PURPOSE OF FLIGHT TRAINING

The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight

training, as outlined in this handbook, is the acquisition

and honing of basic airmanship skills. Airmanship

can be defined as:

• A sound acquaintance with the principles of

flight,

• The ability to operate an airplane with competence and precision both on the ground and in the

air, and

• The exercise of sound judgment that results in

optimal operational safety and efficiency.

Learning to fly an airplane has often been likened to

learning to drive an automobile. This analogy is

misleading. Since an airplane operates in a different

environment, three dimensional, it requires a type of

motor skill development that is more sensitive to this

situation such as:

• Coordination—The ability to use the hands and

feet together subconsciously and in the proper

relationship to produce desired results in the airplane.

• Timing—The application of muscular coordination at the proper instant to make flight, and all

maneuvers incident thereto, a constant smooth

process.

• Control touch—The ability to sense the action

of the airplane and its probable actions in the

immediate future, with regard to attitude and

speed variations, by the sensing and evaluation of

varying pressures and resistance of the control

surfaces transmitted through the cockpit flight

controls.

• Speed sense—The ability to sense instantly and

react to any reasonable variation of airspeed.

An airman becomes one with the airplane rather than

a machine operator. An accomplished airman

demonstrates the ability to assess a situation quickly

and accurately and deduce the correct procedure to

be followed under the circumstance; to analyze

accurately the probable results of a given set of circumstances or of a proposed procedure; to exercise

care and due regard for safety; to gauge accurately

the performance of the airplane; and to recognize

personal limitations and limitations of the airplane

and avoid approaching the critical points of each.

The development of airmanship skills requires effort

and dedication on the part of both the student pilot

and the flight instructor, beginning with the very first

training flight where proper habit formation begins

with the student being introduced to good operating

practices.

Every airplane has its own particular flight characteristics. The purpose of primary and intermediate flight

training, however, is not to learn how to fly a particular

make and model airplane. The underlying purpose of

flight training is to develop skills and safe habits that

are transferable to any airplane. Basic airmanship skills

serve as a firm foundation for this. The pilot who has

acquired necessary airmanship skills during training,

and demonstrates these skills by flying training-type

airplanes with precision and safe flying habits, will be

able to easily transition to more complex and higher

performance airplanes. It should also be remembered

that the goal of flight training is a safe and competent

pilot, and that passing required practical tests for pilot

certification is only incidental to this goal.

ROLE OF THE FAA

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is empowered by the U.S. Congress to promote aviation safety

by prescribing safety standards for civil aviation. This

is accomplished through the Code of Federal

Regulations (CFRs) formerly referred to as Federal

Aviation Regulations (FARs).

Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)

part 61 pertains to the certification of pilots, flight

instructors, and ground instructors. 14 CFR part 61 prescribes the eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, flight

proficiency, and training and testing requirements for

each type of pilot certificate issued.

14 CFR part 67 prescribes the medical standards and

certification procedures for issuing medical certificates

for airmen and for remaining eligible for a medical

certificate.

14 CFR part 91 contains general operating and flight

rules. The section is broad in scope and provides

general guidance in the areas of general flight rules,

visual flight rules (VFR), instrument flight rules

(IFR), aircraft maintenance, and preventive maintenance and alterations.

1-1

Ch 01.qxd 5/6/04 11:25 AM Page 1-1
1-2

Within the FAA, the Flight Standards Service sets the

aviation standards for airmen and aircraft operations in

the United States and for American airmen and aircraft

around the world. The FAA Flight Standards Service is

headquartered in Washington, D.C., and is broadly

organized into divisions based on work function (Air

Transportation, Aircraft Maintenance, Technical

Programs, a Regulatory Support Division based in

Oklahoma City, OK, and a General Aviation and

Commercial Division). Regional Flight Standards division managers, one at each of the FAA’s nine regional

offices, coordinate Flight Standards activities within

their respective regions.

The interface between the FAA Flight Standards

Service and the aviation community/general public

is the local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).

[Figure 1-1] The approximately 90 FSDOs are

strategically located across the United States, each

office having jurisdiction over a specific geographic

area. The individual FSDO is responsible for all air

activity occurring within its geographic boundaries.

In addition to accident investigation and the

enforcement of aviation regulations, the individual

FSDO is responsible for the certification and surveillance of air carriers, air operators, flight

schools/training centers, and airmen including pilots

and flight instructors.

Each FSDO is staffed by aviation safety inspectors

whose specialties include operations, maintenance,

and avionics. General aviation operations inspectors are highly qualified and experienced aviators.

Once accepted for the position, an inspector must

satisfactorily complete a course of indoctrination

training conducted at the FAA Academy, which

includes airman evaluation and pilot testing techniques and procedures. Thereafter, the inspector must

complete recurrent training on a regular basis. Among

other duties, the FSDO inspector is responsible for

administering FAA practical tests for pilot and flight

instructor certificates and associated ratings. All questions concerning pilot certification (and/or requests for

other aviation information or services) should be directed

to the FSDO having jurisdiction in the particular geographic area. FSDO telephone numbers are listed in the

blue pages of the telephone directory under United States

Government offices, Department of Transportation,

Federal Aviation Administration.

ROLE OF THE PILOT EXAMINER

Pilot and flight instructor certificates are issued by

the FAA upon satisfactory completion of required

knowledge and practical tests. The administration

of these tests is an FAA responsibility normally

carried out at the FSDO level by FSDO inspectors.

The FAA, however, being a U.S. government

agency, has limited resources and must prioritize

its responsibilities. The agency’s highest priority

is the surveillance of certificated air carriers, with

the certification of airmen (including pilots and

flight instructors) having a lower priority.

In order to satisfy the public need for pilot testing and

certification services, the FAA delegates certain of these

responsibilities, as the need arises, to private individuals who are not FAA employees. A designated pilot

examiner (DPE) is a private citizen who is designated

as a representative of the FAAAdministrator to perform

specific (but limited) pilot certification tasks on behalf

of the FAA, and may charge a reasonable fee for doing

so. Generally, a DPE’s authority is limited to accepting

applications and conducting practical tests leading to

the issuance of specific pilot certificates and/or ratings.

A DPE operates under the direct supervision of the

FSDO that holds the examiner’s designation file. A

FSDO inspector is assigned to monitor the DPE’s certification activities. Normally, the DPE is authorized to

conduct these activities only within the designating

FSDO’s jurisdictional area.

The FAA selects only highly qualified individuals to

be designated pilot examiners. These individuals must

have good industry reputations for professionalism,

high integrity, a demonstrated willingness to serve the

public, and adhere to FAA policies and procedures in

certification matters. A designated pilot examiner is

expected to administer practical tests with the same

degree of professionalism, using the same methods,

procedures, and standards as an FAA aviation safety

inspector. It should be remembered, however, that a

DPE is not an FAA aviation safety inspector. A DPE

cannot initiate enforcement action, investigate accidents, or perform surveillance activities on behalf of

the FAA. However, the majority of FAA practical tests

at the recreational, private, and commercial pilot level

Figure 1-1. FAA FSDO. are administered by FAA designated pilot examiners.

Ch 01.qxd 5/6/04 11:25 AM Page 1-2
1-3

ROLE OF THE FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR

The flight instructor is the cornerstone of aviation

safety. The FAA has adopted an operational training

concept that places the full responsibility for student

training on the authorized flight instructor. In this role,

the instructor assumes the total responsibility for training the student pilot in all the knowledge areas and

skills necessary to operate safely and competently as a

certificated pilot in the National Airspace System. This

training will include airmanship skills, pilot judgment

and decision making, and accepted good operating

practices.

An FAA certificated flight instructor has to meet

broad flying experience requirements, pass rigid

knowledge and practical tests, and demonstrate the

ability to apply recommended teaching techniques

before being certificated. In addition, the flight

instructor’s certificate must be renewed every 24

months by showing continued success in training

pilots, or by satisfactorily completing a flight instructor’s refresher course or a practical test designed to

upgrade aeronautical knowledge, pilot proficiency,

and teaching techniques.

A pilot training program is dependent on the quality of

the ground and flight instruction the student pilot

receives. A good flight instructor will have a thorough

understanding of the learning process, knowledge of

the fundamentals of teaching, and the ability to communicate effectively with the student pilot.

A good flight instructor will use a syllabus and insist

on correct techniques and procedures from the

beginning of training so that the student will develop

proper habit patterns. The syllabus should embody

the “building block” method of instruction, in which

the student progresses from the known to the

unknown. The course of instruction should be laid

out so that each new maneuver embodies the principles

involved in the performance of those previously

undertaken. Consequently, through each new subject

introduced, the student not only learns a new principle or technique, but broadens his/her application of

those previously learned and has his/her deficiencies

in the previous maneuvers emphasized and made

obvious.

The flying habits of the flight instructor, both during

flight instruction and as observed by students when

conducting other pilot operations, have a vital effect

on safety. Students consider their flight instructor to be

a paragon of flying proficiency whose flying habits

they, consciously or unconsciously, attempt to imitate.

For this reason, a good flight instructor will meticulously observe the safety practices taught the students.

Additionally, a good flight instructor will carefully

observe all regulations and recognized safety practices

during all flight operations.

Generally, the student pilot who enrolls in a pilot training

program is prepared to commit considerable time,

effort, and expense in pursuit of a pilot certificate. The

student may tend to judge the effectiveness of the flight

instructor, and the overall success of the pilot training

program, solely in terms of being able to pass the

requisite FAA practical test. A good flight instructor,

however, will be able to communicate to the student

that evaluation through practical tests is a mere sampling of pilot ability that is compressed into a short

period of time. The flight instructor’s role, however, is

to train the “total” pilot.

SOURCES OF FLIGHT TRAINING

The major sources of flight training in the United States

include FAA-approved pilot schools and training centers, non-certificated (14 CFR part 61) flying schools,

and independent flight instructors. FAA “approved”

schools are those flight schools certificated by the FAA

as pilot schools under 14 CFR part 141. [Figure 1-2]

Application for certification is voluntary, and the school

must meet stringent requirements for personnel, equipment, maintenance, and facilities. The school must

operate in accordance with an established curriculum,

which includes a training course outline (TCO)

Figure 1-2. FAA-approved pilot school certificate.

Ch 01.qxd 5/6/04 11:25 AM Page 1-3
1-4

approved by the FAA. The TCO must contain student

enrollment prerequisites, detailed description of each

lesson including standards and objectives, expected

accomplishments and standards for each stage of training, and a description of the checks and tests used to

measure a student’s accomplishments. FAA-approved

pilot school certificates must be renewed every 2 years.

Renewal is contingent upon proof of continued high

quality instruction and a minimum level of instructional

activity. Training at an FAA certificated pilot school is

structured. Because of this structured environment, the

CFRs allow graduates of these pilot schools to meet the

certification experience requirements of 14 CFR part

61 with less flight time. Many FAA certificated pilot

schools have designated pilot examiners (DPEs) on

their staff to administer FAA practical tests. Some

schools have been granted examining authority by the

FAA. A school with examining authority for a particular course or courses has the authority to recommend its

graduates for pilot certificates or ratings without further

testing by the FAA. A list of FAA certificated pilot

schools and their training courses can be found in

Advisory Circular (AC) 140-2, FAA Certificated Pilot

School Directory.

FAA-approved training centers are certificated under

14 CFR part 142. Training centers, like certificated

pilot schools, operate in a structured environment with

approved courses and curricula, and stringent standards

for personnel, equipment, facilities, operating procedures and record keeping. Training centers certificated

under 14 CFR part 142, however, specialize in the use

of flight simulation (flight simulators and flight training devices) in their training courses.

The overwhelming majority of flying schools in the

United States are not certificated by the FAA. These

schools operate under the provisions of 14 CFR part

61. Many of these non-certificated flying schools offer

excellent training, and meet or exceed the standards

required of FAA-approved pilot schools. Flight

instructors employed by non-certificated flying

schools, as well as independent flight instructors, must

meet the same basic 14 CFR part 61 flight instructor

requirements for certification and renewal as those

flight instructors employed by FAA certificated pilot

schools. In the end, any training program is dependent

upon the quality of the ground and flight instruction a

student pilot receives.

PRACTICAL TEST STANDARDS

Practical tests for FAA pilot certificates and associated

ratings are administered by FAA inspectors and designated pilot examiners in accordance with FAA-developed

practical test standards (PTS). [Figure 1-3] 14 CFR

part 61 specifies the areas of operation in which

knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by the

applicant. The CFRs provide the flexibility to permit

the FAA to publish practical test standards containing

the areas of operation and specific tasks in which

competence must be demonstrated. The FAA requires

that all practical tests be conducted in accordance with

the appropriate practical test standards and the policies

set forth in the Introduction section of the practical test

standard book.

It must be emphasized that the practical test standards

book is a testing document rather than a teaching document. An appropriately rated flight instructor is

responsible for training a pilot applicant to acceptable

standards in all subject matter areas, procedures, and

maneuvers included in the tasks within each area of

operation in the appropriate practical test standard.

The pilot applicant should be familiar with this book

and refer to the standards it contains during training.

However, the practical test standard book is not

intended to be used as a training syllabus. It contains

the standards to which maneuvers/procedures on FAA

practical tests must be performed and the FAA policies

governing the administration of practical tests.

Descriptions of tasks, and information on how to

perform maneuvers and procedures are contained in

reference and teaching documents such as this

handbook. A list of reference documents is contained

in the Introduction section of each practical test standard book.

Practical test standards may be downloaded from the

Regulatory Support Division’s, AFS-600, Web site at

http://afs600.faa.gov. Printed copies of practical test

standards can be purchased from the Superintendent

of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,

Washington, DC 20402. The official online bookstore

Web site for the U.S. Government Printing Office is

www.access.gpo.gov. 

FLIGHT SAFETY PRACTICES

In the interest of safety and good habit pattern formation, there are certain basic flight safety practices and

procedures that must be emphasized by the flight

instructor, and adhered to by both instructor and student,

beginning with the very first dual instruction flight.

These include, but are not limited to, collision

avoidance procedures including proper scanning

techniques and clearing procedures, runway incursion

avoidance, stall awareness, positive transfer of

controls, and cockpit workload management.

COLLISION AVOIDANCE

All pilots must be alert to the potential for midair

collision and near midair collisions. The general operating and flight rules in 14 CFR part 91 set forth the

concept of “See and Avoid.” This concept requires

that vigilance shall be maintained at all times, by

each person operating an aircraft regardless of

whether the operation is conducted under instrument

Ch 01.qxd 5/6/04 11:25 AM Page 1-4
1-5

flight rules (IFR) or visual flight rules (VFR). Pilots

should also keep in mind their responsibility for continuously maintaining a vigilant lookout regardless of

the type of aircraft being flown and the purpose of the

flight. Most midair collision accidents and reported

near midair collision incidents occur in good VFR

weather conditions and during the hours of daylight.

Most of these accident/incidents occur within 5 miles

of an airport and/or near navigation aids.

The “See and Avoid” concept relies on knowledge

of the limitations of the human eye, and the use of

proper visual scanning techniques to help compensate for these limitations. The importance of, and

the proper techniques for, visual scanning should

be taught to a student pilot at the very beginning of

flight training. The competent flight instructor

should be familiar with the visual scanning and

collision avoidance information contained in

Advisory Circular (AC) 90-48, Pilots’ Role in

Collision Avoidance, and the Aeronautical

Information Manual (AIM).

There are many different types of clearing procedures.

Most are centered around the use of clearing turns. The

essential idea of the clearing turn is to be certain that

the next maneuver is not going to proceed into another

airplane’s flightpath. Some pilot training programs

have hard and fast rules, such as requiring two 90°

turns in opposite directions before executing any

training maneuver. Other types of clearing procedures

may be developed by individual flight instructors.

Whatever the preferred method, the flight instructor

should teach the beginning student an effective clearing procedure and insist on its use. The student pilot

should execute the appropriate clearing procedure

before all turns and before executing any training

maneuver. Proper clearing procedures, combined

with proper visual scanning techniques, are the most

effective strategy for collision avoidance.

RUNWAY INCURSION AVOIDANCE

A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport

involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the

ground that creates a collision hazard or results in a

loss of separation with an aircraft taking off, landing,

or intending to land. The three major areas contributing to runway incursions are:

• Communications,

• Airport knowledge, and

• Cockpit procedures for maintaining orientation.

Taxi operations require constant vigilance by the entire

flight crew, not just the pilot taxiing the airplane. This

is especially true during flight training operations.

Both the student pilot and the flight instructor need to

be continually aware of the movement and location of

Figure 1-3. PTS books.

Ch 01.qxd 5/6/04 11:25 AM Page 1-5
1-6

other aircraft and ground vehicles on the airport

movement area. Many flight training activities are

conducted at non-tower controlled airports. The

absence of an operating airport control tower creates a

need for increased vigilance on the part of pilots operating at those airports.

Planning, clear communications, and enhanced

situational awareness during airport surface

operations will reduce the potential for surface incidents. Safe aircraft operations can be accomplished

and incidents eliminated if the pilot is properly trained

early on and, throughout his/her flying career,

accomplishes standard taxi operating procedures and

practices. This requires the development of the

formalized teaching of safe operating practices during

taxi operations. The flight instructor is the key to this

teaching. The flight instructor should instill in the

student an awareness of the potential for runway

incursion, and should emphasize the runway

incursion avoidance procedures contained in

Advisory Circular (AC) 91-73, Part 91 Pilot and

Flightcrew Procedures During Taxi Operations and

Part 135 Single-Pilot Operations.

STALL AWARENESS

14 CFR part 61 requires that a student pilot receive and

log flight training in stalls and stall recoveries prior to

solo flight. During this training, the flight instructor

should emphasize that the direct cause of every stall is

an excessive angle of attack. The student pilot should

fully understand that there are any number of flight

maneuvers which may produce an increase in the

wing’s angle of attack, but the stall does not occur until

the angle of attack becomes excessive. This “critical”

angle of attack varies from 16 to 20° depending on the

airplane design.

The flight instructor must emphasize that low speed is

not necessary to produce a stall. The wing can be

brought to an excessive angle of attack at any speed.

High pitch attitude is not an absolute indication of

proximity to a stall. Some airplanes are capable of vertical flight with a corresponding low angle of attack.

Most airplanes are quite capable of stalling at a level or

near level pitch attitude.

The key to stall awareness is the pilot’s ability to

visualize the wing’s angle of attack in any particular

circumstance, and thereby be able to estimate his/her

margin of safety above stall. This is a learned skill

that must be acquired early in flight training and

carried through the pilot’s entire flying career. The

pilot must understand and appreciate factors such as

airspeed, pitch attitude, load factor, relative wind,

power setting, and aircraft configuration in order to

develop a reasonably accurate mental picture of the

wing’s angle of attack at any particular time. It is

essential to flight safety that a pilot take into consideration this visualization of the wing’s angle of

attack prior to entering any flight maneuver. 

USE OF CHECKLISTS

Checklists have been the foundation of pilot standardization and cockpit safety for years. The checklist is an

aid to the memory and helps to ensure that critical

items necessary for the safe operation of aircraft are

not overlooked or forgotten. However, checklists are

of no value if the pilot is not committed to its use.

Without discipline and dedication to using the checklist at the appropriate times, the odds are on the side of

error. Pilots who fail to take the checklist seriously

become complacent and the only thing they can rely

on is memory.

The importance of consistent use of checklists cannot

be overstated in pilot training. A major objective in

primary flight training is to establish habit patterns that

will serve pilots well throughout their entire flying

career. The flight instructor must promote a positive

attitude toward the use of checklists, and the student

pilot must realize its importance. At a minimum, prepared checklists should be used for the following

phases of flight.

• Preflight Inspection.

• Before Engine Start.

• Engine Starting.

• Before Taxiing.

• Before Takeoff.

• After Takeoff.

• Cruise.

• Descent.

• Before Landing.

• After Landing.

• Engine Shutdown and Securing.

POSITIVE TRANSFER OF CONTROLS

During flight training, there must always be a clear

understanding between the student and flight instructor of who has control of the aircraft. Prior to any

dual training flight, a briefing should be conducted

that includes the procedure for the exchange of flight

controls. The following three-step process for the

exchange of flight controls is highly recommended.

When a flight instructor wishes the student to take

control of the aircraft, he/she should say to the student, “You have the flight controls.” The student

should acknowledge immediately by saying, “I have

the flight controls.” The flight instructor confirms by

Ch 01.qxd 5/6/04 11:25 AM Page 1-6
1-7

again saying, “You have the flight controls.” Part of

the procedure should be a visual check to ensure that

the other person actually has the flight controls. When

returning the controls to the flight instructor, the student should follow the same procedure the instructor

used when giving control to the student. The student

should stay on the controls until the instructor says:

“I have the flight controls.” There should never be

any doubt as to who is flying the airplane at any one

time. Numerous accidents have occurred due to a lack

of communication or misunderstanding as to who

actually had control of the aircraft, particularly

between students and flight instructors. Establishing

the above procedure during initial training will ensure

the formation of a very beneficial habit pattern.

Ch 01.qxd 5/6/04 11:25 AM Page 1-7
1-8

Ch 01.qxd 5/6/04 11:25 AM Page 1-8
2-1

VISUAL INSPECTION

The accomplishment of a safe flight begins with a careful visual inspection of the airplane. The purpose of the

preflight visual inspection is twofold: to determine that

the airplane is legally airworthy, and that it is in condition for safe flight. The airworthiness of the airplane is

determined, in part, by the following certificates and

documents, which must be on board the airplane when

operated. [Figure 2-1]

Airworthiness certificate.

Registration certificate.

FCC radio station license, if required by the type

of operation.

Airplane operating limitations, which may be in

the form of an FAA-approved Airplane Flight

Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook

(AFM/POH), placards, instrument markings, or

any combination thereof.

Airplane logbooks are not required to be kept in the

airplane when it is operated. However, they should be

inspected prior to flight to show that the airplane has

had required tests and inspections. Maintenance

records for the airframe and engine are required to be

kept. There may also be additional propeller records.

At a minimum, there should be an annual inspection

within the preceding 12-calendar months. In addition,

the airplane may also be required to have a 100-hour

inspection in accordance with Title14 of the Code of

Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, section

91.409(b).

If a transponder is to be used, it is required to be

inspected within the preceding 24-calendar months. If

the airplane is operated under instrument flight rules

(IFR) in controlled airspace, the pitot-static system is

also required to be inspected within the preceding

24-calendar months.

The emergency locator transmitter (ELT) should also

be checked. The ELT is battery powered, and the

battery replacement or recharge date should not

be exceeded.

Airworthiness Directives (ADs) have varying

compliance intervals and are usually tracked in a

separate area of the appropriate airframe, engine, or

propeller record.

Figure 2-1. Aircraft documents and AFM/POH.

•

•

•

•

Ch 02.qxd 5/7/04 6:22 AM Page 2-1
2-2

The determination of whether the airplane is in a condition for safe flight is made by a preflight inspection

of the airplane and its components. [Figure 2-2] The

preflight inspection should be performed in accordance

with a printed checklist provided by the airplane manufacturer for the specific make and model airplane.

However, the following general areas are applicable to

all airplanes.

The preflight inspection of the airplane should begin

while approaching the airplane on the ramp. The pilot

should make note of the general appearance of the

airplane, looking for obvious discrepancies such as a

landing gear out of alignment, structural distortion,

skin damage, and dripping fuel or oil leaks. Upon

reaching the airplane, all tiedowns, control locks, and

chocks should be removed.

INSIDE THE COCKPIT

The inspection should start with the cabin door. If the

door is hard to open or close, or if the carpeting or

seats are wet from a recent rain, there is a good chance

that the door, fuselage, or both are misaligned. This

may be a sign of structural damage.

The windshield and side windows should be examined

for cracks and/or crazing. Crazing is the first stage of

delamination of the plastic. Crazing decreases

visibility, and a severely crazed window can result in

near zero visibility due to light refraction at certain

angles to the sun.

The pilot should check the seats, seat rails, and seat

belt attach points for wear, cracks, and serviceability.

The seat rail holes where the seat lock pins fit should

1

2

3

4

5

7 6

8

10 9

Figure 2-2. Preflight inspection.

Figure 2-3. Inside the cockpit.

Ch 02.qxd 5/7/04 6:22 AM Page 2-2
2-3

also be inspected. The holes should be round and not

oval. The pin and seat rail grips should also be checked

for wear and serviceability.

Inside the cockpit, three key items to be checked are:

(1) battery and ignition switches—off, (2) control

column locks—removed, (3) landing gear control—

down and locked. [Figure 2-3]

The fuel selectors should be checked for proper

operation in all positions—including the OFF position. Stiff selectors, or ones where the tank position is

hard to find, are unacceptable. The primer should also

be exercised. The pilot should feel resistance when

the primer is both pulled out and pushed in. The

primer should also lock securely. Faulty primers can

interfere with proper engine operation. [Figure 2-4]

The engine controls should also be manipulated by

slowly moving each through its full range to check

for binding or stiffness. 

The airspeed indicator should be properly marked, and

the indicator needle should read zero. If it does not, the

instrument may not be calibrated correctly. Similarly,

the vertical speed indicator (VSI) should also read zero

when the airplane is on the ground. If it does not, a

small screwdriver can be used to zero the instrument.

The VSI is the only flight instrument that a pilot has

the prerogative to adjust. All others must be adjusted

by an FAA certificated repairman or mechanic.

The magnetic compass is a required instrument for

both VFR and IFR flight. It must be securely mounted,

with a correction card in place. The instrument face

must be clear and the instrument case full of fluid. A

cloudy instrument face, bubbles in the fluid, or a

partially filled case renders the instrument unusable.

[Figure 2-5]

The gyro driven attitude indicator should be checked

before being powered. A white haze on the inside of

Figure 2-4. Fuel selector and primer.

Figure 2-5. Airspeed indicator, VSI, and magnetic compass.

Ch 02.qxd 5/7/04 6:22 AM Page 2-3
2-4

the glass face may be a sign that the seal has been

breached, allowing moisture and dirt to be sucked into

the instrument.

The altimeter should be checked against the ramp or

field elevation after setting in the barometric pressure.

If the variation between the known field elevation and

the altimeter indication is more than 75 feet, its

accuracy is questionable.

The pilot should turn on the battery master switch and

make note of the fuel quantity gauge indications for

comparison with an actual visual inspection of the fuel

tanks during the exterior inspection.

OUTER WING SURFACES AND TAIL

SECTION

The pilot should inspect for any signs of deterioration,

distortion, and loose or missing rivets or screws,

especially in the area where the outer skin attaches to

the airplane structure. [Figure 2-6] The pilot should

look along the wing spar rivet line—from the wingtip

to the fuselage—for skin distortion. Any ripples and/or

waves may be an indication of internal damage

or failure.

Loose or sheared aluminum rivets may be identified by

the presence of black oxide which forms rapidly when

the rivet works free in its hole. Pressure applied to the

skin adjacent to the rivet head will help verify the

loosened condition of the rivet.

When examining the outer wing surface, it should be

remembered that any damage, distortion, or

malformation of the wing leading edge renders the

airplane unairworthy. Serious dents in the leading

edge, and disrepair of items such as stall strips, and

deicer boots can cause the airplane to be

aerodynamically unsound. Also, special care should

be taken when examining the wingtips. Airplane

wingtips are usually fiberglass. They are easily

damaged and subject to cracking. The pilot should

look at stop drilled cracks for evidence of crack

progression, which can, under some circumstances,

lead to in-flight failure of the wingtip.

The pilot should remember that fuel stains anywhere

on the wing warrant further investigation—no matter

how old the stains appear to be. Fuel stains are a sign

of probable fuel leakage. On airplanes equipped with

integral fuel tanks, evidence of fuel leakage can be

found along rivet lines along the underside of

the wing. 

Figure 2-6. Wing and tail section inspection.

Ch 02.qxd 5/7/04 6:22 AM Page 2-4
2-5

FUEL AND OIL

Particular attention should be paid to the fuel quantity,

type and grade, and quality. [Figure 2-7] Many fuel

tanks are very sensitive to airplane attitude when

attempting to fuel for maximum capacity. Nosewheel

strut extension, both high as well as low, can

significantly alter the attitude, and therefore the fuel

capacity. The airplane attitude can also be affected

laterally by a ramp that slopes, leaving one wing

slightly higher than another. Always confirm the fuel

quantity indicated on the fuel gauges by visually

inspecting the level of each tank.

The type, grade, and color of fuel are critical to safe

operation. The only widely available aviation gasoline

(AVGAS) grade in the United States is low-lead

100-octane, or 100LL. AVGAS is dyed for easy

recognition of its grade and has a familiar gasoline

scent. Jet-A, or jet fuel, is a kerosene-based fuel for

turbine powered airplanes. It has disastrous

consequences when inadvertently introduced into

reciprocating airplane engines. The piston engine

operating on jet fuel may start, run, and power the

airplane, but will fail because the engine has been

destroyed from detonation.

Jet fuel has a distinctive kerosene scent and is oily to

the touch when rubbed between fingers. Jet fuel is

clear or straw colored, although it may appear dyed

when mixed in a tank containing AVGAS. When a few

drops of AVGAS are placed upon white paper, they

evaporate quickly and leave just a trace of dye. In

comparison, jet fuel is slower to evaporate and leaves

an oily smudge. Jet fuel refueling trucks and

dispensing equipment are marked with JET-A placards

in white letters on a black background. Prudent pilots

will supervise fueling to ensure that the correct tanks

are filled with the right quantity, type, and grade of

fuel. The pilot should always ensure that the fuel caps

have been securely replaced following each fueling.

Engines certificated for grades 80/87 or 91/96 AVGAS

will run satisfactorily on 100LL. The reverse is not

true. Fuel of a lower grade/octane, if found, should

never be substituted for a required higher grade.

Detonation will severely damage the engine in a very

short period of time.

Automotive gasoline is sometimes used as a substitute

fuel in certain airplanes. Its use is acceptable only

when the particular airplane has been issued a

supplemental type certificate (STC) to both the

airframe and engine allowing its use.

Checking for water and other sediment contamination

is a key preflight element. Water tends to accumulate

in fuel tanks from condensation, particularly in

partially filled tanks. Because water is heavier than

fuel, it tends to collect in the low points of the fuel

system. Water can also be introduced into the fuel

system from deteriorated gas cap seals exposed to rain,

or from the supplier’s storage tanks and delivery

vehicles. Sediment contamination can arise from dust

and dirt entering the tanks during refueling, or from

deteriorating rubber fuel tanks or tank sealant.

The best preventive measure is to minimize the

opportunity for water to condense in the tanks. If

possible, the fuel tanks should be completely filled

with the proper grade of fuel after each flight, or at

least filled after the last flight of the day. The more fuel

there is in the tanks, the less opportunity for

condensation to occur. Keeping fuel tanks filled is also

the best way to slow the aging of rubber fuel tanks and

tank sealant.

Sufficient fuel should be drained from the fuel strainer

quick drain and from each fuel tank sump to check for

fuel grade/color, water, dirt, and smell. If water is

present, it will usually be in bead-like droplets,

different in color (usually clear, sometimes muddy), in

the bottom of the sample. In extreme cases, do not

overlook the possibility that the entire sample,

particularly a small sample, is water. If water is found

in the first fuel sample, further samples should be taken

until no water appears. Significant and/or consistent

water or sediment contamination are grounds for

further investigation by qualified maintenance

personnel. Each fuel tank sump should be drained

during preflight and after refueling.

The fuel tank vent is an important part of a preflight

inspection. Unless outside air is able to enter the tank

as fuel is drawn out, the eventual result will be fuel

gauge malfunction and/or fuel starvation. During the

preflight inspection, the pilot should be alert for any

Figure 2-7. Aviation fuel types, grades, and colors.

Ch 02.qxd 5/7/04 6:22 AM Page 2-5
2-6

signs of vent tubing damage, as well as vent blockage.

A functional check of the fuel vent system can be done

simply by opening the fuel cap. If there is a rush of air

when the fuel tank cap is cracked, there could be a

serious problem with the vent system.

The oil level should be checked during each preflight

and rechecked with each refueling. Reciprocating

airplane engines can be expected to consume a small

amount of oil during normal operation. If the

consumption grows or suddenly changes, qualified

maintenance personnel should investigate. If line

service personnel add oil to the engine, the pilot should

ensure that the oil cap has been securely replaced.

LANDING GEAR,TIRES, AND BRAKES

Tires should be inspected for proper inflation, as well

as cuts, bruises, wear, bulges, imbedded foreign object,

and deterioration. As a general rule, tires with cord

showing, and those with cracked sidewalls are

considered unairworthy.

Brakes and brake systems should be checked for rust

and corrosion, loose nuts/bolts, alignment, brake pad

wear/cracks, signs of hydraulic fluid leakage, and

hydraulic line security/abrasion.

An examination of the nose gear should include the

shimmy damper, which is painted white, and the torque

link, which is painted red, for proper servicing and

general condition. All landing gear shock struts should

also be checked for proper inflation.

ENGINE AND PROPELLER

The pilot should make note of the condition of the

engine cowling. [Figure 2-8] If the cowling rivet heads

reveal aluminum oxide residue, and chipped paint

surrounding and radiating away from the cowling rivet

heads, it is a sign that the rivets have been rotating until

the holes have been elongated. If allowed to continue,

the cowling may eventually separate from the airplane

in flight.

Certain engine/propeller combinations require

installation of a prop spinner for proper engine

cooling. In these cases, the engine should not be

operated unless the spinner is present and properly

installed. The pilot should inspect the propeller

spinner and spinner mounting plate for security of

attachment, any signs of chafing of propeller blades,

and defects such as cracking. A cracked spinner is

unairworthy.

The propeller should be checked for nicks, cracks,

pitting, corrosion, and security. The propeller hub

should be checked for oil leaks, and the alternator/

generator drive belt should be checked for proper

tension and signs of wear.

When inspecting inside the cowling, the pilot should

look for signs of fuel dye which may indicate a fuel

leak. The pilot should check for oil leaks, deterioration

of oil lines, and to make certain that the oil cap, filter,

oil cooler and drain plug are secure. The exhaust

system should be checked for white stains caused by

exhaust leaks at the cylinder head or cracks in the

stacks. The heat muffs should also be checked for

general condition and signs of cracks or leaks.

The air filter should be checked for condition and

secure fit, as well as hydraulic lines for deterioration

and/or leaks. The pilot should also check for loose or

foreign objects inside the cowling such as bird nests,

shop rags, and/or tools. All visible wires and lines

should be checked for security and condition. And

lastly, when the cowling is closed, the cowling

fasteners should be checked for security.

Figure 2-8. Check the propeller and inside the cowling.

Ch 02.qxd 5/7/04 6:22 AM Page 2-6
2-7

COCKPIT MANAGEMENT

After entering the airplane, the pilot should first ensure

that all necessary equipment, documents, checklists,

and navigation charts appropriate for the flight are on

board. If a portable intercom, headsets, or a hand-held

global positioning system (GPS) is used, the pilot is

responsible for ensuring that the routing of wires and

cables does not interfere with the motion or the

operation of any control.

Regardless of what materials are to be used, they

should be neatly arranged and organized in a manner

that makes them readily available. The cockpit and

cabin should be checked for articles that might be

tossed about if turbulence is encountered. Loose items

should be properly secured. All pilots should form the

habit of good housekeeping.

The pilot must be able to see inside and outside

references. If the range of motion of an adjustable seat

is inadequate, cushions should be used to provide the

proper seating position.

When the pilot is comfortably seated, the safety belt

and shoulder harness (if installed) should be fastened

and adjusted to a comfortably snug fit. The shoulder

harness must be worn at least for the takeoff and

landing, unless the pilot cannot reach or operate the

controls with it fastened. The safety belt must be worn

at all times when the pilot is seated at the controls.

If the seats are adjustable, it is important to ensure that

the seat is locked in position. Accidents have occurred

as the result of seat movement during acceleration or

pitch attitude changes during takeoffs or landings.

When the seat suddenly moves too close or too far

away from the controls, the pilot may be unable to

maintain control of the airplane.

14 CFR part 91 requires the pilot to ensure that each

person on board is briefed on how to fasten and

unfasten his/her safety belt and, if installed, shoulder

harness. This should be accomplished before starting

the engine, along with a passenger briefing on the

proper use of safety equipment and exit information.

Airplane manufacturers have printed briefing cards

available, similar to those used by airlines, to

supplement the pilot’s briefing.

GROUND OPERATIONS

It is important that a pilot operates an airplane safely

on the ground. This includes being familiar with

standard hand signals that are used by ramp personnel.

[Figure 2-9]

ENGINE STARTING

The specific procedures for engine starting will not be

discussed here since there are as many different

methods as there are different engines, fuel systems,

and starting conditions. The before engine starting and

engine starting checklist procedures should be followed. There are, however, certain precautions that

apply to all airplanes.

Some pilots have started the engine with the tail of the

airplane pointed toward an open hangar door, parked

automobiles, or a group of bystanders. This is not only

discourteous, but may result in personal injury and

damage to the property of others. Propeller blast can

be surprisingly powerful.

When ready to start the engine, the pilot should look in

all directions to be sure that nothing is or will be in the

vicinity of the propeller. This includes nearby persons

and aircraft that could be struck by the propeller blast

or the debris it might pick up from the ground. The

anticollision light should be turned on prior to engine

start, even during daytime operations. At night, the

position (navigation) lights should also be on.

The pilot should always call “CLEAR” out of the side

window and wait for a response from persons who may

be nearby before activating the starter.

Figure 2-9. Standard hand signals.

Ch 02.qxd 5/7/04 6:22 AM Page 2-7
2-8

When activating the starter, one hand should be kept

on the throttle. This allows prompt response if the

engine falters during starting, and allows the pilot to

rapidly retard the throttle if revolutions per minute

(r.p.m.) are excessive after starting. A low r.p.m.

setting (800 to 1,000) is recommended immediately

following engine start. It is highly undesirable to allow

the r.p.m. to race immediately after start, as there will

be insufficient lubrication until the oil pressure rises.

In freezing temperatures, the engine will also be

exposed to potential mechanical distress until it warms

and normal internal operating clearances are assumed.

As soon as the engine is operating smoothly, the oil

pressure should be checked. If it does not rise to the

manufacturer’s specified value, the engine may not be

receiving proper lubrication and should be shut down

immediately to prevent serious damage.

Although quite rare, the starter motor may remain on

and engaged after the engine starts. This can be

detected by a continuous very high current draw on the

ammeter. Some airplanes also have a starter engaged

warning light specifically for this purpose. The engine

should be shut down immediately should this occur.

Starters are small electric motors designed to draw

large amounts of current for short periods of cranking.

Should the engine fail to start readily, avoid

continuous starter operation for periods longer than 30

seconds without a cool down period of at least 30

seconds to a minute (some AFM/POH specify even

longer). Their service life is drastically shortened from

high heat through overuse.

HAND PROPPING

Even though most airplanes are equipped with electric

starters, it is helpful if a pilot is familiar with the procedures and dangers involved in starting an engine by

turning the propeller by hand (hand propping). Due to

the associated hazards, this method of starting should

be used only when absolutely necessary and when

proper precautions have been taken.

An engine should not be hand propped unless two

people, both familiar with the airplane and hand

propping techniques, are available to perform the

procedure. The person pulling the propeller blades

through directs all activity and is in charge of the

procedure. The other person, thoroughly familiar

with the controls, must be seated in the airplane with

the brakes set. As an additional precaution, chocks

may be placed in front of the main wheels. If this is

not feasible, the airplane’s tail may be securely tied.

Never allow a person unfamiliar with the controls to

occupy the pilot’s seat when hand propping. The

procedure should never be attempted alone.

When hand propping is necessary, the ground surface

near the propeller should be stable and free of debris.

Unless a firm footing is available, consider relocating

the airplane. Loose gravel, wet grass, mud, oil, ice, or

snow might cause the person pulling the propeller

through to slip into the rotating blades as the engine

starts.

Both participants should discuss the procedure and

agree on voice commands and expected action. To

begin the procedure, the fuel system and engine

controls (tank selector, primer, pump, throttle, and

mixture) are set for a normal start. The ignition/

magneto switch should be checked to be sure that it is

OFF. Then the descending propeller blade should be

rotated so that it assumes a position slightly above the

horizontal. The person doing the hand propping should

face the descending blade squarely and stand slightly

less than one arm’s length from the blade. If a stance

too far away were assumed, it would be necessary to

lean forward in an unbalanced condition to reach the

blade. This may cause the person to fall forward into

the rotating blades when the engine starts.

The procedure and commands for hand propping are:

Person out front says, “GAS ON, SWITCH OFF,

THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES SET.”

Pilot seat occupant, after making sure the fuel is

ON, mixture is RICH, ignition/magneto switch is

OFF, throttle is CLOSED, and brakes SET, says,

“GAS ON, SWITCH OFF, THROTTLE

CLOSED, BRAKES SET.”

Person out front, after pulling the propeller

through to prime the engine says, “BRAKES

AND CONTACT.”

Pilot seat occupant checks the brakes SET and

turns the ignition switch ON, then says,

“BRAKES AND CONTACT.”

The propeller is swung by forcing the blade downward

rapidly, pushing with the palms of both hands. If the

blade is gripped tightly with the fingers, the person’s

body may be drawn into the propeller blades should

the engine misfire and rotate momentarily in the

opposite direction. As the blade is pushed down, the

person should step backward, away from the propeller.

If the engine does not start, the propeller should not be

repositioned for another attempt until it is certain the

ignition/magneto switch is turned OFF.

The words CONTACT (mags ON) and SWITCH OFF

(mags OFF) are used because they are significantly

different from each other. Under noisy conditions or

high winds, the words CONTACT and SWITCH OFF

•

•

•

•

Ch 02.qxd 5/7/04 6:22 AM Page 2-8
2-9

are less likely to be misunderstood than SWITCH ON

and SWITCH OFF.

When removing the wheel chocks after the engine

starts, it is essential that the pilot remember that the

propeller is almost invisible. Incredible as it may seem,

serious injuries and fatalities occur when people who

have just started an engine walk or reach into the

propeller arc to remove the chocks. Before the chocks

are removed, the throttle should be set to idle and the

chocks approached from the rear of the propeller.

Never approach the chocks from the front or the side.

The procedures for hand propping should always be in

accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations

and checklist. Special starting procedures are used

when the engine is already warm, very cold, or when

flooded or vapor locked. There will also be a different

starting procedure when an external power source

is used.

TAXIING

The following basic taxi information is applicable to

both nosewheel and tailwheel airplanes.

Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane

under its own power while on the ground. Since an

airplane is moved under its own power between the

parking area and the runway, the pilot must thoroughly

understand and be proficient in taxi procedures.

An awareness of other aircraft that are taking off,

landing, or taxiing, and consideration for the right-ofway of others is essential to safety. When taxiing, the

pilot’s eyes should be looking outside the airplane, to

the sides, as well as the front. The pilot must be aware

of the entire area around the airplane to ensure that the

airplane will clear all obstructions and other aircraft. If

at any time there is doubt about the clearance from an

object, the pilot should stop the airplane and have

someone check the clearance. It may be necessary to

have the airplane towed or physically moved by a

ground crew.

It is difficult to set any rule for a single, safe taxiing

speed. What is reasonable and prudent under some

conditions may be imprudent or hazardous under others. The primary requirements for safe taxiing are positive control, the ability to recognize potential hazards

in time to avoid them, and the ability to stop or turn

where and when desired, without undue reliance on the

brakes. Pilots should proceed at a cautious speed on

congested or busy ramps. Normally, the speed should

be at the rate where movement of the airplane is

dependent on the throttle. That is, slow enough so

when the throttle is closed, the airplane can be stopped

promptly. When yellow taxiway centerline stripes are

provided, they should be observed unless necessary to

clear airplanes or obstructions.

When taxiing, it is best to slow down before

attempting a turn. Sharp, high-speed turns place

undesirable side loads on the landing gear and may

result in an uncontrollable swerve or a ground loop.

This swerve is most likely to occur when turning from

a downwind heading toward an upwind heading. In

moderate to high-wind conditions, pilots will note the

airplane’s tendency to weathervane, or turn into the

wind when the airplane is proceeding crosswind.

When taxiing at appropriate speeds in no-wind

conditions, the aileron and elevator control surfaces

have little or no effect on directional control of the

airplane. The controls should not be considered

steering devices and should be held in a neutral

position. Their proper use while taxiing in windy

conditions will be discussed later. [Figure 2-10]

Steering is accomplished with rudder pedals and

brakes. To turn the airplane on the ground, the pilot

should apply rudder in the desired direction of turn and

use whatever power or brake that is necessary to

control the taxi speed. The rudder pedal should be held

in the direction of the turn until just short of the point

where the turn is to be stopped. Rudder pressure is then

released or opposite pressure is applied as needed.

More engine power may be required to start the

airplane moving forward, or to start a turn, than is

required to keep it moving in any given direction.

When using additional power, the throttle should

immediately be retarded once the airplane begins

moving, to prevent excessive acceleration.

When first beginning to taxi, the brakes should be

tested for proper operation as soon as the airplane is

put in motion. Applying power to start the airplane

Use Up Aileron

on LH Wing and

Neutral Elevator

Use Up Aileron

on RH Wing and

Neutral Elevator

Use Down Aileron

on LH Wing and

Down Elevator

Use Down Aileron

on RH Wing and

Down Elevator

Figure 2-10. Flight control positions during taxi.

Ch 02.qxd 5/7/04 6:22 AM Page 2-9
2-10

moving forward slowly, then retarding the throttle and

simultaneously applying pressure smoothly to both

brakes does this. If braking action is unsatisfactory, the

engine should be shut down immediately.

The presence of moderate to strong headwinds and/or

a strong propeller slipstream makes the use of the

elevator necessary to maintain control of the pitch

attitude while taxiing. This becomes apparent when

considering the lifting action that may be created on

the horizontal tail surfaces by either of those two

factors. The elevator control in nosewheel-type

airplanes should be held in the neutral position, while

in tailwheel-type airplanes it should be held in the aft

position to hold the tail down.

Downwind taxiing will usually require less engine

power after the initial ground roll is begun, since the

wind will be pushing the airplane forward. [Figure

2-11] To avoid overheating the brakes when taxiing

downwind, keep engine power to a minimum. Rather

than continuously riding the brakes to control speed, it

is better to apply brakes only occasionally. Other than

sharp turns at low speed, the throttle should always be

at idle before the brakes are applied. It is a common

student error to taxi with a power setting that requires

controlling taxi speed with the brakes. This is the

aeronautical equivalent of driving an automobile with

both the accelerator and brake pedals depressed. 

When taxiing with a quartering headwind, the wing on

the upwind side will tend to be lifted by the wind

unless the aileron control is held in that direction

(upwind aileron UP). [Figure 2-12] Moving the aileron

into the UP position reduces the effect of the wind

striking that wing, thus reducing the lifting action.

This control movement will also cause the downwind

aileron to be placed in the DOWN position, thus a

small amount of lift and drag on the downwind wing,

further reducing the tendency of the upwind wing

to rise.

When taxiing with a quartering tailwind, the elevator

should be held in the DOWN position, and the upwind

aileron, DOWN. [Figure 2-13] Since the wind is

striking the airplane from behind, these control

positions reduce the tendency of the wind to get under

the tail and the wing and to nose the airplane over.

The application of these crosswind taxi corrections

helps to minimize the weathervaning tendency and

ultimately results in making the airplane easier to

steer.

Normally, all turns should be started using the rudder

pedal to steer the nosewheel. To tighten the turn after

full pedal deflection is reached, the brake may be

applied as needed. When stopping the airplane, it is

advisable to always stop with the nosewheel straight

ahead to relieve any side load on the nosewheel and to

make it easier to start moving ahead.

During crosswind taxiing, even the nosewheel-type

airplane has some tendency to weathervane. However,

WHEN TAXIING DOWNWIND

Keep engine power

to a minimum.

Do not ride the brakes. 

Reduce power and use

brakes intermittently.

Figure 2-11. Downwind taxi.

Upwind Aileron Up

Downwind Aileron Down

Elevator Neutral

Figure 2-12. Quartering headwind.

Upwind Aileron Down

Downwind Aileron Up

Elevator Down

Figure 2-13. Quartering tailwind.

Figure 2-14. Surface area most affected by wind.

Ch 02.qxd 5/7/04 6:22 AM Page 2-10
2-11

the weathervaning tendency is less than in

tailwheel-type airplanes because the main wheels are

located farther aft, and the nosewheel’s ground friction

helps to resist the tendency. [Figure 2-14] The

nosewheel linkage from the rudder pedals provides

adequate steering control for safe and efficient ground

handling, and normally, only rudder pressure is

necessary to correct for a crosswind.

BEFORE TAKEOFF CHECK

The before takeoff check is the systematic procedure

for making a check of the engine, controls, systems,

instruments, and avionics prior to flight. Normally, it is

performed after taxiing to a position near the takeoff

end of the runway. Taxiing to that position usually

allows sufficient time for the engine to warm up to at

least minimum operating temperatures. This ensures

adequate lubrication and internal engine clearances

before being operated at high power settings. Many

engines require that the oil temperature reach a

minimum value as stated in the AFM/POH before high

power is applied.

Air-cooled engines generally are closely cowled and

equipped with pressure baffles that direct the flow of

air to the engine in sufficient quantities for cooling in

flight. On the ground, however, much less air is forced

through the cowling and around the baffling.

Prolonged ground operations may cause cylinder

overheating long before there is an indication of rising

oil temperature. Cowl flaps, if available, should be set

according to the AFM/POH.

Before beginning the before takeoff check, the airplane

should be positioned clear of other aircraft. There

should not be anything behind the airplane that might

be damaged by the prop blast. To minimize

overheating during engine runup, it is recommended

that the airplane be headed as nearly as possible into

the wind. After the airplane is properly positioned for

the runup, it should be allowed to roll forward slightly

so that the nosewheel or tailwheel will be aligned fore

and aft.

During the engine runup, the surface under the airplane

should be firm (a smooth, paved, or turf surface if

possible) and free of debris. Otherwise, the propeller

may pick up pebbles, dirt, mud, sand, or other loose

objects and hurl them backwards. This damages the

propeller and may damage the tail of the airplane.

Small chips in the leading edge of the propeller form

stress risers, or lines of concentrated high stress. These

are highly undesirable and may lead to cracks and

possible propeller blade failure.

While performing the engine runup, the pilot must

divide attention inside and outside the airplane. If the

parking brake slips, or if application of the toe brakes

is inadequate for the amount of power applied, the

airplane could move forward unnoticed if attention is

fixed inside the airplane.

Each airplane has different features and equipment,

and the before takeoff checklist provided by the

airplane manufacturer or operator should be used to

perform the runup.

AFTER LANDING

During the after-landing roll, the airplane should be

gradually slowed to normal taxi speed before turning

off the landing runway. Any significant degree of turn

at faster speeds could result in ground looping and

subsequent damage to the airplane.

To give full attention to controlling the airplane during

the landing roll, the after-landing check should be

performed only after the airplane is brought to a

complete stop clear of the active runway. There have

been many cases of the pilot mistakenly grasping the

wrong handle and retracting the landing gear, instead

of the flaps, due to improper division of attention while

the airplane was moving. However, this procedure may

be modified if the manufacturer recommends that

specific after-landing items be accomplished during

landing rollout. For example, when performing a

short-field landing, the manufacturer may recommend

retracting the flaps on rollout to improve braking. In

this situation, the pilot should make a positive

identification of the flap control and retract the flaps.

CLEAR OF RUNWAY

Because of different features and equipment in various

airplanes, the after-landing checklist provided by the

manufacturer should be used. Some of the items may

include:

• Flaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identify and retract

• Cowl flaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Open

• Propeller control . . . . . . . . . . . Full increase

• Trim tabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Set

PARKING

Unless parking in a designated, supervised area, the

pilot should select a location and heading which will

prevent the propeller or jet blast of other airplanes from

striking the airplane broadside. Whenever possible, the

airplane should be parked headed into the existing or

forecast wind. After stopping on the desired heading,

the airplane should be allowed to roll straight ahead

enough to straighten the nosewheel or tailwheel.

Ch 02.qxd 5/7/04 6:22 AM Page 2-11
2-12

ENGINE SHUTDOWN

Finally, the pilot should always use the procedures in

the manufacturer’s checklist for shutting down the

engine and securing the airplane. Some of the important items include:

Set the parking brakes ON.

Set throttle to IDLE or 1,000 r.p.m. If turbocharged, observe the manufacturer’s spool

down procedure.

Turn ignition switch OFF then ON at idle to

check for proper operation of switch in the OFF

position.

Set propeller control (if equipped) to FULL

INCREASE.

Turn electrical units and radios OFF.

Set mixture control to IDLE CUTOFF.

Turn ignition switch to OFF when engine stops.

Turn master electrical switch to OFF.

Install control lock.

POSTFLIGHT

A flight is never complete until the engine is shut down

and the airplane is secured. A pilot should consider this

an essential part of any flight.

SECURING AND SERVICING

After engine shutdown and deplaning passengers, the

pilot should accomplish a postflight inspection. This

includes checking the general condition of the aircraft.

For a departure, the oil should be checked and fuel

added if required. If the aircraft is going to be inactive,

it is a good operating practice to fill the tanks to the

top to prevent water condensation from forming.

When the flight is completed for the day, the aircraft

should be hangared or tied down and the flight

controls secured.

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Ch 02.qxd 5/7/04 6:22 AM Page 2-12
3-1

THE FOUR FUNDAMENTALS

There are four fundamental basic flight maneuvers

upon which all flying tasks are based: straight-andlevel flight, turns, climbs, and descents. All 

controlled flight consists of either one, or a combination

or more than one, of these basic maneuvers. If a student

pilot is able to perform these maneuvers well, and the

student’s proficiency is based on accurate “feel” and

control analysis rather than mechanical movements, the

ability to perform any assigned maneuver will only be

a matter of obtaining a clear visual and mental conception of it. The flight instructor must impart a good

knowledge of these basic elements to the student, and

must combine them and plan their practice so that

perfect performance of each is instinctive without

conscious effort. The importance of this to the success

of flight training cannot be overemphasized. As the

student progresses to more complex maneuvers,

discounting any difficulties in visualizing the

maneuvers, most student difficulties will be caused by

a lack of training, practice, or understanding of the

principles of one or more of these fundamentals. 

EFFECTS AND USE OF THE CONTROLS

In explaining the functions of the controls, the instructor

should emphasize that the controls never change in the

results produced in relation to the pilot. The pilot should

always be considered the center of movement of the airplane, or the reference point from which the movements

of the airplane are judged and described. The following

will always be true, regardless of the airplane’s attitude

in relation to the Earth.

• When back pressure is applied to the elevator control, the airplane’s nose rises in relation to the pilot.

• When forward pressure is applied to the elevator

control, the airplane’s nose lowers in relation to the

pilot.

• When right pressure is applied to the aileron control, the airplane’s right wing lowers in relation to

the pilot.

• When left pressure is applied to the aileron control,

the airplane’s left wing lowers in relation to the

pilot.

• When pressure is applied to the right rudder pedal,

the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the right in

relation to the pilot.

• When pressure is applied to the left rudder pedal,

the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the left in

relation to the pilot.

The preceding explanations should prevent the

beginning pilot from thinking in terms of “up” or

“down” in respect to the Earth, which is only a relative

state to the pilot. It will also make understanding of the

functions of the controls much easier, particularly

when performing steep banked turns and the more

advanced maneuvers. Consequently, the pilot must be

able to properly determine the control application

required to place the airplane in any attitude or flight

condition that is desired.

The flight instructor should explain that the controls

will have a natural “live pressure” while in flight and

that they will remain in neutral position of their own

accord, if the airplane is trimmed properly.

With this in mind, the pilot should be cautioned

never to think of movement of the controls, but of

exerting a force on them against this live pressure or

resistance. Movement of the controls should not be

emphasized; it is the duration and amount of the

force exerted on them that effects the displacement

of the control surfaces and maneuvers the airplane.

The amount of force the airflow exerts on a control

surface is governed by the airspeed and the degree that

the surface is moved out of its neutral or streamlined

position. Since the airspeed will not be the same in all

maneuvers, the actual amount the control surfaces are

moved is of little importance; but it is important that

the pilot maneuver the airplane by applying sufficient

control pressure to obtain a desired result, regardless

of how far the control surfaces are actually moved.

The controls should be held lightly, with the fingers,

not grabbed and squeezed. Pressure should be exerted

on the control yoke with the fingers. A common error

in beginning pilots is a tendency to “choke the stick.”

This tendency should be avoided as it prevents the

development of “feel,” which is an important part of

aircraft control.

The pilot’s feet should rest comfortably against the

rudder pedals. Both heels should support the weight

of the feet on the cockpit floor with the ball of each

foot touching the individual rudder pedals. The legs

and feet should not be tense; they must be relaxed

just as when driving an automobile.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-1
3-2

When using the rudder pedals, pressure should be

applied smoothly and evenly by pressing with the ball

of one foot. Since the rudder pedals are interconnected,

and act in opposite directions, when pressure is applied

to one pedal, pressure on the other must be relaxed proportionately. When the rudder pedal must be moved

significantly, heavy pressure changes should be made

by applying the pressure with the ball of the foot while

the heels slide along the cockpit floor. Remember, the

ball of each foot must rest comfortably on the rudder

pedals so that even slight pressure changes can be felt.

In summary, during flight, it is the pressure the pilot

exerts on the control yoke and rudder pedals that

causes the airplane to move about its axes. When a

control surface is moved out of its streamlined position

(even slightly), the air flowing past it will exert a force

against it and will try to return it to its streamlined position. It is this force that the pilot feels as pressure on

the control yoke and the rudder pedals.

FEEL OF THE AIRPLANE

The ability to sense a flight condition, without relying

on cockpit instrumentation, is often called “feel of the

airplane,” but senses in addition to “feel” are involved.

Sounds inherent to flight are an important sense in

developing “feel.” The air that rushes past the modern light plane cockpit/cabin is often masked by

soundproofing, but it can still be heard. When the

level of sound increases, it indicates that airspeed is

increasing. Also, the powerplant emits distinctive

sound patterns in different conditions of flight. The

sound of the engine in cruise flight may be different

from that in a climb, and different again from that in

a dive. When power is used in fixed-pitch propeller

airplanes, the loss of r.p.m. is particularly noticeable. The amount of noise that can be heard will

depend on how much the slipstream masks it out.

But the relationship between slipstream noise and

powerplant noise aids the pilot in estimating not

only the present airspeed but the trend of the airspeed.

There are three sources of actual “feel” that are very

important to the pilot. One is the pilot’s own body as

it responds to forces of acceleration. The “G” loads

imposed on the airframe are also felt by the pilot.

Centripetal accelerations force the pilot down into the

seat or raise the pilot against the seat belt. Radial

accelerations, as they produce slips or skids of the airframe, shift the pilot from side to side in the seat.

These forces need not be strong, only perceptible by

the pilot to be useful. An accomplished pilot who has

excellent “feel” for the airplane will be able to detect

even the minutest change.

The response of the aileron and rudder controls to the

pilot’s touch is another element of “feel,” and is one

that provides direct information concerning airspeed.

As previously stated, control surfaces move in the

airstream and meet resistance proportional to the

speed of the airstream. When the airstream is fast, the

controls are stiff and hard to move. When the airstream

is slow, the controls move easily, but must be deflected

a greater distance. The pressure that must be exerted

on the controls to effect a desired result, and the lag

between their movement and the response of the airplane, becomes greater as airspeed decreases.

Another type of “feel” comes to the pilot through the

airframe. It consists mainly of vibration. An example

is the aerodynamic buffeting and shaking that precedes

a stall.

Kinesthesia, or the sensing of changes in direction or

speed of motion, is one of the most important senses a

pilot can develop. When properly developed, kinesthesia can warn the pilot of changes in speed and/or

the beginning of a settling or mushing of the airplane.

The senses that contribute to “feel” of the airplane are

inherent in every person. However, “feel” must be

developed. The flight instructor should direct the

beginning pilot to be attuned to these senses and teach

an awareness of their meaning as it relates to various

conditions of flight. To do this effectively, the flight

instructor must fully understand the difference

between perceiving something and merely noticing it.

It is a well established fact that the pilot who develops

a “feel” for the airplane early in flight training will

have little difficulty with advanced flight maneuvers.

ATTITUDE FLYING

In contact (VFR) flying, flying by attitude means visually establishing the airplane’s attitude with reference

to the natural horizon. [Figure 3-1] Attitude is the

angular difference measured between an airplane’s

axis and the line of the Earth’s horizon. Pitch attitude

is the angle formed by the longitudinal axis, and bank

attitude is the angle formed by the lateral axis.

Rotation about the airplane’s vertical axis (yaw) is

termed an attitude relative to the airplane’s flightpath,

but not relative to the natural horizon.

In attitude flying, airplane control is composed of four

components: pitch control, bank control, power control, and trim. 

• Pitch control is the control of the airplane about

the lateral axis by using the elevator to raise and

lower the nose in relation to the natural horizon.

• Bank control is control of the airplane about the longitudinal axis by use of the ailerons to attain a desired

bank angle in relation to the natural horizon.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-2
3-3

• Power control is used when the flight situation

indicates a need for a change in thrust.

• Trim is used to relieve all possible control pressures held after a desired attitude has been

attained.

The primary rule of attitude flying is:

ATTITUDE + POWER = PERFORMANCE

INTEGRATED FLIGHT INSTRUCTION

When introducing basic flight maneuvers to a beginning

pilot, it is recommended that the “Integrated” or

“Composite” method of flight instruction be used. This

means the use of outside references and flight instruments to establish and maintain desired flight attitudes

and airplane performance. [Figure 3-2] When beginning

pilots use this technique, they achieve a more precise

and competent overall piloting ability. Although this

method of airplane control may become second nature

with experience, the beginning pilot must make a determined effort to master the technique. The basic elements

of which are as follows.

• The airplane’s attitude is established and maintained by positioning the airplane in relation to the

natural horizon. At least 90 percent of the pilot’s

attention should be devoted to this end, along with

PITCH CONTROL

BANK CONTROL

Figure 3-1. Airplane attitude is based on relative positions of the nose and wings on the natural horizon.

No more than

10% of the pilot's 

attention should

be inside the

cockpit.

90% of the time, the pilot's attention should

be outside the cockpit.

Figure 3-2. Integrated or composite method of flight instruction.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-3
3-4

scanning for other airplanes. If, during a recheck of

the pitch and/or bank, either or both are found to be

other than desired, an immediate correction is made

to return the airplane to the proper attitude.

Continuous checks and immediate corrections will

allow little chance for the airplane to deviate from

the desired heading, altitude, and flightpath.

• The airplane’s attitude is confirmed by referring to

flight instruments, and its performance checked. If

airplane performance, as indicated by flight instruments, indicates a need for correction, a specific

amount of correction must be determined, then

applied with reference to the natural horizon. The airplane’s attitude and performance are then rechecked

by referring to flight instruments. The pilot then

maintains the corrected attitude by reference to the

natural horizon.

• The pilot should monitor the airplane’s performance by making numerous quick glances at the

flight instruments. No more than 10 percent of the

pilot’s attention should be inside the cockpit. The

pilot must develop the skill to instantly focus on

the appropriate flight instrument, and then immediately return to outside reference to control the

airplane’s attitude.

The pilot should become familiar with the relationship

between outside references to the natural horizon and

the corresponding indications on flight instruments

inside the cockpit. For example, a pitch attitude adjustment may require a movement of the pilot’s reference

point on the airplane of several inches in relation to the

natural horizon, but correspond to a small fraction of

an inch movement of the reference bar on the airplane’s attitude indicator. Similarly, a deviation from

desired bank, which is very obvious when referencing

the wingtip’s position relative to the natural horizon,

may be nearly imperceptible on the airplane’s attitude

indicator to the beginning pilot.

The use of integrated flight instruction does not, and is

not intended to prepare pilots for flight in instrument

weather conditions. The most common error made by the

beginning student is to make pitch or bank corrections

while still looking inside the cockpit. Control pressure is

applied, but the beginning pilot, not being familiar with

the intricacies of flight by references to instruments,

including such things as instrument lag and gyroscopic

precession, will invariably make excessive attitude corrections and end up “chasing the instruments.” Airplane

attitude by reference to the natural horizon, however, is

immediate in its indications, accurate, and presented

many times larger than any instrument could be. Also,

the beginning pilot must be made aware that anytime, for

whatever reason, airplane attitude by reference to the natural horizon cannot be established and/or maintained, the

situation should be considered a bona fide emergency.

STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT

It is impossible to emphasize too strongly the necessity for forming correct habits in flying straight and

level. All other flight maneuvers are in essence a

deviation from this fundamental flight maneuver.

Many flight instructors and students are prone to

believe that perfection in straight-and-level flight

will come of itself, but such is not the case. It is not

uncommon to find a pilot whose basic flying ability

consistently falls just short of minimum expected

standards, and upon analyzing the reasons for the

shortcomings to discover that the cause is the inability to fly straight and level properly.

Straight-and-level flight is flight in which a constant

heading and altitude are maintained. It is accomplished

by making immediate and measured corrections for deviations in direction and altitude from unintentional slight

turns, descents, and climbs. Level flight, at first, is a matter

of consciously fixing the relationship of the position of

some portion of the airplane, used as a reference point, with

the horizon. In establishing the reference points, the

instructor should place the airplane in the desired position

and aid the student in selecting reference points. The

instructor should be aware that no two pilots see this relationship exactly the same. The references will depend on

where the pilot is sitting, the pilot’s height (whether short

or tall), and the pilot’s manner of sitting. It is, therefore,

important that during the fixing of this relationship, the

pilot sit in a normal manner; otherwise the points will not

be the same when the normal position is resumed.

In learning to control the airplane in level flight, it is

important that the student be taught to maintain a light

grip on the flight controls, and that the control forces

desired be exerted lightly and just enough to produce

the desired result. The student should learn to associate the apparent movement of the references with the

forces which produce it. In this way, the student can

develop the ability to regulate the change desired in

the airplane’s attitude by the amount and direction of

forces applied to the controls without the necessity of

referring to instrument or outside references for each

minor correction.

The pitch attitude for level flight (constant altitude) is

usually obtained by selecting some portion of the airplane’s nose as a reference point, and then keeping

that point in a fixed position relative to the horizon.

[Figure 3-3] Using the principles of attitude flying,

that position should be cross-checked occasionally

against the altimeter to determine whether or not the

pitch attitude is correct. If altitude is being gained or

lost, the pitch attitude should be readjusted in relation to the horizon and then the altimeter rechecked

to determine if altitude is now being maintained. The

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-4
3-5

application of forward or back-elevator pressure is

used to control this attitude.

The pitch information obtained from the attitude indicator also will show the position of the nose relative to

the horizon and will indicate whether elevator pressure

is necessary to change the pitch attitude to return to

level flight. However, the primary reference source is

the natural horizon.

In all normal maneuvers, the term “increase the pitch

attitude” implies raising the nose in relation to the horizon; the term “decreasing the pitch attitude” means

lowering the nose.

Straight flight (laterally level flight) is accomplished

by visually checking the relationship of the airplane’s

wingtips with the horizon. Both wingtips should be

equidistant above or below the horizon (depending on

whether the airplane is a high-wing or low-wing type),

and any necessary adjustments should be made with

the ailerons, noting the relationship of control pressure

and the airplane’s attitude. [Figure 3-4] The student

should understand that anytime the wings are banked,

even though very slightly, the airplane will turn. The

objective of straight-and-level flight is to detect small

deviations from laterally level flight as soon as they

occur, necessitating only small corrections. Reference

to the heading indicator should be made to note any

change in direction.

STRAIGHT AND LEVEL

Fixed

Reference Point

Figure 3-3. Nose reference for straight-and-level flight.

Figure 3-4. Wingtip reference for straight-and-level flight.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-5
3-6

Continually observing the wingtips has advantages

other than being the only positive check for leveling the

wings. It also helps divert the pilot’s attention from the

airplane’s nose, prevents a fixed stare, and automatically

expands the pilot’s area of vision by increasing the range

necessary for the pilot’s vision to cover. In practicing

straight-and-level-flight, the wingtips can be used not

only for establishing the airplane’s laterally level attitude or bank, but to a lesser degree, its pitch attitude.

This is noted only for assistance in learning straight-andlevel flight, and is not a recommended practice in normal operations.

The scope of a student’s vision is also very important,

for if it is obscured the student will tend to look out to

one side continually (usually the left) and consequently

lean that way. This not only gives the student a biased

angle from which to judge, but also causes the student

to exert unconscious pressure on the controls in that

direction, which results in dragging a wing.

With the wings approximately level, it is possible to

maintain straight flight by simply exerting the necessary forces on the rudder in the desired direction.

However, the instructor should point out that the

practice of using rudder alone is not correct and may

make precise control of the airplane difficult.

Straight–and-level flight requires almost no application of control pressures if the airplane is properly

trimmed and the air is smooth. For that reason, the

student must not form the habit of constantly moving

the controls unnecessarily. The student must learn to

recognize when corrections are necessary, and then to

make a measured response easily and naturally.

To obtain the proper conception of the forces

required on the rudder during straight-and-levelflight, the airplane must be held level. One of the

most common faults of beginning students is the

tendency to concentrate on the nose of the airplane

and attempting to hold the wings level by observing

the curvature of the nose cowling. With this method,

the reference line is very short and the deviation,

particularly if very slight, can go unnoticed. Also, a

very small deviation from level, by this short reference line, becomes considerable at the wingtips and

results in an appreciable dragging of one wing. This

attitude requires the use of additional rudder to

maintain straight flight, giving a false conception of

neutral control forces. The habit of dragging one

wing, and compensating with rudder pressure, if

allowed to develop is particularly hard to break, and

if not corrected will result in considerable difficulty

in mastering other flight maneuvers.

For all practical purposes, the airspeed will remain constant in straight-and-level flight with a constant power

setting. Practice of intentional airspeed changes, by

increasing or decreasing the power, will provide an

excellent means of developing proficiency in maintaining straight-and-level flight at various speeds.

Significant changes in airspeed will, of course, require

considerable changes in pitch attitude and pitch trim to

maintain altitude. Pronounced changes in pitch attitude

and trim will also be necessary as the flaps and landing

gear are operated.

Common errors in the performance of straight-andlevel flight are:

• Attempting to use improper reference points on

the airplane to establish attitude.

• Forgetting the location of preselected reference

points on subsequent flights.

• Attempting to establish or correct airplane attitude

using flight instruments rather than outside visual

reference.

• Attempting to maintain direction using only rudder control.

• Habitually flying with one wing low.

• “Chasing” the flight instruments rather than

adhering to the principles of attitude flying.

• Too tight a grip on the flight controls resulting in

overcontrol and lack of feel.

• Pushing or pulling on the flight controls rather

than exerting pressure against the airstream.

• Improper scanning and/or devoting insufficient

time to outside visual reference. (Head in the

cockpit.)

• Fixation on the nose (pitch attitude) reference

point.

• Unnecessary or inappropriate control inputs.

• Failure to make timely and measured control

inputs when deviations from straight-and-level

flight are detected.

• Inadequate attention to sensory inputs in developing feel for the airplane.

TRIM CONTROL

The airplane is designed so that the primary flight

controls (rudder, aileron, and elevator) are streamlined with the nonmovable airplane surfaces when

the airplane is cruising straight-and-level at normal

weight and loading. If the airplane is flying out of

that basic balanced condition, one or more of the

control surfaces is going to have to be held out of its

streamlined position by continuous control input.

The use of trim tabs relieves the pilot of this requirement. Proper trim technique is a very important and

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-6
3-7

often overlooked basic flying skill. An improperly

trimmed airplane requires constant control pressures,

produces pilot tension and fatigue, distracts the pilot

from scanning, and contributes to abrupt and erratic

airplane attitude control.

Because of their relatively low power and speed, not

all light airplanes have a complete set of trim tabs

that are adjustable from the cockpit. In airplanes

where rudder, aileron, and elevator trim are available, a definite sequence of trim application should

be used. Elevator/stabilator should be trimmed first

to relieve the need for control pressure to maintain

constant airspeed/pitch attitude. Attempts to trim the

rudder at varying airspeed are impractical in propeller driven airplanes because of the change in the

torque correcting offset of the vertical fin. Once a

constant airspeed/pitch attitude has been established,

the pilot should hold the wings level with aileron

pressure while rudder pressure is trimmed out.

Aileron trim should then be adjusted to relieve any

lateral control yoke pressure.

A common trim control error is the tendency to

overcontrol the airplane with trim adjustments. To

avoid this the pilot must learn to establish and hold

the airplane in the desired attitude using the primary

flight controls. The proper attitude should be established with reference to the horizon and then verified by reference to performance indications on the

flight instruments. The pilot should then apply trim

in the above sequence to relieve whatever hand and

foot pressure had been required. The pilot must

avoid using the trim to establish or correct airplane

attitude. The airplane attitude must be established

and held first, then control pressures trimmed out

so that the airplane will maintain the desired attitude in “hands off” flight. Attempting to “fly the

airplane with the trim tabs” is a common fault in

basic flying technique even among experienced

pilots.

A properly trimmed airplane is an indication of good

piloting skills. Any control pressures the pilot feels

should be a result of deliberate pilot control input during a planned change in airplane attitude, not a result

of pressures being applied by the airplane because the

pilot is allowing it to assume control.

LEVEL TURNS

A turn is made by banking the wings in the direction of

the desired turn. A specific angle of bank is selected by

the pilot, control pressures applied to achieve the

desired bank angle, and appropriate control pressures

exerted to maintain the desired bank angle once it is

established. [Figure 3-5]

All four primary controls are used in close coordination when making turns. Their functions are as follows.

• The ailerons bank the wings and so determine the

rate of turn at any given airspeed.

• The elevator moves the nose of the airplane up or

down in relation to the pilot, and perpendicular to

the wings. Doing that, it both sets the pitch attitude

in the turn and “pulls” the nose of the airplane

around the turn.

• The throttle provides thrust which may be used for

airspeed to tighten the turn.

• The rudder offsets any yaw effects developed by

the other controls. The rudder does not turn the airplane.

For purposes of this discussion, turns are divided into

three classes: shallow turns, medium turns, and steep

turns.

• Shallow turns are those in which the bank (less

than approximately 20°) is so shallow that the

inherent lateral stability of the airplane is acting to

level the wings unless some aileron is applied to

maintain the bank.

• Medium turns are those resulting from a degree of

bank (approximately 20° to 45°) at which the airplane remains at a constant bank.

Figure 3-5. Level turn to the left.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-7
3-8

Steep turns are those resulting from a degree of

bank (45° or more) at which the “overbanking

tendency” of an airplane overcomes stability, and

the bank increases unless aileron is applied to

prevent it.

Changing the direction of the wing’s lift toward one

side or the other causes the airplane to be pulled in that

direction. [Figure 3-6] Applying coordinated aileron

and rudder to bank the airplane in the direction of the

desired turn does this.

When an airplane is flying straight and level, the total lift

is acting perpendicular to the wings and to the Earth. As

the airplane is banked into a turn, the lift then becomes

the resultant of two components. One, the vertical lift

component, continues to act perpendicular to the Earth

and opposes gravity. Second, the horizontal lift component (centripetal) acts parallel to the Earth’s surface and

opposes inertia (apparent centrifugal force). These two

lift components act at right angles to each other, causing

the resultant total lifting force to act perpendicular to the

banked wing of the airplane. It is the horizontal lift component that actually turns the airplane—not the rudder.

When applying aileron to bank the airplane, the lowered

aileron (on the rising wing) produces a greater drag than

the raised aileron (on the lowering wing). [Figure 3-7]

This increased aileron yaws the airplane toward the rising

wing, or opposite to the direction of turn. To counteract

this adverse yawing moment, rudder pressure must be

applied simultaneously with aileron in the desired

direction of turn. This action is required to produce a

coordinated turn.

After the bank has been established in a medium

banked turn, all pressure applied to the aileron may be

relaxed. The airplane will remain at the selected bank

with no further tendency to yaw since there is no

longer a deflection of the ailerons. As a result, pressure may also be relaxed on the rudder pedals, and the

rudder allowed to streamline itself with the direction

of the slipstream. Rudder pressure maintained after the

turn is established will cause the airplane to skid to the

outside of the turn. If a definite effort is made to center

the rudder rather than let it streamline itself to the turn,

it is probable that some opposite rudder pressure will

be exerted inadvertently. This will force the airplane to

yaw opposite its turning path, causing the airplane to

slip to the inside of the turn. The ball in the turn-andslip indicator will be displaced off-center whenever

the airplane is skidding or slipping sideways. [Figure

3-8] In proper coordinated flight, there is no skidding

or slipping. An essential basic airmanship skill is the

ability of the pilot to sense or “feel” any uncoordinated

condition (slip or skid) without referring to instrument

reference. During this stage of training, the flight

instructor should stress the development of this ability

and insist on its use to attain perfect coordination in all

subsequent training.

In all constant altitude, constant airspeed turns, it is

necessary to increase the angle of attack of the wing

when rolling into the turn by applying up elevator.

This is required because part of the vertical lift has

been diverted to horizontal lift. Thus, the total lift must

be increased to compensate for this loss.

To stop the turn, the wings are returned to level flight

by the coordinated use of the ailerons and rudder

applied in the opposite direction. To understand the

relationship between airspeed, bank, and radius of

turn, it should be noted that the rate of turn at any

given true airspeed depends on the horizontal lift component. The horizontal lift component varies in proportion to the amount of bank. Therefore, the rate of

turn at a given true airspeed increases as the angle of

bank is increased. On the other hand, when a turn is

made at a higher true airspeed at a given bank angle,

the inertia is greater and the horizontal lift component

required for the turn is greater, causing the turning rate

Figure 3-6. Change in lift causes airplane to turn.

More lift

Additional

induced drag

Rudder overcomes

adverse yaw to

coordinate the turn

Reduced lift

Figure 3-7. Forces during a turn.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-8
3-9

to become slower. [Figure 3-9 on next page] Therefore,

at a given angle of bank, a higher true airspeed will

make the radius of turn larger because the airplane will

be turning at a slower rate.

When changing from a shallow bank to a medium

bank, the airspeed of the wing on the outside of the turn

increases in relation to the inside wing as the radius of

turn decreases. The additional lift developed because

of this increase in speed of the wing balances the

inherent lateral stability of the airplane. At any given

airspeed, aileron pressure is not required to maintain

the bank. If the bank is allowed to increase from a

medium to a steep bank, the radius of turn decreases

further. The lift of the outside wing causes the bank to

steepen and opposite aileron is necessary to keep the

bank constant.

As the radius of the turn becomes smaller, a significant

difference develops between the speed of the inside

wing and the speed of the outside wing. The wing on

the outside of the turn travels a longer circuit than the

inside wing, yet both complete their respective circuits

in the same length of time. Therefore, the outside wing

travels faster than the inside wing, and as a result, it

develops more lift. This creates an overbanking

tendency that must be controlled by the use of the

ailerons. [Figure 3-10] Because the outboard wing is

developing more lift, it also has more induced drag.

This causes a slight slip during steep turns that must be

corrected by use of the rudder.

Sometimes during early training in steep turns, the

nose may be allowed to get excessively low resulting

in a significant loss in altitude. To recover, the pilot

should first reduce the angle of bank with coordinated

use of the rudder and aileron, then raise the nose of the

airplane to level flight with the elevator. If recovery

from an excessively nose-low steep bank condition is

attempted by use of the elevator only, it will cause a

steepening of the bank and could result in overstressing the airplane. Normally, small corrections for pitch

during steep turns are accomplished with the elevator,

and the bank is held constant with the ailerons.

To establish the desired angle of bank, the pilot should

use outside visual reference points, as well as the bank

indicator on the attitude indicator.

The best outside reference for establishing the degree of

bank is the angle formed by the raised wing of low-wing

airplanes (the lowered wing of high-wing airplanes) and

the horizon, or the angle made by the top of the engine

cowling and the horizon. [Figure 3-11 on page 3-11]

Since on most light airplanes the engine cowling is fairly

flat, its horizontal angle to the horizon will give some

indication of the approximate degree of bank. Also,

information obtained from the attitude indicator will

show the angle of the wing in relation to the horizon.

Information from the turn coordinator, however, will not.

SKID COORDINATED SLIP

 TURN

Pilot feels

sideways force

to outside of turn

Pilot feels

force straight

down into seat

Pilot feels

sideways force

to inside of turn

Ball to outside

of turn

Ball centered Ball to inside

of turn

Figure 3-8. Indications of a slip and skid.

OVERBANKING TENDENCY

Outer wing travels greater distance

 • Higher Speed

 • More Lift 

Inner wing travels shorter distance

 • Lower speed

 • Less lift

Figure 3-10. Overbanking tendency during a steep turn.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-9
3-10

CONSTANT AIRSPEED

10° Angle of Bank

20° Angle of Bank

30° Angle of Bank

When airspeed is 

held constant, a 

larger angle of bank 

will result in a 

smaller turn radius 

and a greater turn 

rate.

CONSTANT ANGLE OF BANK

When angle of bank 

is held constant, a 

slower airspeed will 

result in a smaller 

turn radius and 

greater turn rate.

80 kts

90 kts

100 kts

Figure 3-9. Angle of bank and airspeed regulate rate and radius of turn.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-10
3-11

The pilot’s posture while seated in the airplane is very

important, particularly during turns. It will affect the

interpretation of outside visual references. At the

beginning, the student may lean away from the turn in

an attempt to remain upright in relation to the ground

rather than ride with the airplane. This should be corrected immediately if the student is to properly learn to

use visual references. [Figure 3-12]

Parallax error is common among students and experienced pilots. This error is a characteristic of airplanes

that have side-by-side seats because the pilot is seated to

one side of the longitudinal axis about which the airplane

rolls. This makes the nose appear to rise when making a

left turn and to descend when making right turns. [Figure

3-13]

Beginning students should not use large aileron and

rudder applications because this produces a rapid roll

rate and allows little time for corrections before the

desired bank is reached. Slower (small control displacement) roll rates provide more time to make

necessary pitch and bank corrections. As soon as

the airplane rolls from the wings-level attitude, the

nose should also start to move along the horizon,

increasing its rate of travel proportionately as the

bank is increased.

The following variations provide excellent guides.

• If the nose starts to move before the bank starts,

rudder is being applied too soon.

• If the bank starts before the nose starts turning, or

the nose moves in the opposite direction, the rudder is being applied too late.

• If the nose moves up or down when entering a

bank, excessive or insufficient up elevator is being

applied.

As the desired angle of bank is established, aileron

and rudder pressures should be relaxed. This will

stop the bank from increasing because the aileron

and rudder control surfaces will be neutral in their

streamlined position. The up-elevator pressure

should not be relaxed, but should be held constant to

maintain a constant altitude. Throughout the turn, the

pilot should cross-check the airspeed indicator, and

if the airspeed has decreased more than 5 knots, additional power should be used. The cross-check should

also include outside references, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator (VSI), which can help determine

whether or not the pitch attitude is correct. If gaining

or losing altitude, the pitch attitude should be

adjusted in relation to the horizon, and then the

altimeter and VSI rechecked to determine if altitude

is being maintained.

Figure 3-11. Visual reference for angle of bank.

RIGHT WRONG

Figure 3-13. Parallax view.

Figure 3-12. Right and wrong posture while seated in the

airplane.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-11
3-12

During all turns, the ailerons, rudder, and elevator are

used to correct minor variations in pitch and bank just

as they are in straight-and-level flight.

The rollout from a turn is similar to the roll-in except

the flight controls are applied in the opposite direction.

Aileron and rudder are applied in the direction of the

rollout or toward the high wing. As the angle of bank

decreases, the elevator pressure should be relaxed as

necessary to maintain altitude.

Since the airplane will continue turning as long as there

is any bank, the rollout must be started before reaching

the desired heading. The amount of lead required to roll

out on the desired heading will depend on the degree of

bank used in the turn. Normally, the lead is one-half the

degrees of bank. For example, if the bank is 30°, lead the

rollout by 15°. As the wings become level, the control

pressures should be smoothly relaxed so that the controls

are neutralized as the airplane returns to straight-andlevel flight. As the rollout is being completed, attention

should be given to outside visual references, as well as

the attitude and heading indicators to determine that the

wings are being leveled and the turn stopped.

Instruction in level turns should begin with medium

turns, so that the student has an opportunity to grasp

the fundamentals of turning flight without having

to deal with overbanking tendency, or the inherent

stability of the airplane attempting to level the

wings. The instructor should not ask the student to

roll the airplane from bank to bank, but to change

its attitude from level to bank, bank to level, and so

on with a slight pause at the termination of each

phase. This pause allows the airplane to free itself

from the effects of any misuse of the controls and

assures a correct start for the next turn. During

these exercises, the idea of control forces, rather

than movement, should be emphasized by pointing

out the resistance of the controls to varying forces

applied to them. The beginning student should be

encouraged to use the rudder freely. Skidding in this

phase indicates positive control use, and may be

easily corrected later. The use of too little rudder, or

rudder use in the wrong direction at this stage of

training, on the other hand, indicates a lack of

proper conception of coordination.

In practicing turns, the action of the airplane’s nose

will show any error in coordination of the controls.

Often, during the entry or recovery from a bank, the

nose will describe a vertical arc above or below the

horizon, and then remain in proper position after the

bank is established. This is the result of lack of timing

and coordination of forces on the elevator and rudder

controls during the entry and recovery. It indicates that

the student has a knowledge of correct turns, but that

entry and recovery techniques are in error.

Because the elevator and ailerons are on one control,

and pressures on both are executed simultaneously, the

beginning pilot is often apt to continue pressure on one

of these unintentionally when force on the other only

is intended. This is particularly true in left-hand turns,

because the position of the hands makes correct

movements slightly awkward at first. This is sometimes responsible for the habit of climbing slightly in

right-hand turns and diving slightly in left-hand

turns. This results from many factors, including the

unequal rudder pressures required to the right and to

the left when turning, due to the torque effect.

The tendency to climb in right-hand turns and descend

in left-hand turns is also prevalent in airplanes having

side-by-side cockpit seating. In this case, it is due to

the pilot’s being seated to one side of the longitudinal

axis about which the airplane rolls. This makes the

nose appear to rise during a correctly executed left turn

and to descend during a correctly executed right turn.

An attempt to keep the nose on the same apparent level

will cause climbing in right turns and diving in left

turns.

Excellent coordination and timing of all the controls in

turning requires much practice. It is essential that this

coordination be developed, because it is the very basis

of this fundamental flight maneuver.

If the body is properly relaxed, it will act as a pendulum and may be swayed by any force acting on it.

During a skid, it will be swayed away from the turn,

and during a slip, toward the inside of the turn. The

same effects will be noted in tendencies to slide on the

seat. As the “feel” of flying develops, the properly

directed student will become highly sensitive to this

last tendency and will be able to detect the presence

of, or even the approach of, a slip or skid long before

any other indication is present.

Common errors in the performance of level turns are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area before beginning the turn.

• Attempting to execute the turn solely by instrument reference.

• Attempting to sit up straight, in relation to the

ground, during a turn, rather than riding with the

airplane.

• Insufficient feel for the airplane as evidenced by

the inability to detect slips/skids without reference

to flight instruments. 

• Attempting to maintain a constant bank angle by

referencing the “cant” of the airplane’s nose.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-12
3-13

• Fixating on the nose reference while excluding

wingtip reference.

• “Ground shyness”—making “flat turns” (skidding) while operating at low altitudes in a conscious or subconscious effort to avoid banking

close to the ground.

• Holding rudder in the turn.

• Gaining proficiency in turns in only one direction

(usually the left).

• Failure to coordinate the use of throttle with other

controls.

• Altitude gain/loss during the turn.

CLIMBS AND CLIMBING TURNS

When an airplane enters a climb, it changes its flightpath from level flight to an inclined plane or climb

attitude. In a climb, weight no longer acts in a direction perpendicular to the flightpath. It acts in a rearward direction. This causes an increase in total drag

requiring an increase in thrust (power) to balance the

forces. An airplane can only sustain a climb angle

when there is sufficient thrust to offset increased drag;

therefore, climb is limited by the thrust available.

Like other maneuvers, climbs should be performed

using outside visual references and flight instruments.

It is important that the pilot know the engine power

settings and pitch attitudes that will produce the following conditions of climb.

NORMAL CLIMB—Normal climb is performed at

an airspeed recommended by the airplane manufacturer. Normal climb speed is generally somewhat

higher than the airplane’s best rate of climb. The additional airspeed provides better engine cooling, easier

control, and better visibility over the nose. Normal

climb is sometimes referred to as “cruise climb.”

Complex or high performance airplanes may have a

specified cruise climb in addition to normal climb.

BEST RATE OF CLIMB—Best rate of climb (VY) is

performed at an airspeed where the most excess power

is available over that required for level flight. This

condition of climb will produce the most gain in altitude in the least amount of time (maximum rate of

climb in feet per minute). The best rate of climb made

at full allowable power is a maximum climb. It must

be fully understood that attempts to obtain more

climb performance than the airplane is capable of by

increasing pitch attitude will result in a decrease in

the rate of altitude gain.

BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB—Best angle of climb

(VX) is performed at an airspeed that will produce the

most altitude gain in a given distance. Best angle-ofclimb airspeed (VX) is considerably lower than best

rate of climb (VY), and is the airspeed where the most

excess thrust is available over that required for level

flight. The best angle of climb will result in a steeper

climb path, although the airplane will take longer to

reach the same altitude than it would at best rate of

climb. The best angle of climb, therefore, is used in

clearing obstacles after takeoff. [Figure 3-14]

It should be noted that, as altitude increases, the speed

for best angle of climb increases, and the speed for best

rate of climb decreases. The point at which these two

speeds meet is the absolute ceiling of the airplane.

[Figure 3-15 on next page]

A straight climb is entered by gently increasing pitch

attitude to a predetermined level using back-elevator

pressure, and simultaneously increasing engine power

to the climb power setting. Due to an increase in

downwash over the horizontal stabilizer as power is

applied, the airplane’s nose will tend to immediately

begin to rise of its own accord to an attitude higher than

Best angle-of-climb airspeed (Vx)

gives the greatest altitude gain in the 

shortest horizontal distance.

Best rate-of-climb airspeed (Vy)

gives the greatest altitude gain 

in the shortest time.

Figure 3-14. Best angle of climb vs. best rate of climb.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-13
3-14

that at which it would stabilize. The pilot must be prepared for this.

As a climb is started, the airspeed will gradually diminish. This reduction in airspeed is gradual because of

the initial momentum of the airplane. The thrust

required to maintain straight-and-level flight at a given

airspeed is not sufficient to maintain the same airspeed

in a climb. Climbing flight requires more power than

flying level because of the increased drag caused by

gravity acting rearward. Therefore, power must be

advanced to a higher power setting to offset the

increased drag.

The propeller effects at climb power are a primary factor. This is because airspeed is significantly slower

than at cruising speed, and the airplane’s angle of

attack is significantly greater. Under these conditions,

torque and asymmetrical loading of the propeller will

cause the airplane to roll and yaw to the left. To

counteract this, the right rudder must be used.

During the early practice of climbs and climbing turns,

this may make coordination of the controls seem awkward (left climbing turn holding right rudder), but after

a little practice this correction for propeller effects will

become instinctive.

Trim is also a very important consideration during a

climb. After the climb has been established, the airplane should be trimmed to relieve all pressures from

the flight controls. If changes are made in the pitch attitude, power, or airspeed, the airplane should be

retrimmed in order to relieve control pressures.

When performing a climb, the power should be

advanced to the climb power recommended by the

manufacturer. If the airplane is equipped with a controllable-pitch propeller, it will have not only an

engine tachometer, but also a manifold pressure gauge.

Normally, the flaps and landing gear (if retractable)

should be in the retracted position to reduce drag.

As the airplane gains altitude during a climb, the manifold pressure gauge (if equipped) will indicate a loss

in manifold pressure (power). This is because the same

volume of air going into the engine’s induction system

gradually decreases in density as altitude increases.

When the volume of air in the manifold decreases, it

causes a loss of power. This will occur at the rate of

approximately 1-inch of manifold pressure for each

1,000-foot gain in altitude. During prolonged climbs,

the throttle must be continually advanced, if constant

power is to be maintained.

To enter the climb, simultaneously advance the throttle

and apply back-elevator pressure to raise the nose of the

airplane to the proper position in relation to the horizon.

As power is increased, the airplane’s nose will rise due

to increased download on the stabilizer. This is caused

by increased slipstream. As the pitch attitude increases

and the airspeed decreases, progressively more right

rudder must be applied to compensate for propeller

effects and to hold a constant heading.

After the climb is established, back-elevator pressure

must be maintained to keep the pitch attitude constant.

As the airspeed decreases, the elevators will try to

return to their neutral or streamlined position, and the

airplane’s nose will tend to lower. Nose-up elevator

trim should be used to compensate for this so that the

pitch attitude can be maintained without holding backelevator pressure. Throughout the climb, since the

power is fixed at the climb power setting, the airspeed

is controlled by the use of elevator.

A cross-check of the airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, and the position of the airplane’s nose in relation

to the horizon will determine if the pitch attitude is

correct. At the same time, a constant heading should

be held with the wings level if a straight climb is being

performed, or a constant angle of bank and rate of turn

if a climbing turn is being performed. [Figure 3-16]

To return to straight-and-level flight from a climb, it is

necessary to initiate the level-off at approximately 10

percent of the rate of climb. For example, if the airplane

is climbing at 500 feet per minute (f.p.m.), leveling off

should start 50 feet below the desired altitude. The nose

must be lowered gradually because a loss of altitude

will result if the pitch attitude is changed to the level

flight position without allowing the airspeed to increase

proportionately.

Absolute Ceiling

Service Ceiling

Figure 3-15. Absolute ceiling.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-14
3-15

After the airplane is established in level flight at a

constant altitude, climb power should be retained

temporarily so that the airplane will accelerate to the

cruise airspeed more rapidly. When the speed reaches

the desired cruise speed, the throttle setting and the

propeller control (if equipped) should be set to the

cruise power setting and the airplane trimmed. After

allowing time for engine temperatures to stabilize,

adjust the mixture control as required.

In the performance of climbing turns, the following

factors should be considered.

• With a constant power setting, the same pitch attitude and airspeed cannot be maintained in a bank

as in a straight climb due to the increase in the total

lift required.

• The degree of bank should not be too steep. A

steep bank significantly decreases the rate of

climb. The bank should always remain constant. 

• It is necessary to maintain a constant airspeed and

constant rate of turn in both right and left turns.

The coordination of all flight controls is a primary

factor.

• At a constant power setting, the airplane will climb

at a slightly shallower climb angle because some

of the lift is being used to turn the airplane.

• Attention should be diverted from fixation on the

airplane’s nose and divided equally among inside

and outside references.

There are two ways to establish a climbing turn. Either

establish a straight climb and then turn, or enter the

climb and turn simultaneously. Climbing turns should

be used when climbing to the local practice area.

Climbing turns allow better visual scanning, and it is

easier for other pilots to see a turning aircraft.

In any turn, the loss of vertical lift and increased

induced drag, due to increased angle of attack,

becomes greater as the angle of bank is increased. So

shallow turns should be used to maintain an efficient

rate of climb.

All the factors that affect the airplane during level

(constant altitude) turns will affect it during climbing

turns or any other training maneuver. It will be noted

that because of the low airspeed, aileron drag (adverse

yaw) will have a more prominent effect than it did in

straight-and-level flight and more rudder pressure will

have to be blended with aileron pressure to keep the

airplane in coordinated flight during changes in bank

angle. Additional elevator back pressure and trim will

also have to be used to compensate for centrifugal

force, for the loss of vertical lift, and to keep pitch attitude constant.

During climbing turns, as in any turn, the loss of vertical lift and induced drag due to increased angle of

attack becomes greater as the angle of bank is

increased, so shallow turns should be used to maintain

an efficient rate of climb. If a medium or steep banked

turn is used, climb performance will be degraded.

Common errors in the performance of climbs and

climbing turns are:

• Attempting to establish climb pitch attitude by referencing the airspeed indicator, resulting in “chasing” the airspeed.

• Applying elevator pressure too aggressively,

resulting in an excessive climb angle.

• Applying elevator pressure too aggressively during level-off resulting in negative “G” forces. 

• Inadequate or inappropriate rudder pressure during climbing turns. 

• Allowing the airplane to yaw in straight climbs,

usually due to inadequate right rudder pressure.

• Fixation on the nose during straight climbs, resulting in climbing with one wing low.

• Failure to initiate a climbing turn properly with use

of rudder and elevators, resulting in little turn, but

rather a climb with one wing low.

• Improper coordination resulting in a slip which

counteracts the effect of the climb, resulting in little or no altitude gain.

• Inability to keep pitch and bank attitude constant

during climbing turns. 

• Attempting to exceed the airplane’s climb capability.

DESCENTS AND DESCENDING TURNS

When an airplane enters a descent, it changes its flightpath from level to an inclined plane. It is important that

Figure 3-16. Climb indications.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-15
3-16

the pilot know the power settings and pitch attitudes

that will produce the following conditions of descent.

PARTIAL POWER DESCENT—The normal

method of losing altitude is to descend with partial

power. This is often termed “cruise” or “enroute”

descent. The airspeed and power setting recommended

by the airplane manufacturer for prolonged descent

should be used. The target descent rate should be 400 –

500 f.p.m. The airspeed may vary from cruise airspeed

to that used on the downwind leg of the landing pattern. But the wide range of possible airspeeds should

not be interpreted to permit erratic pitch changes. The

desired airspeed, pitch attitude, and power combination should be preselected and kept constant.

DESCENT AT MINIMUM SAFE AIRSPEED—A

minimum safe airspeed descent is a nose-high, power

assisted descent condition principally used for clearing

obstacles during a landing approach to a short runway.

The airspeed used for this descent condition is recommended by the airplane manufacturer and normally is

no greater than 1.3 VSO. Some characteristics of the

minimum safe airspeed descent are a steeper than normal descent angle, and the excessive power that may

be required to produce acceleration at low airspeed

should “mushing” and/or an excessive rate of descent

be allowed to develop.

GLIDES—A glide is a basic maneuver in which the

airplane loses altitude in a controlled descent with little

or no engine power; forward motion is maintained by

gravity pulling the airplane along an inclined path and

the descent rate is controlled by the pilot balancing the

forces of gravity and lift.

Although glides are directly related to the practice of

power-off accuracy landings, they have a specific

operational purpose in normal landing approaches, and

forced landings after engine failure. Therefore, it is

necessary that they be performed more subconsciously

than other maneuvers because most of the time during

their execution, the pilot will be giving full attention to

details other than the mechanics of performing the

maneuver. Since glides are usually performed relatively close to the ground, accuracy of their execution

and the formation of proper technique and habits are of

special importance.

Because the application of controls is somewhat different in glides than in power-on descents, gliding

maneuvers require the perfection of a technique

somewhat different from that required for ordinary

power-on maneuvers. This control difference is

caused primarily by two factors—the absence of the

usual propeller slipstream, and the difference in the

relative effectiveness of the various control surfaces

at slow speeds.

The glide ratio of an airplane is the distance the airplane will, with power off, travel forward in relation to

the altitude it loses. For instance, if an airplane travels

10,000 feet forward while descending 1,000 feet, its

glide ratio is said to be 10 to 1.

The glide ratio is affected by all four fundamental

forces that act on an airplane (weight, lift, drag, and

thrust). If all factors affecting the airplane are constant,

the glide ratio will be constant. Although the effect of

wind will not be covered in this section, it is a very

prominent force acting on the gliding distance of the

airplane in relationship to its movement over the

ground. With a tailwind, the airplane will glide farther

because of the higher groundspeed. Conversely, with a

headwind the airplane will not glide as far because of

the slower groundspeed.

Variations in weight do not affect the glide angle provided the pilot uses the correct airspeed. Since it is the

lift over drag (L/D) ratio that determines the distance the

airplane can glide, weight will not affect the distance.

The glide ratio is based only on the relationship of the

aerodynamic forces acting on the airplane. The only

effect weight has is to vary the time the airplane will

glide. The heavier the airplane the higher the airspeed

must be to obtain the same glide ratio. For example, if

two airplanes having the same L/D ratio, but different

weights, start a glide from the same altitude, the heavier

airplane gliding at a higher airspeed will arrive at the

same touchdown point in a shorter time. Both airplanes

will cover the same distance, only the lighter airplane

will take a longer time.

Under various flight conditions, the drag factor may

change through the operation of the landing gear

and/or flaps. When the landing gear or the flaps are

extended, drag increases and the airspeed will

decrease unless the pitch attitude is lowered. As the

pitch is lowered, the glidepath steepens and reduces

the distance traveled. With the power off, a windmilling propeller also creates considerable drag,

thereby retarding the airplane’s forward movement.

Although the propeller thrust of the airplane is normally dependent on the power output of the engine,

the throttle is in the closed position during a glide so

the thrust is constant. Since power is not used during a

glide or power-off approach, the pitch attitude must be

adjusted as necessary to maintain a constant airspeed.

The best speed for the glide is one at which the airplane will travel the greatest forward distance for a

given loss of altitude in still air. This best glide speed

corresponds to an angle of attack resulting in the least

drag on the airplane and giving the best lift-to-drag

ratio (L/DMAX). [Figure 3-17]

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-16
3-17

Any change in the gliding airspeed will result in a proportionate change in glide ratio. Any speed, other than

the best glide speed, results in more drag. Therefore, as

the glide airspeed is reduced or increased from the

optimum or best glide speed, the glide ratio is also

changed. When descending at a speed below the best

glide speed, induced drag increases. When descending

at a speed above best glide speed, parasite drag

increases. In either case, the rate of descent will

increase. [Figure 3-18]

This leads to a cardinal rule of airplane flying that a

student pilot must understand and appreciate: The pilot

must never attempt to “stretch” a glide by applying

back-elevator pressure and reducing the airspeed

below the airplane’s recommended best glide speed.

Attempts to stretch a glide will invariably result in an

increase in the rate and angle of descent and may precipitate an inadvertent stall.

To enter a glide, the pilot should close the throttle and

advance the propeller (if so equipped) to low pitch

(high r.p.m.). A constant altitude should be held with

back pressure on the elevator control until the airspeed

decreases to the recommended glide speed. Due to a

decrease in downwash over the horizontal stabilizer as

power is reduced, the airplane’s nose will tend to

immediately begin to lower of its own accord to an attitude lower than that at which it would stabilize. The

pilot must be prepared for this. To keep pitch attitude

constant after a power change, the pilot must counteract the immediate trim change. If the pitch attitude

is allowed to decrease during glide entry, excess

speed will be carried into the glide and retard the

attainment of the correct glide angle and airspeed.

Speed should be allowed to dissipate before the pitch

attitude is decreased. This point is particularly

important in so-called clean airplanes as they are

very slow to lose their speed and any slight deviation

of the nose downwards results in an immediate

increase in airspeed. Once the airspeed has dissipated to normal or best glide speed, the pitch attitude

should be allowed to decrease to maintain that speed.

This should be done with reference to the horizon.

When the speed has stabilized, the airplane should

be retrimmed for “hands off” flight.

When the approximate gliding pitch attitude is

established, the airspeed indicator should be

checked. If the airspeed is higher than the recommended speed, the pitch attitude is too low, and if

the airspeed is less than recommended, the pitch

attitude is too high; therefore, the pitch attitude

should be readjusted accordingly referencing the

horizon. After the adjustment has been made, the

airplane should be retrimmed so that it will maintain

this attitude without the need to hold pressure on the

elevator control. The principles of attitude flying

require that the proper flight attitude be established

using outside visual references first, then using the

flight instruments as a secondary check. It is a good

practice to always retrim the airplane after each

pitch adjustment.

A stabilized power-off descent at the best glide speed

is often referred to as a normal glide. The flight

instructor should demonstrate a normal glide, and

direct the student pilot to memorize the airplane’s

angle and speed by visually checking the airplane’s

attitude with reference to the horizon, and noting the

pitch of the sound made by the air passing over the

structure, the pressure on the controls, and the feel of

Increasing Lift-to-Drag Ratio

Increasing Angle of Attack

L/Dmax

Figure 3-17. L/DMAX.

Best Glide Speed

Too Fast

Too Slow

Figure 3-18. Best glide speed provides the greatest forward distance for a given loss of altitude.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-17
3-18

the airplane. Due to lack of experience, the beginning

student may be unable to recognize slight variations

of speed and angle of bank immediately by vision or

by the pressure required on the controls. Hearing will

probably be the indicator that will be the most easily

used at first. The instructor should, therefore, be certain that the student understands that an increase in

the pitch of sound denotes increasing speed, while a

decrease in pitch denotes less speed. When such an

indication is received, the student should consciously

apply the other two means of perception so as to

establish the proper relationship. The student pilot

must use all three elements consciously until they

become habits, and must be alert when attention is

diverted from the attitude of the airplane and be

responsive to any warning given by a variation in the

feel of the airplane or controls, or by a change in the

pitch of the sound.

After a good comprehension of the normal glide is

attained, the student pilot should be instructed in the differences in the results of normal and “abnormal” glides.

Abnormal glides being those conducted at speeds other

than the normal best glide speed. Pilots who do not

acquire an understanding and appreciation of these

differences will experience difficulties with accuracy

landings, which are comparatively simple if the

fundamentals of the glide are thoroughly understood.

Too fast a glide during the approach for landing

invariably results in floating over the ground for

varying distances, or even overshooting, while too

slow a glide causes undershooting, flat approaches,

and hard touchdowns. A pilot without the ability to

recognize a normal glide will not be able to judge

where the airplane will go, or can be made to go, in

an emergency. Whereas, in a normal glide, the flightpath may be sighted to the spot on the ground on

which the airplane will land. This cannot be done in

any abnormal glide.

GLIDING TURNS—The action of the control

system is somewhat different in a glide than with

power, making gliding maneuvers stand in a class by

themselves and require the perfection of a technique

different from that required for ordinary power

maneuvers. The control difference is caused mainly by

two factors—the absence of the usual slipstream, and

the difference or relative effectiveness of the various

control surfaces at various speeds and particularly at

reduced speed. The latter factor has its effect

exaggerated by the first, and makes the task of

coordination even more difficult for the inexperienced

pilot. These principles should be thoroughly explained

in order that the student may be alert to the necessary

differences in coordination.

After a feel for the airplane and control touch have

been developed, the necessary compensation will be

automatic; but while any mechanical tendency exists,

the student will have difficulty executing gliding turns,

particularly when making a practical application of

them in attempting accuracy landings.

Three elements in gliding turns which tend to force the

nose down and increase glide speed are:

• Decrease in effective lift due to the direction of

the lifting force being at an angle to the pull of

gravity.

• The use of the rudder acting as it does in the entry

to a power turn.

• The normal stability and inherent characteristics

of the airplane to nose down with the power off.

These three factors make it necessary to use more back

pressure on the elevator than is required for a straight

glide or a power turn and, therefore, have a greater

effect on the relationship of control coordination.

When recovery is being made from a gliding turn, the

force on the elevator control which was applied during

the turn must be decreased or the nose will come up

too high and considerable speed will be lost. This error

will require considerable attention and conscious control adjustment before the normal glide can again be

resumed.

In order to maintain the most efficient or normal glide

in a turn, more altitude must be sacrificed than in a

straight glide since this is the only way speed can be

maintained without power. Turning in a glide

decreases the performance of the airplane to an even

greater extent than a normal turn with power.

Still another factor is the difference in rudder action in

turns with and without power. In power turns it is

required that the desired recovery point be anticipated in

the use of controls and that considerably more pressure

than usual be exerted on the rudder. In the recovery from

a gliding turn, the same rudder action takes place but

without as much pressure being necessary. The actual

displacement of the rudder is approximately the same,

but it seems to be less in a glide because the resistance to

pressure is so much less due to the absence of the propeller slipstream. This often results in a much greater

application of rudder through a greater range than is realized, resulting in an abrupt stoppage of the turn when the

rudder is applied for recovery. This factor is particularly

important during landing practice since the student

almost invariably recovers from the last turn too soon

and may enter a cross-control condition trying to correct

the landing with the rudder alone. This results in landing

from a skid that is too easily mistaken for drift.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-18
3-19

There is another danger in excessive rudder use during

gliding turns. As the airplane skids, the bank will

increase. This often alarms the beginning pilot when it

occurs close to the ground, and the pilot may respond

by applying aileron pressure toward the outside of the

turn to stop the bank. At the same time, the rudder

forces the nose down and the pilot may apply back-elevator pressure to hold it up. If allowed to progress, this

situation may result in a fully developed cross-control

condition. A stall in this situation will almost certainly

result in a spin.

The level-off from a glide must be started before

reaching the desired altitude because of the airplane’s

downward inertia. The amount of lead depends on the

rate of descent and the pilot’s control technique. With

too little lead, there will be a tendency to descend

below the selected altitude. For example, assuming a

500-foot per minute rate of descent, the altitude must

be led by 100 – 150 feet to level off at an airspeed

higher than the glide speed. At the lead point, power

should be increased to the appropriate level flight

cruise setting so the desired airspeed will be attained

at the desired altitude. The nose tends to rise as both

airspeed and downwash on the tail section increase.

The pilot must be prepared for this and smoothly control the pitch attitude to attain level flight attitude so

that the level-off is completed at the desired altitude.

Particular attention should be paid to the action of the

airplane’s nose when recovering (and entering) gliding

turns. The nose must not be allowed to describe an arc

with relation to the horizon, and particularly it must

not be allowed to come up during recovery from turns,

which require a constant variation of the relative pressures on the different controls.

Common errors in the performance of descents and

descending turns are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Inadequate back-elevator control during glide

entry resulting in too steep a glide.

• Failure to slow the airplane to approximate glide

speed prior to lowering pitch attitude.

• Attempting to establish/maintain a normal glide

solely by reference to flight instruments.

• Inability to sense changes in airspeed through

sound and feel.

• Inability to stabilize the glide (chasing the airspeed

indicator).

• Attempting to “stretch” the glide by applying

back-elevator pressure.

• Skidding or slipping during gliding turns due to

inadequate appreciation of the difference in rudder

action as opposed to turns with power. 

• Failure to lower pitch attitude during gliding turn

entry resulting in a decrease in airspeed. 

• Excessive rudder pressure during recovery from

gliding turns. 

• Inadequate pitch control during recovery from

straight glides. 

• “Ground shyness”—resulting in cross-controlling

during gliding turns near the ground.

• Failure to maintain constant bank angle during

gliding turns.

PITCH AND POWER

No discussion of climbs and descents would be

complete without touching on the question of what

controls altitude and what controls airspeed. The

pilot must understand the effects of both power and

elevator control, working together, during different

conditions of flight. The closest one can come to a

formula for determining airspeed/altitude control

that is valid under all circumstances is a basic principle of attitude flying which states:

“At any pitch attitude, the amount of power used

will determine whether the airplane will climb,

descend, or remain level at that attitude.”

Through a wide range of nose-low attitudes, a descent

is the only possible condition of flight. The addition of

power at these attitudes will only result in a greater rate

of descent at a faster airspeed.

Through a range of attitudes from very slightly

nose-low to about 30° nose-up, a typical light airplane can be made to climb, descend, or maintain

altitude depending on the power used. In about the

lower third of this range, the airplane will descend

at idle power without stalling. As pitch attitude is

increased, however, engine power will be required

to prevent a stall. Even more power will be required

to maintain altitude, and even more for a climb. At a

pitch attitude approaching 30° nose-up, all available

power will provide only enough thrust to maintain

altitude. A slight increase in the steepness of climb

or a slight decrease in power will produce a descent.

From that point, the least inducement will result in a

stall.

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-19
3-20

Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-20