United States Prevention, Pesticides EPA 744-R-00-002

Environmental Protection And Toxic Substances March 2000

Agency (7406)

Implementing Cleaner Printed

Wiring Board Technologies: 

Surface Finishes

Design for the Environment

Printed Wiring Board Project

Implementing Cleaner Printed Wiring Board

Technologies: Surface Finishes

Design for the Environment Program

Economics, Exposure, and Technology Division

Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Washington, DC 20460

i

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments .......................................................... iii

Introduction ............................................................... 1

Immersion Silver ............................................................ 5

Immersion Tin ............................................................. 11

Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP) ......................................... 19

Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold ............................................. 25

Electroless Nickel/Electroless Palladium/Immersion Gold ............................ 33

Lessons Learned ........................................................... 37

Acronyms ................................................................ 39

Supplier Contacts .......................................................... 41
ii
Acknowledgments iii

Acknowledgments

This report was prepared under contract #68-W6-0021 for the U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency’s Design for the Environment (DfE) Printed Wiring Board (PWB) Surface Finishes

Project. The DfE PWB Core Group provided valuable guidance and feedback throughout the

preparation of this report. This Guide would not have been possible without the assistance of the

following suppliers, PWB manufacturers, and assemblers who provided the information

summarized in this document:

Alcatel USA

Alpha Metals

Advanced Electronics

Artetch Circuits Ltd.

Celestica

Circuit Connect

Circuit Wise

Diversified Systems

Electrochemicals, Inc.

Florida CirTech, Inc.

MacDermid Inc.

Parlex

Polyclad Technolgoies - Enthone 

 (formerly Dexter Electronic Materials)

Quality Circuits Inc.

Raytheon

Rockwell Collins

Sanmina

Siemens AG

Solder Station One

Solectron Corporation

Technic, Inc.

Wall Industries

For additional copies of this document, or for other DfE PWB Project documents, contact:

Pollution Prevention Information Clearinghouse (PPIC) 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Mailcode 7409) 

1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20460 

Phone: 202-260-1023 Fax: 202-260-4659 E-mail: ppic@epa.gov 

DfE publications are also available on-line at: www.epa.gov/dfe
Acknowledgments iv
Introduction 1

Introduction

Surface finishes are applied to printed wiring boards (PWBs) to prevent oxidation of exposed

copper on the board, thus ensuring a solderable surface when components are added at a later

processing stage. The most widely used surface finishing process in PWB manufacturing is hot

air solder leveling (HASL). In this process, tin-lead is fused onto exposed copper surfaces. This

process may pose potential health and environmental risks due to the use of lead, and the HASL

process also generates significant quantities of excess solder that must be recycled. In addition,

HASL does not provide a level (planar) soldering surface for fine pitch components. Several

emerging surface finishes viewed as viable alternatives to HASL have been developed in recent

years. These finishes eliminate the use of lead in the surface finishing process and produce a

planar surface. For these reasons, the Design for the Environment (DfE) PWB Project team

selected the surface finishing process as the focus of a study to identify technologies that perform

competitively, are cost-effective, and pose fewer potential environmental and health risks.

Many facilities are using alternative surface finishes, but there is still a lack of information on how

to successfully implement them. Some of the best information available is from PWB

manufacturers who have already installed and are now applying the alternative finishes, and from

assemblers who work with the finishes. By sharing information, PWB manufacturers can benefit

from others’ experiences with the relatively new technologies. This report details the specific

experiences of these companies, along with their recommendations for successful implementation.

This Guide presents first-hand accounts of the problems, solutions, and time and effort involved in

implementing alternative surface finish technologies. The information presented summarizes

telephone and e-mail interviews with PWB manufacturers and assemblers currently using these

technologies, and the suppliers of the alternative technologies. With the information from these

interviews, manufacturers considering a switch to an alternative technology can benefit from the

lessons learned by those who already have made the change.
Introduction 2

Five technologies are discussed in this Guide: 

g immersion silver;

g immersion tin;

g organic solderability preservative (OSP)

g electroless nickel/immersion gold; and

g electroless nickel/electroless palladium/immersion gold.

Each section includes a description of the technology, a flow chart of the process, and a

discussion of the interview results. 

Twenty-five interviews were conducted (nine PWB manufacturers, ten assemblers, and six

suppliers). Each manufacturer was asked about the difficulty of the alternative finish’s installation

process, and the relative quality and operating conditions of the technology in comparison to

HASL. Assemblers were asked about the finish’s compatibility with particular types of

components and assembly processes, and whether there are considerations for rework and repair

of PWBs finished with the alternative finish. Suppliers were interviewed to gather any supplier

specifications or recommendations. 

Some of the surface finish technologies presented in this document are relatively new to the

market and therefore, few facilities may be using them in a production mode. This limitation

presented some challenges in developing this document. For example, in many cases, two

different facilities using the same surface finish had two very different experiences. These

differences seem to indicate that the success of the technology may be largely dependent on sitespecific factors: from the type of product produced to the level of training of the facility staff. It

also should be noted that the comments provided in this Guide may not be representative of all

variants of a given technology; products by other suppliers may yield different results. 

Additionally, for the alternative finishes that are not yet run in production at many facilities, the

number of interviews conducted was limited. Most notably, for the nickel/palladium/gold finish,

two assemblers were interviewed, however, none of the manufacturers contacted were currently

using this finish; it is estimated that only ten PWB manufacturers worldwide are known to use this

system. 

This document was developed as part of the Design for the Environment (DfE) Printed Wiring

Board Project. The DfE PWB Project is a voluntary, cooperative partnership among U.S. 
Introduction 3

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); PWB industry manufacturers, assemblers, and

suppliers; the University of Tennessee Center for Clean Products and Clean Technologies; a

public interest group; and other stakeholders. The project encourages businesses to incorporate

environmental concerns into their decision-making processes, along with the traditional

parameters of cost and performance, when choosing technologies and products. Specifically,

there are three goals of the DfE PWB Surface Finishes Project:

1) to standardize existing information about surface finish technologies;

2) to present information about surface finish technologies not yet in widespread use,

so PWB manufacturers and designers can evaluate the environmental and health

risks, along with the cost and performance characteristics, of different

technologies; and

3) to encourage PWB manufacturers and designers to follow the example of this

project and systematically evaluate other technologies, practices, and procedures in

their operations that may affect the environment.

This Implementation Guide is a companion document to the full DfE project technical report for

surface finishes, the Cleaner Technologies Substitutes Assessment (CTSA). The CTSA presents

the results of an extensive evaluation of the baseline and alternative technologies including

comparative risk characterizations, cost analyses, and the results of aging, thermal shock, and

mechanical shock testing of test boards processed with the different surface finishes. This Guide

compliments the data presented in the CTSA by compiling qualitative information and advice

based on the experiences of those facilities already using the alternative finishes.

Throughout the document, the facilities interviewed are not mentioned by name. Instead, each

company has been given a code (e.g., Facility A, Facility B, etc.). It was the opinion of the

project participants that using the actual facility names might distract the reader from the

information presented on the technologies. Also, please note that mention of trade names in

this report does not constitute endorsement of the technology suppliers or recommendation for

use. Instead, the reader is encouraged to contact the suppliers for more information on their

products. 
Introduction 4
Immersion Silver 5

Immersion Silver

The immersion silver finish is produced by the selective displacement of copper atoms with silver

atoms on the exposed metal surface of the PWB. To minimize silver tarnishing, an organic

inhibitor is co-deposited to form a hydrophobic layer on top of the silver. The typical thickness of

an immersion silver finish depends on the chemistry. They range from 3 to 10 microinches (0.08

to 0.25 microns) thick. There are two chemistries in production; one is operated exclusively as a

horizontal, conveyorized process, and the other can be operated either horizontally or vertically. 

Immersion silver finishes are compatible with SMT, flip chip, and BGA technologies, as well as

typical through-hole components. Silver finishes appear to be compatible with all types of solder

masks, can withstand five thermal excursions during assembly, and are anticipated to have a shelf

life of up to one year if stored properly. 

The immersion silver process involves five steps. Figure 1 presents a flow diagram of the steps. 

A brief description of each step follows the diagram.

Cleaner

Microetch

Predip

Immersion Silver

Dry

Figure 1: Immersion Silver Process Flow
Immersion Silver 6

An acid-based cleaner removes surface oils, oxides, and any organic residues left after the solder

mask application. The cleaner provides a clean, consistent copper surface to ensure uniform

etching. The microetch solution lightly etches the exposed copper surfaces of the panel,

including the vias and barrels, to remove any chemical contamination and metal oxides present. 

Etched panels are processed through a predip solution prior to silver deposition to remove any

surface oxidation that may have occurred in the previous rinse stage. The predip, which is

chemically similar to that of the silver deposition bath, also is used to protect the bath from dragin chemicals that may be detrimental to the deposition bath. The board is then processed through

the immersion silver bath. That bath is a pH-neutral solution that selectively deposits a 3 to 10

microinch (0.08 to 0.25 micron) layer of silver, depending on the chemistry, onto all of the

exposed copper surfaces of the PWB. Coating proceeds by a simple displacement reaction, with

silver ions displacing copper ions from the surface. The liberated copper ions are benign to the

bath chemistry and thus do not inhibit the bath effectiveness as copper concentrations increase. 

Because the bath is an immersion process, plating is self-limiting and will cease when the entire

copper surface has been coated. Finally, a drying stage removes any residual moisture from the

board to prevent staining and to ensure metal quality in the through-holes. After the finish is

applied, it is recommended that the boards be stored at 72EF with 50% relative humidity.

Supplier Interviewed

One supplier, Alpha Metals Inc., was interviewed for this guide. To date, Alpha has installed 33

immersion silver systems worldwide.

Implementation at Specific Facilities

Two PWB manufacturers were interviewed that successfully have implemented immersion silver

surface finish lines. Facility A uses immersion silver on most boards (80%), while Facility B uses

it for only a handful of customers (5% of production). Facility A switched to immersion silver

because it is a lead-free process and is cleaner and more economical than HASL. Another reason

is that the flatter surface provides assembly benefits to customers. Facility A states that they have

gained some business with their immersion silver capabilities among customers who want an

alternative finish but find that nickel/gold is too expensive. Some customers who specify HASL

do not recognize any benefits to switching. Facility A notes that these customers are ordering

simple double-sided, plated-through boards and have not been willing to undertake evaluation

exercises. 
Immersion Silver 7

Facility B also switched because of immersion silver’s superior coplanarity. In addition, they

viewed the installation as a strategic move in anticipation of increased demand for an alternative

finish in the future. Facility B has gained a small subcontract as a result of their immersion silver

capabilities and retained the half-dozen customers who requested that the line be installed, but so

far at Facility B, business has not increased significantly because of the new finish line.

At least some new equipment was installed for the new finish at each facility. Facility A added a

full new line, while Facility B installed an x-ray fluorescent instrument to measure the thickness of

the silver deposit and an auto unloader for the end of the line. Installation took one week at

Facility A, and two weeks at Facility B. At both facilities, an additional week was required for

debugging. At Facility A, two problems were encountered: poor quality of rinses, and excess

foam in the flood chamber. These problems were solved by using a distilled water feed to the

cleaner and microetch modules, and making modifications to the plumbing in the flood chamber,

respectively. Facility B faced two problems: dead pads were not plating sufficiently, and contacts

were drying before the pre-dip bath. These were solved by adjusting the pH of solutions in the

immersion silver bath and reconfiguring the rollers so that sufficient moisture was retained on the

board between steps.

When the process was put into production, Facility A encountered repeated problems with the

plating speed after a routine chemical replacement. The problem has since been resolved,

however. Facility B has not found any problems during production, but they noted that

immersion silver-finished boards are produced at a low production volume at their facility. 

Comparison to HASL

Cycle Time. Facility A stated that the cycle time with immersion silver is twice as fast as

HASL. Facility B said that the alternative process would be about 50% faster than HASL

if all products were switched over, but this speed increase cannot be realized because the

rest of the manufacturing process is held up by boards treated with a HASL finish. 

Scrap Rate and Operating Window. Both facilities have found that the scrap rate is the

same for immersion silver and HASL, but that more attention is required to attain the low

scrap rate for immersion silver because the process window is narrower. During the

process for HASL, residual flux and other contaminants are burned off. For immersion

silver, however, the residue cannot be removed as easily. Facility A was able to estimate

that the process window for immersion silver is roughly 10 times smaller than for HASL. 
Immersion Silver 8

Facility B noted that poor soldermask developing can cause problems with immersion

silver. 

Maintenance and Lab Analysis. The two facilities had similar experiences with time

requirements for system maintenance and lab analysis. Each stated that immersion silver

requires less maintenance time than their HASL lines. Facility A estimated the immersion

silver maintenance to be 50% of the HASL maintenance time. However, according to

these facilities, lab analysis for immersion silver is more time-consuming than for HASL. 

Facility A has found that roughly twice as much time is required for lab analysis with

immersion silver. 

Process Safety. At both facilities, immersion silver is preferrable from a safety standpoint. 

Facility A estimated that process safety “is 100% better;” Facility B qualitatively found

that the alternative process is less noisy and has a lower fluid temperature (115oF for

immersion silver compared to 500oF for HASL). 

Natural Resources. Both facilities estimated that energy use is reduced for immersion

silver compared to HASL. Facility A estimated that energy consumption was 80% less for

immersion silver as compared to that for HASL. Facility B did not quantify the difference,

but estimated that HASL energy use is higher because the solder has to be kept molten. 

Facility A estimated that water use is the same, and Facility B estimated that water use is

higher for immersion silver because a water rinse is required after each stage. Regarding

waste treatment, Facility B has found that there are more waste chemicals to dispose of

with the immersion silver process. 

Assemblers’ Perspectives

Two assemblers that are working with immersion silver-finished boards were interviewed for this

Guide. Assembly Facility C stated that they have specified immersion silver for three reasons: it is

a lead-free finish, it is compatible with wire bonding, and the process is simple and low-cost. 

They have found that, except for OSP, immersion silver is the least expensive of the alternative

finishes. 

Facility C has not had difficulty with any particular assembly processes with immersion silverfinished boards, and they have found that the finish works well with the solders that they use. 

Slight problems have emerged, however, under certain conditions with respect to silver migration
Immersion Silver 9

and tarnishing. This is not a problem when the pads are soldered; the silver blends with the solder

and does not tarnish. However, when the board is heated without solder, the silver tarnishes. 

The tarnishing results in blackened pads that have unreliable solderability properties. They noted

that this is primarily a concern with double-sided boards, on which the underside is heated as the

top is being assembled.

Rework of immersion silver-finished boards has not presented significant problems for Facility C. 

Again, they mention the potential for tarnishing if there is no solder on the pads. However,

rework is almost always performed with solder on the pads, so tarnishing during rework is rarely

a concern. 

Facility D has not experienced any difficulty with particular assembly processes on immersion

silver boards. The finish has performed well with the particular solders that they use. They have

found that the finish does tarnish as the board is processed through multiple reflow operations,

but this has not posed any problems to date. In their operation, the silver finish performs similarly

to a fresh OSP finish, but unlike OSP finishes, any skips in the silver finish are readily visible. 

Keys to Success

The two manufacturing facilities both stated that

planning and communication among all parties is an

important component in the successful implementation

of the immersion silver process. Facility B

recommended that manufacturers who are installing

immersion silver should develop a relationship with the end users to determine optimal

specifications for the boards. They stressed that the implementation process must be a

partnership. Facility A added that with respect to equipment installation, the manufacturer should

arrange and chair a meeting with the chemical supplier and equipment manufacturer to ensure that

all equipment specifications are clearly defined. On a related note, Facility A recommended that

manufacturers should choose a reliable and well-proven equipment manufacturer who has

experience with flood modules. 

“Arrange and chair a meeting with the

chemical supplier and equipment

manufacturer to ensure that all

specifications are defined clearly.”

- Facility A
Immersion Silver 10
Immersion Tin 11

Immersion Tin

The immersion tin process utilizes a displacement reaction between the board’s copper surface

and stannous ions in solution to reduce a layer of tin onto the copper surfaces of the PWB. The

process may be installed as a conveyorized system or in a vertical, non-conveyorized mode. 

Immersion tin surfaces are compatible with SMT, flip chip, BGA technologies, and typical

through-hole components, but it is not a wire-bondable finish. 

Figure 2 is a flow diagram of a typical immersion tin process. A brief description of each of the

process steps follows flow diagram shown below.

An acidic cleaner solution is used to remove surface oils and solder mask residues from the 

exposed copper surfaces. Cleaning prepares the surface to ensure controlled, uniform etching. 

Next, a microetch solution removes any remaining contaminants from the copper surface. 

Typically, the microetch is sodium persulfate or peroxide/sulfuric solution. Etching also

chemically roughens the copper surface to promote good tin-to-copper adhesion. Etched panels

Cleaner

Microetch

Predip

Immersion Tin

Dry

Figure 2: Immersion Tin Process Flow
Immersion Tin 12

are then processed through a predip solution that is chemically similar to the tin bath, thus

protecting the plating bath from drag-in chemicals. The pre-dip is designed to evenly activate the

copper surface for uniform plating. The heated immersion tin bath deposits a thin layer of tin

onto the exposed copper circuitry through a chemical displacement reaction that deposits

stannous ions while displacing copper ions into the plating solution. The bath is considered selflimiting because plating continues only until all the copper surfaces have been coated with a tin

deposit. The presence of a complexing agent, thiourea, prevents the copper from inhibiting the

plating process. Organic by-products from the plating process are removed by decantation. The

complexed copper is removed as a precipitate from solution by decantation. Water rinses follow

each of the steps described above, with the exception of the predip. Following the tin bath, a

drying stage removes any residual moisture from the board to prevent staining and ensure high

metal quality in the through-holes.

There are a number of different immersion tin systems available, including those based on methane

sulfonic acid, sulfate, chloride, and fluoborate chemistries. In addition, various organic additives

can be used to enhance performance, eliminate porosity, or increase polygonization to prevent

whiskering. The characteristics of the plated deposit will also vary with changes in the plating

bath chemistry. The tin concentration, thiourea concentration, copper level, organic level, and

total acidity are all likely to impact the thickness, constitution and solderability of the finish.

Suppliers Interviewed

For this Implementation Guide, two suppliers of immersion tin systems were interviewed. To

date, Dexter has completed approximately 16 installations of their FST (Flat Solderable Tin)

Immersion Tin line. Florida CirTech has approximately 80 installations of their Omikron

Immersion Tin line. 

Implementation at Specific Facilities

Three PWB manufacturers were interviewed about their experiences with immersion tin. All

three facilities run the majority of their product through their HASL line. Facility E, Facility F,

and Facility G apply an immersion tin finish to 24%, 15%, and 5% of their product, respectively. 

Facility E installed their immersion tin line as part of a long-term goal to eliminate HASL, as they

find HASL to be an equipment-, energy-, and maintenance-intensive process. Facility E

recognizes that customers are reluctant to change; therefore, they expect to increase their use of

alternative finishes slowly. Facility F provides out-source services to other manufacturers. To

meet the planarity requirements that HASL cannot achieve, they run many different alternative
Immersion Tin 13

finishes. They have found immersion tin to be the only alternative technology that comes close to

HASL in terms of costs. Due to soldermask problems (described in more detail below), Facility G

plans to discontinue their use of the immersion tin finish and instead convert the tin line to an

oxidation process to promote adhesion.

Two of the facilities interviewed run a vertical, dip-tank system, and the third facility runs a

horizontal, conveyorized system. While two facilities purchased new equipment, Facility E

converted existing tanks and purchased only the peripheral equipment, such as heaters. They plan

to install a horizontal, conveyorized line when their immersion tin production reaches 50% of their

throughput. When specifying immersion tin systems, according to the suppliers, emphasis needs

to be placed on the equipment design, particularly the tin tank where quality materials and proper

filtration are critical. The rinsing stages, water flow rates, water quality, temperature, and

complete drying of the holes are also key parameters. Dry holes are best achieved by a horizontal

dryer. 

All three facilities have found that customers are open to trying out new surface finishes, but

extensive testing is required to demonstrate that the alternative finish is as reliable and low-cost as

HASL. The facilities reported that even after running qualification panels, there are a fair number

of customers who still prefer the proven, long-term reliability of HASL. 

All facilities interviewed installed the immersion tin line in less than a week. After getting the

system running, the facilities focused on different aspects of final system debug, as described

below.

Shelf life. To simulate long-term storage and multiple heat cycle capability, solderability

testing is often conducted after artificial aging. Because steam aging testing for

solderability is not appropriate for non-fused finishes such as immersion tin, dry heat aging

(4 to 8 hours at 155EC) or damp heat aging (85% RH at 85EC) are preferred methods. 

The supplier should be consulted in the design of the coupon and of the minimum hole fill

requirements. 

Facility F worked closely with their supplier to develop tests for shelf life. Every shift,

they run a 100-hole coupon and subject it to a simulated shelf life of either a 4-hour bake

(to simulate one year shelf life) or a 6-hour bake (to simulate 1.5 year shelf life). If they
Immersion Tin 14

find adjustments to the tin bath are needed, they switch to a reserve bath, while adjusting

the chemistry of the main bath.

Soldermask. Facility F initially was concerned with soldermask breakdown where the tin

leaches underneath the soldermask. Because they are an out-source facility, they work

with many different soldermasks. Most incompatibilities can be avoided by changes in

preclean procedures. There are a few soldermasks for which they do not use the

immersion tin coating. Facility G had more significant problems related to soldermask. 

For a specific type of solder mask they were required to use, the residues were absorbed

into the tin and the volatiles were released during the assembly process when the boards

were pre-baked. The volatiles contaminated the surface, reducing solderability. They did

not find a solution to the problems with this particular soldermask and are therefore

discontinuing the use of the immersion tin line.

When installing a tin process, both suppliers emphasize that soldermask pre-testing is

critical. Parameters such as cure time may need to be adjusted, and precleaning may need

to be improved. Some masks, especially the newer generation of acrylic-epoxy

technologies are hydrophilic and can quickly pick up moisture and other liquid-borne

material, resulting in increased ionics. This necessitates thorough rinsing, and in some

cases, additional curing or post-cleaning. The supplier should be consulted for

recommendations.

Process control. Facility E found they had to learn to control the layers of tin. As the

copper is replaced with tin, the intermetallic becomes pure tin. When they first started

running the line, they did not conduct testing to monitor this reaction, and they

experienced consistency problems. Now they pull samples from every job and send them

out for Sequential Electrochemical Reduction Analysis (SERA) testing. With the SERA

results, they now have excellent control of the process. One of the suppliers noted that

tracking copper levels and defining and carefully controlling regeneration frequency is very

important to running the system well. Tin processes are limited by copper build up,

therefore the baths have to be disposed of and regenerated. A typical bath will be able to

process 80 to 120 sq. ft. per gallon of bath between renewal procedures. Two tin baths

are required for continuous operation, and should be factored into the installation.
Immersion Tin 15

Keeping tin in solution. At start-up, Facility G found that the tin would precipitate out

of the bath. With further investigation, they found this was caused by bath agitation from

two sources: the return flow of the tin solution back into the tank, and the use of a fine

filter (less than 5 microns) they were using to clean the bath. By lowering the return

piping to the tin bath, and replacing the 5 micron filter with a 10 - 20 micron filter,

agitation was reduced and the precipitation problem was solved.

Comparison to HASL

Cycle Time and Scrap Rate. The facilities interviewed saw little difference between

immersion tin and HASL regarding cycle time and scrap rate, although two facilities

mentioned that HASL boards can be reworked more easily.

Maintenance. Facility G finds the HASL line to be a bit more difficult to maintain,

primarily because of the time-consuming drossing process. Facility E and Facility F see a

more dramatic reduction in maintenance time. They estimate that the maintenance

required for the tin line is about 20% of that required for HASL. According to Facility E,

“with a 500EF solder pot with oil and flux, plus air blowing, the HASL line creates a

mess.”

Lab Analysis. Facility G said the time spent on lab analysis is about the same for

immersion tin and HASL, with daily samples sent out for each line. Facility E and Facility

F both run lab analyses more frequently for the immersion tin line than for the HASL line. 

They find the additional analyses allow them to run within the tighter specifications

required for the immersion tin system.

Operating Window. The PWB manufacturers feel that the immersion tin line must be

run within the specified operating parameters. These parameters are tighter than those

required for HASL, but that there is less fluctuation in the immersion tin process if it is

operated within the specified window.

Process Safety and Natural Resources. The three facilities agreed that HASL has

greater potential process safety concerns. This is largely because of health concerns with

the lead in HASL and the potential for burns with a molten solder bath running at up to

550EF. All facilities pointed out that HASL uses significantly more energy than immersion

tin. HASL maintains the solder in a molten state at up to 550EF, but the tin bath is run at
Immersion Tin 16

about 140 - 160EF. None of the facilities see a difference in water use between HASL and

immersion tin. 

Assemblers’ Perspectives

For Assembly Facility H, the driving force for

specifying immersion tin is its ability to

produce a flat finish for fine-pitch SMT and

the associated reduction in variability. Other

benefits include improvements in hole size

tolerance and a desire to work with a leadfree finish. Assembly Facility I was motivated

to specify an immersion tin finish for: a uniform layer thickness for improved interconnection

properties to high I/O components; an environmentally preferable finish; good

wettability/repeatability; reduced costs; and good precondition for implementing advanced

packages (area array).

The other assembler interviewed, Facility J, does not work with fine-pitch products. Their

motivation for specifying immersion tin was the cost savings. Initially, the immersion tin boards

worked very well and they started specifying that more and more boards be immersion tin

finished. After several months without a problem, however, they started experiencing serious

inconsistencies in the finish. The manufacturer they were working with was not providing boards

with consistent total coverage. Facility J could not be sure whether or not the boards were good,

and in some cases, the solderability problems were not detected until the boards were fully

populated. After working with the manufacturer to try to resolve these problems, the assembler

tried boards from a second manufacturer, but experienced the exact same problems. Facility J

could not work with the inconsistency in the finish they were seeing. The facility has since

switched back to specifying only HASL finished boards. 

In comparison to other alternative surface finishes, the assemblers interviewed found immersion

tin to be the alternative surface finish that is closest to a drop-in replacement for HASL. The

immersion tin final solder joint is indistinguishable from a standard HASL (tin-lead) finish solder

joint, making the rework process with an immersion tin finish identical to rework of HASL

finished boards. 

“For immersion tin, make sure you have good

quality control and testing procedures in place

and that you understand the thickness and

coverage of the tin.”

- Facility H
Immersion Tin 17

Both assemblers found that good handling practices are needed to minimize corrosion and ionic

contamination. Excess finger prints in sensitive areas can cause a decline in solderability. Clean,

lint-free gloves should be worn by anyone handling the boards. Additionally, assemblers working

with lead-free reflow soldering processes should thoroughly test compatibility with the tin finish. 

Because lead-free reflow temperatures are likely to be substantially higher, the growth of

tin/copper intermetallics (which are not solderable) may be increased significantly with the higher

temperatures. Facility H also emphasized that boards with an immersion finish should not be

baked prior to assembly. Based on his experience, baking substantially degrades the solderability.

Keys to Success

All those interviewed, including

manufacturers, suppliers, and assemblers,

emphasized the importance of following the

suppliers' recommendations and taking the

time to fully understand the process and its

controls. This and other keys to success are summarized below:

Maintain process control. Those interviewed were all in agreement that accurate

process control is necessary to run the immersion tin line well. This includes good general

process control (e.g., establishing and maintaining control of the time, temperature, and

bath concentrations), and good calibration of test equipment. Both suppliers interviewed

noted that the customers who run the system most successfully are those that follow the

supplier’s control specifications closely. 

Start with quality equipment. One of the manufacturers advocated that facilities

considering an installation should “go with an equipment vendor who has knowledge of

the immersion tin process.” The suppliers also recommended that facilities consult with

their immersion tin supplier to verify that the equipment design is compatible with the

system operation.

Verify shelf life. One of the manufacturers and all of the assemblers recommended that

facilities develop a testing protocol to verify shelf life. The manufacturer who

recommended this verification runs a test coupon every shift.

“By monitoring and controlling time, temperature

and concentrations, anyone can produce a

reliably solderable immersion tin surface finish.”

-Facility E
Immersion Tin 18

Limit baking. One of the suppliers recommended that any extensive baking be carried

out before plating. An assembler emphasized this further saying that boards with this

finish should not be baked prior to assembly. From this assembler’s experience, baking

substantially degrades the solderability. In particular, he recommended that immersion tin

should not be used with boards made from any material substantially more prone to

moisture absorption than typical FR4/5 materials (e.g., Epoxy Thermount) because these

materials generally need to be baked prior to assembly.

Remove moisture. A supplier stressed that proper board drying, particularly the holes, is

critical and should be done horizontally. Boards left with residual traces of moisture may

have poor solderability and/or may have corrosion problems during storage and transit. 

One of the assemblers cautioned, “If you have to get the product wet for any reason prior

to completion of any first time soldering operations, be sure not to leave it wet. Blow it

off with compressed air to clear the water.” 
Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP) 19

Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP)

The OSP finish is an anti-oxidant film applied to exposed copper surfaces that reacts with copper

to form an organometallic layer. This coating is nearly invisible, and may be applied either as a

thick (4 to 20 microinches / 0.1 to 0.5 microns) or thin (mono-molecular) layer. The thicker OSP

coatings are considered in this Guide. The OSP process typically is operated in a horizontal,

conveyorized mode but can be modified to run in a vertical, non-conveyorized mode. OSP

processes are compatible with SMT, flip chip, and BGA technologies, as well as with typical

through-hole components. OSP surfaces are compatible with all soldermasks and have a shelf life

of six months. 

The flow diagram below presents the sequence of steps of the typical OSP process. A brief

description of each process step follows the diagram. 

Cleaner

Microetch

Air Knife

OSP

Dry

Air Knife

Figure 3: OSP Process Flow
Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP) 20

The acidic cleaner solution removes surface oils and soldermask residues from the exposed

copper surfaces. The cleaner prepares the surface to ensure the controlled, uniform etching in

subsequent steps. Next, the board is processed through the microetch solution, which typically

consists of dilute hydrochloric, sulfuric, or acetic acid. The etching of the existing copper

surfaces removes any remaining contaminants and chemically roughens the surface of the copper

to promote coating adhesion. In some processes, an air knife then removes excess solution from

the panel to limit oxidation formation on the copper surfaces prior to the OSP coating application. 

This step also minimizes drag-in of sulfates, which are harmful to the OSP bath. Next, a

protective OSP layer is selectively deposited on the exposed copper surfaces by the OSP

formulation in a water and acid bath. The protective layer chemically bonds to the copper,

forming an organometallic layer that preserves the solderability of the copper surface for future

assembly. An air knife is then used again to remove excess OSP from the panel and to promote

even coating across the entire PWB surface. The air knife also minimizes the chemical losses

through drag-out from the OSP bath. Finally, warm-air drying cures the OSP coating and helps

to remove any residual moisture from the board.

Suppliers Interviewed

Two suppliers, MacDermid, Inc., and Electrochemicals, Inc., were interviewed. Among all

suppliers, approximately 450 manufacturing facilities in the United States are finishing boards with

OSP. Worldwide, approximately 1,500 facilities use OSP.

Implementation at Specific Facilities

Three PWB manufacturing facilities were interviewed that have successfully implemented an OSP

finish line. They found that the OSP finish has performed well. At Facility K and Facility L, the

OSP finish was installed at the request of large customers that specified the finish. Facility M

installed their OSP line to reduce the use of lead. All three facilities installed the finishes five to

six years ago. Facility K and Facility M purchased entirely new equipment for the OSP line. At

Facility L, the contact did not know whether equipment was purchased or not, but knew that the

facility had at least installed new racks.

Installation of the equipment each facility was relatively straightforward. At Facility K, the

installation was completed in about a week. At Facility M, it took three or four weeks to install

the new equipment. At Facility L, the installation went smoothly, but the length of time required

for it was not known by the contact. All three facilities required some debugging/training time to

adjust to the new process. 
Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP) 21

Facility K encountered two problems: the coating thickness initially was too thin, and some

staining and spotting appeared on the finish. The coating thickness problem was traced to the

microetch solution (mild sulfuric acid), two steps prior to the OSP application. The water rinse

after the microetch was not removing all of the acid, which resulted in a lower pH in the OSP bath

and ultimately a thinner finish. The problem was solved by removing the microetch from the

process. It proved to be unnecessary, and its removal allowed the OSP thickness to be controlled

precisely. The staining and spotting was traced to the OSP fluid flow rate. The flow rate was too

high, which aerated the fluid, producing bubbles. The problem was solved by adjusting the rollers

and reducing fluid flow. 

Facility L did not specify any particular problems, but they did indicate that it took some time for

facility workers to learn how to operate the equipment and analyze the results. However, the

supplier and the equipment manufacturer helped the facility through the learning process. 

Facility M required three months to debug their process. They encountered three problems: poor

solderability; uneven coating; and copper oxidation, which they noted was primarily a cosmetic

issue. The solderability problem was traced to the microetch bath. Unlike Facility K, Facility M

maintained the microetch step, but instead changed the bath formulation. The uneven coating was

fixed by improving the quality of the rinse water. The appearance of copper oxidation was

eliminated by switching from the formulation of their previous OSP supplier to that of their

current supplier.

In production, the OSP line has worked well for Facility L. “As long as the temperature and

exposure time are maintained properly, the same coating is obtained every time.” Facility M did

not report any recurring problems. Facility K, however, consistently has difficulties when the

production line is down for a week (i.e., Christmas or a summer shutdown). During these

shutdowns, the OSP chemicals are taken out of the system and stored in drums. When the line is

started back up, the chemicals are pumped back in. During storage, the fluid is stagnant and cool,

causing the active ingredients to crystallize against the sides of the drums. As a result, when the

fluid is pumped back into the system, it has a low OSP concentration and the coatings can be too

thin. It takes about a day to readjust the mixture. The problem though, according to Facility K, is

predictable. For the next shutdown they will experiment using stirrers to keep the stored solution

in suspension.
Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP) 22

Comparison to HASL

Cycle Time. The facilities found that the cycle time is comparable if not slightly faster

than for HASL. Facility K stated that OSP is “more productive,” in that with a batch

process, 20 to 24 boards can be treated in the time that 18 boards are finished with HASL. 

Facility L reported that the cycle time for OSP is approximately 15 minutes; cycle time for

HASL alone is faster, but when the pre-treat, flux, and post-clean steps for HASL also are

considered, the processes take about the same amount of time.

Scrap Rate. The scrap rates at Facility K and Facility L for OSP-coated boards are much

lower. Facility K estimated that this is because OSP does not require the harsh conditions

of HASL (high temperature and exposure to flux). Facility L added that the scrap rate

also may be lower at their facility because OSP is applied after the boards are routed and

inspected. Facility M stated that the scrap rate is slightly higher for OSP, but that is

because the boards that they finish with OSP are more complex.

Maintenance and Lab Analysis. All three facilities stated that OSP has fewer system

maintenance requirements. At Facility K, the HASL equipment requires an entire shift of

down-time every two weeks for maintenance. While daily maintenance is conducted on

the OSP equipment at each facility, no long-term maintenance shutdowns are needed. 

Facility L said that the maintenance of pre-treat and post-clean equipment for HASL are

the most time-consuming. Facility L noted that neither process demands much lab

analysis; their OSP chemicals are tested regularly with a UV spectrometer, and likewise

their pre-treat and post-clean rinse tanks for the HASL line are checked and replaced

frequently. Facility M said that OSP is slightly more lab intensive. 

Operating Window. The three facilities have found that OSP requires relatively tight

controls. However, Facility K noted that while HASL has a more forgiving operating

window, it is also more difficult to control layer thickness and other key parameters. 

Facility L said that the operating window for HASL is about the same as that for OSP,

because HASL can cause potential defects resulting from high solder temperatures, the

high-pressure air knife, and rapid thermal quenching.

Process Safety. All three facilities found that process safety is improved with OSP. 

Facility K noted that the HASL line can create potentially hazardous conditions such as tin

and lead fumes, fluxes, and splattering solder. Facility L added that there are potential
Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP) 23

dangers for HASL associated with the air knife, and that an operator must stand in front

of the machine longer than is necessary for OSP, thereby increasing the potential for

exposure. Facility K added that they did not have much information about the potential

risks of OSP chemicals.

Natural Resources. Facility L has found that energy use is lower for OSP because HASL

requires higher temperatures to maintain the solder in a molten state. In comparison, OSP

only requires moderate heating of solution baths. Facility L stated that OSP water

consumption is about one-half that of HASL when considering the pre-treat and postclean steps, because these HASL steps involve triple rinsing. With regard to recycling,

they are able to recycle both HASL and OSP scrap boards for copper recovery. Facility L

has found that neither OSP nor HASL affects regulatory obligations, because neither

process involves the discharge of copper or lead in wastewater.

Assemblers’ Perspectives

Three assemblers who work with OSPcoated boards were interviewed. All three

expressed that OSP requires diligence, but

provides predictable results. The three

facilities have encountered no compatibility

problems with components. Facility L (a

PWB manufacturing facility that also has

assembly operations on-site) has not had any problems with assembly processes. However,

Assembly Facility N has found that OSP can break down on multi-pass processes. All three

assemblers indicated that OSP finishes are susceptible to damage or removal when handled

poorly. Facility L warns that OSP is susceptible to water – i.e., deionized water is capable of

taking off the finish. Facility N has found that flux contamination can be a problem, and that it is

not possible to clean between soldering and reflow. 

Facility D and Facility N noted that OSP and HASL boards will not exhibit the same behavior

during assembly processes. OSP boards require more heat and a more active flux to obtain the

same result obtained with HASL. 

Facility D noted that the characteristics of the OSP change during multiple reflow processes. The

finish appears to become thinner, denser, and harder, like a shellac. Thay have found that this

“Don’t skimp on equipment. Some try to use old

film developers, then have trouble with

contamination. Most costs during operation are

associated with drag-out, which is also equipmentdependent.”

- Electrochemicals
Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP) 24

hardened finish becomes very difficult to probe through at the electrical test, and that an adequate

hole fill at wave solder is very difficult on thick boards after double-sided SMT. Also, a thin film

of soldermask contamination left on pads may not be removed during the OSP process; it cannot

be readily seen and it can seriously impact solderability of affected surfaces. Additionally, Facility

D and Facility N have found that bare copper inevitably is left on corners and edges of terminal

pads upon reflow with OSP.

Facility L and Facility N noted that reworking and repairing OSP-finished boards may require the

reapplication of OSP. If the finish is unsolderable, it has to be stripped and reapplied. Facility N

noted that this is inconvenient, but is possible. If the board has been stored beyond its shelf life

(six months to one year), it has to be recoated as well. 

Switching from HASL to OSP with the same equipment can cause difficulties. Facility N

recommended that if possible, it is better to have separate equipment for the two different

processes. 

Keys to Success

Manufacturers and suppliers alike stressed the importance of using good equipment for the

process. Electrochemicals stated, “Don’t skimp on equipment. Some try to use old film

developers, then have trouble with contamination. Most costs during operation are associated

with drag-out, which is also equipment-dependent.” Suppliers added that planning during the

installation process is important. Delays can be caused by having the incorrect heaters and pumps

on hand, or by indecision on whether the facility will route the boards before or after applying the

OSP. 

During production, manufacturers recommended monitoring the temperature of the OSP baths. 

Facility L stated, “As long as the temperature and exposure time are maintained properly, the

same coating is obtained every time.” Additionally, Facility L recommended cleaning the copper

well before applying the OSP because, as Facility D also noted, residual soldermask results in a

poor finish. Fingerprints should be avoided after the application of OSP. Finally, suppliers

recommend that after production, the boards should be packaged and stored under dry conditions. 
Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold 25

Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold

The electroless nickel/immersion gold surface finish is applied through the deposition of an initial

layer of nickel followed by a thin, protective layer of gold onto the exposed copper surfaces of the

PWB. Nickel characteristics such as hardness, wear resistance, solderability, and uniformity of

the deposit make this a desirable alternative surface finish. The thin layer of immersion gold

preserves the solderability of the finish by preventing oxidation of the highly active nickel surface. 

Nickel/gold finishes typically can withstand as many as six or more thermal excursions (heating

cycles) during assembly without losing solderability.

The process is operated in a vertical, non-conveyorized mode. An electroless nickel/immersion

gold finish is compatible with SMT, flip chip, and BGA technologies, as well as with typical

through-hole components. The finish is also aluminum wire-bondable. The high plating

temperatures and low pH of the nickel/gold plating process can be incompatible with soldermasks

with high acrylic content; however, soldermasks high in epoxy content were unaffected by the

plating solution. Nickel/gold plated boards have a shelf life of up to two years or more. Figure 4

illustrates the basic steps of the electroless nickel/immersion gold process; a brief description of

each step follows the diagram.
Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold 26

Cleaner

Microetch

Catalyst

Acid Dip

Immersion Gold

Electroless Nickel

Figure 4: Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold

Process Flow

The acid-based cleaner solution removes grease, contaminants, and any organic soldermask

residues from the PWB surface. The cleaner solution provides a clean, consistent copper surface

to ensure uniform etching. The microetch solution lightly etches the exposed copper surfaces of

the panel, including the vias and barrels, to remove any remaining chemical contamination and

metal oxides present and to prepare the copper surfaces for application of the catalyst. The board

is then exposed to the catalyst, which often consists of a palladium salt in an acidic solution. 

Palladium ions are deposited onto the surface of a PWB in a displacement reaction, effectively

exchanging the surface copper atoms for palladium atoms, forming a catalytic layer for

subsequent nickel plating. The acid dip, usually a weak sulfuric or hydrochloric acid, removes

any residual catalyst from the non-copper surfaces of the PWB, to prohibit plating on the

soldermask or other areas of the board. Once the catalysts are in place, an electroless nickel

solution is used to plate a layer of nickel onto the surface of the catalyst-covered areas in a hightemperature, acidic bath. The electroless nickel solution contains a source of nickel ions,

phosphorous, and a reducing agent, which is typically either sodium hypophosphite or
Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold 27

dimethylamine borane. In the presence of the catalyst, the reducing agent provides electrons to

the positively charged nickel ions, causing the reduction of the nickel and the depositing of

elemental nickel onto the exposed catalyst. Phosphorous is co-deposited with the nickel and the

resulting nickel-phosphorous alloy forms a corrosion-resistant layer that protects the underlying

copper. Because the bath is autocatalytic, it will continue plating until the panel is removed from

the nickel bath. Nickel layer thickness for PWBs are typically 120 to 200 microinches (3 to 5

microns). The immersion gold plating bath then applies a very thin, protective layer of pure gold

onto the surface of the nickel. A chemical displacement reaction occurs, depositing the thin layer

of gold onto the metal surface while displacing nickel ions into the solution. Because the reaction

is driven by the electrochemical potential difference between the two metals, the reaction ceases

when all of the surface nickel has been replaced with gold. Gold layer thicknesses are typically 3

to 7 microinches (0.05 to 0.2 microns). 

Suppliers Interviewed

Two suppliers, Technic, Inc., and MacDermid, Inc., were interviewed for this Guide. Among all

suppliers, there are approximately 100 installations of electroless nickel/immersion gold in the

United States, and 200 installations worldwide.

Implementation at Specific Facilities

Two facilities were interviewed that have successfully implemented an electroless

nickel/immersion gold finish line. Facility M finishes less than 5% of its boards with nickel/gold;

95% of their boards are finished with HASL, and a small fraction are finished with OSP or

Electrolytic Nickel/Electrolytic Gold. They installed the finish in order to reduce the use of lead. 

The new finish has allowed them to both increase business because of their nickel/gold capabilities

and to retain business they would have lost had they not installed the finish. 

Facility M installed its nickel/gold finish four years ago, and purchased all new equipment. It took

3 to 4 weeks to install the process, and debugging took six months. Initially, Facility M

encountered several problems with the finish: background plating and skip plating, finish peeling,

embrittled joints (called “black pad syndrome”), exposed copper at the soldermask interface, and

soldermask attack which caused soldermask peeling. They ultimately resolved these problems

through a combination of changes. They changed soldermasks and inserted an oven baking step

prior to coating. They reduced the thickness of the gold layer. They also made several
Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold 28

modifications to the chemistries, including controlling the quality of the predip bath, changing the

microetch solution, maintaining tight control of operating parameters, removing the nickel

activator bath that had been installed prior to the electroless nickel bath, and improving the rinse

water quality. 

Facility O runs between 15 to 20% of its boards through the nickel/gold line; the rest are finished

with HASL. Facility O states that though they would like to switch all production to nickel/gold,

many customers are resistant because of the higher cost of the finish. They installed the finish two

years ago at the request of 3 to 4 customers, who specified the finish because of its flatness and

stability. At that time, Facility O was subcontracting out the nickel/gold finish at a cost of $10 to

$25 per board. They determined that it would be cost-effective to install the line at their own

facility. Since they installed the finish, their shorter turnaround time and ability to accept overflow

nickel/gold work from other facilities have led to a substantial increase in business. 

For its nickel/gold line, Facility O primarily used existing equipment from an unused electroless

copper line. To accommodate the nickel/gold process, they purchased larger stainless steel tanks

and heaters. Because only a few new pieces of equipment were needed, the installation process

was brief. However, the debugging period was lengthy. They had considerable difficulty

obtaining the correct nickel concentration and pH, and encountered problems with incompatible

additives, which have been solved. One other change that Facility O made was to increase the

strength of the initial cleaner. This stronger cleaner removes contaminants more thoroughly,

reducing the occurrence of unplated pads during the nickel application process. 

While in production, one problem has emerged occasionally at Facility O. The nickel tends to

plate to the sides of the electroless bath once every few months. The problem is fixed by cleaning

out the tank and replacing the solution. They have been able to minimize this occurrence,

however, by diligently monitoring the nickel and copper levels, and replacing the solution before

conditions develop such that this plating occurs. Facility M is encountering two recurring

problems: the boards are susceptible to defects resulting from scratches that occur with handling,

and exposed copper is found at the soldermask interface. 

Comparison to HASL

Cycle Time. Facility M stated that because cycle time is a function of the panels per rack,

the relative cycle time is variable. In general, it has found that cycle time with nickel/gold
Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold 29

is improved. Facility O has found that electroless nickel/immersion gold is much slower

than HASL, with each load requiring 30 minutes. 

Scrap Rate. Facility M has a slightly higher scrap rate for nickel/gold, though it notes

that this is due to increased final inspection requirements because the board technology is

leading edge. The scrap rate for nickel/gold also is higher at Facility O, because it is not

possible to rework the nickel.

Maintenance. HASL requires more system

maintenance time at both Facility M and

Facility O. Facility M stated that there is “no

comparison” between the two finishes in this

category because HASL is extremely

maintenance intensive. At Facility O, workers

usually spend between 20 and 30 minutes per day skimming off contaminants from the

HASL line. 

Lab Analysis. At both facilities, nickel/gold requires more lab analysis. Facility M said

that the added lab analysis for nickel/gold is due mainly to start-up requirements. Facility

O stated that the nickel/gold chemicals are tested daily, while for HASL, samples are

analyzed once every four or five weeks. 

Operating Window. Facility O feels that the operating window is tighter for nickel/gold,

because the process is more “high-tech.” They have found that minimizing drag out and

maintaining solution levels is much more important for nickel/gold than for HASL. 

Facility M also noted that the operating window is tighter for nickel/gold, but that the

process is easily controllable.

Process Safety. Facility M has found that nickel/gold process is “definitely safer” than

HASL. Facility O believes that as long as proper protection and ventilation are practiced

with HASL, there should be no difference between the two processes. 

Natural Resources. Facility M has found that energy use for the nickel/gold process is

less than that for HASL because compressed air is not used and because heating

“Train someone who can troubleshoot

the equipment and chemistry.... With

proper maintenance, the line runs very

well.”

- Facility O
Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold 30

requirements are less. In contrast, water use is slightly higher. Facility M stated that the

nickel/gold process is much less demanding with respect to regulatory obligations. 

Facility O estimates that energy consumption for nickel/gold is lower because operating

temperatures are lower, and that water use is higher because nickel/gold is a wet process,

but in each case that “the difference is pennies.” Facility O concluded that from the

perspective of the entire PWB manufacturing process, there is not much of a difference in

natural resource consumption between the two processes.

Assemblers’ Perspectives

Two assemblers using a nickel/gold finish were interviewed. Assembly Facility P has assembled

boards with a nickel/gold finish for six years, and Assembly Facility D has worked with the finish

for four years. Facility P’s customers are using the finish because it produces a flat finish and

provides for good press-fit connections. Currently, 40% of the boards it works with have a

nickel/gold finish, though this percentage is decreasing as a result of customers either changing to

OSP or reverting to HASL. 

The facilities identified two problems that assemblers encounter with respect to nickel/gold

finishes. Facility P discussed a problem with wettability of the finish. When the protective gold

layer is applied too thinly, the nickel can oxidize, leading to a finish that does not bond to solder –

a problem not detected until assembly. Facility D spoke of the “black pad syndrome,” which

occurs when the immersion gold bath chemistry is not balanced properly, causing hyperactive

erosion of the nickel. The eroded nickel surface prevents the formation of a continuous tin-nickel

intermetallic layer across the whole pad, causing a weak joint. To prevent these problems, the

assemblers recommend that manufacturers closely follow the operating parameters given by

chemical suppliers.

Both assemblers have found that nickel/gold boards are difficult to rework. Facility P stated that

it is almost impossible to remove the nickel layer without damaging the board. Also, they stated

that after rework, it can be difficult to detect problems. 
Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold 31

Keys to Success

A common theme in the advice given by those interviewed is that it is important to get proper

information and training about the technology. One supplier offers the following advice to

manufacturers considering nickel/gold:

Understand that no technology will be “plug and play.” There must be a commitment from all involved,

from manager to equipment operator, to tackle the learning curve and work cooperatively with the

supplier. If the new finish is being forced, the resulting resentment will cause the process to turn out

poorly. If it is accepted with an open mind by all, then the facility will achieve the cost savings, better

planarity, and other benefits that come with the technology.

Facility O added that during installation, training someone who can troubleshoot the equipment

and chemistry is a valuable investment. With proper maintenance, they found that the line runs

very well, but noted that the chemistry of the baths is the most challenging part of the technology. 

They recommended monitoring the process closely so that the copper levels are kept low in the

catalyst bath, the nickel concentration is within the tolerated range in the nickel bath, and the

proper pH is maintained in the gold bath. Facility M added that it is important to check with IPC

and ITRI for guidance with the technology. 

Regarding equipment, Facility P recommends

that manufacturers make sure that the

equipment starts up easily if it is not going to be

in constant use. Significant time can be wasted

warming up the chemistries, testing the

solutions, and running test boards. In addition,

inconsistent quality may result from intermittent

production.

Facility O commented that although automatic nickel-adding machines are available to maintain

the electroless bath, it is better to use a knowledgeable operator. With automatic devices, there is

the risk that the sides of the nickel bath can be plated very quickly, and the automatically added

nickel simply would continue to plate the bath. 

“The chemistry of the baths is the most

challenging part of the technology. Be sure

that the copper levels remain low in the

catalyst bath, that the nickel concentration

stays within the tolerated range in the nickel

bath, and that the proper pH is maintained in

the gold bath.”

- Facility O 
Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold 32
Electroless Nickel/Electroless Palladium/

Immersion Gold 33

Electroless Nickel/Electroless Palladium/

Immersion Gold

The electroless nickel/electroless palladium/ immersion gold process is similar to the nickel/gold

process, except that it uses a palladium metal layer that is deposited after the nickel layer, but

prior to the final gold layer. The palladium layer is much harder than gold, providing added

strength to the surface finish for wirebonding and connector attachment, while protecting the

underlying nickel from oxidation.

The process can be operated in either a horizontal, conveyorized or a vertical, non-conveyorized

mode. An electroless nickel/electroless palladium/immersion gold finish is compatible with SMT,

flip chip, and BGA technologies, as well as with typical through-hole components. The finish is

also both gold and aluminum wire-bondable. The high plating temperatures and low pH of the

nickel/palladium/gold plating process can be incompatible with solder masks with high acrylic

content; however, solder masks high in epoxy content are unaffected by the plating solution. 

Nickel/palladium/gold plated boards have a shelf life of up to two years or more. Figure 5 is a

flow diagram of a typical nickel/palladium/gold process; a brief description of each step follows.
Electroless Nickel/Electroless Palladium/

Immersion Gold 34

Cleaner

Microetch

Catalyst

Acid Dip

Activator

Electroless Nickel

Electroless Palladium

Immersion Gold

Figure 5: Electroless Nickel/Electroless

Palladium/Immersion Gold Process Flow

The cleaner removes grease, contaminants, and any organic solder mask residues from the PWB

surface in an acid-based cleaner solution. The cleaner solution provides a clean, consistent copper

surface to ensure uniform etching. The microetch solution lightly etches the exposed copper

surfaces of the panel, including all plated through holes, to remove any remaining chemical

contamination and metal oxides that are present and to prepare the copper surfaces for the

application of the catalyst. The catalyst, which often consists of a palladium salt in an acidic

solution, is then applied. The catalyst ions are deposited onto the surface of a PWB in a

displacement reaction, effectively exchanging the surface copper atoms for palladium atoms,

forming a catalytic layer for subsequent nickel plating. The acid dip, usually a weak sulfuric or

hydrochloric acid, removes any residual catalyst from the non-copper surfaces of the PWB to

prohibit plating on the solder mask or other unwanted areas of the board. With some processes,

the board then is passed through an activator, which is a mildly aggressive nickel solution

combined with a reducing agent such as an amine borane that plates a thin, dense layer of nickel

onto the palladium catalyst. An electroless nickel solution plates a layer of nickel onto the
Electroless Nickel/Electroless Palladium/

Immersion Gold 35

surface of the thin, initial nickel deposit. The electroless nickel bath is a slightly alkaline solution

containing a source of nickel ions and a reducing agent such as sodium hypophosphite. The

reducing agent provides electrons to the positively charged nickel ions, causing the reduction of

the nickel and the plating of elemental nickel onto the exposed layer. Phosphorous often is codeposited with the nickel, causing the formation of a corrosion-resistant layer of nickelphosphorous alloy that protects the underlying copper. Because the bath is autocatalytic, it will

continue plating until the panel is removed from the nickel bath. The nickel layer thickness is

typically 120 to 200 microinches (3 to 5 microns). The electroless palladium bath deposits a

thin layer of palladium onto the nickel-covered circuitry through an oxidation-reduction reaction. 

Hypophosphite or formate is used as the reducing agent, providing electrons to the positively

charged palladium ions, resulting in the plating of palladium onto the nickel surfaces of the PWB. 

Finally, immersion gold is applied as a very thin, protective layer. A chemical displacement

reaction occurs, depositing the thin layer of gold onto the metal surface while displacing nickel

ions into the solution. Because the reaction is driven by the potential difference of the two metals,

the reaction ceases when all of the surface nickel has been replaced with gold. Gold layer

thicknesses are typically 0.2 microns. 

Supplier Interviewed

For this Implementation Guide, one supplier, MacDermid, Inc., was interviewed. Among all

suppliers, there are five installations of this process in the United States and 10 worldwide. 

Implementation at Specific Facilities

The price of palladium has increased dramatically in the past two years; the high price of that

ingredient at this time has limited the number of installations recently. As a result, no

manufacturing facility currently using this technology could be contacted. 

Assemblers’ Perspectives

The electroless nickel/electroless palladium/immersion gold finish is mostly being used on an

experimental basis. As a result, only assemblers working with the finish experimentally or on a

limited production run could be contacted for this Guide. 

Two assemblers were contacted that are using a nickel/palladium/gold finish. Assembly Facility Q

is working with the finish on a limited production basis – less than 1% of its boards have a

nickel/palladium/gold finish. They have been using it for three years, and began specifying the

finish because it is wire bondable and solderable. Assembly Facility D began has been using the
Electroless Nickel/Electroless Palladium/

Immersion Gold 36

finish on an experimental/prototype basis. Their primary reason for considering the finish is to

overcome the “black pad syndrome” that can be encountered with nickel/gold. The palladium

layer provides a buffer between the nickel and gold, thereby minimizing the potential for nickel

erosion. 

Facility Q has had no problems with assembling particular types of components and have found no

special considerations for rework or repair of nickel/palladium/gold boards. However, they have

encountered two problems: flux incompatibility and intermetallic embrittlement. Some flux

formulations will not properly wet the gold surface and can inhibit soldering. They also have

found that the formation of the intermetallic phase PdSn4 leads to joint embrittlement. Both

Facility D and Facility Q noted that this can be prevented by ensuring that the palladium layer is

less than 20 to 30 microinches (0.50 to 0.75 microns). 

Facility D has not encountered specific problems with the finish, but noted that this may be

because conditions during experimentation are tightly controlled. The primary reason that they

have not yet specified this finish for production boards is not technical, but financial; the volatile

price of palladium makes it difficult to predict production costs. 
Lessons Learned 37

Lessons Learned

Regardless of the particular surface finish, the following recommendations offered by the

manufacturers, assemblers, and suppliers who contributed to this Guide are central to the

successful implementation of an alternative finish:

• Do your homework. Thoroughly investigate an alternative surface finish before

committing to it. Talk with manufacturers who are already using it. Attend surface finish

conferences in order to understand the benefits and challenges that you will encounter

with the finish. Based on the research conducted for this Guide, it is clear that the success

of a finish is largely dependent on site-specific factors. The finish must be compatible with

the type of product being run at the facility and with the other processes in the

manufacturing operation (most notably, with the soldermask). 

• Work closely with the supplier. Follow the supplier’s recommendations, and take full

advantage of their support during the debugging process. The supplier can call upon their

experience from prior installations to work through problems that may arise.

• Communicate with your customers. Develop a relationship with the end user to ensure

that the finish specifications are met.

• Monitor process control. Most of the alternative surface finishes have a tighter

operations parameters (e.g., bath temperature, concentrations) than HASL. Work with

your supplier to develop the procedures necessary to establish and maintain good process

control.

• Use quality equipment. Purchase equipment from suppliers that are experienced with

the particular finish, and invest in the correct equipment. These alternative finishes will

run most smoothly when the process can be calibrated and good process control is

maintained.

Many PWB manufacturers are finding that HASL provides an inadequate finish on increasingly

complex boards, and is a process with unacceptable potential environmental and health risks. The

manufacturers and assemblers whose experiences are presented in this Guide are using alternative
Lessons Learned 38

finishes that in many cases have resulted in better product, improved process safety, and reduced

potential for environmental impacts. However, implementation process for these finishes is not

challenge-free. Manufacturers considering a switch to an alternative surface finish can benefit

from the experiences of the participating suppliers, manufacturers, and assemblers to determine

better whether an alternative surface finish can improve their business.
Acronyms 39

Acronyms 

BGA: Ball Grid Array

DfE: Design for the Environment

FST: Flat Solderable Tin

HASL: Hot Air Solder Leveling

I/O: Input/Output

OSP: Organic Solderability Preservative

PWB: Printed Wiring Board

SERA: Sequential Electrochemical Reduction Analysis 

SMT: Surface Mount Technology
Acronyms 40
Supplier Contacts 41

Supplier Contacts

Further information about these alternative finishes is available from the following suppliers that

participated in the development of this Guide:

Immersion Silver

Alpha Metals

contact: Steve Beigle

tel: (630) 794-9329

Immersion Tin

Florida CirTech

contact: Mike Scimeca

tel: (970) 346-8002

Polyclad Technologies - Enthone 

(formerly Dexter Electronic Materials )

contact: David Ormerod

tel: (603) 645-0021

OSP

Electrochemicals, Inc.

contact: Paul Galatis

(612) 479-2008

MacDermid

contact: Don Cullen

tel: (203) 575-5791

Electroless Nickel/Immersion Gold

MacDermid

contact: Don Cullen

tel: (203) 575-5791

Technic, Inc.

contact: Michael Schectman

tel: (401) 781-6100

Electroless Nickel/Electroless

Palladium/Immersion Gold

MacDermid

contact: Don Cullen

tel: (203) 575-5791