of recommendation (see Appendix A)

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Acute intervention should ensure that the following needs are met: 

a. Safety/security/survival

b. Food, hydration, clothing, hygiene, and shelter

c. Sleep

d. Medications (i.e., replace medications destroyed/lost)

e. Education as to current status

f. Communication with family, friends, and community

g. Protection from ongoing threats/toxins/harm. If indicated, reduce use 

of alcohol, tobacco, caffeine, and illicit psychoactive substances.

2. Provide Psychological First Aid to:

a. Protect survivors from further harm

b. Reduce physiological arousal

c. Mobilize support for those who are most distressed

d. Keep families together and facilitate reunion with loved ones

e. Provide information and foster communication and education 

f. Use effective risk communication techniques.

Interventions Specific for Members of Pre-existing Group (e.g., COSR):

3. Treat according to member’s prior role and not as a “patient.” 

4. Assure or provide the following, as needed:

a. Reunion or ongoing contact with group/unit

b. Promote continuity with established relationships (e.g., primary group)

c. Respite from intense stress

d. Comfortable environment (e.g., thermal comfort)

e. Consider psychoeducation and discussion in a group format

f. Assign job tasks and recreational activities that will restore focus and 

confidence and reinforce teamwork (limited duty).
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DISCUSSION

Psychological first aid should be envisioned as the mental health correlate of physical 

first aid, with the goal being to “stop the bleeding.” The patient should be removed 

from the traumatic situation. When the patient is in a safe situation, the clinician 

should attempt to reassure the patient and encourage a feeling of safety.

In their Disaster Mental Health Response Handbook (Raphael, 2000), a group of 

PTSD experts propose three stages of care:

Protect: 

Find ways to protect survivors from further harm and from further exposure to 

traumatic stimuli. If possible, create a "shelter" or safe haven for them, even if it 

is symbolic. The fewer traumatic stimuli people see, hear, smell, taste, or feel, 

the better off they will be. 

Direct: 

Kind and firm direction is needed and appreciated. Survivors may be stunned, in 

shock, or experiencing some degree of dissociation. When possible, direct 

ambulatory survivors:

o Away from the site of destruction 

o Away from severely injured survivors 

o Away from continuing danger.

Connect:

Survivors who are encountered will usually have lost connection to the world that 

was familiar to them. A supportive, compassionate, and nonjudgmental verbal or 

nonverbal exchange between you and survivors may help to give the experience 

of connection to the shared societal values of altruism and goodness. Help 

survivors connect:

o To loved ones 

o To accurate information and appropriate resources 

o To locations where they will be able to receive additional support

o To unit comrades and mission, fostering vertical and horizontal cohesion.

Triage:

A majority of survivors experience normal stress reactions. However, some may 

require immediate crisis intervention to help manage intense feelings of panic or 

grief. Signs of panic are trembling, agitation, rambling speech, and erratic 

behavior. Signs of intense grief may be loud wailing, rage, or catatonia. In such 

cases, attempt to quickly establish therapeutic rapport, ensure the survivor's 

safety, acknowledge and validate the survivor's experience, and offer empathy. 

Medication may be appropriate and necessary, if available.
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Psychological First Aid: (See Table A-2)

Psychological first aid was coined in Raphael’s book, ‘When Disaster Strikes: How 

Individual and Communities Cope with Catastrophe’ (1986). It is included as part of 

the Fundamental Criteria for First Aid knowledge and skills that soldiers should be 

trained in order to save themselves or other soldiers in casualty situations. 

Table A - 2 Key Elements of Psychological First Aid (PFA)

1. Contact and Engagement - Respond to contacts initiated by affected 

persons, or initiate contacts in a non-intrusive, compassionate, and 

helpful manner

2. Safety and Comfort - Enhance immediate and ongoing safety, and 

provide physical and emotional comfort

3. Stabilization (if needed) - Calm and orient emotionally overwhelmed 

or distraught survivors

4. Information Gathering - Current Needs and Concerns - Identify 

immediate needs and concerns, gather additional information, and 

tailor PFA interventions

5. Practical Assistance - Offer practical help to the survivor in addressing 

immediate needs and concerns

6. Connection with Social Supports - Help establish opportunities for 

brief or ongoing contacts with primary support persons or other 

sources of support, including family members, friends, and 

community helping resources

7. Information on Coping - Provide information (about stress reactions 

and coping) to reduce distress and promote adaptive functioning

8. Linkage to Collaborative Services - Link survivors with needed 

services and inform them about available services that may be 

needed in the future.

These core goals of PFA constitute the basic objectives of providing early 

assistance (e.g., within days or weeks following an event). The amount of 

time spent on each goal will vary from person to person and with different 

circumstances, according to need.

The complete document describing PFA components can be found at: 

http://www.vdh.state.va.us/EPR/pdf/PFA9-6-05Final.pdf

The FM 21-11 First Aid for Soldiers document (1991) states: 

(www.medtrng.com/Fm21 11/fm211 8.htm )

“The psychological first aid is most needed at the first sign that a soldier can not 

perform the mission because of emotional distress. Stress is inevitable in combat, 

in hostage and terrorist situations, and in civilian disasters, such as floods, 

hurricanes, tornadoes, and industrial and aircraft catastrophes. Most emotional 

reactions to such situations are temporary, and the person can still carry on with 

encouragement. Painful or disruptive symptoms may last for minutes, hours, or a 

few days. However, if the stress symptoms are seriously disabling, they may be 

psychologically contagious and endanger not only the emotionally upset 

individual but also the entire unit. In such situations, you may be working beside 
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Module A – Acute Stress Reaction / Prevention of PTSD Page - 38

someone who cannot handle the impact of disaster. Even when there is no 

immediate danger of physical injury, psychological harm may occur.” 

“Psychological first aid really means assisting people with emotional distress 

whether it results from physical injury, disease, or excessive traumatic stress. 

Emotional distress is not always as visible as a wound, a broken leg, or a reaction 

to pain from physical damage. However, overexcitement, severe fear, excessive 

worry, deep depression, misdirected aggression, or irritability and anger are signs 

that stress has reached the point of interfering with effective coping.”

“Psychological first aid should go hand in hand with physical first aid. The 

discovery of a physical injury or cause for an inability to function does not rule 

out the possibility of a psychological injury (or vice versa). A physical injury and 

the circumstances surrounding it may actually cause an emotional injury that is 

potentially more serious than the physical injury; both injuries need treatment. 

The person suffering from pain, shock, fear of serious damage to his body, or 

fear of death does not respond well to joking, indifference, or fearful-tearful 

attention. Fear and anxiety may take as high a toll on the soldier's strength as 

does the loss of blood.” (The Department of the Army; Washington, DC, 4 

December 1991)

Specific Interventions for COSR:

Combat Operation Stress Control (COSC) utilizes the management principles of 

brevity, immediacy, contact, expectancy, proximity, and simplicity (BICEPS). These 

principles apply to all COSC interventions or activities throughout the theater, and 

are followed by COSC personnel in all BH/COSC elements. These principles may be 

applied differently based on a particular level of care and other factors pertaining to 

mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time available, 

and civil considerations (METT-TC).

The actions used for COSC (commonly referred to as the 6 Rs) involve the following 

actions: 

Reassure of normality (normalize the reaction)

Rest (respite from combat or break from work)

Replenish bodily needs (such as thermal comfort, water, food, hygiene, and 

sleep). 

Restore confidence with purposeful activities and talk

Retain contact with fellow soldiers and unit

Remind / Recognize emotion of reaction (specifically potentially life-threatening 

thoughts and behaviors).

For additional information see COSR protocols for DoD specific services.
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E. Person has Trauma-Related Symptoms, Significant Impaired Function, or Diagnosis of ASD

Identify patients who have excessive post-traumatic stress symptoms or significant 

distress impaired function, or are diagnosed with ASD.

BACKGROUND

Since people who develop ASD are at greater risk of developing PTSD, they should 

be identified and offered treatment as soon as possible. Although ASD does not occur 

in all people who later develop PTSD, treatment should be considered for all acutely 

traumatized people with ASD, those with severe PTSD symptoms but do not meet 

ASD diagnostic criteria, and those with functional impairment because of acute 

physiological symptoms (e.g., hyperarousal).

Some patients with an acute stress reaction may benefit from augmentation of the

acute intervention and additional follow-up. Because people vary in their reaction 

and in the rate that they recover from traumatic stress, some individuals may 

require more time or an adjustment of the treatment prior to improvement. Some 

want and feel a need to discuss the event, and some have no such need. Respect 

individual and cultural preferences in the attempt to meet their needs as much as 

possible. Allow for normal recovery and monitor.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Acutely traumatized people, who meet the criteria for diagnosis of ASD, and 

those with significant levels of post-trauma symptoms after at least two weeks 

post-trauma, as well as those who are incapacitated by acute psychological or 

physical symptoms, should receive further assessment and early intervention to 

prevent PTSD. 

2. Trauma survivors, who present with symptoms that do not meet the diagnostic 

threshold for ASD, or those who have recovered from the trauma and currently 

show no symptoms, should be monitored and may benefit from follow-up and 

provision of ongoing counseling or symptomatic treatment.

3. Service members with COSR who do not respond to initial supportive 

interventions may warrant referral or evacuation. 

DISCUSSION

Stress reactions produce biological, psychological, and behavioral changes. Biological 

alterations include disruptions in neurochemicals, sleep patterns, hyperarousal, and 

somatic symptoms (e.g., pain, gastrointestinal symptoms). Psychological changes 

include: mood disturbances (e.g., emotional lability, irritability, blunting, numbing), 

anxiety (e.g., increased worry, ruminations), and cognitive disturbances (e.g., 

memory impairment, confusion, and impaired task completion).

Not all individuals who are exposed to trauma or who have a COSR require a mental 

health referral. However, those service members who are deteriorating or who are 

not responding to acute supportive interventions need to be identified and evacuated 

to a more definitive level of care. Also, patients who have a high potential for 

dangerousness or the development of symptoms suggestive of a stress-related 

disorder (e.g., ASD) also need to be identified and referred to a facility that can 

provide appropriate mental healthcare.

Patients who do not respond to first-line supportive interventions may warrant 

treatment augmentation or a mental health referral. Clear indications for a mental 

health referral include: a worsening of stress-related symptoms, new onset of 
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dangerousness or maladaptive coping to stress, exacerbation of co-morbid

psychiatric conditions, or deterioration in function. Because patients with new onset 

stressors, poor social supports, or inadequate coping skills may be at heightened risk 

to develop PTSD, a mental health referral is also indicated.

Acute Stress Disorder (ASD)

Different types of trauma can lead to ASD, from interpersonal assaultive violence to 

accidents to combat related trauma. As many as ninety percent of individuals, who 

experience sexual assault, will have acute stress symptoms but not ASD (Breslau, 

1998). Additionally, surveys from the OIF/OEF combat theaters indicate that about 

10 to 18 percent of deployed US combat forces experience trauma-related stress

symptoms (as measured with PCL cutoff score of 50+). 

Prior to DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994), severe distress occurring 

in the month after a traumatic event was not regarded as a diagnosable clinical 

problem. Although this prevented the pathologizing of transient reactions, it 

hampered the identification of more severely traumatized individuals who might have 

benefited from early interventions. To address this issue, DSM-IV introduced the 

diagnosis of acute stress disorder (ASD) to describe those acute reactions associated 

with an increased likelihood of developing chronic PTSD (see Table A - 3). A

diagnosis of ASD is given when an individual experiences significantly distressing 

symptoms of re-experiencing, avoidance, and increased arousal within 4 weeks of 

the trauma. These symptoms must be present for at least two days before the 

diagnosis of ASD can be made. The DSM-IV diagnosis of ASD requires that the victim 

report at least three of the following five symptoms labeled as indicators of 

dissociation: numbing, reduced awareness of surroundings, derealization, 

depersonalization, and dissociative amnesia. These requirements are based on 

evidence found in previous studies that dissociative symptoms at the time of (or 

shortly after) the traumatic event are predictive of the subsequent development of 

chronic PTSD (Bremner et al., 1992; Marmar et al., 1994; Koopman et al., 1994).

Thus, the fundamental differences between PTSD and ASD involve time elapsed since 

the trauma and the relative emphasis on dissociative symptoms in the ASD 

diagnosis.
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Module A – Acute Stress Reaction / Prevention of PTSD Page - 41

Table A - 3 Diagnostic criteria for 308.3 Acute Stress Disorder (DSM-IV)

A. The person has been exposed to a traumatic event in which both of the following 

were present: 

• the person experienced, witnessed, or was confronted with an event or events 

that involved actual or threatened death or serious injury, or a threat to the 

physical integrity of self or others 

• the person's response involved intense fear, helplessness, or horror 

B. Either while experiencing or after experiencing the distressing event, the individual 

has three (or more) of the following dissociative symptoms: 

• a subjective sense of numbing, detachment, or absence of emotional 

responsiveness 

• a reduction in awareness of his or her surroundings (e.g., "being in a daze") 

• derealization 

• depersonalization 

• dissociative amnesia (i.e., inability to recall an important aspect of the trauma) 

C. The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced in at least one of the following 

ways: recurrent images, thoughts, dreams, illusions, flashback episodes, or a sense 

of reliving the experience; or distress on exposure to reminders of the traumatic 

event. 

D. Marked avoidance of stimuli that arouse recollections of the trauma (e.g., thoughts, 

feelings, conversations, activities, places, and people). 

E. Marked symptoms of anxiety or increased arousal (e.g., difficulty sleeping, 

irritability, poor concentration, hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, motor 

restlessness). 

F. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, 

occupational, or other important areas of functioning or impairs the individual's 

ability to pursue some necessary task, such as obtaining necessary assistance or 

mobilizing personal resources by telling family members about the traumatic 

experience. 

G. The disturbance lasts for a minimum of 2 days and a maximum of 4 weeks and 

occurs within 4 weeks of the traumatic event. 

H. The disturbance is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a 

drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition, is not better accounted 

for by Brief Psychotic Disorder, and is not merely an exacerbation of a pre-existing 

Axis I or Axis II disorder.
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F. Assess Medical and Functional Status

OBJECTIVE

Obtain complete history, physical examination, relevant laboratory tests, and 

assessment of functioning to determine course of treatment.

BACKGROUND

One of the key goals of ASR supportive care is to address immediate physical health 

problems and to assist the individual in beginning to return to a normal level of 

function. In order to do this, the clinician or caregiver must assess the individual’s 

current state of health and functioning. 

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Medical status should be obtained for all persons presenting with symptoms to 

include:

a. History, physical examination, and a neurological examination 

b. Use of prescribed medications, mood or mind-altering substances, and 

possible biological or chemical agent exposure

c. A mini-mental status examination (MMSE) to assess cognitive function

if indicated.

2. The history and physical examination findings should lead the provider to other 

assessments as clinically indicated. Based on the clinical presentation, 

assessment may include:

a. Screen for toxicology if the symptom presentation indicates 

b. Radiological assessment of patients with focal neurological findings or 

possible head injury 

c. Appropriate laboratory studies to rule out medical disorders that may 

cause symptoms of acute stress reactions (e.g., complete blood count 

[CBC], chemistry profile, thyroid studies, HCG, EKG, EEG).

3. A focused psychosocial assessment should be performed to include assessment of 

active stressors, losses, current social supports, and basic needs (e.g., housing, 

food, and financial resources).

4. A brief assessment of function should be completed to evaluate: 1) objectively 

impaired function based on general appearance and behavior; 2) subjectively 

impaired function; 3) baseline level of function (LOF) vs. current LOF; and 4) 

family and relationship functioning.

DISCUSSION

Whenever possible, providers should include assessment of any physical injuries, 

review of targeted H&P and laboratory results (if available), assessment of the 

individual’s level of functioning, and level of family and relationship functioning. 

Ideally, the current clinical picture should be compared to the individual’s pre-trauma 

state, but often this may not be possible in the immediate aftermath of a traumatic 

event. Evaluation of the patient’s level of function is warranted, because evidence 

has shown that functional impairment after trauma is a predictor for later 

development of PTSD (Norris et al., 2002).
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G. Assess Pre-Existing Psychiatric and Medical Conditions

OBJECTIVE

Identify patients at risk for complications.

BACKGROUND

Circumstances brought about by a traumatic event may complicate any existing 

psychiatric conditions or may exacerbate pre-existing pathology. 

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Assess patients for pre-existing psychiatric conditions to identify high-risk 

individuals and groups. 

2. Assure access and adherence to medications that the patient is currently taking.

3. Refer patients with pre-existing psychiatric conditions to mental health specialty 

when indicated or emergency hospitalization if needed.

DISCUSSION

The NIMH (2002) guideline addresses the need to manage pre-existing psychiatric 

and medical conditions. The authors point to the “special needs of those who have 

experienced enduring mental health problems, those who are disabled, and other 

high-risk groups who may be vulnerable and less able to cope with unfolding 

situations.” They also call for additional attention to be paid to members of these 

groups in the immediate post-trauma period. However, they also emphasize that 

“the presumption of clinically significant disorders in the early post-incident phase is 

inappropriate, except for individuals with preexisting conditions.” 

H Assess Risk Factors for Developing ASD/PTSD

BACKGROUND

Not all trauma survivors develop permanent stress disorders. Early identification of 

those at-risk for negative outcomes following trauma can facilitate prevention, 

referral, and treatment. Screening for those at greatest risk should address past and 

current psychiatric and substance use problems and treatment, prior trauma 

exposure, pre-injury psychosocial stressors, and existing social support.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Trauma survivors who exhibit symptoms or functional impairment should be 

screened for the following risk factors for developing ASD/PTSD:

Pre-traumatic factors

1. Ongoing life stress 

2. Lack of social support 

3. Young age at time of trauma 

4. Pre-existing psychiatric disorders, or substance misuse

5. History of traumatic events (e.g., MVA)

6. History of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

7. Other pre-traumatic factors, including: female gender, low socioeconomic 

status, lower level of education, lower level of intelligence, race (Hispanic, 

African-American, American Indian, and Pacific Islander), reported abuse in 
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childhood, report of other previous traumatization, report of other adverse 

childhood factors, family history of psychiatric disorders, and poor training or 

preparation for the traumatic event.

Peri-traumatic or trauma-related factors

1. Severe trauma

2. Physical injury to self or others

3. Type of trauma (combat, interpersonal traumas such as killing another 

person, torture, rape, or assault convey high risk of PTSD)

4. High perceived threat to life of self or others

5. Community (mass) trauma 

6. Other peri-traumatic factors, including: history of peri-traumatic dissociation.

Post-traumatic factors

1. Ongoing life stress 

2. Lack of positive social support 

3. Bereavement or traumatic grief

4. Major loss of resources 

5. Negative social support (shaming or blaming environment) 

6. Poor coping skills

7. Other post-traumatic factors, including: children at home and a distressed 

spouse.

DISCUSSION

Risk Factors for ASD

When evaluating risk factors for ASD, the clinician should keep in mind that ASD is 

no longer diagnosed later than four weeks after a traumatic event. Thus, not enough 

time will have passed following the trauma for many post-trauma factors to have had 

their full impact on the course of symptoms.

Risk Factors for PTSD

When evaluating risk factors for developing PTSD, the clinician should keep in mind 

that PTSD is defined as occurring only after four weeks have elapsed following a 

traumatic event. PTSD symptoms, however, may not appear until a considerable 

time has passed, sometimes surfacing years later. 

For further discussion of risk factors for PTSD - See Module B: Annotation F
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2. TREATMENT

I. Provide Education and Normalization / Expectancy of Recovery

OBJECTIVE

Help trauma survivors cope with ASR/COSR by providing information that may help 

them manage their symptoms and benefit from treatment.

BACKGROUND

Education for trauma survivors and their families may help normalize common 

reactions to trauma, improve coping, enhance self-care, facilitate recognition of 

significant problems and increase knowledge of, and access to, services. Individuals 

should be reassured about common reactions to traumatic experiences and be 

advised regarding positive and problematic forms of coping with them. 

Information about social support and stress management is particularly important. 

Opportunities to discuss emotional concerns in individual, family, or group meetings 

can enable survivors to reflect on what has happened. Education regarding indicators 

that initial acute reactions are failing to resolve will be important. Signs and 

symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, depression, substance use disorders, and other 

difficulties should be explained. Survivors will need information about financial, 

mental health, rehabilitation, legal, and other services available to them, as well as 

education about common obstacles to pursuing needed services.

RECOMMENDATION:

1. All survivors should be given educational information to help normalize common 

reactions to trauma, improve coping, enhance self-care, facilitate recognition of 

significant problems, and increase knowledge of and access to services. Such 

information can be delivered in many ways, including public media, community 

education activities, and written materials.

DISCUSSION:

Immediate post-trauma distress will remit naturally for many patients (Blanchard et 

al., 1995), and provision of mental health services may be unnecessary. 

Hypothetically, it is even possible that too much focus on mental health issues may 

be iatrogenic for some survivors, centering their attention on symptoms and 

problems and making attention and caring contingent on needing such help. 

J. Initiate Brief Intervention

OBJECTIVE

To lessen the physical, psychological, and behavioral morbidity associated with acute 

stress reaction (ASR), hasten the return to full function (duty), and reduce the risk 

for development of ASD or PTSD following a traumatic event.

BACKGROUND

It is likely that not all patients will require intervention immediately following a 

traumatic occurrence. Depending on the intensity and duration of the trauma, there 

will be people who will make it through unharmed. Often, if a person appears to be 

coping well and denies symptoms of ASD or PTSD, specialized care may not be 

needed.
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For people who show symptoms of ASD or PTSD (including symptoms of intrusive 

recollections, avoidance, numbing, and physiological hyperarousal when confronted 

with reminders of the trauma), brief acute intervention may be indicated. 

Early interventions may need to assist the individuals with anticipating problems in 

using their support system. This may be particularly important in light of the fact 

that the psychological aftermath of trauma may significantly disrupt a person’s 

capacity to use others to cope with and manage post-traumatic symptoms and daily 

demands. Table A-4 summarizes the interventions and their potential benefit in the 

first month after exposure to the trauma.

Table A-4 Early Interventions after Exposure to Trauma (4 to 30 days after exposure)

Balance of Benefit and Harm

SR

Significant 

Benefit Some Benefit Unknown Benefit No Benefit

A - Brief Cognitive 

Behavioral 

Therapy

(4-5 sessions)

B

C - Social support

D - Individual psychological 

debriefing 

- Formal psychotherapy for 

asymptomatic survivors 

- Benzodiazepines 

- Typical Antipsychotics 

I - Psychoeducation

and normalization

- Imipramine

- Propranolol 

- Prazosin

- Other Antidepressants

- Anticonvulsants

- Atypical Antipsychotics

- Spiritual support 

- Psychological First Aid

- Group psychological 

debriefing

= Potential harm; SR = Strength of recommendation (see Appendix A)

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following treatment recommendations should apply for all acutely traumatized 

people who meet the criteria for diagnosis of ASD, and for those with significant

levels of acute stress symptoms that last for more than two weeks post-trauma, as 

well as those who are incapacitated by acute psychological or physical symptoms.

1. Continue providing psychoeducation and normalization.

2. Treatment should be initiated after education, normalization, and Psychological 

First Aid has been provided and after basic needs following the trauma have been 

made available.
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3. There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the use of 

Psychological First Aid to address symptoms beyond 4 days following trauma. [I]

4. Survivors who present symptoms that do not meet the diagnostic threshold of 

ASD or PTSD should be monitored and may benefit from follow-up and provision 

of ongoing counseling or symptomatic treatment.

5. Recommend monitoring for development of PTSD using validated symptom 

measures (e.g., PTSD Checklist, other screening tools for ASD/PTSD).

6. Psychotherapy:

a. Consider early brief intervention (4 to 5 sessions) of cognitive-based 

therapy (CBT) that includes exposure-based therapy, alone or combined 

with a component of cognitive re-structuring therapy for patients with 

significant early symptom levels, especially those meeting diagnostic 

criteria for ASD. [A] 

b. Routine formal psychotherapy intervention for asymptomatic individuals is 

not beneficial and may be harmful. [D]

c. Strongly recommend against individual Psychological Debriefing as a 

viable means of reducing acute stress disorder (ASD) or progression to 

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [D]

d. The evidence does not support a single session group Psychological 

Debriefing as a viable means of reducing acute stress disorder (ASD) or 

progression to post-traumatic stress disorder, but there is no evidence of 

harm (Note: this is not a recommendation pertaining to Operational 

Debriefing). [D]

e. Groups may be effective vehicles for providing trauma-related education, 

training in coping skills, and increasing social support, especially in the 

context of multiple group sessions. [I]

f. Group participation should be voluntary.

7. Pharmacotherapy:

a. There is no evidence to support a recommendation for use of a 

pharmacological agent to prevent the development of ASD or PTSD. [I]

b. Strongly recommend against the use of benzodiazepines to prevent the 

development of ASD or PTSD [D]

For discussion of the supporting evidence and grading of the recommendations, see 

Module I-1: Early Interventions to Prevention of PTSD

DISCUSSION

ASD Treatment

The relationship between ASD and PTSD was examined in three prospective studies. 

Classen and colleagues (1998) studied the acute stress reactions of bystanders to a 

mass shooting in an office building. They assessed 36 employees (bystanders) 8 

days after the shooting. Between 7 and 10 months later, they reassessed 32 

employees for post-traumatic stress symptoms and found that 33 percent of them 

met criteria for ASD and that meeting criteria for ASD was a strong predictor of PTSD 
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(accounting for 19 percent of the variance), as well as intrusion (accounting for 53 

percent of the variance) and avoidance (accounting for 45 percent of the variance).

In another prospective study, Harvey and Bryant (1998) examined the relationship 

between ASD and PTSD in 92 motor vehicle accident survivors. From the twelve 

participants (13 percent) who met criteria for ASD within 2 to 26 days of the 

accident, 78 percent met criteria for PTSD 6 months later. Nineteen participants (21 

percent) met some but not all of the criteria for ASD; of the 15 individuals available 

for follow-up, 9 (60 percent) met criteria for PTSD. From the 61 participants who did

not meet the criteria for ASD; only 2 met criteria for PTSD. This study provides 

strong evidence of ASD being a predictor of PTSD. Nevertheless, Harvey and Bryant 

concluded that the current criteria for ASD might be too stringent for ASD to be used 

to predict the risk for PTSD. Harvey and Bryant (1998a) also examined the 

relationship between ASD and PTSD for a subset (n=79) of the motor vehicle 

accident survivors who suffered mild traumatic brain injury as a result of the 

accident. They were particularly interested in the utility of ASD as a predictor of 

PTSD in individuals with post-concussive symptoms that could overlap with ASD 

symptoms. Their results were similar to previously reported findings: 14 percent met 

criteria for ASD; six months after the event, 82 percent of those with ASD also met 

criteria for PTSD.

In another prospective study, Brewin and colleagues (1999) evaluated the use of 

ASD to predict PTSD in 157 survivors of violent assault. Participants were assessed 

for several ASD symptoms using items from the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 

Symptoms Scale; additional items were generated to determine whether the event 

met the ASD criterion. Nineteen percent of participants met criteria for ASD, and 20 

percent met criteria for PTSD at 6-month follow-up. They found that meeting full 

criteria for ASD was a better predictor of PTSD than any of the symptom clusters. 

Eighty three percent of participants who met criteria for ASD were diagnosed with 

PTSD six months later.

Research suggests that relatively brief but specialized interventions may effectively 

prevent PTSD in some subgroups of trauma patients. Several controlled trials have 

suggested that brief (i.e., 4 to 5 sessions) cognitive-behavioral treatments, 

comprised of education, breathing training/relaxation, imaginal and in vivo exposure, 

and cognitive restructuring, delivered within weeks of the traumatic event, can often 

prevent PTSD in survivors of sexual and non-sexual assault (Foa et al., 1995) and

MVAs and industrial accidents (Bryant et al., 1998 , 1999). Brief intervention with 

patients hospitalized for injury has been found to reduce alcohol consumption in 

those with existing alcohol problems (Gentilello et al., 1999). Controlled trials of brief 

early intervention services targeted at other important trauma sequelae (e.g., 

problems returning to work, depression, family problems, trauma recidivism, and 

bereavement-related problems) remain to be conducted, but it is likely that targeted 

interventions may be effective in these arenas for at least some survivors.

Two well-designed studies offer evidence that brief treatment interventions utilizing a 

combination of cognitive behavioral techniques may be effective in preventing PTSD 

in a significant percentage of subjects. In a study of a brief treatment program for 

recent sexual and nonsexual assault victims who all met criteria for PTSD, Foa at al. 

(1995) compared repeated assessments vs. a Brief Prevention Program (BPP) (four 

sessions of trauma education, relaxation training, imaginal exposure, in vivo

exposure, and cognitive restructuring). Two months posttrauma, only 10 percent of 

the BPP group met criteria for PTSD, whereas 70 percent of the repeated 

assessments group met criteria for PTSD. In a study of motor vehicle and industrial 

accident victims who met criteria for ASD, Bryant et al. (1998) compared five 
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sessions of nondirective supportive counseling (support, education, and problemsolving skills) vs. a brief cognitive-behavioral treatment (trauma education, 

progressive muscle relaxation, imaginal exposure, cognitive restructuring, and 

graded in vivo exposure to avoided situations). Immediately post-treatment, 8 

percent in the CBT group met criteria for PTSD, versus 83 percent in the supportive 

counseling group. Six months post-trauma, 17 percent in the CBT group met criteria 

for PTSD versus 67 percent in supportive counseling. One important caveat to these 

interventions is that the dropout rate was high, and the authors concluded that those 

with more severe symptoms might need supportive counseling prior to more 

intensive cognitive behavioral interventions.

In addition to targeted brief interventions, some trauma survivors may benefit from 

follow-up provision of ongoing counseling or treatment. Candidates for such 

treatment would include survivors with a history of previous traumatization (e.g., 

survivors of the current trauma who have a history of childhood physical or sexual 

abuse) or pre-existing mental health problems.

EVIDENCE

Recommendation Sources LE QE SR

1 Monitor patient with ASD for 

development of PTSD (ASD 

predictor of PTSD).

Brewin et al., 1999

Bryant et al., 1998, 1999 

I Good A

2 Brief intervention of CBT (4 to 5 

sessions).

See Module I-1: Brief early CBT

LE =Level of Evidence; QE = Quality of Evidence; SR = Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)

K. Acute Symptom Management

BACKGROUND

Survivors of trauma may not complain directly of ASD symptoms, such as reexperiencing or avoidance. Instead, they may complain of sleeping problems, pain,

or other somatic concerns. After addressing immediate needs and providing 

education and intervention, alleviating these symptoms will make it easier for 

survivors to cope and recover from their traumatic experience.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Symptom-specific treatment should be provided after education, normalization,

and basic needs are met. 

2. Consider a short course of medication (less than 6 days), targeted for specific 

symptoms in patients post-trauma 

a. Sleep disturbance/insomnia

b. Management of pain

c. Irritation/excessive arousal/anger.

3. Provide non-pharmacological intervention to address specific symptoms (e.g., 

relaxation, breathing techniques, avoiding caffeine) to address both general 

recovery and specific symptoms (sleep disturbance, pain, hyperarousal, or 

anger). 

For discussion of the supporting evidence of the recommendations see Module I-3: 

Management of Specific Symptoms
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L1. Facilitate Spiritual Support

BACKGROUND

Religion and spirituality may provide a framework by which many survivors of 

trauma construct a meaningful account of their experience and seek solace, and may 

provide a useful focus for intervention with trauma survivors. The terms “religious” 

and “spiritual” are both used in the clinical literature to refer to a set of beliefs and 

practices to which individuals may turn for support following a traumatic event. 

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Ensure patient access to spiritual care when sought. 

2. Assess for spiritual needs.

3. Provide opportunities for grieving for losses (providing space and opportunities 

for prayers, mantras, rites, and rituals and end-of-life care, as determined 

important by the patient).

DISCUSSION

For discussion of the supporting evidence of the recommendations see Module I-2: 

D2- Spiritual Support.

L2. Facilitate Social Support

BACKGROUND

PTSD is often associated with withdrawal from participation in social activities, 

limited friendships, and reduced emotional intimacy. Some research also suggests 

that veterans with PTSD have greater rates of social anxiety disorder. Poor social 

support predicts development of PTSD and a more chronic course of the disorder. 

Veterans with PTSD who are more involved in the community are more likely to show 

remission in PTSD symptoms than those with less community involvement and 

adjustment to peacekeeping is significantly related to self-disclosure, especially to 

supportive significant others. Overcoming problems in social functioning and 

promoting social participation may require active, sustained intervention. When 

indicated, improvements in social functioning should be established as a formal 

treatment goal. Social support is critical for helping the individual cope after a 

trauma has occurred. It may be necessary to identify potential sources of support 

and facilitate support from others (e.g., partners, family, friends, work colleagues, 

and work supervisors). Survivors can also be taught a range of social skills to 

facilitate social participation and support-seeking.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Immediately after trauma exposure, preserve an interpersonal safety zone 

protecting basic personal space (e.g., privacy, quiet, personal effects).

4. As part of Psychological First Aid, reconnect trauma survivors with previously 

supportive relationships (e.g., family, friends, unit members) and link with 

additional sources of interpersonal support.

1. Assess for impact of PTSD on social functioning.

5. Facilitate access to social support and provide assistance in improving social 

functioning, as indicated.
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DISCUSSION

Optimizing existing social supports is helpful in settings of acute stress and may 

decrease risk of suicide in PTSD (Kotler et al., 2001). For example, higher social 

support for women who have experienced domestic violence may reduce risk of 

PTSD and other mental disorders (Coker et al., 2002). 

3. RE-ASSESSMENT

M. Reassess Symptoms and Function 

OBJECTIVE

Identify patients with persistent traumatic stress symptoms, related dysfunction, or 

additional treatment needs.

BACKGROUND

Clinical reassessment of response to the acute intervention is indicated to determine 

if there are persistent symptoms and, if necessary, to develop a follow-up plan.

Especially important are acute levels of traumatic stress symptoms, which predict 

chronic problems; for example, more than three-quarters of MVA patients diagnosed 

with ASD will have chronic PTSD at 6 months post-trauma.

In follow-up appointments, it will be important to screen for PTSD and other anxiety 

disorders, depression, alcohol and substance abuse, problems with return to work 

and other productive roles, adherence to medication regimens and other 

appointments, and potential for re-traumatization.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Assessment of the response to the acute intervention should include an 

evaluation for the following risk factors: 

a. Persistent or worsening traumatic stress symptoms (e.g., 

dissociation, panic, autonomic arousal, cognitive impairment) 

b. Significant functional impairments (e.g., role/work, relationships)

c. Dangerousness (suicidal or violent ideation, plan, and/or intent)

d. Severe psychiatric co-morbidity (e.g., psychotic spectrum disorder, 

substance use disorder or abuse) 

e. Maladaptive coping strategies (e.g., pattern of impulsivity, social 

withdrawal, or other reactions under stress) 

f. New or evolving psychosocial stressors 

g. Poor social supports.

2. Follow-up after acute intervention to determine patient status should include the 

following:

a. Patient does not improve or status worsens – continue management 

of PTSD (See Module B) in consultation or referral to PTSD specialty

care or mental health provider. Recommend involvement of the 

primary care provider in the treatment. Patients with multiple 

problems may benefit from a multi-disciplinary approach to include 
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occupational therapy, spiritual counseling, recreation therapy, social 

work, psychology, and/or psychiatry.

b. Patient demonstrates partial improvement (e.g., less arousal, but no 

improvement in sleep) – consider augmentation or adjustment of the 

acute intervention and follow up within 2 weeks.

c. Patient recovers from acute symptoms – provide education about 

acute stress reaction and contact information with instructions for 

available follow-up if needed.

DISCUSSION 

After initiating an acute intervention, it is crucial for providers to follow-up and 

assess for treatment response and for any new or additional risk factors. Studies of 

exposed populations show that poor social supports and severe stress after the 

trauma may increase the risk of developing PTSD. Persons with stress reactions may 

respond with maladaptive coping styles or health risk behaviors; so, an assessment 

of coping styles and health risk behaviors is warranted. Those patients who respond 

well to acute interventions can then be offered contact information for follow-up 

should they later become symptomatic.

4. FOLLOW-UP

N. Persistent (>1 Month) or Worsening Symptoms, Significant Functional Impairment, or High 

Risk for Development of PTSD. 

OBJECTIVE

Identify patients with PTSD or high risk for developing PTSD who may benefit from 

PTSD treatment. 

BACKGROUND

A crucial goal of follow-up activities is referral, as necessary, for appropriate mental 

health services. In fact, referral, and subsequent delivery of more intensive 

interventions, will depend upon adequate implementation of screening. Screening, 

whether conducted in formal or informal ways, can best help determine who is in 

need of referral. But even if those who might benefit from mental health services are 

adequately identified, factors such as embarrassment, fear of stigmatization, 

practical barriers (e.g., distance from services), and cultural norms that do not 

support help-seeking may all limit motivation to seek help or pursue a referral. Those 

making referrals can directly discuss these attitudes about seeking help and attempt 

to preempt avoidance of needed services. Motivational interviewing techniques 

(Rollnick et al., 1992) may help increase rates of referral acceptance.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Individuals who fail to respond to early interventions should be referred for PTSD 

treatment when they have:

a. Worsening of stress-related symptoms

b. High potential or new-onset potential for dangerousness

c. Development of ASD/PTSD

d. Maladaptive coping with stress (e.g., social withdrawal, alcohol use)

e. Exacerbation of pre-existing psychiatric conditions

f. Deterioration in function
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g. New onset stressors

h. Poor social supports.

2. Primary Care provider should consider initiating therapy pending referral or if the 

patient is reluctant or unable to obtain specialty services.

3. Primary Care provider should continue evaluating and treating co-morbid physical

illnesses and addressing any other health concerns, as well as educating and 

validating the patient regarding his/her illness.

DISCUSSION

Not all individuals who are exposed to trauma or who have an Acute Stress Reaction 

(ASR) following trauma require a mental health referral. However, patients who are 

deteriorating or not responding to acute supportive interventions need to be 

identified and referred to mental health. Also, those patients who have a high 

potential for dangerousness or potential for the development of PTSD also need to be 

identified and referred to specialty care.

Some patients with an ASR who show partial improvement may benefit from 

augmentation of the acute intervention and additional follow-up. Because people 

recover from traumatic stress-related problems at different rates, some individuals 

may require more time or an adjustment of the treatment prior to improvement. For 

example, early in treatment, medications may be adjusted to target prominent 

symptoms.

Patients with partial PTSD exhibit clinically meaningful levels of functional 

impairment in association with their symptoms (Stein, 1997). Functional impairment, 

rates of co-morbid disorders, and rates of suicidal ideation were shown to increase 

linearly with an increasing number of PTSD symptoms, and individuals with subthreshold PTSD had increased suicidal ideation, even after controlling for the 

presence of co-morbid major depressive disorder (Marshall, 2001).

Patients who do not respond to first-line interventions may warrant treatment 

augmentation or a mental health referral. Clear indications for a mental health 

referral include: a worsening of stress-related symptoms, new onset of 

dangerousness or maladaptive coping to stress, exacerbation of co-morbid 

psychiatric conditions, or deterioration in function. Because patients with new-onset 

stressors, poor social supports, or inadequate coping skills may be at heightened risk 

to develop PTSD, mental health referral is also indicated.

Primary Care providers who identify patients with possible PTSD should consider 

referral to a Mental Health or PTSD clinic. This referral should be made in 

consultation with the patient, and with consideration of the patient’s severity of 

problems and preferences.

Several treatment modalities can be initiated and monitored in the primary care 

setting (e.g., Pharmacotherapy, Supportive Counseling). Therefore, the Primary Care 

practitioner should consider initiating therapy pending referral. However, if the 

patient is reluctant or unable to obtain specialty services (see Module B), the Primary 

Care provider should continue evaluating and treating co-morbid somatic illnesses 

and addressing any other health concerns, as well as educating and validating the 

patient regarding his/her illness. If patients are referred to specialty care, it is vital 

that the Primary Care team (including the Healthcare Integrator) stay actively 

involved in coordination with the Specialist in the care of patients with PTSD. 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module A – Acute Stress Reaction / Prevention of PTSD Page - 54

Additional Points:

o Don’t suggest or insinuate that physical or cognitive symptoms co-existing 

with ASD/PTSD are related to a “stress,” “emotional,” or “psychological” 

problem. Educate patients about the physiological dysregulation 

associated with PTSD and how this can impact physical and cognitive 

functioning 

o Encourage referral to behavioral health specialty care via collaborative 

discussion, if indicated

o Primary Care providers should not hesitate to ask questions about 

trauma-related symptoms Providers should be aware that narration of 

traumatic experiences may be associated with increased distress 

temporarily, and allow time to address it.

O. Monitor and Follow-Up

BACKGROUND

Many trauma survivors experience some symptoms in the immediate aftermath of a 

traumatic event. In most instances, these symptoms will eventually remit and do not 

require long-term follow-up. Those exposed to traumatic events and who manifest 

no or few symptoms after a period of time (approximately two months) do not 

require routine follow-up, but follow-up should be provided if requested.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Follow-up should be offered to individuals who request it or to those at high risk 

of developing adjustment difficulties following exposure to major incidents and 

disasters, including individuals who:

a. Have acute stress disorder or other clinically significant symptoms 

stemming from the trauma

b. Are bereaved

c. Have a pre-existing psychiatric disorder

d. Require medical or surgical attention

e. Were exposed to a major incident or disaster that was particularly 

intense and of long duration.

2. Primary Care providers should follow-up with patients about issues related to 

trauma in an ongoing way. Patients with initial sub-threshold presentation are at 

increased risk of developing PTSD and may need symptom-specific management.

DISCUSSION

For many types of trauma, experience indicates that relatively few survivors make 

use of available mental health services. This may be due to a lack of awareness of 

the availability of such services, low perceived need for them, lack of confidence in 

their utility or negative attitudes toward mental healthcare. Therefore, those 

planning follow-up and outreach services for survivors must consider how to reach 

trauma survivors to educate them about sources of help and market their services to 

the intended recipients (Excerpted from Raphael, 2000).

In the chaos of some kinds of traumatic events (e.g., natural disaster), it is

important that workers systematically obtain detailed contact information to facilitate 

later follow-up and outreach. In addition, it is important that those providing 

outreach and follow-up efforts be opportunistic in accessing settings where survivors 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module A – Acute Stress Reaction / Prevention of PTSD Page - 55

are congregating. Each contact with the system of formal and informal services 

available to survivors affords an opportunity to screen for risk and impairment and 

intervene appropriately. Settings providing opportunities for contact with survivors 

are diverse (e.g., remembrance ceremonies, self-help group activities, settings 

where legal and financial services are delivered, interactions with insurance 

companies). For survivors injured or made ill during the traumatic event, follow-up 

medical appointments represent opportunities for reassessment, referral, and 

treatment.
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 56

MODULE B: ALGORITHM
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 57
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 58

MODULE B: ANNOTATIONS

1. ASSESSMENT

A. Assessment of Stress Related Symptoms

BACKGROUND

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the development of characteristic and 

persistent symptoms, along with difficulty functioning after exposure to a lifethreatening experience or to an event that either involves a threat to life or serious 

injury. Symptoms of PTSD may diminish with the passage of time, or they may 

persist for many years. PTSD often occurs together with, or precedes other 

psychiatric illnesses. Patients are most likely to present to primary care with 

unexplained somatic and/or psychological symptoms (e.g., sleep disturbance, night 

sweats, fatigue, and difficulty with memory or concentration). The common 

symptoms after exposure to trauma are included in Table B-1.

The symptoms required for the diagnosis of PTSD may be divided into 3 clusters and 

should be present for at least 1 month.

• Intrusion or re-experiencing - memories of the trauma or "flashbacks" that 

occur unexpectedly; these may include nightmares, intrusive mental images or 

extreme emotional distress, and/or physiological reactivity on exposure to 

reminders of the traumatic event.

• Avoidance - avoiding people, places, thoughts, or activities that bring back 

memories of the trauma; this may involve feeling numb or emotionless, 

withdrawing from family and friends, or "self-medicating" by abusing alcohol or 

other drugs.

• Hyperarousal - feeling "on guard" or irritable, having sleep problems, having 

difficulty concentrating, feeling overly alert and being easily startled, or having 

sudden outbursts of anger.

PTSD is frequently under-recognized and therefore often goes untreated. In a 

general survey in Israel, 9 percent of patients in a primary care setting were found to 

have PTSD. Only 2 percent of the sample was recognized as having the disorder. 

Despite this lack of recognition, more than 80 percent of men and 92 percent of 

women with PTSD in this survey reported significant distress from the disorder. Even 

individuals with "subthreshold" symptoms who do not meet full diagnostic criteria for 

the disorder suffer from significant impairments, including increased suicidal 

ideation.

In the case that this syndrome originates in war experiences, the presumed cause 

presents itself as an exceptional event overcoming the individual's resources. The 

notion of war traumatization has been extended to other events, such as 

catastrophes, physical attacks, rapes, child and wife battering, and sexual abuse. 

However, the events that cause PTSD are significantly more numerous. For example, 

it can be seen that medical events, such as giving birth, miscarriage, heart attack, 

cancer, or hospitalization following resuscitation may give rise to PTSD. Further, 

people experiencing prolonged periods of distress may equally develop a posttraumatic syndrome without any one particular event having occurred to surpass 

their defenses.
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 59

In some cases, providers may initially consider PTSD and use this guideline first, 

whereas in others it may be useful to follow the algorithms and recommendation of 

the DoD/VA guideline for Post Deployment Health, the VA/DoD guideline for 

medically unexplained symptoms or the VA/DoD guideline for Major Depressive 

Disorder (MDD). All these guidelines provide a link to this module when appropriate.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Patients who are presumed to have symptoms of PTSD or who are positive 

for PTSD on the initial screening should receive a thorough assessment of 

their symptoms that includes details such as time of onset, frequency, 

course, severity, level of distress, functional impairment, and other relevant 

information to guide accurate diagnosis and appropriate clinical decisionmaking. 

2. Consider use of a validated, self-administered checklist to ensure 

systematic, standardized, and efficient review of the patient’s symptoms and 

history of trauma exposure. Routine ongoing use of these checklists may 

allow assessment of treatment response and patient progress (see Appendix 

C: PCL-C).

3. Diagnosis of PTSD should be obtained based on a comprehensive clinical 

interview that assesses all the symptoms that characterize PTSD. Structured 

diagnostic interviews, such as the Clinician-Administered PTSD scale (CAPS), 

may be considered.

DISCUSSION

Initial screening is discussed in the CORE module (See Core Module Annotation C,

and Appendix C: Screening Tools).

Table B - 1 Common Symptoms following Exposure to Trauma

Physical Cognitive/Mental Emotional Behavioral

• Chills

• Difficulty breathing

• Dizziness

• Elevated blood pressure

• Fainting 

• Fatigue

• Grinding teeth

• Headaches

• Muscle tremors

• Nausea 

• Pain

• Profuse sweating

• Rapid heart rate

• Twitches

• Weakness

• Blaming someone

• Change in alertness

• Confusion

• Hyper-vigilance

• Increased or decreased 

awareness of 

surroundings

• Intrusive images

• Memory problems

• Nightmares

• Poor abstract thinking

• Poor attention

• Poor concentration

• Poor decision-making

• Poor problem solving

• Agitation

• Anxiety

• Apprehension

• Denial

• Depression

• Emotional shock

• Fear

• Feeling overwhelmed

• Grief

• Guilt

• Inappropriate 

emotional response

• Irritability

• Loss of emotional 

control

• Increased alcohol 

consumption

• Antisocial acts

• Change in activity

• Change in communication

• Change in sexual 

functioning

• Change in speech pattern

• Emotional outbursts

• Inability to rest

• Change in appetite

• Pacing

• Startle reflex intensified

• Suspiciousness

• Social withdrawal
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 60

B. Assessment of Trauma Exposure

BACKGROUND

Assessment should include a careful examination of the traumatic experience itself, 

including the nature of the event and the patient's involvement in it; the patient's 

emotional, physical, and behavior responses at time of traumatization; and thoughts 

and feelings about those responses (e.g., what he or she did or did not do). 

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Assessment of the trauma exposure experience should include:

a. History of exposure to traumatic event(s)

b. Nature of the trauma

c. Severity of the trauma

d. Duration and frequency of the trauma

e. Age at time of trauma

f. Patient’s reactions during and immediately following trauma exposure 

(e.g., helplessness, horror, and fear)

g. Existence of multiple traumas.

2. If trauma exposure is recent (<1 month), particular attention should be given to 

the following:

a. Exposure to/Environment of trauma

b. Ongoing traumatic event exposure

c. Exposure, perhaps ongoing, to environmental toxins

d. Ongoing perceived threat.

3. When assessing trauma exposure, the clinician must consider the patient’s ability 

to tolerate the recounting of traumatic material, since it may increase distress 

and/or exacerbate PTSD symptoms.

DISCUSSION

The history also should include an assessment of prior stressful life events; coping 

skills; ego resources and self-capacities; environmental and social resources; 

cognitive functioning; psychiatric history; medical, family, social, and occupational 

history; and cultural and religious background. This background is necessary to 

establish an appropriate treatment plan specific to the individual patient. For 

example, if the individual does not feel safe in his or her current living situation, 

issues concerning safety need to be addressed first. Or, if the individual has a history 

of childhood abuse and has learned to use dissociation to protect the self, treatment 

will need to focus on helping the trauma victim manage his or her tendency to 

dissociate under stress. Assessment of cognitive ability may be important after 

trauma exposure because the patient’s cognitive status could influence the course of 

psychotherapy, the specific psychotherapeutic technique recommended to the 

patient, or the provision of group versus individual psychotherapy. The repeatedly 

traumatized individual may also need to work through earlier childhood traumas as 

well as the more recent traumatic event. 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 61

C. Assessment of Dangerousness to Self or Others

BACKGROUND

It is crucial to assess for safety and dangerousness in persons with PTSD, including 

current risk to self or others, as well as historical patterns of risk. Assessment of 

dangerousness needs to take place in a safe and secure environment and should 

begin with the building of rapport. In patients with thoughts of self-harm, 

assessment should include existence of current intent and previous suicidal ideation, 

intent, or history of a suicide attempt. 

RECOMMENDATION

1. All patients with PTSD should be assessed for safety and dangerousness,

including current risk to self or others, as well as historical patterns of risk:

a. Suicidal or homicidal ideation, intent (plan), means (e.g., weapon, 

excess medications), history (e.g. violence or suicide attempts), 

behaviors (e.g., aggression, impulsivity), co-morbidities (substance 

abuse, medical conditions) [B]

b. Family and social environment – including domestic or family 

violence, risks to the family [B]

c. Ongoing health risks or risk-taking behavior [B]

d. Medical/psychiatric co-morbidities or unstable medical conditions [B]

e. Potential to jeopardize mission in an operational environment. [I]

DISCUSSION

Any history of suicidal attempts or a family history of a completed or attempted 

suicide should be taken seriously. Pay careful attention to patients with behaviors 

that may signal dangerousness (e.g., agitation, threatening, intimidation, paranoia). 

Access to weapons or other means of harm should also be taken seriously. Assess for 

domestic or family violence, because these are elevated in those with PTSD. 

Assessment of medical, psychiatric, and social/environmental risks is also warranted.

Assessment of dangerousness can include questions, such as:

• You sound like you've had a very difficult time recently. Has life ever seemed like 

it’s not worth living? 

• Have you ever thought about acting on those feelings? Have you thought of how 

you would do this?

• Sometimes, when people get really upset or angry, they feel like doing harm to 

other people. Have you had any thoughts recently about harming others? 

• How do you express your feelings? 

• Are there times you are afraid to go home?

Dangerousness to Self

Suicidality - Persons with PTSD, including sub-threshold PTSD, are at high risk for 

suicidal ideation (Marshall et al., 2001) and, for women, suicide attempts (Breslau, 

2000; Ferrada-Noli et al., 1998; Kaslow et al., 2000; Prigerson & Slimack, 1999).

Suicidal behavior is best assessed with the following criteria: presence of active 

depression or psychosis, presence of substance abuse, past history of suicidal acts, 

formulation of plan, a stated intent to carry out the plan, feeling that the world would 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 62

be better off if the patient were dead, availability of means for suicide (e.g., firearms 

and pills), disruption of an important personal relationship, and failure at an 

important personal endeavor. The presence of these factors often constitutes a 

psychiatric emergency and must always be taken seriously. Among young adults, 

aggressive symptoms may be predictive of suicidality in men and elevated symptoms 

of PTSD and/or depression may be more predictive in women (Prigerson & Slimack, 

1999). Other predictors of completed suicide in general include history of suicide 

attempts, family history of suicide, access to weapons, male gender, and Caucasian 

race. Rates of suicidal ideation in treatment-seeking Vietnam veterans have been 70 

to 80 percent (Kramer et al., 1994). Additionally, Vietnam veterans with diagnosed 

PTSD have an increased risk of death due to suicide as compared to those without 

PTSD (Bullman & Kang, 1994). Among veterans with PTSD, intensive combat-related 

guilt has been linked to suicidality (Hendin & Haas, 1991). These findings point to 

the need for greater clinical attention to the role of guilt in the evaluation and 

treatment of suicidal veterans with PTSD. 

Individuals with severe childhood trauma (e.g., sexual abuse) may present with 

complex PTSD symptoms and parasuicidal behaviors, (e.g., self mutilation, 

medication overdoses) (Roth et al., 1997). Further, limited cognitive coping styles in 

PTSD have been linked to a heightened suicide risk (Amir et al., 1999). Fostering 

competence and social support may reduce this risk (Kotler et al., 2001). Co-morbid

substance use disorders may increase the risk of suicidality. Additionally, persons 

with PTSD may also be at personal risk of danger through ongoing or future 

victimization in relationships (e.g. domestic violence/battering, or rape).

• Many war veterans suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, or both disorders (Tanielian, 2008 RAND). The majority of US soldiers in 

Iraq were exposed to some kind of traumatic, combat-related situations, such as 

being attacked or ambushed (92 percent), seeing dead bodies (94.5 percent), 

being shot at (95 percent), and/or knowing someone who was seriously injured 

or killed (86.5 percent) (Hoge, 2004).

• In a nationally representative sample (N = 5877; age 15-54) that compared the 

relationship between anxiety disorders and suicidal ideation or suicide attempts, 

PTSD was significantly associated with suicidal ideation (adjusted odds ratio = 

2.79; p < 0.01) and suicide attempts (adjusted odds ratio = 2.67; p < 0.01). 

None of the other anxiety disorders was significantly associated with suicidal 

ideation or attempts (Sareen, 2005).

• Older and younger veterans are more prone to suicide than are middle-aged 

veterans (Zivin, 2007). Veterans with PTSD have been reported to have high 

levels of suicidal ideation and behaviors (Oquendo, 2005).

• Jakupcak (2009) found PTSD to be a risk factor for suicidal ideation in Iraq and 

Afghanistan War veteran. Veterans from OEF/OIF who screened positive for PTSD 

were more than 4 times as likely to endorse suicidal ideation relative to nonPTSD veterans. Among veterans who screened positive for PTSD (n = 202), the 

risk for suicidal ideation was 5.7 times greater in veterans who screened positive 

for two or more co-morbid disorders relative to veterans with PTSD only.

• Patients with co-occurring disorders, such as depression and alcohol abuse or 

depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), have been reported to be 

at much higher risk for suicide than patients with only 1 of these disorders.

• Male veterans with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and co-morbid PTSD 

were reported to have higher rates of suicidal ideation and suicidal behaviors 

compared to those without co-morbid PTSD (Strauss, 2006).
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 63

• In a large, nationally representative, longitudinal data set of depressed veterans 

whose causes of death have been definitively identified using linked National 

Death Index data, veterans who received a PTSD diagnosis had a lower rate of 

suicide than did veterans without PTSD (68.16 vs 90.66, respectively). The 

suicide rate was higher in the South than in the Northeast (88.93 vs 73.55, 

respectively) or central regions (88.93 vs 83.09, respectively) but slightly lower 

than rates in the West (88.93 vs 90.04, respectively). Veterans with a serviceconnected disability had a lower rate of suicide than those without a serviceconnected disability (70.06 vs 92.20) (Zivin, 2007).

Dangerousness to Others

Some individuals with PTSD may be at risk for violence toward others (Swanson et 

al., 2002). Explosivity, anger problems, and past history of violence are associated 

with an increased risk for violent behavior. Violence often emerges as a response to 

a perceived threat or marked frustration by the patient stemming from his or her 

inability to meet goals by nonviolent means. The specific factors that contribute to 

violent behavior may include psychiatric, medical, environmental and 

situational/social engagements. Often, it is a combination of these factors that 

precipitates and aggravates the potential for violence, which may quickly escalate to 

agitation or the carrying out of violent impulses. Whatever the cause, the following 

situations may serve as warning signs pointing toward a very real threat of violence:

• Ideation and/or intent to harm others

• Past history of violent behaviors

• Severely agitated, aggressive, threatening, or hostile behaviors

• Actively psychotic presentation.

Clinicians should keep in mind the possibility that thoughts or plans of violent acts 

toward others may represent thoughts of suicide, either after committing violence 

against another person, or by creating a situation where another person will be 

forced to harm the patient (e.g. ‘suicide by cop’). Special attention to the risk of 

domestic violence is warranted. Careful attention to the home environment and 

relationships is essential. If there are children, an assessment of parenting skills, 

anger management, caregiver burden, and discipline style is crucial. Advising highrisk patients and their families on gun removal and safe storage practices has been 

recommended to decrease the risk of violence (Seng, 2002). PTSD is a predictor of 

violence in persons with severe mental illness (Swanson et al., 2002). Also, 

substance use disorders are highly co-morbid in PTSD and can also predict violence. 

Immediate attention and intervention may be required in order to ward off the 

potential for escalation of agitation or violent impulses.

Health Risks

Persons with PTSD may have high rates of health risk behaviors, health problems, 

and medical conditions. Thus, an assessment of health and behavioral risks in 

individuals with PTSD is warranted. In addition to alcohol and drug use, persons with 

PTSD are at high risk for cigarette smoking (Acierno et al., 1996) and obesity 

(Vieweg et al., 2006). PTSD is a predictor of several HIV-risk behaviors as well as a 

risk factor for related blood-borne infections, such as hepatitis B and C (Hutton et 

al., 2001). Other potentially dangerous co-morbid medical conditions are intoxication 

or withdrawal syndromes requiring medical detoxification (e.g., alcohol, 

benzodiazepine, barbiturates, and possibly opiates). Medical conditions that can 

present a danger to others include the risk of transmission of blood-borne 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 64

pathogens, such as HIV and HCV/HBV; thus, risk assessment and serotesting are 

warranted.

Medical Conditions

Urgent conditions - Any condition immediately threatening to life, limb, or 

eyesight or requiring emergency medical care requires immediate attention.

Chronic diseases - PTSD has also been linked to cardiovascular disease, anemia, 

arthritis, asthma, back pain, diabetes, eczema, kidney disease, lung disease, 

ulcers, chronic pain, work absenteeism, and other generalized health problems 

(Weisberg et al., 2002; Hoge et al., 2007). One explanation for these problems 

may relate to the association of PTSD with dysregulation of the neuroendocrine, 

autonomic, nervous, and immune system functions (Schnurr and Green, 2003; 

Gill et al., 2009). Patients who have PTSD and other chronic medical diseases 

may find that PTSD worsens their medical conditions. Some medical conditions, 

which can be acutely dangerous in the presence of PTSD, include bronchial 

asthma, peptic ulcer disease, GI bleed, and malignant hypertension (Davidson et

al., 1991). 

Psychiatric Conditions

Delirium - (also known as organic brain syndrome, organic psychosis, acute 

confusional state, acute brain syndrome, and various other names) is a disorder 

of cognition and consciousness with abrupt onset that is frequently overlooked. 

This is common in the elderly and medically ill (Farrell & Ganzini, 1995).

Acute or marked psychosis - "Psychosis" in and of itself is not a psychiatric 

disorder. Rather, psychosis is a symptom, which may present in a variety of 

conditions. Psychotic patients have an impaired sense of reality, which may 

manifest in several forms (hallucinations, delusions, mental confusion or 

disorganization). Acute psychosis represents a medical emergency.

Severe debilitating depression (e.g., catatonia, malnourishment, severe 

disability) - While many mild to moderate illnesses may not necessarily present 

situations mandating immediate attention, the presence of severe depressive 

symptoms may represent a medical emergency, even in the absence of suicidal 

ideation.

EVIDENCE

Recommendation Sources LE QE R

1 Assess for dangerousness 

including suicidal or homicidal 

ideation, intent, means, history, 

behaviors, and co-morbidities

Breslau, 2000

Bullman & Kang, 1994

Ferrada-Noli et al., 1998

Kaslow et al., 2000

Marshall et al., 2001

Prigerson & Slimack, 1999

Swanson et al., 2002

Zivin, 2007

III

II-2

III

II-2

II

II

II

II-2

Good B

2 Assess family and social 

environment – including risks 

for family

Seng, 2002

Swanson, 2002

III

II

Good B

3 Assess ongoing health risks or 

risk-taking behaviors

Acierno et al., 1996

Hutton et al., 2001

Vieweg et al., 2006

II-2

II

II-2

Good B
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 65

4 Assess medical or psychiatric 

co-morbidities or unstable 

medical condition

Davidson et al., 1991

Farrell et al., 1995

Weisberg et al., 2002

Hoge et al., 2007

Gill et al., 2009

II

III

III

III

III

Good B

5 In operational environment, 

consider the potential to 

jeopardize the mission

Working Group Consensus III Poor I

LE = Level of Evidence; QE = Quality of Evidence; SR= Recommendation (see Appendix A)

D. Obtain Medical History, Physical Examination, Laboratory Tests and Psychosocial Assessment

OBJECTIVE

Obtain comprehensive patient data in order to reach a working diagnosis.

BACKGROUND

A wide range of medical conditions and treatments may result in abnormal behavior, 

and many medical disorders may produce or exacerbate psychiatric symptoms in 

patients with pre-existing mental illness. Multiple studies indicate high rates of 

medical disease (24 to 50 percent) in patients presenting with psychiatric symptoms 

(Williams & Shepherd, 2000). Failure to detect and diagnose underlying medical 

disorders may result in significant and unnecessary morbidity and mortality 

(Lagomasino et al., 1999). The converse problem is far greater in primary care: 

patients present with somatic symptoms and have psychiatric disorders that have 

not been properly diagnosed or treated. In one study, 5 of 6 patients with a 

psychiatric diagnosis had a somatic presentation, and the primary care physician 

made the diagnosis only half the time, whereas for the 16 percent with a 

psychological complaint, the correct diagnosis was made 94 percent of the time

(Bridges et al., 1985). A standardized approach to medical evaluation, including a 

thorough history, physical examination, laboratory evaluation, and occasionally other 

ancillary testing, prevents the omission of important aspects of the evaluation 

(Williams & Shepherd, 2000).

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. All patients should have a thorough assessment of medical and psychiatric 

history, with particular attention paid to the following:

a. Baseline functional status

b. Baseline mental status

c. Medical history: to include any injury (e.g., mild-TBI)

d. Medications: to include medication allergies and sensitivities; 

prescription medications; herbal or nutritional supplements; and 

over-the- counter (OTC) medications (caffeine, energy drinks or use 

of other substances)

e. Past psychiatric history: to include prior treatment for mental health 

and substance use disorder, and past hospitalization for depression 

or suicidality

f. Current life stressors.

2. All patients should have a thorough physical examination. On physical 

examination, particular attention should be paid to the neurological exam and 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 66

stigmata of physical/sexual abuse, self-mutilation, or medical illness. Note 

distress caused by, or avoidance of, diagnostic tests/examination procedures.

3. All patients, particularly the elderly, should have a Mental Status Examination 

(MSE) to include assessment of the following:

a. Appearance and behavior

b. Language/speech

c. Thought process (loose associations, ruminations, obsessions) and 

content (delusions, illusions and hallucinations)

d. Mood (subjective)

e. Affect (to include intensity, range, and appropriateness to situation 

and ideation)

f. Level of Consciousness (LOC)

g. Cognitive function

h. All patients should have routine laboratory tests as clinically 

indicated, such as TSH, Complete Metabolic Panel, Hepatitis, HIV, 

and HCG (for females). Also consider CBC, UA, Tox/EtoH panel, and 

other tests

i. Other assessments may be considered (radiology studies, ECG, and 

EEG), as clinically indicated

j. All patients should have a narrative summary of psychosocial 

assessments to include work/school, family, relationships, housing, 

legal, financial, unit/community involvement, and recreation, as 

clinically appropriate.

DISCUSSION

Differential diagnosis is important, given the many co-morbidities associated with 

PTSD, including dementia, depression, substance abuse/withdrawal, bereavement, 

psychosis, bipolar disorder, seizure disorder, persistent post-concussion syndrome, 

thyroid disease, neoplasm, somatoform-spectrum disorders (including irritable 

bowel, chronic fatigue, headaches, and non-cardiac chest pain), anxiety disorders, 

toxicosis, rheumatoid-collagen vascular disease, hypoxia, sleep apnea, closed head 

injury, CHF, and delirium.

Medical and Psychiatric History

The medical history may be obtained from the patient, family, friends, or coworkers 

or from official accounts of a traumatic event. 

• Substance use and misuse can cause, be caused by, and/or exacerbate PTSD. 

Use of screening tools (such as the AUDIT, MAST, or DAST) can improve 

detection of substance use disorders (see the VA/DoD Guideline for Substance 

Use Disorder)

• The active ingredients of OTC/herbal supplements can create pharmacokinetic 

and pharmacodynamic interactions with prescribed medications or medications 

that might be prescribed for treatment of PTSD (Shord et al., 2009; Ulbricht et 

al., 2008). For example, the serotonin syndrome, present with substantial 

anxiety symptoms, is the result of the interaction between SSRI or SNRI 

medications and another serotonergic substance such as St John’s Wort or 
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dextromethorphan (common ingredient in cough syrup); or prescription 

medications such as tramadol (a prescription-only analgesic), or methadone. An 

additional concern involves energy drinks. These drinks contain caffeine in 

modest to excessive amounts (Reissig et al., 2009) that may exacerbate anxiety 

symptoms, or, indicate a deficit in attention that should be pursued further for an 

underlying co-morbid etiology such as Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

• Risk factors suggesting the need for a higher-than-usual index of suspicion 

include certain physiological and psychological conditions or life events that may 

contribute to the development or exacerbation of PTSD symptoms (see 

Annotation F).

Physical Examination

A brief screening physical examination may uncover endocrine, cardiac, 

cerebrovascular, or neurologic disease that may be exacerbating or causing 

symptoms. Particular attention should be given to a neurological examination and 

stigmata of physical/sexual abuse, self-mutilation, or medical illness. Special note 

should also be made of distress caused by, or avoidance of, diagnostic tests or 

examination procedures, since these reactions may be suggestive of prior physical or 

sexual abuse. Careful attention should also be given to complying with legal 

mandates for documentation, reporting, and collection of evidence.

Mental Status Examination (MSE)

Particularly in the elderly patient, a full Mental Status Examination (MSE) including a 

cognitive screening assessment should occur. The assessment may consist of using a 

standardized instrument, such as the Folstein Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE)

(Crum et al., 1993; Cummings, 1993; Folstein et al., 1975). Typically scores below 

24 on the Mini Mental State Exam (MMSE) are suggestive of cognitive impairment

however, some older adults do not score well on the MMSE (there some tasks 

patients have to perform with their hands; thus those who have full or partial 

paralysis or even bad arthritis have a hard time doing those tasks and lose at least 

2-3 points). If screening is suggestive of cognitive impairment and the patient is not 

delirious, then a laboratory evaluation to assess for reversible causes of dementia is 

appropriate. However, the PTSD assessment should be continued. If delirium is 

present, consider it an emergency and stabilize the patient before continuing with 

the PTSD assessment.

Level of Consciousness (LOC) should be assessed to rule out delirium. Abnormal tics 

or movements should be noted, as well as dysarthria, dysprosody, aphasia, 

agraphia, and alexia, which may suggest underlying neurological disease. Sensory 

illusions may be seen in neurological syndromes and intoxications (Lagomasino et 

al., 1999).

Consider seeking further evaluation and consultation from neuropsychology specialty 

in cases of suspected cognitive disorders.

Laboratory Evaluation

The history and physical examination findings should be used to direct a conservative 

laboratory evaluation. There is no test for PTSD, but PTSD is frequently co-morbid 

with substance use disorders, depression, and high-risk behaviors. Therefore, testing 

is directed toward detection of associated medical conditions and ruling out any 

contraindications to medical therapy. Appropriate laboratory studies include: TSH, 

Complete Metabolic Panel, Hepatitis, HIV, and HCG (for females). Also consider CBC, 

UA, Tox/EtoH Panel, and other tests, as clinically indicated.
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Other Evaluation

• Diagnostic imaging and neuropsychological testing are not a part of the standard 

evaluation for PTSD. Proceed with management while awaiting the completion of 

the laboratory evaluation

• MRI/CT of the head may be indicated to rule out mass lesions, intracranial 

bleeding, hydrocephalus, or subdural hematomas (Lagomasino et al., 1999)

• ECG may rule out underlying cardiac abnormalities that preclude the use of 

medications, such as tricyclic antidepressants (Lagomasino et al., 1999)

• Consider EEG or other diagnostic testing, as indicated by history and physical 

exam.

Psychosocial Assessment

• Past psychiatric illness, treatment, or admission

• Past/ongoing problems with anxiety, impulsivity, mood changes, intense/unstable 

interpersonal relationships, suicidality, and hallucinations

• Recreational use of drugs/alcohol/tobacco/caffeine

• Social supports (family, friends, homelessness/housing, community, and financial 

status)

• Losses (bereavement, friend/family member injuries/death, occupation, and 

moral injury/betrayal)

• Occupational/educational/military history

• Environmental resources

• Coping Skills

• Factors affecting expression and intensity of PTS symptoms

• Legal issues

• Religious/spiritual history.

Consider use of checklists to determine if psychosocial rehabilitation services are

indicated in PTSD treatment (see Module I-2: D. Psychosocial Rehabilitation 

Intervention).

E. Assessment of Function, Duty/Work Responsibilities and Patient’s Fitness (In Relation To 

Military Operations)

BACKGROUND

One of the key goals of care is to assist the individual in beginning to return to a 

normal level of functioning. The clinician must assess the individual’s current level of 

family, relationship, work/school, and social functioning.

Ideally, service members who become ineffective as a result of PTSD will be returned 

to duty at the earliest possible time. For most military specialties, the time required 

to enlist and train the soldier to minimal operational readiness often exceeds a year. 

Consequently, service members who become ineffective due to stress-related 

conditions constitute a significant source of trained personnel who potentially have 

much to offer despite their disability. Assessment of fitness for duty may also have 

implications for medical boards and vocational rehabilitation.
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RECOMMENDATION

1. Assessment of function should be obtained through a comprehensive narrative 

assessment (see Table B-2), and the use of standardized, targeted, and validated 

instruments designed to assess family/relationship, work/school, and/or social 

functioning.

2. The determination of when to return to work/duty should take into consideration 

the complexity and importance of the patient’s job role and functional 

capabilities.

3. The continuing presence of symptoms of PTSD should not be considered in itself 

as sufficient justification for preventing a return to work/duty.

DISCUSSION

Global Functional Assessment

Consider using instruments, such as the GAF (American Psychiatric Association, 

1994) or the SF-36 (McHorney, 1994), to assess function. Such measures are useful 

for directing therapeutic interventions and monitoring response to treatment. The 

GAF score, while readily available and familiar to mental health professionals, is a 

poor predictor of function among combat veterans with PTSD. The GAF score 

explained only 17 percent of the variability in the scores among these combat

veterans (Miller et al., 2008). No single test (GAF, SF-36, PCL, or many others) can 

replace a careful and thoughtful clinical assessment when the clinician is tasked with 

determining level of function.

Narrative Functional Assessment

Functional assessment must be considered from the patient’s point of view as well as 

from the clinician’s point of view. A narrative account provides a more complete 

picture of the patient and his/her response to trauma. It allows for targeted social 

and behavioral interventions. Components of functional assessment should include:

work/school, relationships, housing, legal, financial, unit/community involvement, 

and recreation.

Duty/Work Responsibilities

Practitioners who are managing patients suffering from stress reactions or PTSD 

should consider a variety of factors when deciding if, and when, the individual is 

ready to return to work or military duty, including severity of the condition, level of 

occupational impairment, nature of the occupation, and the level of social support.
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Table B - 2 Components of Functional Assessment

Work • Is the person unemployed or seeking employment?

• If employed, any changes in productivity? 

• Have co-workers or supervisors commented on any recent 

changes in appearance, quality of work, or relationships? 

• Tardiness, loss of motivation, loss of interest? 

• Been more forgetful, easily distracted?

School • Changes in grades? 

• Changes in relationships with friends? 

• Recent onset or increase in acting out behaviors? 

• Recent increase in disciplinary actions? 

• Increased social withdrawal?

• Difficulties with concentration and short-term memory?

Marital & Family 

Relationships

• Negative changes in relationship with significant others? 

• Irritable or easily angered by family members? 

• Withdrawal of interest in or time spent with family? 

• Any violence within the family?

• Parenting difficulties?

• Sexual function difficulties?

Recreation • Changes in recreational interests? 

• Decreased activity level? 

• Poor motivation to care for self? 

• Sudden decrease in physical activity? 

• Anhedonia?

Housing • Does the person have adequate housing?

• Are there appropriate utilities and services (electricity, 

plumbing, other necessities of daily life)?

• Is the housing situation stable?

Legal • Are there outstanding warrants, restraining orders, or 

disciplinary actions?

• Is the person regularly engaging in or at risk to be involved in 

illegal activity?

• Is patient on probation or parole?

• Is there family advocacy/Dept. of Social Services (DSS) 

involvement?

Financial • Does the patient have the funds for current necessities,

including food, clothing, and shelter?

• Is there a stable source of income?

• Are there significant outstanding or past-due debts, alimony, 

child support?

• Has the patient filed for bankruptcy?

• Does the patient have access to healthcare and/or insurance?

Unit/Community 

Involvement

• Does the patient need to be put on profile, MEB, or limited 

duty?

• Is patient functional and contributing in the unit environment?

• Is there active/satisfying involvement in a community group 

or organization?
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F. Assessment of Risk/Protective Factors

BACKGROUND

Following a traumatic event, a majority of those exposed may experience acutetraumatic stress reaction. Of the population of persons who experience a traumatic 

event, only a subset will ultimately develop PTSD. After 9 to 12 months, 15 to 25 

percent continue to be disturbed by these symptoms. This group with persistent 

symptoms may have a distinct combination of characteristics that determine the 

presence of ongoing problems. The presence of, and interplay among, three groups 

of risk factors—biological factors (including genetics), the nature of the trauma, and 

the recovery environment (psychological and social support) work together to 

contribute to an individual’s vulnerability or resilience to PTSD. 

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Patients should be assessed for risk factors for developing PTSD. Special 

attention should be given to post-traumatic factors (i.e., social support, ongoing 

stressors, and functional incapacity) that may be modified by intervention.

2. When evaluating risk factors for PTSD, the clinician should keep in mind that 

PTSD is defined as occurring only after four weeks have elapsed following a 

traumatic event. PTSD symptoms, however, may not appear until a considerable 

time has passed—sometimes surfacing years later.

DISCUSSION

Risk Factors for PTSD

Two major systematic reviews of predictors of PTSD have been published (Brewin et 

al., 2000; Ozer et al., 2003). The main outcome measure considered in the reviews 

was effect size calculated for the different factors. Effect sizes give an indication of 

the magnitude of the associations found.

The meta-analysis of risk factors for PTSD of assessed studies of trauma-exposed 

adults reported that 14 different risk factors in the literature have a modest 

association with PTSD development (Brewin et al., 2000). The review by Ozer et al.

(2003) focused on personal characteristics salient for psychological processing and 

functioning and aspects of the traumatic event or its sequelae. Dissociation during 

the trauma, perceived support, and perceived life threat were strongly associated 

with PTSD. Prior trauma and prior (in early childhood or in adult life) adjustment 

factors were identified among the pre-trauma factors. Prior trauma was more 

strongly related to PTSD when the traumatic experience involved non-combat 

interpersonal violence than when the traumatic experience resulted from combat or 

an accident. Perceived life threat was more associated when assessment was further 

away from the traumatic event and in non-combat interpersonal violence than in 

accidents. Perceived social support was also more significant in studies that assessed 

individuals further away from the time of the traumatic event. Family history of 

psychiatric disorders was more significant among survivors of non-combat 

interpersonal violence than when the traumatic experience was combat exposure.
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The following characteristics have been reported in studies to be risk factors for the 

development of PTSD:

Pre-traumatic factors

• Ongoing life stress or demographics

• Lack of social support 

• Young age at time of trauma 

• Pre-existing psychiatric disorder

• Female gender 

• Low socioeconomic status, lower level of education, lower level of intelligence, 

race (African-American, American Indian, and Pacific Islander)

• Prior trauma exposure (reported abuse in childhood, report of other previous 

traumatization, report of other adverse childhood factors)

• Family history of psychiatric disorders (genetics). 

Peri-traumatic or trauma-related factors

• Severe trauma

• Type of trauma (interpersonal traumas, such as torture, rape, or assault, convey 

a high risk of PTSD)

• High perceived threat to life 

• Community (mass) trauma 

• Peri-traumatic dissociation. 

Post-traumatic factors

• Ongoing life stress 

• Lack of positive social support

• Negative social support (e.g., negative reactions from others) 

• Bereavement 

• Major loss of resources 

• Other post-traumatic factors, including children at home and distressed spouse.

Overall, factors, such as gender, age at trauma, and race, predicted PTSD in some 

populations but not in others. Further, factors, such as education, prior trauma, and 

childhood adversity, predicted PTSD more consistently (Harvey & Bryant, 2000; 

Harvey & Bryant, 1998b). However, this varies with the population and study 

methods. Prior psychiatric history, childhood abuse, and family psychiatric history 

have more consistent predictive effects. Factors operating during or after the trauma 

(e.g., trauma severity, lack of social support, and additional life stress) have 

somewhat stronger effects than pre-trauma factors. This finding is consistent with 

other studies that suggest poor social support and ongoing life stress to be predictors 

of PTSD development. This may have clinical implications, as early interventions that 

increase social support after trauma exposure may reduce the likelihood of PTSD 

(Litz et al., 2002).

The development of Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) at the time of the trauma is also a 

risk for developing PTSD (Classen et al., 1998). Numerous prospective cohort studies 

with various types of trauma exposure (e.g., violent assault and accidents) support 

that ASD is a predictor of later PTSD (Brewin et al., 1999; Bryant et al., 2000; 
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Harvey & Bryant, 1999; Mellman et al., 2001). In these studies, among persons with 

ASD, 40 to 80 percent did develop PTSD. Finally, most studies suggest an increased 

risk of PTSD development among individuals with peri-traumatic dissociation (Birmes 

et al., 2001; Murray et al., 2002). Subsequent research indicates that it is the posttraumatic duration of dissociation, rather than the peri-traumatic occurrence of 

dissociation (Panasetis & Bryant, 2003), that predicts the development of PTSD.

Pre-Traumatic Factors

Prior exposure to traumatic events is a risk indicator for chronic PTSD (Brewin et al., 

2000; Ozer et al., 2003). In particular, a history of exposure to interpersonal 

violence, in childhood or adulthood, substantially increases the risk for chronic PTSD 

following exposure to any type of traumatic event (Breslau, 2002; Brewin et al., 

2000; Ozer et al., 2003). Green et al. (2000) surveyed 1909 college-aged women 

and found that those who had experienced interpersonal trauma and those who had 

experienced multiple traumas exhibited elevated symptoms. Dougall et al. (2000) 

hypothesized that prior trauma history sensitizes victims to the new stressor, thus 

potentiating its impact. They argued that evaluating trauma history is essential for 

improving early intervention efforts.

Epidemiological studies have yielded higher rates of PTSD in women than in men in 

general populations, and there are also a number of gender differences in clinical 

presentation after trauma. Seedat and Stein (2000) studied a series of patients 

presenting with physical trauma after interpersonal violence and found that “women 

were more likely than men to have been previously assaulted or to have sustained 

injury by a relative or someone known to them, but less likely to have used 

substances at the time of the assault or to require emergency surgery.” Although 

there is considerable evidence suggesting a gender difference in PTSD prevalence, it 

is unclear whether this difference may be related to a higher risk of traumas that 

result in increased risk (e.g., rape) or greater willingness to seek mental healthcare 

for PTSD among women. One analysis in military personnel suggested that women 

and men who are working in support units with similar level of combat exposure 

appear to have an equivalent risk of developing PTSD (Hoge et al., 2007), and

further research is needed. Numerous epidemiological studies utilizing representative 

samples that have examined the prevalence of traumatic exposure and rates of PTSD 

across the adult lifespan found that younger adults had the highest prevalence of 

traumatic events and PTSD, followed by middle-aged adults and then older adults 

(Creamer & Parslow, 2008; De Vries & Olff, 2009; Kessler et al., 2005; Spitzer et al., 

2008).

Pre-existing psychiatric problems are associated with more adverse responses to 

trauma (Norris et al., 2002; Breslau, 2002), as shown in a review of epidemiological 

studies that found that preexisting psychiatric disorder was one of 3 factors that had 

a predictable effect on the development of PTSD. Two meta-analyses of risk or 

predictive factors for PTSD have identified prior psychiatric history as a risk factor for 

the development of PTSD (Brewin et al., 2000; Ozer et al., 2003). A family history of 

psychiatric disorders may also contribute to a person’s vulnerability to PTSD. Brewin 

and colleagues (2000) found that “factors, such as psychiatric history, reported 

childhood abuse, and family psychiatric history ... had more uniform predictive 

effects” than did other risk factors, such as gender or age at trauma.

Genetics – Family history of any psychiatric disorder or possible genetic differences 

in regulating pre-synaptic uptake of serotonin (or other neurobiological mechanism) 

can increase risk. Genetic research has shown that of the two variants of the gene 

regulating pre-synaptic uptake of serotonin, the long form appears to be associated 
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with resilience and the short form with the vulnerability to stress events. Individuals 

who inherited the short form and were exposed to four of more stressful life events 

were much more likely to develop PTSD and depression and to attempt suicide 

(Koenen et al., 2009). Other genes that may confer vulnerability or resilience are 

currently under investigation. Twin studies have also indicated that there is a genetic 

vulnerability to PTSD. Twin research to date suggests that exposure to assaultive 

trauma is moderately heritable, whereas exposure to non-assaultive trauma is not. 

PTSD symptoms are moderately heritable, and co-morbidity of PTSD with other 

disorders may be partly due to shared genetic and environmental influences 

(Koenen, 2008; Afifi, 2010).

Peri-Traumatic Factors

Foy et al. (1984) published one of the first formal studies to look at risk factors for 

PTSD and reported characteristics of trauma exposure to be of central importance. 

Numerous studies have since observed a dose-response relationship between trauma 

severity and PTSD. The more severe the trauma, the more likely the person 

experiencing it will develop PTSD. Armenian and colleagues (2000) found this to be 

true among disaster victims. Feehan et al. (2001) found higher PTSD rates among 

more severely traumatized members of a general cohort.

With regards to type of trauma, interpersonal violence (rape, torture, physical 

assault) was found to be more likely to produce PTSD than more impersonal events 

(such as accidents or group trauma) (Holbrook et al., 2001). 

Situations where the trauma is potentially life-threatening also carry a high risk of 

PTSD; in a meta-analysis of 68 PTSD studies, Ozer et al. (2003) found “perceived life 

threat” to have a high risk value, and in Woods’ study of abused women, the 

perceived threat of homicide played a role in the later development of PTSD. 

Holbrook et al. (2001) diagnosed 261 (32 percent) of 824 individuals as having PTSD 

6 months after major physical trauma. Patients who were totally incapacitated, 

experienced physical injury, or suffered major losses were also at higher risk for 

developing PTSD. Factors associated with a PTSD diagnosis included perceived threat 

to life, female gender, younger age, and lower income.

Ozer et al. (2003) also found that dissociation at the time of the trauma is predictive 

of later development of PTSD. Demographic factors may also be predictive. 

Finnsdottir & Elklit (2002) found higher rates of PTSD among disaster victims who 

were young at the time of the trauma. In a general group of psychiatric patients, 

Neria et al. (2002) found young age at trauma to be a risk factor for PTSD. Finally, 

biological factors may also be relevant to predicting PTSD. Shalev et al. (1998) 

measured the heart rate and blood pressure of eighty-six trauma survivors at the 

time of their presentation at a hospital emergency room and concluded that 

“elevated heart rate shortly after trauma is associated with the later development of 

PTSD.” In a meta-analysis, Yehuda et al. (1998) reported that studies 

“demonstrated increased heart rate and lower cortisol levels at the time of the 

traumatic event in those who have PTSD at a follow-up time compared to those who 

do not.”

Post-Traumatic Factors

The post-trauma environment has been shown to be an important predictor of 

chronicity (Berwin, 2000). The experience of traumatization may have life-altering 

consequences in terms of social status, employment, and health, and continuing 

difficulties in these areas may contribute to the likelihood that a person will develop 

PTSD. Feehan et al. (2001), in interviews with 374 trauma survivors, found 
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unemployment to be a risk factor. Likewise, in a meta-analysis performed by Norris 

et al. (2002), “resource loss” was cited as a risk for PTSD. 

Impaired social support is a not-infrequent outcome of a traumatic experience. 

Armenian et al. (2000), Brewin et al. (2000), Gregurek et al. (2001), and Ozer et al. 

(2003) all reported that the loss of support from significant others can pose a risk for 

development of PTSD. 

Finally, general ongoing life stress may also play a role. Brewin et al. (2000) 

reported “life stress” to be more predictive of PTSD development than pre-traumatic 

factors, such as gender or age at trauma. Norris et al. (2002) found that in disaster 

victims, “secondary stressors” increased the likelihood of adverse outcomes.

Some have suggested that secondary gain related to compensation may predict 

treatment outcome. Laffaye et al. (2008), in a comprehensive review of the 

literature, found that initial levels of perceived support and stressors did not predict 

the course of chronic PTSD symptoms. Furthermore, the literature indicates that 

veterans who are seeking, or have been awarded, compensation participate in 

treatment at similar or higher rates than do their non-compensation-seeking 

counterparts. Veteran treatment outcome studies produced either null or mixed 

findings, with no consistent evidence that compensation-seeking predicts worse 

outcomes. Studies of motor vehicle accident survivors found no association between 

compensation status and course of recovery (Laffaye, 2007).

Risk Factors for PTSD in Military Veterans

Friedman et al. (1994) concluded that “the likelihood of developing chronic PTSD 

depends on premilitary and postmilitary factors in addition to features of the trauma 

itself. Premilitary factors include negative environmental factors in childhood, 

economic deprivation, family psychiatric history, age of entry into the military, 

premilitary educational attainment, and personality characteristics. Postmilitary 

factors include social support and the veteran's coping skills. Among military 

personnel, there are three populations at risk for unique problems that may amplify 

the psychological impact of war-zone stress. They are women whose war-zone 

experiences may be complicated by sexual assault and harassment; nonwhite ethnic 

minority individuals whose premilitary, postmilitary, and military experience is 

affected by the many manifestations of racism, and those with war-related physical 

disabilities, whose PTSD and medical problems often exacerbate each other.”

Among military service members, combat exposures are reported as the strongest 

predictors of subsequent PTSD (Berwin, 2000; Clancy 2006; Foy, 1987; Baker 1997; 

Smith 2008). The frequency and intensity of direct combat appears to be one of the 

strongest predictors of PTSD. A number of studies have found a strong dose 

response relationship of combat frequency and intensity to PTSD prevalence (e.g. 

Hoge, et al., 2004; Dohrenwend et al., 2006; MHAT6 report (2009); and the Smith, 

Ryan et al., 2008). Wartime exposure includes numerous combat events such as

being wounded, losing a team member, near miss of life witnessing, torture, 

witnessing killing, or killing enemy or civilian in combat (Maguen et al., 2010).

Studies of veterans have reported gender differences in PTSD risks: war zone 

stressors appear preeminent for PTSD in men, and post-trauma resilience-recovery 

variables are more important for women (King et al., 1999).

There are good arguments favoring a genetic contribution to the PTSD diagnosis in 

combat veterans. The Vietnam Twin Registry studies found the effect size of combat 

exposure was 5 to 12 times smaller than the effect size of zygosity upon PTSD 
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diagnosis (Gilbertson et al., 2006). Kremen et al. (2007) reported a similar 

relationship by examining cognitive ability and rates of PTSD diagnosis. These data 

from the Vietnam Twin Registry involve small N due to the sample nature, but they 

do offer excellent support for a genetic contribution to PTSD diagnosis.

Clancy et al. (2006) examined the effect of exposure before, during, or after military 

service. Findings indicated that non-military-related trauma was prevalent among 

the veterans sample (90 percent). Regression analyses for PTSD symptom severity 

revealed that age, greater combat exposure, and a history of physical assault after 

military service were significantly associated with more severe PTSD symptoms. 

Childhood physical abuse, adult sexual trauma, and a history of being physically 

assaulted during military service were also significantly associated with PTSD 

symptom severity.

Injury severity was a significant predictor of any mental health diagnosis and PTSD 

diagnosis. Gunshot wounds and diastolic blood pressure were significant predictors of 

any mental health diagnosis but not PTSD. A study of a sample of 1968 men (831 

battle injuries and 1137 non-battle injuries) injured during Operation Iraqi Freedom 

(OIF) found that those with battle injuries compared with non-battle injuries had a 

greater risk of PTSD and other mental health diagnoses, and there was a positive 

association with injury severity (MacGregor et al., 2009). Aggressive pain control 

after injury has shown, in one study, to reduce the incidence of PTSD. The study 

(Holbrook, 2010) found that the use of morphine during trauma care may reduce the 

risk of subsequent development of PTSD after serious injury.

One semi-prospective study (Zohar, 2009) examined risk factors for the 

development of post-traumatic stress disorder following combat trauma by 

comparing a large sample of war veterans (Israeli Defense Force) who developed 

PTSD with a matched control group of veterans who did not. Neither behavioral 

assessment nor training was found to predict PTSD. The predictive factors that were 

found were essentially non-specific, such as cognitive functioning, education, rank, 

and position during the trauma, with little effect from training. The author concluded 

that “... an armed force that uses universal recruitment, carefully structured 

predrafting psychological assessment of social and individual qualifications (including 

motivation) failed to identify increased risk factors for PTSD. However, nonspecific 

factors were found to be associated with an increased risk for PTSD. This study 

suggests that the focus of future research on risk factors for PTSD should incorporate 

other domains rather than behavioral assessment alone” (Zohar et al., 2009).

Phillips et al. (2010) identified risk factors for PTSD among military service members 

as related to their combat exposure. The threat of death and serious injury and the 

witnessing of injury or death are significant risk factors for screening positive for 

post-deployment PTSD among male Marines, as well as violence exposures prior to 

entering the Marine Corps, which are independent of future combat exposures. Prior 

assault was also found to increase vulnerability, rather than resilience against, PTSD 

symptoms among military professionals in the Millennium Cohort Study of US 

military cohort deployed in the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan (Smith, 2008). Higher 

frequency and intensity of combat has been strongly associated with increased rates 

of PTSD (Hoge, 2004; Dohrenwend, 2006). 

PTSD symptoms among service members deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan have been 

associated with lower rank, being unmarried, less formal education, and a history of 

childhood adversity (Smith, 2008; Iversen, 2008).
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The intrapersonal characteristic of hardiness as well as post-war social support may 

be protective against developing PTSD. In contrast, negative life events in the 

postwar or trauma period are linked to PTSD (King et al., 1998).

There is evidence that a strong social support network, indicated by unit cohesion, is 

protective. A large social support network may diminish the association between 

stressful life events and PTSD symptoms (Schnurr et al., 2004; Benotsch et al., 

2000; Brailey et al., 2007).

EVIDENCE 

Evidence Sources LE QE SR

1 Assessment of persons exposed to 

trauma for risk factors for developing 

PTSD (pre-trauma and post-trauma 

risks)

Brewin et al., 2000

Ozer et al., 2003

II Good B

2 Assessment of trauma type, nature, and 

severity

Brewin et al., 1999

Bryant et al., 2000

Harvey & Bryant, 2000

Mellman et al., 2001

II Good B

3 Assessment of existing social supports 

and ongoing stressors.

Litz et al., 2002 II Good B

4 Patients with dissociative symptoms or 

ASD warrant careful clinical attention 

due to a high risk for developing PTSD

Birmes et al., 2001

Brewin et al., 1999

Bryant et al., 2000

Harvey & Bryant, 2000

Mellman et al., 2001

Murray et al., 2002

II Good B

LE = Level of Evidence; QE = Quality of Evidence; SR = Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)
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2. TRIAGE

G. Diagnosis of PTSD or Clinical Significant Symptoms Suggestive of PTSD?

BACKGROUND

In the primary care setting, providers often do not have the time or resources to 

accomplish a detailed mental health intake evaluation; so it is important for them to 

be comfortable with the initial evaluation and management of stress-related 

disorders without having to be concerned with the fine details of DSM-IV and making 

a definite diagnosis. Providers who perform the initial evaluation of a patient with 

suspected PTSD should recognize that a detailed recounting of the traumatic 

experience may cause further distress to the patient.

Please refer to Annotation A for a discussion of post-traumatic symptoms. 

RECOMMENDATION

1. A diagnosis of stress-related disorder consistent with the DSM IV criteria for

PTSD should be formulated before initiating treatment.

2. Diagnosis of PTSD should be obtained based on a comprehensive clinical

interview that assesses all the symptoms that characterize PTSD. Structured

diagnostic interviews, such as the Clinician-Administered PTSD scale (CAPS),

may be considered.

3. When a diagnostic work out cannot be completed, primary care providers

should consider initiating treatment or referral based on a working diagnosis of

stress-related disorder.

4. Patients with difficult or complicated presentation of the psychiatric component

should be referred to PTSD specialty care for diagnosis and treatment.

5. Patients with partial or sub-threshold PTSD should be carefully monitored for

deterioration of symptoms.

DISCUSSION

Approximately 90 percent of patients with a mental health diagnosis are seen in 

primary care (Gebhart, 1996). 

Many options are available to primary care providers to treat stress-related disorders 

and to relieve the burden of suffering for PTSD patients including pharmacotherapy, 

supportive counseling, and referral. Because these interventions can be helpful in a 

variety of psychiatric disorders, it is not essential that a detailed diagnostic 

assessment be completed prior to initiating treatment for PTSD. 

In addition, a detailed recounting of the traumatic experience may cause further 

distress to the patient and is not advisable unless a provider has been trained and is 

able to support the patient through this experience.
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Table B - 3 Diagnostic criteria for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (DSM-IV)

A. The person has been exposed to a traumatic event in which both of the following were present: 

1. The person experienced, witnessed, or was confronted with an event or events that involved 

actual or threatened death or serious injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of self or 

others 

2. The person's response involved intense fear, helplessness, or horror. Note: In children, this 

may be expressed instead by disorganized or agitated behavior 

B. The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced in one (or more) of the following ways: 

1. Recurrent and intrusive distressing recollections of the event, including images, thoughts, or 

perceptions. Note: In young children, repetitive play may occur in which themes or aspects of 

the trauma are expressed 

2. Recurrent distressing dreams of the event. Note: In children, there may be frightening dreams 

without recognizable content 

3. Acting or feeling as if the traumatic event were recurring (includes a sense of reliving the 

experience, illusions, hallucinations, and dissociative flashback episodes, including those that 

occur on awakening or when intoxicated) Note: In young children, trauma-specific 

reenactment may occur 

4. Intense psychological distress at exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize or 

resemble an aspect of the traumatic event 

5. Physiological reactivity on exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize or resemble 

an aspect of the traumatic event 

C. Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma and numbing of general responsiveness 

(not present before the trauma), as indicated by three (or more) of the following: 

1. Efforts to avoid thoughts, feelings, or conversations associated with the trauma 

2. Efforts to avoid activities, places, or people that arouse recollections of the trauma 

3. Inability to recall an important aspect of the trauma 

4. Markedly diminished interest or participation in significant activities 

5. Feeling of detachment or estrangement from others 

6. Restricted range of affect (e.g., unable to have loving feelings) 

7. Sense of a foreshortened future (e.g., does not expect to have a career, marriage, children, or a 

normal life span) 

D. Persistent symptoms of increased arousal (not present before the trauma), as indicated by two (or 

more) of the following: 

1. Difficulty falling or staying asleep 

2. Irritability or outbursts of anger 

3. Difficulty concentrating 

4. Hypervigilance 

5. Exaggerated startle response

E. Duration of the disturbance (symptoms in Criteria B, C, and D) is more than 1 month 

F. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other 

important areas of functioning

Specify if: Acute: if duration of symptoms is less than 3 months

Chronic: if duration of symptoms is 3 months or more

With Delayed Onset: if onset of symptoms is at least 6 months after the stressor
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 80

DSM-IV & DSM-IV-TR Cautionary Statement

• The specified diagnostic criteria for each mental disorder are offered as 

guidelines for making diagnoses, because it has been demonstrated that the 

use of such criteria enhances agreement among clinicians and investigators. 

The proper use of these criteria requires specialized clinical training that 

provides both a body of knowledge and clinical skills.

• These diagnostic criteria and the DSM-IV Classification of mental disorders 

reflect a consensus of current formulations of evolving knowledge in our field. 

They do not encompass, however, all the conditions for which people may be 

treated or that may be appropriate topics for research efforts.

• The purpose of DSM-IV is to provide clear descriptions of diagnostic 

categories in order to enable clinicians and investigators to diagnose, 

communicate about, study, and treat people with various mental disorders. It 

is to be understood that inclusion here, for clinical and research purposes, of 

a diagnostic category, such as Pathological Gambling or Pedophilia, does not 

imply that the condition meets legal or other non-medical criteria for what 

constitutes mental disease, mental disorder, or mental disability. The clinical 

and scientific considerations involved in categorization of these conditions as 

mental disorders may not be wholly relevant to legal judgments, for example, 

that take into account such issues as individual responsibility, disability 

determination, and competency.

• Dissociative symptoms are not considered an essential feature of PTSD, as 

they are for ASD. Dissociative symptoms included among the diagnostic 

criteria for PTSD are categorized as reexperiencing (e.g., dissociative

flashbacks) or avoidance /numbing (e.g., dissociative amnesia and psychic 

numbing). For example, the dissociative symptom of psychic numbing which 

is an expression of a restricted range of affect among the avoidance/numbing

symptoms of PTSD. Similarly, the inability to remember an important aspect 

of the trauma describes the dissociative symptom of amnesia. Thus, while 

dissociation has not been identified as a central feature of PTSD, dissociative 

symptoms can contribute to a diagnosis of PTSD, making the comparison of 

ASD and PTSD less inconsistent than it might seem.

Partial or Sub-threshold PTSD

Studies in which the prevalence of partial or sub-threshold PTSD was examined 

found it to be substantial. In one study of infantry soldiers returning from Iraq, 

the prevalence of PTSD was estimated to be 12 percent when a stringent PCL 

definition of PTSD was utilized but rose to 18-20 percent when a more liberal 

DSM symptom-based definition was applied (Hoge, 2004). A large Canadian 

epidemiological study assessing for current PTSD found the incidence to be 5.0

percent (women) and 1.7 percent (men), but the incidence of partial PTSD was

even higher at 5.7 percent and 2.2 percent for women and men, respectively. 

Individuals with sub-threshold PTSD showed similar levels of social and 

occupational impairment as those meeting full criteria (Stein, 1997; Marshall, 

2001). 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 81

H. Assess for Co-Occurring Disorders

OBJECTIVE

Improve management of PTSD symptoms when they are complicated by the 

presence of a medical or psychiatric co-morbidity.

BACKGROUND

Co-morbid medical and psychiatric conditions are important to recognize, because 

they can modify clinical determinations of prognosis, patient or provider treatment 

priorities, selection of interventions, and the setting where PTSD care will be 

provided. Patients with PTSD have been found to frequently report physical 

symptoms, cognitive health concerns, and utilize high levels of medical care services. 

Providers should also expect that 50 to 80 percent of patients with PTSD will have 

one or more coexisting mental health disorders. PTSD is strongly associated, among 

veterans from recent deployment (OEF/OIF), with generalized physical and cognitive 

health symptoms attributed to concussion/mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). 

Because of the many potential etiologies of these symptoms, it is generally best to 

develop a collaborative care treatment strategy based in primary care and address 

these health concerns simultaneously with PTSD symptoms (see VA/DoD Clinical 

Practice Guideline for Post-Deployment Health). Management should focus on 

identifying and treating the symptoms that are causing the most impairment, 

regardless of the cause or diagnosis.

Some co-morbid medical or psychiatric conditions may require early specialist 

consultation in order to assist in determining treatment priorities. In some cases, 

these disorders may require stabilization before (or in concert with) initiation of PTSD 

treatment. 

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Providers should recognize that medical disorders/symptoms, mental health 

disorders, and psychosocial problems commonly coexist with PTSD and should 

screen for them during the evaluation and treatment of PTSD.

2. Because of the high prevalence of psychiatric co-morbidities in the PTSD 

population, screening for depression and other psychiatric disorders is warranted 

(see also VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of Major 

Depressive Disorder [MDD] and for Bipolar Disorder).

3. Patterns of current and past use of substance by persons with trauma histories or 

PTSD should be routinely assessed to identify substance misuse or dependency 

(alcohol, nicotine, prescribed drugs, and illicit drugs) (see also VA/DoD Clinical 

Practice Guideline for Substance Use Disorders).

4. Pain (acute and chronic) and sleep disturbances should be assessed in all patients 

with PTSD.

5. Generalized physical and cognitive health symptoms - also attributed to 

concussion/mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and many other causes - should 

be assessed and managed in patients with PTSD and co-occurring diagnosis of 

mTBI (see also VA/DoD CPG for Concussion/mild-TBI, and the CPG for PostDeployment Health).

6. Associated high-risk behaviors (e.g., smoking, alcohol/drug abuse, unsafe 

weapon storage, dangerous driving, HIV and hepatitis risks) should be assessed 

in patients with PTSD.
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 82

7. Providers should consider the existence of co-morbid conditions when deciding 

whether to treat patients in the primary care setting or refer them for specialty 

mental healthcare (See Annotation J).

8. Patients with complicated co-morbidity may be referred to mental health or PTSD 

specialty care for evaluation and diagnosis (see Annotation J).

DISCUSSION

Co-morbid conditions and psychosocial problems of significant importance to 

treatment planning include:

Medical Conditions: PTSD is associated with elevated rates of generalized physical 

and cognitive health concerns, which are thought to be mediated in part by 

neuroendocrine dysregulation and autonomic nervous system reactivity (Hoge et al.,

2007; Schnurr & Green, 2004). These health conditions can include chronic

headaches, chronic musculoskeletal pain, memory and attention problems, fatigue, 

dizziness, gastrointestinal symptoms, sleep dysfunction, hypertension, rapid heart 

rate (sometimes in association with panic symptoms), cardiovascular disease, 

impulsivity, anger, sexual problems, and a variety of other health complaints. The 

trauma-focused techniques may be undesirable and counter-productive for older 

adults as they can lead to increased autonomic arousal and decreased cognitive 

performance. In patients with serious cardiac problems, consultation from the 

primary care physicians can be sought. If in consultation with other health 

professionals, and the patient, it is decided that trauma-focused treatments is 

feasible, then mental health treatment providers can proceed with caution and 

closely monitor patients at greater risk from high arousal. These health concerns can 

sometimes cluster together and may present as multisystem problems in the same 

manner as somatoform-spectrum or medically unexplained physical symptom 

(MUPS) conditions. These symptoms have been commonly described after all wars, 

overlap with numerous conditions, and often have more than one potential etiology 

(see DoD/VA Post-Deployment Health CPG). For example, service members or 

veterans who present to primary care with headaches, cognitive problems, fatigue, 

dizziness, and/or irritability may be experiencing these symptoms as a result of

chronic sleep deprivation, neuroendocrine/autonomic nervous system dysregulation 

associated with PTSD, residual effects of injuries during deployment (including 

concussions/mTBIs), chronic pain, medication side effects, depression, substance 

misuse, or other causes. For veterans of combat, their experiences may have 

involved the extremes of physiological stress, contributing to long-term 

dysregulation of neuroendocrine and autonomic nervous systems. 

It is important for clinicians to be aware of the high medical co-morbidity of PTSD 

and the fact that physical health concerns (e.g., chronic pain, headaches) may make 

it more difficult to treat PTSD symptoms. Because of the many potential etiologies of 

these symptoms, it is generally best to develop a collaborative care treatment 

strategy based in primary care and address these health concerns simultaneously 

with PTSD symptoms, or the VA post-deployment care clinic model, an integrated 

primary care – mental health clinical setting centered on the combat veteran (see 

also the VA/ DoD Guideline for Post-Deployment Health).

Some medical disorders may restrict PTSD treatment options (e.g., dementia limits 

psychotherapeutic options; cardiac conduction problems may limit some 

pharmacotherapeutic options; and disorders that restrict mobility may limit ability to 

attend weekly treatment sessions). It is generally best to maximize medical 

management of these conditions first and then focus on PTSD treatment.
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 83

Substance Use Disorders: Patients with PTSD frequently use alcohol, nicotine, and 

other substances in maladaptive ways to cope with their symptoms. Approximately 

40 to 50 percent of PTSD patients treated in the VA have current substance use 

problems. Effective PTSD treatment is extremely difficult in the face of active 

substance use problems, unless substance use disorders are also treated. Most often, 

attempts to address substance problems should proceed concurrently with the direct 

management of PTSD. However, in cases when the substance use is severe, 

substance use may require initial treatment and stabilization before progressing to 

PTSD care (e.g., patient requires detoxification from opiates) (see Annotation J2 -

Concurrent PTSD and Substance Abuse). Ongoing heavy alcohol use will interfere 

with prolonged exposure therapy by chemically enhancing the extinction of anxiety, 

thus not allowing the patient an opportunity to fully engage in therapy.

Mild-Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI): Providers should have specific awareness of 

traumatic brain injury (TBI), particularly concussion/mTBI, in the post-deployment 

population because of the high incidence of concussion/mTBI during deployment (10-

20 percent of combat veterans), and high co-morbidity of post-concussive symptoms 

(PCS) with PTSD. Concussion/mTBI is common in sports injuries, motor vehicle 

accidents, military training (e.g., hand-to-hand combat), and combat. It is 

associated with a variety of symptoms that will manifest immediately following the 

event, and may resolve quickly, within minutes to hours after the injury event. In 

certain individuals the symptoms persist longer leading to a persistent postconcussion symptoms (PPCS). Although there has been controversy of the relative 

contribution of concussion/mTBI and PTSD to post-deployment health outcomes, 

what is not controversial, is that PPCS include many of the same symptoms that 

veterans report after combat service, and overlap with the physical and cognitive 

health problems associated with PTSD, depression, and other causes (Bryant, 2008; 

Hoge, 2009; Stein & Mcallister, 2009). Several studies in OIF/OEF veterans have 

shown that PTSD is associated with post-deployment cognitive impairment, 

headaches, and other post-concussive symptoms. A history of concussion/mTBI with 

loss of consciousness has also been shown to have a small independent association 

with some post-deployment outcomes (Schneiderman et al., 2008; Hoge et al., 

2008; Marx et al., 2009; Pietrzak et al., 2009). These studies highlight the complex 

interrelationship of causal factors responsible for post-deployment symptoms, and 

supports collaborative care approaches to treatment.

It is often difficult to precisely attribute symptoms to concussive events that occurred 

months or years earlier. Combat-related concussions (particularly those involving 

loss of consciousness) are associated with an increased risk of PTSD, presumably 

because of the life-threatening context of the concussion (distinct from concussions 

occurring in non-life threatening situations, such as sports accidents, which are not 

associated with PTSD), but possibly because of other factors (e.g., physiological, 

neurocognitive) inherent to the TBI, as well.

Psychiatric Disorders: In addition to substance use disorders, other commonly 

occurring mental disorders that co-exist with PTSD include: major depression, 

dysthymia, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and generalized anxiety 

disorder. Treatment of these disorders often occurs concurrently with therapy for 

PTSD, but on occasion they will take precedence. These disorders have evidencebased therapies that may pose additional effective treatment options. Co-morbid 

disorders that are less common with PTSD, but not rare, include psychotic disorders 

and bipolar disorder. Practitioners should be alert to co-morbid eating disorders, 

such as bulimia, particularly in women.
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 84

Personality Disorders: Personality disorders are long-term problems of coping that 

begin in childhood or adolescence and are often associated with past abuse or 

neglect and recurrent relationship problems. These patterns often result in poor 

adherence to prescribed PTSD management, and the primary care provider may 

require early assistance and advice from the mental healthcare provider.

The primary care practitioner should remain cautious of making a personality 

disorder diagnosis when PTSD is a known or suspected diagnosis. In some instances, 

PTSD could explain behavior attributed to a personality disorder. A mistaken 

personality disorder diagnosis can lead to delays in treatment for PTSD. For example, 

poor adherence to treatment may indicate a personality disorder, but it also may 

indicate a patient who was sexually assaulted on active military duty and is angry 

with authority figures because the assault was not appropriate investigated by the 

military chain of command.

Psychosocial Problems: Associated behavior problems and psychosocial deficits 

commonly present in patients with chronic PTSD include: 

• Homelessness 

• Suicidality

• Domestic violence or abuse 

• Aggression, rage.

I. Educate Patient and Family 

OBJECTIVE

Help trauma survivors cope with ASD/PTSD by providing information that may help 

them manage their symptoms and benefit from treatment.

BACKGROUND

Education of the trauma survivor is a core component of all PTSD treatment. 

Survivors need to better understand what they are experiencing, how to cope with 

reactions or symptoms, and what happens in treatment. It is also helpful to provide 

this information to family members or to the patients' significant others so that they 

can more effectively support the patient’s recovery.

Education may be helpful in encouraging patients to self-refer to treatment or for 

family members encouraging a patient to attend treatment. Chaplains, particularly in 

the active duty military population, can be highly effective educational liaisons. 

Military culture does not attach any stigma to speaking with a chaplain although 

some military members may be reluctant to seek mental health assistance. 

Education from military chaplains may reduce barriers to care.

Caregivers (informal and formal) are often integral to treatment with older adults 

who are physically and mentally vulnerable/compromised. When conducting therapy 

with those with cognitive or physical impairments, providers may want to engage 

caregivers for additional support, reinforcement of materials presented in therapy, 

and assistance with transportation in getting to treatment.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Trauma survivors and their families should be educated about PTSD symptoms, 

other potential consequences of exposure to traumatic stress, practical ways of 

coping with traumatic stress symptoms, co-morbidity with other medical health 

concerns, processes of recovery from PTSD, and the nature of treatments. [C]
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 85

2. Providers should explain to all patients with PTSD the range of available and

effective options for PTSD treatment.

3. Patient preferences along with provider recommendations should drive the

selection of treatment interventions in a shared and informed decision-making

process.

DISCUSSION

PTSD education involves teaching the survivor to label, recognize, and understand 

PTSD symptoms (and other trauma-related problems) that he or she is experiencing. 

Education should include discussion of the adaptive nature of many of the symptoms, 

which have to do with survival and the body’s normal responses to threat. This is 

particularly important if PTSD occurred after exposure encountered in an 

occupational context, where the person was trained to respond to critical incidents 

(e.g., military, firefighter, police, and other first responders). Education should also 

provide simple advice regarding coping (such as sleep hygiene instruction), explain 

what can be done to facilitate recovery, and describe treatment options. Education 

can help make symptoms more understandable and predictable, decrease fear of 

symptoms, increase social support and lessen feelings of isolation, increase 

awareness of coping options and reduce maladaptive coping, and help survivors 

decide whether to seek treatment or learn how to better participate in treatment. 

Education should be one of the first steps of PTSD treatment. It can help establish 

the credibility of the treatment provider, make treatment seem immediately helpful 

to the patient, and help prepare the patient for next steps in treatment. In fact, 

education should continue throughout PTSD treatment, sometimes in brief 

discussions when the patient has questions and sometimes more systematically as a 

formal activity. It can be delivered to individuals or to groups. Because patients with 

PTSD often have difficulties with concentration and memory, repetition of educational 

information and provision of written information are important. 

The content of PTSD-related education can include the following topics:

Nature of PTSD symptoms: It is useful to help the survivor identify and label the 

reactions that he or she may be experiencing, recognize that emotional and 

physical reactions are expected after trauma, understand how the body’s 

response to trauma includes many of the symptoms of PTSD, and understand 

that anxiety and distress are often “triggered” by reminders of the traumatic 

experience that can include sights, sounds, or smells associated with the 

trauma, physical sensations (e.g., heart pounding), or behaviors of other 

people.

Practical steps to cope with trauma-related problems: Survivors can also be 

educated about ways of coping with their PTSD symptoms in order to minimize 

their impact on functioning and quality of life. While education about coping is 

not a substitute for more systematic coping skills training, information on 

specific topics can be useful. Survivors can be helped to distinguish between 

positive and negative coping actions. Positive coping includes actions that help 

to reduce anxiety, lessen other distressing reactions and improve the situation; 

they include relaxation methods, physical exercise in moderation, talking to 

another person for support, positive distracting activities, and active 

participation in treatment. Negative coping methods may help to perpetuate 

problems and can include continual avoidance of thinking about the trauma, 

use of alcohol or drugs, social isolation, and aggressive or violent actions.
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 86

Nature of the recovery process and PTSD treatment: Survivors will sometimes 

have unrealistic or inaccurate expectations of recovery and may benefit from 

understanding that recovery is an ongoing daily gradual process (i.e., it doesn’t 

happen through sudden insight or “cure”) and that healing doesn’t mean 

forgetting about the trauma or having no emotional pain when thinking about 

it. Education about what happens in treatment is also important. Treatment 

providers should explain and encourage discussion of treatment options, 

including evidence-based treatments. This can help build motivation to 

participate or persist in treatment.

Despite the fact that education is a component in all PTSD treatment and the strong 

clinical consensus that exists as to the importance of education, there is little 

empirical evidence that it reduces PTSD symptoms. Education is a component of 

empirically supported treatments but has not been evaluated as a “stand-alone” 

treatment (nor is it intended to be delivered in the absence of other treatment 

elements).

EVIDENCE

Recommendation Sources QE QE R

1 Educate patients and family 

members regarding the trauma, its 

effects, ways of coping, and the 

treatment process.

Working Group Consensus III Poor C

LE = Level of Evidence; QE = Quality of Evidence; SR= Recommendation (see Appendix A)

J. Determine Optimal Setting for Management of PTSD and Co-Occurring Disorders 

J1. Management of PTSD with Co-morbidity

BACKGROUND

When PTSD has been determined to be the primary target of intervention because it 

is significantly impairing a patient’s functioning or causing a high level of distress, 

the patient’s preferences and motivation, the co-occurrence of other conditions, and 

the capacity to provide the necessary services should be considered in determining 

the optimal setting for treatment and long-term management. The referral to 

specialty care may be considered in this context.

When there are co-occurring medical or psychiatric conditions, the clinician will need 

to determine the best strategy for prioritizing and treating multiple disorders. In 

general, these disorders should be treated concurrently with PTSD treatment, 

although there are exceptions, such as severe substance dependence, that require 

medical detoxification prior to other forms of treatment. One important decision 

point is whether PTSD and its psychiatric co-morbidities should be treated in the 

primary care setting or referred to specialty mental healthcare.

REOMMENDATIONS

Consultation / Referral

1. PTSD and co-morbid mental health conditions should be treated concurrently for 

all conditions through an integrated treatment approach, which considers patient 

preferences, provider experience, severity of the conditions, and the availability 

of resources.
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 87

2. Patients with PTSD and severe co-morbid mental health conditions should be 

treated either through referral or in consultation with a provider that is 

experienced in treating the co-morbid conditions.

3. Because of the profound social impairment of PTSD (caused, for example, by the 

patient’s anger and avoidance symptoms), close friends and family members in 

the patient’s immediate daily environment (e.g., parents, spouse, or children) 

should be provided with education and advised to consider assistance from 

specialty care, both for individual treatment and couples/family treatment. 

4. Factors to consider when determining the optimal setting for treatment include:

a. Severity of the PTSD or co-occurring disorders

b. Local availability of service options (specialized PTSD programs, 

evidence-based treatments, behavioral health specialty care, primary 

care, integrated care for co-occurring disorders, Vet Centers, other) 

c. Level of provider comfort and experience in treating psychiatric comorbidities 

d. Patient preferences 

e. The need to maintain a coordinated continuum of care for chronic comorbidities 

f. Availability of resources and time to offer treatment.

5. Considerations related to possible referral:

Complicated severe PTSD: Some patients with PTSD have complicated, 

challenging presentations. These patients warrant referral to specialty 

PTSD care that includes access to cognitive-behavioral evidence-based 

treatments (see Module I-2: Treatment for PTSD).

Co-occurring major depressive disorder (MDD) in the absence of significant 

suicidality, panic, or generalized anxiety often shows reduction in 

intensity when the PTSD is treated. Depression of mild severity may not 

require referral to specialty care or additional treatments outside those 

targeting PTSD. Patients should be carefully monitored for changes in 

symptoms. A reduction of PTSD symptoms that is not accompanied by 

reduction of symptoms in depression or anxiety would justify a more 

formally targeted treatment (refer to the VA/DoD guideline for MDD).

Co-occurring mild to moderate disorders, such as substance use, pain 

disorders, and sleep problems, can frequently be effectively treated in 

the context of PTSD treatment and do not require a referral to specialty 

care. Consultation, to integrate adjunctive interventions, may be 

considered (see the respective VA/DoD CPGs).

Co-occurring severe psychiatric disorders, while not precluding concurrent 

PTSD treatment, typically justify referral to specialty care for evaluation 

and treatment. These disorders may include: Severe Major Depression or 

Major Depression with suicidality, Unstable Bipolar Disorder, Severe 

Personality Disorders, Psychotic Disorders, Significant TBI, and Severe 

Substance Use Disorder (SUD) or substance abuse of such intensity that 

PTSD treatment components are likely to be difficult to implement.

Persistent Post-Concussion Symptoms in patients who present with PTSD 

and a history of concussion/mTBI may be best managed within either 

primary care or polytrauma rehab settings that utilize a multidisciplinary 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 88

team approach. Providers should recognize that mTBI/concussion is one 

of numerous possible etiologies of co-morbid post-deployment symptoms 

occurring in veterans and service members with PTSD, and it is often 

difficult to precisely attribute symptoms to concussive events that 

occurred months or years earlier. From a treatment standpoint, physical 

or cognitive symptoms, such as headaches or memory problems, or 

other persistent post-concussive symptoms should be treated 

symptomatically whether or not concussion/mTBI is thought to be one of 

the causal factors. Clinicians should not get caught up in debating 

causation but maintain focus on identifying and treating the symptoms 

that are contributing to the most impairment. There is no evidence to 

support withholding PTSD treatments while addressing post-concussive 

symptoms.

DISCUSSION

A number of guiding principles should be considered in making treatment decisions 

with these patients:

• Integrated care models, in which the physical and mental health needs of 

patients are addressed in a single setting by a multidisciplinary provider team, 

have potential to reduce perceived stigma associated with help-seeking

• In systems where integrated care models do not exist, consultation and 

comprehensive assessment by a mental health provider are recommended

• In general, referral to specialty mental health is indicated if a patient with PTSD 

has co-morbid mental disorders that are severe or unstable. Examples include: 

patients whose depression is accompanied by suicidality, patients with substance 

dependence, and patients with concurrent psychotic or bipolar disorder. If the 

patient is referred to mental health for treatment of PTSD, then it is usually best 

for the mental health provider to provide comprehensive treatment for all mental 

disorders.

• For patients referred to specialty mental healthcare, it is important to preserve 

the continuity of care by ensuring ongoing communication with the primary care 

provider and to ensure coordination of care when multiple providers are involved.

J2. Management of Concurrent PTSD and Substance Use Disorder

OBJECTIVE

Improve management of PTSD symptoms when they are complicated by a 

concurrent substance abuse problem.

BACKGROUND

Research has documented a strong relationship between co-occurring PTSD and 

substance use problems in civilian and military populations of both genders (e.g., 

Jacobsen et al., 2001; Kessler et al., 1995). In FY 2008 almost 22% of VA patients 

diagnosed with PTSD also received a SUD diagnosis with rates of 70% seen in 

patients hospitalized for PTSD. Similarly, an extensive literature has documented 

high rates of PTSD among male veterans seeking SUD treatment. Patients diagnosed 

with both disorders tend to have poorer long-term prognoses for each condition than 

do those with one diagnosis without the other. 

A similar relationship exists between PTSD and nicotine dependence (Fu et al., 2007; 

McFall et al., 2006). Smoking rates were high among clinical samples with PTSD 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 89

(40%-86%) as well as nonclinical populations with PTSD (34%-61%). Most studies 

showed a positive relationship between PTSD and smoking and nicotine dependence, 

with odds ratios ranging between 2.04 and 4.52.

In addition to the recommended PTSD services, programs should address substance 

use conditions that exist in association with the PTSD. Treatment services directed 

toward these additional SUD problems, when they exist, are associated with SUD 

improvement. Given improvement in PTSD symptoms, co-occurring SUD problems 

may show some spontaneous improvement if services are not provided, but in many 

instances the SUD must be addressed directly.

There is no evidence to support a preferred sequencing of treatments for diagnoses. 

In general, treatments for patients with both PTSD and SUD can be effectively 

delivered concurrently. Providers should consult the relevant CPG for SUD and PTSD 

individually. Clinical judgment based on systematic symptom monitoring will 

continue to be needed in deciding which specific treatments to implement, for which 

patients, and under which treatment conditions. 

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. All patients diagnosed with PTSD should receive comprehensive assessment for 

SUD, including nicotine dependence (as recommended by the separate Clinical 

Practice Guideline). 

2. Recommend and offer cessation treatment to patients with nicotine dependence. 

[A]

3. Patients with SUD and PTSD should be educated about the relationships between 

PTSD and substance abuse. The patient’s prior treatment experience and 

preference should be considered since no single intervention approach for the comorbidity has yet emerged as the treatment of choice

4. Treat other concurrent Substance Use Disorders consistent with VA/DoD clinical 

practice guidelines including concurrent pharmacotherapy:

a. Addiction-focused pharmacotherapy should be discussed, considered, available and 

offered, if indicated, for all patients with alcohol dependence and/or opioid 

dependence.

b. Once initiated, addiction-focused pharmacotherapy should be monitored for 

adherence and treatment response.

5. Provide multiple services in the most accessible setting to promote engagement 

and coordination of care for both conditions. [I]

6. Reassess response to treatment for SUD periodically and systematically, using 

standardized and valid self-report instrument(s) and laboratory tests. Indicators 

of SUD treatment response include ongoing substance use, craving, side effects 

of medication, emerging symptoms, etc.

7. There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against any specific 

psychosocial approach to addressing PTSD that is co-morbid with SUD. [I] 

DISCUSSION

Co-occurring PTSD and SUD is associated with: more severe PTSD symptoms; the 

higher the rates of other co-occurring Axis I and II Disorders, the higher the rates of 

medical problems and the greater the likelihood of relapse (Najavits, 1997: Ouimette 

and Brown, 2002; Brady, 2001). Rates of co-occurrence are high: Men with PTSD are 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module B Management of PTSD Page - 90

5 times more likely to have a SUD compared to the general population. Women with 

PTSD are 1.4x more likely (Helzer et al., 1987). Lifetime prevalence of PTSD among 

individuals seeking SUD treatment has been reported as high as 50%. Population 

based data are lower. 

The literature, in general, provides support for improved SUD and PTSD symptoms 

when individuals are provided treatment. No systematic findings indicate harm to 

patients provided integrated treatment for co-occurring SUD and PTSD and there is 

recognition that both conditions ought to be addressed. There are findings that 

support provision of integrated treatment for SUD and PTSD both as an adjunct to 

existing SUD treatment services or as stand-alone treatments (Ouimette et al., 

1998a). However, the data are limited making it difficult to clearly identify one 

specific treatment as the “gold standard.” Studies examining both patient 

characteristics and clinician concerns indicate that one central feature may be the 

high rate of other co-occurring Axis I and Axis II psychiatric disorders among this 

cohort and not just SUD and PTSD alone (Cacciola et al., 2008). A key component of 

this seems to be the likelihood of more severe symptom presentation (e.g., history 

of suicide attempts, inpatient psychiatric hospitalizations). 

Addiction-focused pharmacotherapy should be provided in addition to any indicated 

pharmacotherapy for co-existing PTSD and directly coordinated with specialty 

psychosocial treatment and adjunctive services for psychosocial problems as well as 

with the patient’s primary care and/or general mental health providers.

Because withdrawal symptoms experienced during early abstinence may be 

associated with a resurgence of traumatic memories, worsening PTSD symptoms, 

and, possibly, increased risk for suicidal thoughts or attempts (Kosten & Krystal, 

1988), the client should be supported closely through this period, prepared for 

possible short-term worsening of PTSD symptoms, and helped to develop strategies 

for managing symptoms and urges to drink or use.

Because patients with SUD and PTSD may be at higher risk for relapse and their 

relapses may be “triggered” in part by trauma reminders and cues, clinicians should 

adapt relapse prevention methods to help substance abuse patients identify their 

trauma-related relapse cues and prepare them to cope with those triggers without 

drinking or using.

EVIDENCE

Recommendation Sources QE QE R

1 Routinely assess substance use 

patterns of clients with trauma 

histories or PTSD

Working Group Consensus III Poor I

2 Offer addiction-focused 

pharmacotherapy when appropriate

Brady et al., 2005 I Good B

4 Educate substance-abusing patients 

with PTSD about the relationships 

between PTSD and substance abuse

Working Group Consensus III Poor I

5 Consider concurrent PTSD treatment 

or provision of integrated 

PTSD/substance abuse treatment

Najavits, 2002

Ouimette et al., 1998

II-2 Mod C

6 Follow-up care for SUD-PTSD 

should include a continued focus on 

both and monitoring 

Ouimette et al., 2000 II-3 Fair I

LE = Level of Evidence; QE = Quality of Evidence; SR= Recommendation (see Appendix A)
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J3. The Role of the Primary Care Practitioner

BACKGROUND

Primary care clinicians may decide to refer for specialized psychiatric care at any 

point, depending on their level of comfort, experience, experience in treating PTSD, 

the particular needs and preferences of the patient, and the availability of other 

services.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Primary care providers should routinely provide the following services for all 

patients with trauma-related disorders, especially those who are reluctant to seek 

specialty mental healthcare:

• Education about the disorder and importance of not letting stigma and 

barriers to care interfere with specialty treatment if needed

• Provision of evidence-based treatment within the primary Care or through 

referral

• Regular follow-up and monitoring of symptoms

• Regular follow-up and monitoring of co-morbid health concerns.

2. Primary care providers should consider consultation with mental health providers 

for patients with PTSD who warrant a mental health referral but refuse it or seem 

reluctant to talk to a mental health provider.

3. Primary care providers should take leadership in providing a collaborative multidisciplinary treatment approach. Team members may include the primary care 

providers, mental health specialists, other medical specialists (e.g., neurology, 

pain management), chaplains, pastors, social workers, occupational or 

recreational therapists, Vet Center staff members, staff of family support centers, 

exceptional family member programs, VA benefits counselors, vocational 

rehabilitation specialists, peer counselors, and others.

4. When an integrated behavioral health clinician is available (e.g., collaborative 

care model, or Post-Deployment Care clinics) evidence-based treatment should 

be provided.

5. Primary care providers should continue to be involved in the treatment of 

patients with acute or chronic stress disorders. All patients with PTSD should 

have a specific primary care provider assigned to coordinate their overall 

healthcare.

3. TREATMENT

K. Initiate Treatment Using Effective Interventions for PTSD

BACKGROUND

Many treatment strategies are available to treat stress-related disorders and to 

relieve the burden of suffering for PTSD patients. Options include pharmacotherapy, 

psychotherapy, and somatic and alternative medicine interventions. Treatment may 

be provided by primary care providers, specialty mental health providers, or some

combination of these.
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Module B Management of PTSD Page - 92

Primary care is an ideal setting in which to educate patients and their families about 

treatment options for post-traumatic stress. Patient education is recommended as an 

element of treatment of PTSD for all PTSD patients and their family members. Such 

educational efforts must include informing patients that even if they respond to 

medication therapy, treatment for a longer period may be needed. The patient’s 

preferences along with provider recommendations should drive the selection of 

treatment interventions in a shared decision-making process.

Discussion of the evidence supporting the recommendations for treatment 

intervention is included in Module I-2: Treatment for PTSD.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. A supportive and collaborative treatment relationship or therapeutic alliance 

should be developed and maintained with patients with PTSD.

2. Evidence-based psychotherapy and/or evidence-based pharmacotherapy are 

recommended as first-line treatment options. 

3. Specialized PTSD psychotherapies may be augmented by additional problemspecific methods/services and pharmacotherapy. 

4. Consider referral for alternative care modalities (Complementary Alternative 

Medicine) for patient symptoms, consistent with available resources and 

resonant with patient belief systems. [See Module I-2]

5. Patients with PTSD who are experiencing clinically significant symptoms, 

including chronic pain, insomnia, anxiety, should receive symptom-specific 

management interventions. [See Module I-3]

6. Management of PTSD or related symptoms may be initiated based on a 

presumptive diagnosis of PTSD. Long-term pharmacotherapy will be 

coordinated with other intervention. 

For Specific Treatment Modalities: See Module I-2 Treatment Interventions for PTSD:

Psychotherapy

Pharmacotherapy

Adjunctive Treatments

Somatic Therapy

Complimentary Alternative Therapy (CAM)

DISCUSSION

Establishing Therapeutic Alliance

Many people with PTSD find that their relationships with others have changed as a 

result of exposure to trauma. They often report that they have difficulty trusting 

others, are suspicious of authority, dislike even minor annoyances, and generally 

want to be left alone. Since the clinician-patient relationship draws heavily on trust, 

respect, and openness, and since the relationship often has to be formed in a busy 

clinical or bureaucratic setting, the provider may find the PTSD patient to seem to be 

withholding, negativistic, or even hostile at the initial meeting. The patient may seem 

to have “an attitude,” or “Axis II” co-morbidity. As a result, many combat veterans 

feel misunderstood or misdiagnosed by otherwise competent professionals, and 
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ultimately the patient suffers through feeling betrayed and misunderstood by the 

mental health professional. If a therapeutic relationship is to have any opportunity to 

develop, the treatment provider must adopt a stance of caring and concerned 

involvement that takes what the patient says at face value, doesn’t judge or label 

this type of behavior, and doesn’t withdraw into an “objective” “professional” role. In 

short, the clinician who can relate honestly and openly is more likely to have a 

patient who is willing to relate to him/her as a fellow human being and an effective 

partner in treatment.

A general understanding of what has happened to the veteran is critical in this 

process of developing a therapeutic relationship. Every provider working with combat 

veterans should be advised to read some basic material on the experience of combat 

and watch documentaries of the same. The provider must develop an understanding 

that wartime and military service involves some of the most intense human 

experiences and that those feelings of profound rage, fear, and grief can be an 

expected part of these experiences. These feelings will be present in the interview 

setting and must be met with respect and compassion. It is also helpful for the 

professional to be careful not to assume that they have any understanding of the 

military experience if they have not themselves served in the military and should not 

be afraid to ask questions when they don’t understand something about the military 

that the patient is referring to. 

Family, religious organizations and community leaders can be helpful when dealing 

with an unfamiliar culture and/or religion. It may also be appropriate to consult a 

local cultural adviser. But particular attention should be paid to the individual’s own 

beliefs and values, and confidentiality always must be maintained when getting input 

from other sources. Patient’s beliefs should be seen in the context of their social, 

religious, and cultural environment, and if need be, a trusted member of the person’s 

faith or cultural group should be consulted.

PTSD Treatment

Refer to the evidence-based treatment strategies for PTSD, summarized in the 

section on Pharmacotherapy and Psychotherapy Intervention of this guideline. The 

section also includes medication tables that summarize indications/benefits, 

contraindications/adverse effects, and usual dosages (see Module I-2).

Supportive counseling for PTSD has received little study to date and cannot be 

endorsed as an evidence-based psychotherapeutic strategy. However, it has been 

shown to be effective compared with no treatment and may be the sole 

psychotherapeutic option available for the patient with PTSD who is reluctant to seek 

specialty mental healthcare. It may be a useful engagement strategy to provide 

temporary support, with the ultimate goal to convince patient to accept evidencebased treatment.

L. Facilitate Spiritual Support [See Module I-2: D2- Spiritual Support]

M. Facilitate Social Support [See Module A: Annotation L2]
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Module B Management of PTSD Page - 94

4. RE-ASSESSMENT & FOLLOW-UP

N. Assess Response to Treatment

OBJECTIVE

Re-assess patient status following therapeutic intervention to determine response to 

treatment, inform treatment decisions, and identify need for additional services. Reassessment should address PTSD symptoms, diagnostic status, functional status, 

quality of life, additional treatment needs, and patient preferences.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. At a minimum, providers should perform a brief PTSD symptom assessment at 

each treatment visit. The use of a validated PTSD symptom measure, such as the 

PTSD Checklist, should be considered (see Appendix C).

2. Comprehensive re-assessment and evaluation of treatment progress should be 

conducted at least every 90 days, perhaps with greater frequency for those in 

active treatment, and should include a measure of PTSD symptomatology (e.g., 

PCL) and strongly consider a measure of Depression symptomatology (e.g., 

PHQ9). 

3. Other specific areas of treatment focus (e.g., substance abuse) should also be

reevaluated and measured by standardized measures of outcome. 

4. Assessment of functional impairment should also be made, at a minimum, by 

asking patients to rate to what extent their symptoms make it difficult to engage 

in vocational, parental, spousal, familial, or other roles. 

5. Consider continued assessment of: 

• Patient preferences 

• Treatment adherence 

• Adverse treatment effects.

DISCUSSION

Patients should be assessed at least every three months after initiating treatment for 

PTSD, in order to monitor changes in clinical status and revise the intervention plan 

accordingly. The interval of three months is suggested because many controlled trials 

of first-line therapies for PTSD demonstrate clinically significant changes during this 

time frame. Assessment of the following domains is advised: (a) symptom severity 

and diagnostic status of PTSD, co-morbid mental disorders, and co-morbid medical 

conditions; (b) functional status and quality of life in major areas of adjustment 

(e.g., occupation, social and family relations, activities of daily living and capacity for 

self-care, physical health needs, and spiritual fulfillment); (c) psychosocial needs 

(e.g., financial and housing deficits); (d) patient satisfaction with treatment received 

and preferences for type and amount of continued treatment; (e) compliance or 

adherence with treatments provided; and (e) adverse side effects of pharmacological 

or psychosocial treatments administered.

A number of interview and questionnaire methods are recommended for assessing 

the diagnostic status and clinical severity of patients (see Annotation E). These 

measures may be used to identify the presence/absence of major mental disorders, 

including PTSD, as well as the degree of symptom severity. Much of this information 
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Module B Management of PTSD Page - 95

is important to share with patients in assessing progress of treatment and making 

collaborative decisions about future directions of care. The DSM-IV criteria for PTSD 

domains (b – e) can be routinely measured using standard clinical interview 

methods. 

Regular Follow-Up and Monitoring

The use of pencil-and-paper measures of PTSD symptom severity, such as the PTSD 

Checklist (PCL; see appendix C), should be considered. Scores on the PCL may be 

plotted serially over time to create a longitudinal record of symptom severity and 

may be helpful for recognizing environmental (e.g., renewed proximity to a 

previously abusive parent) or seasonal (e.g., anniversary of a traumatic war event) 

precipitants of PTSD symptoms.

Early Recognition of a Psychosocial Crisis and Referral to Specialists

Primary care providers may be the first to recognize that a patient with PTSD is 

entering a psychosocial crisis. Depending on the severity and disability associated 

with the crisis and the potential for harm to the patient or others, the primary care 

provider may be obliged to obtain specialty mental health services, even if that 

patient is reluctant to seek those services.

Coordination of General Healthcare

The traditional role of the primary care provider as the coordinator of various 

disciplines and consultants involved in the treatment of any single patient is 

especially relevant for the patient with PTSD. Particularly in patients with chronic 

PTSD, medically unexplained symptoms or problems with substance use (including 

smoking) may lead to the need for a wide range of specialists. Coordination of these 

services is important to avoid confusion and unnecessary healthcare use. 

O. Follow-Up

BACKGROUND

Because of risk of relapse following discontinuation of treatment in patients with 

chronic PTSD, long-term treatment is often needed. Most patients with chronic PTSD 

(defined by the DSM-IV as full-criterion symptoms lasting 3 months or more) should 

be monitored for at least 1 year, with regularly scheduled follow-up in order to 

prevent relapse.

The continued importance of psychoeducation and reinforcement of health-promoting 

behaviors by the primary care physician is an important but generally neglected area 

of public health.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. If patient does not improve or status worsens, consider one of the following 

treatment modification options:

a. Continue application of the same modality at intensified dose and/or 

frequency

b. Change to a different treatment modality

c. Apply adjunctive therapies
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Module B Management of PTSD Page - 96

d. Consider a referral to adjunctive services for treatment of co-morbid 

disorders or behavioral abnormalities (e.g., homelessness, domestic 

violence, or aggressive behavior).

e. For patient with severe symptoms or coexisting psychiatric problems 

consider referrals to:

• Specialized PTSD programs 

• Specialized programs for coexisting problems and conditions 

• Partial psychiatric hospitalization or “day treatment” programs 

• Inpatient psychiatric hospitalization.

2. If patient demonstrates partial (insufficient) remission, consider one of the 

following treatment modification options:

a. Before making any therapeutic change, ensure that “treatment 

non‐response” is not due to one or more of the following: not keeping 

psychotherapy appointments, not doing prescribed homework, not taking 

prescribed medications, still using alcohol or illicit substances, still 

suffering from ongoing insomnia or chronic pain, not experiencing any 

new psychosocial stressors, the original assessment did not overlook a 

co‐morbid medical or psychiatric condition

b. Continue the present treatment modality to allow sufficient time for full 

response

c. Continue application of the same modality at intensified dose and/or 

frequency

d. Change to a different treatment modality

e. Apply adjunctive therapies

f. Increase level of care (e.g., referral facility, partial hospitalization, 

inpatient hospitalization, residential care)

g. Consider a referral to adjunctive services for treatment of co-morbid 

disorders or behavioral abnormalities (e.g., homelessness or domestic 

violence).

3. If patient demonstrates improved symptoms and functioning but requires 

maintenance treatment:

a. Continue current course of treatment

b. Consider stepping down the type, frequency, or dose of therapy

c. Consider:

• Transition from intensive psychotherapy to case management 

contacts

• Transition from individual to group treatment modalities

• Transition to as-needed treatment

d. Discuss patient status and need for monitoring with the primary care 

provider
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Module B Management of PTSD Page - 97

e. Consider a referral to adjunctive services for treatment of co-morbid 

disorders or behavioral abnormalities (e.g., homelessness or domestic 

violence).

4. If patient demonstrates remission from symptoms and there are no 

indications for further therapy:

a. Discontinue treatment

b. Educate the patient about indications for and route of future care access

c. Monitor by primary care for relapse/exacerbation.

5. Evaluate psychosocial function and refer for psychosocial rehabilitation, as 

indicated. Available resources include, but are not limited to: chaplains, 

pastors, Family Support Centers, Exceptional Family Member Programs, VA 

benefits counselors, occupational or recreational therapists, Vet Centers, and 

peer-support groups (see Module I-2 D: Psychosocial Rehabilitation).

6. Provide case management, as indicated, to address high utilization of medical 

resources.

Table B-4 Treatment Response and Follow-Up

Step Patient 

Condition Options Reassess at:*

1 Initial 

Treatment

• Psychotherapy 

 and/or

• SSRI/SNRI

2 weeks ** / 4 

weeks

2 Non response 

to initial dose

• Assess adherence

• Increase dose

• Consider longer duration

• Switch to another SSRI or SNRI

• Add psychotherapy

• Consider referral to specialty care

4 to 6 weeks

3 Failed second 

trial of 

antidepressant

• Switch to another SSRI/SNRI or mirtazapine

• Add psychotherapy

• Augment with prazosin (sleep/nightmare)

8-12 weeks

4 Failed three

trials including 

augmentation

• Re- evaluate diagnosis and treatment

• Switch to TCA

• If no response consider nefazodone 

(monitoring side effects), or phenalzine 

(with careful consideration of risks)

• Consider referral to specialty care

> 12 weeks

* Times are general guidelines and may vary considerably

**If treatment is not tolerable, switch to another antidepressant.
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Module B Management of PTSD Page - 98

DISCUSSION

Patient Does Not Improve or Status Worsens:

Re-assessment of patient's clinical status may occasionally show that symptoms 

and/or functional status are failing to improve or are deteriorating in a sustained 

way. It is important to determine if this static or deteriorated state is not simply the 

result of a major life crisis unrelated to the therapy being administered.

The clinician must next determine if a patient’s unimproved clinical status reflects a 

temporary exacerbation of symptoms expected to occur in the course of treatment 

that will ultimately prove to be effective. For example, it is common for patients in a 

range of trauma-focused therapies to experience some brief distress or symptom 

exacerbation during initial phases of treatment where they focus on emotions 

associated with traumatic memories. In this case, it is important to reassure the 

patient about the natural course of recovery through treatment, assist him/her in 

coping with symptoms, and enlist him/her in the decision to continue with the 

current method of treatment. Increasing session contacts and or increasing the dose 

of medications may provide needed support.

If the clinician and patient agree that the current treatment regimen is ineffective, 

then a collaborative decision can be made to switch to a different modality. Another 

approach is to hold the course of a current therapy, which may appear ineffective, 

but apply adjunctive treatments (see Module I-2: PTSD Interventions). There is no 

empirical evidence that supports the effectiveness of combination treatments for 

PTSD. However, there is clinical consensus that some treatments can act 

synergistically (e.g., combining coping skills and symptom management approaches 

with exposure-based treatments).

Clinicians should consider changing the treatment plan by increasing the level of care 

offered to patients. Levels of care for PTSD vary in intensity, including infrequent 

visits administered in outpatient clinics, partial hospital programs, specialized 

inpatient PTSD programs, PTSD residential care programs and domiciliaries, and 

acute inpatient hospitalization. Patients who fail to progress in outpatient treatment 

may benefit from a temporary transition to a higher level of care, followed by a 

return to outpatient management after greater stabilization of symptoms has been 

achieved.

Often, progress in PTSD treatment may be compromised by a concurrent behavioral 

disorder (e.g., domestic violence), life crisis (e.g., homelessness), or uncontrolled 

substance use disorder. Referral to ancillary clinical services should be considered for 

patients for whom these problems emerge during the course of treatment, as 

identified upon re-assessment.

Patient Demonstrates Improved Symptoms and Functioning but Requires Maintenance 

Treatment:

Treatment may also lead to slight or moderate improvement that nonetheless leaves 

the patient with significant distress and impairment in functioning. If the patient 

demonstrates partial (insufficient) remission, consider one of the following treatment 

modification options:

• Continue the present treatment approach to allow sufficient time for full 

response. This option might be worth considering when a treatment involves 

acquisition of skills (e.g., cognitive restructuring or anxiety management). In 

such a case, it is possible that the patient may be in the process of learning 

the skill, with the full impact of therapy dependent on increased practice and 
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skill mastery. Or, treatment may not have yet yielded its maximum potential 

effect because of limited patient compliance; steps taken to increase 

adherence to treatment prescriptions may accelerate responsivity to the 

intervention.

• If the moderate level of improvement obtained is less than would be 

expected, given what is known about the patient and the treatment modality, 

a change to a different treatment approach may be indicated.

• In certain circumstances, a move to an increased level of care may be 

warranted. For example, if current functioning remains poor despite some 

symptom improvement or the patient stands to experience major 

consequences for failure to improve more rapidly (e.g., marital separation), it 

may be desirable to move from outpatient care to a higher level of care (e.g., 

residential care).

• Improvement in PTSD symptoms may be inhibited by the presence of 

untreated additional problems, such as substance abuse or exposure to 

domestic violence. In such situations, it is important to initiate services for 

these problems in order to improve the capacity of the PTSD treatment to 

effect change.

• Patients with partial PTSD may exhibit clinically meaningful levels of 

functional impairment in association with their symptoms. Functional 

impairment, rates of co-morbid disorders, and rates of suicidal ideation were 

shown to increase linearly with increasing number of PTSD symptoms in one 

study, and individuals with sub-threshold PTSD had increased suicidal 

ideation, even after controlling for the presence of co-morbid major 

depressive disorder (Marshall, 2001). 

When Symptoms and Other Trauma-Related Problems Show Significant Improvement, 

the Options Include the Following:

• Discontinue treatment

• Continue the course of treatment as is

• “Step down” to a treatment requiring less intensive resources.

Clinician judgment, based on discussion with the patient, will be the basis of such a 

decision.

When therapy has resulted in clinically significant improvement but the improvement 

in functioning is recent and of limited duration, a continuation of the existing type 

and intensity of treatment may be indicated if the clinician judges that time is 

required for the patient to continue practicing new skills or to otherwise consolidate 

treatment gains. This will be especially true if the clinician judges that a reduction in 

level of therapeutic support would threaten treatment gains.

If treatment has produced clear benefit but the patient is continuing to show 

treatment gains week-by-week, it may also be helpful to maintain the treatment as 

is, in hopes of continued improvement. For many patients, some level of continuing 

care may be indicated after more intensive help has produced improvements. A stepdown to less resource-intensive help can often be accomplished by changing 

treatment type (e.g., from individual psychotherapy to periodic group support), 

reducing frequency of contacts (e.g., from once per week to twice per month 

contact), or reducing treatment dose (e.g., medication).
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If treatment has resulted in significant reductions in PTSD but related problems (e.g., 

anger, social isolation, guilt) have shown little change, it will be important to 

consider adding treatment components to address those problems or refer the 

patient for additional services. 

Patient Demonstrates Remission from Symptoms:

When the patient demonstrates remission from symptoms and there are no 

indications for further therapy, it is time to discontinue treatment. Discontinuation of 

treatment may be anxiety-provoking for some patients who have come to depend on 

the therapist. If this is the case, it may be helpful to discontinue treatment by using 

the step-down approach noted above and gradually moving toward termination. 

Whether treatment is ended gradually or more quickly, it is important to educate the 

patient about expected levels of continuing symptoms, indicators of relapse or need 

for future care, and ways of accessing care should the need arise. The patient can be 

encouraged to talk with his or her primary care provider about the treatment 

experience and enlist help in monitoring improvement.

Psychosocial Rehabilitation for All Patients with PTSD

Patients with persistent mental health symptoms and needs may benefit from a 

range of assistance strategies provided by a range of disciplines. In addition to the 

usual general health and mental health specialists, available resources include, but 

are not limited to, case management, chaplains, pastors, Family Support Centers, 

Exceptional Family Member Programs, VA Benefits Counselors, vocational counselors, 

occupational or recreational therapy, Vet Centers, and peer support groups.

In the primary care setting, appropriate encouragement of patients to obtain a 

mental health referral is important, even if patients are initially hesitant or reluctant 

to seek it. Mental health referral options include outpatient psychology, social work, 

or psychiatry clinics, depending on local resources and policies.

In specialty mental health settings, patients may be referred to specialized PTSD 

programs or programs that focus treatment on important coexisting problems, such 

as substance use disorder programs or programs for domestic violence or sexual 

assault/abuse. Depending on the level of associated disability, complexity of 

medication regimen, and level of threat to self or others, patients with persistent 

PTSD symptoms and needs may require inpatient or partial psychiatric 

hospitalization.

Providers referring from either the primary or specialty mental health setting should 

consider the need for case management to ensure that the range of patient needs is 

addressed and that follow-up contact is maintained.

See Module I-2: Interventions for PTSD D: Adjunctive Psychosocial Rehabilitation
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Module I: TREATMENT INTERVENTIONS Page - 101

MODULE I: TREATMENT INTERVENTIONS 

Module I-1. EARLY INTERVENTION TO PREVENT PTSD....................... 102

A. PSYCHOTHERAPY 104

A1. Psychological Debriefing 104

A2. Brief Early Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention 108

A3. Other Early Interventions 109

B. Early Pharmacotherapy Interventions to Prevent Development of PTSD 110

Module I-2. TREATMENT FOR PTSD..................................................... 114

A. Selection of Therapy for PTSD 114

B. PSYCHOTHERAPY INTERVENTIONS FOR PTSD 115

B1. Therapies that More Strongly Emphasize Cognitive Techniques (CT) 119

B2. Exposure Therapy (ET) 123

B3. Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) 126

B5. Imagery Rehearsal Therapy (IRT) 130

B6. Psychodynamic Therapy 132

B7. Patient Education 133

B9. Dialectical Behavior Therapy 140

B10. Hypnosis 142

B11. Behavioral Couples Therapy 143

B12. Telemedicine and Web-based Interventions 144

C. PHARMACOTHERAPY FOR PTSD 149

D. ADJUNCTIVE SERVICES 167

D1. Psychosocial Rehabilitation 167

D2. Spiritual Support 172

E. SOMATIC TREATMENT 173

E1. Biomedical Somatic Therapies 173

E2. Acupuncture 175

F. COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 176

F1. Natural Products (Biologically Based Practices) 178

F2. Mind-Body Medicine 179

F3. Manipulation and Body-Based Practices (Exercise and Movement) 180

F4. Energy medicine 180

F5. Whole Medical Systems 181

F6. Other Approaches 182

I-3. MANAGEMENT OF SPECIFIC SYMPTOMS .................................. 183

A. Sleep Disturbances 183

B. Pain 189

C. Irritability, Severe Agitation, or Anger 194
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Module I-1: Treatment Interventions for Prevention of PTSD Page - 102

Module I-1. EARLY INTERVENTION TO PREVENT PTSD

BACKGROUND

Several studies have examined the effectiveness of treatment interventions and 

acute symptom management early (within 1 month) following a traumatic event in 

preventing PTSD. This includes the use of various medications for the prevention of 

PTSD and brief multiple sessions of psychotherapy.

This section summarizes the evidence supporting the recommendations for early 

intervention discussed in Module A, Annotation J: Brief Intervention. Table I-1 

summarizes the recommendations for interventions, and their potential benefit and 

harm.

Table I - 1 Early Intervention after Exposure to Trauma (4 to 30 days after exposure)

Balance of Benefit and Harm

SR

Significant 

Benefit Some Benefit Unknown Benefit No Benefit

A - Brief Cognitive 

Behavioral Therapy

(4-5 sessions)

B

C - Social support

D - Individual psychological 

debriefing 

- Formal psychotherapy for 

asymptomatic survivors 

- Benzodiazepines 

- Typical Antipsychotics 

I - Psychoeducation

and normalization

- Imipramine

- Propranolol 

- Prazosin

- Other Antidepressants

- Anticonvulsants

- Atypical Antipsychotics

- Spiritual support 

- Psychological First Aid

- Group psychological 

debriefing

= Potential harm; SR = Strength of recommendation (see Introduction)
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Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 103

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following treatment recommendations should apply for all acutely traumatized 

people who meet the criteria for diagnosis of ASD, and for those with significant 

levels of acute stress symptoms that last for more than two weeks post-trauma, as 

well as those who are incapacitated by acute psychological or physical symptoms.

1. Continue providing psychoeducation and normalization.

2. Treatment should be initiated after education, normalization, and Psychological 

First Aid has been provided and after basic needs following the trauma have been 

made available.

3. There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the use of 

Psychological First Aid to address symptoms beyond 4 days following trauma. [I]

4. Survivors who present with symptoms that do not meet the diagnostic threshold 

of ASD or PTSD should be monitored and may benefit from follow-up and 

provision of ongoing counseling or symptomatic treatment.

5. Recommend monitoring for development of PTSD using validated symptom 

measures (e.g., PTSD Checklist, other screening tools for ASD/PTSD).

6. Psychotherapy:

a. Consider early brief intervention (4 to 5 sessions) of cognitive-based 

therapy (CBT) that includes exposure-based therapy, alone or 

combined with a component of cognitive re-structuring therapy for 

patients with significant early symptom levels, especially those 

meeting diagnostic criteria for ASD. [A] 

b. Routine formal psychotherapy intervention for asymptomatic

individuals is not beneficial and may be harmful. [D]

c. Strongly recommend against individual Psychological Debriefing as a 

viable means of reducing acute stress disorder (ASD) or progression 

to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). [D]

d. The evidence does not support a single session group Psychological 

Debriefing as a viable means of reducing acute stress disorder (ASD) 

or progression to post-traumatic stress disorder, but there is no 

evidence of harm (Note: this is not a recommendation pertaining to

Operational Debriefing). [D]

e. Groups may be effective vehicles for providing trauma-related 

education, training in coping skills, and increasing social support,

especially in the context of multiple group sessions. [I]

f. Group participation should be voluntary.

7. Pharmacotherapy:

a. There is no evidence to support a recommendation for use of a 

pharmacological agent to prevent the development of ASDor PTSD.

[I]

b. Strongly recommend against the use of benzodiazepines to prevent 

the development of ASD or PTSD [D]

For discussion of use of medication for specific symptom management during the 

early phase after trauma, see Module I-3: Symptom Management
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 104

DISCUSSION

A. PSYCHOTHERAPY

A1. Psychological Debriefing

Psychological debriefing grew out of practices and experiences involving the military 

of the United States and other Western nations. For soldiers exhibiting signs of acute 

stress reaction (ASR) following combat-related traumatic events, the practice of 

conducting early debriefings as part of a larger restoration approach appeared to 

have significant impact on reducing more permanent disability.

The use of debriefings soon after exposure to traumatic events became part of 

military doctrine in the United States and elsewhere, as well as part of standards for 

early response to catastrophes for organizations, such as the Red Cross. 

Unfortunately, there are very limited randomized control trial data involving 

professional work groups (e.g. military units, first responders) trained to respond to 

traumatic events, for which debriefing procedures were originally intended; these 

procedures appear to be of little help, and are potentially harmful if used for

individual victims of trauma as prophylaxis for PTSD.

In considering the use of debriefing procedures as part of early interventions 

following trauma exposure, a distinction between the general approaches of 

psychological versus operational debriefings is in order, as well as debriefing of 

individual victims of traumatic events and professional work groups trained to 

respond to these events. Moreover, distinction should be made between debriefing 

procedures that are targeted at all exposed individuals, irrespective of symptom 

level, and, by contrast, briefer versions of empirically supported brief psychotherapy 

interventions that are targeted at symptomatic individuals over a few sessions (see 

Annotation A2: Brief Early CBT).

DEFINITIONS

Psychological Debriefing is a broad umbrella term used to describe a variety of 

one-time individual and/or group procedures that involve review of a traumatic 

event, by survivors or other impacted persons, for the purpose of actively 

encouraging individuals to: (a) talk about their experiences during the event; (b) 

recognize and verbalize their thoughts, emotions, and physical reactions during and 

since the event; and (c) learn about coping methods. Specially trained debriefers 

lead psychological debriefings following several protocols. Protocols generally 

emphasize normalization of symptoms, group support, and provide some 

psychoeducation and information about resources.

The term “Psychological Debriefing” does not include purely informational briefings or 

debriefings used in professional military or other workgroups (e.g., psychological 

education lectures or stress management briefings, such as Battlemind Training, 

Battlemind Debriefing, or operational debriefings) discussed below.

Operational Debriefing is a routine individual or team review of the details of an 

event from a factual perspective for the purpose of: (a) learning what actually 

happened for the historical record or planning purposes; (b) improving results in 

similar future situations or missions; and (c) increasing the readiness of those being 

debriefed for further action. Operational debriefings are conducted by leaders or

specialized debriefers according to the organization’s standing operational procedure.

They are often referred to as “after action” reviews.
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 105

Operational debriefings achieve important objectives of the organization, and there is 

no reason that they should have any effect on reducing subsequent PTSD or other 

long-term negative outcomes (nor is there evidence for this). Organizations that use 

operational debriefings should train their debriefers to avoid causing unintentional 

psychological harm (such as by encouraging personal disclosure), and to identify 

individuals who need behavioral health follow-up.

Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) is a formalized structured review 

method in a group format of the stressful experience of a disaster that includes 

psychological debriefing. In fact, CISD was developed to assist first responders, such 

as fire and police personnel, not the victims/survivors of a disaster or their relatives. 

CISD was never intended as a substitute for therapy, was designed to be delivered in 

a group format with professional work groups, and is meant to be incorporated into a 

larger, multi-component crisis intervention system, labeled Critical Incident Stress 

Management (CISM).

Critical incident Stress Management (CISM) incorporates several components, 

including pre-crisis intervention, disaster or large-scale incident demobilization and 

informational briefings, "town meetings," staff advisement, defusing, CISD, one-onone crisis counseling or support, family crisis intervention, organizational 

consultation, and follow-up and referral mechanisms for assessment and treatment, 

if necessary.

Battlemind Debriefing is a recently developed intervention, aimed specifically at 

professional military teams/workgroups (like CISD) and designed to reduce any 

potential iatrogenic effects of psychological debriefing noted in some studies; 

specifically, less emphasis is given to personal disclosure and review of index events 

(there is no requirement for individual disclosure; the focus of the debriefing is more 

broadly on the transition from the entire deployment, rather than a single critical 

incident), and more emphasis is given to enhancement of peer support. Battlemind 

debriefing can be delivered in either small group or large group lecture formats.

Although Battlemind debriefing has been designed to be used by military units 

immediately after critical incidents, it has never been tested in this setting. Two 

published studies of Battlemind debriefing have focused on the post-deployment 

timeframe in which the entire deployment and facilitating transition home from 

deployment has been the focus of the intervention.

Individual Debriefing

Reviews and meta-analyses of studies of psychological debriefing as an early 

intervention to reduce or prevent PTSD symptoms in individuals have concluded that 

this technique is ineffective or potentially harmful (Rose et al., 2002). Of note, two 

well-controlled studies with longer-term follow-up of individual patients have 

suggested that this intervention may be related to a poorer outcome compared to 

controls (Bisson, 1997; Mayou et al., 2000 which is a follow-up on Hobbs, 1996).

Bisson et al. (2008), in a summary of the evidence in the ISTSS guideline (2009),

also found no evidence to support the preventive value of individual debriefing 

delivered in a single session. Of the 10 studies that compared psychological 

debriefing with no interventions, 2 were positive, 5 were neutral, and 3 had negative 

results. A meta-analysis conducted by Van Emmerick et al. (2002) included seven

studies and found that psychological debriefing interventions (non-CISD) and no 

intervention improved symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, but psychological 

debriefing did not improve symptoms. Cuijpers et al. (2005) assessed the results of 

studies examining the effect of prevention and found that the risk of post-traumatic 

stress disorder was somewhat increased after debriefing but not significantly 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 106

(RR=1.33), indicating a possible adverse effect. The RCTs to date cover only a 

limited variety of traumatic stressors, subject populations, and debriefing protocols.

Most controlled studies have been of individually administered, one-time individual 

debriefings of victims of motor vehicle accidents or crimes, such as rape. However, 

findings have been consistent across trials.

Group Debriefing

The recommendations regarding group debriefing, either of victims of trauma or 

professional work groups, is based primarily on the lack of effectiveness in studies; 

there does not appear to be any evidence of harm. In a partially randomized trial, 

Deahl et al. (2000) found no benefit of debriefing over assessment only in terms of 

PTSD symptoms; however, the group receiving debriefing evidenced lower alcohol 

misuse scores. The non-random assignment to groups weakens conclusions of this 

study (Commanders blind to condition separated approximately 100 soldiers into two 

groups based on schedules and responsibilities; the groups were then randomly 

designated ‘debriefing’ or ‘control.’ Thus, outcomes are confounded by whatever 

factors were used for separating soldiers into groups by commanders.) In another 

study by Campfield and Hills (2001), robbery victims were randomly assigned to 

immediate (less than 10 hours) or delayed (greater than 48 hours) CISD groups. 

Immediate CISD produced more pronounced reduction in symptoms, but no control 

group was employed, and thus no conclusions regarding efficacy relative to no 

treatment can be made. This is particularly necessary with this intervention, given 

that most people will recover spontaneously without any intervention and because of 

the potentially iatrogenic effects found in some studies of CISD with individuals.

Other studies of group debriefing that have been conducted were of poor design in 

terms of low sample size and/or non-random assignment to group and preclude 

conclusions regarding efficacy (Eid et al., 2001; Richards, 2001). In an analogue 

study with students, Devilly et al. (2008) found no advantage of debriefing following 

a distressing video relative to a post-video snack. 

Two more RCT’s are relevant to the discussion of group debriefing in combat units, 

although not specifically at the time of the critical incident events. Adler et al. (2008) 

conducted a randomized trial of Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) of groups 

of soldiers deployed to a Kosovo peacekeeping mission. This trial randomised 1,050 

soldiers from 19 platoons into 62 groups receiving one of three conditions: 

Debriefing (23 groups), Stress Education (20 groups) and No Intervention (19 

groups), and focused on the entire deployment period. The authors reported no 

differences between groups on all behavioural outcomes, though the deployment had 

resulted in relatively few critical events. In a second RCT by Adler et al. (2009) with 

U.S. soldiers returning from Iraq who had been exposed to direct combat throughout 

their deployment, results indicated that compared to a Stress Education control 

condition, the Battlemind Debriefing had no overall effect on PTSD; within the 

subgroup with highest levels of combat exposure, Battlemind Debriefing was no 

more effective than the Battlemind Training lecture (given in both small group and 

large group formats), with both treatments producing small improvements in PTSD 

Check List (PCL) scores. A small but significant reduction in PTSD symptoms, 

depression symptoms, and sleep problems was observed in Soldiers with the highest 

levels of combat exposure for Battlemind Debriefing compared with standard stress 

education, although similar benefits were observed for the two other Battlemind 

training classroom interventions. Thus, given the similar efficacy of the Battlemind 

Training lecture program, and the very small effect sizes observed, there is no 

reason to recommend Battlemind Debriefing over the Battlemind lecture program.

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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 108

A2. Brief Early Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention

Research suggests that relatively brief but specialized interventions may effectively 

prevent PTSD in some subgroups of trauma patients. Several controlled trials have 

suggested that brief (i.e., 4 to 5 sessions) cognitive-behavioral treatments, 

comprised of education, breathing training/relaxation, imaginal and in vivo exposure, 

and cognitive restructuring, delivered within weeks of the traumatic event, can often 

prevent PTSD in survivors of sexual and non-sexual assault (Foa et al., 1995), MVAs,

and industrial accidents (Bryant et al., 1998 , 1999). Brief intervention with patients 

hospitalized for injury has been found to reduce alcohol consumption in those with 

existing alcohol problems (Gentilello et al., 1999). Controlled trials of brief early 

intervention services targeted at other important trauma sequelae (e.g., problems 

returning to work, depression, family problems, trauma recidivism, and 

bereavement-related problems) remain to be conducted, but it is likely that targeted 

interventions may be effective in these arenas for at least some survivors.

At present, it is unknown how much time should elapse after a traumatic experience 

before cognitive-behavioral intervention is initiated (Litz & Bryant: in Foa 2009 

[ISTSS]). If provided too early, individuals who may not need therapy will consume 

helping resources. For this reason, trials have not commenced before 2 weeks after 

the trauma (Bryant, 1998, 1999, 2003). 

Target Population for Brief CBT

Studies that have targeted all trauma survivors, regardless of levels of stress 

reactions, have been ineffective in preventing PTSD (Roberts et al., 2009b). Traumafocused CBT has been found to be effective in reducing and preventing posttraumatic stress symptoms in individuals who were symptomatic, especially those 

meeting criteria for ASD (Roberts et al., 2009a; Stapleton, 2006). These 

interventions have focused on the traumatic experience via exposure to memories 

and trauma reminders, sometimes combined with cognitive therapy or other 

behavioral interventions. One study has indicated that combined imaginal and in vivo 

exposure is significantly more effective than pure cognitive restructuring in reducing 

subsequent PTSD among individuals diagnosed with ASD (Bryant, et al., 2008a). This 

is an important finding that requires replication. 

Cognitive behavioral therapy was more effective in reducing symptoms than a selfhelp booklet or repeated assessment. The combination of an elevated initial 

symptom score and failure to improve with self-monitoring was effective in 

identifying a group of patients with early PTSD symptoms who were unlikely to 

recover without intervention. (Ehlers, 2003)

Evidence Table 

Evidence Sources LE QE SR

1 Brief cognitive-behavioral intervention (4 to 5 

sessions) may prevent PTSD in those reporting 

clinically significant symptoms of acute posttraumatic stress

Roberts, 2009a (§)

Kornor, 2008

Bryant et al., 1998, 1999

Bryant et al., 2003, 2008a

I Good A

2 Multisession early psychological interventions for 

asymptomatic trauma survivors are not effective 

and may be harmful

Roberts, 2009b (§) I Good D

LE =Level of Evidence; QE = Quality of Evidence; SR = Strength of Recommendation; §-Systematic 

Review (see Appendix A)
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 109

A3. Other Early Interventions

Efficacious early interventions have largely been structured as brief versions of 

effective PTSD treatments. This suggests that other interventions may be effective in 

preventing PTSD, but more research is needed to investigate other intervention 

methods. Some non-CBT interventions have received research attention. For 

example, brief structured writing has been found ineffective in preventing PTSD in 

two studies (van Emmerik, et al., 2008; Bugg, et al., 2009). A memory restructuring 

intervention failed to show preventive impact relative to a control condition (Gidron

et al., 2007). Likewise, providing self-help information as a preventive 

psychoeducation strategy to prevent PTSD has not been found to be efficacious 

(Scholes et al., 2007; Turpin et al., 2005)

Table I - 2 Brief Psychotherapy Studies to Prevent the Development of PTSD

Author, Year Results n Trauma LE QE NB

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Bryant, 1998a Brief (5 sessions) CBT within 2 weeks > 

Supportive counseling in preventing

PTSD

24 Civilian I Fair Mod

Bryant, 1999 Brief (5 sessions) PE or PE + Anxiety 

mgmt > Supportive counseling in 

preventing PTSD

45 Civilian 

with ASD

I Good Sub

Bryant, 2003 Brief (5 sessions) CBT > Supportive 

Counseling in preventing PTSD

24 ASD after

mTBI

I Good Sub

Bryant, 2008a Brief (5 sessions) ET > CT > No Tx in

preventing PTSD

90 ASD 

civilians

I Good Sub

Resnick, 2007 Video intervention reduces PTSD vs. 

standard care

140 Sexual

assault

I Good Mod

Self-Help (SH)

Scholes, 2007 no group differences between SH and 

no Tx

227 Emergency 

Room

I Good Zero

Turpin, 2005 no group differences in PTSD between

SH and no Tx

141 N/R I Fair Zero

Structured Writing Therapy (SWT)

van Emmerik, 

2008

Efficacy of SWT was comparable to 

CBT

125 ASD and 

PTSD pts

I Good Mod

Bugg, 2009 No differences between writing and self 

help (information only) groups 

67 Emergency 

room

I Mod Small

Memory Structured Intervention (MSI)

Gidron 2007 No differences between MSI and 

supportive listening.

34 traffic 

accident 

victims

I Fair Zero

ET = Exposure therapy; CT= Cognitive Therapy; Tx=Treatment

LE =Level of Evidence; QE = Quality of Evidence;

NB=Net benefit: Sub=Substantial; Mod=Moderate; Zero=–None or small
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 110

B. Early Pharmacotherapy Interventions to Prevent PTSD

Prevention of PTSD

Few studies have examined the effectiveness of pharmacological treatment for acute 

symptom management and PTSD prevention immediately following a traumatic 

event. This includes the use of various agents for the prevention of PTSD 

(propranolol, hydrocortisone, and gabapentin). Although of interest, none of these 

approaches is yet advocated in standard treatment guidelines for PTSD (Stein 2009 

[SR]). There is insufficient evidence to draw concrete conclusions or make specific 

recommendations regarding the use of pharmacological agents for prevention of 

PTSD. While prevention of ASD is ideal, there are currently no evidence-based 

pharmacological treatment modalities to arrest symptom formation and prevent 

progression to ASD during the first days and weeks following the traumatic exposure.

Once potential medical causes of neuropsychiatric impairment are ruled out and 

other immediate needs are met (e.g., physical needs, practical needs for assistance, 

normalization, and psychoeducation), then both medications and nonpharmacological interventions may be considered. The selection and effectiveness of 

specific interventions administered acutely are not well supported in the literature.

Although there are no evidence-based pharmacological treatments for ASD, there 

may be a role for pharmacotherapy to aid in the management of specific symptoms 

(e.g., insomnia, pain, hyperarousal).

Use of Benzodiazepines

Historically, benzodiazepines were the primary agent in PTSD treatment, particularly 

alprazolam and clonazepam. However, based on the limited data that are available, 

benzodiazepine administration should be used with caution (or discouraged) both in 

acute stress disorder (ASD) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), due to lack of 

evidence for effectiveness and risks that may outweigh potential benefits. Although 

benzodiazepines have been frequently used “as needed” and continuously for anxiety 

disorders, including to augment evidence-based treatment modalities in PTSD, there 

is theoretical, animal, and human evidence to suggest that benzodiazepines may 

actually interfere with the extinction of fear conditioning or potentiate the acquisition 

of fear responses and worsen recovery from trauma. Benzodiazepine should be used 

especially cautiously in combat veterans with PTSD because of the very high comorbidity of combat-related PTSD with alcohol misuse and substance use disorders 

(upwards of 50 percent of co-morbidity) and potential problems with tolerance and 

dependence. Once initiated, benzodiazepines can be very difficult, if not impossible, 

to discontinue due to significant withdrawal symptoms compounded by the 

underlying PTSD symptoms.

Gelpin et al. (1996), in an open-labeled study, treated patients who had recently 

experienced trauma (within the past 18 days) and were experiencing excessive 

distress (panic, agitation, or persistent insomnia) for up to 6 months with alprazolam 

or clonazepam. These 13 patients were compared with a control group of recently 

traumatized individuals matched for demographics and symptoms (using the Impact 

of Events Scale). On follow-up, PTSD occurred at a significantly higher rate in the 

benzodiazepine-treated group (9/13, 69 percent) than in the control group (2/13, 15

percent). Although the strength of the evidence is low (open-labeled study), the 

study suggested that benzodiazepines may worsen outcomes in the acute period 

following trauma, and the authors referenced animal data consistent with the 

hypothesis that benzodiazepines may potentiate the acquisition of fear responses.
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 111

Mellman, Bustamante et al. (2002) conducted a double-blind randomized controlled 

study, during the acute period after trauma (mean 2 weeks after trauma). A shortterm (7 day) evening use of temazepam in patients with significant ASD/PTSD 

symptoms was compared with placebo (11 patients in each group). The study 

showed no benefits in preventing PTSD, and the trend was similar to the Gelpin 

study, with 6 of 11 (55 percent) patients who received tamazepam developing PTSD, 

compared with 3/11 (27 percent) who received placebo.

Davydow, (2008) in a literature review of the risk factors for developing PTSD after 

serious trauma (requiring ICU treatment), found that greater ICU benzodiazepine 

administration was one of the consistent predictors of PTSD.

Benzodiazepines can be effective against anxiety and insomnia, but they should be 

used with caution in patients with ASD and PTSD because of the high frequency of 

co-occurring substance abuse and dependence in patients with PTSD. The balance 

between benefit and potential risks, including the risks of dependency and of 

withdrawal after discontinuation, should be evaluated when considering 

benzodiazepines in patients with acute stress reaction. 

Sleep Disturbance

One of the most difficult symptoms to address in the immediate aftermath of 

exposure to a traumatic event is sleep disturbance. Theoretically, the more sleep 

impairment and trauma-related nightmares an individual continues to experience, 

the more likely he or she is to continue to experience the symptoms of ASD and/or 

subsequently develop PTSD. There is little evidence for the effectiveness of any sleep 

aids in the immediate aftermath of trauma.

For Recommendations and discussion of the evidence for sleep disturbance,

see Module I-3: A. Sleep Disturbances

Ineffectiveness of Propranolol

Several studies have examined the use of propranolol, hydrocortisone, and 

gabapentin for the prevention of PTSD (Pittman, 2002; Stein, 2007). 

Four small and brief clinical trials were identified in the peer-reviewed medical 

literature that evaluated the use of pharmacological treatments to prevent the 

development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in traumatized 

subjects (Pitman, 2002; Stein, 2007; Reist, 2001; Vaiva, 2003). All studies involved 

immediate post-traumatic administration of propranolol, and one study also included 

a trial of gabapentin. Two of the studies (Reist, 2001; Vaiva, 2003) were excluded 

due to poor quality. Pitman (2002) reported a pilot study of 41 patients who were 

randomized to begin, within 6 hours of the event, a 10-day course of double-blind 

propranolol (n = 18) versus placebo (n = 23), 40 mg four times daily. Significant 

improvement of symptoms was noted in the treatment group. Stein (2007) 

conducted a double-blind, randomized controlled trial of 14 days of the beta-blocker 

propranolol (n = 17), the anxiolytic anticonvulsant gabapentin (n = 14), or placebo 

(n = 17), administered within 48 hours of injury to patients admitted to a surgical 

trauma center. Of 569 accessible, potentially eligible subjects, 48 (8 percent)

participated. Although well tolerated, neither study drug showed a significant benefit 

over placebo on depressive or post-traumatic stress symptoms. 

McGhee et al. (2008) examined the relationship between PTSD prevalence and 

propranolol administration in 603 soldiers injured in OIF/OEF, of whom 226 

completed the PTSD Checklist-Military. Thirty-one soldiers received propranolol, and 

34 matched soldiers did not. In propranolol patients, the prevalence of PTSD was 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 112

32.3 percent vs 26.5 percent in those not receiving propranolol (P = .785). These 

data suggest propranolol does not decrease PTSD development in burned soldiers. 

Although some positive results were noted, the size and weak study designs of the 

investigations do not allow for definitive conclusions regarding the value of these 

medications in preventing the development of PTSD symptoms after traumatic 

events.

Early Pain Intervention to Prevent PTSD

Acute pain caused by physical injury may by itself be a precursor for PTSD. Injury 

that is also associated with traumatic exposure increases the risk for PTSD. When 

pain is treated early and aggressively, patients may have the best chance of getting 

better. Though many fear addiction from opioids, they can be an important part of 

halting the pain cycle. Few studies have investigated the effect of pain reduction in 

the early stages after injury and the development of PTSD. 

Bryant et al. (2008c) examined the influence of acute administration of morphine as 

protective against the development of PTSD in a consecutive sample of patients 

admitted to hospital after traumatic injury (n = 155) . The patients who met criteria 

for PTSD at 3 months (14 percent) received significantly less morphine than those 

who did not develop PTSD; there was no difference in morphine levels in those who 

did and did not develop a major depressive episode or another anxiety disorder. The 

authors suggested that administration of morphine in the acute post-traumatic stage 

may limit fear conditioning in the aftermath of traumatic injury and may serve as a 

secondary prevention strategy to reduce PTSD development.

Holbrook et al. (2010) analyzed data for 696 military personnel (mostly male, mean 

age about 24) who were hurt during OIF but who did not have serious traumatic 

brain injury. About one-third (35 percent) of the injured personnel developed PTSD. 

The finding was that those who had been administered morphine shortly after their 

injury (60 percent versus 76 percent) were less likely to develop PTSD (ORs ranging 

from 0.48 to 0.66, P<0.05 for all). Several factors, including severity and mechanism 

of injury, need for amputation, resuscitation, and the presence of mild traumatic 

brain injury, were adjusted for. Although causality could not be established, the 

authors concluded that a reduction in perceived pain levels through the use of 

morphine or other opioids, as part of trauma care, may lower the rate of PTSD onset 

after major trauma. 

Other Medications

One study that involved administration of cortisol at the time of cardiac bypass 

surgery (Schelling, 2004) suggested that patients who received stress doses of 

cortisol had lower PTSD symptom scores than a comparison group (that did not 

receive cortisol) when questioned six months after surgery.

A crossover trial of 1 month of low-dose cortisol therapy evaluated 3 patients 

diagnosed with PTSD (Aerni, 2004). The authors reported that each patient 

demonstrated improvement on at least 1 self-reported PTSD measure. The study 

was excluded from analysis for this guideline due to small numbers.

Conclusions:

There is a small amount of evidence that suggests that administration of cortisol at 

the time of, or immediately after, a traumatic event may have a preventive effect on 

the subsequent development of PTSD symptoms. Little evidence exists suggesting 

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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 114

Module I-2. TREATMENT FOR POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD) 

A. Selection of Therapy for PTSD

In clinical practice, providers and patients alike are often faced with important 

decisions relating to type, number, frequency, and dose of various psychotherapies 

and pharmacological interventions. Therapies may be broadly divided into (1) 

evidence-based psychotherapies (e.g., trauma-focused therapies or stress 

inoculation training), (2) evidence-based pharmacotherapies (particularly SSRIs and 

SNRIs), and (3) key adjunctive or supplemental treatment modalities.

Providers should explain to all patients with PTSD the range of therapeutic options 

that are available and effective for PTSD. This discussion should include general 

advantages and disadvantages associated with each therapeutic option (including 

side-effects/risks, and time commitment required to complete the therapy). In 

general, PTSD therapy research has provided sufficient evidence to recommend

medication or evidence-based psychotherapy as a first-line treatment. Among the Alevel evidence-based psychotherapy treatments, the research suggests that they are 

much more equivalent in their effectiveness than many clinicians may realize. There 

is insufficient evidence to suggest for or against combined medication and 

psychotherapy over only one of the two approaches. Patient preferences and the 

particular evidence-based treatments that the provider has the most 

training/expertise in will often drive the initial therapeutic approach.

The level or intensity of care is guided by illness trajectory (degree of chronicity and 

illness severity), observed outcomes, and previous therapies. Active follow-up is 

used to determine the level of care each patient requires over time. The provider 

along with the patient may determine that the first-line therapy will be 

psychotherapy. If, after a period of treatment, the patient is not responding 

adequately, the patient may be “stepped up” in therapeutic intensity by adding a 

medication, such as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) to the regimen of 

ongoing psychotherapy, and reassessing whether additional measures need to be 

taken to address co-morbid conditions. It may be helpful to coordinate care using a 

collaborative care approach based in primary care that includes care management. 

Although supporting evidence is lacking for collaborative care approaches, these 

approaches have been shown to be useful in the management of depression, chronic 

pain, chronic fatigue, and other conditions, and are now being tested for PTSD in 

some military and VA treatment facilities. 

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Providers should explain to all patients with PTSD the range of available and 

effective therapeutic options for PTSD.

2. Patient education is recommended as an element of treatment of PTSD for all 

patients and the family members. [C]

3. Patient and provider preferences should drive the selection of evidence-based 

psychotherapy and/or evidence-based pharmacotherapy as the first line 

treatment. 

4. Psychotherapies should be provided by practitioners who have been trained in the 

particular method of treatment. 

5. A collaborative care approach to therapy administration, with care management, 

may be considered, although supportive evidence is lacking specifically for PTSD. 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 115

B. PSYCHOTHERAPY INTERVENTIONS FOR PTSD 

Psychotherapy interventions are aimed at reduction of symptoms severity, 

improvement of global functioning, and improvement in quality of life and functioning 

in social and occupational areas. Psychotherapy for PTSD may also have benefits in 

improving co-morbid physical health conditions, but this is not specifically the focus 

of treatment.

Table I-4 Psychotherapy Interventions for Treatment of PTSD

Balance of Benefit and Harm

SR Significant Benefit Some Benefit Unknown Benefit None

A

Trauma-focused 

psychotherapy that 

includes components of 

exposure and/or 

cognitive restructuring; 

or,

Stress inoculation

training

C

Patient Education

Imagery Rehearsal Therapy 

Psychodynamic Therapy

Hypnosis

Relaxation Techniques

Group Therapy

I

Family Therapy WEB-Based CBT

Acceptance and Commitment 

Therapy

Dialectical Behavioral Therapy 

SR_= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)

Effective Psychotherapies for PTSD 

There are significant difficulties in categorizing the different evidence-based 

psychotherapies that have been found to be most effective for PTSD. There are a 

number of reasons for this difficulty, including the diversity of treatments available, a 

lack of a common terminology to describe the same treatment components, the 

specific ways in which similar components are manualized or packaged, and lack of 

consensus between proponents for specific treatments. 

The evidence-based psychotherapeutic interventions for PTSD that are most strongly 

supported by RCTs can be considered broadly within in the trauma-focused 

psychotherapy category or stress inoculation training. Trauma-focused 

psychotherapies for PTSD refer to a broad range of psychological interventions based 

on learning theory, cognitive theory, emotional processing theory, fear-conditioning 

models, and other theories. They include a variety of techniques most commonly 

involving exposure and/or cognitive restructuring (e.g. Prolonged Exposure, 

Cognitive Processing Therapy and Eye movement Desensitization and Reprocessing). 

They are often combined with anxiety management/stress reduction skills focused 

specifically on alleviating the symptoms of PTSD. Psychoeducation is another 

important component of all interventions. Other CBT interventions that are not 

trauma-focused are less effective.
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Stress inoculation training (SIT) does not necessarily focus as explicitly on the 

exploration of traumatic memories, it is included as a first-line alternative to traumafocused psychotherapies for treating PTSD. SIT, which was developed originally for 

anxiety disorders and then modified for rape victims and later for PTSD, has been 

extensively studied in the treatment of PTSD. It has also been compared head-tohead with trauma-focused psychotherapies, and has been shown to be effective in 

assisting individuals with reducing trauma-related avoidance, anxiety, and 

cognitions, and there is good evidence that it is equivalent in efficacy to the traumafocused psychotherapies. 

In formulating the specific recommendations for psychotherpy, the working group 

evaluated the empirical evidence, considering randomized trials as the highest level 

of the evidence-based hierarchy. It should be noted that therapy provided in clinical 

trial settings differs from therapy that is practiced in day-to-day care, and the 

recommendations represent the techniques and protocols as they were studied and 

reported in the RCTs.

Packaging of Manualized Approaches of Therapy

The working group recognized that despite various perspectives on how to categorize 

the most effective PTSD psychotherapies, all of the modalities supported by a level-A 

evidence likely have overlapping mechanisms of action. Trauma-focused 

psychotherapies include exposure techniques that involve repetitive review of 

traumatic memories and trauma-related situations, cognitive techniques that focus 

on identification and modification of trauma-related beliefs and meanings, and/or 

stress reduction techniques designed to alleviate PTSD symptoms and assist patients 

in gaining control and mastery over the physiological reactivity.

SIT protocols that have been tested in clinical trials often include components of 

cognitive restructuring or in-vivo exposure, and some SIT techniques (e.g. breathing 

retraining, relaxation) are incorporated into virtually every other trauma-focused 

psychotherapy that has been studied in RCTs. Consequently, it is difficult to 

disentangle the relative contribution of SIT techniques in the efficacy of the other 

trauma-focused psychotherapy treatments. 

Components of efficacious interventions for PTSD, studied in clinical trials, have been 

packaged in various ways. Most RCTs have manualized the techniques to ensure the 

fidelity of treatment for use by the investigators. Some manualized approaches have 

gained wide popularity, but there is no evidence that they are any more effective 

than less accepted protocols that package the core components of trauma-focused 

therapies in different ways. The core components used in the vast majority of A-level 

interventions have involved combinations of exposure (particularly in-vivo and 

imaginal/oral narrative), cognitive restructuring, relaxation/stress modulation 

techniques, and psychoeducation. Very few studies have dismantled these individual 

components to assess the relative efficacy of each technique independently. The 

approaches that have been most extensively studied can be generally grouped into 

four main categories based on the therapeutic components given the most emphasis, 

or the specific way in which these components were packaged, although there is 

overlap between these groups:

• Exposure-based therapies (ET) emphasize in-vivo, imaginal, and narrative (oral 

and/or written) exposure, but also generally include elements of cognitive 

restructuring (e.g. evaluating the accuracy of beliefs about danger) as well as 

relaxation techniques and self-monitoring of anxiety. Examples of therapies that 

include a focus on exposure include Prolonged Exposure Therapy, Brief Eclectic 

Psychotherapy, Narrative Therapy, written exposure therapies, and many of the 
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cognitive therapy packages that also incorporate in-vivo and imaginal/narrative 

exposure.

• Cognitive-based therapies (CT) emphasize cognitive restructuring (challenging 

automatic or acquired beliefs connected to the traumatic event, such as beliefs 

about safety or trust) but also include relaxation techniques and 

discussion/narration of the traumatic event either orally and/or through writing. 

Examples include Cognitive Processing Therapy and various cognitive therapy 

packages tested in RCTs 

• Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) (the specific anxiety management package most 

extensively studied in the PTSD literature), places more emphasize on breathing 

retraining and muscle relaxation, but also includes cognitive elements (selfdialogue, thought stopping, role playing) and, often, exposure techniques (in-vivo 

exposure, narration of traumatic event).

• Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) (extensively studied in 

a large number of RCTs) closely resembles other CBT modalities in that there is 

an exposure component (e.g. talking about the traumatic event and/or holding 

distressing traumatic memories in mind without verbalizing them) combined with 

a cognitive component (e.g., identifying a negative cognition, an alternative 

positive cognition, and assessing the validity of the cognition), and 

relaxation/self-monitoring techniques (e.g., breathing, “body scan”). Alternating 

eye-movements are part of the classic EMDR technique (and the name of this 

type of treatment); however, comparable effect sizes have been achieved with or 

without eye movements or other forms of distraction or kinesthetic stimulation. 

Although the mechanisms of effectiveness in EMDR have yet to be determined, it 

is likely that they are similar to other trauma-focused exposure and cognitivebased therapies. 

A brief description and summary of the supporting evidence for each of the above, 

and other therapy approaches is included in the following Sections B1 to B12 of the 

Discussion.

RECOMMENDATIONS 

Treatment Options:

1. Strongly recommend that patients who are diagnosed with PTSD should be 

offered one of the evidence-based trauma-focused psychotherapeutic 

interventions that include components of exposure and/or cognitive 

restructuring; or stress inoculation training. [A]

The choice of a specific approach should be based on the severity of the 

symptoms, clinician expertise in one or more of these treatment methods and 

patient preference, and may include an exposure-based therapy (e.g., 

Prolonged Exposure), a cognitive-based therapy (e.g., Cognitive Processing 

Therapy), Stress management therapy (e.g., SIT) or Eye Movement 

Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR).

2. Relaxation techniques should be considered as a component of treatment 

approaches for ASD or PTSD in alleviating symptoms associated with 

physiological hyper-reactivity. [C]

3. Imagery Rehearsal Therapy [IRT] can be considered for treatment of 

nightmares and sleep disruption. [C]

4. Brief Psychodynamic Therapy can be considered for patients with PTSD. [C]
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5. Hypnotic Techniques can be considered, especially for symptoms associated 

with PTSD, such as pain, anxiety, dissociation, and nightmares, for which 

hypnosis has been successfully used. [C]

6. There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against Dialectical 

Behavioral Therapy (DBT) as first-line treatment for PTSD [I]

• Dialectical Behavioral Therapy can be considered for patients with a 

borderline personality disorder typified by parasuicidal behaviors. [B]

7. There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against Family or Couples 

Therapy as first-line treatment for PTSD; Family or Couples therapy may be 

considered in managing PTSD-related family disruption or conflict, increasing 

support, or improving communication. [I]

8. Group Therapy may be considered for treatment of PTSD [C]

• There is insufficient evidence to favor any particular type of group therapy 

over other types

• Patients being considered for group therapy should exhibit acceptance for 

the rationale for trauma work, and willingness to self-disclose in a group.

9. Consider augmenting with other effective evidence-based interventions for 

patients who do not respond to a single approach. 

10.Supportive psychotherapy is not considered to be effective for the treatment 

of PTSD. However, multiple studies have shown that supportive interventions 

are significantly more helpful than no treatment, and they may be helpful in 

preventing relapse in patients who have reasonable control over their 

symptoms and are not in severe and acute distress. 

Note:

Approaches may also be beneficial as parts of an effectively integrated approach.

Most experienced therapists integrate diverse therapies, which are not mutually 

exclusive, in a fashion that is designed to be especially beneficial to a given 

patient.

Delivery of care:

1. Telemedicine interventions that involve person-to-person individual treatment 

sessions appear to have similar efficacy and satisfaction clinically as a direct 

face-to-face interaction, though data are much more limited than for face-toface encounters. [C]

a. Telemedicine interventions are recommended when face-to-face 

interventions are not feasible due to geographic distance between patient 

and provider or other barriers to patient access (e.g., agoraphobia, 

physical disability); when the patient would benefit from more frequent 

contact than is feasible with face-to-face sessions; or when the patient 

declines more traditional mental health interventions.

b. Providers using telemedicine interventions should endeavor to maintain 

and strengthen the therapeutic relationship, build patient rapport, stress 

practice and assignment completion, and ensure adequacy of safety 

protocols using similar techniques as they do in a face-to-face session. 
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c. Providers using technology-assisted interventions should take steps to 

ensure that their work complies with the regulations and procedures of the 

organization in which they are employed, legal standards, and the ethical 

standards of their professions. Patient confidentiality and safety should be 

monitored closely.

2. There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against Web-based 

interventions as a stand-alone intervention or as an alternative to standard 

mental health treatment for PTSD. [I]

 If used:

a. Clinicians should carefully review the content of any web-based materials 

to ensure their accuracy and ethical application before recommending use 

to patients.

b. Web-based approach may be used where face-to-face interventions are 

not feasible (e.g., geography limits access to other forms of treatment) or 

when patients decline more traditional mental health interventions. It has 

also been suggested that web-based interventions may provide more 

confidentiality than more traditional approaches.

c. Providers should regularly encourage patients to complete the intervention 

and endeavor to maintain and strengthen the therapeutic relationship, 

build patient rapport, stress practice and assignment completion, and 

ensure adequacy of safety protocols. Availability of telephone contact for 

initial assessment or other reasons (e.g. emergencies, 

suicidality/homicidality, or follow-up of specific problems) should be 

considered.

d. Providers using technology-assisted interventions should take steps to 

ensure that their work complies with the regulations and procedures of the 

organization in which they are employed, legal standards, and the ethical 

standards of their professions. Patient confidentiality and safety should be 

monitored closely. 

DISCUSSION

B1. Therapies that More Strongly Emphasize Cognitive Techniques (CT)

Cognitive therapy (CT) techniques emerged principally from the work of Albert Ellis 

(1962) and Aaron Beck (1964). Initially manualized for the treatment of depression, 

CT techniques have been successfully adapted to the treatment of a diverse set of 

psychiatric disorders, including PTSD (Freeman & Datillo, 1992; Freeman et al., 

1989; Scott et al., 1989) and have been manualized or packaged in various ways.

Several randomized controlled trials (RCTs) demonstrate the efficacy of CT 

techniques for a wide range of patients with PTSD, demonstrating its use in treating 

veterans with combat-related trauma, motor vehicle accident (MVA) survivors, 

sexual or physical assault victims, and victims of natural disasters. Most RCTs have 

examined CT as delivered in an individual therapy format, though some studies have 

investigated group-delivered CT.

For purposes of this guideline, the primary goal of CT techniques is to improve mood 

and behavior through a deliberate and explicit focus on modifying dysfunctional 

thoughts, beliefs, and expectations. In theory, while behavioral change is a desirable 

outcome of CT, the treatment components themselves do not explicitly or directly 
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target behavioral patterns per se (however, it appears that even cognitive 

interventions may involve exposure or behavioral components, for example, 

discussing the meaning of a traumatic event inevitably involves exposing oneself to 

the memories of that event). Likewise, while exposure-based interventions may 

result in altered cognitions, exposure therapies, per se, do not involve an explicit 

focus on cognitive restructuring procedures seen in CT. Nonetheless, in practice it is 

virtually impossible to conduct cognitive trauma-focused therapy without also 

involving behavioral or exposure-based components, as it is similarly virtually 

impossible to conduct behavioral or exposure-based therapy without involving 

cognitive therapy components.

CT is accomplished through a systematic and prescriptive process of (a) identifying 

dysfunctional beliefs, (b) challenging and disputing these beliefs by examining the 

evidence for or against them, and (c) restructuring or replacing these beliefs with 

those that are more functional, logical, and reality-based. According to theories on 

which CT is based, traumatic events may lead to distorted beliefs regarding personal 

safety, self-efficacy, relative danger, future consequences of actions, and availability 

of support. Over time, these maladaptive beliefs lead to or maintain symptoms of 

PTSD and impair global functioning. The goal of CT for PTSD is to correct these 

beliefs, which causes a decrease in symptoms and improves functioning.

The CT treatment protocol for PTSD typically begins with an introduction of how 

thoughts affect emotions and behavior. The cognitive model of change is introduced 

and the patient is given a detailed rationale and expectations for participation in 

therapy are established. Treatment interventions are focused on identifying and 

clarifying patterns of thinking. Several active techniques are used, such as capturing 

and recording thoughts about significant events, weighing the evidence in support of 

these thoughts, challenging distressing trauma-related thoughts, and replacing 

dysfunctional thoughts with more adaptive ones. Through systematic assignments 

both during and between therapy sessions, dysfunctional thoughts are examined, 

challenged, and replaced. As thoughts become more logical and reality-based, 

symptoms decrease and global functioning improves. CT also emphasizes the 

identification and modification of distorted core beliefs about self, others, and the 

larger world. CT teaches that improved accuracy of thoughts and beliefs about self, 

others, and the world leads to improved mood and functioning. 

DISCUSSION

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have shown that CT alone is an effective 

intervention for patients with PTSD (Marks et al., 1998; Cottraux, 2008; Resick,

2008). CT is useful for identifying and modifying the many negative beliefs related to 

a traumatic experience and can be used effectively to reduce distressing traumarelated thoughts (e.g., about survival guilt, self-blame for causing the trauma, 

feelings of personal inadequacy, or worries about the future). Modifying thoughts 

about these and other trauma-related issues can reduce PTSD symptoms and 

improve mood and functioning. Numerous other trials support CT as a key 

component of combination treatments. 

CT techniques are often delivered as part of treatment “packages” that usually 

include elements of exposure therapy, trauma-related education, and anxiety 

management. For example, Cognitive Processing Therapy, which has been 

manualized and validated for use with female sexual assault–related PTSD in women 

(Resick et al., 2002) and in veterans (Monson, 2006), combines aspects of CT and 

exposure therapy. CT can also be delivered in conjunction with a range of other 

psychological therapies (e.g., EMDR and psychodynamic therapy). CT techniques 
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may be an especially helpful treatment component when co-morbid depressive 

and/or anxiety disorders are present. 

Contraindications for CT have not been empirically established, but may include 

psychosis, severe brain damage, or severe intellectual impairment. 

Summary of Studies: 

Twenty-one relevant clinical trials that evaluated the use of CT for PTSD were 

analyzed. The trials investigated the effect of CT compared with no-treatment 

conditions, such as placement on a waiting list, and compared with other therapies. 

Both single-session therapy and long-term therapy were studied, with the longest 

therapy lasting 30 weeks, plus additional sessions after the end of formal treatment. 

Although therapists trained in standardized CT methods provided treatment, the 

actual content of the therapy was often variable, as was the terminology used to 

describe it. In these studies, although the patients in the control groups and study 

groups generally improved over time, there was significantly greater improvement in 

most treated groups, compared with control groups. The studies that enrolled 

participants from the general population of PTSD patients examined a primarily 

female population. There was one clinical trial that enrolled male disaster workers, 

and one involving veterans.

Follow-up intervals ranged from immediate posttreatment to up to 2 years after 

completion of therapy. Patient retention rates were generally similar to those 

observed in studies of other types of therapy, but ranged from 52 percent to 100

percent; few studies were blinded, and most relied on self-reported symptom 

questionnaires to provide data for analysis. 

Nine relevant randomized clinical trials compared the effect of CT with that of a 

nonactive treatment, such as waitlist control group, treatment as usual (TAU), or 

repeated assessment (Beck, et al., 2009; Classen, Koopman, Nevill-Manning, & 

Spiegel, 2001; Difede, et al., 2007; Duffy, Gillespie, & Clark, 2007; Ehlers, et al., 

2005; Foa, Zoellner, & Feeny, 2006; Monson, et al., 2006; Sijbrandij, et al., 2007; 

Smyth, Hockemeyer, & Tulloch, 2008). Both group and individual CT appeared to be 

effective in reducing PTSD symptoms. This was seen for brief, limited treatment 

models, and for treatment programs taking several months to complete. Four studies 

compared the effect of CT with that of therapies described as support, supportive 

care, or Rogerian support therapy (Blanchard, et al., 2003; McDonagh et al., 2005; 

Foa, Zoellner, & Feeny, 2006; Cottraux, et al., 2008). In these trials, CT was 

reported to be superior to supportive care in reducing PTSD or in retaining patients 

in therapy. Notably, in the Cottraux study, there were more drop-outs from the 

Rogerian group due to worsening symptoms. Additionally, the CT group patients in 

this study demonstrated sustained improvements in PTSD symptoms at two years 

follow-up. Trauma-focused group CT and present-focused group therapy were 

compared in a single study of Vietnam veterans (Schnurr, et al., 2003). 

Approximately 40 percent of all participants showed significant change in PTSD 

symptoms, but neither treatment was superior to the other. 

The Trauma-Adaptive Recovery Group Education and Therapy (TARGET) model was 

studied in a trial that compared it with CT in the treatment of substance abuse 

patients (Frisman et al., 2008). Some improvement in PTSD symptoms was noted in 

both groups, but TARGET therapy was reported to produce greater improvement in 

sobriety self-efficacy. One clinical trial (van Emmerik, et al., 2008) compared CT with 

a structured writing therapy that included three components: (a) writing in the first 

person, (b) cognitive self-reappraisal of the writing, and (c) farewell and sharing the 
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writing. The authors reported improvement in both study groups compared with a 

wait list group, but detected no differences in efficacy between them. 

Recently, researchers have attempted to dismantle treatments to examine their 

efficacious components. Bryant et al. (2003b) reported that patients who received 

both CT and ET demonstrated less avoidance, depression, and catastrophic 

cognitions relative to patients who received ET only, while there was no difference in 

PTSD symptoms between the groups. In a later four arm study to try to determine 

what specific components of CBT were more effective, Bryant et al. (2008b) 

compared pure in-vivo exposure alone; pure imaginal exposure alone; pure in-vivo 

combined with imaginal exposure; and the combination of CR, in-vivo exposure, and 

imaginal exposure. The combined treatment was most effective; supporting the 

notion that effective therapy needs to include some element of cognitive 

restructuring; unfortunately, there was no CR only group. In addition, none of these 

treatment groups were reported to include relaxation, breathing retraining, or other 

stress modulation techniques that are a standard part of virtually all of the ET and CT 

packages. 

Resick et al. (2008) found no difference between patients assigned to receive 

Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) and patients assigned to receive only the 

cognitive component of CPT. Interestingly, a third group that received only written 

narrative exposure without any of the other CPT techniques performed nearly as well 

,with no significant difference compared with full CPT or the cognitive component by 

the time of the 6-month follow-up. In an attempt to isolate the active ingredients, 

McDonagh et al. (2005) compared a treatment combining exposure and cognitive 

therapy elements to both a waitlist control group and a group given PresentCentered Therapy (PCT), a form of problem-solving therapy designed to eliminate 

the active ingredients found in CBT. Both treatment groups demonstrated improved 

symptoms over the waitlist control group but did not differ between themselves. 

Bisson (2007) performed a systematic review of the randomized trials of all 

psychological treatments (Cochrane Collaboration Report). Treatments were 

categorized as trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy/exposure therapy 

(TFCBT); stress management (SM); other therapies (supportive therapy, nondirective counselling, psychodynamic therapy and hypnotherapy); group cognitive 

behavioural therapy (group CBT); and eye movement desensitization and 

reprocessing (EMDR). The results showed that TFCBT did significantly better than 

waitlist/usual care, and other therapies. Stress management did significantly better 

than waitlist/usual care. There were no significant differences between TFCBT and 

SM, and there was no significant difference between other therapies and 

waitlist/usual care control. Group TFCBT was significantly better than waitlist/usual 

care. EMDR did significantly better than waitlist/usual care and other therapies. 

There was no significant difference between EMDR and TFCBT or SM. 

Conclusions: 

There is good evidence that individual CT is effective in reducing PTSD symptoms, 

and limited evidence that treatment gains persists for up to 2 years. Additional 

research is needed to demonstrate the efficacy of CT delivered in a group format. 

Given the contrasting outcomes of available studies comparing combinations and 

dismantling components, there are insufficient data to conclude that CT is superior to 

ET at this time.
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EVIDENCE TABLE

Evidence Sources LE QE SR

1 CT is effective with civilian men and 

women exposed to combat and noncombat trauma

Bryant et al., 2003b

Bryant et al., 2008b

Cottraux et al., 2008

Difede et al., 2007 

Duffey et al., 2007

Ehlers et al., 2005

Foa et al., 2005

Lovell, et al., 2001

Marks et al., 1998

Sijbrandij et al., 2007

Smyth, Hockemeyer, & 

Tulloch, 2008

vanEmmerik, Kamphuis, & 

Emmelkamp, 2008

I Good A

3 CT is effective in treating co-morbid 

substance abuse and PTSD

Frisman et al., 2001 I Poor C

4 CT is effective in treating PTSD in 

motor vehicle accident survivors 

Blanchard et al., 2003 I Mod B

5 CT is effective in treating PTSD in a 

group format

Beck et al., 2009 III Poor I

2 CT is effective with military and 

veterans with combat- and noncombat-related PTSD.

Monson et al., 2006 I Good B

3 CT is effective for women with PTSD 

associated with sexual assault.

Chard, 2005

Foa et al., 2004

Foa, Zoellner, & Feeny, 2006

McDonagh et al., 2005

Resick et al., 2002

Resick et al., 2008

I Good A

QE = Quality of Evidence;SR =Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)

B2. Exposure Therapy (ET)

Exposure therapy protocols have a high level of evidence for treatment of PTSD, and 

generally include the components of psychoeducation, imaginal or narrative 

exposure, in-vivo exposure, and processing of thoughts and emotions. The most 

commonly used protocol is Prolonged Exposure (PE), although various other 

exposure protocols have been used. Protocols that provide only a portion of these 

components (e.g. in-vivo exposure or imaginal exposure in isolation) show less 

robust effect sizes (e.g., Bryant, 2008b). Imaginal exposure involves encouraging 

the patient to revisit the experience in imagination, and recalling the experience 

through verbally describing the physical and emotional details of the trauma. In vivo 

exposure involves asking the patient to physically confront realistically safe but still 

feared stimuli (e.g. driving a car after having been in a serious motor vehicle 

accident). In vivo exposure is typically arranged in a hierarchical order based on the 

perceived difficulty of confronting each stimulus. In addition, each item on the 

hierarchy may be titrated to make it more or less difficult depending on the patient’s 

progress in treatment. In the preceding example the patient might first sit in a car in 

the passenger seat, and then in the driver’s seat, and then start the car, etc. The 

patient repeats each situation until a reduction in the intensity of emotional and 
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physiological response is achieved, at which point they move on to the next item in 

their hierarchy. 

DISCUSSION

RCTs have shown that Exposure Therapy (ET) helps men and women with PTSD 

symptoms. RCTs of ET have demonstrated its efficacy in female victims of sexual and 

non-sexual assault, motor vehicle accidents, male combat-related trauma, war 

refugees, and mixed trauma populations. Several studies indicate that results are 

highly comparable between exposure therapy and other forms of trauma focused 

cognitive behavioral therapy (e.g., cognitive therapy, EMDR, stress inoculation 

training). Findings regarding efficacy in (mostly Vietnam) combat veterans in VA 

clinical settings are less consistent and the degree of improvement in PTSD 

symptoms may be less pronounced, although the number of studies are very limited; 

preliminary data suggest it is efficacious (Rauch et al., 2009). 

The mechanism of ET is thought to be related to a reduction in negative emotions 

(fear, anxiety, sadness, guilt) associated with their experience through repetitive, 

therapist-guided confrontation of feared places, situations, memories, thoughts, and 

feelings. ET usually lasts from 8 to 15 sessions depending on the trauma and 

treatment protocol. In the most common form of ET, Prolonged Exposure therapy 

patients are repeatedly exposed to their own individualized trauma stimuli, until their 

arousal and emotional responses are consistently diminished. However, there are 

various ways in which ET is packaged. ET providers can vary the pacing and intensity 

of exposing patients to the most difficult details of their trauma based on the 

patient’s emotional response to the trauma and to the therapy itself. 

Several studies indicate that results are comparable between exposure with other 

forms of cognitive behavioral therapy (e.g., cognitive therapy, EMDR, stress 

inoculation training, or combinations). Variations on exposure therapy that have 

promising results include written exposure and exposure in the context of a broader 

narration of the patient’s life. For example, in a three arm dismantling RCT by Resick

et al. (2008), written exposure was compared directly with CPT (without the written 

exposure component), and the full CPT program (including written exposure). 

Treatment sessions for the written exposure only group consisted of two one-hour 

sessions to provide overview of treatment and education, followed by five two-hour 

sessions where the patient was asked to write for approximately 60 minutes alone 

about their worst traumatic event, followed by reading this to the therapist who 

provided supportive feedback without any of the cognitive restructuring techniques. 

The written exposure group did nearly as well as both of the CPT treatment arms 

(which consisted of 12 one-hour sessions), and on the six month follow-up there was 

no significant difference between the three groups. This finding was replicated using 

very different methods in a study by van Emmerick, et al. (2008) who found that a 

structured writing therapy was equivalently efficacious in the treatment of PTSD as 

cognitive therapy when both were compared with a no treatment control group. 

These data strongly support the notion that a systematic writing narrative process 

with therapist involvement may be just as effective in alleviating symptoms as any of 

the more widely used cognitive therapy techniques.

Oral narrative therapy has also been shown to be highly effective in treating PTSD in 

war-ravaged refugee populations. In one study of Rwandan refugees with PTSD and 

severe war-related trauma (Neuner, 2008), lay counselors had patients construct a 

narration of their life from birth to the present while focusing on detailed exploration 

of specific traumatic experiences. This resulted in significant improvement in PTSD 

symptoms, with effects comparable to any of the most cited CPT or PE studies in 
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U.S. or European clinical samples. Increasingly, virtual (computer based) exposure 

techniques and strategies are being utilized to accomplish exposure therapy. 

However, to date, there are no randomized studies of virtual reality compared with 

either wait list or standard exposure techniques that confirm its efficacy.

Another mode of delivery of exposure therapy that has been found to be effective in 

two RCTs compared with wait-list control group is Brief Eclectic Psychotherapy 

developed by researchers in the Netherlands. This treatment includes imaginal 

exposure combined with relaxation, writing assignments, use of mementos from the 

traumatic experience, exploration of meaning, a farewell ritual, and psychoeducation 

(Gersons, 2000; Lindauer, 2005). 

There have, as yet, been no randomized trials comparing ET with pharmacotherapy, 

either alone or in conjunction with one another. However, two trials have examined 

augmentation strategies. In one trial, the addition of ET following 10 weeks of 

sertraline resulted in reduction in relapse and additional symptom reduction in those 

patients who either failed to initially respond or partially responded to sertraline 

(Rothbaum et al., 2006). In a second study, augmentation with paroxetine for 

patients who partially responded to 6 sessions of ET did not result in additional 

benefit (Simon et al., 2008).

As with any treatment, patients need to be screened for their suitability prior to 

undergoing ET as it may temporarily increase their level of distress. Patients living 

with the threat of domestic violence should not be considered for ET until their 

security can be assured. ET has not been studied in patients with health problems 

that preclude exposure to intense physiological arousal. Therefore, providers should 

use caution when considering ET for patients with current significant suicide risk, 

substance dependence, or current psychosis and especially in the elderly. Providers 

should be aware of the possibility of increased distress as patients confront trauma 

memories and reminders. As in all PTSD treatments, providers must take concrete 

steps to prepare patients for the treatment (e.g., present clear rationale, explore 

patient concerns, encourage realistic expectations, and build commitment to the 

therapy) in order to reduce the risk of dropout. 

EVIDENCE TABLE

Evidence Sources LE QE SR

1 ET is effective in the treatment of 

PTSD (compared to wait list, 

present centered therapy, and other 

control comparisons)

Basoglu ,2005, 2007 

Cloitre, 2002

Cooper et al., 1989

Feske, 2008

Foa et al., 1991 & 1999a

Ironson et al., 2002

Keane et al., 1989

Marks et al., 1998

McDonah, 2005

Neuner, 2004, 2008 (life narration), 

Schnurr,2007

Tarrier et al., 1999

Gersons et al., 2000

Lindauer et al., 2005

I Good A
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2 ET compared to other forms of 

therapy shows equivalent results

Bryant, 2003b

Bryant, 2008b

Foa et al., 1991 & 1999a

Foa, 2005 

Marks et al., 1998

Paunovic & Ost, 2001

Power, 2002

Resick ,2002

Resick & Nishith, 2001

Resick, 2008 (written exposure)

vanEmmerik, 2008 (written 

exposure)

Rothbaum, 2005

Schnurr, 2001 

Tarrier et al., 1999

I Good A

QE = Quality of Evidence; R = Recommendation (see Appendix A)

B3. Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) 

Several therapy protocols have been developed that focus on anxiety management 

and coping skills training, including Stress Inoculation Training and Relaxation 

Training. Stress inoculation training (SIT), is presented as a tool box or set of skills 

for managing anxiety and stress (Hembree & Foa, 2000). This treatment was 

originally developed for the management of anxiety symptoms and adapted for 

treating women rape trauma survivors. SIT typically consists of education and 

training of coping skills, including deep muscle relaxation training, breathing control, 

assertiveness, role playing, covert modeling, thought stopping, positive thinking and 

self-talk, and in-vivo exposure. The rationale for this treatment is that trauma 

related anxiety can be generalized to many situations (Rothbaum et al., 2000). The 

Expert Consensus Guideline Series: Treatment of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder 

notes that anxiety management is among the most useful psychotherapeutic 

treatments for patients with PTSD (Foa, Davidson et al., 1999a). A Cochrane metaanalysis found that stress management protocols were as effective as other TF-CBT 

interventions and EMDR. Relaxation protocols that do not include all of the SIT 

components have also demonstrated very encouraging results in several studies 

(Marks et al., 1998; Taylor et al., 2003; Vaughn et al., 1994).

SIT is designed to “inoculate” people with PTSD from heightened stress responses 

through teaching anxiety management skills which can include:

• Relaxation training: teaching patients to control fear and anxiety through the 

systematic relaxation of the major muscle groups

• Breathing retraining: teaching slow, abdominal breathing to help the patient relax 

and/or avoid hyperventilation with its unpleasant and often frightening physical 

sensations

• Positive thinking and self-talk: teaching the person how to replace negative 

thoughts (e.g., ‘I’m going to lose control’) with positive thoughts (e.g., ‘I did it 

before and I can do it again’) when anticipating or confronting stressors. This is 

often combined with in-vivo exposure

• Assertiveness training: teaching the person how to express wishes, opinions, and 

emotions appropriately and without alienating others
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• Thought stopping: distraction techniques to overcome distressing thoughts by 

inwardly shouting ‘stop’ (Foa et al., 1999b)

Many SIT protocols also include cognitive restructuring and other elements of 

exposure therapy. 

DISCUSSION

There have been two RCTs that have evaluated SIT and both found SIT to be 

effective with women who have survived sexual assault. A study by Foa and 

colleagues (1991) with 45 female sexual assault victims compared SIT, Prolonged 

Exposure (PE) (see Annotation B2), Supportive Counseling (SC) and wait list control. 

SIT was found to be the most effective treatment for short-term symptom 

improvement and both SIT and PE were effective for long term improvement with PE 

superior to SIT. Rothbaum (2001) reports that the “results suggested that all 

conditions produced improvement on all measures immediately post-treatment and 

at follow-up. At follow-up, clients who received PE continued to improve after 

treatment termination, whereas clients in the SIT and SC conditions evidenced no 

change between post-treatment and follow-up.” Another study with 96 female 

sexual assault victims compared SIT, PE, combined SIT and PE, and wait list controls 

(Foa et al., 1999a). The study found that all treatments were better than wait list 

control for ameliorating PTSD severity at post-treatment and at the 6-month followup. Interestingly, although all three treatments were effective, the combined 

treatment was not superior to either SIT or PE alone. Although this may be related to 

the fact that clients in the combined treatment group received less PE-or SIT-specific 

techniques than participants in the individual treatments, the most likely explanation 

presented in the paper was an uncharacteristically low drop-out rate that happened 

to occur in the PE-only group.

A study of 15 women by Kilpatrick et al. (1982) found SIT to be effective in reducing 

rape-related fear and anxiety.

Motor vehicle accident survivors (Hickling & Blanchard, 1997) had a 68 percent 

reduction of PTSD symptoms after involvement in a modified version of Foa et al.’s 

SIT/PE combination program.

A controlled study comparing three different forms of relaxation (relaxation, 

relaxation plus deep breathing, and relaxation plus deep breathing plus biofeedback) 

for 90 Vietnam veterans found that all treatments were equally effective in leading to 

improvement (Watson et al., 1997).

Vaughn, et al. (1994) found that relaxation training was superior to waitlist. Taylor 

et al (2003) also found support for reduction of PTSD with a relaxation protocol 

though the effects were less than for ET. In a head-to-head comparison study by 

Marx (1998), relaxation training produced was nearly equivalent to PE.

EVIDENCE TABLE

Evidence Sources LE OE SR

1 SIT is effective in the treatment for 

PTSD.

Foa et al., 1999a

Foa et al., 1991

Kilpatrick et al., 1982

Rothbaum, 2001

I Good A

LE=Level of Evidence QE=Quality of Evidence; SR= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)
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B4. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) is a psychological 

treatment designed to alleviate the distress associated with traumatic memories 

(Shapiro, 1989a, 1989b). The objective of EMDR is to assist patients to access and 

process traumatic memories while bringing them to an adaptive resolution (Shapiro, 

2001). 

In EMDR, the therapist collaborates with patients to: (1) access a disturbing image 

associated with the traumatic event; (2) solicit the experience of body sensations

associated with the disturbing image; (3) identify an aversive self-referring cognition 

(in concise words) that expresses what the patient “learned” from the trauma, and 

(4) identify an alternative positive self-referring cognition that the patient wishes

could replace the negative cognition. The patient is then asked to hold the disturbing 

image, sensations, and the negative cognition in mind while tracking the clinician’s 

moving finger back and forth in front of his or her visual field for about 20 seconds. 

In successive tracking episodes, the patient concentrates on whatever changes or 

new associations have occurred. Eye movement episodes are repeated until there 

are no new associations. Subsequent tracking episodes attempt to replace the 

negative cognitive self-statement with the alternate positive cognition. 

Between sessions, the patient is directed to keep a journal of any situations that 

provoke PTSD symptoms and of any new insights or dreams about the trauma. The 

number of sessions is dependent upon observed improvements and the number of 

traumatic events experienced. 

Within a session, standard self-rating scales document changes in the intensity of the 

symptoms and the negative cognition, and the patient’s acceptance of the alternative 

positive cognition. The patient reports following each set of eye movement episode 

to inform the therapist of the strength of both negative and positive cognitions; 

changes in cognitions, the images, emotions, or body sensations. 

EMDR protocols allow for substitution of left-right alternating tone or touch as 

modifications to the use of the eye movements, suggesting that it is not the eye 

movements per se, but rather side to side alternating stimulation that is sought. 

Studies attempting to ascertain the relative contribution of the eye-movement 

component suggest that comparable outcomes are attained with or without eye 

movements. These findings are seen as indicating that this aspect (i.e., eyemovements or alternating stimulation of any type) of the treatment protocol may not 

be critical components.

Given the success of EMDR and the lack of support for the alternating stimulation 

components, many theorists are considering the active ingredients for the observed 

treatment gains. Specifically, EMDR is gaining acceptance as a treatment that shares 

components with other existing, successful treatments. Derived from desensitization 

strategies, EMDR counters avoidance of the traumatic memories and related cues by 

repeatedly accessing the aversive traumatic images themselves, promotes emotional 

processing by soliciting the emotional responses attendant to the aversive 

memories; identifies a novel and alternative view of the traumatic experience in 

conjunction with the patient, and then challenges the patient to consider the validity 

or accuracy of the alternative perspective. With the focus upon physiological arousal 

and reactivity, EMDR as a desensitization treatment also provides a component of 

arousal management that is inherent in the treatment. Thus, EMDR at its most basic

level incorporates components of a) exposure to trauma related cues; and b) 

processing of emotional responses. Each of these EMDR components involves efforts 
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to mitigate strategic avoidance reactions theoretically viewed as maintaining current 

symptomatology. EMDR also includes: c) elements of corrective and rational 

restructuring of the patient’s views of the traumatic event; and d) self monitoring of 

cognitive and emotional responses that are often viewed as key homework 

components of cognitive behavior therapy in general, and e) a focus on heightened 

physiological arousal and reactivity. 

DISCUSSION

EMDR possesses efficacy for treating patients with PTSD: this conclusion is based 

upon a thorough review of the literature in the treatment guidelines generated by a 

task force for the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (Spates et al., 

2009) as well as by Division 12 of the American Psychological Association (APA) and 

a Cochrane review (Bisson 2007). The United Kingdom’s NICE Guidelines for PTSD 

(2005) also recommend EMDR as a treatment, supported by multiple efficacy 

studies. While the results of numerous controlled published studies found medium to 

large effect sizes for EMDR, there is no evidence that EMDR more efficient or rapid 

than other forms of cognitive behavioral treatment. Similarly, suggestions that EMDR 

is more easily tolerated than other psychological treatments remain unsupported 

empirically. 

Results of clinical trials, meta-analytic studies, review articles, and extant practice 

guidelines suggest that EMDR successfully treats symptoms of PTSD when compared 

to no treatment or delayed treatment conditions. When compared to other treatment 

modalities, most studies reviewed indicated that EMDR possessed comparable 

efficacy to other well-accepted cognitive behavioral treatments to include stress 

inoculation training (SIT) and exposure therapies. 

Maxfield and Hyer (2002) conducted a meta-analysis involving comparisons of EMDR 

against wait list controls, cognitive behavior therapy involving exposure, and 

treatment modalities described as other than CBT. Results indicated superiority of 

EMDR to the wait list control condition. Also, the authors found an overall superiority 

of EMDR compared to the other active treatment conditions, though they noted 

sufficient variability that they judged the summed results to indicate comparable vs. 

superior effectiveness of EMDR over other treatments. 

Four studies specifically compared EMDR with Exposure Therapy (Lee et al., 2002; 

Power et al., 2002; Rothbaum, et al., 2005; and Taylor et al., 2003). Lee et al. 

(2002) and Power et al. (2002) found that EMDR had equivalent or better results 

than CBT and was more efficient in that it worked faster. Taylor et al. (2003) did not 

observe differential efficiency in their trial, but they also used therapist-assisted in 

vivo work plus imaginal work. Rothbaum, et al. (2005) found symptom improvement 

at post-test to be equivalent between EMDR and prolonged exposure. She writes in 

the abstract, “PE and EMDR did not differ significantly for change from baseline to 

either posttreatment or 6-month follow-up measurement on any quantitative scale.” 

Although a measure termed “end-state functioning” was described as favoring PE, 

this was a composite variable derived from three of the individual clinical scales that 

were listed as primary outcomes, and it is likely that this variable had the effect of 

magnifying the small non-significant differences on these individual scales when they 

were combined.

Criticisms of EMDR stem from its theoretical premises to the necessity of its 

components to achieve the desired outcome. There is limited support provided by a 

set of seven studies that the inclusion of eye movement is beneficial, but most of 

these are studies with analog populations, or in clinical populations exposed to a 

traumatic event, but who didn’t necessarily develop full clinical PTSD (Andrade et al., 
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1997; Barrowcliff et al., 2004; Christman and Garvey, 2000; Kavanaugh et al., 

2001; Kuiken et al., 2001-2002; Sharpley et al., 1996; Wilson, Silver, Covi, & 

Foster, 1996; and van den Hout et al., 2001). In aggregate, the data do not suggest 

that eye movements or other form of kinesthetic stimulation are necessary. Spates 

et al. (2009) reviews aptly the literature on dismantling studies in EMDR and 

concludes that “the best provisional conclusion so far is that the bilateral stimulation 

component of EMDR does not incrementally influence treatment outcome”. 

Notwithstanding the lack of necessity for eye movements, when viewed within the 

framework of all other trauma-focused CBTs, EMDR is equivalent.

There may be some basis for or against recommending this treatment depending 

upon the type of trauma leading to PTSD. Specifically, studies of EMDR efficacy with 

combat veterans have demonstrated variability, with several authors suggesting that 

the treatment may be less than optimal for this condition (Boudewyns et al., 1993; 

Jensen, 1994), and other studies suggesting the opposite (Carlson et al., 1998; 

Devilly et al., 1999). However, it should be noted that only two of the cited studies 

had a full course of treatment – all the others were short duration studies. Studies of 

other CBT modalities and SSRIs have also shown inconsistent results in combat 

veterans, and thus, based on current evidence, there is no reason to believe that 

EMDR would not be as effective as other trauma-focused CBTs in this population.

Overall, there are rigorously controlled studies to support the conclusion that EMDR 

is effective in the treatment for PTSD. 

EVIDENCE TABLE

Recommendation Sources LE QE R

1 EMDR is an effective treatment for

PTSD (compared with wait-list, 

routine care, and active treatment 

controls)

Chemtob et al., 2000

Davidson & Parker, 2001

Maxfield & Hyer, 2002

Sheppard et al., 2000

Van der Kolk et al., 2007

I Good A

2 Eye movements are not critical to 

the effects of EMDR

Davidson & Parker, 2001

Spates et al., 2009

I Fair B

3. EMDR compared with ET show 

consistent comparable results

Davidson & Parker, 2001

Foa & Meadows, 1997

Ironson et al., 2002

Lee et al., 2002

Power et al., 2002

Rothbaum et al., 2005

Servan-Schrieber, 2000

Sheppard et al., 2000

Taylor et al., 2003

Van Etten and Taylor, 1998

I Good A

LE=Level of Evidence QE=Quality of Evidence; SR= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)

B5. Imagery Rehearsal Therapy (IRT)

Occurrence of nightmares as a problem is frequent (4 to 8 percent in the general 

population and 60 percent in PTSD). Evidence shows that nightmares are associated 

with psychological distress and sleep impairment. A conditioning pattern similar to 

classic psychophysiological insomnia is produced in the nightmare-disturbed loop, 

along with the negative cognition of “fear of going to sleep.” Studies using brief CBT 

(desensitization and imagery rehearsal) have demonstrated a large reduction in 
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nightmares. Many studies, including Forbes et al. (2001), suggest that PTSD is 

associated with a propensity toward image, particularly where the post-traumatic 

symptom picture is characterized by nightmares and flashbacks. IRT incorporates a 

system to increase the imagery control.

IRT is aimed at changing the content of the patient’s nightmares to promote mastery 

over the content-threat, thereby altering the meaning, importance, and orientation 

to the nightmare. IRT includes elements of 1) psychoeducation about nightmares, 

insomnia, and PTSD; 2) positive coping skill building (thought stopping, breathing, 

grounding, writing/talking about issues and others); 3) cognitive restructuring; 4) 

sleep hygiene, stimulus control, and sleep restriction; and 5) focused use of pleasant 

imagery to replace negative imagery in recurrent nightmares. While discussion of 

trauma imagery occurs, the model includes a de-emphasis of discussion of this 

content in group sessions. The model has been tested primarily in a group format.

DISCUSSION

Several studies have examined IRT with some promising results. While not with a 

primary PTSD population, Krakow et al. (1995) studied 58 chronic nightmare 

sufferers who were randomly assigned to a treatment group (n = 39) or a wait list 

control group (n = 19). The IRT group demonstrated significant reductions in 

nightmares and improved sleep quality. Further, reduction in nightmares was a 

significant predictor of improvement in sleep. The authors concluded that for some 

chronic sufferers, nightmares may be conceptualized as a primary sleep disorder that

can be effectively and inexpensively treated with CBT.

Krakow et al. (2001a) randomly assigned 168 female survivors of sexual assault (95

percent of the sample met the criteria for PTSD) to receive IRT (n = 88) or wait list 

(n = 80) and found that among completers, those women assigned to IRT had a 

larger reduction in self-reported PTSD severity at the 3-month follow-up than wait

list. Further, the impact of nightmares was reduced and sleep quality improved. In a 

pilot study of IRT with crime survivors with PTSD, Krakow et al. (2001b) reported 

significant reductions in nightmares, improved sleep, and reduced PTSD severity at 

the 3-month follow-up.

Forbes et al. (2001) completed an open trial of group IRT with 12 Vietnam veterans 

with combat-related nightmares and PTSD. Veterans reported significant reduction in 

nightmare frequency and intensity for the target nightmare. In addition, selfreported PTSD symptoms were significantly reduced. Follow-up data demonstrated 

maintenance of gains at 12 months following the conclusion of treatment (Forbes et 

al., 2003).

A recent large RCT comparing IRT with a group nightmare management treatment 

(N=124) among Vietnam veterans with PTSD (receiving treatment in a VA clinical

setting) found that neither treatment produced significant or sustainable 

improvement in overall PTSD symptom severity, nightmare frequency or sleep 

quality (Cook et al, 2010). While much of the research to date has focused on IRT,

other versions of nightmare reduction programs, such as Emotional Relaxation and 

Rescripting, are under empirical examination.

EVIDENCE TABLE

Recommendation Sources LE QE SR

1 IRT can be considered for treatment 

of PTSD (nightmare and sleep 

disruption, in particular)

Krakow et al., 1995, 2001a 2001b

Forbes et al., 2001, 2003

Cook et al., 2010

I

II-1

I

Fair C

LE=Level of Evidence QE=Quality of Evidence; SR= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)
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B6. Psychodynamic Therapy

BACKGROUND

In 1895, Joseph Breuer and Sigmund Freud based their Studies on Hysteria on the 

proposition that traumatic life events can cause mental disorder (Breuer & Freud, 

1955). This principle, radical for its time, grew in scope and application over the next 

century and strongly influenced military psychiatry in World War I (Kardiner, 1941; 

Rivers, 1918) and World War II (Grinker & Spiegel, 1945). Psychodynamic principles 

were later applied to the psychological problems of Holocaust survivors (Krystal, 

1968; De Wind, 1984), Vietnam veterans (Lindy, 1996), rape survivors (Rose, 

1991), adult survivors of childhood sexual trauma (Courtois, 1999; Roth & Batson, 

1997; Shengold, 1989), and survivors of other traumatic events (Horowitz, 1997).

Psychodynamic ideas have also helped providers manage the sometimes complex 

issues that may surface in the relationship between survivor and psychotherapist 

(Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995; Wilson & Lindy, 1994). Psychodynamic 

psychotherapies operate on the assumption that addressing unconscious mental 

contents and conflicts (including those that may have been blocked from 

consciousness as part of a maladaptive response) can help survivors cope with the 

effects of psychological trauma. Psychological meanings of post-traumatic responses 

are explored by examination of the fears, fantasies, and defenses stirred up by the 

traumatic event.

DISCUSSION

Individual case reports comprise the bulk of the psychodynamic literature on the 

treatment of psychological trauma, but a small group of empirical investigations are 

available to support recommending that 2 psychodynamically informed treatments 

can be considered as treatment options for PTSD.

Three RCTs have supported the efficacy of Gersons’s Brief Eclectic Psychotherapy for 

reducing PTSD symptoms in police (Gersons et al., 2000) and community patients 

with PTSD (Lindauer et al., 2005). This 16-week individual psychotherapy includes 

both CBT (e.g., psychoeducation, imaginal exposure, cognitive restructuring) and 

psychodynamic elements (focus on shame and guilt, attention to the patienttherapist relationship) and a farewell ritual at the end of treatment. At present, it is 

unclear which elements of treatment are responsible for the improved outcomes. 

Brom and colleagues (1989) conducted a RCT that compared Horowitz’s (1976) Brief 

Psychodynamic Therapy to hypnotherapy, trauma desensitization, and a wait list 

control group in the treatment of PTSD. They found that symptoms of intrusion and 

avoidance improved significantly in each of the treatment groups but not in the 

control group; no differences across the three treatments were observed.

While research evidence and clinical experience suggest that psychodynamic 

psychotherapy can be effectively combined with other forms of psychotherapy and 

with psychopharmacological interventions for depression (DiMascio et al., 1979; van 

Praag, 1989), this approach has not been sufficiently researched in work with PTSD.

Psychodynamic ideas have, in some instances, been misapplied in clinical work with 

trauma survivors, giving rise to concern about the creation or elaboration of socalled false memories (Roth & Friedman, 1997). It may be that trauma survivors are 

particularly prone to this phenomenon, given their tendency towards dissociation. It 

is important that clinicians be properly trained before undertaking psychodynamic 

treatment of trauma survivors. 
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Because of its focus on basic problems in interpersonal relationships, psychodynamic 

psychotherapy may be useful in working with patients with complex PTSD. Clinical 

case studies suggest that psychodynamic psychotherapy may be of particular value 

in work with adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse (Courtois, 1999; Roth & 

Batson, 1997; Shengold, 1989). 

EVIDENCE TABLE

Recommendation Sources LE QE SR

1 Some forms of psychodynamic 

psychotherapy can be considered for 

the treatment of PTSD

Brom et al., 1989 

Gersons, Carlier, Lamberts, & van 

der Kolk, 2000

Lindauer et al., 2005 

I Fair C

2 Psychodynamic psychotherapy for 

patients with co-morbidity

Courtois, 1999

Roth & Batson, 1997

Shengold, 1989 

II-2 Fair C

LE=Level of Evidence QE=Quality of Evidence; SR= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)

B7. Patient Education

BACKGROUND

Education of the trauma survivor is a core part of all PTSD treatments. Survivors 

need to better understand what they are experiencing, how to cope with reactions or 

symptoms, and what happens in treatment. It is also helpful to provide this 

information to family members or to the patient’s significant others so that they can 

more effectively support the patient’s recovery.

DISCUSSION

PTSD education involves teaching the survivor to label, recognize, and understand 

PTSD symptoms (and other trauma-related problems) that he or she is experiencing, 

providing simple advice regarding coping, explaining what he or she can do to 

facilitate recovery, and describing treatment options. Education can help make 

symptoms more understandable and predictable, decrease fear of symptoms, 

increase awareness of coping options, and help survivors decide whether to seek 

treatment or learn how to better participate in treatment. 

Education should be one of the first steps of PTSD treatment. It can help establish 

the credibility of the treatment provider, make treatment seem immediately helpful 

to the patient, and help prepare the patient for next steps in treatment. In fact, 

education should continue throughout PTSD treatment, sometimes in brief 

discussions when the patient has questions and sometimes more systematically as a 

formal helping activity. It can be delivered to individuals or to groups. Because those 

with PTSD often have difficulties with concentration and memory, repetition of 

educational information and provision of written information are important. 

The content of PTSD-related education can include the following topics:

1. Nature of PTSD symptoms: It is often useful to help the survivor identify and

label the reactions that he or she may be experiencing, recognize that

emotional and physical reactions are very common (and not dangerous), and

understand that anxiety and distress are often “triggered” by reminders of the

traumatic experience, which can include sights, sounds, or smells associated

with the trauma; physical sensations (e.g., heart pounding); or behaviors of

other people. However, it is important to include comments on positive steps
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that the individual is taking, if appropriate, rather than providing a long list of 

possible symptoms for review. Patients can also benefit in understanding how 

PTSD symptoms have their basis in adaptive survival responses to lifethreatening events.

2. Practical steps to cope with trauma-related problems: Survivors can also be 

educated about ways of coping with their PTSD symptoms in order to 

minimize their impact on functioning and quality of life. While education about 

coping is not a substitute for more systematic coping skills training, simple 

information can also be useful. Survivors can be helped to distinguish 

between positive and negative coping actions. Positive coping includes actions 

that help to reduce anxiety, lessen other distressing reactions, and improve 

the situation: relaxation methods, exercise in moderation, talking to another 

person for support, positive distracting activities, and active participation in 

treatment. Negative coping methods may help to perpetuate problems and 

can include continual avoidance of thinking about the trauma, use of alcohol 

or drugs, social isolation, and aggressive or violent actions. 

3. Nature of the recovery process and PTSD treatment: Survivors will sometimes 

have unrealistic or inaccurate expectations of recovery and may benefit from 

understanding that recovery is an ongoing daily gradual process (i.e., it does 

not happen through sudden insight or “cure”) and that healing does not mean 

forgetting about the trauma or having no emotional pain when thinking about 

it. Education about what happens in treatment is also important. This can 

help build motivation to participate or persist in treatment. 

Despite the ubiquity of education in PTSD treatment and a strong clinical consensus 

as to the importance of such education, there is little evidence bearing on its impact 

on chronic PTSD. Education has usually been a component of empirically supported 

treatments, but it has not been carefully evaluated as a “stand-alone” treatment (nor 

is it intended to be delivered in the absence of other treatment elements).

Psychoeducation was one of several components in each study, and the effect of the 

psychoeducation component per se thus cannot be evaluated. There is, therefore, 

insufficient evidence to conclude that psychoeducation alone is an effective 

treatment for PTSD.

Three studies (Krupnick, 2008;Wallis, 2002; and Weine, 2008) compared group 

interventions containing a psychoeducation component with WL. There were 9, 12, 

and 16 sessions, and the sample sizes were 48, 83, and 166. Although each 

intervention contained a psychoeducational component, the focus and content of the 

group sessions differed across studies. In 2 studies, the group intervention 

decreased PTSD symptoms compared with WL, while in the third; PTSD symptoms 

were only evaluated as a mediator for effects on access to mental health services. No 

study included a control condition for the psychoeducation component.

EVIDENCE

Recommendation Sources LE QE R

1 Psychoeducation is recommended as 

a component of PTSD treatment

Foa et al., 1999

Lubin et al., 1998

Krupnick et al., 2008

Wallis, 2002)

Weine et al., 2008

III

II-2

Poor

Fair

C

LE=Level of Evidence QE=Quality of Evidence; SR= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)
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B8. Group Therapy

BACKGROUND

The most comprehensive critical review of group therapy approaches for the 

treatment of PTSD is Tracie Shea and colleagues’ chapter within the second edition 

of the practice guideline Effective Treatments for PTSD (Shea, McDevitt-Murphy, 

Ready, & Schnurr, 2009). Shea et al.’s discussion builds upon the previous edition’s 

chapter by David Foy and colleagues (Foy, Glynn, Schnurr, Jankowski, Wattenburg, 

Weiss, Marmar, & Gusman, 2000). 

Shea and colleagues briefly review the use of group therapy for PTSD and note that 

there is no empirical support for the belief that group treatment is superior to 

individual treatment for trauma. The authors highlight potential benefits in Foy et 

al.(2000) of using a group format, including efficiency in treatment provision and 

development of support and understanding between group members that may 

counteract isolation and alienation. They also distinguish group treatment 

approaches by their emphasis on reintegration of the traumatic experience as an 

integral change process. Trauma-focused groups assume integration of the traumatic 

memory and modify the meaning of the trauma for the individual, while presentcentered supportive approaches aim to decrease isolation and increase sense of 

competence. Shea et al. (2009) note that a focus on trauma may or may not be 

reflected within any one of the various theoretical orientations of therapy utilized in 

group approaches for PTSD, with the exception of supportive therapy, which tends to 

avoid direct focus on trauma material.

Shea et al. (2009) characterize three overarching group therapy orientations: 

Psychodynamic/Interpersonal/Process, Supportive, and Cognitive Behavioral. Most 

groups share common strategies designed to provide a sense of safety, trust, and 

develop cohesion among members. The three approaches do, however, differ in 

significant ways in terms of techniques and strategies used (See Table I-5).

Foy and colleagues (2000) summarized factors identified in the literature as 

important considerations for group treatment in general, including:

• Flexibility in personal schedule

• Ability to establish interpersonal trust

• Prior group experience, including 12-step groups

• Completion of a preparatory course of individual therapy

• Similar traumatic experiences with other group members

• Compatibility for gender, ethnicity, and sexual orientation

• Willingness to abide by rules of group confidentiality

• Not severely paranoid or sociopathic

• Stable living arrangement

The value and necessity of these factors, however, have not been examined 

empirically. Although most studies of group treatment for PTSD do focus on a 

particular trauma type, the importance of homogeneity of groups in terms of trauma 

type is an unanswered question. Trial participants in studies reviewed herein 

commonly lacked previous individual or group therapy experience. Contraindications 

for group therapy and exclusion criteria for trials of group treatment are usually 

similar and include active psychosis, cognitive deficits, and current suicidal or 

homicidal risk (Shea et al., 2009). 
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Indications for Trauma Focus versus Supportive Groups (from Foy et al., 2000)

• Individual can tolerate high anxiety arousal or other strong affects

• No active suicidality or homicidality

• Substance abuse or other co-morbidities are under control

• Individual accepts rationale for trauma-uncovering work

• Willingness to self-disclose personal traumatic experiences

• No current life crises

Table I - 5 Group Therapy in PTSD (Shea et al., 2009)

Approach Techniques/Strategies

Supportive groups 

(Present-focused)

- Aim to enhance daily functioning through provision of safety, trust, 

acceptance, and normalization of symptoms and experiences

- Help individuals develop sense of mastery over problems via group feedback, 

emotional support and reinforcement of adaptive behaviors

- Focus on current life issues rather than traumatic experiences

Psychodynamic/

Interpersonal

Process 

(Trauma-focused)

- Facilitate insight-based learning and change

- When an explicit focus on trauma is present, trauma material arises in a less 

structured manner or covertly, and emphasis is on increasing awareness of 

unconscious fears and maladaptive patterns

- Emphasize understanding the meaning of the trauma symptoms

- Help individuals gain insight and make connections into how current 

difficulties may be linked to the trauma

- The Interpersonal Therapy (IPT) model helps groups members identify their 

specific relationship difficulties and behavioral patterns that promote poor 

functioning

- “Process” groups maintain emphasis on the immediate present experience of 

the individual, their feelings and needs, and their interactions with other 

members

Cognitivebehavioral therapy 

groups

(Trauma focused)

- Include psychoeducation on trauma and skills training to manage anxiety and 

arousal

- Trauma is directly addressed via repeated imaginal exposure techniques in 

session and having individuals listen to audio recordings of their trauma 

experiences as homework between sessions 

- Maladaptive thoughts and beliefs are identified and modified or restructured

- In final sessions, relapse prevention strategies are planned and coping skills 

reviewed

Although many of the studies of PTSD group treatment reviewed excluded 

participants with active substance use disorders (SUD), others did not and several 

specifically targeted co-morbid PTSD and SUD. How SUD affects PTSD outcomes in 

group treatment has not been examined. Shea et al. (2009) point out that vicarious 

traumatization is a concern within trauma-focused groups but that no published 

evidence exists indicating that negative effects occur for some members in traumafocused group treatment as a result of vicarious traumatization and systematic 

investigation of this possibility has not occurred. 

RATIONALE

The empirical literature on group treatment for PTSD has grown since the publication 

of the first edition of the Treatment Guidelines for PTSD, although there remain 

methodological weaknesses in study designs, and there is no empirical evidence to 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 137

support a conclusion that group treatment is superior to individual treatment for 

trauma. 

Nonetheless, it does appear that group-based treatment for individuals diagnosed 

with PTSD is associated with improvements in symptoms of PTSD, and there is 

growing belief that some unique attributes of the group treatment format provide 

benefits that are superior to individual treatment for trauma. Identified benefits 

include efficiency in treatment provision and development of support and 

understanding between group members that may counteract isolation and alienation.

DISCUSSION

Summary of Studies:

In their review, Shea and colleagues (2009) included studies published beginning in 

1998 that targeted populations with trauma, assessed symptoms of PTSD at preand posttreatment, and had at least 10 participants in the group therapy being 

studied. Citing the small number of existing controlled studies, they did not require 

that studies include only participants meeting criteria for PTSD. Our search for 

relevant studies began with a review of studies included in Shea et al. (2009) and 

was limited to studies in which the sample participants met DSM criteria for PTSD 

and the active treatment was solely or predominantly in group format. Of the total 

22 studies in Shea et al. (2009), we reviewed 14 that met these criteria, including 

six randomized and two nonrandomized trials comparing at least one active 

treatment group to a comparison or control condition, and six studies reporting preto posttreatment effects of a single group treatment condition. Our review also 

included three studies not included in the Shea et al. (2009) chapter that provide 

additional information to consider when weighing the effectiveness of group therapy. 

Two were recently published and one of these focused on a Veteran sample (Beck, 

Coffey Foy, Keane, & Blanchard, 2009; Ready, Thomas, Worley, Backscheider, 

Harvey, Baltzell, et al., 2008). The third, although dated, was a randomized trial with 

a Veterans sample (Rogers, Silver, Goss, Obenchain, Willis, & Whitney, 1999). 

Fourteen of the total 17 studies examined cognitive-behavioral interventions; two 

examined interpersonal therapy, and one psychodynamic. 

Summary of Randomized Trials:

Eight of the 17 studies reviewed used randomized designs. Of these eight, six 

examined cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) approaches. Only three of these six 

compared the active treatment to a comparison condition that was not a wait-list. 

Schnurr and colleagues (2003) investigated Trauma-Focused Group Therapy (TFGT) 

in male Veterans of the Vietnam War in the largest and most rigorous study to date 

of group therapy for PTSD (Schnurr, Friedman, Foy, Shea, Hsieh, Lavori, et al., 

2003). TFGT incorporates group-based psychoeducation, coping skills training, 

imaginal exposure, cognitive challenging, and relapse prevention, with one-third of 

all sessions devoted to individual work (Foy, Ruzek, Glynn, Riney, & Gusman, 2002). 

Schnurr et al (2003) did not include individual sessions. TFGT was compared with 

present-centered group therapy (PCGT), an approach designed to provide the 

“nonspecific” factors of support and interpersonal connection inherent in group 

treatment. Both groups experienced significant modest-sized pre- to posttreatment 

improvement in PTSD, which were maintained at 12 months. The primary intentionto-treat (ITT) analyses did not find differences on PTSD or any other outcomes 

between the group conditions (Schnurr, 2003). Rogers and colleagues (1999) 

compared a single group session of flooding-based exposure therapy with a single 

group session of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) in 12 

Vietnam War Veterans who were undergoing inpatient treatment for combat-related 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 138

PTSD. There were no differences between groups on PTSD symptoms posttreatment, 

with both groups showing significant improvements. Lastly, Beck and colleagues 

(Beck et al., 2009) randomized 44 individuals with PTSD related to motor vehicle 

accidents (MVAs) to either Group Cognitive Behavior Therapy (GCBT) or a minimal 

contact comparison condition. The GCBT was a 14-week treatment adaptation of 

individual CBT to a group setting. At posttreatment, GCBT resulted in significantly 

greater reductions in PTSD symptoms among treatment completers, with large 

between group effect sizes and stability of gains at 3-months. Significantly more 

patients in GCBT (88.3 percent) versus in MCC (31.3 percent) no longer met criteria 

for PTSD at posttreatment.

Three of the trials, comparing CBT to a wait-list (WL) control, involved female 

populations. Imagery Rehearsal Therapy (IRT) resulted in significantly more 

improvement in PTSD, nightmares, and sleep, with large between-group effects on 

the CAPS and PTSD Symptom Scale (PSS) and improvements maintained at 6 

months (Krakow, Hollifield, Johnston, Koss, et al., 2001a; Krakow, Hollifield, 

Scharader, et al., 2000). Large effects were also found on PTSD symptoms between 

an affect management group and WL control where both groups also received 

individual therapy and medication (Zlotnick, et al., 1997). A trial of women with 

PTSD related to diverse traumas, as well as co-morbid panic disorder, indicated that 

multichannel exposure therapy was superior to control (Falsetti et al., 2005). 

Two small-scale randomized trials evaluated non-CBT approaches versus wait-list 

controls in women with PTSD related to sexual abuse. Comparison of a traumafocused group and a present-focused group, both based on psychodynamic 

principles, showed no differences for either relative to a wait-list control (Spiegel, 

Classen, Thurston, & Butler, 2004) and even when combined, the composite 

treatment group showed significantly more improvement only on non-PTSD 

measures (Classen, Koopman, Nevill-Manning, & Spiegel, 2001). In contrast, 

Krupnick and colleagues (Krupnick, Green, Miranda, & Stockton, 2008) found 

significant effects with ITT analyses for Interpersonal Therapy group on PTSD, 

depression, and interpersonal functioning, with a medium-to-large effect for PTSD. 

Caveat regarding analysis of data from group-administered treatments:

In examining the effects of these group treatments, a significant and prevalent 

methodological limitation warrants discussion. This limitation is that most studies 

failed to use analytic strategies to account for clustering of observations within 

treatment groups. Participants administered treatment in group format share a 

common therapy environment, which may homogenize response to the treatment. 

As explained by Baldwin and colleagues (Baldwin, Murray, & Shadish, 2005), studies 

that do not take into account the magnitude of the dependency among observations 

taken on members of the same group, or intraclass correlation (ICC), underestimate 

the standard error of the treatment effect by pooling the effect of the group with the 

effect of the treatment, so that even if treatment has no effect, an incorrect analysis 

can suggest a treatment effect. 

Out of the 17 studies reviewed herein, only two studies corrected for unit of analysis 

and group ICC (Beck et al., 2009; Schnurr et al., 2003) and two studies accounted 

for ICC (Creamer et al., 2006; Ready et al., 2008) in analyses, with the remaining 

studies taking typical approach of treating the individual participants as the unit of 

analyses and not correcting for the ICC. It is likely that true effects for group 

treatments for PTSD are more modest than published effects. 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 139

Conclusions:

The empirical literature on group treatment for PSTD has grown since the publication 

of the first edition of the Treatment Guidelines for PTSD. However, most studies 

continue to utilize small sample sizes, use wait-list controls, and fail to account for 

clustering of observations in analyses. Advances in methodological rigor are typified 

within studies by Schnurr and colleagues (2003), as well as Beck and colleagues 

(2009). Field tests of interventions developed as part of clinical practice and 

evaluated on large samples, such as those by Creamer et al. (2006) and Ready et al. 

(2008), offer unique information yet pose numerous questions regarding complex 

multi-phase approaches.

With these caveats in mind, our review suggests that, overall, group-based 

treatment for individuals diagnosed with PTSD is associated with improvements in 

symptoms of PTSD. Reported pre- to post-treatment effect sizes range from small to 

large, but likely overestimate the true effect of the treatment. The amount of change 

exceeded that of wait-list controls for most studies. Psychodynamic treatment 

evidenced the weakest within-group effects (Classen et al., 2004). Interpersonal 

therapy evidenced small to large effects (Cloitre & Koenen, 2001; Krupnick et al., 

2008). Significant support exists for cognitive–behavioral approaches, for both 

combat veterans and in adults with histories of abuse, with effects ranging from 

small to very large. 

As noted above, few studies have directly compared different forms of group 

therapy. The two that have, indicated equal benefit from trauma-focused and 

present-centered supportive therapies in the primary analyses (Classen et al., 2004; 

Schnurr et al., 2003). Relatedly, it remains unknown whether improvements found in 

most studies of cognitive-behavioral or interpersonal/process-oriented treatments 

are due to the strategies employed. Shea and colleagues’ (2009) examination of 

within-group effect sizes pre to posttreatment found no evidence that groups 

focusing on trauma provide superior outcomes than those who do not. Only one trial 

examined a group adaptation of an existing and proven individual therapy protocol 

(Beck et al., 2009). Reductions in PTSD from GCBD were comparable to those 

obtained in previous studies of individual CBT but GCBT did not reduce co-morbid 

anxiety and depression.

EVIDENCE TABLE

Recommendation Sources LE QE SR

1 Consider group treatment for 

patients with PTSD

Beck et al., 2009 

Classen et al., 2001; 

Cloitre & Koenen, 2001 

Cook et al., 2006

Creamer et al., 2006 -

Donovan et al., 2001 -

Falsetti et al., 2005 

Krakow et al., 2000, 2001 

Krupnick et al., 2008 

Lublin et al., 1998

Najavits et al., 1998

Ready et al., 2008 -

Resick & Schniske, 1992 

Rogers et al., 1999 

Schnurr et al., 2003 v

Spiegel et al., 2004

I

II

FairPoor

C
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 140

Zlotnick et al., 1997; 2003

2 Current findings do not favor 

trauma-focused versus presentfocused group therapy

Schnurr et al., 2003

Classen et al., 2004

Shea et al., 2009

I Good I

LE=Level of Evidence QE=Quality of Evidence; SR= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A);-RCT

B9. Dialectical Behavior Therapy

BACKGROUND

Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is a comprehensive cognitive-behavioral 

treatment for complex, difficult-to-treat mental disorders, specifically designed to 

treat chronically suicidal individuals and patients with multi-disorders or borderline 

personality disorder (BPD).

DBT has since been adapted for other seemingly intractable behavioral disorders 

involving emotion dysregulation, including substance dependence in individuals with 

BD and binge eating, to other clinical populations (e.g., depressed, suicidal 

adolescents) and in a variety of settings (e.g., inpatient, partial hospitalization, 

forensic).

While considerable evidence supports the use of exposure-based treatment for PTSD, 

its utilization may pose some problems for patients where the symptoms of PTSD are 

complicated. High rates of attrition, suicidality, dissociation, destructive impulsivity, 

and chaotic life problems are reasons cited by clinicians for abandoning empirically 

supported exposure treatment. Some practitioners have suggested that the approach 

of DBT, designed to address many of these issues, offers useful strategies for 

addressing the needs of patients considered poor candidates for exposure therapy. 

The DBT approach incorporates what is valuable from other forms of therapy and is 

based on a clear acknowledgement of the value of a strong relationship between 

therapist and patient. Therapy is structured in stages, and at each stage a clear 

hierarchy of targets is defined. The techniques used in DBT are extensive and varied, 

addressing essentially every aspect of therapy. These techniques are underpinned by 

a dialectical philosophy that recommends a balanced, flexible, and systemic 

approach to the work of therapy. Patients are helped to understand their problem 

behaviors and then deal with situations more effectively. They are taught the 

necessary skills to enable them to do so and helped to deal with any problems that 

they may have in applying those skills. Advice and support are available between 

sessions. The patient is encouraged and helped to take responsibility for dealing with 

life's challenges.

DISCUSSION

Although DBT is becoming more common as a technique for treating patients with 

BPD, no clinical trials have been reported in the literature for the use of DBT in 

patients with PTSD. The following studies concern patients with BPD who attempted

some form of self-injury; however, for patients with PTSD and co-morbid BPD, these 

studies may be applicable to the treatment decision process.

In a meta-analysis of RCTs of “psychosocial and/or psychopharmacological treatment 

versus standard or less intensive types of aftercare” for patients who had shown selfharm behaviors, Hawton et al. (2000) compared DBT versus standard aftercare and 

found that DBT significantly reduced rates of further self-harm (0.24; 0.06 to 0.93). 

The authors caution, however, that “there still remains considerable uncertainty 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 141

about which forms of psychosocial and physical treatments of self-harm patients are 

most effective.”

Verheul et al. (2003) reported on the effectiveness of DBT in a group of 58 female 

BPD patients. For these women, DBT therapy “resulted in better retention rates and 

greater reductions of self-mutilating and self-damaging impulsive behaviors 

compared with usual treatment, especially among those with a history of frequent 

self-mutilation” (Verheul et al., 2003). In the same study group, van den Bosch et al. 

(2002) compared the results of therapy in women with and without co-morbid

substance abuse. They found that co-morbid substance abuse did not dilute the 

effect of the DBT but that the DBT therapy had no effect on the womens’ substance 

problems. Evans et al. (1999) compared the provision of self-help booklets alone to 

six sessions of cognitive therapy linked to the booklets, which contained elements of 

DBT (MACT), in 34 patients who had attempted self-harm. The authors reported that 

MACT therapy led to a lowering of the number of suicidal acts per month and also 

improved self-rated depressive symptoms.

Linehan and colleagues (1993) conducted a RCT of 39 women with BPD who were 

randomly assigned to DBT or usual care for one year, then followed up at six and 

twelve months following treatment. The authors reported that DBT patients had 

significantly less parasuicidal behavior, less anger, and better self-reported social 

adjustment during the initial 6 months and significantly fewer psychiatric inpatient 

days and better interviewer-rated social adjustment during the final 6 months.

Telch et al. (2001) and Safer et al. (2001) expanded the DBT concept to treatment 

of women with binge eating disorders. In both studies, women were randomly 

assigned to DBT or a wait list (Telch study – 44 women; Safer study – 31 women),

and the authors’ results were similar; patients improved significantly in reduction of 

binge/purge behaviors but did not differ on any secondary measures.

Bohus et al. (2000) treated 24 female chronically suicidal patients with DBT and 

found significant improvements in ratings of depression, dissociation, anxiety, and 

global stress and a highly significant decrease in the number of parasuicidal acts.

Gould et al. (2003) and Miller and Glinski (2000) identify DBT as a promising 

treatment for suicide; however, they acknowledge the need for RCTs. In their 

overview of the use of DBT, Koerner and Linehan (2000) also stress the need for 

longitudinal studies to determine suicide rates and maintenance of treatment gains.

EVIDENCE TABLE

Evidence Sources QE QE R

1 DBT for patients with a borderline 

personality disorder typified by 

parasuicidal behaviors

Evans et al., 1999

Hawton et al., 2000

Linehan et al., 1993

Safer et al., 2001

Telch et al., 2001

van den Bosch et al., 2002

Verheul et al., 2003

I Fair B

LE=Level of Evidence QE=Quality of Evidence; SR= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 142

B10. Hypnosis

BACKGROUND

Hypnosis is not held to be an ASD or PTSD therapy per se but may significantly 

enhance the effectiveness of other therapies in their treatment or in the 

management of a variety of related clinical conditions (Kirsch et al., 1998; Spiegel & 

Spiegel, 1987). Historically, hypnotic treatments have played a role in the 

management of shell shock, battle fatigue, and traumatic neuroses.

Hypnosis is defined by the APA as “a procedure during which a health professional or 

researcher suggests that a client, patient, or subject experience changes in 

sensations, perceptions, thought, or behavior. The hypnotic context is generally 

established by an induction procedure” (Kirsch, 1994). An induction procedure 

typically entails instructions to disregard extraneous concerns and focus on the 

experiences and behaviors that the therapist suggests or that may arise 

spontaneously.

Hypnosis should only be used by credentialed healthcare professionals who are 

properly trained in the clinical use of hypnosis and are working within the areas of 

their professional expertise.

DISCUSSION

Most of the case studies that have reported that hypnosis is useful in treating posttrauma disturbances following a variety of traumas lack methodological rigor, and 

therefore strong conclusions about the efficacy of hypnosis to treat PTSD cannot be 

drawn (Rothbaum, 2001).

Brom and colleagues (1989), in a RCT, showed that hypnosis and desensitization 

significantly decreased intrusive symptoms, whereas psychodynamic therapy was 

useful for reducing avoidance symptoms in patients with various types of posttraumatic symptomatology. In a meta-analysis, Sherman (1998) compared the 

effects of the Brom et al. trial with those of other controlled studies and found that 

the major advantage of using hypnosis may appear at long-term follow-up rather 

than at the end of treatment: this is consistent with meta-analyses of hypnosis for 

conditions other than PTSD (Kirsch et al., 1999).

Various studies, including meta-analyses, of the treatment of anxiety, pain, 

repetitive nightmares, and other conditions often associated with PTSD imply that 

hypnosis can substantially reduce the severity of these problems (Daly & Wulff, 

1987; Jiranek, 1993; Kirsch et al., 1995; Eichelman, 1985; Kingsbury, 1993) and 

enhance the effectiveness of psychodynamic and cognitive behavioral therapy 

(Kirsch, 1996; Kirsch et al., 1999; Smith et al., 1980). Most of the literature on the 

use of hypnosis for PTSD is based on service and case studies. 

Shakibaei (2008) reported that hypnotherapy helped reduce both pain and reexperiencing of traumatic events among burn patients in a randomized control trial,

but it should be noted that patients meeting criteria for any acute psychiatric 

disorder were specifically excluded from this study.

Abramowitz (2008) reports on a RCT in which hypnotherapy was compared to 

zolpidem treatment for insomnia among 32 patients with combat PTSD who were 

also suffering from insomnia. All patients were already taking an SSRI. He found 

significant improvement in PTSD symptoms and sleep quality, number of 

awakenings, ability to concentrate in the morning, and morning sleepiness in the 

hypnotherapy group. Sleep time improved equally in both groups.
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 143

There are a number of indications for using hypnosis in the treatment of PTSD:

1. Hypnotic techniques may be especially valuable as an adjunctive treatment for 

symptoms often associated with PTSD, including dissociation, anxiety, pain, 

nightmares, and insomnia. 

2. PTSD patients who manifest at least moderate hypnotizability may benefit from 

the addition of hypnotic techniques to their treatment.

3. Because confronting traumatic memories may be very difficult for some PTSD 

patients, hypnotic techniques may provide them with a means to modulate their 

emotional and cognitive distance from such memories as they are worked 

through therapeutically.

There are a number of contraindications for using traditional hypnotic techniques in the 

treatment of PTSD:

1. In the rare cases of individuals who are refractory or minimally responsive to 

suggestion, hypnotic techniques may not be the best choice, because there is 

some evidence that hypnotizability is related to treatment outcome efficacy 

(Levitt, 1994; Spiegel et al., 1981 & 1993).

2. Some PTSD patients may be resistant to hypnotic treatment because of religious 

concerns or other beliefs. If resistance persists, other suggestive techniques may 

be tried, including emotional self-regulation therapy (ESRT), which is done with 

open eyes and uses sensory recall exercises rather than a hypnotic induction 

(Bayot et al., 1997; Kirsch et al., 1999).

3. For patients who have low blood pressure or are prone to falling asleep, hypnotic 

procedures, such as “alert hand,” which emphasize alertness and activity rather 

than relaxation, may be substituted (Cardena et al., 1998).

EVIDENCE

Recommendation Sources LE QE R

1 Hypnosis may be used to 

alleviate PTSD symptoms

Brom et al., 1989

Sherman, 1998

Shakibaei et al., 2008

Abramowitz et al., 2008

I Fair-Poor C

LE=Level of Evidence QE=Quality of Evidence; SR= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)

B11. Behavioral Couples Therapy

BACKGROUND

Perceived social support has been identified as an important resilience factor in 

PTSD. Families report significant distress during the deployment cycle and high

prevalence of family problems, such as divorce. A number of family and couples 

interventions have been developed, including Behavioral Family Therapy (BFT), 

Cognitive-Behavioral Couples Therapy (CBCT), and Support and Family Education 

(SAFE). However, there is as yet little support for these interventions as a first-line 

treatment for PTSD.

DISCUSSION

Glynn et al. (1999) conducted a RCT of couples or family treatment for PTSD,

utilizing either an Exposure condition, Exposure followed by BFT, or a wait list 

control. While both active treatment conditions improved on PTSD symptoms, BFT 

did not significantly improve the PTSD symptoms, compared to the Exposure-only 

condition. However, BFT did demonstrate improved problem solving skills relative to 

the other two conditions.
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 144

Monson et al. (2004, 2005) conducted a small, uncontrolled pilot study of seven 

couples who received CBCT for PTSD. Significant improvements were found on PTSD, 

depression, and anxiety for both veterans and wives. The improvement in 

relationship satisfaction was more mixed, with no improvement for husbands but 

greater improvement for wives. 

Devilly (2002) examined a Lifestyle Management course for male veterans with PTSD 

and their partners in a weeklong residential treatment. Both veterans and their 

partners experienced significant reductions in anxiety, depression, and stress; 

veterans also experienced significant reductions in PTSD. However, the effect size of 

these changes was small, and symptom improvements were considered to be of 

limited clinical importance. 

No studies that evaluated behavioral couples therapy (BCT) for treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were identified. One study (Rotunda et al., 2008) 

evaluated BCT for substance use disorder (SUD) in veterans with co-morbid PTSD.

The study was not designed to evaluate BCT for treatment of PTSD but did assess 

psychological symptoms as a function of BCT. Although the effects of BCT on PTSD 

symptoms specifically were not reported, the results suggested that BCT may reduce 

general psychological distress and increase abstinence in male veterans with SUD 

and co-morbid PTSD. However, caution should be taken in generalizing these 

findings to a population with PTSD alone, given the body of literature demonstrating 

that those with co-morbid SUD and PTSD are different from those with PTSD alone 

on a number of important clinical variables (e.g., symptom severity, chronicity of 

illness, treatment refractory). 

No review or meta-analysis publications that addressed BCT, BFT, or CBCT as a 

treatment for PTSD were identified.

EVIDENCE TABLE

Evidence Sources of Evidence LE QE SR

1 BFT did not significantly improve 

the PTSD symptoms and was 

inferior to other psychotherapies

Glynn et al.,1999

Monson et al.,2004

Devilly et al.,., 2002

I Fair - Poor I

LE=Level of Evidence QE=Quality of Evidence; SR= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)

B12. Telemedicine and Web-based Interventions

B12-1. TELEMEDICINE INTERVENTIONS

BACKGROUND

Increasingly, a range of technologies are being adapted to enhance delivery of 

mental health services. Such technologies include the telephone and 

videoconferencing tools. Some technological applications assist human providers in 

delivering their treatments to patients, as when videoconferences or telephones are 

used to reach those for whom attendance may be difficult, or increasing convenience 

for patients by eliminating travel to face-to-face sessions. Telephone-based services 

– phone-based counseling, automated telephone assessment, and interactive

telephone applications – provide ways of extending assessment and treatment into 

the natural environment. 

DISCUSSION

A burgeoning body of rigorous research has demonstrated that psychotherapy for 

treatment of depression and anxiety disorders, delivered either via 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 145

videoteleconferencing (VTC) or via telephone, is not only effective but clinically 

equivalent to face-to-face delivery (O’Reilley et al., 2007; Bee et al., 2008).

However, only one study to date has conducted that level of rigorous examination of 

psychotherapy delivered to a PTSD population via VTC (Morland et al., 2009). This 

study found that Anger Management Group therapy via VTC was as effective as faceto-face delivery in reducing anger symptoms in PTSD patients, both immediately 

post-treatment and in short-term follow-up (i.e., 3 months). It also found that there 

were no significant differences between the two modalities in satisfaction with 

treatment, treatment credibility, attendance, homework completion, attrition, or 

alliance among group members (Morland et al., 2009). However, patients receiving 

treatment via VTC had lower therapeutic alliance with the group leader than those 

who received face-to-face delivery.

Additional trials of VTC delivery of PTSD-specific treatments have also demonstrated 

clinical effectiveness that was comparable to face-to-face delivery (e.g., Frueh et al., 

2007). However, due to the methodologies used (e.g., small sample size, nonrandomized), they were not able to test if VTC was actually equivalent to face-toface treatment. A non-random cohort study demonstrated that CBT delivered via 

VTC improved PTSD symptoms at a level similar to face-to-face group delivery 

(Germain, Marchand, Bouchard, Drouin, & Guay, 2009). A recent pilot study found 

that Prolonged Exposure Therapy delivered via VTC was highly effective, safe, and 

feasible (Tuerk et al., 2010).

There has been somewhat inconsistent evidence of process outcomes, such as 

patient and provider satisfaction, patient treatment preference, comfort talking to 

their therapists, and homework compliance, among the different trials comparing 

VTC and face-to-face delivery of PTSD interventions. Although several studies have 

found no significant differences between the two modalities, some have found that 

in-person delivery has generated slightly better process outcomes (Morland, Pierce, 

& Wong, 2004; Frueh et al., 2007).

The effectiveness of telephone delivery of case management and support has been 

well proven for a wide variety of behavioral health interventions. However, it is much 

less studied with PTSD patients. A small cohort study demonstrated that telephonebased monitoring and support improved patient satisfaction and entry into aftercare 

compared to the treatment-as-usual condition (Rosen et al., 2006). 

Mobile phone-based interventions present several advantages and capabilities (e.g., 

web-browsing, text messaging, software applications, etc.) that could address 

common problems in delivering evidence-based treatments (Boschen, 2010); 

however, the evidence to support these technologies in the PTSD interventions has 

yet to be generated.

In summary, telephone delivery and videoconferencing can be effectively used to 

overcome geographical barriers to mental healthcare. There is an abundance of 

evidence that the modalities are safe and effective. There is preliminary evidence to 

suggest that psychotherapy delivered via these modalities is as effective as face-toface care. As the field develops, additional research needs to examine how TMH 

modalities affect the therapeutic process and also how mobile phone-based 

interventions can be effectively used for PTSD treatment.
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 146

EVIDENCE TABLE

Evidence Sources of Evidence LE QE SR

 1 Telephone delivery and 

videoconferencing can be effectively 

used to deliver psychotherapy

O’Reilley et al., 2007

Bee et al., 2008

Morland et al., 2009

Greene et al., 2010

Germain et al., 2009

I 

I 

I 

I 

II-1 

Mod C 

LE=Level of Evidence QE=Quality of Evidence; SR= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)

B12-2. WEB-BASED INTERVENTIONS

BACKGROUND

Increasingly, a range of computer and Internet technologies are being adapted to 

enhance delivery of mental health services. Web-based applications can deliver 

elements of treatment (such as psychoeducation or skills training) in the absence of 

provider contact or with reduced contact, and it is possible that access to help via 

technologies may increase engagement in care by reducing the stigma associated 

with treatment-seeking and increasing accessibility of care (e.g., for rural 

populations, disabled persons, individuals without easy transportation access). To 

date, research conducted with PTSD patients has been very limited, but services are 

increasingly being delivered via these technologies. Newly developed technologies 

can present significant challenges related to patient confidentiality and safety, and 

they must be addressed carefully by both the individual providers and the 

organization delivering these interventions.

DISCUSSION

Web-based interventions have very limited research for treatment of PTSD, although 

several studies have been done to assess these techniques particularly in 

traumatized individuals with general distress or subclinical PTSD symptoms. Webbased interventions may provide an effective delivery modality for CBT techniques 

that can be considered in certain circumstances. However, these interventions raise 

a number of privacy and confidentiality issues and have not been directly compared 

with other evidence-based person-to-person CBT modalities that have been shown to 

be efficacious. 

The Internet provides a potential resource for delivery of both information 

(psychoeducation) and more complex interventions. At present, while there is much 

traumatic stress-related information available on the Web, the accuracy and 

authoritativeness of the information can be difficult for consumers to determine. 

Bremner, Quinn, Quinn, and Veledar (2006) reviewed the quality of 80 websites 

related to psychological aspects of trauma and found that 42 percent of sites had 

inaccurate information, 82 percent did not provide a source of content, and 

41percent did not use a mental health professional in the development of the 

content. The authors concluded that although abundant, websites providing 

information about traumatic stress are often not useful and can sometimes provide 

inaccurate and potentially harmful information to consumers of medical information. 

Despite these concerns, prominent authoritative websites that are grounded in 

research on psychological trauma and PTSD do exist, and many public organizations 

and universities have developed online information resources related to posttraumatic stress (e.g., National Center for PTSD site: www.ncptsd.va.gov; Center for 

the Study of Traumatic Stress, http://www.centerforthestudyoftraumaticstress.org/; 
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Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 147

International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, www.istss.org; National Institute 

of Mental Health, http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/post-traumatic-stressdisorder-ptsd/index.shtml). 

Patients and family members should be warned that information about PTSD that is 

obtained from the Internet should be interpreted with caution. Internet sites from 

established healthcare agencies or patient advocacy organizations are recommended 

over chat rooms or non-specialist or commercial sites.

Several randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of web-based intervention treatment of 

PTSD have been conducted. Taken together, they provide preliminary support for the 

use of specific web-based CBT approaches. RCTs of web-based therapist-assisted 

interventions (Knauvelsrud & Maercker, 2007; Lange, et al., 2001; Lange et al., 

2003; Litz, Engel, Bryant, & Papa, 2007) have demonstrated significant 

improvements in trauma-related symptoms compared to wait list and supportive 

counseling control conditions, with improvements being maintained over short-term 

(i.e., 3-month) follow-up periods. The studies have focused largely on traumatized 

individuals (clinical and non-clinical, such as university students) with generalized 

distress or subclinical PTSD symptoms. Only one of the RCTs selected patients based 

on a PTSD diagnosis. This study involved service members with PTSD related to the 

Pentagon attack of September 11, 2001 or combat in Iraq or Afghanistan (OEF & 

OIF) (Litz et al., 2007). However, the definition of PTSD was not based on a standard 

structured clinical interview, and no difference was found in the intent-to-treat 

analysis between the internet-based CBT and internet-based supportive therapy 

control. In addition, this was not a pure internet-based intervention, as it involved a 

2-hour initial face-to-face session in addition to periodic telephone contact. A metaanalysis of Internet interventions for anxiety (Reger & Gahm, 2009) found that the 

effect sizes for PTSD symptoms fell in a large range (ES = .75; CI = .49 to 1.01), 

but again, this was not based on studies of patients with PTSD per se but rather 

persons who have sustained trauma and who have distress, subclinical PTSD, or, in 

some cases, actual PTSD. Reger and Gahm (2009) also noted many methodological 

problems with current studies and indicated that additional research is needed to 

determine evidence for effectiveness. 

In conclusion, there is insufficient evidence to recommend web-based interventions 

for treatment of PTSD. The use of the Internet may have relevance as adjunctive 

modalities in assisting distressed traumatized individuals and complementing other 

evidence-based treatment interventions.

As with face-to-face treatments, it is important to recognize that existing studies 

have looked at the effectiveness of specific web-based protocols. Thus, it cannot be 

inferred that the studied modalities are generalizable to other web-based treatments. 

Three of the studies cited above relate to one intervention, entitled Interapy (Lange, 

et al., 2001; Lange et al., 2003; Knauvelsrud & Maercker, 2007). Interapy and 

DeStress (Litz et al., 2007) share several intervention components, including 

repeated writing about the traumatic experience. These evidence-supported webbased protocols are also therapist-assisted, with significant input from the provider. 

For example, Interapy involves a mean per-patient total of 14 hours of therapist 

time. Evidence from research on other mental health problems indicates that rates of 

attrition from web-based interventions are high in the absence of provider contact to 

facilitate completion. With regard to PTSD, there is relatively little evidence at 

present for the effectiveness of Internet interventions that are completely selfadministered (e.g., Hirai & Clum, 2005).
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Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 148

Regardless of intervention mode, it is important that those involved in technologyassisted intervention delivery take steps to ensure that their work complies with the 

regulations and procedures of the organization in which they are employed, with 

evolving legal standards, and with the ethical standards of their professions. Newly 

developed technologies can present significant challenges related to patient 

confidentiality and safety, and these must be addressed carefully by both the 

individual providers and the organization delivering these interventions. 

EVIDENCE TABLE

Evidence Sources of Evidence LE QE SR

 1 Insufficient evidence to recommend 

web-based interventions for 

treatment of PTSD

Knauvelsrud & Maercker, 

2007

Lange, et al., 2001 

Lange et al., 2003 

Litz, et al., 2007

I 

I

I

I

Poor

Poor

Poor

Good

I 

LE=Level of Evidence QE=Quality of Evidence; SR= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)
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Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 149

C. PHARMACOTHERAPY FOR PTSD

There is growing evidence that PTSD is characterized by specific psychobiological 

dysfunctions, which have contributed to a growing interest in the use of medications 

to treat trauma-related biological effects (see Table I-6). 

Studies of medication classes used in therapy for PTSD in individuals exposed to 

trauma that assessed clinical outcomes were included in the review for this guideline 

update. Evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) was considered to be of 

highest quality, followed by observational evidence. Other sources were evaluated 

when randomized controlled trials and observational studies were not available or did 

not provide adequate evidence. Studies were excluded if they did not evaluate 

response to pharmacotherapy and if they did not evaluate individuals exposed to 

trauma. The recommendations and tables address only drugs that have been studied 

in RCTs and are available in the U.S. Other drugs that have not been reported in 

published studies or were tested in open-label trials have not been considered and 

therefore do not appear in the table (see Table I - 6). 

Table I - 6 Pharmacotherapy Interventions for Treatment of PTSD

Effect = Balance of Benefit and Harm

SR Significant Some Benefit Unknown No Benefit

A SSRIs

SNRIs - -

B - 

Mirtazapine

Prazosin (for sleep/nightmares)

TCAs

Nefazodone [Caution]*

MAOIs (phenelzine) [Caution]*

- - 

C Prazosin (for global PTSD)

D - - - 

Benzodiazepines [Harm] 

Tiagabine

Guanfacine

Valproate 

Topiramate

Risperidone

I - - 

Atypical antipsychotic 

(Except risperidone, as adjunct) 

Atypicalantipsychotic 

(monotherapy)

Conventional antipsychotics 

Buspirone 

Non-benzodiazepine hypnotics

Bupropion

Trazodone (adjunctive) 

Gabapentin 

Lamotrigine

Propranolol 

Clonidine 

- 

SR = Strength of recommendation (see Appendix A); * Attention to drug to-drug and dietary interactions
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Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 150

RECOMMENDATIONS

General Recommendations:

1. Risks and benefits of long-term pharmacotherapy should be discussed prior

to starting medication and should be a continued discussion item during

treatment.

2. Monotherapy therapeutic trial should be optimized before proceeding to

subsequent strategies by monitoring outcomes, maximizing dosage

(medication or psychotherapy), and allowing sufficient response time (for at

least 8 weeks). [C]

3. If there is some response and patient is tolerating the drug, continue for at

least another 4 weeks.

4. If the drug is not tolerated, discontinue the current agent and switch to

another effective medication.

5. If no improvement is observed at 8 weeks consider:

a. Increasing the dose of the initial drug to maximum tolerated

b. Discontinuing the current agent and switching to another effective

medication

6. Recommend assessment of adherence to medication at each visit.

7. Recommend assessment of side effects and management to minimize or

alleviate adverse effects.

8. Assess for treatment burden (e.g., medication adverse effects, attending

appointments) after initiating or changing treatment when the patient is

non-adherent to treatment or when the patient is not responding to

treatment.

9. Since PTSD is a chronic disorder, responders to pharmacotherapy may need

to continue medication indefinitely; however, it is recommended that

maintenance treatment should be periodically reassessed.

10. Providers should give simple educational messages regarding antidepressant

use (e.g., take daily, understand gradual nature of benefits, continue even

when feeling better, medication may cause some transient side effects,

along with specific instructions on how to address issues or concerns, and

when to contact the provider) in order to increase adherence to treatment in

the acute phase. [B]

Monotherapy:

11. Strongly recommend that patients diagnosed with PTSD should be offered

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), for which fluoxetine,

paroxetine, or sertraline have the strongest support, or serotonin

norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), for which venlafaxine has the

strongest support, for the treatment of PTSD. [A]

12. Recommend mirtazapine, nefazodone, tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs),

amitriptyline and imipramine, or monoamine oxidase inhibitors (phenelzine)

for the treatments for PTSD. [B]

13. Recommend against the use of guanfacine, anticonvulsants (tiagabine,

topiramate, or valproate) as monotherapy in the management of PTSD. [D]
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14. The existing evidence does not support the use of bupropion, buspirone, and

trazodone, anticonvulsants (lamotrigine or gabapentin) or atypical

antipsychotics as monotherapy in the management of PTSD. [I]

15. There is evidence against the use of benzodiazepines in the management of

PTSD. [D]

16. There is insufficient evidence to support the use of prazosin as monotherapy

in the management of PTSD. [I]

Augmented Therapy for PTSD:

17. Recommend against the use of risperidone as adjunctive therapy [D]. There

is insufficient evidence to recommend the use of any other atypical

antipsychotic for treatment of PTSD. [I]

18. Recommend adjunctive treatment with prazosin for sleep/nightmares. [B]

19. There is insufficient evidence to recommend a sympatholytic or an

anticonvulsant as an adjunctive therapy for the treatment of PTSD. [I]

DISCUSSION

Treatment of PTSD Core Symptoms 

The published pharmaceutical randomized clinical controlled trials (RCTs), which 

target chronic PTSD symptoms, include drugs of the following drug classes:

antidepressants, (e.g., SSRIs, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tricyclics, as well as 

atypical antipsychotics), anticonvulsants, benzodiazepines, alpha-adrenergic 

blockers, and others such as d-cycloserine. 

Antidepressants 

Antidepressants, particularly serotonergic reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), have proven 

to be effective in treating PTSD and are recommended as first-line agents in 

treatment guidelines (Davidson et al., 2001; Brady et al., 2000; Foa et al., 2000; 

Foa et al., 1999). Over 3000 patients have participated in studies of paroxetine, 

sertraline, and fluoxetine. Sertraline and paroxetine have FDA approval for PTSD.

SSRIs have a broad spectrum of action, effectively reducing all three core symptoms 

of PTSD. As a class, they are generally well tolerated. 

The Cochrane Collaboration published a review of the evidence regarding 

pharmacological treatments in PTSD (Stein et al., 2006). They found 35 short-term 

RCTs of PTSD (4597 participants) to review, three of which contained a maintenance 

component; five of those were unpublished. The authors concluded that while no 

clear evidence exists to show that any particular class of medication is more effective 

or better tolerated than any other, the greatest number of trials showing efficacy to 

date, as well as the largest, has been with the SSRIs. On the basis of the data, the 

review recommends SSRIs as first-line agents in the pharmacotherapy of PTSD and 

supports their value in long-term treatment.

A meta-analysis of 4 RCTs that compared SSRIs to placebo without regard to 

diagnostic criteria, duration, severity, or co-morbid diagnoses reported that 

treatment favored the drug in all 4 trials; however, only one study (with 183 

subjects) reached statistical significance. Two RCTs maintained treatment with an 

SSRI for 64 weeks and 40 weeks, respectively. One study reported that 50 percent

of patients experienced worsening symptoms when placebo was substituted for 

active drug, and in the second report, patients on placebo were 6.4 times more likely 

to relapse compared to the drug group. Although some patients may respond to an 
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antidepressant trial within 3 months, some patients may require more than 12 weeks 

to respond to SSRIs (Martenyi et al., 2002).

Results with SSRIs are conflicting with respect to wartime-related PTSD. Martenyi et 

al. (2002), with combat veterans of recent wars, found fluoxetine to be significantly 

superior to placebo. Martenyi (2007) reported a negative fixed-dose trial with 

fluoxetine. In addition, Friedman et al. (2007), testing Vietnam vets with chronic 

PTSD in a VA hospital setting, observed no difference between sertraline and 

placebo. One should not extrapolate the findings of Friedman’s paper to all veterans, 

as veterans with chronic PTSD who remain symptomatic after decades of VA 

treatment comprise a chronic treatment refractory cohort that is not representative 

of all male combat veterans with PTSD.

The SSRIs citalopram, escitalopram, and fluvoxamine have been not been studied 

sufficiently to warrant a recommendation.

Venlafaxine, an SNRI, has been shown to have positive results in two trials of more 

than 800 participants with non-combat-related PTSD (Davidson, 2006a, 2006b).

Duloxetine and desvenlafaxine have not been studied and can not be recommended 

at this time. In a 24-week comparison trial, venlafaxine performed as well as 

sertraline in a civilian population (Davidson, 2006b).

Other monotherapy recommendations are mirtazapine, nefazodone, TCAs, and 

MAOIs, although these agents have been studied in fewer patients and are 

considered second-line treatment options. Of the TCAs, only amitriptyline and 

imipramine have demonstrated positive outcomes, while data on desipramine and 

nortriptyline have been negative and from poor-quality studies. Nefazodone has been 

the subject of several small- to mid-sized RCTs and case-control studies (Davis et 

al., 2000; Garfield et al., 2001; Gillin et al., 2001; Hertzberg et al., 1998; Hidalgo et 

al., 1999; Zisook et at., 2000). In all six studies, the drug was helpful in improving 

CAPS, HAM-D, sleep, and anxiety. In a trial of combat- and sexual assault-origin 

PTSD, nefazodone was more effective than placebo (Davis, 2004). Nefazodone has 

demonstrated efficacy equivalent to sertraline in two fair-quality trials (McRae, 2004; 

Saygin, 2002). Two trials with mirtazapine (Davidson, 2003; Chung, 2004) have 

demonstrated positive findings. However, in the placebo-controlled trial (Davidson, 

2003), both mirtazapine and placebo had large effect sizes. In a trial of military 

veterans, mirtazapine was as efficacious as sertraline, but there was no placebo 

comparison arm (Chung, 2004). Of the currently available MOAIs, only phenelzine 

has been studied. In a placebo comparison trial, Vietnam veterans assigned to 

phenelzine had significant improvement in IES compared to placebo (Kosten, 1991).

Atypical Antipsychotics

Atypical antipsychotics are not effective as monotherapy. The efficacy of atypical 

antipsychotics as adjunctive treatment to antidepressants has been studied in trials 

composed primarily of veterans. Response was predominantly in hyperarousal and 

re-experiencing symptom clusters. There have been ten published RCTs of two 

different antipsychotics, risperidone and olanzapine. Quetiapine has been studied in 

one small open-label trial. Olanzapine as an adjunctive treatment improved CAPS 

scores and sleep quality compared to placebo in a small 8-week trial (Stein M, 

2002). Quetiapine improved both PANS and CAPS scores compared to baseline 

(Hamner & Deitsch 2003b).

Six small trials, of variable design quality, use risperidone an augmentation to other 

medications, rather than as a primary treatment. Risperidone has shown to improve 

psychotic symptoms. One trial addressed risperidone’s role in co-morbid PTSD and 
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psychosis (Hamner, 2003a). A significant improvement in psychotic symptoms 

(change in PANS) was found in veterans treated with risperidone compared to 

placebo; both groups improved significantly in their CAPS scores. The results of the 

remaining 5 trials showed risperidone to have some benefit as adjunct to 

antidepressants, although only a small net benefit. 

A seventh trial, conducted by the VA Cooperative Study Group (Krystal, 2011), 

randomized 247 veterans with military-related PTSD deemed resistant to 

antidepressants to risperidone (up to 4 mg/day) or placebo as adjunctive treatment. 

After 6 months the changes from baseline in CAPS scores were not significant 

between the two treatment arms. Changes in CAPS subscale scores for 

reexperiencing and hyperarousal were statistically significant favoring risperidone but 

the differences were not considered clinically important. No difference in the 

symptom scales for anxiety, depression, positive or negative symptoms, sleep or 

quality of life were found. The authors concluded that compared to placebo, 

risperidone did not reduce PTSD symptoms. This is the largest clinical trial of an 

atypical antipsychotic as a treatment of PTSD to date. 

This study clearly shows that adjunctive risperidone does not benefit veterans with 

chronic PTSD; the results do not justify the risk for metabolic adverse effects. 

However, limited reductions in hyperarousal and reexperiencing suggest some 

benefit for a few patients. Low study attrition, low cross-site variability, multiple 

measures, and long study duration reinforce the validity of these findings. Some 

might object that the many other medications taken by these patients might have 

obscured risperidone's effects; but this objection is not clinically relevant as 

risperidone is always likely to be prescribed in this context. Results may not 

generalize to other atypical antipsychotics, to women, or to civilians.

Anticonvulsants

The existing evidence does not support the use of anticonvulsants as monotherapy 

for the management of PTSD core symptoms. Tiagabine has been compared to 

placebo in two RCTs, with no difference in response (Connor 2006; Davidson 2007).

Valproate, as monotherapy, did not differ from placebo in one RCT (Davis, 2008). 

Anticonvulsants are frequently used as adjunctive treatments. Only topiramate has 

been studied in this role in veterans, with negative results (Lindley, 2007). Data on 

other anticonvulsants are insufficient to recommend their use in PTSD. A metaanalysis showed benefit in the use of valproate in PTSD (Adamou, 2007). 

Benzodiazepines

Benzodiazepines are widely used for symptomatic control of insomnia, panic/anxiety, 

and irritability; there is no evidence that they reduce the core symptoms (e.g., 

syndromal symptoms) of PTSD, such as avoidance or dissociation (Friedman and 

Davidson & Stein, 2009; Viola et al., 1997). Kosten et al. (2000) present evidence 

that does not support the use of benzodiazepines in PTSD.

Benzodiazepine administration should be discouraged both in acute stress disorder 

(ASD) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), due to lack of evidence for 

effectiveness and risks that outweigh potential benefits. Although benzodiazepines 

have been frequently used “as needed” and continuously for anxiety disorders, 

including to augment evidence-based treatment modalities in PTSD, there is 

evidence to suggest that benzodiazepines may actually potentiate the acquisition of 

fear responses and worsen recovery from trauma. Benzodiazepine use should be 

considered relatively contraindicated in combat veterans with PTSD because of the 

very high co-morbidity of combat-related PTSD with alcohol misuse and substance 
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use disorders (upwards of 50 percent of co-morbidity) and potential problems with 

tolerance and dependence. Once initiated in combat veterans, benzodiazepines can 

be very difficult, if not impossible, to discontinue, due to significant withdrawal 

symptoms, compounded by the underlying PTSD symptoms.

The two clinical trials of benzodiazepines to treat PTSD have shown negative 

findings: 

• Braun, et al. (1990) - In a randomized double-blind cross-over study, alprazolam

showed no significant benefit in alleviating PTSD symptoms compared with

placebo. A slight reduction in anxiety symptoms was offset by withdrawal effects

documented after only five weeks of treatment.

• Cates, et al. (2004) - This small, single-blind cross-over placebo-controlled study

compared clonazepam with placebo for the treatment of sleep dysfunction

associated with combat-related PTSD. The study showed no significant difference

between the benzodiazepine and placebo treatments.

• Viola et al. (1997) - At Tripler Army Medical Center, after having treated 632

patients, the vast majority of whom suffered from combat-related PTSD, between

1990 and 1996, the staff began to “explore treatment alternatives” to

benzodiazepines due to the “risks attendant to benzodiazepine management of

PTSD, coupled with poor clinical outcome”.

• Risse et al. (1990) - This case series reflects the typical clinical experience when

benzodiazapines are utilized for treating combat-related PTSD. In this study,

alprazolam was used to augment treatment of anxiety symptoms in 8 combat

veterans with chronic PTSD and co-morbid conditions (mostly alcohol misuse).

Although anxiety initially improved with treatment, the improvement was shortlived and resulted in tolerance to increasing doses and eventual failure of the

treatment. The key problem was encountered upon attempting to gradually

withdraw the medication after determining that ongoing treatment was not going

to be of further benefit. All 8 patients experienced severe reactions, including

anxiety, sleep disturbance, rage, hyper-alertness, increased nightmares, and

intrusive thoughts; 6 of the 8 veterans developed a level of rage with homicidal

ideation that they had never encountered previously.

• Randal et al. (1995) and Coupland et al. (1997) - Flumazenil, a

benzodiazepine/GABA receptor antagonist, provokes panic attacks in patients

with panic disorder but not in healthy controls. In these two studies (one of which

involved a group of male Vietnam combat veterans), flumazenil was compared

with placebo to determine if it provoked anxiety, panic, or PTSD symptoms. Both

studies showed that there were no significant increases in anxiety, panic, or PTSD

symptoms in subjects as a result of flumazenil administration. This suggests that

PTSD is dissimilar to panic disorder in terms of benzodiazepine receptor

functioning and helps to explain why benzodiazepine treatment has produced no

significant benefits in clinical trials.

• Several studies involving different animal models of PTSD (for example, Matar et

al., 2009; Hebert et al., 1996) have shown that benzodiazepine administration in

the immediate aftermath of stress exposure significantly increases vulnerability of

developing more severe responses upon subsequent exposure to stress.

Sympatholytics 

Prazosin, as a global treatment for PTSD, has yielded mixed results; it has shown 

consistent efficacy in improving sleep and reducing nightmares. In five relatively 
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Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 155

small studies (Raskind et al., 2002, 2003, and 2007; and Taylor 2006, 2008), 

prazosin has demonstrated a value in reducing nightmares and in improving CAPS, 

CGI, and CGIC scores. The goal of these studies was not evaluation of overall PTSD 

symptoms, but evaluation of targeted symptoms, which showed good outcomes. 

(See discussion in Module I-3 A. Sleep Disturbance). 

Guanfacine was studied in two trials (Neylan et al. 2006; and Davise et al., 2008). 

No effect was seen on measures of PTSD symptom severity for the actively treated 

group relative to the placebo group.

Other Agents

Buspirone, a non-benzodiazepine anti-anxiety drug, is reported to have “clinical 

efficacy” in two very small studies (Duffy & Malloy, 1994; Wells et al., 1991).

A single clinical investigation of the effect of the antibiotic D-cycloserine (HerescoLevy et al., 2002) enrolled 11 patients in a crossover trial. While patients reported 

some improvement on self-reported measures of PTSD symptoms, similar 

improvements were seen in placebo-treated patients.
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Table I - 7 Pharmacological Studies for Treatment of PTSD

Drug Source of Evidence Result n LE QE NB SR

SSRI

Sertraline * Brady et al., 2000 Significant improvement, CAPS-2, CGI 187 I G Sub A

Chung et al, 2004 Mirtazapine is effective as sertraline Military veterans (Korean) 51 II-1 F Mod

Davidson et al., 2001a Significant responder rate, CAPS-2 208 I G Sub

Davidson et al., 2002 Study of effect on individual symptoms ? II-2 F Mod

Davidson et al.,2001b Effective for preventing PTSD relapse 96 I G Sub

Friedman et al., 2007 No sig diff. between Tx and placebo. Combat trauma. 169 I G Zero

Londborg et al., 2001 Significant response maintained x 36 weeks 128 II-1 G Sub

Rapaport et al., 2002 Significant response maintained x 64 weeks 359 I/II-1 G Sub

Tucker et al., 2003 Significant improvement of primary outcome 58 I F Zero

Zohar et al., 2002 Numerical advantage (only), not sig, Israeli vets 42 I G Zero

Paroxetine * Marshal, 2007 Significant improvement, CAPS-2 & CGI 52 I G Sub A

Marshall, et al., 2001 Significant improvement, CAPS-2 & CGI 551 I G Sub

Tucker, et al., 2001 Significant improvement, CAPS-2 307 I G Sub

Fluoxetine Barnett et al., 2002 Study of tolerability. Well tolerated 65 I G Sub A 

Connor et al., 1999 “Superior” response for civilian patients 53 I G 

Davidson, 2005 Well tolerated and effective in prevention of relapse, improved

CGI. High rate of relapse

57 I G Sub

Martenyi, 2007 No significant dif. between Tx and Pbo; TOP-8 411 I G Zero

Martenyi et al., 2002a Effective for prevention of PTSD relapse; 50% subjects -

combat related

131 I G Sub

Martenyi et al., 2002b Effective: improvement in TOP-8, CGI; 50% subjects -combat 

related

301 I G Sub

Meltzer-Brody, et al., 

2000

Reduced all symptom clusters of PTSD; 53 II-2 F 

Van der ko et al., 1994 Fluoxetine > placebo, more in non-VA pts 64 I G Sub

Citalopram Seedat et al., 2000 Significant improvement, CAPS-2 14 II-1 F Zero C

Tucker et al, 2003 Sig improvement (↓ BP) 58 I F Neg

Fluvoxamine Escalona et al., 2002 Appears to improve PTSD symptoms 15 III P - I

Neylan et al., 2001 Improved sleep quality for Vietnam vets 21 III P - 
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Drug Source of Evidence Result n LE QE NB SR

TCA

Amitriptyline Davidson et al., 1990 Effective for core symptoms of PTSD 46 I G Mod B

Davidson et al., 1993 Significant improvement: IES, CGI, HAMD 62 I G

Desipramine Reist et al., 1989 Did not show efficacy; no statistics 27 III P

Imipramine Kosten et al., 1991 Significant improvement, CAPS-2, IES 41 I G

Nortriptyline Zygmont et al., 1998 Effective for traumatic grief symptoms 22 II-1 G

Dow et al., 1997 Improvement in CGE for PTSD with MDD 72 II-2 F

MAOI/RIMA

Phenelzine Kosten et al., 1991 Significant improvement in IES, better than placebo 37 I G Mod B

SNRI

Venlafaxine Davidson et al, 2006 Effective in tx PTSD, Improves resilience 329 I G Sub A

Davidson et al., 2006b Effective similar to sertraline 531 I G Sub

Secondary AD

Bupropion Becker et al., 2007 Bupropion SR had no effect on PTSD 30 I F Neg I

Canive et al., 1998 No change in total CAPS score - male veterans 17 II-2 F

Nefazodone Davis et al, 2004 Nefazodone is effective and well tolerated ; Combat, sexual 42 I G Sub B

Davis et al., 2000 Significant improvement in CAPS, HAM-D 36 II-2 G

Garfield et al., 2001 Significant improvement in CAPS, anxiety 14 II-2 F

Gillin et al., 2001 Significant improvement in sleep, CAPS 12 II-2 F

Hidalgo et al., 1999 High response rate; pooled data, 6 studies 105 II-2 F

McRae et al., 2004 Nefazodone is effective as sertraline. High attrition rates 37 I F Sub

Saygin et al,, 2002 Nefazodone is effective as sertraline and well tolerated 

Earthquake survivors

54 I F Sub

Zisook et at., 2000 PTSD symptoms lessened, CAPS 19 II-2 F

Trazodone Warner et al., 2001 Reduction in nightmares; 9 reported priapism 74 III P I

Mirtazapine Chung et al., 2004 Mirtazapine is effective as sertraline and well tolerated. Military 

veterans (Korean)

51 II-1 F Mod B

Davidson et al., 2003 Significant improvement in the SPRINT, SIP, DTS as 

compared to placebo

26 I F Mod B
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Drug Source of Evidence Result n LE QE NB SR

Anticonvulsants

Gabapentin Hamner et al., 2001 Effective for insomnia, adjunct treatment 30 II-2 P Zero I

Lamotrigine Hertzberg et al., 1999 Promising results 14 I P Zero I

Topiramate Lindley, 2007 No significant effect for topiramate over placebo 40 I F Zero D

Tucker , 2007 Not significant difference from placebo (non-combat) 38 I G Zero

Valproate Davis, 2008 Divalproex monotherapy was not effective in the treatment of 

chronic PTSD

85 I G Zero D

Adamou, 2007 (SR) Valproate was generally effective in reducing hyperarousal, 

improving irritability and anger

63 I F Small

Tiagabine Connor, 2006 No significant improvement was observed on all outcome 

measures

29 I F Zero D

Davidson, 2007 No difference from placebo 232 I G Zero

Atypical Antipsychotics

Olanzapine Butterfield et al., 2001 No beneficial effect. High placebo response 15 I G I

Petty et al., 2001 Significant improvement in CAPS, CGI 48 II-1 G

Stein et al., 2002 Adjunct to SSRI. Sig. improve measures but not global PTSD 19 I F Mod

Quetiapine Hamner et al., 2003 Significant improvement in CAPS 20 II-1 F I

Risperidone Bartzokis et al., 2005 Risperidone (adjunct.) > placebo; Military vets. 48 I G Sub D

Krystal et al., 2011

Hamner et al., 2003

Risperidone (adjunct) = placebo; Veterans.

Adjunct to other meds, co-morbid psychoses. Vietnam vets

247

40

I

I

G

F 

Zero

Sub 

Monnelly et al., 2003 Risperidone > placebo; Military combat 15 I F Mod

Padala et al., 2006 Sexual assault - risperidone monotherapy > placebo 20 I P Small

Reich et al., 2004 Child abuse - risperidone > placebo; 21 I F Mod

Rothbaum et al., 2008 Civilian - risperidone (adjunct) was helpful in subjects who did 

not remit with sertraline alone 

45 I F Small
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline

For management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 159

Drug Source of Evidence Result n LE QE NB SR

Sympatholytics

Clonidine Kinzie & Leung, 1989 Cambodian refugees improved, dual therapy 68 III P - I

Guanfacine Horrigan & Barnhill, 

1996

suppression of PTSD associated nightmares in children 1 III P - D

Neylan, 2006 No effect on PTSD symptoms (in vet military) 63 I Good Neg

Davis, 2008 No effect on PTSD symptoms 65 I Good Neg

Prazosin Raskind et al., 2003 Significant improvement, CAPS, CGI 10 I F Small B

Raskind et al., 2002 Significant improvement in dream scores 59 II-2 F Zero

Raskind et al., 2007 Significant improved sleep quality, reduced nightmares, better 

overall sense of well-being.

34 I G Mod

Taylor et al., 2006 Reduction in global PTSD illness severity 11 II P Mod

Taylor et al., 2008 Significantly improved CGI-I scores and changed PDRS scores 

toward normal dreaming

13 I F Mod

Benzodiazepines

Benzodiaz. Kosten et al., 2000 Not associated with adverse outcomes 370 II-2 F Zero D

Alprazolam Braun et al., 1990 Did not show efficacy. 

(concern: rebound anxiety)

16 I F Zero D

Clonazepam Fossey & Hamner, 1994 A source of sexual dysfunction 42 III P Zero D

Gelpin et al., 1996 No beneficial effect in PTSD, may worsen outcome 20 II-1 F Zero

Shalev & Rogel 1992 No effect on auditory startle N/A III F Zero

Temazepam Melman et al., 2002 No benefits in preventing PTSD; may worsen outcome 11 I P Zero D

Cates et al., 2004 No difference between the benzodiazepine and placebo I P Zero D 

D-cycloserine

Heresco-Levy, 2002 Improvements in numbing, avoidance, and anxiety symptoms 11 I Fair Zero I

LE=Level of Evidence QE=Quality of Evidence (F=Fair; G=Good; P=Poor); NB=Net benefit (Sub=Substantial; Mod = Moderate; Neg=Negative)

SR= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)

* FDA Approved
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline

For management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page - 160

Table I - 8 Symptom Response by Drug Class and Individual Drug (based on controlled trials)

Global 

Improvement 

Re-experiencing 

(B)

Avoidance/

Numbing (C)

Hyperarousal 

(D)

SSRI Fluoxetine X X X X 

Sertraline X X X X 

Paroxetine X X X X

SNRI Venlafaxine X X X X

TCAs Amitriptyline/

Imipramine

X X X 

MAOIs Phenelzine X X X 

Sympatholytics Prazosin X X X 

Other AntidepressantsMirtazapine X X X 

Nefazodone X X X 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline

For management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page I - 161

Table I - 9 Drug Details 

Agent *Oral Dose Contraindications Adverse Events Pregnancy Category Remarks

Selective Reuptake Serotonin Inhibitors (SSRIs)

Fluoxetine

Paroxetine

Sertraline

Fluvoxamine

Citalopram

Escitalopram

20 – 60 mg/d

20 – 60 mg/d

50 – 200 mg/d

50 – 150 mg bid

20 – 60 mg/d

10 – 20 mg/d

Contraindications :

• MAO inhibitor within 14 days 

• Concurrent use of pimozide or 

thioridazine

• Hypersensitivity 

• Nausea , diarrhea

• Headache

• Dizziness 

• Sexual dysfunction

• Hyponatremia/SIADH (Syndrome 

of Inappropriate Anti-diuretic 

Hormone) 

• Nervousness, anxiety, agitation

• Serotonin syndrome 

• All except paroxetine are 

Category C

• Paroxetine Category D

• Women planning to 

breast-feed, consider an 

anti-depressant with the 

lowest excretion into 

breast milk: paroxetine, 

sertraline

• Avoid abrupt discontinuation of 

all except fluoxetine 

• Citalopram, escitalopram, and 

sertraline are less likely to be 

involved in hepatic enzyme 

drug interactions involving 

CYP2D6 or 3A4 

• All except escitalopram are 

generically available 

• St. Johns Wort may in 

decrease the concentration of 

SSRIs metabolized by 

CYP2D6

Tricyclic Antidepressants

Imipramine

Amitriptyline

Desipramine

Nortriptyline

Protriptyline

Clomipramine

150 – 300 mg/d

150 – 300 mg/d

100 – 300 mg/d 

50 – 150 mg/d

30 – 60 mg/d

150 – 250 mg/d

Contraindications :

• Clomipramine – seizure 

disorder 

• MAOI use within 14 days 

• Acute MI within 3 months

• Hypersensitivity

Relative Contraindications:

• Coronary artery disease 

• Prostatic enlargement 

• Dry mouth

• Dry eyes

• Constipation

• Orthostatic hypotension 

• Increased heart rate 

• Ventricular arrythmias 

• Weight gain

• Drowsiness

• Category C

• Women planning to 

breast-feed, consider an 

antidepressant with the 

lowest excretion into 

breast milk: nortriptyline

• Therapeutic blood 

concentrations not established 

for PTSD 

• Desipramine and nortriptyline 

have lower rate of sedation 

anticholinergic and 

hypotensive effects 

• Moderate CYP2D6 inhibition

• St. Johns Wort may decrease 

the concentration of SSRIs 

metabolized by CYP2D6
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline

For management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page I - 162

Agent *Oral Dose Contraindications Adverse Events Pregnancy Category Remarks

Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors

Phenelzine

Tranylcypromine

45-75 mg/d in divided 

doses 

10 – 60 mg/d

target 1 mg/kg/d

target 0.7 mg/kg/d

Contraindications:

• All antidepressants within 14 

days of start of a MAOI, 

except fluoxetine is 5 weeks 

• Concurrent use with CNS 

stimulants or depressants 

and decongestants 

• CHF, hepatic or renal 

disease

• Pheochromocytoma

• Foods high in tyramine

• Hypersensitivity

• Hypertensive crisis with 

drug/tyramine interactions 

• Bradycardia 

• Orthostatic hypotension 

• Insomnia 

• Dry mouth

• Dry Eyes

• Constipation

• Category C • Patient must maintain a 

low-tyramine diet and avoid 

foods rich in tyramine 

• Tranycypromine should be 

taken early in the day to 

reduce insomnia 

• MAOIs are to be 

discontinued 2 weeks prior 

to starting another 

antidepressant or 

serotonergic agent

Sympatholytics

Propranolol 10-40 mg/d Contraindications:

• Sinus bradycardia, 

uncompensated congestive 

heart failure, 2nd or 3rd

degree heart block, severe 

COPD or asthma, 

hypersensitivity to betablockers

• Hypotension, bronchospasm, 

bradycardia 

• Category C

• Breast-feeding – not 

recommended

• Has only been used in a single 

dose for prevention of PTSD 

Prazosin Target 6 – 10 mg/d

Start with 1 mg at bedtime 

and increase as blood 

pressure allows.

• Hypersensitivity to quinazolines

• Conurrent use of 

phosphodiesterase type-5 

inhibitors

• First dose syncope • Category C

• Breast-feeding – effects 

unknown

• Primarily used for 

management of recurrent 

distressing dreams
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline

For management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page I - 163

Agent *Oral Dose Contraindications Adverse Events Pregnancy Category Remarks

Novel Antidepressants

Bupropion 

Nefazodone 

Trazodone

Venlafaxine

Mirtazapine

150 – 450 mg/d 

300 – 600 mg/d

300 – 600 mg/d

150 – 375 mg/d

30 – 60 mg/d

Contraindications :

• MAOI use within 14 days (all)

• Hypersensitivity

Bupropion 

– single doses of regularrelease >150 mg/d and total 

daily dose >450 mg/d. 

• History of seizures, anorexia or 

buliemia- Nefazodone

• Active liver disease or 

increased liver enzymes

• Use with carbamazepine,

pimozide, cisapride, triazolam,

and alprazolam

• Bupropion: headache, insomnia,

dizziness, weight loss, decreased

appetite, anxiety, agitation,

nervousness, sleep disturbances

• Nefazodone: hepatotoxicity

• Trazodone and nefazodone:

sedation, rare priapism

• Venlafaxine: hypertension in

patients with pre-existing

hypertension, headache,

insomnia, somnolence,

nervousness, dizziness, anorexia

• Mirtazapine: weight gain,

increase appetite, somnolence,

dry mouth

• Category C (all) • Need to taper venlafaxine to

prevent rebound

signs/symptoms

• The group has a lower rate of

sexual dysfunction compared

to SSRIs

• Obtain baseline LFTs when

treating with nefazodone

• Nefazodone is a potent

CYP3A4 inhibitor

• St. Johns Wort may increase

mirtazapine’s metabolism
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline

For management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page I - 164

Agent *Oral Dose Contraindications Adverse Events Pregnancy Category Remarks

Anticonvulsants

Carbamazepine target 400 – 1600 mg/d Contraindications:

• bone marrow suppression, 

particularly leukopenia 

• hypersensitivity to 

carbamazepine, pimozide, or 

tricyclic antidepressants

• MAOI use within 14 days

• Concurrent use of nefazodone

• bone marrow suppression, 

aplastic anemia, leukopenia, 

SIADH, drowsiness, ataxia,

photosensitivity, serious 

dermatologic reactions, including 

Stevens-Johnson syndrome, A-V 

block, and bradycardia

• Category D

• Excreted into breast milk 

in high concentrations; 

measurable in infant 

serum.

• Therapeutic blood 

concentration are not 

established for PTSD, but

monitoring may be useful in 

cases of suspected toxicity 

(usual range 4 – 12 mcg/mL)

• Strong inducer of CYP 1A2, 

2B6, 2C8, 2C9, 2C19, and 

3A4. Induction can reduce 

effectiveness of many 

medication, such as oral 

contraceptives

Adjust dose base on renal function

• Taking divalproex: 25 mg 

every other day for 2 weeks, 

then 25 mg/day for 2 weeks, 

then 50 mg/day for 1 week, 

then 100 mg/day

• Taking enzyme-inducing drug 

(eg, CBZ): 50 mg/day for 2 

weeks, then 100 mg/day for 2 

weeks, then 200 mg/day for 1 

week, then 300 mg/day for 1 

week

Gabapentin target 300 – 3600 mg/d • renal impairment • sedation, ataxia 

• peripheral edema

• Category C

• Excreted into breast 

milk; effects unknown

Lamotrigine Not taking divalproex or 

CBZ: 25 mg once a day 

for 2 weeks, then 50 

mg/day for 2 weeks, then 

100 mg/day for 1 week

• increased rash with valproate; 

max dose of 200 mg 

• Stevens-Johnson syndrome

• Fatigue

• Headache

• Peripheral edema

• Rash

• Vision changes

• Category C

• Excreted in breast milk in

measurable level

Topiramate target 200 – 400 mg/d.

Start with 25 – 50 mg/d 

and increase by 15 – 50 

mg/week to maximum 

dose or as tolerated.

• hepatic impairment • angle closure glaucoma

• sedation 

• dizziness

• ataxia 

• cognitive impairment

• weight loss

• paresthesia

• vision changes

• Category C

• Excreted into breast 

milk; breast-feeding 

not recommended

Valproate target 10 – 15 mg/kg/d • impaired liver function, 

thrombocytopenia 

• nausea/vomiting

• sedation

• ataxia

• thrombocytopenia 

• Alopecia

• Weight gain

• pancreatitis

• Category D

• Low concentrations in 

breast milk and infant. 

Theoretical risk for 

hepatotoxicity or 

thrombocytopenia.

Monitor for jaundice, 

liver damage, 

bleeding.
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline

For management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page I - 165

Agent *Oral Dose Contraindications Adverse Events Pregnancy Category Remarks

Benzodiazepines

Clonazepam

Lorazepam

Alprazolam

Diazepam

Start - 0.25 mg bid, 

increase by 0.25 mg 

every 1-2 days; 

maximum 20 mg/d

2 – 4 mg/d, 1.5 to 6 

mg/d, 10 - 40 mg/d 

Contraindications:

• hypersensitivity

• significant liver disease 

(clonazepam)

• narrow angle glaucoma

• severe respiratory 

insufficiency (lorazepam)

• Caution in elderly patients 

and patients with impaired 

liver function. 

• Risk of abuse in patients 

with history of substance 

abuse 

• sedation 

• memory impairment 

• ataxia 

• dependence

• confusion

• hypotension 

• Category D (all)

• All enter breast milk; 

breast-feeding not 

recommended

• If doses sustained > 2 

months at therapeutic 

doses, then drug should be 

tapered over 4-week period 

• Alprazolam – concern with 

rebound anxiety 

Typical antipsychotics

Chlorpromazine

Haloperidol

100 – 800 mg/d

2 – 20 mg/d

Contraindication :

• Parkinson’s disease 

• QTc prolongation or concurrent 

use with medications that 

prolong the QTc interval

• Severe CNS depression

• Hypersensitivity

• Sedation 

• Orthostatic hypotension with 

chlorpromazine, thioridazine· 

• Akathisia 

• Dystonia 

• Drug-induced parkinsonism 

• Tardive dyskinesia may occur 

with all anti-psychotics with longterm use. 

• Neuroleptic malignant syndrome 

• QTc changes 

• Category C (all)

• All enter breast milk; not 

recommended

• Therapeutic doses not 

established in the treatment of 

PTSD 

• Use should be well justified in 

medical record because of the 

risk of tardive dyskinesia. 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline

For management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 – Treatment Interventions For PTSD Page I - 166

Agent *Oral Dose Contraindications Adverse Events Pregnancy Category Remarks

Atypical antipsychotics

Olanzapine

Quetiapine 

Risperidone

5 – 20 mg/d

300 – 800 mg/d

1 – 6 mg/d

Relative contraindication:

• Parkinson’s disease 

• Hypersensitivity

• Sedation 

• Weight gain 

• Neuroleptic malignant syndrome 

• Higher doses may cause 

akathisa, drug-induced 

parkinsonism, especially with 

risperidone doses >6 mg/d 

Olanzapine: Category C

Quetiapine: Category C

Risperidone: Category C

• All excreted into breast 

milk; not recommended;

use with caution

• Therapeutic doses not 

established for PTSD 

• Weight gain occurs with all 

agents; however, olanzapine 

produces significantly greater 

gain 

• The relative risk of tardive 

dyskinesia compared to typical 

antipsychotics has not been 

established for these agents 

• Monitor for development of 

diabetes/hyperglycemia , 

increased cholesterol, and 

trigylcerides

Non-benzodiazepine

hypnotics

- Zaleplon

- Zolpidem

5 – 10 mg/d 

5 – 10 mg/d 

Contraindications:

• Hypersensitivity

Precautions:

• Caution with alcohol/drug 

abuse history 

• Caution in elderly and patients 

with liver dysfunction 

• Sedation 

• Ataxia 

• Rebound insomnia may occur 

• Dizziness

• Headache

• Behavioral changes, bizarre 

behavior, hazardous activities 

while asleep

• Category C (both)

• Enters breast milk; avoid 

zaleplon; use zolpidem 

with caution

• Abuse has occurred, resulting 

in withdrawal reactions 

• Zolpidem is a CYP3A4 

substrate and its metabolism 

can be decreased by 3A4 

inhibitors

anti-anxiety

- Buspirone

20 – 60 mg/d Precaution:

• MAOI use within 14 days

• Nausea 

• Headache 

• Dizziness

• Drowsiness

• Category B

• Excretion into breast milk 

unknown; not 

recommended

• Buspirone is a CYP3A4 

substrate, and its metabolism 

can be decreased by 3A4 

inhibitors

*Dose adjustments may be necessary in renal or hepatic impairment
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 - Interventions Page I - 167

D. ADJUNCTIVE SERVICES

D1. Psychosocial Rehabilitation

BACKGROUND

Patients with chronic PTSD may develop a persistent incapacitating mental illness 

marked by severe and intolerable symptoms; marital, social, and vocational disability; 

and extensive use of psychiatric and community services. These patients may 

sometimes benefit more from therapeutic intervention that facilitates generalizing skills 

for coping with PTSD from clinic to home/work/community, such as case management 

and psychosocial rehabilitation, than from psycho- or pharmacotherapy.

Psychosocial Rehabilitation involves clinicians providing family psychoeducation, 

supported employment, supported education, and supported housing; some serving as 

case managers; or others working with peer counselors. VHA’s Uniform Mental Health 

Services policies (VHA Handbook, 2009) now mandate psychosocial rehabilitation, 

expanding such services from inpatient units to outpatient programs in Primary Care 

settings, Outpatient clinics, Community-Based Outpatient Clinics (CBOCs), Vet Centers, 

and Home-Based Care programs and in partnerships with agencies and providers in 

communities.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Consider psychosocial rehabilitation techniques once the client and clinician 

identify the following kinds of problems associated with the diagnosis of PTSD: 

persistent high-risk behaviors, lack of self-care/independent living skills, 

homelessness, interactions with a family that does not understand PTSD, socially 

inactive, unemployed, and encounters with barriers to various forms of 

treatment/rehabilitation services.

2. Patient and clinician should determine whether such problems are associated with 

core symptoms of PTSD and, if so, ensure that rehabilitation techniques are used 

as a contextual vehicle for alleviating PTSD symptoms. 

3. Psychosocial rehabilitation should occur concurrently or shortly after a course of 

treatment for PTSD, since psychosocial rehabilitation is not trauma-focused.

DISCUSSION

Penk and Flannery (2000) listed seven forms of psychosocial rehabilitation as clinical 

practice guidelines for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):

1. Patient education services

2. Self-Care and Independent Living Skills Techniques

3. Supported Housing

4. Marital/Family Skills Training

5. Social Skills Training

6. Vocational Rehabilitation

7. Case Management

A decade later, Penk & Ainspan (2009) suggested adding to this list: 8) Physical health 

and well-being and computer-assisted self-management training in reducing PTSD and 

other mental disorders, such as addictions and depression.
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 - Interventions Page I - 168

Table I - 10 Adjunctive Problem-Focused Method/Services

If the client and clinician together conclude that the patient with 

PTSD:

Service/Training

1 Is not fully informed about aspects of health needs and does 

not avoid high-risk behaviors (e.g., PTSD, substance use)

Provide patient education

2 Does not have sufficient self-care and independent living 

skills

Refer to self-care/independent

living skills training services

3 Does not have safe, decent, affordable, stable housing that is 

consistent with treatment goals

Use and/or refer to 

supported housing services

4 Does not have a family that is actively supportive and/or 

knowledgeable about treatment for PTSD Implement family skills training

5 Is not socially active Implement social skills training

6 Does not have a job that provides adequate income and/or 

fully uses his or her training and skills

Implement vocational rehabilitation 

training

7 Is unable to locate and coordinate access to services, such as 

those listed above Use case management services

8 Does request spiritual support Provide access to religious/spiritual 

advisors and/or other resources

OTHER CONDITIONS

9 Does have a borderline personality disorder typified by 

parasuicidal behaviors

Consider Dialectical Behavioral 

Therapy

10 Does have concurrent substance abuse problem Integrated PTSD substance abuse 

treatment 

The empirical literature on group treatment for PTSD has grown since the publication of 

the first edition of the Treatment Guidelines for PTSD.

Evidence-based research from randomized clinical trials is now available to support 

recommending psychosocial rehabilitation when treating veterans (Glynn, Drebing, & 

Penk, 2009). Psychosocial Rehabilitations are not limited to veterans with schizophrenia 

or other psychoses. Psychosocial rehabilitations are recognized as efficacious in treating 

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSDs), Major Depression Disorders (MDDs), and 

Addictions, especially when mental health practices are delivered through selfmanagement manuals and the Internet, integrated into supported education and 

supported employment

The psychosocial rehabilitation model may include medication as needed, skills training 

designed to assist veterans to live productively in the community, and various forms of 

psychotherapy. Integrating trauma-focused psychotherapies with psychosocial 

rehabilitation is currently under-utilized, but new interventions are being empirically

validated to bring together several forms of treatments and rehabilitation for PTSD.

Models of Psychosocial Rehabilitation Services

1. Education

• Family psychoeducation is the process of providing education and coping skills for 

veterans and their families about relevant medical and mental disorders.

Examples of such psychosocial rehabilitation are the family interventions for PTSD 

developed at the VA in West Los Angeles and manualized approaches designed by 

Sherman, Sautter, Lyons, Manguno-Mire, Han, and Perry (2005), delivered at VHA 

medical centers in VISN 16—Oklahoma City, Jackson, and Houston.
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 - Interventions Page I - 169

• Family psychoeducation generally takes place in multi-family groups (producing 

the added benefit of augmenting social support), but such techniques can also be 

given in single-family formats or even by books or online (e.g., Sherman & 

Sherman, 2005).

• Family psychoeducation is noted for fostering social support, challenging a key 

symptom in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), which is characterized by 

social avoidance and isolation. Precautions are needed in fielding family 

psychoeducation among many different families, since consent of each individual 

is always required when information is shared about a veteran’s illness and/or 

about families’ symptoms and ways of coping. Family psychoeducation is a 

treatment modality in which families are a partner in providing services to each 

other: Families are not objects in treatment. 

• Family psychoeducation is effective, particularly for PTSD (Glynn, Drebing, & 

Penk, 2009), and hence is well regarded in the VHA and emphasized in mental 

health services. Studies from different countries over the past 20 years show that 

family psychoeducation reduces the rates of re-hospitalization by an average of 

50 percent.

2. Self-Care and Independent Living Skills Techniques

• While social rehabilitative therapies (i.e., teaching social, coping, and life function 

skills) have been proven to be effective in chronic schizophrenic and other 

persistently impaired psychiatric cohorts, they have yet to be formally tested with 

PTSD clients. Since they appear to generalize well from clients with one mental 

disorder to another, it is reasonable to expect that they will also work with PTSD 

clients. There is clinical consensus that appropriate outcomes would be 

improvement in self-care, family function, independent living, social skills, and 

maintenance of employment.

• Given the positive impact of independent skills training techniques for mental 

disorders in general (Halford et al., 1995), PTSD-centered modules should be 

developed and tested for effectiveness.

3. Supported Housing

• VHA, for decades, has offered support for housing through residential care 

programs, such as residential care in inpatient units, domiciliaries, affiliations with 

state and local housing resources, vouchers for single-room occupancy, and 

congregate housing in private homes.

• Forms of housing that are considered more effective are those in which clinical 

services are integrated or efforts are made by the treating staff to foster 

community living (Goldfinger et al., 1997; Schutt & Garrett, 1992).

• Existing literature for persons with other forms of mental illness demonstrates 

that case management linked to specialized clinical services is more effective than 

“single-room occupancy” or “warehousing” in shelters without other forms of 

support (Goldfinger et al., 1997).

• The greatest risk to ending housing arrangement and likelihood of discontinuing 

rehabilitation arises from addictions (Goldfinger, Schutt, Tolomiczenko, Seidman, 

Penk, Turner, 1999; Rog, 2000; Tsemberis & Eisenberg, 2000; Culhane, Metraux, 

& Hadley, 2002). Thus, interventions that provide housing support are critical to 

success in rehabilitation (Mares, Kasprow, & Rosenheck, 2004).
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 - Interventions Page I - 170

• Research on outcomes for compensated work therapy transitional residence model

(CWT/TR) have shown that such endeavors indeed are quite successful in 

transitioning homeless, unemployed veterans who have been hospitalized in 

inpatient units from VA medical centers to independent living in the community 

(Schutt, Rosenheck, Penk, Drebing, & Seibyl, 2005). The program requires that 

unemployed, homeless veterans work in CWT (and, later, other jobs) in order to 

gain access to VHA housing for a limited time before transitioning to housing on 

one’s own or in private congregate housing with other veterans.

• Outcome studies show that such interventions are successful in promoting tenure 

in jobs and in personal living arrangements and promoting healthier styles of 

living, as well as lowering costs due to reduce recidivism, (Cook, 2001; McKay, 

Johnsen, Banks and Stein, 2005; Cowell, Pollio, North, et al, 2003; Pelletier, 

Ngyuen, Bradley, et al,2005.

4. Marital/Family Skills Training

• Marital and family treatments for trauma survivors fall into one of two general 

categories: systemic approaches designed to treat marital or family disruption, 

and supportive approaches designed to help family members offer support for an 

individual being treated for PTSD. These treatments are usually provided as an 

adjunct to other forms of treatment that are designed to directly address the 

PTSD symptoms.

• A single, low-quality RCT compared the addition of family therapy to individual 

therapy for war veterans with PTSD (Glynn et al., 1999). It found no significant 

benefit to the addition of behavioral family therapy (BFT), largely due to a high 

dropout rate, nor did it add significantly to the treatment of PTSD with direct 

therapeutic exposure (DTE) (an individual psychotherapy technique).

• There are no research studies on the effectiveness of marital/family therapy for 

the treatment of PTSD. However, because of trauma's unique effects on 

interpersonal relatedness, clinical wisdom indicates that spouses and families be 

included in the treatment of those with PTSD. Of note, marriage counselling is 

typically contraindicated in cases of domestic violence, until the batterer has been 

successfully (individually) rehabilitated.

5. Social Skills Training

• Effectiveness of social skills training has been well demonstrated over many years 

in many RCTs but not specifically for PTSD (Dilk & Bond, 1996).

• Effectiveness of social skills training has been demonstrated to reduce social 

isolation of persons with severe mental disorders (e.g., schizophrenia); similar 

techniques may be promising for PTSD, particularly if adapted to address 

antecedent conditions involved in trauma and its consequences (Foa & Rothbaum, 

1991).

6. Vocational Rehabilitation

• Effectiveness of vocational rehabilitation techniques in treating mental disorders 

has been demonstrated under controlled experimental conditions (Bell & Lysaker, 

1996; Bell et al., 1996; Bell et al., 1993; Bond et al., 1997) and controlled clinical 

studies (Anthony et al., 1995; Drake, 1996; Lehman, 1995; Lysaker et al., 1993).
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-2 - Interventions Page I - 171

• As a form of psychosocial rehabilitation, Supported Employment (SE) means that 

individuals with mental health disorders learn how to find and keep regular, realworld jobs in the community. In SE, vocational rehabilitation specialists provide 

continuous support to assist veterans achieve success at work. Outcomes for SE 

have been shown to be much better than for traditional approaches, and this 

finding has been replicated in several countries (Bond, Drake and Mueser, 1997; 

Latimer, Lecomte, Becker, et al., 2006; Oldman, Thomson, Calsaferri, et al., 

2005).

• Strong outcome data exist to support the efficacy of Supported Employment (SE) 

for veterans with medical and mental disorders (Glynn, Drebing, & Penk, 2009).

• SE consists of many different kinds of interventions, including the “place-andtrain” model that uses on-the-job training within and outside VA medical centers 

(Penk, 2000).

• A Cochrane Report reviewed eighteen randomized controlled trials among nonveteran and veteran samples, mostly those with serious mental disorders, and 

found that SE was superior to programs that offered pre-vocational training 

(Crowther, Marshall, Bond, and Huxley, 2001).

• SE was found to be associated with fewer crises, less chaos, more structure, and 

on-going support from vocational rehabilitation specialists, because consumers 

now focus on developing their lives in the community and managing their illness 

more independently (Bond, Becker, and Drake, 2001).

• Effect sizes for treating PTSD with Supported Employment are sizable (e.g., 

Glynn, Drebing, & Penk; 2009; Drebing, Van Ormer, Rosenheck, Rounsaville, 

Herz, & Penk, 2005; Drebing, Van Ormer, Schutt, Krebs, Losardo, Boyd, Penk, & 

Rosenheck, 2004; Drebing, Van Ormer, Rosenheck, Rounsaville, Herz, & Penk, 

2005; Rogers, Anthony, Lyass, & Penk, 2006; Drebing, Van Ormer, Mueller, 

Hebert, Penk, Petry, Rosenheck, & Rounsaville, 2007).

7. Case Management

Although case management has been shown to be useful for a range of other psychiatric 

disorders, there is currently no evidence available from RCTs or from systematic reviews 

to support or reject the use of case management for PTSD patients.

• Among populations with histories of trauma, the assertive community treatment 

models have been empirically validated under controlled (but not with random 

assignment) conditions (Mueser et al., 1998).

• Most of the research that empirically validates case management has been 

conducted among persons with severe mental disorders (Mueser et al., 1998), 

presumably including persons with co-occurring PTSD and other disorders.

• Evidence suggests that outcomes are more favorable for intensive case 

management (well-trained clinician teaches client psychosocial rehabilitation skills 

in the client’s home/community) than for simple case management (clinician links 

client to needed services).

• Case management has been demonstrated to reduce in-patient hospitalizations 

and severe symptoms, as well as stabilize housing for formerly homeless persons; 

however, there is little evidence to suggest that case management improves 

vocational adjustment/social functioning (Mueser et al., 1998).
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D2. Spiritual Support

BACKGROUND

Religion may provide a framework by which many survivors of trauma construct a 

meaningful account of their experience and may be a useful focus for intervention with 

trauma survivors. The terms “religious” and “spiritual” are both used in the clinical 

literature to refer to beliefs and practices to which individuals may turn for support 

following a traumatic event. 

DISCUSSION

There is a large body of anecdotal literature documenting the propensity of individuals to 

seek religious/spiritual comfort following a traumatic event. The terrorist attacks of 

September 11, 2001 provide a recent instance of this phenomenon. Meisenhelder (2002) 

noted that “the events of September 11, 2001 triggered . . . an increase in attendance 

in religious services and practices immediately following the tragic events.” Schuster and 

colleagues (2001) performed a nationwide phone survey of 569 adults within a week of 

the attacks, and found that 90 percent reported coping by “turning to religion.” 

A study of help-seeking military veterans found significant associations between 

negative religious coping, lack of forgiveness, and worse PTSD and depression

symptoms (Witvliet et al., 2004). Similarly, loss of religious faith was found to be 

associated with greater utilization of mental health services among military veterans in 

treatment for PTSD (Fontana & Rosenheck, 2004). 

In a study of religiously active trauma survivors, positive relationships were found 

between a measure of positive religious coping, seeking spiritual support, and 

posttraumatic growth. In the same study a negative religious coping indicator, religious 

strain, was associated with increased post-traumatic symptoms (Harris et al., 2008). 

Hypothetical pathways for positive physical/mental health benefits from 

religious/spiritual practice include; (1) reduction of behavioral risks through healthy 

religious lifestyles (e.g., less drinking or smoking), (2) expanded social support through 

involvement in spiritual communities, (3) enhancement of coping skills and helpful 

cognitive appraisals resulting in meaning making, and (4) physiological mechanisms such 

as activation of the “relaxation response” through prayer or meditation. 

Chaplains/pastoral care teams work can work in close collaboration with mental health 

providers to ensure that patients who desire it are presented with a spiritual care 

experience that results in emotional comfort and improved satisfaction with care (Clark 

et al., 2003). For some, Chaplains may play an important role in helping individuals 

regain a sense that their basic life assumptions are true. They can also provide 

opportunities for participation in prayers, mantras, rites, and rituals, and appropriate 

end-of life care as determined important by the patient (Canda & Phaobtong, 1992; Lee, 

1997). Often, Chaplains represent the first source of support sought by those 

experiencing PTSD symptoms. The act of talking to a Chaplain is unlikely to be 

accompanied by the same perception of stigma as the seeking of mental health 

treatment, and, in active duty military settings, Chaplains are more able to provide 

confidentiality than their mental health provider colleagues. Therefore, in addition to 

providing counseling services, Chaplains can play a key role in encouraging participation 

in treatment for those who may require it. Finally, Chaplains can often provide an 

important link to the larger community for those with PTSD who have limited social 

participation.
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EVIDENCE

Recommendation Sources LE QE SR

1 Assess for spiritual needs and 

facilitate access to spiritual/religious 

care when sought 

Canda and Phaobtong, 1992

Clark et al., 2003

Fontana. 2004

Harris et al., 2008

Lee, 1997

Witvliet et al., 2004

II, III Poor I

LE =Level of Evidence; QE = Quality of Evidence; SR = Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)

E. SOMATIC TREATMENT

E1. Biomedical Somatic Therapies 

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate the evidence for efficacy of Biomedical Somatic Therapies, including 

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT), Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES), Vagal Nerve 

Stimulation (VNS), Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS), and Deep Brain 

Stimulation (DBS), in the treatment of PTSD.

BACKGROUND 

There has been little research studying these modalities in the treatment of PTSD. ECT 

has strong research support in the treatment of refractory depression. VNS, rTMS, and 

CES have been cleared for marketing by the FDA for the treatment of depression, and 

DBS has been given a humanitarian exemption clearance for marketing for the 

treatment of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. None of these modalities has been 

approved for the treatment of PTSD.

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. There is insufficient evidence to recommend the use of any of the Biomedical 

Somatic Therapies for first-line treatment of PTSD. [D]

2. ECT and rTMS may be considered as an alternative in chronic, severe, medicationand psychotherapy-resistant PTSD. [B]

DISCUSSION

Although there is significant interest in biomedical somatic interventions in PTSD, there 

is no evidence for their use as a first-line treatment for PTSD. ECT and rTMS may be 

beneficial in chronic, treatment-resistant PTSD; however, their use has to be further 

studied in larger patient populations and specifically in combat veterans. 

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

Watts (2007) reports a VA retrospective chart review study of 12 hospitalized Vietnam 

veterans with severe refractory depression (including bipolar depression) with co-morbid 

PTSD who underwent a course of ECT. Results showed good response for depressive 

symptoms but minimal response for PTSD symptoms.

Margoob et al. (2010) reports on an open ECT trial for 20 patients (17 completers) with 

severe, chronic, antidepressant- and CBT-refractory PTSD who were prospectively 

treated with a fixed course of 6 bilateral ECT treatments on an outpatient basis. The 

improvement in PTSD (40 percent), measured by CAPS, was independent of the 

improvement in depression (57 percent), and treatment gains were maintained at 4-6 

months of follow-up.
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Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS)

Rosenberg (2002) added rTMS to standard antidepressant therapy in 12 patients with 

PTSD and found that depression responded strongly but that PTSD benefits were 

minimal. 

Osuch (2009) studied rTMS as an adjunct to exposure therapy and existing medications 

in 9 patients with co-morbid major depression and PTSD in a double-blind crossover 

study that included a sham arm and found a decrease in hyperarousal symptoms alone. 

Cohen (2004) reported findings of an RCT that showed significant improvement in PTSD 

core symptoms of re-experiencing and avoidance, but only when a 10-Hertz treatment 

was delivered (note that Osuch utilized no more than 5-Hertz strength). 

Boggio et al. (2009) studied the efficacy of 20 Hz rTMS of either the right or left 

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) as compared to sham rTMS in 30 patients with 

chronic PTSD in a double blind, placebo-controlled trial with a sham arm. Both active 

conditions—20 Hz rTMS of the left and right DLPFC—induced a significant decrease in 

PTSD symptoms, based on the PTSD Checklist and Treatment Outcome PTSD Scale; 

however, right rTMS induced a larger effect than left rTMS. Improvements in PTSD 

symptoms were still significant at the 3-month follow-up. Neuropsychological evaluation 

showed that active 20 Hz rTMS was not associated with cognitive worsening in patients 

with PTSD.

Vagal Nerve Stimulation (VNS)

There is one open pilot study of Vagal Nerve Stimulation for treatment-resistant anxiety 

disorders (George, 2008) that included two patients with PTSD. This study does not 

provide sufficient evidence on which to base a recommendation regarding the use of 

VNS in the treatment of PTSD.

Although there has been significant interest and widespread utilization of CES in the 

treatment of PTSD, there is insufficient evidence for or against its use. 

Conclusion:

While intriguing, the findings from these studies are limited by a small number of 

patients and co-morbid symptomatology and do not provide adequate support to 

recommend any of the biomedical somatic interventions as a first-line treatment for 

PTSD. rTMS and ECT have had initial evidence of possible benefits in chronic, treatmentresistant PTSD; however, more studies in larger patient populations are needed.
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EVIDENCE TABLE

Evidence Source LE QE SR

1 Any Biomedical Somatic Therapies 

for first-line treatment of PTSD

D

2 ECT – for PTSD co-morbid with 

severe refractory depression

Watts, 2007

Margoob, 2010

II-3

II-2 

Fair B

3 rTMS -

Good PTSD outcome at higher 

frequency

Primarily for co-morbid depression 

added to antidepressant. Depression 

benefit robust

Burt ,2002 III Poor B

Cohen, 2004

Boggio, 2009

I

I

Good

Rosenberg, 2002

Osuch, 2009

I

II-1 

Fair

4 VNS - vagus nerve stimulation 

(VNS) for treatment-resistant anxiety 

disorders

George, 2008 I Poor I

LE=Level of Evidence QE=Quality of Evidence; SR= Strength of Recommendation (see Appendix A)

E2. Acupuncture

OBJECTIVE

Improve management of PTSD symptoms, particularly when accompanied by associated 

symptoms of chronic pain, depression, insomnia, anxiety, or substance abuse.

BACKGROUND

The practice of needling in acupuncture to mediate pain, one of the well-accepted 

indications for acupuncture, is thought to occur through the production of endogenous 

monoamines and neuropeptides. Besides activating neurohumoral pathways, 

acupuncture stimulates neural connections associated with the Autonomic Nervous 

System, prefrontal cortex, and limbic system, all structures thought to regulate the 

pathophysiology of PTSD. Acupuncture investigation for the treatment of PTSD has been 

limited to, at best, two (English) RCTs. However, symptomatic relief of disturbances 

associated with PTSD symptom clusters enhances the consideration of the use of this 

modality. 

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Acupuncture may be considered as treatment for patients with PTSD. [B]

DISCUSSION

Research focusing on the efficacy of acupuncture is still relatively limited. The few 

available studies are well done and demonstrate significant improvement in both PTSD 

and PTSD-associated symptomatology. A larger numbers of studies exist, concluding 

acupuncture’s efficacy in pain management, insomnia, depression, and substance abuse. 

Hollifield et al. (2007) evaluated the potential efficacy and acceptability of acupuncture 

for the treatment of PTSD. Individuals diagnosed with PTSD were randomized to an 

acupuncture treatment group (ACU), a cognitive-behavioral therapy group (CBT), or a 

wait list control group (WLC). The primary outcome measure was self-reported PTSD 

symptoms at baseline, end treatment, and 3-month follow-up. Repeated measures 

MANOVA was used to detect predicted Group X Time effects in both intent-to-treat (ITT) 

and treatment completion models. Compared with the WLC condition in the ITT model, 

acupuncture provided large treatment effects for PTSD (F [1, 46] = 12.60; p < 0.01; 

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CAM Modalities:

CAM modalities are typically grouped into broad categories reflecting putative 

mechanism of action: However, this is more for convenience than any specific biologic 

underpinnings. Many modalities, such as acupuncture, span more than one category. 

Generally consistent with the schema offered by the National Center for Complimentary 

and Alternative Medicine these groups are:

Natural Products (Biologically Based Practices): Biologically based therapies that 

use natural substances (e.g., herbs, foods, vitamins, dietary supplements, homeopathic 

remedies) to promote healing and wellness.

Mind-Body Medicine: Approaches that seek to enhance general well-being through 

balancing mind and body. These practices emphasize the use of the mind, the body, or a 

combination of mental and physical activities to harmonize mind-body functioning to 

promote health and well-being. Those that focus primarily on mental activity include 

prayer and guided imagery. Those that emphasize the integration of mind and body for 

experiencing more fundamental processes underlying cognitive reflection include 

meditation, yoga, Tai Chi, breath-oriented therapies, and expressive arts therapies (such 

as dance, music, and art therapies). 

Biofeedback (both neurofeedback that trains one to regulate attentional states via 

regulation of beta, alpha, theta, and delta EEG spectral analysis, as well as 

psychophysiological regulation of HR, Respiration, SC, EMG, and HRV) could, like 

hypnosis, be considered standard approaches to psychotherapy, and be included under 

that category. Research has shown positive outcomes for biofeedback for pain, sleep, 

and anxiety. Various relaxation skills (such as progressive muscle relaxation) are utilized 

as part of biofeedback.

Manipulation and Body Based Practices (Exercise and Movement): These ractices 

are based on the manipulation of one or more parts or systems of the body. 

Manipulation of another’s body structure including bones and joints, soft tissue,

circulatory, and lymphatic systems are found in such disciplines as chiropractic spinal 

and joint manipulation, osteopathic manipulation of joints and soft tissue, massage 

therapy such as lymphatic drainage, deep and connective tissue manipulation such as 

Rolfing, and stimulation of specific points such as reflexology and acupressure. Active 

movement disciplines that focus on reducing pain through improving movement 

functioning use practitioners’ guidance through hands-on feedback or verbal instruction 

as is found in Movement Therapies such as the Alexander Technique, Feldenkrais, Laban 

Movement Analysis, and others.

Energy medicine: Energy-focused practices that involve connecting with and balancing 

energetic fields that purportedly surround and penetrate the human body (e.g., Qi gong, 

Reiki, Therapeutic touch).

Whole Medical Systems: Traditional medicine systems based upon comprehensive 

systems of theory and practice for improving overall health and correcting health 

imbalances that focus on both improving overall lifestyle (diet exercise, social and emotional 

functioning), and specific methods of herbal and somatic interventions, such as Ayurvedic 

Medicine, Traditional Chinese Medicine (including acupuncture), and naturopathy (which 

combines disciplines from the above categories). 
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RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. There is insufficient evidence to recommend CAM approaches as first line 

treatments for PTSD. [I]

2. CAM approaches that facilitate a relaxation response (e.g. mindfulness, yoga, 

acupuncture, massage, and others) may be considered for adjunctive treatment of 

hyperarousal symptoms, although there is no evidence that these are more 

effective than standard stress inoculation techniques. [I]

3. CAM approaches may be considered as adjunctive approaches to address some comorbid conditions (e.g. acupuncture for pain). [C] 

4. CAM may facilitate engagement in medical care and may be considered in some 

patients who refuse evidence-based treatments. However, providers should 

discuss the evidence for effectiveness and risk-benefits of different options, and 

ensure that the patient is appropriately informed.

DISCUSSION

Surveys of CAM utilization (meditation, yoga, massage, and deep breathing exercises) 

among the general US population indicate significant increases in acceptance of these 

practices over the past decade (Barnes et al., 2008). A recent White House Commission 

report on CAM highlighted the need for continued rigorous research regarding these 

approaches (White House Commission, 2002). 

Although Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) approaches to the treatment 

of many medical and mental health diagnoses, including PTSD, are in widespread use, 

the research base to support their effectiveness is far from complete. Evidence for their 

use for PTSD is sparse, yet numerous CAM modalities have been shown to be effective 

for symptomatic relief related to insomnia, anxiety, pain ( AHRQ, 2009), and various 

somatic presentations associated with PTSD. 

F1. Natural Products (Biologically Based Practices)

Herbal (phytotherapy) and dietary supplements have been used for the treatment of 

PTSD. Herbs and supplements are believed to boost health functioning through 

micronutrients that are directly used by body tissues, either targeting a specific organ or 

system, or through balancing systems that interact with each other. Although individual 

consumers may purchase individual herbs or vitamins, practitioners typically recommend 

combinations based upon both the suspected pathology as well as the patient in order to 

boost their host resistance. An example of specific over-the-counter supplements is 

omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), that affects catecholamines and 

proinflammatory cytokines, and that has been shown in several RTCs to decrease the 

perception of stress (Bradbury, 2004), improve mood (Lin & SU, 2007; Mischoulon et al, 

2009), and decrease symptoms of ADHD in children (Johnson et al., 2009; Sinn & 

Bryan, 2007).

Herbal remedies such as Kava Kava have been shown to reduce anxiety (Pitler & Ernst, 

2003), while others (valerian root, typically in combinations of herbs) has been shown to 

improve sleep (Bent et al., 2006). St. John's Wart has also been used to treat mild 

depression with some benefit compared to placebo (Linde, Berner, & Kriston, 2008). Although 

patients frequently prefer phytotherapy over prescription medication, often claiming 

fewer side effects, herbal benefits are typically not as effective as prescription 

medications, their safety has been questioned, and these have not been well studied in 
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patients specifically diagnoses with PTSD. Natural precursors to Seratonin and GABA

sold over the counter have also shown reductions in anxiety, yet also not within the 

context of PTSD. 

Homeopathic theory is entirely different from herbal medicine and supplements, 

although both are widely utilized throughout the world. Samuel Hahnemann 

(Hahnemann, 1996) described how substances that in larger quantities acted as a toxin, 

in specifically prepared microdoses served to stimulate the body’s immune system to 

repel those symptoms that arise in consort with exposure to a toxin. Each toxic 

substance known to man has its symptom picture, and therefore a homeopathic 

preparation of that toxin is thought to stimulate the body to overcome those symptoms. 

A homeopathic practitioner takes an extensive history in order to best understand which 

single remedy (or in some cases combinations of remedies) best accounts for the cluster 

of symptoms, and therefore would be most optimal for stimulating the body’s defenses 

against that symptom cluster. There are several RCT studies for anxiety, sleep, and pain 

in medical journals, but nothing directly for PTSD or in the context of PTSD Moreover, 

there is a great deal of controversy regarding the research on homeopathic efficacy, with 

most studies failing to find an overall benefit (Linde, Jonas, Melchart, & Willich, 2001).

Although there have been some studies of their effectiveness for addressing some 

components of PTSD, the results of this body of research provides insufficient evidence 

to draw firm conclusions about their direct effectiveness for PTSD. In addition, the 

quality and purity of herbals and dietary supplements available in the United States vary 

widely, further complicating their study and use.

F2. Mind-Body Medicine

Often referred to as “Mind-Body” approaches to health and well-being, methods such as 

meditation, yoga, and Tai Chi have been used for thousands of years by Eastern 

religious traditions for spiritual development. They share a common goal of 

enlightenment – that is, experiencing existence “as it is” prior to our conceptual biases 

stemming from our needs, fears, and desires. Traditional practice involves developing 

the ability to become fully immersed in the moment at hand, without cognitive reflection 

or pursuing or reacting to one’s fears or desires. This practice allows one to break out of 

habitual cognitive and behavioral patterns and become more open and responsive to the 

situation at hand. It is also thought to lead to a more harmonious mental and physical 

state of being. However, in the alternative healing culture of modern Western society, 

these traditional practices have been taken out of their original religious context and 

greatly simplified to appeal to modern social interests. Several meta-analyses and 

reviews have shown physical and psychological health benefits from Meditation, Yoga, 

and Tai Chi. However there is a lack of rigorous RCTs and head to head comparisons of

these approaches compared to other interventions for mental health benefits (Ospina, 

2007).

Meditation and relaxation techniques, based upon Buddhist meditation practices such as 

Zen or Vipassana, have been adapted in the West to assist with specific concerns such 

as anxiety and pain. One such approach, Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction, combines 

elements of yogic relaxation techniques and Buddhist awareness enhancement in a 

simple, concrete, and brief structured format that is easy for someone not steeped in 

Eastern traditions to learn. Transcendental MeditationTM, based on Yogic traditions, has 

been used to treat anxiety and depression in Vietnam veterans (Brooks 1985). There is 

a growing literature of RCTs showing meditation to be effective for enhancing attention, 

reducing anxiety and stress, improving sleep, and helping to manage pain (Grossman, 

Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach, 2004; Kabat-Zinn, Lipworth, & Burney, 1985; Davidson et 
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al, 2003). However, there is no published RCT in support of the use of meditation for 

PTSD per se.

Yoga is really a collection of practices to assist one to become “yoked with God.” 

Although there are several Ashrams that emphasize this collection of practices for 

spiritual enhancement, for the most part, “yoga” is synonymous in the West with Hathastyle Yoga. Hatha Yoga is a series of poses that help stretch muscles, improve tone and 

alignment, and teach one to breathe into and release one’s discomfort. Other types of 

yoga, such as Pranayama breathing techniques or the restorative and recuperative Yoga 

Nidra approach, are typically employed as part of Hatha Yoga classes in the West. Many 

RCTs have been conducted showing the value of yogic practices for improving sleep and 

reducing anxiety and stress (Kirkwood, tai Rampes, Tuffrey, et al, 2005; Sarang & 

Telles, 2006). However, there are currently no RCTs published in support of the use of 

yoga for PTSD per se.

Tai Chi Chuan (literally translated as “Grand Ultimate Fist”) was initially developed as a 

highly effective martial art. However, two hundred years ago a version was created that 

could be widely practiced by the general populous in order to improve physical health 

and mental well-being. The series of slow continuous movements synchronized with the 

expansion and contraction of one’s breath, is believed to harmonize mind and body in 

harmony with one’s surroundings. Stemming from the Taoist tradition to enhance health 

and foster a sense of unity with mind, body, and nature, Chi Kung (also transliterated as 

Qi Gung), is a series of exercises that include breath and movement. Adopted as part of 

the Traditional Chinese Medical Model, Chi Kung Exercises are said to help balance and 

circulate the “chi” (life-energy). Several RCTs have shown Tai Chi (Jin, 1989), and Chi 

Kung to be effective in improving a sense of calm and well-being, improve sleep, and 

improve physical health (Wang, Bannuru, Ramel, Kupelnick, et al, 2010). However, the 

evidence for benefits of Tai Chi compared to regular exercise is lacking.

F3. Manipulation and Body-Based Practices (Exercise and Movement)

Although hardly fitting the definition of a CAM modality, exercise used for psychological 

well-being is outside of the standard of practice for psychotherapy. However, exercise 

has been advocated as an integrative approach in the prevention and treatment of PTSD 

and other combat-related mental health problems. Wald and Taylor (2008) examined 

the relationship between baseline physical fitness and the development of PTSD 

symptoms (as measured by the Impact of Event Scale) in a group of 31 soldiers 

undergoing military survival training. They found that higher levels of pre-study physical 

fitness were inversely related to both trait anxiety levels and IES scores. Studies have 

shown that pre-trauma levels of exercise tend to decline after developing PTSD (de Assis 

et al., 2008). Aside from PTSD, depression was a frequent condition for which exercise 

therapy was applied. The majority of reviewed studies utilized an aerobic exercise 

regimen—e.g., walking, running, stationary cycling (Diaz & Motta, 2008; Manger & 

Motta, 2005). One study emphasized the importance of participant selection of the 

specific type of exercises that would constitute their treatment (Donta, et al, 2003). The 

studies reviewed here utilized both group and individual exercise formats. All studies 

demonstrated either a reduction in symptoms from baseline PTSD measures or relative 

to a placebo or control group, but the effects were generally modest and did not always 

extend to other mental health disorders, such as anxiety and depression. A primary 

methodological limitation of the papers reviewed here is that exercise interventions were 

rarely conducted in isolation from other psychotherapeutic approaches. 

Massage and skeletal manipulation has long been used for reducing the ill effects of 

physical and mental stress. Deprivation of touch has been seen as problematic for 

infants, and massage adherents claim that adults as well benefit from non-sexual 
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massage-style contact. In addition, Swedish-style massage targets the lymphatic system 

as well as intending to help relax large surface musculature. Deep Tissue and Sports 

Massage targets deeper skeletal musculature and connective tissue to correct structural 

imbalances. Many studies have shown the value of such approaches for at least transient 

stress and pain reduction and in support of sleep and anxiety. However, no research has 

demonstrated that these modalities are effective for PTSD per se.

F4. Energy medicine

There are a variety of CAM systems where a practitioner helps a patient to correct 

energy imbalances in their bodies. Practitioners place their hands over or directly upon 

various energy foci, and attempt to shift excess energy to deficient areas (Yogic Chakrabased approaches), and remove blockages (Traditional Chinese Medicine Chi-based 

approaches). Acupressure and Shiatsu are mostly based on Traditional Chinese 

Medicine, but use pressure on specific acupuncture points rather than needles. Reiki and 

Healing Touch are more energy based, and often the practitioner places their hands 

above the body of the client, sensing the energy and attempting to allow the energy 

areas to come into a balance. Chi Kung (Qi Gung) can be utilized by a Chi Kung master 

trained in Traditional Chinese medicine to assist another person. Many hospitals in China 

have departments of Traditional Chinese Medicine which include a Chi Kung Master who 

attempts to balance the chi in the patient by either direct hands-on methods or sitting 

nearby and placing the hands toward the patient. 

Reiki and Johrei are both energy medicine techniques that originated in Japan. In Reiki, 

the practitioner places his hands on or near the person receiving treatment with the 

intent to transmit ki, believed to be life-force energy. Johrei, a form of energy healing 

that originated in Japan, involves the practitioner facing the person receiving the 

treatment, where “spiritual energy” is transmitted through the practitioner (Brooks, et 

al., 2006).

There are no current controlled studies examining Reiki or johrei in patients with PTSD 

or Acute Stress Disorder. A small number of low-quality studies have been conducted, 

showing positive improvement in conditions commonly co-morbid with PTSD, such as 

depression (Collinge, Wentworth, and Sabo, 2005) or anxiety (Brooks et al., 2006). 

A recent systematic review of randomized clinical trials of Reiki noted that the currently 

available RCTs are “scarce” and lack independent replication (Lee, Pittler, and Ernst, 

2008). The studies that exist suffer from methodological flaws related to sample size, 

inadequate design, and poor reporting. 

F5. Whole Medical Systems

There are two major comprehensive traditional medical systems, and several minor 

medical systems that integrate lifestyle and intervention across multiple dimensions. 

Traditional Chinese Medicine utilizes nutrition, exercise, emotional balance, massage, 

herbs and acupuncture to restore balance to the body in relationship to one’s 

environment. Chinese medicine has a sophisticated system of diagnosis through 

assessment of various combinations of pulses, and other physical and mental signs and 

symptoms. Traditionally, specialists focus on herbal treatment, acupuncture treatment, 

massage or Chi Kung. However, Western schools teach a combination of these and 

modern practitioners in the United States typically focus on lifestyle, acupuncture and 

herbal treatments. Ayurvedic Medicine also emphasizes a healthy lifestyle, including diet 

and yoga, and offers supportive intervention through expunging toxins, tonifying, and 

balancing, primarily through herbal treatments. Less popular and less extensively 

developed systems include traditional healing systems from almost every culture on 
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earth such as Native American healing traditions, that also focus on living in harmony 

with one’s environment, supported by spiritual healers and herbal remedies. Although 

there is a great deal of research conducted on aspects of these healing systems (such as 

acupuncture, or the use of herbs), assessment of comprehensive systems are difficult to 

study, and lacking in the literature, especially with regard to mental health in general, 

and PTSD in particular.

F6. Other Approaches

Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) 

AAT is a goal-directed intervention in which an animal that meets specific criteria is an 

integral part of the treatment process. AAT is delivered and/or directed by a 

health/human service provider, working within the scope of his or her profession. AAT is 

designed to promote improvement in human physical, social, emotional, and/or 

cognitive functioning. AAT is provided in a variety of settings and may be group or 

individual in nature. Commonly used animals include dogs and horses. There are a 

growing number of programs throughout the United States that utilize animals as part of 

PTSD treatment, including programs specifically for veterans. There are two major 

approaches to AAT. One simply offers the opportunity to bond with an animal. The other 

is more structured and occurs within a therapeutic environment. AAT for those suffering 

from PTSD often ask the patient to engage non-verbally with one or more animals in a 

structured activity, such as approaching the animal in a safe manner that engages 

rather than frightens them and lead them through an obstacle course without touching 

them. This requires developing trust, rapport, and non-verbal communication. Evidence 

of AAT for PTSD is ongoing but at this point lacks support.
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Module I-3. MANAGEMENT OF SPECIFIC SYMPTOMS 

This section includes recommendations regarding treatment interventions for a selected 

list of physical symptoms that are common in patients presenting with post-traumatic 

stress symptoms.

Survivors of trauma may not complain directly of PTSD symptoms, such as reexperiencing or avoidance. Instead, they may complain of sleeping problems. When 

seeking to identify PTSD, providers should consider asking specific questions about sleep 

problems, (including flashbacks and nightmares), pain (including musculoskeletal, 

headache), or hyperarousal (including an exaggerated startle response or sleep 

disturbance). Many individuals with PTSD experience sleep disturbances (trouble falling 

asleep or problems with waking up frequently after falling asleep). Chronic pain and 

insomnia often occur simultaneously, with the vast majority of chronic pain patients 

complaining of interrupted or poor quality sleep. When a person with PTSD experiences 

sleep disturbances, using alcohol as a way to self-medicate becomes a double-edged 

sword. Excessive alcohol use can impair one's ability to sleep restfully and to cope with 

trauma memories and stress. The need to improve sleep in these patients is clear, given 

increasing evidence that sleep disturbance is associated with heightened pain sensitivity 

and elevated disability.

Chronic pain is frequently observed in patients with PTSD and is often associated with a

significant level of affective distress and physical disability. Chronic pain may develop 

because of an injury sustained in a traumatic event, such as a motor vehicle accident, 

work-related injury, or injury in military combat. Patients with chronic pain, particularly 

headache disorders and fibromyalgia (FM), associated with psychological traumas need a 

special management strategy. Diagnosis of headache disorders and FM in traumatized 

patients and obtaining the clinical history of a traumatic event or diagnosing PTSD in 

chronic pain patients are of great importance.

A. Sleep Disturbances

BACKGROUND

Many patients with PTSD have had insomnia for years, including broken sleep, frequent 

awakenings, and nightmares, all of which contribute to poor sleep quality. Hyperarousal 

behaviors, part of PTSD symptoms for many people, can be stronger at night and 

contribute to insomnia. Sleep problems in traumatized patients may also reflect comorbid conditions, some of which may be of new-onset (pain may be prominent among

these).

There is no evidence to suggest that insomnia, as a component of traumatic stress 

reactions, should be managed differently than insomnia associated with other conditions.

Clinical experience does, however, show that some psychologically traumatized patients 

dread sleep because of intense nightmares. 

Research demonstrates that non-pharmacological sleep strategies yield outcomes equal 

or superior to those obtained with hypnotics alone or hypnotics combined with nonpharmacological strategies. Long-term outcomes are better following nonpharmacological interventions. The aim of sleep management is to establish a regular, 

normalized sleep-wake pattern.
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RECOMMENDATIONS (BASED ON CONSENSUS OF THE WORKING GROUP CLINICAL EXPERTS)

Sleep Disturbance

1. Encourage patients to practice good sleep hygiene, including:

• Restricting the night-time sleep period to about eight hours

• Waking at a regular time

• Arising from bed at a regular time 

• Avoiding going to bed too early

• Avoiding alcohol

• Avoiding stimulants, caffeinated beverages, power/energy drinks, 

nicotine, and over-the-counter medications

• Avoiding stimulating activities, light, noise, and temperature extremes 

before bedtime (e.g., exercise, video games, T.V.) or in the sleeping 

area

• Reducing (to less than 30 minutes), or abolishing, daytime naps

• Practicing relaxation techniques

• Engaging in moderate exercise, but not immediately before bedtime

2. Offer Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia, which may include:

• Educating about proper sleep habits and sleep needs

• Correcting false and unrealistic beliefs/concerns about sleep

• Identifying and addressing anxious, automatic thoughts which disrupt 

sleep

3. Consider adjunctive therapy for nightmares using prazosin. [B] 

4. Any significant change in sleep patterns should trigger clinical reassessment in 

order to rule out worsening or new onset of co-morbid conditions

Insomnia

1. Monitor symptoms to assess improvement or deterioration and reassess 

accordingly.

2. Explore cause(s) for insomnia, including co-morbid conditions.

3. Begin treatment for insomnia with non-pharmacological treatments, including 

sleep hygiene and cognitive behavioral treatment (see recommendation for Sleep 

Disturbances).

4. The selection of sleep agents for the treatment of insomnia in PTSD patients may 

be impacted by other treatment decisions (e.g., medications already prescribed for 

the treatment of PTSD, depression, TBI, pain, or concurrent substance 

abuse/withdrawal) and social/environmental/logistical concerns associated with 

deployment.

a. Trazodone may be helpful in management of insomnia and may also 

supplement the action of other antidepressants. 

b. Hypnotics are a second-line approach to the management of insomnia 

and should only be used for short periods of time. Should hypnotic 

therapy be indicated, the newer generation of non-benzodiazepines (e.g. 
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zolpidem, eszopiclone, ramelteon) may have a safety advantage by virtue 

of their shorter half-life and lower risk of dependency. Patients should be 

warned of and monitored for the possibility of acute confusional 

states/bizarre sleep behaviors associated with hypnotic use. 

Benzodiazepines can be effective in chronic insomnia but may have 

significant adverse effects (confusion, sedation, intoxication) and 

significant risk of dependency. 

c. Atypical antipsychotics should be avoided due to potential adverse 

effects but may be of value when agitation or other symptoms are severe.

d. If nightmares remain severe, consider adjunctive treatment with prazosin

[B]

e. If symptoms persist or worsen, refer for evaluation and treatment of 

insomnia

Additional information of management of insomnia can be found in:

VHA Pharmacy Benefit Management (PBM) guideline for Insomnia: 

http://www.pbm.va.gov/ClinicalRecommendations.aspx
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Sleep Hygiene Patient Education

• Avoid or limit caffeinated products, nicotine, and alcohol, especially later in the day.

• Avoid drinking excess liquids after supper to avoid having to get up during the night to go 

to the bathroom.

• Avoid or limit daytime naps to 30 minutes in the early afternoon before 3:00 pm.

• Go to bed only when sleepy. Sleep only as much as needed to feel refreshed. Staying in 

bed longer can result in fragmented/shallow sleep on following nights.

• Create a dark, quiet, temperature-controlled bedroom (e.g., change the number of 

blankets you use; use earplugs; close the door if noisy).

• Avoid heavy meals within 2 hours of bedtime; a light snack might help if hungry.

• Maintain a regular daily schedule of activities, including bedtime and awakening times, 7 

days/week. Use an alarm clock if needed.

• Exercise regularly during the daytime. Avoid active exercise in the late evening when it is 

close to bedtime.

• Use the bed and bedroom only for sleeping or sexual activity. Do not eat, work, or watch 

television while in bed.

• If you cannot sleep, if possible, get out of bed and go to another room; read or 

engage in other quiet activities; or do other relaxation activities before 

attempting to sleep again. Return to bed only when sleepy Repeat if 

necessary. Do not watch the clock; turn the clock around or cover it up

• Solve problems before retiring. If not possible, write down your worries, plans, and 

strategies during the early evening and not at bedtime.

• Correct extrinsic factors, such as environmental disruption (e.g., pets or snoring partner).

• Establish a “wind-down” routine going to bed and develop and maintain bedtime “rituals” 

that make going to sleep a familiar routine; for example:

• Set time to relax before bed with 20-30 minutes of relaxation (e.g., soft music, 

meditation, breathing exercises

• Take a warm bath

• Have a light snack, which could include: warm milk, foods high in tryptophan, 

such as bananas, carbohydrates, which can help induce sleep

Adapted from Petit L, et al. Age Ageing 2003; 32: 22. Wilson S. and Nutt D. Prescriber 2005; 19: 29-41 Wolkove 

N, et al. CMAJ 2007; 176: 1449-54.

DISCUSSION

Use of Benzodiazepines for Sleep Disturbance

In a small, double-blind, placebo-controlled temazepam trial in acute accident/injury 

victims at a trauma center (Mellman et al., 2002), temazepam 30 mg was administered 

for 5 nights, tapered for 2 nights, then discontinued. At the 6-week follow-up, 6/11 

temazepam subjects and 3/11 placebo subjects met PTSD symptom criteria. Sleep 

improvement was noted, however, for the duration of the trial. However, in a small 

randomized, controlled trial, alprazolam did not have substantial benefit for PTSD or for 

nightmares, although it did improve anxiety (Braun, 1990). In another small single-blind 

controlled study, clonazepam did not demonstrate significant benefit for sleep 

difficulties, including nightmares (Cates, 2004). 

An argument can be made for short-term use of a benzodiazepine for the purpose of 

reducing hyperarousal symptoms in the immediate trauma aftermath, in order to help 
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normalize sleep cycles and minimize anxiety. Longer-term use of benzodiazepines, 

however, should be avoided, as the limited data available show that prolonged use of 

benzodiazepines (1-6 months in duration) is associated with a higher rate of subsequent 

PTSD (Gelpin et al., 1996).

Benzodiazepines use should be considered relatively contraindicated in combat veterans 

with PTSD because of the very high co-morbidity of combat-related PTSD with alcohol 

misuse and substance use disorders (upwards of 50 percent of co-morbidity) and 

potential problems with tolerance and dependence. Once initiated in combat veterans, 

benzodiazepines can be very difficult, if not impossible, to discontinue, due to significant 

withdrawal symptoms compounded by the underlying PTSD symptoms.

Other agents that have improved insomnia are trazodone, mirtazapine, and olanzapine. 

There are no trials of non-benzodiazepine hypnotics in the treatment of sleep disorders 

associated with PTSD.

Use of Prazosin for Sleep Disturbance

Five publications (Raskind 2000, 2002, 2003; Taylor 2006 & 2008) that examined the 

role of antiadrenergic medications, commonly used for treating hypertension, in the 

treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were identified in the peer-reviewed 

literature.

Although Taylor et al. (2006) and Raskind et al. (2003) were excluded from the analyses 

(due to the small number of subjects that did not meet inclusion criteria), both have 

shown positive results in reducing psychological distress, specifically to trauma cues 

(Taylor et al., 2006). Patients taking prozosin showed significant improvement on the 

Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (Raskind, 2003).

Raskind et al. (2007) evaluated prazosin effects on trauma nightmares, sleep quality, 

global clinical status, dream characteristics, and co-morbid depression. Forty veterans 

(mean age 56 +/- 9) with chronic PTSD and distressing trauma nightmares and sleep 

disturbance were randomized to evening prazosin (13.3 +/- 3 mg/day) or placebo for 8 

weeks. In the evaluable sample (n = 34), primary outcome measures demonstrated that 

prazosin was significantly superior to placebo for reducing trauma nightmares and 

improving sleep quality. Prazosin shifted dream characteristics from those typical of 

trauma-related nightmares toward those typical of normal dreams. 

Taylor et al. (2008) was a double blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study of 13 

civilians with trauma-related PTSD. Prazosin was rapidly titrated to 3 mg/night during 

each 3-week treatment phase. Prazosin, compared with placebo, significantly increased 

total sleep time by 94 min (p <0.01), and total rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and 

mean REM duration were also longer with prazosin. Reductions in trauma nightmares, 

total PTSD symptoms (using the PCL-C), and CGIC scores were significantly changed 

compared with placebo.

The results of these studies were consistent and positive, suggesting that prazosin 

therapy is safe and is associated with reduction of nighttime symptoms of PTSD. 

Prazosin is an effective and well-tolerated treatment for trauma nightmares, sleep 

disturbance, and global clinical status in veterans with chronic PTSD.

Ruff and colleagues (2009) found in an observational study that prazosin combined with 

sleep hygiene counseling was an effective initial treatment for a group of OIF/OEF 

veterans (n=74) with headaches associated with histories of mild TBI from exposure to 

an explosion in combat and with PTSD. Prazosin was well tolerated. Nine weeks after 

providing sleep counseling and initiating an increasing dosage schedule of prazosin at 

bedtime, 65 veterans had reduced headache intensity and frequency, reduced daytime 

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B. Pain

BACKGROUND

There is a growing body of research that indicates clearly that PTSD and chronic pain 

frequently co-occur. People with both PTSD and chronic pain tend to have greater 

distress and impairment compared to those with only one of these conditions, and 

assessment and treatment are more complicated. It is therefore important to include a 

pain assessment (acute or chronic) in the examination of patient with ASD or PTSD, and 

to consider the extent to which PTSD symptoms may be influenced by pain or the extent 

to which pain symptoms are being exacerbated by PTSD.

Certain types of chronic pain are more common in individuals who have experienced 

specific traumas. Among adult survivors of physical, psychological, or sexual abuse the 

most common forms of chronic pain involve: pain in the pelvis, lower back, face, and 

bladder; fibromyalgia; interstitial cystitis; and non-remitting whiplash syndromes. 

Chronic pain is a common problem among returning soldiers. In service persons from

OEF/OIF, head, neck, back, shoulder, and knee pain have been found to be most 

common (Lew, 2009). Co-morbidity of physical and emotional problems; and in 

particular the combination of chronic pain, PTSD symptoms, and post-concussion 

syndrome (PCS); is unique to the OEF/OIF population and appears to be more common 

in blast-injured patients and may be more difficult to treat than each condition 

independently.

Understanding the development and maintenance of chronic pain and PTSD and how 

they interact is of essential importance and is often overlooked in practice. Fear-based 

avoidance is a central theme in both PTSD and chronic pain. While the underlying basis 

for the avoidance may differ, avoidance behaviors may exacerbate or maintain the 

severity of either or both conditions. Although pharmacological agents have been 

examined in the treatment of pain and PTSD individually, little is known regarding the 

relationship of medication use with functioning in patients with co-morbid conditions.

Pain should be assessed and aggressively treated in early phases of post-trauma, and 

providers across disciplines need to work together to develop treatments that are 

complementary, based on theory, and supported by empirical evidence.

RECOMMENDATIONS (BASED ON CONSENSUS OF THE WORKING GROUP CLINICAL EXPERTS)

1. Recommend pain assessment using a ‘0 to 10’ scale. 

2. Obtain a thorough biopsychosocial history and assess for other medical and 

psychiatric problems, including risk assessment for suicidal and homicidal 

ideation and misuse of substances, such as drugs or alcohol and over-thecounter and prescription drugs or narcotics. 

3. Assessment should include questions about the nature of the pain and likely 

etiology (i.e., musculoskeletal and neuropathic), locations, quality, quantity, 

triggers, intensity, and duration of the pain, as well as aggravating and relieving 

factors.

4. Assessment should include evaluation of the impact of pain on function and 

activities, pain-related disability, or interference with daily activities.

5. Assessment should include the identification of avoidance behaviors that 

contribute to emotional distress and/or impaired functioning. 

6. Management of pain should be multidisciplinary, addressing the physical, social, 

psychological, and spiritual components of pain in an individualized treatment 

plan that is tailored to the type of pain. [C]
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7. Selection of treatment options should balance the benefits of pain control with 

possible adverse effects (especially sedating medications) on the individual’s 

ability to participate in, and benefit from, PTSD treatment. [I]

8. Musculoskeletal pain syndromes can respond to correcting the underlying 

condition and treatment with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

9. When appropriate, recommend use of non-pharmacological modalities for pain 

control, such as biofeedback, massage, imaging therapy, physical therapy, and 

complementary alternative modalities (yoga, meditation, acupuncture). [C]

10.Centrally acting medications should be used in caution in patients with PTSD, as 

they may cause confusion and deterioration of cognitive performance and 

interfere with the recovery process.

a. If required, lower doses of opioid therapy or other centrally acting 

analgesics should be used for short duration with transition to the use of 

NSAIDs. [C] 

5. Consider offering Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, which may include:

b. Encouraging increasing activity by setting goals

c. Correcting false and unrealistic beliefs/concerns about pain

d. Teaching cognitive and behavioral coping skills (e.g., activity pacing)

e. Practicing and consolidation of coping skills and reinforcement of use

DISCUSSION

Prevalence

PTSD and chronic pain disorder are highly co-morbid (Sharp, 2001). The literature 

indicates a high degree of co-occurrence between pain and PTSD, regardless of whether

the pain is being assessed in patients with PTSD or PTSD is being assessed in patients 

with chronic pain. Chronic pain and PTSD are frequently observed to be co-morbid

following traumatic injury (Bryant et al., 1999; Hickling and Blanchard, 1992). Studies 

have shown that PTSD symptoms tend to be elevated in patients with chronic pain and 

fibromyalgia (Amir, 1997; Engel, 2000; Sherman, 2000), chronic low back pain, and 

other musculoskeletal disorders (Sherman, 2000).

Sharp (2004) described four studies of patient populations that were drawn from MVA 

victims, combat veterans, fire fighters, and chronic pain clinic patients. In each instance,

they found a high prevalence of pain in patients diagnosed with PTSD or a high 

prevalence of PTSD in patients diagnosed with chronic pain. Schwartz et al. (2006) 

noted that between 10 percent and 50 percent of patients treated in tertiary care 

settings for chronic pain and related conditions have symptoms that meet criteria for 

PTSD. Muse (1986) reported that 9.5 percent of a sample of patients attending a 

multidisciplinary chronic pain center met criteria for "post-traumatic pain syndrome." 

Norman et al. (2007, 2008) found that self-reported pain levels within 24-48 hours after 

serious injury were significantly and strongly associated with the subsequent risk of 

PTSD. The author suggests that high levels of peri-traumatic pain could be used to 

identify individuals at elevated risk for PTSD following traumatic injury. Similarly, in a 

study of 2931 seriously injured patients admitted to acute care hospitals in the United 

States, Zatzick and Galea (2007) found that pain after injury was significantly associated 

with an increased risk of PTSD one year after hospitalization. The prevalence of PTSD is 

particularly high when the chronic pain results directly from a traumatic event (Hickling 

& Blanchard, 1992; Taylor & Koch, 1995; Chibnall, 1994; Asmundson et al., 1998; Otis 
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et al., 2003), and the presence of both PTSD and chronic pain can increase the symptom 

severity of either condition (Otis, 2003).

Beckham (1997) reported that 80 percent of combat Vietnam veterans with PSTD who 

completed self-report questionnaires assessing PTSD reported the presence of a chronic 

pain condition. Increased levels of PTSD re-experiencing symptoms were associated with 

increased pain level and pain-related disability.

The co-occurrence of chronic pain and PTSD has implications for the experience of both 

conditions. Persons with co-morbid pain and PTSD may experience less symptom 

improvement after treatment for these conditions (Asmundson, 2002; Baker et al., 

1997; Clark et al., 2009; Hickling, 1992; McClean, 2005; Muse, 1986). Patients with 

chronic pain related to trauma or PTSD experience more intense pain and affective 

distress (Geisser, 1996), higher levels of life interference (Turk et al., 1996), and 

greater disability than pain patients without trauma or PTSD (Sherman, 2000).

Co-morbidity of Pain and PTSD (and PCS) in OEF/OIF

Because of the nature of injuries and the physical demands of OEF and OIF 

deployments, there are data to suggest that a significant majority of returned warriors 

report ongoing pain problems (Clark, 2004; Clark et al., 2009a; Gironda et al., 2006; 

Kalra et al., 2008).

Post-traumatic headaches are a common complaint (Gironda et al., 2009; Clark et al., 

2007; Gironda et al., 2006; Lew et al., 2007; Ruff et al., 2008). Other commonly 

reported pain problems are low back pain and joint pain (Clark et al., 2007; Clark et al., 

2009a). The high prevalence of chronic pain (pain that lasts longer than 3 months) 

places OEF/OIF soldiers at long-term risk for impaired functional ability, significant 

emotional distress, interpersonal conflict, substance misuse, and vocational limitations. 

Substance misuse (including opioid medications) has also been found in OEF/OIF 

returnees, although at lesser prevalence than pain (published rates range from 3 to 28

percent) (Clark et al., 2007; Kalra et al., 2008; Kang & Hyams, 2007; Shipherd et al., 

2007).

Pain symptoms are a common complaint among post-deployment populations (back pain 

and headache). In one study of 1800 OEF/OIF veterans, 46.5 percent reported some 

pain, with 59 percent of those exceeding the VA clinical threshold of > 4 on a 0-10 pain 

scale (Gironda et al., 2006). Recent literature suggests that many returning service 

members have multiple co-morbid symptoms of post-concussion syndrome, chronic 

pain, and PTSD (Clark et al., 2007; Clark et al., 2009; Lew et al., 2009; Sayer et al., 

2008). In a sample of OEF/OIF veterans, pain was the single most common complaint 

recorded, and 42 percent of the sample reported concurrent PCS, chronic pain, and 

PTSD symptoms.

“The mechanism by which chronic pain and PTSD (and Post-Concussion Syndrome) 

interact is still unclear. Researchers evaluating co-morbid pain and PTSD have presented 

a variety of models to explain this phenomenon, including a Shared Vulnerability model, 

a Mutual Maintenance model, and a Triple Vulnerability model (Asmundson et al., 2002; 

Otis et al., 2003; Sharp & Harvey, 2001). These models propose mechanisms of 

interaction via the dispositional tendency to be fearful or anxious, the belief that anxiety 

states cause harmful consequences, and the cognitive distortions and behavioral 

patterns of PTSD and chronic pain that maintain or exacerbate symptoms of the other 

syndrome. These models have yet to be fully tested, and there are no available 

outcomes data regarding the success of integrated treatment of co-morbid pain and 

PTSD symptoms (Otis et al., 2003). However, such research is now being conducted." 

(Otis, 2008) (Walker, 2010).
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Pain & PTSD Sensitivity Assessment

Given the high rates of co-morbidity of chronic pain and PTSD, clinicians should assess 

for both disorders. Several well-validated self-report questionnaires are available to help 

determine a diagnosis and the severity of symptoms. Self-report measures of pain,

including the 0 to 10 numerical pain rating scale, the McGill Pain Questionnaire, the West 

Haven-Yale Multidimensional Pain Inventory, or the Pain Outcomes Questionnaire, were

developed and validated specifically for veterans.

Asmundson et al. (2002) recommended that clinicians who conduct diagnostic 

assessments of patients presenting with PTSD symptoms also screen for the presence of 

existing pain conditions, such as fibromyalgia or chronic musculoskeletal pain using a

self-reported questions or a structured clinical interview format

Interdisciplinary Approach to Management

Only a few studies have reported the results of treatments designed to address cooccurring chronic pain and PTSD. Given the current state of the literature, few 

recommendations can be made regarding preferred treatment modalities for individuals 

with co-morbid pain and PTSD. Several authors support the use of a multidisciplinary 

treatment approach for patients with PTSD and chronic pain (Muse, 1986). 

Given the broad range of emotional and physical symptoms characteristic of veterans 

with co-occurring PTSD, chronic pain, and possible PCS, an integrated treatment 

approach is required (Walker, 2010). Treatment goals need to be clarified (e.g., reduce 

symptom severity, increase occupational or interpersonal functioning, reduce ongoing 

use of healthcare services) (Clark, 2008).

The focus of the integrated approach should be on education and management of 

symptoms and reducing pain and suffering, improving function, and enhancing quality of

life. The interventions and treatment modalities employed should follow the current 

evidence-based recommendations for PCS, chronic pain, and PTSD (see VA/DoD 

guidelines for mTBI/Concussion and the VHA National Pain Management Strategy 

[NPMS], 2003); the specific practice guidelines for managing acute and chronic pain 

associated with certain conditions, like low back pain (APS-AAPM, 2005; VHA/DoD, 

2007); and the guideline for the use of opioids with chronic pain (VHA/DoD, 2010).

For the OEF/OIF population of returning soldiers, treatment should be individualized on 

an inpatient or outpatient basis, depending upon needs within the group and individual 

treatment formats. Treatment should be goal-oriented and time-limited, with increased 

patient function and independence as major goals (Clark, 2009).

Non-Pharmacological Treatment

Initial treatment of PTSD focuses on providing psychoeducation about the disorder. This 

may include specifically addressing how fears and avoidance of the trauma may serve to 

maintain the symptoms and decrease the ability to function. This may also include 

discussing how pain may serve as a trigger or reminder of the trauma and increase 

arousal, fear, and avoidance and thereby increase disability and pain (Sharp, 2004).

Non-pharmacological ways to manage chronic pain may include Relaxation (e.g., relax 

the locus of the pain problems by relaxing muscle tension). Increasing Activity and 

Fitness (e.g., gradual return to more normal levels of activities and slowly increase

patient’s stamina for physical activities), Reducing Emotional Over-Reactivity (e.g.,

practice specific methods of emotional reaction to stressful triggers); and External 

Focusing/Distracting (e.g., learn to shift and manipulate the focus of attention in a 

positive way, which will minimize the experience of the pain).
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Complementary Alternative medicine - There are numerous interventions that are 

being used to help manage chronic pain, including breathing, muscle relaxation, visual 

imagery, music, cold/heat, stretching, massage therapy, stress management, 

acupuncture, acupressure, hydrotherapy, and others. 

Tan et al. (2007) examined various CAM therapies for chronic pain. For example, heart 

rate variability (HRV) biofeedback (using a stress eraser portable biofeedback device 

that easily can be used by veterans at home for the purpose of increasing HRV) has 

been shown to be effective for reducing the symptoms of PTSD (e.g., Tan et al., 2009; 

Zucker, 2009) and for persistent pain associated with fibromyalgia (Hassett et al., 

2007). Regulating heart rhythm coherence, using biofeedback devices that computes the 

heart rhythm patterns, has been shown to improve symptoms, such as depression, 

anxiety, panic disorder, and PTSD symptoms (McCraty, Atkinson, Tomasino, & Stuppy, 

2001).

Pharmacotherapy

There are no studies evaluating the pharmacotherapy for acute dissociation or traumatic 

pain associated with ASR.

The most common first-line treatments for pain have traditionally been analgesics, 

which include opioids, NSAIDS (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), anti-epileptic

drugs, and tricyclic antidepressants for neuropathic pain, and antidepressants that 

target the inhibition of norepinephrine reuptake (SNRIs). With respect to trauma 

exposure, some data suggest that pain patients with co-morbid PTSD use analgesic 

medications at higher rates than their non-PTSD counterparts (Schwartz et al., 2006).

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are recommended as the first-line 

pharmacological intervention for PTSD (see Intervention for PTSD– Module B). SSRIs 

also have been examined for use in the treatment of chronic pain, but support for their 

efficacy in this population is limited (see reviews by McCleane, 2008; Dworkin et al., 

2007). Sedative and anxiolytic medications are sometimes prescribed to alleviate 

symptoms associated with both PTSD and chronic pain but are not recommended due to 

the addictive properties of many anxiolytic agents (American Psychiatric Association, 

2004; Sanders et al., 2005). The relationship between these pharmacological agents and 

functioning among patients with co-morbid pain and PTSD has not been examined.

Opioid Therapy

While controversial, the use of opioid medications in the treatment of chronic, nonmalignant pain has increased significantly over the past three decades (Caudill-Slosberg 

et al., 2004). The efficacy of opioids in alleviating acute pain is well established, but less 

is known regarding their utility in treating chronic pain or their relationship with patient 

functioning over extended periods of use (Ballantyne and Shin, 2008). Side effect 

profiles associated with opioid use – tolerance, physical dependence, cognitive 

impairment – often are cited as factors contributing to potential decreases in functioning 

(Ballantyne and Shin, 2008; Eriksen et al., 2006). Clinicians need to recognize the 

interrelationships of chronic pain, PTSD, and opioid use. The co-morbid psychiatric 

disorders are known to increase risk of abuse and dependency among persons with 

chronic pain (Edlund et al., 2007). Some data suggest that pain patients with co-morbid

PTSD use analgesic medications at higher rates than their non-PTSD counterparts (e.g., 

Schwartz et al., 2006). It may suggest that the experience of pain in the present may be 

affected by previous emotional trauma and ongoing trauma-related stress disorders. 

Some findings suggest the possibility that long-term use of opioids may lead to opioidinduced hyperalgesia (Angst & Clark, 2006).

Given inconsistent findings regarding the efficacy of opioids for long-term pain control, 

potential for reductions in overall functioning, and the increased risk of abuse and 
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dependency, providers should consider the benefits and potential harm of extended 

opioid therapy for patients with chronic pain subsequent to traumatic injury (Clapp, 

2010) (VA/DoD COT CPG, 2010). 

Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)

Cognitive behavioral therapy is recommended as first-line therapy for PTSD (see 

Intervention for PTSD Module B). CBT for pain uses a similar approach and a variety of 

techniques that are aimed at changing maladaptive thoughts and behaviors that serve to 

maintain and exacerbate the experience of pain. CBT for chronic pain involves teaching 

patients ways of safely reintroducing enjoyable activities into their lives.

Using components of cognitive processing therapy (CPT) for PTSD and cognitive 

behavioral therapy (CBT) for chronic pain management, a 12-session integrated 

treatment for veterans with co-morbid chronic pain and PTSD was developed (Otis, 

2009). The key components of the CBT for chronic pain include cognitive restructuring 

(i.e., teaching patients how to recognize and change maladaptive thoughts), relaxation 

training (e.g., diaphragmatic breathing, progressive muscle relaxation), time-based 

activity pacing (i.e., teaching patients how to become more active without overdoing it), 

and graded homework assignments designed to decrease patients’ avoidance of activity 

and reintroduce a healthy, more active lifestyle (Otis, 2007). The therapy includes 

weekly readings and homework assignments, pre- and post-treatment evaluations using 

measures of pain, PTSD, physical disability, and psychological distress.

The result of implementing the program in a pilot study demonstrates the importance of 

establishing participant trust and regular therapy attendance and addressing participant 

avoidance. Participants reported that they generally liked the format of treatment and

appreciated learning about the ways that chronic pain and PTSD share some common 

symptoms and ways that the two disorders can interact with one another. The authors 

concluded, based on this initial small pilot study, that the participants appeared to 

benefit from receiving the integrated treatment for pain and PTSD (Otis, 2009).

C. Irritability, Severe Agitation, or Anger

BACKGROUND

In the most general sense, anger is a feeling or emotion that ranges from mild irritation 

to intense fury and rage. Anger is often a central feature of response to trauma and can 

be seen as a core component of the survival response in humans. Mismanaged or 

uncontrolled anger and rage can lead to a continued sense of being out of control and 

may cause conflicts in personal and professional relationships. Anger and irritability may 

be associated with domestic violence and abuse, road rage, and workplace violence,

even if there is no intent to cause harm to others. It is important to distinguish between 

anger and aggression. Aggression is behavior that is intended to cause harm to another 

person or damage property. This behavior can include verbal abuse, threats, or violent 

acts. Anger, on the other hand, is an emotion and does not necessarily lead to 

aggression. Therefore, a person can become angry without acting aggressively.

Anger becomes a problem when it is felt too intensely, is felt too frequently, or is 

expressed inappropriately. Anger management interventions include a range of 

methods, including teaching individuals to recognize signs of becoming angry, self-calm, 

avoid escalating conflicts, and respond to anger-eliciting situations in more positive 

ways. 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-3 Management of Specific Symptoms Page I - 195

RECOMMENDATIONS (BASED ON CONSENSUS OF THE WORKING GROUP CLINICAL EXPERTS)

1. Assess the nature of symptoms, severity, and dangerousness. Consider using 

standardized Anger Scales, such as Spielberger’s State-Trait Anger Expression 

Inventory, to quantify.

2. Explore for cause of symptoms and follow-up to monitor change.

3. Consider referral to specialty care for counseling or for marital or family counseling 

as indicated. Offer referral for: 

a. Anger Management therapy

b. Training in exercise and relaxation techniques

4. Promote participation in enjoyable activities - especially with family/ loved ones.

5. Promote sleep and relaxation.

6. Avoid stimulants and other substances (caffeine, alcohol).

7. Address pain (see pain management).

8. Avoid benzodiazepines.

9. Consider SSRIs/SNRIs

a. If not responding to SSRIs/SNRIs and other non-pharmacological

interventions, consider low-dose anti-adrenergics or low-dose atypical 

antipsychotics (risperidone, quetiapine).

b. If not responding or worsening, refer to specialty care.

DISCUSSION

In anger management treatments, physical arousal, problem behaviors, and angerprovoking thoughts/beliefs are all addressed in different ways (Chemtob, 1997). 

Cognitive-behavioral treatment, such as anxiety management, shows positive results 

when used to address anger and applies many techniques to manage these three anger 

components.

DISCUSSION

Prevalence

A study of sample OEF/OIF veterans found that over half of the veterans with PTSD 

indicated that they had been aggressive in the past 4 months, such as threatening 

physical violence, destroying property, and having a physical fight with someone. 

Veterans with sub-threshold PTSD syndrome reported just about the same amount of 

aggressive behavior as the veterans with PTSD. In fact, anger has been shown to be 

associated with other co-morbid conditions to PTSD, such as head injury and alcohol 

(substance) abuse. Each of these conditions has been associated with elevated anger 

and hostility in veterans from previous conflicts. High levels of anger have been 

observed in veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan Wars. (Jakupcak, 2007)

In another survey of 2797 US soldiers returning from deployment, overall, 40 percent of 

soldiers reported killing or being responsible for killing during their deployment. Even 

after controlling for combat exposure, killing was a significant predictor of PTSD 

symptoms, alcohol abuse, anger, and relationship problems Maquan et al., 2010).

A study assessing Vietnam combat veterans and comparing them to veterans who did 

not serve in war found that the combat veterans were not significantly angrier than their 

veteran peers who did not serve in Southeast Asia. Additionally, various parameters of 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-3 Management of Specific Symptoms Page I - 196

war zone duty were not highly associated with anger scores. However, combat veterans 

with PTSD scored significantly higher than veterans without PTSD on measures of anger, 

arousal, and range of anger-eliciting situations, hostile attitudinal outlook, and tendency 

to hold anger in. These results suggest that PTSD, rather than war zone duty, is 

associated with various dimensions of angry affect (McFalls et al., 1999).

Anger can be a very difficult emotion to deal with and can lead to a number of legal and 

interpersonal problems, such as domestic violence. In fact, individuals with PTSD are 

particularly at risk for the perpetration of relationship violence.

Research has identified anger as prominent in and an influence on treatment outcomes 

for military veterans with PTSD. To improve treatment effectiveness, clinicians need to 

assess veterans' anger, aggression, and alcohol use, as well as their current fear of 

anger and elucidate the relationship between these factors (Forbes, 2008).

Chemtob et al. (1997) described three components of post-traumatic anger that can 

become maladaptive or interfere with one's ability to adapt to current situations that do 

not involve extreme threat:

• Arousal: Anger is marked by the increased activation of the cardiovascular, 

glandular, and brain systems associated with emotion and survival. It is also 

marked by increased muscle tension. Sometimes with individuals who have 

PTSD, this increased internal activation can become reset as the normal level of 

arousal and can intensify the actual emotional and physical experience of anger. 

This can cause a person to feel frequently on edge, keyed up, or irritable and can 

cause a person to be more easily provoked. It is common for traumatized 

individuals to actually seek out situations that require them to stay alert and 

ward off potential danger. Conversely, they may use alcohol and drugs to reduce 

overall internal tension. 

• Behavior: Often, the most effective way of dealing with extreme threat is to act 

aggressively, in a self-protective way. Additionally, many people who were 

traumatized at a relatively young age do not learn different ways of handling 

threat and tend to become caught in their ways of reacting when they feel 

threatened. This is especially true of people who tend to be impulsive (who act 

before they think). Again, as stated above, while these strategies for dealing with 

threat can be adaptive in certain circumstances, individuals with PTSD can 

become stuck in using only one strategy, when other approaches would be more 

constructive. Behavioral aggression may take many forms, including aggression

toward others, passive-aggressive behavior (e.g., complaining, "backstabbing," 

deliberately being late or doing a poor job), or self-aggression (self-destructive 

activities, self-blame, being chronically hard on oneself, self-injury). 

• Thoughts and Beliefs: The thoughts or beliefs that people have to help them 

understand and make sense of their environment can over-exaggerate threat. 

Often, the individual is not fully aware of these thoughts and beliefs, but they 

cause the person to perceive more hostility, danger, or threat than others might 

feel is necessary. For example, a combat veteran may become angry when others 

around him (wife, children, and coworkers) don't "follow the rules." The strength 

of his belief is actually related to how important it was for him to follow rules 

during the war in order to prevent deaths. Often, traumatized persons are not 

aware of the ways their beliefs are related to past trauma. For instance, by acting 

inflexibly toward others because of their need to control their environment, they 

can provoke others into becoming hostile, which creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. 

Common thoughts that people with PTSD have include: "You can't trust anyone," 

"If I got out of control, it would be horrible/life-threatening/intolerable," "After all 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Module I-3 Management of Specific Symptoms Page I - 197

I've been through, I deserve to be treated better than this," and "Others are out 

to get me, or won't protect me, in some way." 

How can individuals with post-traumatic anger get help?

In anger management treatment, arousal, behavior, and thoughts/beliefs are all 

addressed in different ways. Cognitive-behavioral treatment, a commonly utilized 

therapy that shows positive results when used to address anger, applies many 

techniques to manage these three anger components: 

• For increased arousal, the goal of treatment is to help the person learn skills that 

will reduce overall arousal. Such skills include relaxation, self-hypnosis, and physical 

exercises that discharge tension. 

• For behavior, the goal of treatment is to review a person's most frequent ways of 

behaving under perceived threat or stress and help him or her to expand the possible 

responses. More adaptive responses include taking a time-out; writing thoughts 

down when angry; communicating in more verbal, assertive ways; and changing the 

pattern "act first, think later" to "think first, act later." 

• For thoughts/beliefs, individuals are given assistance in logging, monitoring, and 

becoming more aware of their own thoughts prior to becoming angry. They are 

additionally given alternative, more positive replacement thoughts for their negative 

ideas (e.g., "Even if I am out of control, I won't be threatened in this situation." or 

"Others do not have to be perfect in order for me to survive/be comfortable."). 

Individuals often role-play situations in therapy so they can practice recognizing their 

anger-arousing thoughts and apply more positive thoughts. 

There are many strategies for helping individuals with PTSD deal with the frequent 

increase of anger they are likely to experience. Most individuals have a combination of 

the three anger components listed above, and treatment aims to help with all aspects of 

anger. One important goal of treatment is to improve a person's sense of flexibility and 

control so that he or she does not feel re-traumatized by his or her own explosive or 

excessive responses to anger triggers. Treatment is also meant to have a positive 

impact on personal and work relationships. 
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 198

APPENDICES

Appendix A. Guideline Development Process 199

Appendix B. Acronym List 206

Appendix C. PTSD Screening Tools 209

Appendix D. Participant List 213

Appendix E. Bibliography 222
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Appendices Page - 199

APPENDIX A: 

Guideline Development Process

The update of the VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for Management of Post-Traumatic Stress was 

developed following the steps described in “Guideline for Guidelines,” an internal working document of 

the VA/DoD Evidence Based Practice Working Group, that requires an ongoing review of guideline works 

in progress. 

The Offices of Quality Performance and Patient Care Services of the VA, and the Army Medical Command 

of the DoD identified clinical leaders to champion the guideline development process. During a 

preplanning conference call, the clinical leaders defined the scope of the guideline and identified a group of 

clinical experts from the VA and DoD to form the Management of Post-Traumatic Stress Working Group 

(WG). For this guideline these WG participants were drawn from the fields of primary care, psychiatry, 

psychology, internal medicine, pharmacology, nursing, and social work.

The WG participated in 2 face-to-face meetings to reach consensus about the guideline algorithm and 

evidence-based recommendations and to prepare a draft update document. The draft continued to be revised 

by the Working Group through numerous conference calls and individual contributions to the document. 

Recommendations for the management of post-traumatic stress were derived through a rigorous 

methodological approach that included the following: 

• Determining appropriate criteria such as effectiveness, efficacy, population benefit, or patient 

satisfaction

• Reviewing literature to determine the strength of the evidence in relation to these criteria

• Formulating the recommendations and grading the level of evidence supporting the 

recommendation

After orientation to the goals and scope of the guideline update, the WG developed a set of 13 researchable 

questions within the focus areas of the guideline and identified associated key terms. For this guideline, two 

sets of questions were developed. The First (A) addressed acute and early intervention aimed at/prevention 

of PTSD in adults with recent exposure to trauma. The second set (B) focused on therapy of adult patients 

with PTSD to achieve resolution of symptoms and functional outcome. This approach ensured that the 

guideline development work outside of meetingsfocused on issues that practitioners considered important

and also produced criteria for the literature search and selection of included studies that formed the body of 

evidence for this guideline update. 

 

All questions specified (adapted from the Evidence-Based Medicine toolbox, Center for Evidence-Based 

Medicine, [http://www.cebm net ]):

• Population – Characteristics of the target patient population 

• Intervention – Exposure, diagnostic, or prognosis 

• Comparison – Intervention, exposure, or control used for comparison 

• Outcome – Outcomes of interest

These specifications served as the preliminary criteria for selecting studies. See PICO Questions to Guide 

Literature Search for a complete listing and categorization of the questions (end of this appendix).

Literature Search

An initial global literature search yielded 59 systematic reviews/meta-analyses addressing 

pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, combination, enhancement, complementary and other topics. One 

hundred and seventy eight (178) RCTs were found on the same subjects. Twenty-four controlled trials (CT) 

addressed combination, enhancement, and other areas. Refinement of the review process with input from 

the WG members resulted in the studies being identified that met the baseline criteria for inclusion, 
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Appendices Page - 200

addressed one or more of the researchable questions, and covered topic areas that had either not been 

addressed in the previous version of this guideline or had been included but not fully developed . A more 

detailed (full) search was conducted on each question, supplemented by hand searches and crossreferencing to search for relevant articles. The searches for these questions covered the period since the 

publication of the first VA/DoD CPG on management of post-traumatic stress (between January 1, 2002

and August, 2009).

Selection of Evidence

The evidence selection process was designed to identify the best available evidence to address each key 

question and ensure maximum coverage of studies at the top of the hierarchy of study types. Published, 

peer-reviewed RCTs, as well as meta-analyses and systematic reviews that included randomized controlled 

studies, were considered to constitute the strongest level of evidence in support of guideline 

recommendations. This decision was based on the judgment that RCTs provide the clearest, most 

scientifically sound basis for judging comparative efficacy. The WG also recognized the limitations of 

RCTs, particularly considerations of generalizability with respect to patient selection and treatment quality. 

When available, the search sought out critical appraisals already performed by others that described explicit 

criteria for deciding what evidence was selected and how it was determined to be valid. The sources that 

have already undergone rigorous critical appraisal include Cochrane Reviews, Best Evidence, Technology 

Assessment, AHRQ systematic evidence reports, and other published Evidence-based Clinical Practice 

Guidelines. 

The following databases were searched: Medline/Pubmed, Embase, PsycINFO, OVID, PILOT, and 

Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. Limits were set for language (English), and type of 

research (RCT, systematic reviews including EPC and HTA reviews and meta-analyses). For prognostic 

and diagnostic questions (e.g., does test improve outcome?); cohort or other prospective non-RCT designs 

were considered.

The following inclusion criteria were used to select the articles identified in the literature search for 

possible inclusion: 

• Published in United States, United Kingdom, Europe, Australia, Japan, New Zealand

• Full articles only published in English

• Study populations: age limited to adults 18 years of age or older; all races, ethnicities, and cultural 

groups 

• Relevant outcomes able to be abstracted from the data presented in the articles

• Sample sizes appropriate for the study question addressed in the paper. RCTs were included if they 

were initiated with 30 or more participants

Preparation of Evidence Tables (Reports) and Evidence Rating

The results of the searches were organized in evidence reports, and copies of the original studies were 

provided to the WG for further analysis. Each reference was appraised for scientific merit, clinical 

relevance, and applicability to the populations served by the VA and DoD health care systems. 

Recommendation and Quality Rating

Evidence-based practice involves integrating clinical expertise with the best available clinical evidence 

derived from systematic research.

A group of research analysts read and coded each article that met inclusion criteria. The articles were 

assessed for methodological rigor and clinical importance. Clinical experts from the VA and DoD WG 

reviewed the results and evaluated the strength of the evidence, considering quality of the body of evidence 

(made up of the individual studies) and the significance of the net benefit (potential benefit minus possible 

harm) for each intervention.

The overall strength of each body of evidence that addresses a particular Key Question was assessed using 

methods adapted from the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (Harris, 2001). To assign an overall quality 

[QE] (see Table A-2) of the evidence (good, fair, or poor), the number, quality, and size of the studies; 

consistency of results between studies; and directness of the evidence were considered. Consistent results 

from a number of higher-quality studies [LE] (see Table A-1) across a broad range of populations; supports 

with a high degree of certainty that the results of the studies are true and therefore the entire body of 

evidence would be considered ‘‘good” quality. A ‘‘fair” quality was assigned to the body of evidence 
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Appendices Page - 201

indicating that the results could be due to true effects or to biases present across some or all of the studies.

For a ‘‘poor” quality body of evidence, any conclusion is uncertain due to serious methodological 

shortcomings, sparse data, or inconsistent results.

The Strength of Recommendation [SR] was then determined based on the Quality of the Evidence [QE], 

and the clinical significance of the net benefit [NB] (see Table A-3) for each intervention, as demonstrated 

by the body of evidence. Thus, the grade (i.e., A, B, C, D or I) assigned to guideline recommendations 

reflect both variables; the Quality of the evidence and the potential clinical benefit that the intervention 

may provide to patients (see Table A4).

Table A-1: Level of Evidence (LE)

I At least one properly done RCT

II-1 Well-designed controlled trial without randomization

II-2 Well-designed cohort or case-control analytic study, preferably from more than one source

II-3 Multiple time series evidence with/without intervention, dramatic results of uncontrolled 

experiment

III Opinion of respected authorities, descriptive studies, case reports, and expert committees

Table A-2: Overall Quality [QE]

Good High grade evidence (I or II-1) directly linked to health outcome

Fair

High grade evidence (I or II-1) linked to intermediate outcome;

or

Moderate grade evidence (II-2 or II-3) directly linked to health outcome

Poor Level III evidence or no linkage of evidence to health outcome

Table A-3: Net Effect of the Intervention [NB]

Substantial

More than a small relative impact on a frequent condition with a substantial burden of 

suffering; 

or

A large impact on an infrequent condition with a significant impact on the individual 

patient level.

Moderate

A small relative impact on a frequent condition with a substantial burden of suffering; 

or

A moderate impact on an infrequent condition with a significant impact on the individual 

patient level.

Small

A negligible relative impact on a frequent condition with a substantial burden of suffering; 

or

A small impact on an infrequent condition with a significant impact at the individual 

patient level.

Zero or 

Negative

Negative impact on patients; 

or

No relative impact on either a frequent condition with a substantial burden of suffering, or 

an infrequent condition with a significant impact on the individual patient level.

Table A-4: Final Grade of Recommendation [SR]

The net benefit of the intervention

Quality of Evidence Substantial Moderate Small Zero or Negative

Good A B C D

Fair B B C D

Poor I I I I

Strength of Recommendation Rating [SR]
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A A strong recommendation that the clinicians provide the intervention to eligible patients. 

Good evidence was found that the intervention improves important health outcomes and 

concludes that benefits substantially outweigh harm. 

B A recommendation that clinicians provide (the service) to eligible patients.

At least fair evidence was found that the intervention improves health outcomes and concludes 

that benefits outweigh harm.

C No recommendation for or against the routine provision of the intervention is made.

At least fair evidence was found that the intervention can improve health outcomes, but 

concludes that the balance of benefits and harms is too close to justify a general 

recommendation.

D Recommendation is made against routinely providing the intervention to asymptomatic patients.

At least fair evidence was found that the intervention is ineffective or that harms outweigh 

benefits.

I The conclusion is that the evidence is insufficient to recommend for or against routinely 

providing the intervention.

Evidence that the intervention is effective is lacking, of poor quality, or conflicting, and the 

balance of benefits and harms cannot be determined.

Algorithm Format

The clinical algorithm incorporates the information presented in the guideline in a format which maximally 

facilitates clinical decision-making. The use of the algorithmic format was chosen because of evidence 

showing that such a format improves data collection, facilitates diagnostic and therapeutic decisionmaking, and changes patterns of resource use. 

The algorithmic format allows the provider to follow a linear approach to critical information needed at the 

major decision points in the clinical process and includes:

– An ordered sequence of steps of care 

– Recommended observations 

– Decisions to be considered 

– Actions to be taken

A clinical algorithm diagrams a guideline into a step-by-step decision tree. Standardized symbols are used 

to display each step in the algorithm (Society for Medical Decision-Making Committee, 1992). Arrows 

connect the numbered boxes indicating the order in which the steps should be followed.

Rounded rectangles represent a clinical state or condition.

Hexagons represent a decision point in the guideline, formulated as a 

question that can be answered Yes or No. A horizontal arrow points 

to the next step if the answer is YES. A vertical arrow continues to 

the next step for a negative answer.

Rectangles represent an action in the process of care.

Ovals represent a link to another section within the guideline.

A letter within a box of an algorithm refers the reader to the corresponding annotation. The annotations 

elaborate on the recommendations and statements that are found within each box of the algorithm. 

Included in the annotations are brief discussions that provide the underlying rationale and specific evidence 
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tables. Annotations indicate whether each recommendation is based on scientific data or expert opinion. A 

complete bibliography is included in the guideline.

Lack of Evidence – Consensus of Experts

Where existing literature was ambiguous or conflicting, or where scientific data was lacking on an issue, 

recommendations were based on the clinical experience of the Working Group. 

This update of the Stroke Rehabilitation Guideline is the product of many months of diligent effort and 

consensus building among knowledgeable individuals from the VA, DoD, and academia, as well as 

guideline facilitators from the private sector. An experienced moderator facilitated the multidisciplinary 

Working Group. The list of participants is included in Appendix D

REFERENCES

Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR). Manual for conducting systematic review. August 

1996. Prepared by Steven H. Woolf.

Harris RP, Helfand M, Woolf SH, Lohr KN, Mulrow CD, Teutsch SM, Atkins D; Methods Work Group, 

Third US Preventive Services Task Force, Current methods of the U.S. Preventive Services Task 

Force: a review of the process. Am J Prev Med 2001 Apr;20(3 Suppl):21-35. Available at; 

http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/ajpmsuppl/harris1.htm 

Society for Medical Decision-Making Committee (SMDMC). Proposal for clinical algorithm standards, 

SMDMC on Standardization of Clinical Algorithms. Med Decis Making 1992 Apr-Jun; 

12(2):149-54.

United States Preventive Service Task Force (USPSTF). Guide to clinical preventive services. 2nd edition. 

Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Disease Prevention 

and Health Promotion, 1996.

Woolf SH. Practice guidelines, a new reality in medicine II; Methods of developing guidelines. Arch 

Intern Med 1992 May; 152(5):946-52.
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Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 204

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

UPDATE 2010 PICO QUESTIONS

A. Acute Intervention / Prevention in adults with recent exposure to trauma or 

diagnosed with ASD 

1. Is debriefing more effective than no intervention or any other intervention for prevention of PTS 

disorder?

2. Is pharmacotherapy more effective than no intervention or any other intervention for prevention of 

full PTS disorder?

a. alpha–blockers

b. beta–blockers

c. Sympatolitic

d. DCS and CBT

3. Are any psychotherapy techniques more effective than no intervention or any other intervention for 

prevention of full PTS disorder?

4. Is psychoeducation more effective than no intervention or any other intervention for prevention of full 

PTS disorder?

5. Are any Complimentary Alternative Medicine (CAM) approaches more effective than no 

intervention or any other intervention for prevention of full PTS disorder?

6. Is early intervention more effective than later intervention for prevention of full PTS disorder?

7. Is combination of pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy more effective than no intervention or any 

other intervention for prevention of full PTS disorder? 

8. Is peer counseling more effective than counseling by an outside team for prevention of full PTS 

disorder?

9. Is outreach (screening, repeated screening) more effective than no intervention or any other 

intervention for prevention of full PTS disorder?
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B. Treatment for PTSD

Which of the following treatment interventions for adult patients with PTSD lead to achieve Resolution 

of symptoms and Functional outcome? (Consider effectiveness in special population (e.g., Gender, Combat 

veterans, Elderly)

10. Psychotherapy Techniques:

Is prolonged exposure more effective interventions in the treatment of PTSD?

Is EMDR more effective than other interventions in the treatment of PTSD? 

Is cognitive processing therapy more effective than other interventions in the treatment of 

PTSD? 

Is DBT, MBCT, ACT or mindfulness more effective than other interventions in the treatment 

of PTSD? 

Psychoeducation (Battlemind, stress control) more effective than other interventions in the 

treatment of PTSD? 

11. Pharmacotherapy Classes:

-MAOI and TCAs 

-SSRIs 

-SNRIs 

-DNRI 

-Novel antidepressant (trazodone, nefazodone) 

-Conventional antipsychotics 

-Atypical antipsychotics 

-Anticonvulsants 

-Anxiolytic (Benzodiazepine) 

-Sedative hypnotics (for sleep) 

-Antiadrenergics 

12. Somatic:

-ECT

-rTMS 

13. Complementary Alternative Mdedicine (CAM) 

-Acupuncture

-Meditation

-Herbal, food suppl.,

-Yoga, Tai Chi
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APPENDIX B

Acronym List

ABCs Airway, breathing, circulation

AHCPR Agency for Healthcare Policy and Research

APA American Psychiatric Association

ASD Acute stress disorder

ASR Acute stress reaction

AUDIT Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test

BEP Brief Eclectic Psychotherapy

BFT Behavioral Family Therapy

BL baseline; 

CAGE Alcohol abuse/dependence screening test mnemonic

CAPS Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale; 

CAPS Clinician Administered PTSD Scale

CAPS-1 Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale1-month version; 

CAPS-2 Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale1-week version; 

CAPS-2 Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale Part 2; 

CAPS-D Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale hyperarousal subscale; 

CBC Complete blood count

CBT Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

CCTR Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials

CDR Commander

CGI Clinical Global Impression; 

CGI-I Clinical Global Impression-Improvement; 

CGI-S Clinical Global Assessment of Severity; 

CGIC Clinical Global Impression of Change; 

CI confidence interval; 

CISD Critical Incident Stress Debriefing

CNS Central nervous system

COSR Combat and operational stress reactions

CPT Cognitive Processing Therapy

CPT-C CPT-Cognitive

CT Cognitive Therapy

CTT Cognitive Trauma Therapy

CV Cardiovascular

DARE Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effectiveness

DAST Drug Abuse/Dependence Screener

DBT Dialectical Behavioral Therapy

DCS D-cycloserine; 

DoD Department of Defense

DSM-IV Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.)

DTS Davidson Trauma Scale; 

dx diagnosis

EBM Evidence-based medicine

EBPTU Evaluation and Brief PTSD Treatment Unit 

ED Emergency Department; 

EEG Electroencephalography

EKG Electrocardiogram
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EMDR Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing

EMTs Emergency Medical Teams

ES effect size

ESRT Emotional Self-Regulation Therapy

ET Exposure Therapy

EtoH Ethanol

FDA U. S. Food and Drug Administration

GAF Global Assessment of Function

GI Gastrointestinal

grp(s) group(s); 

GT group therapy

GU Genitourinary

HIV Human immunodeficiency virus

Interapy Internet Therapy

IRT Imagery Rehearsal Therapy

IRT Image Rehearsal Therapy

ITT Intention to Treat

LOC Level of consciousness

LOF Level of function

MAOIs Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

MAST Michigan Alcohol Screening Test

MDD Major Depressive Disorder

MHP Mental health providers

MI Myocardial infarction

MISS Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related PTST-civilian version; 

MMSE Mini-Mental State Examination

MRI Magnetic resonance imaging

MSE Mental status examination

MVA motor vehicle accident; 

N/R not reported; 

NET Narrative Exposure Therapy (a form of Exposure Therapy)

NIMH National Institute of Mental Health

NS Nervous system

OMO Ongoing military operations

OTC Over-the-counter

PCL Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist; 

PCL-C PTSD Checklist – Civilian Version

PCL-M Patient Checklist for PTSD-Military Version; 

PCL-M PTSD Checklist – Military Version

PCL-S PTSD Checklist – Stressor Specific Version

PCP Primary care provider

PE Physical examination

PE (Interventions) Prolonged Exposure

PIES Proximity, Immediacy, Expectancy, Simplicity

PSQI Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index

PsychEd Psychological Education

pt(s) patient(s); 

PTSD posttraumatic stress disorder; 

PTSD Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
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QE Quality of evidence

RA Repeated Assessment

RCS Readjustment Counseling Services

RCT Randomized controlled trial

RLX Relaxation Training

RTD Return-to-duty

SC Supportive Counseling

SC Supportive Counseling

SIADH Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone

SIPU Specialized Inpatient PTSD Unit

SIT Stress Inoculation Therapy

SM Service member

SR Strength of recommendation

SSRI Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors

SUD Substance Use Disorder

SUNY State University of New York

TAU Treatment as Usual

TCAs Tricyclic Antidepressants

TOP-8 Treatment Outcome PTSD rating scale; 

TSH Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

Tx or RX treatment

USPSTF U.S. Preventive Service Task Force

VA Veterans Affairs

VAMC Veterans Affairs Medical Center

Vets Veternas

VHA Veterans Health Administration

WL wait list

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PTSD CheckList – Civilian Version (PCL-C)

Patient’s Name: __________________________________________

Instruction to patient: Below is a list of problems and complaints that veterans sometimes have in 

response to stressful life experiences. Please read each one carefully, put an “X” in the box to 

indicate how much you have been bothered by that problem in the last month. 

No. Response: Not at 

all (1)

A little 

bit (2)

Moderately 

(3)

Quite a 

bit (4)

Extremely 

(5)

1. Repeated, disturbing memories, 

thoughts, or images of a stressful 

experience from the past?

2. Repeated, disturbing dreams of a 

stressful experience from the past?

3. Suddenly acting or feeling as if a 

stressful experience were happening 

again (as if you were reliving it)?

4. Feeling very upset when something 

reminded you of a stressful experience 

from the past?

5. Having physical reactions (e.g., heart 

pounding, trouble breathing, or 

sweating) when something reminded

you of a stressful experience from the 

past? 

6. Avoid thinking about or talking about a 

stressful experience from the past or 

avoid having feelings related to it?

7. Avoid activities or situations because 

they remind you of a stressful 

experience from the past?

8. Trouble remembering important parts

of a stressful experience from the past?

9. Loss of interest in things that you used 

to enjoy?

10. Feeling distant or cut off from other 

people?

11. Feeling emotionally numb or being 

unable to have loving feelings for those 

close to you?

12. Feeling as if your future will somehow 

be cut short?

13. Trouble falling or staying asleep?

14. Feeling irritable or having angry 

outbursts?

15. Having difficulty concentrating?

16. Being “super alert” or watchful on 

guard?

17. Feeling jumpy or easily startled?

Weathers, F.W., Huska, J.A., Keane, T.M. PCL-C for DSM-IV. Boston: National Center for PTSD – Behavioral 

Science Division, 1991.

This is a Government document in the public domain.
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 211

PTSD CheckList – Military Version (PCL-M)

Patient’s Name: __________________________________________

Instruction to patient: Below is a list of problems and complaints that veterans sometimes have in 

response to stressful military experiences. Please read each one carefully, put an “X” in the box to 

indicate how much you have been bothered by that problem in the last month.

No. Response: Not at 

all (1)

A little 

bit (2)

Moderately 

(3)

Quite a 

bit (4)

Extremely 

(5)

1. Repeated, disturbing memories, thoughts, or 

images of a stressful military experience?

2. Repeated, disturbing dreams of a stressful 

military experience?

3. Suddenly acting or feeling as if a stressful 

military experience were happening again (as 

if you were reliving it)?

4. Feeling very upset when something reminded

you of a stressful military experience?

5. Having physical reactions (e.g., heart 

pounding, trouble breathing, or sweating) 

when something reminded you of a stressful 

military experience? 

6. Avoid thinking about or talking about a 

stressful military experience or avoid having 

feelings related to it?

7. Avoid activities or situations because they 

remind you of a stressful military experience?

8. Trouble remembering important parts of a 

stressful military experience?

9. Loss of interest in things that you used to 

enjoy?

10. Feeling distant or cut off from other people?

11. Feeling emotionally numb or being unable to 

have loving feelings for those close to you?

12. Feeling as if your future will somehow be cut 

short?

13. Trouble falling or staying asleep?

14. Feeling irritable or having angry outbursts?

15. Having difficulty concentrating?

16. Being “super alert” or watchful on guard?

17. Feeling jumpy or easily startled?

Weathers, F.W., Huska, J.A., Keane, T.M. PCL-M for DSM-IV. Boston: National Center for PTSD – Behavioral Science Division, 1991.

This is a Government document in the public domain.
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 212

PTSD CheckList – Stressor Specific Version (PCL-S)

The event you experienced was: _________________________________ on: ___________________

Instruction to patient: Below is a list of problems and complaints that veterans sometimes have in 

response to stressful military experiences. Please read each one carefully, put an “X” in the box to 

indicate how much you have been bothered by that problem in the last month.

No. Response: Not at 

all (1)

A little 

bit (2)

Moderately 

(3)

Quite a 

bit (4)

Extremely 

(5)

1. Repeated, disturbing memories, thoughts, 

or images of the stressful experience?

2. Repeated, disturbing dreams of the 

stressful experience?

3. Suddenly acting or feeling as if the 

stressful experience were happening again

(as if you were reliving it)?

4. Feeling very upset when something 

reminded you of the stressful experience?

5. Having physical reactions (e.g., heart 

pounding, trouble breathing, or sweating) 

when something reminded you of the 

stressful experience? 

6. Avoid thinking about or talking about the

stressful experience or avoid having 

feelings related to it?

7. Avoid activities or situations because they 

remind you of the stressful experience?

8. Trouble remembering important parts of 

the stressful experience?

9. Loss of interest in things that you used to 

enjoy?

10. Feeling distant or cut off from other 

people?

11. Feeling emotionally numb or being unable 

to have loving feelings for those close to 

you?

12. Feeling as if your future will somehow be 

cut short?

13. Trouble falling or staying asleep?

14. Feeling irritable or having angry 

outbursts?

15. Having difficulty concentrating?

16. Being “super alert” or watchful on guard?

17. Feeling jumpy or easily startled?

Weathers, F.W., Huska, J.A., Keane, T.M. PCL-S for DSM-IV. Boston: National Center for PTSD – Behavioral Science Division, 1991.

This is a Government document in the public domain. 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 213

APPENDIX D

Participant List

Curtis Aberle, RN, NP 

Chief, FMS McWethy

Brooke Army Medical Center

Fort Sam Houston, TX 78234

Phone: 210-295-4667

Email: curtis.aberle@amedd.army.mil

Ron Acierno, Ph.D

PCT Director, Ralph H. Johnson VAMC

MUSC Crime Victims Center

109 Bee Street

Charleston, SC 29401

Phone: 843-792-2945

Email: acierno@musc.edu

Carla Cassidy, RN, MSN, CRNP

Director, Evidence Based Practice Program

Department of Veterans Affairs

1717 H Street

4th Floor, Room 406

Washington, DC 20006

Phone: 202- 266-4502

Email: Carla.cassidy@va.gov

Kathleen M. Chard, PhD

VA CPT Implementation Director 

Director, PTSD and Anxiety Disorders Division

Cincinnati VA Medical Center

Address: 3200 Vine Street, Cincinnati, Ohio 45220

Phone: 859-572-6741

Email: Kathleen.Chard@va.gov

Debra Dandridge, PharmD

Clinical Pharmacist

Brooke Army Medical Center

Department of Pharmacy

Fort Sam Houston, TX 78234

Phone: 210-916-2612

Email: debra.dandridge@us.army.mil

Justin S. Campbell, PhD 

LCDR, U.S. Navy Medical Service Corps

Senior Analyst, Deployment Health

Bureau of Medicine and Surgery

2300 E. St. NW 

Washington, DC, 20372

Phone: 202-762-3013

Email: justin.s.campbell@med.navy.mil
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 214

Daniella David, MD, M.Sc

Professor of Clinical Psychiatry, University of Miami

PTSD Program Medcial Director, Miami VA healthcare System

1201 NW 16th Street, 116A12

Miami, FL 33125

Phone: 305-575-7000, ext 3953

Email: Daniella.david@va.gov

Ernest Degenhardt, MSN, FNP, RN 

Chief, Evidence-Based Practice

US Army Medical Command

2050 Worth Road, Suite 26

Fort Sam Houston TX 78234

Phone: 210-221-6527 

Email: ernest.degenhardt@amedd.army mil 

Martha D’Erasmo MPH

Independent Consultant

4550 North Park Ave, # 505

Chevy Chase, MD 20815

Phone: 301- 654-3152

Email: Marty@hqiinc.com

Kathryn J. Dolter, RN, PhD

Clinical Quality Program Specialist

Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines 

Department of Veterans Affairs

1717 H. Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C., 20006

Phone: 202-461-1078

E-mail: Kathryn.Dolter@va.gov 

Charles C Engel, MD, MPH

Colonel, MC, US Army

Dir, DoD Deployment Health Clinical Center

Assoc Chair (Research), Department of Psychiatry

Uniformed Services University School of Medicine

Phone: 202-782-8064

Email: charles.engel@amedd.army.mil 

Rosalie Fishman, RN, MSN, CPHQ

President

Healthcare Quality Informatics, Inc.

2275 Shady Grove Rd, Suite 500

Rockville, MD 20850

Phone: 301- 296-4542

Email Rosalie@hqiinc.com

Joel T. Foster, PhD, 

Capt, US Air Force, BSC

Licensed Psychologist 

ADAPT Program Element Chief

Travis AFB/60 MDOS/SGOW

Phone: 707-423-2317

Email: joel.foster-02@travis.af.mil 

 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 215

Matthew J. Friedman, MD, Ph.D

Executive Director

National Center for PTSD

White River Junction VA Medical Center

215 North Main Street

White River Junction, VT 05009

Phone: 802-296-5132

Email: Matthew.Friedman@VA.gov or

Matthew.J.Friedman@Dartmouth.edu

Stella M Hayes, MD

CDR, US Navy

Family Physician / Deputy Group Surgeon

2nd Marine Logistic Group

ATTN: Group Surgeon's Office

308 G Street

Camp Lejeune, NC 28547

Phone (910)450-6675

Email: stella.hayes@med.navy.mil

MAJ Kenneth Hyde, PA-C 

MAJ, US Army

Madigan Army Medical Center

ATTN: MCHJ-EM

Bldg 9040, Rm 1-54-02

Tacoma, WA 98431

Phone: 253-968-0599

Email: ken.hyde@us.army mil

Charles Hoge, MD

Director, Division of Psychiatry and Neuroscience

Walter Reed Army Institute of Research

503 Robert Grant Ave 

Washington, DC 20307-5001

Phone: 301-319-9342

Email: Charles hoge@us.army mil

Matthew D. Jeffreys, MD

Associate Professor of Psychiatry, UTHSCSA

PCT Medical Director

South Texas Health care System

5788 Eckhert Rd

San Antonio, TX 78240

Phone: 210-699-2145

Email: matthew.jeffreys@va.gov

Terence M. Keane, Ph.D

Associate Chief of staff, Research & development

VA Boston Healthcare System

150 South Huntington Avenue

Boston, MA 02130

Phone: 857-364-4551

Email: Terry.Keane@va.gov
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 216

Robert L. Koffman, MD, MPH

Captain, MC, US Navy

Deputy Director for Clinical Operations

National Intrepid Center of Excellence

for Psychological Health and Traumatic Brain Injury

8901 Wisconsin Blvd

Bethesda, MD 20889-5600

Phone: 301-319-3606

Email: robert.koffman@med navy mil

Harold Kudler, MD

Coordinator, VISN 6 Mental Health Service Line

Durham VA Medical Center

508 Fulton St.

Durham , NC 27705

Phone: 919-451-3369

Email: Harold.Kudler@va.gov

James R. Liffrig, MD, MPH

COL, MC, US Army Chief, Department of Family Medicine

Womack Army Medical Center

Fort. Bragg NC 28310

Phone: 910-907-6823 

Email: james.liffrig@amedd.army.mil 

Patrick J. Lowry, MD

COL, MC, US Army

Psychiatrist

Munson Army Health Center

550 Pope Ave

Ft Leavenworth, KS 66027

Phone: 913-758-3751

Email: patrick.lowry@us.army mil

Sandra McNaughton, RN, NP 

LTC, AN, US Army

Walter Reed Army Medical Center

6900 Georgia Ave

Washington DC 20307

Phone: 202-782-7230

Email: sandra.mcnaughton@us.arm. mil

David T. Orman, MD

Chief, PTSD-TBI/BH

Integration (PTBI)

US Army Medical Command

2050 Worth Road

Fort Sam Houston, TX 78234

Phone: 210-221-6792

Email: david.orman@amedd.army.mil
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 217

Alan L. Peterson, Ph.D

Professor

University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio

Department of Psychiatry

7703 Floyd Curl Dr.

San Antonio, TX 78229-3900

Phone: 210-508-5428

Email: peterson3@uthscsa.edu

Sheila M. Rauch, Ph.D

Director, SeRV-MH

VA Ann Arbor healthcare System 

Assistant Professor of Psychology in Psychiatry

University of Michigan Medical School

2215 Fuller Rd (116c)

Ann Arbor, MI 48105

Phone: 734-845-3545

Email: sherauch@med.umich.edu or

Sheila rauch@va.gov

Miguel E. Roberts, Ph.D

Chief, Psychological Health Clinical Guidelines

Defense Centers of Excellence for Psychological Health 

and Traumatic Brain Injury 

Psychological Health Clinical Standards of Care

1335 East West Hwy, 9th Floor

Silver Spring, MD 20910

Phone: 301-295-3541

Email: miguel roberts@tma.osd mil

Josef I. Ruzek, Ph.D

Director/Chief, Dissemination and Training Division,

National Center for PTSD

VA Palo Alto Health Care System

National Center for PTSD

785 Willow Road

Menlo Park CA 94025

Phone: 650-493-5000 ext. 22977

Email: Josef.Ruzek@va.gov

Todd P. Semla, MS, Pharm.D.

Clinical Pharmacy Specialist

Department of Veterans Affairs

National Pharmacy Benefits Management Services (119D)

1st Ave-1 Blk N of Cermak Rd (Building 37, Rm 139)

Hines, Il 60141

Phone:708-786-7976

Email: Todd.semla@va.gov
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 218

Murray B. Stein, MD, MPH

Professor of Psychiatry and family Preventive Medicine, UCSD

Staff Psychiatrist VA San Diego Healthcare System

UCSD and VASDHS

9500 Gilman Dr.(Is this VA address?)

La Jolla, CA 92093-0855

Phone: 858-534-6451

Email: mstein@ucsd.edu

Steven M. Southwick, MD

Professor Psychiatry, Yale University

Deputy Director Clinical Neuroscience Division 

National Center for PTSD

VA Connecticut Healthcare System

Yale University Medical School

950 Campbell Ave

West Haven, CT 05516 

Phone: 203-932-5711 ext. 2464

Email:Steven.southwick@va.gov

Mark B. Stephens, MD MS FAAFP

CAPT, MC, US Navy

Associate Professor and Chair

Department of Family Medicine

Uniformed Services University 

4301 Jones Bridge Rd. 

Bethesda, MD 20814-4799

Phone: 301-295-3632

Email:mstephens@usuhs mil

Frances Stewart, MD

CAPT, MC, US Navy

Department of Psychiatry

National Naval Medical Center

8901 Rockville Pike

Bethesda, MD 20889

Phone: 202-685-6443

Email: frances.stewart@navy.mil

Oded Susskind, MPH 

Medical Education Consultant

PO Box 112

Brookline MA 02446

Phone: 617- 232-3558

Email: Oded@tiac.net

Christopher Warner, MD, FAAFP

MAJ(P), MC, US Army

Command and General Staff College

100 Stimson Drive

Fort Leavenworth, KS 66027

Phone; 913-424-9472

Email: christopher.h.warner@us.army mil
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 219

Marjory K. Waterman, MN, RN

Nurse Consultant/ CPG Coordinator

U.S. Army Medical Command

Evidence Based Practice Office

ATTN: MCHO-CL-Q 

2050 Worth Road, Suite 26

Fort Sam Houston, TX 78234

Phone: 210-221-7281

Email: Marjory.waterman@us.army mil 

Robert J. Wilson, PsyD, ABPP 

Col US Air Force

Director, Psychological Health Clinical Standards of Care

Defense Centers of Excellence for Psychological Health 

and Traumatic Brain

Injury

Email: Robert.wilson@lakenheath.af.mil 

Randon S. Welton, MD

Lt Col, USAF, MC

Chief, Modernization Division

Office of the Command Surgeon

AFMC/SGR

Phone:-937-656-3642

Email: randon.welton@wpafb.af.mil

CONTRIBUTORS AND REVIEWERS:

Nancy C. Bernardy, Ph.D.

Associate Director for Clinical Networking

PTSD Mentoring Program Manager

VA National Center for PTSD 116D

215 N. Main St.

White River Junction, VT 05009

(802) 296-5132 fax (802) 296-5135

Nancy.Bernardy@va.gov 

Edward A Brusher, LCSW, BCD

LTC, MS US Army

Chief, Deputy Director, Behavioral Health Division

Office of the Surgeon General

BHD, HP&S Directorate, OTSG

Falls Church, VA 22041-3258

Phone: 703-681-4188 

Email: edward.brusher@us.army mil

Bruce Capehart, MD, MBA

Psychiatry, Attending 

Durham VAMC 

OEF/OIF Program (122B) 

508 Fulton Street 

Durham, NC 27705 

Phone: (919) 296-0411, ext 5112

Email: bruce.capehart@va.gov
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 220

Michael E. Clark, PhD

Clinical Director, Chronic Pain rehabilitation Program

Thomas A. Haley veterans Hospital

13000 Bruce B. Blvd

Tampa, FL 33612

Phone:813-972-2000 ext. 7484

Email: Michael.clark8@med.va.gov

Kent, Drescher, Kent 

Health Science Specialist 

Dept of Veterans Affairs 

Nat Ctr PTSD 

Palo Alto VAMC - NatCtrPTSD 

795 Willow Rd Bld 352/111 

Menlo Park, CA 94025 

Phone: 650.493.5000 x22071 

Email: kent.drescher@va.gov

Barbara A. Hermann, PhD

Associate Director for Research and Education

VA National Center for PTSD (116D)

215 North Main St.

White River Junction, VT 05009

802-296-5132 x6082 fax (802) 296-5135

Barbara.Herman@va.gov

Carolyn J. Greene, PhD

Clinical Psychologist

National Center for PTSD, Dissemination and Training Division 

VA Palo Alto HCS

795 Willow Road (PTSD-334)

San Francisco, CA 94103

Phone: 650-493-5000 ext 22107 

Email: Carolyn.greene3@va.gov

Julia Hoffman, Psy.D

Clinical Psychologist

National Center for Telehealth & Technology

795 Willow Road, 334-PTSD

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Phone: 650-493-5000 x20007

Email: Julia.e hofman@us.army.mil

Eric Kuhn, PhD

Co-Director for Education, PTSD

VA Sierra Pacific (VISN 21) Mental Illness Research, 

Education, & Clinical Center (MIRECC) 

VA National Center for PTSD, Dissemination and Training Division 

795 Willow Road Menlo Park, CA 94025 

Phone: (650) 493-5000 x23160

Email: eric kuhn@va.gov
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 221

Walter E. Penk, PhD, ABPP

Consultant, 

Central Texas VA Healthcare System

1936 Oak Glen, 

New Braunfels, Texas, 78132

Phone: 830-620-0222

Email: wepenk@att.net

James Spira, PhD, MPH

Director NCPTSD-Pacific Islands Division

Department of Veterans Affair

3375 Koapaka St. I-560

Honolulu, Hawaii 96819

Phone: 808-954-6390

Email: James.spira@va.gov

Paula P. Schnurr, Ph.D.

Deputy Executive Director

National Center for PTSD (116D)

VA Medical and Regional Office Center

White River Junction, VT 05009

Phone: (802) 296-5132 FAX (802) 296-5135

Email: spaula.schnurr@va.gov 

or paula.P.Schnurr@Dartmouth.EDU

Jennifer Vasterling, PhD

Chief, Psychology Service

VA Medical Center – Boston

150 S Huntington Ave

Jamaica Plain, MA 02130

Phone: (857) 364-4038

Email: jennifer.vasterling@va.gov 
October, 2010 VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the

Management of Post-Traumatic Stress

Appendices Page - 222

APPENDIX E

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