IRCA Legalization Effects: 

Lawful Permanent Residence and Naturalization through 2001 

Nancy Rytina 

Office of Policy and Planning 

Statistics Division 

U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service 

Paper presented at The Effects of Immigrant Legalization Programs on the United States: 

Scientific evidence on immigrant adaptation and impacts on U.S. economy and society, 

The Cloister, Mary Woodward Lasker Center, NIH Main Campus, October 25, 2002. 
Introduction 

Two groups of immigrants were eligible for legalization under the Immigration Reform 

and Control Act (IRCA) of 1986. Aliens who had been unlawfully residing in the United 

States since before January 1, 1982 (pre-1982 immigrants) were legalized under Section 

245A of the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA). Aliens employed in seasonal 

agricultural work for a minimum of 90 days in the year prior to May, 1986 (SAWs) were 

legalized under Section 210A of the INA. 

This paper presents summary statistics on the transitions in legal status of the IRCA 

population through 2001. The primary focus is on naturalization since a considerable 

amount of information already exists about IRCA immigrants through the time they 

became lawful permanent residents (LPRs). Surveys conducted for the two reports 

mandated by IRCA contain a wealth of information on the social and economic 

characteristics of the pre-1982 IRCA population. The first survey, Legalized Population 

Survey (LPS) by the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) under the 

direction of John A. Bjerke examined pre-1982 IRCA immigrants at the time they applied 

for legalization (see U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1992). The second 

survey, Legalized Population Follow-up Survey (LPS2), by the Bureau of International 

Labor Affairs in the U.S. Department of Labor under the direction of Shirley J. Smith 

with Roger G. Kramer and Audrey Singer examined the group five years later (see 

Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 1996). 

Naturalization rates through 2001 of IRCA LPRs are compared to other LPRs by country 

of birth and year granted permanent residence. In addition, for IRCA LPRs who 

naturalized, a preliminary look is provided on changes in their state of residence and 

occupation/labor force status between the time of immigration and naturalization. This 

information, data limitations not withstanding, may shed some light on the socieconomic 

achievement of IRCA immigrants. 

Data 

Data were obtained from the administrative systems of INS. All immigrant records (from 

the OF-155A application from the Department of State for new arrivals from abroad and 

the I-485 application from INS for adjustments of status within the United States) were 

matched with naturalization records (from the N-400 application) from 1973 through 

2001 based on alien or A-number. Variables in the matched file include: country of birth, 

class of admission, occupation/labor force status, and zip code of intended residence at 

immigration, and, if the immigrant had naturalized, occupation/labor force status and zip 

code of intended residence at naturalization. Note that in comparisons with IRCA LPRs, 

the non-IRCA population is restricted to immigrants who were ages 16 and over when 

granted permanent residence because N-400 naturalization applicants must be at least 18 

years of age. Unlike IRCA LPRs, the non-IRCA population includes large numbers of 

2
children who may have derived or acquired citizenship through their parents and would 

therefore not have filed an N-400 application. 

Findings 

As indicated in Exhibit 1, three million persons applied for legalization. The applicants 

represented most legalization eligible aliens given an estimated illegal immigrant 

population of 3-5 million in 1986 (Hoefer, 1991). The approval rates for temporary and 

permanent residence were fairly high among both legalization (pre-1982 applicants) and 

SAW applicants. Nearly 2.7 million persons--nearly nine in ten applicants for temporary 

residence--were ultimately approved for permanent residence. 

By 2001, one-third of IRCA LPRs had naturalized. The naturalization rate for pre-1982 

LPRs was nearly twice the rate for the SAWs. This is not unexpected given pre-1982 

LPRs were considered more likely to have become long term U.S. residents than SAWs. 

Note that the naturalization rate of pre-1982 LPRs (40% in 2001) is consistent with LPS2 

data indicating that about one-half of this population intended to naturalize (Bureau of 

International Labor Affairs, 1996). The much higher rate of naturalization among 

nonimmigrant visa overstays compared to illegal entrants is also consistent with LPS2 

data indicating that the former were better educated and more English language proficient 

than the latter. Among the SAWs, about the same proportion from Group I and Group II 

had naturalized by 2001 despite the fact that Group I was required to have spent more 

time in the U.S. than Group II. 

The impact of IRCA was much more concentrated with respect to legal immigration than 

naturalization (see Exhibit 2 and Exhibit 3). IRCA LPRs represented more than 40% of 

all immigrants in fiscal years 1989-1991 but never accounted for more than 23% of 

naturalizations in any one year. The peak in IRCA naturalizations probably occurred in 

1996 when one-quarter million became citizens. By then, the entire cohort had become 

eligible to naturalize. This was also a period when many immigrants were naturalizing 

because of concern over legislation restricting public benefits for noncitizens (e.g. 

Proposition 187 in California in 1994, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity 

Act of 1996, and the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act 

(IIRIRA) of 1996). Fluctuations in IRCA naturalizations since 1996 are partly 

attributable to a backlog in application processing at INS. 

The naturalization rate through 2001 for IRCA LPRs compared to other LPRs by country 

of birth is shown in Exhibit 4a. Country of birth was categorized as Mexico and nonMexico since 75% of the IRCA population was born in Mexico (compared to 12% for the 

non-IRCA population) and Mexican born immigrants have historically had among the 

lowest naturalization rates. The non-IRCA category is restricted to immigrants granted 

permanent residence between 1979-82 to correspond with the period of entry into the 

U.S. of most IRCA immigrants. 

By 2001, IRCA LPRs had naturalized at about 60% of the rate of other LPRs (33% vs. 

56%). However, country of origin accounts for much of that difference. Among Mexican 

3
born LPRs, the naturalization rate for IRCA immigrants was about three-fourths that of 

other immigrants (27% vs. 35%). Among non-Mexican born LPRs, the naturalization rate 

of IRCA immigrants was nearly 90% that of other immigrants (52% vs. 59%). 

Naturalization rates through 2001 for IRCA LPRs by category of admission are shown in 

Exhibit 4b. (The enforced voluntary departure (EVD) category is excluded from this and 

Exhibits 5 and 6 because the numbers are so small). Among both Mexican and nonMexican born LPRs, pre-1982 nonimmigrant overstays were most likely to naturalize, 

followed by pre-1982 illegal entrants and SAWs. The fact that Mexican born SAWs were 

only about one-half as likely to naturalize as other IRCA Mexican born LPRs raises the 

issue of how many Mexican born SAWs are really U.S. residents. Non-Mexican SAWs, 

on the other hand, were about as likely to opt for citizenship as non-Mexican pre-1982 

illegal entrants (48% vs. 50%). 

The data in Exhibit 5 and Exhibit 6 show how naturalization rates through 2001 for IRCA 

and other LPRs vary by country of origin and year granted permanent residence. 

Immigrants admitted for permanent residence after 1992 were excluded because most 

were not eligible to apply for naturalization before 1997 so their naturalization histories 

are very incomplete. As indicated in both exhibits, among pre-1982 LPRs the first to be 

granted permanent residence were more likely to naturalize by 2001 than those granted 

permanent residence later. And, the naturalization rate of the first nonimmigrant 

overstays admitted, that is in 1989, was higher than that of non-IRCA LPRs granted 

permanent residence in any year between 1973-91. However, it may be premature to 

attach much significance to these findings since the cumulative naturalization rates of 

each entry year IRCA cohort may converge. Note also the stability in the naturalization 

rate of the non-IRCA non-Mexican population. For LPRs admitted between 1973-1991 

the naturalization rate ranges only between 51%-61%. The spread in naturalization rates 

is much larger among Mexican non-IRCA LPRs during the same time period (22%-45%) 

due to the much slower pace at which this immigrant population has naturalized. 

Exhibit 7 shows the occupation/labor force status at naturalization for IRCA LPRs by 

each category at immigration. These data are subject to some error since they are based 

on self-reporting by immigrants and data entered by personnel who receive very limited 

coding instruction. In addition, the occupation/labor force status at naturalization is 

unknown for about 20% of LPRs. The data show that the proportion of IRCA LPRs in 

the same occupational category at immigration and at naturalization was highest among 

laborers (39%), followed by service workers and professional, managerial, and technical 

workers (33%). LPRs in farming and sales occupations were least likely to be in the 

same occupations at naturalization. Some upward mobility is suggested by the 

movement of 7%-19% of IRCA LPRs, including 9% of SAWs, into professional, 

managerial and technical occupations by the time of naturalization. On the other hand, 

some degree of lateral movement or downward mobility is implied by the movement of 

nearly 30% of IRCA LPRs in precision production and farming to laborer occupations at 

the time of naturalization. Overall, the net direction of movement is not obvious from 

these data. 

4
In terms of geographic mobility, Exhibit 8 shows that 23% of IRCA LPRs were living in 

a different state at naturalization than at immigration. This is much lower than the 

migration rate for LPRs admitted in 1979-82 but about the same as that of other 

immigrants admitted between 1989-91(25%). Pre-1982 LPRs were somewhat more 

likely than SAWs to have moved. Specific flows will be more fully investigated in 

subsequent analysis. 

Conclusions 

The findings in this paper indicate that through 2001, immigrants granted permanent 

residence under IRCA naturalized at just over one-half the rate of other immigrants who 

came to live in the U.S. at the same time. Once differences in Mexican vs. non-Mexican 

origins are taken into account, the naturalization rate of IRCA LPRs is reasonably close 

to that of other immigrants. Many IRCA LPRs appear to have changed occupation or 

labor force status between the time of immigration and naturalization but more detailed 

and accurate information on their employment and earnings is need to adequately 

evaluate the significance of these changes. 

Future legalization programs might consider obtaining information on indirect effects, 

namely the immigration and subsequent naturalization of the many family members 

sponsored for lawful permanent residence by legalization principals. This paper focused 

only on principals because family members could not be identified. More than 140,000 

legalization dependents adjusted to permanent residence between 1992-1994 under 

provisions of the Immigration Act of 1990, but there is no way to link them to IRCA 

legalization principals. In addition, collection of information on the social and economic 

status of legalization beneficiaries at the time of naturalization would provide more 

current data with which to evaluate their assimilation and adaptation into U.S. society. 

5
References 

Bureau of International Labor Affairs. 1996. Effects of the Immigration Reform and 

Control Act: Characteristics and Labor Market Behavior of the Legalized 

Population Five Years Following Legalization. U.S. Department of Labor, 

Washington, DC. 

Hoefer, Michael D. 1991. “Background of U.S. Immigration Policy Reform.” Pp. 17-44 

in U.S. Immigration Policy Reform in the 1980s A Preliminary Assessment, edited by 

F.L. Rivera-Batiz, S.L. Sechzer, and I.N. Gang. New York: Praeger. 

U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1992. Immigration Reform and Control 

Act: Report on the Legalized Alien Population. U.S. Department of Justice, 

Washington, DC. 

6
------ ------ ------ 

Exhibit 1- IRCA Legalization: Temporary Residence, Permanent Residence, and Naturalization throug

Category of Admission 

Total 

Legalization applicants 

Total 

Percent of 

Applicants Applicants applicants 

for granted granted Applicants 

temporary permanent permanent who 

residence residence residence naturalized 

(1) (2) (3)=(1)/(2) (4) 

3,040,475 2,688,730 88% 889,03

1,763,434 1,595,766 90% 634,45

Entered illegally prior to 1/1/1982 (W16) 1,444,925 1,312,058 91% 480,87

Overstayed nonimmigrant visa prior to 1/1/82 (W26) 311,071 277,337 89% 149,67Blanket enforced voluntary departure/unknown (W36) 7,438 6,371 86% 3,90

SAW applicants 

Total 1,277,041 1,092,964 86% 254,57

Group I Seasonal agricultural workers 1984-86 (S16) 67,308 59,975 89% 12,124 

Group II seasonal agricultureal workers in 1986 (S26) 1,209,733 1,032,989 85% 242,45

Unknown 473 

Source: 

Column (1) - Legalization Application Processing System (LAPS) and Statistics Division, U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Se

Columns (2) and (4) - Statistics Division, U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service. 
-- 

-- -- -- -- 

-- -- 

-- 

Exhibit 2- Persons Granted Permanent Residence by Fiscal Year, Total and IRCA Legalization 

Fiscal 

Year 

All 

Immigrants 

Number 

IRCA, total 

As % of all 

Number immigrants 

Pre-1982 

Illegal Nonimmigrant EVD/ 

entrants overstays unknown 

Total W16 W26 W36 

Total 

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 

Total 

1,090,956 1,543,812 1,837,207 

972,557 905,111 791,218 723,641 916,521 781,892 653,207 644,788 841,001 

1,058,903 

12,760,814 

478,883 44% 880,940 57% 

1,134,509 62% 

165,089 17% 

16,702 2% 

4,083 1% 2,898 0% 3,037 0% 1,300 0% 

820 0% 

6 0% 

271 0% 

192 0% 

2,688,730 21% 

478,882 383,852 94,905 125 

824,272 683,240 137,551 3,481 

215,399 180,575 32,962 1,862 

47,915 39,863 7,328 724 

16,702 14,049 2,545 108 

4,083 3,456 607 20 

2,898 2,335 546 17 3,037 2,534 488 15 1,300 1,055 232 13 

818 693 121 4 

4 4 

267 232 33 2 

189 170 19 

1,595,766 1,312,058 277,337 6,371 

1 

56,668 

919,110 

117,174 

2 

2 

4 

3 

1,092,964 

Note: Due to the elimination of duplicate records, immigrant totals in this table will differ slightly from those shown in the INS Statistical YSource: U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Statistics Division. 
Exhibit 3- Persons Naturalized by Fiscal Year, Total and IRCA Immigrants 

Fiscal 

Year 

All 

naturalizations 

Number 

IRCA, total 

As % of total 

Number naturalizations 

Pre-1982 

Illegal Nonimmigrant EVD/ 

entrants overstays unknown 

Total W16 W26 W36 

Total 

1990 1991 

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 

Total 

270,101 308,058 

240,252 314,681 434,107 488,088 

1,044,689 

598,225 463,060 839,944 888,788 608,205 

6,498,198 

133 0% 115 0% 

218 0% 881 0% 

11,048 3% 65,490 13% 

227,905 22% 

136,084 23% 

85,647 18% 

151,829 18% 135,385 15% 

74,298 12% 

889,033 14% 

112 40 67 5 

114 24 89 1 

205 64 140 1 

862 332 526 4 

10,862 4,248 6,602 12 

64,417 36,710 27,249 458 

168,199 124,531 42,216 1,452 

83,782 66,505 16,736 541 

55,865 45,007 10,577 281 

102,846 83,675 18,758 413 

96,517 78,982 17,079 456 

50,675 40,753 9,637 285 

634,456 480,871 149,676 3,909 

1

1,0

59,7

52,329,748,9

38,8

23,6

254,5

Source: U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Statistics Division. 
Exhibit 4a- Naturalization Rates through 2001: IRCA and Non-

Immigrants (1979-82) by Country of Birth

70%60%50%40%30%20%10%

0%

33% 

27% 

52% 

56% 

35% 

59% 

Total Mexico Non-Mexico 
Exhibit 4b- Naturalization Rates through 2001: IRCA Immigrants 

Category of Admission and Non-IRCA Immigrants (1979-82) by Cou

Birth

70%60%50%40%30%20%10%

0%

35% 

59% 

33% 

50% 

40% 

60% 

17% 

44% 

18% 

48% 

Non-IRCA Pre-82 illegaPre-82 nonimSAW-I SAW-II 

Mexico Non-Mexico 
Exhibit 5- Percent Naturalized through 2001: 

Non-Mexican Immigrants by Year Granted Permanent Reside

80%70%60%50%40%30%20%10%

0%

Non-IRCA SAW-I SAW-II Pre-82, Illegal Entry Pre-82, Nonimmigrant Overstay 

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 
Exhibit 6- Percent Naturalized through 2001: 

Mexican Immigrants by Year Granted Permanent Residenc

60%50%40%30%20%10%

0%

Non-IRCA SAW-I SAW-II Pre-82, Illegal Entry Pre-82, Nonimmigrant Overstay 

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 
Exhibit 7- Occupation/Labor Force Status at Naturalization based on Occupation/Labor Force Status at Immigration: 

IRCA Immigrants who Naturalized by 2001 

Occupation/labor force status at naturalization 

Professional, 

Occupation/labor force status managerial, Administrative Precision No 

at immigration technical Sales support production Laborer Service Farming Occupa

Professional, managerial, technical 33% 5% 10% 4% 10% 10% 0% Sales 15% 15% 16% 3% 11% 10% 0% 1Adminstrative support 19% 5% 26% 4% 15% 7% 1% Precision production 8% 2% 5% 21% 29% 9% 1% Laborers 6% 2% 7% 8% 39% 9% 1% 1Service 7% 3% 7% 3% 14% 33% 1% 1Farming 8% 3% 5% 8% 28% 14% 4% 

Pre-1982 5% 1% 3% 7% 31% 9% 16% SAW 9% 3% 5% 8% 28% 14% 3% 

No occupation 8% 7% 15% 3% 12% 9% 1% 2Unknown 9% 4% 10% 6% 23% 13% 1% 1Total 10% 4% 9% 7% 23% 15% 2% 1Note: Except for farming, all categories at immigration refer to pre-1982 immigrants. Source: U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Statistics Division. 
100% 

90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 

0% 

Exhibit 8- Intended State of Residence at Immigration and 

Naturalization: Non-IRCA Immigrants (1979-82) and IRCA Immig

who Naturalized by 2001

Non-IRCA, 1979-82 IRCA, total Pre-1982 SAW