Volume I: Quick Start for Grassland,

Shrubland and 

Savanna Ecosystems 

Monitoring 

Manual

by

Jeffrey E. Herrick, Justin W. Van Zee, 

Kris M. Havstad, Laura M. Burkett and Walter G. Whitford

with contributions from

Brandon T. Bestelmeyer, Ericha M. Courtright, Alicia Melgoza C., 

Mike Pellant, David A. Pyke, Marta D. Remmenga, Patrick Shaver, 

Amrita G. de Soyza, Arlene J. Tugel and Robert S. Unnasch

Reprinted 2009

Monitoring

Manual

for Grassland,

Shrubland and

Savanna Ecosystems

Volume I: Quick Start

by

Jeffrey E. Herrick, Justin W. Van Zee,

Kris M. Havstad, Laura M. Burkett and Walter G. Whitford

with contributions from

Brandon T. Bestelmeyer, Ericha M. Courtright, Alicia Melgoza C., 

Mike Pellant, David A. Pyke, Marta D. Remmenga, Patrick L. Shaver, 

Amrita G. de Soyza, Arlene J. Tugel and Robert S. Unnasch

USDA - ARS Jornada Experimental Range

Las Cruces, New Mexico
Printed 2009

Publisher:

USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range

P.O. Box 30003, MSC 3JER, NMSU

Las Cruces, New Mexico 88003-8003

http://usda-ars.nmsu.edu

ISBN 0-9755552-0-0

Distributed by:

The University of Arizona Press

Tucson, Arizona, USA

800-426-3797

www.uapress.arizona.edu

Cover:

Department of Agricultural Communications

College of Agriculture and Home Economics

New Mexico State University

Las Cruces, New Mexico 88003

Cover illustration:

Collecting Line-point intercept data

in a south-central New Mexico desert grassland.
he monitoring approach and methods

described here are the result of a collaboration that began in 1994. The effort was led

by the USDA-Agricultural Research Service (ARS)

Jornada Experimental Range (JER) in cooperation

with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) Office of Research and Development, the

Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) and

the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). The development has been guided by suggestions from a

large number of individuals who represent

landowners, government agencies and environmental organizations in the United States, Mexico,

Central America and Australia. New Mexico State

University faculty, scientists and members of the

USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range Focus

Group and scientists from the Estacion

Experimental La Campana in Chihuahua, Mexico,

in particular, have provided ongoing support and

input. Funding to support research associated with

the development and testing of these protocols has

been provided by the USDA-ARS, USDA-NRCS,

Holloman Air Force Base (AFB), Department of

Defense (DoD) Legacy Resources Program, the U.S.

EPA, and the National Science Foundation LongTerm Ecological Research program under Grant No.

0080412. Any opinions, findings and conclusions

or recommendations expressed in this material are

those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect

the views of the National Science Foundation or

any of the other organizations listed here.

Countless reviewers, workshop participants, students and technicians have tested the methods

described here. This input has been invaluable. 

The manual and specific methods have been

improved by suggestions from individuals who represent the following organizations1:

Bureau of Land Management 

(Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Utah)

CATIE -Centro Agronómico Tropical de

Investigación y Enseñanza (Costa Rica)

Cattle Growers (New Mexico)

CIAT-Centro de Investigación de Agricultura

Tropical (Honduras) 

Conservation Fund (New Mexico)

Department of Defense 

(California, New Mexico, Texas)

INIFAP-Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones

Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias (México)

Land EKG Inc. (Montana)

Mexican Protected Natural Areas 

(Chihuahua and Sonora, Mexico)

The Nature Conservancy

Natural Resources Conservation Service 

(Arizona, Colorado, Florida, Kansas, Louisiana, 

New Mexico)

New Mexico State University

Peter Sundt Rangeland Consultants

The Quivira Coalition

Synergy Resource Solutions, Inc.

USDA Agricultural Research Service 

(Arizona, Colorado, Oregon)

USDA-NRCS Grazing Lands Technology Institute

USDA-NRCS Soil Quality Institute

USDA-NRCS National Soil Survey Center

U.S. Forest Service (Colorado, New Mexico)

U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources

Division (Colorado, Utah)

U.S. National Park Service 

(California, Nevada, Utah)

1This list does not necessarily imply endorsement by these organizations.

T

Acknowledgements

This is Volume I of a two-part document. The second volume includes guidance on monitoring program

design and interpretation, as well as additional methods. For updates, electronic copies of data forms and a

user-friendly Access database and field (touchscreen) data entry system, please visit the USDA-ARS Jornada

Experimental Range web site (http://usda-ars.nmsu.edu).

iii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. iii

Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1

Is Quick Start All I Need? .................................................................................................... 1

How To Establish a Monitoring Program .............................................................................. 2

Long-Term Methods (you may not need them all) ................................................................. 6

• Photo points (for visual record of data) ....................................................................... 6

• Line-point intercept (for cover and composition) .......................................................... 9

• Gap intercept (to monitor areas that are susceptible

to wind or water erosion and weed invasion) ..........................................................16

• Soil stability test (for soil susceptibility to water erosion) ...............................................23

• Belt transect (for measuring perennial invasive plants and woody species) ....................30

Short-Term Monitoring ....................................................................................................... 34

• Grazing Management .............................................................................................. 35

• Recreation and Off-Road Vehicle Management .......................................................... 36

Table of Contents

iv
his manual describes how to monitor three

rangeland attributes: soil and site stability, watershed function and biotic

integrity. Nearly everything we value about

rangelands depends on these attributes.

Monitoring these three attributes is like monitoring the foundation of our rangeland ecosystems. The measurements used to monitor these

attributes also can be used to generate indicators

relevant to specific management objectives, such

as maintaining wildlife habitat, biodiversity conservation or producing forage.

No. Even the Quick Start volume, which includes

only the basics, probably includes some things you

don’t need. Start with photos for long-term monitoring. Record short-term observations and data on

the appropriate Short-Term Monitoring Data Form.

You can add quantitative measurements as you

have time available. In some cases, you may need

to refer to Volume II (see the questions below).

Units

Both English and metric units are included. For

simplicity, many of these conversions are approximate. For example, the rough equivalent for a 50 m

line is listed as 150 ft instead of 164 ft. This is

because it is easier to select 50 points along a 150 ft

transect (every 3 ft). For precise conversions. please

see Volume II, Appendix B. 

Quick Start is the only volume needed if all of the following are “true.”

What to ask yourself: True False If false, then see

Volume II . . . 

My management objectives are fairly well described (Table 1). Chapter 1 

I already know where I want to monitor. Chapters 5-6 

The basic monitoring strategy (Table 1) sounds reasonable, Chapter 4 

and I am either not aware of compaction or other problems

not covered by the basic methods or I have decided not 

to monitor these problems. 

I’m comfortable with a standard number of measurements Chapter 4 

(page 5) that will allow me to document large changes 

but may miss smaller changes. 

I am not planning to monitor riparian areas. Chapter 4 

I already know how to interpret the indicators. Chapter 17* 

*For information about how to calculate additional indicators and interpret your results, please see 

Volume II, Chapters 16 and 17. 

Monitoring the key attributes:

Soil and site stability

Hydrologic function

Biotic integrity

Is Quick Start All I Need? 

T

Introduction

Do I have to read the whole thing?

1
Long- and short-term

monitoring

We recommend a combination of short-term

and long-term monitoring (Table 1). Long-term

monitoring (pages 6-33) is designed to document

changes in the condition of the land, such as

changes in soil structure and plant basal cover, and

is normally repeated every one to five years. Shortterm monitoring (pages 34-36) may be repeated at

any time interval and is designed to check whether

or not the management system is being followed

(how much residual cover remains, or how much 

biomass is removed). Long-term monitoring is used

to generate a “trend record,” while short-term

monitoring is used to establish an “annual-use

record.”

Figure 1. Monitoring invasive species in a belt transect.

Table 1. Examples of long- and short-term management objectives and the associated monitoring strategies

described in Volume I. For other objectives and strategies, please refer to Volume II. Levels I-III refer to

increasing monitoring intensity. Level II is the semiquantitative alternative to the standard methods 

(Level III). Both options are described in the following pages.

Long-term monitoring Short-term monitoring

Management Sustainability: Maintain or increase Maintain adequate cover to limit soil 

objectives land productivity* and the number of erosion and promote water infiltration. 

land use options. Maintain or increase cover of one or more

Minimize risk of land degradation. species that persist through catastrophic

disturbances (drought, fire). Limit invasive 

species.

Monitoring Monitoring Intensity Level I Monitoring Intensity Level I

strategy Photo points Daily to monthly observations

Monitoring Intensity Levels II and III Monitoring Intensity Level II

Photo points and one or more of the Daily to monthly observations and

following measurements:

1. Line-point intercept (III) or step point (II) 1. Step-point (percent cover only)

(for cover and composition)

2. Gap intercept (III) or step gap (II) 2. Step-gap (percent steps completely in 

(for size of bare patches) bare patches)

3. Soil stability test (III) or bottle cap test (II)

(for soil erosion resistance)

4. Belt transects (III) (for invasive species)

*Productivity includes all services that the land provides, not just forage production.

How To Establish a 

Monitoring Program

2
How To Establish a Monitoring Program

Define management and monitoring objectives

Select monitoring sites and indicators

Establish and describe monitoring sites and record

long-term monitoring data (baseline)

Record short-term monitoring data 

Adjust management (e.g., move livestock)

Repeat long-term monitoring measurements, compare data with Year 1 

and interpret changes using the Annual Event Record (short-term monitoring data) 

and the interpretation section of Volume II.

Refine management strategy

(e.g., change season of use or increase fire frequency)

Figure 2. Quick Start monitoring program design, implementation and integration with management.

For more detail on monitoring program design, see chapters 1-6 in Volume II.

Monitoring and Management Flow Chart

Year 1:

Establish long-term 

monitoring program

Year 5:

Repeat long-term

monitoring

Every Year:

Maintain Annual

Event Record 

(Short-term monitoring) 

3
How To Establish a Monitoring Program

Quick Start Monitoring program checklist*

Step Done?

Define monitoring objectives. _____

Assemble background information (maps, photos) 

and select general areas you would like to monitor. _____

Select monitoring sites. This may involve preliminary 

evaluations of risk or opportunity for change. _____

Select indicators. _____

Describe each monitoring site’s management, slope, 

soil texture and depth. _____

Establish permanent transects and begin monitoring. _____

*For a more detailed checklist, see the Introduction of Volume II, Section I.

Standard transect layout

• Standard transect length is 50 m (150 ft); a multiple

single transect design is often used to maximize

replication at landscape scale.

• 50 m spoke design covers a 1-hectare (~2.5 acres) plot.

25 m spoke design covers ~0.3-hectare (~0.7 acres).

Transects begin 5 m (15 ft) from the plot’s center to

focus trampling around center stake and minimize

disturbance effects on transects.

• Parallel transect design is best for crossing boundaries

(forest-pasture) and other linear features, such as 

riparian zones.

Measurement options 

•

Forest

Pasture

Paper data collection forms are included for each method. Each data form includes

calculations for standard indicators. For updates, electronic versions of the data forms

and automated indicator calculations please visit the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental

Range web site (http://usda-ars.nmsu.edu).

4
How To Establish a Monitoring Program

Estimated time requirements for Quick Start long-term measurement options.

Time** No. of

Method–page No.* (hours) people Indicators generated 

Photos (for visual 3 0.1 2 None

record of data), page 6 

Line-point intercept 150 pts. 0.5 2 Foliar cover (%) 

(for plant cover and (50/line) Plant basal cover (%)

composition), page 9 Bare ground (%) 

Canopy gap intercept 3 lines 0.4 2 Proportion of line covered 

(to monitor areas that by large gaps between

are susceptible to wind plant canopies

erosion and/or weed 

invasion), page 16

Basal gap intercept 3 lines 0.4 2 Proportion of line covered 

page 16 by large gaps between 

plant bases

Soil stability test 18 0.5 1 Average surface stability: 

(for soil susceptibility samples • total

to water erosion), page 23 • under canopy 

• not under canopy

Belt transect (for 3 belts 0.2 2 Number of invasive 

invasive species), page 30 plants per hectare 

Photos Canopy and basal

gap intercept

Line-point 

intercept 

Soil stability test Belt transect

* No. = Total number needed for three 50 m transects.

** Total hours for a team of two people, except for Soil stability, which only requires one person. Estimates

are based on averages for an experienced team working in a variety of desert plant communities. Time

requirements are extremely variable. One person can complete all methods, but we have found it most 

efficient to have a data recorder and an observer (except for Soil stability). Allow for an additional half

hour when first establishing the permanent transects.

5
Photo points

Use Photo points to qualitatively monitor how

vegetation changes over time. Permanent photographs of a landscape are useful for detecting

changes in vegetation structure and for visually documenting measured changes. Take at least one photo

of each transect. If you take digital photos, be sure to

print and store photos in plastic photo storage

sheets. Slide the photo card (page 8) behind the

photo in the plastic storage sheet. For more information on photo point monitoring, see the USFS Photo

Point Monitoring Handbook

(www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/gtr526/).

Materials

• Tape measure (5 m (15 ft) minimum)

• Four 60 cm (2 ft) rebar stakes

• Four 60 cm (2 ft) 3/4-in PVC pipe

• Compass

• 35 mm or digital camera with a 50 mmequivalent lens (1:1 ratio). If a wide angle,

telephoto or zoom is used, be sure to record

lens and camera information. 

• Photo point (ID) board (chalk or whiteboard)

or Photo point (ID) card (page 8) on a clipboard

• Thick marking pen

• One 1.5m (5 ft) long, 3/4-in diameter 

PVC pipe.

Standard methods (rule set)

1. Establish photo point

Rules

1.1 Drive center stake into ground, leaving 

less than 30 cm (1 ft) exposed.

1.2 Drive transect stakes into ground 5 m (15 ft)

from center stake at 120o intervals to mark

beginning of the three transects.

1.3 Cover stakes with 60 cm (3/4-in) PVC 

(optional for safety and visibility).

1.4 Mark the far end (50 m) of each transect

with a stake if the location will be used for

vegetation and/or soil measurements. Use

same procedure described in 1.2 and 1.3.

Long-Term Methods 

Ground cover photo option 

Use each of the three transect stakes as one corner of a permanent plot (usually 1x1 m or 

3x3 ft) and mark the other three corners with small stakes. Before taking the photo, mark

the perimeter with a piece of rope or meter/yard sticks. Place the camera over the center 

of the plot at a standard height and take the photo.

1 2

3

Transect

stakes

Center

stake

5 m (15 ft) 5 m (15 ft)

5 m (15 ft)

Figure 3. Transect stake locations for spoke

design. Stakes mark beginnings of

each transect. Base of stake located

at bottom center of photo.

6
Long-Term Methods: Photo points

2. Record photo information

Rules

2.1 Record date, location, precipitation and

management history since the last photos

were taken on a 7.5x12.5 cm (3x5 in) card

or on one of the Short-Term Monitoring

data forms (page 35 or 36).

3. Set up first photo

Rules

3.1 Remove PVC sleeve from center stake and

replace with 1.5 m (5 ft) PVC pipe. Be 

sure that the pipe rests on the ground. 

3.2 Label photo point ID board and lean it next

to or hang it on the stake, marking the

beginning of the first transect.

4. Take first photo (Fig. 4).

Rules

4.1 Set camera body on top of (1.5 m) center

pole and point it down the first line.

4.2 Place bottom of nearest transect pole at 

the photo’s bottom center.

4.3 Take photo.

5. Repeat Steps 3 and 4 for the other two photos.

Site:

Date:

Plot:

Line #:

Direction:

Figure 5. Photo point ID board.

Riparian note: At riparian sites, take

two additional photos. Stand in midchannel, hold camera 1.5 m (5 ft) above

the ground and position bottom of

viewfinder on a point located 5 m (15 ft)

away. Take one photo facing upstream

and one downstream.

Figure 4. Photographer is at plot center and Photo point ID board

marks beginning of one of the three transects.

7
Site:

Date:

Plot:

Line #:

Direction:

Photo point ID card

8
Line-point intercept 

Line-point intercept is a rapid, accurate method

for quantifying soil cover, including vegetation, litter, rocks and biotic crusts. These measurements are

related to wind and water erosion, water infiltration

and the ability of the site to resist and recover from

degradation. For a detailed discussion of this and

other methods for measuring plant cover and/or

composition, see Elzinga et al. 20012. For alternative

Line-point intercept methods (including height

measurements) see Volume II.

Materials

• Measuring tape (length of transect)—if using 

a tape measure in feet, use one marked in

tenths of feet.

• Two steel pins for anchoring tape

• One pointer—a straight piece of wire or 

rod, such as a long pin flag, at least 75 cm 

(2.5 ft) long and less than 1 mm 

(1/25 in) in diameter

• Clipboard, Line-Point Intercept Data Form

(page 12) and pencil(s)

Standard methods (rule set) 

1. Pull out the tape and anchor each end with 

a steel pin (Fig. 6).

Rules

1.1 Line should be taut.

1.2 Line should be as close to the ground as possible (thread under shrubs using a steel pin

as a needle).

2. Begin at the “0” end of the line.

3. Working from left to right, move to the first

point on the line. Always stand on the same

side of the line.

4. Drop a pin flag to the ground from a standard

height (__ cm (__in)) next to the tape (Fig. 7).

Rules

4.1 The pin should be vertical.

4.2 The pin should be dropped from the same

height each time. A low drop height minimizes “bounces” off of vegetation but

increases the possibility for bias. 

4.3 Do not guide the pin all the way to the

ground. It is more important for the pin to

fall freely to the ground than to fall precisely

on the mark.

4.4 A pair of lasers with a bubble level can be

used instead of the pin. This tool is useful in

savannas where plant layers may be above

eye level. See Appendix A (Monitoring tools)

in Volume II for suppliers.

Long-Term Methods: Line-point intercept 

Step-point or pace transect with pin (Semiquantitative alternative)

Use a pin flag dropped in front of your boot instead of the points on the tape. Record first hit

or all hits, as for standard method. This method is less accurate because it is difficult to walk a

straight line, especially through shrubs. Using the toe of a boot instead of a pin creates additional errors because the boot often pushes plant canopies into interspaces. This leads to overestimates of foliar cover. 

Figure 6. Transect line pulled taut.

2Elzinga, C.L., D.W. Salzer, J.W. Willoughby and J.P. Gibbs. 2001. Monitoring Plant and Animal Populations, Blackwell Publishing. 368 pp.

9
Long-Term Methods: Line-point intercept 

5. Once the pin flag is flush with the ground,

record every plant species it intercepts.

Rules

5.1 Record the species of the first stem, leaf or

plant base intercepted in the “Top layer”

column using the PLANTS database species

code (http://plants.usda.gov/), a four-letter

code based on the first two letters of the

genus and species, or the common name.

5.2 If no leaf, stem or plant base is intercepted,

record “NONE” in the “Top layer” column.

5.3 Record all additional species intercepted by 

the pin.

5.4 Record herbaceous litter as “L,” if present.

Litter is defined as detached dead stems and

leaves that are part of a layer that comes in

contact with the ground. Record “WL” for

detached woody litter that is greater than 

5 mm (or ~1/4 in) in diameter and in direct

contact with soil. 

5.5 Record each plant species only once, even if

it is intercepted several times.

5.6 If you can identify the genus, but not the

species either use the PLANTS database

genus code (http://plants.usda.gov) or

record a number for each new species of

that genus. ALWAYS define the genus portion of the code and the functional group at

the bottom of the data form (Artemisia

species = AR01).

5.7 If you cannot identify the genus, use the 

following codes:

AF# = Annual forb (also includes 

biennials)

PF# = Perennial forb

AG# = Annual graminoid

PG# = Perennial graminoid

SH# = Shrub

TR# = Tree

If necessary, collect a sample of the

unknown off the transect for later 

identification.

5.8 Foliage can be live or dead but only

record each species once. If both live and

dead canopy for the same species is hit on

the same point, record the live canopy. Be

sure to record all species intercepted.

6. Record whether the pin flag intercepts a

plant base (Fig. 8) or one of the following

in the “Soil surface” column.

R = Rock (> 5 mm or ~1/4 inch in diameter)

BR = Bedrock

EL = Embedded litter 

D = Duff

M = Moss

LC = Visible biotic crust on soil 

S = Soil that is visibly unprotected by any 

of the above

Rules

6.1 For unidentified plant bases, use the codes

listed under 5.7.

6.2 Record embedded litter as “EL” where

removal of the litter would leave an indentation in the soil surface or would disturb

the soil surface. Record duff as “D” where

there is no clear boundary between litter

and soil and litter is not removed during

typical storms (occurring annually).

6.3 Additional categories may be added, such 

as “CYN” = dark cyanobacterial crust.

Figure 7. Point falling on bare soil (NONE/S).

10

Recording dead vs. live:

Distinguishing dead vs. live plants or plant

parts is important for many objectives.

Points where only dead plants or plant parts

are intercepted can be recorded by either

circling the species on the paper data form,

or by using the optional checkbox in the

Access database form (http://usda-ars.nmsu.

edu/monit_assess/monitoring.php). Be sure

to note whether a check means that the

plant part (recommended) or entire plant is

dead, and remember that many desert

plants only appear to be dead.
Long-Term Methods: Line-point intercept 

Pin flag

Bluegrass

(live)

Clover

(live)

Litter

Soil Rock

Fescue

(live)

Fescue

(dead) Pin flag

Litter

Soil

Fescue

(dead)

Basal cover

Plant base

Lower layers

Pt. Top layer Code 1 Code 2 Code 3 Soil surface 

1 Fescue Bluegrass Clover L R 

2 Fescue L Fescue 

3 Fescue L S

etc.

Point 2

Table 2. Sample data form for examples illustrated below. Points 1 and 2 show the first two points on

a line. In Point 1, the pin flag is touching dead fescue, live bluegrass, clover, live fescue, litter and a

rock. Record fescue only once, even though it intercepts the pin twice. In Point 2, the flag touches fescue, then touches litter and finally the fescue plant base. Table 2 shows how to record these two points

on the data form.

Rock

Figure 8. Area defined as

plant base and included as

basal cover.

Point 1

Riparian note: Line-point intercept collected perpendicular to the channel is often used

to monitor riparian zone width. A modified point intercept method is used to monitor

“greenline” vegetation along the channel’s edge (Vol. II, Chapter 13).

11
Page of 

Plot: Line #: Observer: Recorder:

Direction: Date: Intercept (Point) Spacing Interval = cm ( in)

Top Lower layers Soil Top Lower layers Soil

Pt. layer Code 1 Code 2 Code 3 surface Pt. layer Code 1 Code 2 Code 3 surface

Shaded cells for calculations

1 26

2 27

3 28

4 29

5 30

6 31

7 32

8 33

9 34

10 35

11 36

12 37

13 38

14 39

15 40

16 41

17 42

18 43

19 44

20 45

21 46

22 47

23 48

24 49

25 50

% foliar cover = top layer pts (1st col) x 2 = %

% bare ground* = pts (w/NONE over S) x 2 = %

% basal cover = plant base pts (last col) x 2 = %

Top layer codes: Species code, common name, 

or NONE (no cover).

Lower layers codes: Species code, common name, L

(herbaceous litter), WL (woody litter, >5 mm 

(~1/4 in) diameter).

Unknown 

Species Codes:

AF# = annual forb

PF# = perennial forb

AG# = annual 

graminoid

PG# = perennial 

graminoid

SH# = shrub

TR# = tree

Soil Surface (do not use litter):

Species Code (for basal intercept)

R = rock fragment (>5 mm 

(~1/4 in) diameter)

BR = bedrock, M = moss

LC = visible biotic crust on soil

S = soil without any other soil 

surface code

EL = embedded litter (see page 10)

D = duff

*Bare ground occurs ONLY when Top layer = NONE, 

Lower layers are empty (no L), and Soil surface = S.

12

Line-point Intercept Data Form
Long-Term Methods : Line-point intercept 

Line-point intercept 

indicator calculations 

Foliar cover (as calculated here) does not include

bare spaces within a plant’s foliage.

1. Percent foliar cover

Rules

1.1 Count the total number of plant intercepts

in the “Top layer” column and record this

number in the blank provided.

1.2 Plant intercepts include all points where a

plant is recorded in the “Top layer” 

column. Do not include points that have 

a “NONE” in the “Top layer” column.

1.3 Multiply the number of plant intercepts (from 1.1) by 2* and record your 

“% foliar cover” in the blank provided.

2. Percent bare ground

Rules

2.1 Count the total number of points along the

line that have bare ground and record this

number in the blank provided.

2.2 Bare ground occurs only when:

A. There are no plant intercepts 

(NONE is recorded in the “Top 

layer” column).

B. There are no litter intercepts 

(“Lower layers” columns 

are empty).

C. The pin only intercepts bare soil 

(“S” recorded in the “Soil surface” 

column).

2.3 Multiply the number of bare ground hits

(from 2.1) by 2* and record your “% bare

ground” in the blank provided.

3. Percent basal cover

Rules

3.1 Count the total number of plant basal intercepts in the “Soil surface” column and

record this number in the blank provided.

3.2 Plant basal intercepts occur anytime the pin

intercepts a live or dead plant base (Species

code recorded in “Soil surface” column).

3.3 Multiply the number of basal intercepts

(from 3.1) by 2* and record your “% basal

cover” in the blank provided.

*For 50 points per line. Multiply by 1 for 100 points per line.

Multiply by 4 for 25 points per line. 

13
Page of 

Plot: Line #: Observer: Recorder:

Direction: Date: Intercept (Point) Spacing Interval = cm ( in)

Top Lower layers Soil Top Lower layers Soil

Pt. layer Code 1 Code 2 Code 3 surface Pt. layer Code 1 Code 2 Code 3 surface

Shaded cells for calculations

1 BOER BOER 26 PRGL BOER S

2 BOER S 27 NONE L S

3 SP01 BOER S 28 BOER LC

4 BOER S 29 SP01 BOER S

5 NONE S 30 YUEL L S

6 BOER S 31 BOER S

7 NONE L S 32 NONE R

8 NONE S 33 BOER S

9 BOER S 34 NONE L S

10 BOER L S 35 BOER S

11 BOER L S 36 BOER L BOER

12 BOER S 37 BOER L S

13 NONE S 38 BOER L S

14 BOER S 39 NONE S

15 NONE L S 40 NONE L S

16 NONE R 41 BOER S

17 BOER S 42 PRGL SP01 S

18 BOER BOER 43 PRGL S

19 NONE R 44 SP01 S

20 BOER S 45 NONE S

21 BOER S 46 BOER S

22 SP01 S 47 BOER BOER

23 BOER L S 48 BOER L S

24 NONE L S 49 NONE L S

25 NONE L S 50 BOER GUSA S

Table 3. Line-point intercept data form example showing a 50-point line and associated indicator calculations.

1 1

3 2 Jane Smith David Patrick

120o 10/15/2002 100

% foliar cover = top layer pts (1st col) x 2 = %

% bare ground* = pts (w/NONE over S) x 2 = %

% basal cover = plant base pts (last col) x 2 = %

Top layer codes: Species code, common name, 

or NONE (no cover).

Lower layers codes: Species code, common name, L

(herbaceous litter), WL (woody litter, >5 mm 

(~1/4 in) diameter).

Unknown 

Species Codes:

AF# = annual forb

PF# = perennial forb

AG# = annual 

graminoid

PG# = perennial 

graminoid

SH# = shrub

TR# = tree

Soil Surface (do not use litter):

Species Code (for basal intercept)

R = rock fragment (>5 mm 

(~1/4 in) diameter)

BR = bedrock, M = moss

LC = visible biotic crust on soil

S = soil without any other soil 

surface code

EL = embedded litter (see page 10)

D = duff

*Bare ground occurs ONLY when Top layer = NONE, 

Lower layers are empty (no L), and Soil surface = S.

34 68

5 10

4 8

14
Long-Term Methods: Line-point intercept 

Line-point intercept basic 

interpretation 

Increases in foliar cover are correlated with

increased resistance to degradation. Basal cover is

a more reliable long-term indicator. Basal cover is

less sensitive to seasonal and annual differences in

precipitation and use. Increases in bare ground

nearly always indicate a higher risk of runoff and

erosion. 

Where species composition changes may be

occurring, calculate basal and foliar cover for each

major species. Foliar cover usually is used for

shrubs, trees and sometimes grasses. Basal cover is

used for perennial grasses. When calculating 

single species foliar cover, be sure to include each

time the species is intercepted, regardless of

whether it is in the top or lower layer.

Use these indicators together with the indicators

from the Gap intercept and the Soil stability

test to help determine whether observed erosion

changes are due to loss of cover, changes in the

vegetation’s spatial distribution, or reduced soil stability. Use these indicators together with the Belt

transect to track changes in species composition.

For more information about how to interpret these

indicators, please see Chapter 17 in Volume II. 

.

Typical effect on each attribute of 

an increase in the indicator value 

Soil and site Hydrologic Biotic

Indicator stability function integrity 

Foliar 

cover (%) + + + 

Bare 

ground (%) – – – 

Basal 

cover (%) + + + 

15
Long-Term Methods: Gap intercept 

Figure 9. A canopy gap.

Final step for canopy gap intercept

Gap intercept 

Gap intercept measurements provide information about the proportion of the line covered by

large gaps between plants. Large gaps between

plant canopies are important indicators of potential

wind erosion and weed invasion. Large gaps

between plant bases are important indicators of

runoff and water erosion.

Materials.

• Measuring tape (at least as long as transect)—if

tape is in feet, use one marked in tenths of feet.

• Two steel pins for anchoring tape

• Meter stick or other stiff stick

• Clipboard, Gap Intercept Data Form (page 20)

and pencil(s)

Standard methods (rule set)

Steps 1-4 for both canopy and basal gap

intercept.

1. Pull out the tape and anchor each end with

steel pin.

Rules

1.1 Line should be taut.

1.2 Line should be as close to the ground as

possible (thread under shrubs using a steel

pin as a needle).

2. Begin at the “0” end of the line.

3. Work from left to right, move to the first

point on the line. Always stand on the same

side of the line.

Rules

3.1 Look straight down on the tape. Use a

meter stick or other stiff stick to project a

line vertically to the ground.

3.2 Assume that there is a wall at each end of

the tape. Do not consider gaps or vegetation that occur off the end of the tape.

4. Record whether or not annuals are included. 

Rules

4.1 The standard method is to include annual 

grasses and ignore annual forbs due to the 

highly variable and ephemeral nature of

forb production in most arid and semiarid

ecosystems.

4.2 Annuals may be ignored in ecosystems

where they have little effect on reducing

wind and water erosion and/or where

their occurrence is extremely variable

among years. 

4.3 Apply the same method each year.

5. Record the beginning and end of each gap

between plant canopies longer than 20 cm 

(0.7 ft).

Rules

5.1 Canopy occurs any time 50% of any 3 cm

(0.1 ft) segment of tape edge intercepts live

or dead plant canopy based on a vertical

projection from canopy to ground. Always

read on the graduated side of the tape.

5.2 The minimum gap size can be increased or

decreased as appropriate for the site. For

example, where wind erosion is important,

the minimum gap size can be increased for

plant communities with tall vegetation.

Once monitoring has begun, the minimum

gap size can only be increased. Be sure to

record the minimum gap size on the 

data form.

16
Long-Term Methods: Gap intercept 

5.3 A plant canopy can stop a gap whether live

or dead.

5.4 Record the start and end of a gap to the

nearest centimeter (or 0.1 ft).

5.5 Dead plant bases count as canopy.

5.6 Litter is not canopy, regardless of size.

5.7 Canopy overhead (~>2.5 m) can be measured in different ways: a) If canopy is relatively short (2-3 m above ground) a straight

wire can be raised by hand to determine the

canopy edges; b) A right-angled mirror with

crosshairs can be placed over the transect

tape, then observer looks through mirror to

determine canopy edges; or c) A laser pointer can be placed over the transect tape and

aimed upwards to the canopy.

6. Record the beginning and end of each gap

between plant bases longer than 20 cm (0.7

ft).

Rules

6.1 A plant base is any plant stem emerging

from the soil surface along the graduated

edge of the tape that would force an ant

walking along the line on the soil to step

off the line to get around it (minimum

diameter = 1 mm or 1/25 of an in).

6.2 A basal gap occurs any time there is at least

20 cm (0.7 ft) of intercept without a plant

base. Therefore, there should always be at

least 20 cm (0.7 ft) between basal gap starts

and basal gap ends.

6.3 A plant base can stop a gap whether live 

or dead.

6.4 Plant bases may be live or dead, but they

must be anchored in the ground. Litter is

not a plant base.

6.5 Record the start and end of a gap to the

nearest centimeter (or 0.1 ft).

Step gap 

(Semiquantitative alternative)

Walk 50 paces in each direction (e.g., 

0o, 120o, 240o) and record the number of

times your boot lands completely within

a vegetation gap. In other words, the gap

is the size of your boot or larger. Another

variation is to record the number of gaps

larger than a particular size that your toe

lands in.

Indicator =

Final step for basal gap intercept

Total No. acres 

100 x No. of gaps 

17
Long-Term Methods: Gap intercept 

When using feet instead of meters, use the decimal (1/10) side of the tape. Most long tape

measures include inches on one side and 1/10s of feet on the other. This makes calculations

much easier. 

Figure 10. Example of canopy gap intercepts (above the line) and basal gap intercepts (below the line)

for 1 m (100 cm) of a 50 m line. Canopy gaps: There is a gap between 40 and 77 cm

because the plant canopies present do not cover more than 50% of any 3 cm segment. Basal

gaps: There is a basal gap between 8 and 34 cm. Because the three small plant bases

between 34 cm and 86 cm are all within 20 cm of an adjacent plant base, there are no basal

gaps even though there is a canopy gap. 

Not a canopy 

gap (< 20 cm)

Basal gap from

8 to 34 cm

Canopy gap from

40 to 77 cm

100 cm

Plant canopy 

(top-down view)

Plant base 

(top-down view)

0 cm 50 cm

Table 4. Gap intercept data form example associated with Figure 10.

Note: Each hatch

mark is 10 cm.

Canopy gaps: Minimum size = cm Basal gaps: Minimum size = cm

Starts Ends Gap size 25-50 51-100 101-200 >200 Starts Ends Gap size 25-50 51-100 101-200 >200

40 77 37 37 8 34 26 26

20 20

18
Long-Term Methods: Gap intercept 

Figure 11. Example of canopy gap intercepts (above the line) and basal gap intercepts (below the line)

for 1 m (100 cm) of a 50 m line. Canopy gaps: Look at the plant canopy intercept between

the 20 and 30 cm marks on the transect. Because each canopy intercept covers less than 50

percent of a 3 cm segment of the line, it does not count as canopy.

Basal gaps from 0 to 76 cm and from 77 to 99 cm.

0 cm 100 cm

Not a canopy gap because there is 

< 20 cm of gap along the measured area, 

even though the gap is 20 cm long 

(remember, a “brick wall” at 0 m and 50 m).

Note: Each hatch

mark is 10 cm.

Riparian note: No changes are needed for this method in riparian areas.

Plant canopy 

(top-down view)

Plant base 

(top-down view)

50 cm

Canopy gap from 13 to 68 cm

Table 5. Gap intercept data form example associated with Figure 11.

Canopy gaps: Minimum size = cm Basal gaps: Minimum size = cm

Starts Ends Gap size 25-50 51-100 101-200 >200 Starts Ends Gap size 25-50 51-100 101-200 >200

13 68 55 55 0 76 76 76

77 99 22

20 20

19
Monitoring plot: Line: Date: 

Reader: Recorder: Line Length m or ft Page of 

Canopy gaps: Minimum size = ___cm (___ft ) Basal gaps: Minimum size = ___cm (___ft)

Gap (cm) 25-50 51-100 101-200 >200

size (ft) 1-2 2.1-3 3.1-6 >6

Example: If SUM 25-50 = 1,573, Line Length = 5,000 cm, then % of line in gaps 25-50 cm = 100 x (SUM 25-50/line

length) = 100 x (1,573/5,000) = 31.5%.

SUM (cm/ft) SUM (cm/ft)

LINE LENGTH (cm/ft) LINE LENGTH (cm/ft)

SUM ÷ LINE LENGTH SUM ÷ LINE LENGTH

Gap Intercept Data Form

Circle one: includes only perennial vegetation OR includes annual and perennial vegetation

x 100 x 100 x 100 x 100 x 100 x 100 x 100 x 100

% of line in gaps % of line in gaps

Starts Ends Starts Ends

Gap (cm) 25-50 51-100 101-200 >200

size (ft) 1-2 2.1-3 3.1-6 >6

20

Shaded cells for calculations
Long-Term Methods: Gap intercept 

Gap intercept indicator 

calculations 

1. Canopy gaps: Calculate the percentage of the

line covered in gaps 25-50 cm, 51-100 cm,

101-200 cm and greater than 200 cm long.

Rules

1.1 Calculate each Gap size in centimeters

(Gap ends – Gap starts) for each canopy

gap entered on the data sheet.

1.2 If a gap is 25-50 cm long, record its “Gap

size” (cm) under the “25-50” column.

Repeat this for the remaining columns 

(51-100, 101-200 and >200) and for all gaps.

1.3 Add the gaps up for each shaded column

and record this value next to “SUM” on the

data form. This is the total amount of the

line (in centimeters) covered by gaps 25-50,

51-100, 101-200, >200 cm.

1.4 Record the “LINE LENGTH” in centimeters

on the data form. Line length is equal to

the length of the line (in meters) multiplied by 100.

1.5 Starting with the gaps 25-50 cm, divide the

“SUM” by the “LINE LENGTH” and multiply this value by 100 to obtain the percent

of the line covered in gaps 25-50 cm.

Record this value under the appropriate column next to “% of line in gaps”. Repeat

this for gaps 51-100, 101-200, and >200 cm.

2. Basal gaps: Calculate the percentage of the

line covered in gaps 25-50 cm, 51-100 cm,

101-200 cm and greater than 200 cm long.

Rules

2.1 Follow steps 1.1 through 1.5 above for 

basal gaps.

3. Optional for canopy and basal gaps: Use a different color or pattern to mark a slice of the

pie chart for each gap’s size class. The dark

green section represents the area covered by

plants and gaps less than 25 cm (Fig. 12).

40 60 20 27 64 37 37

101 202 101 101 70 264 194 194

237 963 726 726 269 459 190 190

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : 

4704 4754 50 50 3560 4684 1124 1124

4761 4925 164 164 4720 4813 93 93

4931 5000 69 69 4817 5000 183 183

SUM (cm) 50 69 265 726 SUM (cm) 37 93 567 1124

LINE LENGTH (cm) 5000 5000 5000 5000 LINE LENGTH (cm) 5000 5000 5000 5000

% of line in gaps 1% 1.4% 5.3% 14.5% % of line in gaps 0.7% 1.9% 11.3% 22.5%

100 x (50/5000)

100 x (69/5000)

100 x (265/5000)

100 x (726/5000)

100 x (37/5000)

100 x (93/5000) 100 x (1124/5000)

100 x (567/5000)

Canopy gaps: Minimum size = 20 cm (___ft) Basal gaps: Minimum size = 20 cm (___ft)

Starts Ends Gap size 25-50 51-100 101-200 >200 Starts Ends Gap size 25-50 51-100 101-200 >200

Table 6. Gap intercept data form example showing part of a 50-m line and associated indicator 

calculations.

21
Long-Term Methods: Gap intercept 

Gap intercept basic 

interpretation

Increases in the proportion of the line covered

by canopy gaps are related to increased risk of

wind erosion and invasive “weed” species establishment. For example, wind velocities in most areas of

the western United States are capable of moving

disturbed soil in 50-cm (20-in) gaps in grasslands.

Disturbed soil in gaps 1-2 m (3-6 ft) in diameter is

nearly as susceptible to erosion as that with no vegetation. Minimum gap size required to cause wind

erosion increases with vegetation height. Increases

in the proportion of the line covered by large

basal gaps reflect increased susceptibility to water

erosion and runoff. Plant bases slow water movement down slopes. As basal gaps increase, there are

fewer obstacles to water flow, so runoff and erosion

increase. Increases in large basal gaps have a greater

effect where rock and litter cover are low, because

they are the only obstacles to water flow and erosion.

Use these indicators together with the cover

indicators from the Line-point intercept and the

Soil stability test to help determine whether

observed erosion changes are due to loss of cover,

changes in spatial distribution of vegetation or

reduced soil stability. Where the gaps are approximately circular, the typical gap diameter is approximately 1.3 times the gap intercept. For more information about how to interpret these indicators,

please see Volume II, Chapter 17.

Typical effect on each attribute of 

an increase in the indicator value 

Soil and site Hydrologic Biotic

Indicator stability function integrity 

Canopy 

gaps (%) – – – 

Basal gaps

(%) – – – 

1% 

25-50 cm

1.4%

51-100 cm

77.8 %

in canopy and/or 

in canopy gaps

smaller than 25 cm

0.7% 

25-50 cm

1.9%

51-100 cm

61.6% in plant

bases and/or in

basal gaps smaller

than 25 cm

14.5%

>200 cm

11.3%

101-200 cm

5.3%

101-200 cm

24.5%

>200 cm

Canopy Gap Pie Chart Basal Gap Pie Chart

Figure 12. Examples of how to present gap intercept data in pie charts. Size of each pie slice is proportional

to the area covered by each type of gap.

22
Long-Term Methods: Soil stability test

Soil stability test

The Soil stability test provides information about

the degree of soil structural development and erosion resistance. It also reflects soil biotic integrity,

because the “glue” (organic matter) that binds soil

particles together must constantly be renewed by

plant roots and soil organisms. This test measures

the soil’s stability when exposed to rapid wetting. 

It is affected by soil texture, so it is important to

limit comparisons to similar soils that have similar

amounts of sand, silt and clay (see Volume II,

Appendix E for a simple field procedure to determine soil texture).

Materials:

• Complete soil stability kits (see Appendix A in

Vol. II for construction and suppliers)

• Deionized water (or any noncarbonated 

bottled water, except mineral water) 1 L

(32 oz)

• Clipboard, Soil Stability Test Data Form

(page 27) and pencil(s)

• Stopwatch 

Standard methods (rule set) 

This is easier than it sounds! With a little practice, it takes about 10-15 minutes to sample and 

10 minutes to test 18 samples.

1. Randomly select 18 sampling points and

decide whether you will collect surface samples only (1 box), or surface and subsurface

samples (2 boxes).

Rules

1.1 Use 18 randomly selected points along the

transects used for line-point and gap intercept measurements.

1.2 Record sampling locations (points) under

“Pos” on the data form.

1.3 Always sample at least 5 cm (2 in) from any

vegetation measurement line.

1.4 Include subsurface samples if you are interested in soil erodibility after disturbance.

2. Determine the dominant cover class over the

random point and enter this into the “Veg”

column on the data form.

Rules

2.1 The area to be classified is effectively as

large as the sample area (6-8 mm (1/4 in) in

diameter).

2.2 Record the dominant cover class in the

“Veg” column (optional):

NC = no perennial grass, shrub or tree

canopy cover

G = perennial grass canopy and

grass/shrub canopy mixture

F = perennial forb

Sh = shrub canopy

T = tree canopy

3. Collect a surface sample.

Rules

3.1 Excavate a small trench (10-15 mm 

(1/2 in) deep) in front of the area 

to be sampled (Fig. 13).

3.2 Lift out a soil fragment and trim it (if necessary) to the correct size.

3.3 The soil fragment should be 

2-3 mm (<1/8 in) thick and 6-8 mm 

(1/4 in) in diameter (Figs. 14 and 15). 

This is the diameter of a wood

pencil eraser. Try to fit sample in

this dot (6-8 mm dia.). 

Figure 13. Excavate small trench. Figure 14. Collect surface sample. Figure 15. Ensure correct sample size.

23
3.4 Collect samples at the exact point. Move the

sample point only if it has been disturbed during previous measurements or the soil surface

is protected by a rock or embedded litter. Move

the point a standard distance (1 m) and note

this change on the data form.

3.5 Minimize shattering by: a) slicing the soil

around the sample before lifting; b) lifting out

a larger sample than required, and trimming it

to size in the palm of your hand; or c) misting

the sample area before collection (see 3.6).

3.6 If the soil sample is too weakly structured to

sample (falls through the sieve), mist it lightly

with deionized water (use an atomizer or

equivalent) and then take a sample. Perfume

and plastic hair spray bottles work well for

this. If the sample still will not hold together,

record a “1” on the data form.

3.7 If the soil surface is covered by a lichen or

cyanobacterial crust, include the crust in the

sample. If the sample is covered by moss, collect the sample from under the moss.

3.8 Gently place the sample in a dry sieve

(Fig. 16); place sieve in the appropriate cell of a

dry box.

4. Collect a subsurface sample (optional, see Step 1).

Rules

4.1 Sample directly below the surface sample.

4.2 Use the flat, square (handle) end of the scoop

to gently excavate the previous trench (in

front of the surface sample) to a depth of 

3-4 cm (1 1/2 in). 

4.3 Directly below the surface sample, remove soil

so that a “shelf” is created with the top step 

2-2.5 cm (3/4-1 in) below the soil surface (Fig.

17).

4.4 Use the scoop to lift out a subsurface sample

from below (Fig. 18).

4.5 The soil fragment should be 2-3 mm 

(<1/8 in) thick and 6-8 mm (1/4 in) 

in diameter.

4.6 See steps 3.5-3.6. If you encounter a rock,

record “R” and move to the next sample.

4.7 Place the sample in a dry sieve; place sieve in

the dry box. Leave box lid open (Fig. 19).

Riparian note: No changes are needed for

this method in riparian systems.

Long-Term Methods: Soil stability test

Figure 17. Excavate trench for 

subsurface sample.

Figure 18. Collect subsurface sample.

Figure 19. Complete soil stability kit

with water and samples.

2-3 mm

25 mm

Figure 16. Place sample in sieve.

24
Long-Term Methods: Soil stability test

5. Make sure the surface and subsurface samples 

are dry.

Rules

5.1 Samples must be dry before testing. If samples

are not dry after collecting, allow to air dry

with the lid off.

5.2 Do not leave lid closed on samples for 

more than 1 minute on hot/sunny days.

Excessive heat can artificially increase or

decrease stability.

6. Fill the empty (no sieves) box with deionized

or distilled water (Fig. 19).

Rules

6.1 Fill each compartment to the top.

6.2 The water should be approximately the

same temperature as the soil.

7. Test the samples.

Rules

7.1 Lower the first sieve with the sample into

the respective water-filled compartment—

upper left corner of sample box to upper

left corner of water box (Fig. 20).

7.2 From the time the sieve screen touches the

water surface to the time it rests on the bottom of the box, 1 second should elapse.

7.3 Start the stopwatch when the first sample

touches the water. Use Table 7 to assign

samples to stability classes.

7.4 Follow the sequence of immersions on the

data form, adding one sample every 15 seconds. Beginners may want to immerse a sample every 30 seconds. This allows nine samples to be run in 10 minutes, so it takes 20

minutes to test one box of 18 samples.

7.5 Observe the fragments from the time the

sample hits the water to 5 min (300 sec)

and record a stability class based on Table 7.

7.6 Raise the sieve completely out of the water

and then lower it to the bottom without 

touching the bottom of the tray. Repeat 

this immersion a total of five times. Do this

even if you have already rated the sample a

1, 2 or 3 (you are allowed to change your

rating if after sieving, >10% of soil remains

on sieve).

7.7 It should take 1 second for each sieve to

clear the water’s surface and 1 second to

return to near the bottom of the box.

7.8 Hydrophobic samples (float in water after

pushed under) are rated 6.

Table 7. Stability class ratings.

Stability

class Criteria for assignment to stability class 

1 50% of structural integrity lost (melts) within 5 seconds of immersion 

in water, OR soil too unstable to sample (falls through sieve).

2 50% of structural integrity lost (melts) 5-30 seconds after immersion.

3 50% of structural integrity lost (melts) 30-300 seconds after immersion, 

OR < 10% of soil remains on the sieve after five dipping cycles.

4 10–25% of soil remains on the sieve after five dipping cycles.

5 25–75% of soil remains on the sieve after five dipping cycles.

6 75–100 % of soil remains on the sieve after five dipping cycles.

Figure 20. Place first sample in water.

Bottlecap test

(Semiquantitative alternative)

Place a soil fragment in a bottle cap filled with

water. Watch it for 30 seconds. Gently swirl the

water for 5 seconds. Assign one of three ratings: 

M= Melts in first 30 seconds (without swirling)

D= Disintegrates when swirls (but does not melt)

S= Stable (even after swirling)

Figure 21. Sample in

sieve, drawn to scale.

25
Figure 22. The photos above illustrate the key steps of testing a soil sample for four different 

stability rankings. Important note: Some of the fragments shown in these samples may

appear large. They are for illustration only. Be sure to follow the size guidelines (6-8 mm or 

1/4 in) in Rule 3.3 and Fig. 21.

Long-Term Methods: Soil stability test

Original sample After 5 seconds After 5 minutes After 5 dips

Original sample After 5 seconds After 5 minutes After 5 dips

Original sample After 5 seconds After 5 minutes After 5 dips

Original sample After 5 seconds After 5 minutes After 5 dips

Sequence for stability class = 4.

Sequence for stability class = 1.

Sequence for stability class = 5.

Sequence for stability class = 6.

26
Line ___ In Dip Line ___ In Dip Line ___ In Dip Line ___ In Dip Line ___ In Dip Line ___ In Dip

Pos Veg time time # Pos Veg time time # Pos Veg time time # Pos Veg time time # Pos Veg time time # Pos Veg time time #

0:00 5:00 0:45 5:45 1:30 6:30 2:15 7:15 3:00 8:00 3:45 8:45

0:15 5:15 1:00 6:00 1:45 6:45 2:30 7:30 3:15 8:15 4:00 9:000:30 5:30 1:15 6:15 2:00 7:00 2:45 7:45 3:30 8:30 4:15 9:15

Monitoring plot: Observer: Date:

Recorder: Page of 

Veg = NC (no perennial canopy), G (grass or grass/shrub mix), F (forb), Sh (shrub), 

T (tree). # = Stability value (1-6). Circle value if samples are hydrophobic.

Notes:

Protected samples Unprotected samples

All samples (Samples w/Veg = G, Sh, or T) (Samples w/ Veg = NC)

Line Surface Subsurface Surface Subsurface Surface Subsurface

Plot Avg.

Avg. Stability = Sum of Stability Rankings (i.e., #) / Total No. Samples Taken 

Soil Stability Test Data Form

Surface

Line ___ In Dip Line ___ In Dip Line ___ In Dip Line ___ In Dip Line ___ In Dip Line ___ In DipPos Veg time time # Pos Veg time time # Pos Veg time time # Pos Veg time time # Pos Veg time time # Pos Veg time time #

0:00 5:00 0:45 5:45 1:30 6:30 2:15 7:15 3:00 8:00 3:45 8:45

0:15 5:15 1:00 6:00 1:45 6:45 2:30 7:30 3:15 8:15 4:00 9:000:30 5:30 1:15 6:15 2:00 7:00 2:45 7:45 3:30 8:30 4:15 9:15

Subsurface

Notes:

27
Long-Term Methods: Soil stability test

Soil stability indicator 

calculations

1. Calculate the average stability for all samples.

Rules

1.1 Add together all stability values. Divide this

sum by the total number of samples taken.

Record this value as the average stability for

“All samples” on your data form.

2. Calculate the stability for protected soil 

(Veg = G, F, Sh, or T).

Rules

2.1 Add together all values that were protected

by canopy (Veg = G, F, Sh, or T). Divide this

sum by the number of samples in this

group. Record this value as the average 

stability for “Protected samples” on your 

data form.

3. Calculate the average stability for unprotected

samples.

Rules

3.1 Add together all stability values that were

classified as no canopy (Veg = NC). Divide

this sum by the number of samples in this

group. Record this value as the average 

stability for “Unprotected samples.”

4. Averages should be calculated separately for

surface and subsurface samples.

Surface

Line 1 In Dip In Dip Line 2 In Dip In Dip

Pos Veg time time # Pos Veg time time # Pos Veg time time # Pos Veg time time #

7 NC 0:00 5:00 3 28 NC 0:45 5:45 36 G 1:30 6:30 5 24 G 2:15 7:15 6

14 S 0:15 5:15 5 35 S 1:00 6:00 4 12 NC 1:45 6:45 1 30 S 2:30 7:30 3

21 G 0:30 5:30 6 42 G 1:15 6:15 5 18 S 2:00 7:00 4 36 NC 2:45 7:45 1

Table 8. Data form and calculations example for soil surface samples.

Protected samples Unprotected samples

All samples (Samples w/Veg = G, F, Sh, or T) (Samples w/o Veg = NC)

Line Surface Subsurface Surface Subsurface Surface Subsurface

1 4.3 5.0 3.0

2 3.3 4.5 1.0

Plot Avg. 3.8 4.75 2.0

Avg. Stability = Sum of Stability Rankings (i.e., #) / Total No. Samples Taken 

28
Long-Term Methods: Soil stability test

Soil stability test basic 

interpretation

Increases in stability of both surface and subsurface samples reflect increased soil erosion

resistance and resilience. Surface stability is correlated with current erosion resistance, while subsurface stability is correlated with resistance following

soil disturbance. Sites with average values of 5.5 or

above generally are very resistant to erosion, particularly if there is little bare ground and there are few

large gaps. Maximum possible soil stability values

may be less than 6 for very coarse sandy soils. High

values usually reflect good hydrologic function.

This is because stable soils are less likely to disperse

and clog soil pores during rainstorms. High stability values also are strongly correlated with soil biotic integrity. Soil organisms make the “glue” that

holds soil particles together. In most ecosystems,

soil stability values decline first in areas without

cover (Veg = NC). In more highly degraded systems, Veg = Canopy values also decline. 

Use these indicators together with the indicators

from the Line-point intercept and the Gap

intercept to help determine whether observed

erosion changes are due to loss of cover, changes in

vegetation spatial distribution or reduced soil stability. For more information about how to interpret

these indicators, please see Chapter 17 in Volume

II.

* Usually positive, but can be negative for hydrophobic

(water-repellent) soils. Large increases in water repellency

(after a very hot fire) can negatively affect soil and site

stability by increasing the amount of runoff water available to erode soils downslope. 

Typical effect on each attribute of 

an increase in the indicator value 

Soil and site Hydrologic Biotic

Indicator stability function integrity 

All samples + * +

Veg = Canopy + * +

Veg = NC + * +

29
Long-Term Methods: Belt transect

Belt transect for measuring perennial invasive

plants and woody species

The Belt transect provides a way to measure 

the presence of invasive plants or woody seedlings.

Belt transects provide a good means of monitoring

brush or shrub encroachment. For seedlings, small

annuals and other species that are hard to see, 

substitute the belt with a quadrat placed at regular

intervals along the line. See Measuring and

Monitoring Plant Populations (Elzinga et al. 2001)3.

Materials:

• PVC pipe with the center marked with a piece

of tape (Table 9) 

• The same transect line that was used for 

Line-point and Gap intercept methods

• Clipboard, Belt Transect Data Form (page 32)

and pencil(s)

Standard methods (rule set)

1. Determine size classes of plants.

Rules

1.1 Before walking the transect, determine if you

want to divide the plants into size classes

(Fig. 23). 

1.2 Record the size classes on the data form

under “Size class A =,” “Size class B =” 

and “Size class C = .” For example, Size

class A = plants under 10 cm tall, Size class

B = plants between 10 cm and 1 m tall, and

Size class C = plants greater than 1 m tall.

1.3 You can combine size classes, but you cannot create more size classes at a later date.

2. Determine the belt width.

Rules

2.1 Belt width can vary between 1 and 6 m 

(3 and 20 ft) in width, depending upon

density and size of plants (Table 9).

2.2 Belt width always can be decreased, but

once a transect is measured it should not be

increased.

2.3 Use the same belt width for all transects

within a plot and for all plots within a site.

3. Begin at the “0” end of the line.

Figure 23. Determine size class.

Figure 24. Begin at transect’s end.

Figure 25. Be sure to center PVC.

3Elzinga, C.L., D.W. Salzer, J.W. Willoughby and J.P. Gibbs. 2001. Monitoring Plant and Animal Populations, Blackwell Publishing. 368 pp.

30
4. Begin walking the transect.

Rules

4.1 Stand at the “0” end of the line and face

the other end (away from the plot’s center)

(Fig. 24).

4.2 Hold the PVC pipe, so that its center is

directly over the tape (Fig. 25).

5. Count the plants.

Rules

5.1 Walk slowly along the transect and count

plants that are rooted under the PVC pipe

(Fig. 26).

5.2 Only record species that constitute less than

5% cover on the Line-point intercept or

species of management concern.

5.3 Record each individual plant with at least

half of the base under the PVC pipe.

5.4 Record the species code in the “Species” 

column on the data form.

5.5 Make a tally mark in the column of the

appropriate size class as individuals are

encountered (Fig. 27). 

5.6 If desired, each transect can be divided into

10-m (30-ft) segments, and plants can be

counted within each segment. You can use

a separate table on the data form for each

10 m (30 ft) segment. This is similar to

Plant density (see Volume II, Chapter 15).

6. Repeat for all transects.

Long-Term Methods: Belt transect

Riparian note: Run Belt transects on the

standard transects (crosses channel) and on

the riparian channel vegetation survey lines

(Volume II, Chapter 13). For the channel vegetation survey, use the edge of the green line as

the belt’s outer edge.

Table 9. Suggested belt width based on plant 

density (Tazik et al. 1992)4.

Estimated individuals 

of a given species per Suggested

6x100 m plot belt width

<100 6 m (20 ft)

100-200 4 m (12 ft)

200-400 2 m (6 ft)

>400 1 m (3 ft)

Figure 26. Record all shrubs with at least

half of base under PVC.

Figure 27. Record all shrubs encountered

by size class.

4Tazik, D. J., S.D. Warren, V.E. Diersing, R. B. Shaw, R. J. Brozka, C. F. Bagley, and W. R. Whitworth. 1992. U.S. Army Land

Condition-Trend Analysis (LCTA) Plot Inventory Field Methods. USACERL Technical Report N-92/03. 62 pp.

31
Monitoring plot: Date: 

Reader: Recorder:

Transect area* = ha = meters X meters/10,000

Transect area** = ________ ha = ________ ft x ________ ft x (0.0000093)

Size class A = Size class B = Size class C = _______________

Density* = number of individuals per hectare (this indicator doesn’t need to be calculated in the field).

(line length) (belt width)

Example: *50 m x 2 m = 100 square meters (m2). There are 10,000 m2 in 1 hectare, so 100 m2/(10,000 m2 per 1 ha) = 0.01 ha. Density for 15

plants in a 100 m2 belt = 15/0.01 ha = 1500 plants/ha.

**150 ft x 6 ft = 900 ft2. 1 ft2 = 0.0000093 ha, so 900 ft2 x 0.0000093ha/ft2 = 0.008ha. Density for 15 plants in a 900 ft2 belt = 15/0.008 =

1875 plants/ha.

Line: Direction:

Size class

Species A (tally marks) Total Density B (tally marks) Total Density C (tally marks) Total Density

Line: Direction:

Size class

Species A (tally marks) Total Density B (tally marks) Total Density C (tally marks) Total Density

Belt Transect Data Form

32
Long-Term Methods: Belt transect

Belt transect indicator 

calculations

1. Calculate the density of invasive plants and

woody seedlings.

Rules

1.1 Count the tally marks for each species and

size class.

1.2 Calculate the transect area: multiply the

length of the transect by the belt width. 

Convert this to hectares:

Square meters to hectaresDivide this total by 10,000 to get the 

transect area in hectares.

Square feet to hectaresDivide this total by 107,639 to get 

the transect area in hectares.

1.3 Divide each species total by the transect

area to get the species density. Repeat 

this for each species and size class. To convert plants/hectares to plants/acre, divide

plants/hectare by 2.5.

Line: 1 Direction: 120o

Size class

Density Density

Species A (tally marks) Total (plants/ha) B (tally marks) Total (plants/ha) C (tally marks) Total Density

PRGL 4 133** 6 200*** 1 33.3

Belt transect basic 

interpretation

Interpreting Belt transect data is site-specific. In

a riparian area, woody species may be a positive

indicator of biotic integrity. In native grassland, the

presence of woody species could be an early warning indicator of degradation. In some cases, it is

important to have size as well as density information. For example, the probability of shrub mortality during fire declines with increases in shrub size.

Use these indicators, together with indicators

from the Line-point intercept and Gap intercept methods to monitor a site’s biotic integrity

(resistance to invasive species or to changes in

community structure) and hydrologic function. For

more information about how to interpret these

indicators, please see Volume II, Chapter 17.

Transect area* = 0.03 ha = 50 meters X 6 meters/10,000

Size class A = <10 cm Size class B = 10 cm to 1 m Size class C = >1m

(line length) (belt width)

Table 10. Sample data form and calculations. 

*50 m x 6 m = 300 m2. There are 10,000 m2 in 1 hectare, so 300 m2 ÷ (10,000 m2 per 1 hectare) = 0.03 hectare.

**4 plants ÷ 0.03 hectare = 133 plants/hectare; 133 plants/hectare ÷ 2.5 = 53 plants/acre. 

***6 plants ÷ 0.03 hectare = 200 plants/hectare; 200 plants/hectare ÷ 2.5 = 80 plants/acre.

33
5Short-term grazing monitoring adapted from Level II monitoring in C.D. Allison, T.T. Baker, J.C. Boren, B.D. Wright

and A. Fernald. 2001. Monitoring Rangelands in New Mexico: Range, Riparian, Erosion, Water Quality and Wildlife. Range

Improvement Task Force, Agricultural Experiment Station, Cooperative Extension Service, New Mexico State University,

College of Agriculture and Home Economics, Report 53. 60 pp.

Why bother? The long-term monitoring methods described previously document progress toward

long-term goals. Short-term monitoring is essential

to adjust management to ensure that the long-term

goals will be met. Short-term monitoring should be

designed to show how your management plan is

affecting residual plant cover. Plant cover is a good

short-term indicator of the plant’s ability to recover

following grazing and how well the site 

is protected from erosion. The sizes of the gaps

between plant canopies are a good indicator of 

susceptibility to erosion and weed invasion.

Where should I monitor? 

At your long-term monitoring locations.

Additional short-term monitoring sites should be

located in areas that are sensitive to management.

What should I monitor? 

See the data forms on pages 35 and 36 and Table

11 below. It is not necessary to monitor everything

or to complete short-term monitoring quantitatively. Because short-term monitoring is used to adjust

management rather than document trends, the

data are less likely to be used by others. Use this

form to organize and help you remember what you

see on a daily, weekly or monthly basis.

How often should I monitor? 

Use Table 11 as a guide. Sensitive areas should

be checked more often, especially during drought

years. Frequent checks may not be possible in more

remote areas.

Instructions:

• Use one data form for each location. This will 

allow you to see changes over time. Photos 

can be taped to the back of each sheet.

• See instructions at the bottom of data forms on

the following pages.

• It is not necessary to fill in all columns.

Determine the most important attributes and

monitor these consistently.

Short-Term Monitoring5

Management How Often? What?

High-intensity grazing Daily Stocking rates by animal and class

Season-long grazing Weekly Dates of use

Year-long grazing Monthly Foliar cover and canopy gap sizes

Height of key species

Fire After fire, after greenup Foliar cover

and before grazing Canopy gap sizes

Off-road vehicle use After significant events Types and approximate vehicle numbers

(e.g., holiday weekends); Dates of use

more often when wet Number of tracks

Evidence of compaction

Table 11. Short-term monitoring guidelines.

34
Short-Term Monitoring Data Form (Annual Use Record) for Grazing Management

(Use one form for each monitoring location—you will not necessarily use all columns.)

Pasture: Location: Precipitation (cm or in): Length of pace (if pace transect used:) _____cm (_____in)

% cover Remarks

Average Average Grazed % Check one (Include any other

Photo grazed ungrazed height2 or ❒ visual % steps management 

Number (Y or N), plant plant relative estimate in information and

and class of Livestock Date (date & height1 height1 use score3 Production ❒ pace “boot” observations on weeds,

Date livestock Date in out time) (cm/in) (cm/in) (circle one) score4 transect5,6 gaps6,7 wildlife use, fires, etc.)

1Average plant height. Measure at least 10 randomly selected plants. Measure the tallest height of the plant (or longest leaf/seedhead). Be sure to measure same species for

grazed and ungrazed pastures. 2Grazed % height. Divide “Average grazed plant height” by “Average ungrazed plant height”(two previous columns) and multiply by 100. 3Relative use score. 1. None-Slight (no visible use of key forage species). 2. Light (only preferred areas and key forage species grazed). 3. Moderate (key areas grazed uniformly, especially key species). 4. Heavy (key species closely grazed and low forage value plants moderately grazed). 5. Severe (pasture appears mowed, including low-valuespecies). If temporary exclosures are used to estimate utilization, be sure to mark control plots when the exclosures are installed. 4Production score. 1. Extreme Drought (no growth this year). 2. Below Average. 3. Average. 4. Above Average. 5. Extremely High (maximum potential). 5% cover. Number of paces out of 100 for which pin dropped 15-30 cm (6-12in) in front of boot contacts plant foliage, plant base or plant litter (higher cover is better). 6Hint. To make the pace transect and boot gap method easy, carry two clicker counters. Count your paces (100) out loud. In one hand, click the number of paces with 

% cover (#4). In the other hand, click the number of paces in boot gaps (#5). 7% steps in “boot” gaps. Number of paces out of 100 for which boot lands completely within a bare space (does not touch a plant when boot is on the ground). Record

boot length here ____cm (in).

35
Short-Term Monitoring Data Form (Annual Use Record) for Recreation and Off-Road Vehicle Management

(Use one form for each monitoring location—you will not necessarily use all columns.)

Management unit (ranch or allotment): Location:Precipitation (cm or in): Length of pace (if pace transect used:) _____cm (_____in)

% cover Remarks

Soil Check one (Include any other

condition Photo ❒ visual management 

during (Y or N) estimate % steps Evidence information and

Vehicle type Use use (date & No. of vehicle ❒ pace in “boot” of observations on weeds,

Date and number dates (wet/dry) time) tracks/100 paces transect1,3 gaps2,3 compaction? wildlife use, fires, etc.)

1% cover. Number of paces out of 100 for which tip of boot contacts plant foliage, plant base or plant litter (higher cover is better). 2% steps in “boot” gaps. Number of paces out of 100 for which boot lands completely within a bare space (does not touch a plant when boot is on the ground). 

Record boot length here _____cm (in).

3Hint. To make the pace transect and boot gap method easy, carry two clicker counters. Count your paces (100) out loud. In one hand, click the number of paces with ground

cover (#1). In the other hand, click the number of paces in boot gaps (#2).

36