NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

U.S. Department of Education

Office of Educational Research and Improvement NCES 95-765

Findings from

THE CONDITION OF EDUCATION 1994

THE EDUCATIONAL

PROGRESS OF

BLACK STUDENTS

NO.

2
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Richard W. Riley

Secretary

OFFICE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND IMPROVEMENT

Sharon P. Robinson

Assistant Secretary

NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

Emerson J. Elliott

Commissioner

NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

“The purpose of the Center shall be to collect, analyze, and disseminate statistics and other data related to education in the United

States and in other nations.”—Section 406(b) of the General

Education Provisions Act, as amended (20 U.S.C. 1221e-1).

May 1995

The text in this booklet was written by Thomas M. Smith of the Data

Development Division of NCES and appeared originally in the

Condition of Education, 1994. Susan P. Choy of MPR Associates, Inc.

adapted the content to this format, and Leslie Retallick and Lynn Sally

designed the graphics and layout.
1

THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS

OF BLACK STUDENTS

Getting a high quality education has always been seen as one of

the best ways to improve one’s social and economic prospects,

especially for someone who is socially or economically disadvantaged. Black children are at an educational disadvantage relative

to white children for a number of reasons, including lower average levels of parental education, a greater likelihood of living

with only one parent, fewer resources in their communities as a

result of income-based residential segregation, and, especially, a

greater likelihood of experiencing poverty. In 1992, 46 percent of

black children, as opposed to 16 percent of white children, lived

in a family with an income level below the poverty line.1

Both blacks and whites have made important gains over the past

two decades. See No. 1 in this series of Findings from the Condition

of Education, “High School Students Ten Years After A Nation at

Risk.” More high school students are taking core courses, and

more are taking high-level courses in those subjects. More high

school students are taking advanced placement examinations,

and fewer are dropping out between the 10th and 12th grades.

Also, mathematics and science achievement has increased since

the early 1980s. Finally, more students are aspiring to college

after they graduate, and more are attending. 

Despite these overall gains, blacks continue to trail whites in

many areas. Outlined below are some examples of the educational differences between blacks and whites with respect to

preschool attendance, achievement at the elementary and secondary school levels, progress in school, learning environment,

curriculum, educational aspirations, college enrollment and completion, labor market outcomes, and adult literacy levels. Some

of the gaps between blacks and whites have decreased over

time, but many remain large. All black-white comparisons made

here refer to black, non-Hispanics, and white, non-Hispanics.
2

PRESCHOOL ATTENDANCE

• Black children start elementary school with

less preschool experience than white children, and a gap in preschool enrollment rates

has developed.

Several federal programs for economically disadvantaged

preschoolers (such as Head Start) were instituted to give children from low income families an early start in education.

During the middle 1970s, the proportions of white and black 3-

and 4-year-olds attending nursery school were similar (about 25

percent). Since then, enrollment rates have increased for both

groups, but more slowly for blacks. In 1991, 31 percent of black

3- and 4-year-olds were enrolled, compared with 40 percent of

whites. Black 3- and 4-year-olds, however, were more likely

than whites of this age to be enrolled in kindergarten in 1991 (8

percent and 4 percent, respectively).

3- and 4-year-olds 

enrolled in prekindergarten

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, October Current Population Surveys.

Black

20

25

30

35

40

45

‘73 ‘75 ‘83 ‘77 ‘85 ‘81 ‘87 ‘89

White

0

‘91

Percent
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

ACHIEVEMENT

• Gaps in the academic performance of

black and white students appear as early

as age 9 and persist through age 17. 

Academic proficiency in reading, mathematics, and science, as

measured at age 9 by the National Assessment of Educational

Progress (NAEP), is lower for black children than for white

children. The black-white achievement gap narrowed in the

1970s and early 1980s, but has not narrowed further. 

Black-white gaps in reading, mathematics,

and science for 9-year olds

(in scale points)

SOURCE: NCES, National Assessment of Educational Progress.

The black-white achievement gap remains large at age 13. For

example, in 1992, the average reading proficiency scores of

black 13-year-olds fell about midway between the average proficiency scores of white 9- and 13-year-olds. In other words,

black children on average may be reading at a level as much as

2 years below their white peers when they enter high school. 

3

Math

35

29 27

1971 1984 1992

Reading

44

32 34

1971 1984 1992

Science

57

42

39

1971 1984 1992
At age 17, NAEP scores again indicate a large black-white

achievement gap, although test scores for blacks have improved

relative to those of whites in reading, mathematics, and science

since the early 1970s. In 1971, average reading proficiency

among 17-year-old blacks was well below that of 17-year-old

whites and even well below that of 13-year-old whites; in 1992,

the proficiency of 17-year-old blacks was about the same as that

of 13-year-old whites. 

The black-white achievement gap has closed somewhat over

time, persisting, although not widening, with age. The blackwhite differences in mathematics at ages 9, 13, and 17 are

remarkably similar. 

Average proficiency scores

Subject White Black

and year Age 9 Age 13 Age 17 Age 9 Age 13 Age 17

Reading

1971 214 261 291 170 222 239

1980 221 264 293 189 233 243

1992 218 266 297 184 238 261

Mathematics

1973 225 274 310 190 228 270

1982 224 274 304 195 240 272

1992 235 279 312 208 250 286

Science

1970 236 263 312 179 215 258

1973 231 259 304 177 205 250

1982 229 257 293 187 217 235

1992 239 267 304 200 224 256

SOURCE: NCES, National Assessment of Educational Progress.

4
• On another measure of achievement, the SAT,

college-bound blacks have made substantial

gains relative to whites, but a gap remains. 

In 1993, average scores of blacks were 91 points lower than those

of whites on the verbal component of the SAT and 106 points

lower on the mathematics component. In 1976, the scores were

119 and 139 points lower, respectively.2

PROGRESS IN SCHOOL

• At age 13, black children are more likely than

white children to be below the modal grade

for their age.

Since the mid-1970s, the percentage of 8- and 13-year-old children

who were 1 or more years below the modal (most common) grade

for their age has risen for all children. While most 8-year-olds are

in the third grade, about 27 percent of both black and white males

were in a lower grade in 1989.3 At age 13, however, black children

were more likely to be behind. While most 13-year-olds are in the

eighth grade, 49 percent of black males at this age were in a lower

grade, compared with 32 percent of white males.

13-year-olds below modal grade for their age

(3-year average)

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, October Current Population Surveys.

5

‘74

50

40

30

20

10

‘76 ‘78 ‘80 ‘82 ‘84 ‘86 ‘88 ‘89

Black males Black females

White females

White males

0

Percent
• Students who repeat grades are at greater risk

of dropping out of school.

In 1992, black and white 16- to 24-year-olds who had been

retained were about equally likely to drop out of school.

However, black young adults were much more likely to have

repeated one or more grades.

Retention and dropout rates for 

16- to 24-year olds in 1992

Percent

retained in Dropout rate

Race– one or more Never

ethnicity grades Total retained Retained

White 10.5 7.7 6.0 18.8

Black 18.1 13.7 12.0 20.1

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current

Population Survey, October 1992.

• Fewer black students are dropping out of

school than a decade ago. While black students are still more likely to drop out than

whites, the gap has been closing over time.

The dropout rate is still considered too high by many educators,

but the percentage of blacks ages 16–24 who are high school

dropouts has declined substantially since the early 1970s (from

21 percent in 1972 to 14 percent in 1993). The dropout rate for

whites has decreased less during this period (from 12 percent to

8 percent).

6
Status dropout rates for persons ages 16–24

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, October Current Population Surveys.

The black-white difference in dropout rates early in high school

is large. Blacks in the 8th-grade class of 1988 were almost twice

as likely as their white classmates to drop out between the 8thand 10th-grades. 

Percentage of the 8th-grade class of 1988 

who dropped out of high school

SOURCE: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study

of 1988.

7

‘72

5

10

15

20

0

‘75 ‘78 ‘81 ‘84 ‘87 ‘90 ‘93

Percent

25

White

Black

5

6

9

10

10

15

1988–90

1990–92

1988–92

Black

White
Many dropouts later earn a diploma or obtain a GED. Although

blacks in the sophomore class of 1980 were less likely than their

white classmates to complete high school by June 1982 (79 percent compared with 86 percent), they were just as likely to have

earned a high school diploma or to have obtained a GED by

1992.4

With fewer black students dropping out and many dropouts

later completing, the high school completion rate for blacks has

increased over the past two decades. The completion rate for

whites is still higher than for blacks, but has increased less during this period.

High school completion rates 

for 21- and 22-year-olds

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, October Current Population Surveys.

LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

• Black students are more likely than their

white peers to face a disorderly learning environment, but black and white students have

similar attitudes about teaching quality in

their schools.

8

70

75

80

85

90

‘72 ‘75 ‘78 ‘81 ‘84 ‘87 ‘90 ‘93

100

0

White

Black

Percent
9

A student’s achievement can be affected by the degree to which a

safe and orderly environment is maintained in school. In 1990,

black sophomores were more likely than their white peers to

report that other students often disrupted their classes and that

disruptions by other students interfered with their learning.

Blacks were less likely than whites to feel that students got along

well with teachers at their school and were almost twice as likely

as whites to report that they did not feel safe at their school.

On the other hand, black 10th graders were as likely as their

white classmates to think that the teaching was good and that

teachers were interested in the students. Blacks were more likely

than whites to think that teachers praised their work, and listened to what they had to say.

Tenth graders’ attitudes about

school climate: 1990

Percent agreeing or strongly

agreeing with statement

Statement about school climate White Black

Teaching is good 81.1 83.1

Teachers are interested in students 75.6 76.0

Teachers praise my efforts when I work hard 54.4 64.6

Teachers listen to what I have to say 68.8 74.8

Students get along well with teachers 77.0 62.8

Other students often disrupt class 69.9 76.3

Disruptions by other students 

interfere with my learning 36.7 51.1

I don’t feel safe at this school 6.7 12.8

SOURCE: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

Between 1976 and 1991, black high school seniors were more

likely than white seniors to be threatened or injured with a

weapon at school. In 1991, black seniors were about twice as

likely as white seniors to be injured with a weapon (10 percent
10

compared with 5 percent).5 However, there were few other differences in the in-school victimization rates for black and white

high school seniors over this period.

• Black students are no less likely than white

students to have their parents involved in

their schooling.

The degree to which parents are involved in their children’s

education is another factor linked to effective schooling. In 1988,

the vast majority of 8th-grade students reported that they talked

to their parents about school, although black 8th-graders were

slightly less likely than their white peers to talk with their parents about selecting their courses. With respect to other types of

involvement, black students were just as likely as their white

classmates to have their parents check their homework, restrict

their television viewing, and limit their going out with friends.

And black 8th-graders were more likely than their white counterparts to report that their parents had spoken with a teacher or

guidance counselor and had visited their classes.

Percentage of eighth graders 

reporting parent involvement: 1988

Type of involvement White Black

Talked about

selecting classes 87 80

school activities 92 91

class studies 89 88

Checked homework 90 93

Limited TV viewing 63 60

Limited going out with friends 89 86

Spoke with teacher or counselor 59 68

Visited classes 26 36

SOURCE: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
CURRICULUM

• Both black and white high school graduates

are following a more rigorous curriculum

than a decade ago.

In 1992, black and white high school graduates on average had

earned a similar number of total course units (23 and 24, respectively) and academic units (17 and 18, respectively). And there

was no measurable difference in 1992 between the percentage of

black and white graduates who had taken the 4 units of English,

3 units of science, 3 units of social studies, and 3 units of mathematics recommended in A Nation at Risk. 

Percentage of high school graduates taking the number of

courses in English, science, social studies, and mathematics 

recommended in A Nation at Risk

SOURCE: NCES, High School and Beyond Transcript Study, 1987 and

1990 NAEP High School Transcript Studies, and National Education

Longitudinal Study Transcripts, 1992.

• Black high school graduates are still less likely

than white graduates to take advanced science and mathematics courses or study a foreign language.

11

1982

11

14

1987 1990 1992

30

41

49

24

41

Black 44

White
In 1992, black high school graduates were twice as likely as

white graduates to have taken remedial mathematics and were

less likely to have taken higher level mathematics courses. They

were also less likely to have taken chemistry, physics, or the

combination of biology, chemistry, and physics. Furthermore,

black college-bound graduates were far less likely than white

graduates to have taken at least 2 years of a foreign language in

high school (59 percent and 75 percent, respectively), which

could affect their chances of attending a selective college.6

Percentage of high school graduates 

taking selected courses

Mathematics and 1982 1992

science courses White Black White Black

Any mathematics 99.1 99.6 99.7 99.1

Remedial mathematics 27.0 54.4 14.6 30.9

Algebra II 40.5 26.2 59.2 40.9

Geometry 53.9 30.3 72.6 60.4

Trigonometry 13.8 6.3 22.5 13.0

Algebra II, geometry, and 

trigonometry 8.5 2.9 15.9 6.8

Calculus 5.0 1.4 10.7 6.9

Any science 97.7 98.6 99.5 100.0

Biology 80.1 75.3 93.5 92.2

AP/honors biology 7.5 4.5 6.5 3.2

Chemistry 34.7 22.5 58.0 45.9

AP/honors chemistry 2.9 1.6 4.2 2.3

Physics 15.3 6.8 25.9 17.6

AP/honors physics 0.9 0.8 2.9 1.4

Biology, chemistry, and physics 11.2 4.7 22.6 15.5

SOURCE: NCES, 1987 and 1990 NAEP High School Transcript Studies, High

School and Beyond Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal

Study Transcripts, 1992.

12
EDUCATIONAL ASPIRATIONS

• The educational aspirations of black and

white students are similar. 

In 1990, 11 percent of black sophomores and 9 percent of white

sophomores aspired to a high school diploma or less. Fifty-nine

percent of black sophomores aspired to a bachelor’s degree or

higher, along with 61 percent of whites.7

Among high school sophomores, blacks were more likely than

whites to have teachers recommend college attendance, and just

as likely as whites to receive advice on college attendance from

guidance counselors. However, black sophomores were less

likely than their white peers to be advised by their parents to

attend college.

Percentage of 1990 high school sophomores for whom 

college was recommended

SOURCE: NCES, High School and Beyond and National

Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

13

Fathers

Mothers

Teachers

Black

White Guidance

counselors

78

69

84

65

65

77

66

70
POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION

ENROLLMENT

• Blacks are less likely than whites to make an

immediate transition from high school to college. 

Gains made by blacks in higher education are not as dramatic as

those in elementary and secondary education. After a period of

decline in the early 1980s, the percentage of blacks enrolling in

college immediately after high school rose again until the late

1980s, when it appears to have leveled off. Meanwhile, the

enrollment rate for white high school graduates has been rising,

increasing the white-black enrollment gap in recent years. Some

of the difference in enrollment rates may be made up later

through delayed entry, which is more common among blacks

than whites. 

High school graduates enrolled in 

college the October following high school graduation

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, October Current Population Surveys.

14

20

40

60

80

‘74

100

0

White

Black

‘78 ‘83 ‘88 ‘91

Percent (3-year average)
Overall, about 30 percent of black high school graduates 16–24

years old were enrolled in college as undergraduates during the

late 1980s, about the same as a decade earlier. In contrast, about

38 percent of their white peers were enrolled in college in 1990,

up from 30 percent a decade earlier.8

• Black and white college students have tended

to major in different fields of study at both

the associate’s and bachelor’s degree levels,

but some of the differences have lessened

over time. 

In 1991, at the associate’s degree level, black men were less likely

than white men to major in the trade and industrial fields, and

more likely to major in business. Black women were more likely

than white women to earn an associate’s degree in business, and

less likely to earn a degree in a health-related field. Differences in

the fields studied at the associate’s degree level by black and

white men narrowed between 1987 and 1991; the differences

between black and white women remained about the same.9

In 1991, at the bachelor’s degree level, blacks were more likely

than whites to major in business and management and in computer and information sciences, and less likely to major in engineering, the humanities, education, and health sciences. Overall,

differences have lessened since 1977. 10

COMPLETION

• In 1971, black 25- to 29-year-olds were only

about half as likely as their white peers to

have completed 4 years of college, and this

gap has not diminished.

15
Among those who enrolled in postsecondary education for the

first time in 1989–90, 2-year persistence rates for those pursuing

vocational certificates, associate’s degrees, and bachelor’s

degrees were generally similar for blacks and whites. However,

attainment among 25- to 29-year-old blacks is far lower than it is

among whites. During the 1970s, the percentage of both white

and black high school graduates completing 1 or more or 4 or

more years of college grew; during the 1980s, however, there

was little change in college attainment rates for either group.

Percentage of 25- to 29-year-old high school graduates 

completing 1 or more or 4 or more years of college

1 or more years 4 or more years

Year White Black White Black

1971 44.9 24.6 23.1 12.5

1975 51.2 37.2 27.5 15.1

1980 53.8 40.9 28.0 15.4

1985 51.8 41.1 27.3 14.8

1991 54.9 42.5 29.7 13.6

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, March Current

Population Surveys.

• Blacks take longer than whites to complete

college on average.

Of 1990 college graduates, 65 percent of blacks completed in 5 or

fewer years compared with 72 percent of whites. Taking longer

to graduate may result from changing schools or majors, stopping out, or taking a reduced course load for financial, academic, or personal reasons. The additional time in college can be

costly to the individual by delaying entrance into the full-time

labor market.

16
Percentage of 1990 college graduates 

completing the baccalaureate degree 

within various years of starting college

4 or fewer 5 or fewer 6 or fewer More than

Race years years years 6 years

White 44.4 71.6 81.5 18.5

Black 37.0 65.1 77.6 22.4

SOURCE: NCES, Recent College Graduate Surveys.

• Bachelor’s degree attainment varies by both

race and gender.

Black women earn substantially more bachelor’s degrees than

black men, and the difference doubled between 1977 and 1991.

Following a period of slight decline in the 1980s, the number of

bachelor’s degrees earned by black men increased between 1989

and 1991, approaching the level attained a decade earlier.

Between 1977 and 1991, the number of bachelor’s degrees

earned by white women increased more than the number

earned by black women (32 percent compared with 22 percent).

Bachelor’s degrees conferred

(numbers in thousands)

Men Women

Year White Black White Black

1977 438.2 25.1 369.5 33.5

1981 406.2 24.5 401.1 36.2

1985 405.0 23.0 421.0 34.5

1987 406.8 22.5 435.1 34.5

1989 407.1 22.4 452.6 35.7

1991 415.5 24.3 488.6 41.0

SOURCE: NCES, IPEDS/HEGIS surveys of degrees conferred.

17
LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES 

• Employment and earnings rates rise with educational attainment for both blacks and

whites, but are lower for blacks than for

whites with the same amount of education. 

In 1991, only one-quarter of the blacks who dropped out of high

school between 1990 and 1991 were employed. Among black

recent high school graduates who did not enroll in college,

about one-third were employed. Between 1973 and 1992, white

high school dropouts were more likely than black high school

graduates not enrolled in college to be employed.

Employment rates for recent high school graduates not 

enrolled in college and for recent high school dropouts

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,

October Current Population Surveys.

18

Black

White

White

Black

100

‘73

80

60

40

20

0

‘76 ‘79 ‘82 ‘85 ‘88 ‘92

Percent

100

‘73

80

60

40

20

0

‘76 ‘79 ‘82 ‘85 ‘88 ‘92

Percent Graduates Dropouts
19

Earnings among 25- to 34-year-old blacks, particularly black

women, show a sizable payoff for additional education. In 1992,

black males with 9 to 11 years of schooling earned 35 percent

less than their counterparts who were high school graduates;

black males with a bachelor’s degree earned 83 percent more.

Black females with 9 to 11 years of schooling earned 32 percent

less than their counterparts with a high school diploma; black

females with a bachelor’s degree earned 113 percent more. 

Between 1974 and 1992, the earnings advantage of completing

college increased for both blacks and whites regardless of gender. However, black-white earnings differentials exist at each

level of educational attainment. For example, white college

graduates 25–34 years old earned 23 percent more in 1992 than

black college graduates of the same age.11

ADULT LITERACY 

• Blacks have lower literacy levels than whites

overall and for similar levels of education, but

the gaps are smaller for younger adults than

for older ones.

Large gaps exist between the literacy skills of blacks and whites

both within and across levels of education. For example, blacks

with a high school diploma or a GED had literacy levels similar

to those of whites who completed 9 to 12 years of school but did

not receive a high school diploma. However, the gap in literacy

between blacks and whites is less for 16- to 24-year-olds than for

40- to 64-year-olds. The differences in the labor market opportunities of blacks relative to whites noted above may be related to

the differences in the literacy levels of blacks and whites at similar levels of educational attainment. 
Prose literacy scores of adults in 1992

SOURCE: NCES, National Adult Literacy Survey, 1993.

SUMMARY

In summary, black children are less likely to be enrolled in

preprimary education and are more likely to be below modal

grade for their age. Gaps in reading, mathematics, and science

achievement appear as early as age 9, and do not narrow with

age. Black students are more likely than whites to drop out of

school, although this gap has closed over time. Black students

are no less likely than whites to have their parents involved in

their schooling, although black students are more likely to face a

disorderly school environment than their white peers. Both

black and white high school graduates follow a more rigorous

curriculum than they did a decade ago, but blacks are still less

likely than whites to take advanced science and mathematics

courses or to study a foreign language. 

20

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Average

Graduate/

professional

degree

4-year

college

degree

2-year

college

degree

Some

college,

no degree

High

school

diploma

9–12 GED

years, no

diploma

Black

White

0–8

years

0
Even though they have similar educational aspirations and take

a similar number of academic courses as whites, blacks are less

likely to make the immediate transition from high school to college. Educational attainment is positively associated with

employment and earnings for blacks, although earnings and

employment rates are lower for blacks than for whites with the

same amount of education. Blacks have lower literacy levels

than whites, both in general and at similar levels of educational

attainment.

21
REFERENCES

1U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current

Population Reports, Series P-60, “Poverty in the United States:

1992.”

2College Entrance Examination Board, National Report: CollegeBound Seniors, 1972–1993.

3U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, October

Current Population Survey.

4The Condition of Education, 1994, 34, based on High School and

Beyond and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

5University of Michigan, Survey Research Center, Institute for

Social Research, Monitoring the Future, unpublished tabulations. 6National Education Longitudinal Study Transcripts, 1992.

7National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

8U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, October

Current Population Surveys.

9The Condition of Education, 1994, 84, based on IPEDS/HEGIS

surveys of degrees conferred.

10The Condition of Education, 1994, 86, based on IPEDS/HEGIS

surveys of degrees conferred.

11U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, March

Current Population Surveys.

For more information, see the following NCES publications:

The Condition of Education, 1994. Washington, D.C.: 1994.

Digest of Education Statistics, 1994. Washington, D.C.: 1994.

Dropout Rates in the United States: 1993. Washington, D.C.: 1994. 

America’s High School Sophomores: A Ten Year Comparison.

Washington, D.C.: 1993.

Forthcoming Findings from the Condition of Education:

No. 4: The Educational Progress of Hispanic Students

No. 5: The Educational Progress of Women

No. 6: The Cost of Higher Education

22