AIRPORT TRAFFIC

PATTERNS AND OPERATIONS

Just as roads and streets are needed in order to utilize

automobiles, airports or airstrips are needed to utilize

airplanes. Every flight begins and ends at an airport or

other suitable landing field. For that reason, it is

essential that the pilot learn the traffic rules, traffic

procedures, and traffic pattern layouts that may be in

use at various airports.

When an automobile is driven on congested city streets,

it can be brought to a stop to give way to conflicting traffic; however, an airplane can only be slowed down.

Consequently, specific traffic patterns and traffic control

procedures have been established at designated airports.

The traffic patterns provide specific routes for takeoffs,

departures, arrivals, and landings. The exact nature of

each airport traffic pattern is dependent on the runway in

use, wind conditions, obstructions, and other factors.

Control towers and radar facilities provide a means of

adjusting the flow of arriving and departing aircraft,

and render assistance to pilots in busy terminal areas.

Airport lighting and runway marking systems are used

frequently to alert pilots to abnormal conditions and

hazards, so arrivals and departures can be made safely.

Airports vary in complexity from small grass or sod

strips to major terminals having many paved runways

and taxiways. Regardless of the type of airport, the

pilot must know and abide by the rules and general

operating procedures applicable to the airport being

used. These rules and procedures are based not only on

logic or common sense, but also on courtesy, and their

objective is to keep air traffic moving with maximum

safety and efficiency. The use of any traffic pattern,

service, or procedure does not alter the responsibility

of pilots to see and avoid other aircraft.

STANDARD AIRPORT

TRAFFIC PATTERNS

To assure that air traffic flows into and out of an airport

in an orderly manner, an airport traffic pattern is established appropriate to the local conditions, including the

direction and placement of the pattern, the altitude to

be flown, and the procedures for entering and leaving

the pattern. Unless the airport displays approved visual

markings indicating that turns should be made to the

right, the pilot should make all turns in the pattern to

the left.

When operating at an airport with an operating control

tower, the pilot receives, by radio, a clearance to

approach or depart, as well as pertinent information

about the traffic pattern. If there is not a control tower,

it is the pilot’s responsibility to determine the direction

of the traffic pattern, to comply with the appropriate

traffic rules, and to display common courtesy toward

other pilots operating in the area.

The pilot is not expected to have extensive knowledge

of all traffic patterns at all airports, but if the pilot is

familiar with the basic rectangular pattern, it will be

easy to make proper approaches and departures from

most airports, regardless of whether they have control

towers. At airports with operating control towers, the

tower operator may instruct pilots to enter the traffic

pattern at any point or to make a straight-in approach

without flying the usual rectangular pattern. Many

other deviations are possible if the tower operator and

the pilot work together in an effort to keep traffic

moving smoothly. Jets or heavy airplanes will

frequently be flying wider and/or higher patterns than

lighter airplanes, and in many cases will make a

straight-in approach for landing.

Compliance with the basic rectangular traffic pattern

reduces the possibility of conflicts at airports without

an operating control tower. It is imperative that the pilot

form the habit of exercising constant vigilance in the

vicinity of airports even though the air traffic appears

to be light.

The standard rectangular traffic pattern is illustrated in

figure 7-1 (on next page). The traffic pattern altitude is

usually 1,000 feet above the elevation of the airport surface. The use of a common altitude at a given airport is the

key factor in minimizing the risk of collisions at airports

without operating control towers.

It is recommended that while operating in the traffic

pattern at an airport without an operating control

tower the pilot maintain an airspeed that conforms

with the limits established by Title 14 of the Code of

Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 for such an airport: no more than 200 knots (230 miles per hour

(m.p.h.)). In any case, the speed should be adjusted,

7-1

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7-2

Figure 7-1.Traffic patterns.

LEFT-HAND 

TRAFFIC PATTERN

Entry

Crosswind

Departure

Final

Base

Downwind

RIGHT-HAND 

TRAFFIC PATTERN

Crosswind

Final

Base

Downwind

Entry

Departure

Ch 07.qxd 5/7/04 7:54 AM Page 7-2
7-3

when practicable, so that it is compatible with the

speed of other airplanes in the pattern.

When entering the traffic pattern at an airport without

an operating control tower, inbound pilots are expected

to observe other aircraft already in the pattern and to

conform to the traffic pattern in use. If other aircraft

are not in the pattern, then traffic indicators on the

ground and wind indicators must be checked to determine which runway and traffic pattern direction should

be used. [Figure 7-2] Many airports have L-shaped

traffic pattern indicators displayed with a segmented

circle adjacent to the runway. The short member of the

L shows the direction in which the traffic pattern turns

should be made when using the runway parallel to the

long member. These indicators should be checked

while at a distance well away from any pattern that

might be in use, or while at a safe height well above

generally used pattern altitudes. When the proper traffic pattern direction has been determined, the pilot

should then proceed to a point well clear of the pattern

before descending to the pattern altitude. 

When approaching an airport for landing, the traffic pattern should be entered at a 45° angle to the downwind

leg, headed toward a point abeam of the midpoint of the

runway to be used for landing. Arriving airplanes should

be at the proper traffic pattern altitude before entering

the pattern, and should stay clear of the traffic flow until

established on the entry leg. Entries into traffic patterns

while descending create specific collision hazards and

should always be avoided.

The entry leg should be of sufficient length to provide

a clear view of the entire traffic pattern, and to allow

the pilot adequate time for planning the intended path

in the pattern and the landing approach.

The downwind leg is a course flown parallel to the

landing runway, but in a direction opposite to the

intended landing direction. This leg should be

approximately 1/2 to 1 mile out from the landing runway, and at the specified traffic pattern altitude.

During this leg, the before landing check should be

completed and the landing gear extended if

retractable. Pattern altitude should be maintained

until abeam the approach end of the landing runway.

At this point, power should be reduced and a descent

begun. The downwind leg continues past a point

abeam the approach end of the runway to a point

approximately 45° from the approach end of the runway, and a medium bank turn is made onto the base

leg.

The base leg is the transitional part of the traffic pattern between the downwind leg and the final approach

leg. Depending on the wind condition, it is established

at a sufficient distance from the approach end of the

landing runway to permit a gradual descent to the

intended touchdown point. The ground track of the airplane while on the base leg should be perpendicular to

the extended centerline of the landing runway,

although the longitudinal axis of the airplane may not

be aligned with the ground track when it is necessary

to turn into the wind to counteract drift. While on the

base leg, the pilot must ensure, before turning onto the

final approach, that there is no danger of colliding with

another aircraft that may be already on the final

approach.

The final approach leg is a descending flightpath starting from the completion of the base-to-final turn and

extending to the point of touchdown. This is probably

the most important leg of the entire pattern, because

here the pilot’s judgment and procedures must be the

sharpest to accurately control the airspeed and descent

angle while approaching the intended touchdown

point.

As stipulated in 14 CFR part 91, aircraft while on

final approach to land or while landing, have the

right-of-way over other aircraft in flight or operating

on the surface. When two or more aircraft are

approaching an airport for the purpose of landing, the

aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way.

Pilots should not take advantage of this rule to cut in

front of another aircraft that is on final approach to

land, or to overtake that aircraft.

The upwind leg is a course flown parallel to the landing runway, but in the same direction to the intended

landing direction. The upwind leg continues past a

point abeam of the departure end of the runway to

where a medium bank 90° turn is made onto the

crosswind leg.

The upwind leg is also the transitional part of the traffic pattern when on the final approach and a go-around

Figure 7-2.Traffic pattern indicators. is initiated and climb attitude is established. When a

Windsock

Segmented Circle

Traffic Pattern Indicator

(indicates location of base leg)

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7-4

safe altitude is attained, the pilot should commence a

shallow bank turn to the upwind side of the airport.

This will allow better visibility of the runway for

departing aircraft.

The departure leg of the rectangular pattern is a

straight course aligned with, and leading from, the

takeoff runway. This leg begins at the point the airplane leaves the ground and continues until the 90°

turn onto the crosswind leg is started.

On the departure leg after takeoff, the pilot should continue climbing straight ahead, and, if remaining in the

traffic pattern, commence a turn to the crosswind leg

beyond the departure end of the runway within 300 feet

of pattern altitude. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out or exit with a 45° turn (to the left

when in a left-hand traffic pattern; to the right when in

a right-hand traffic pattern) beyond the departure end

of the runway after reaching pattern altitude.

The crosswind leg is the part of the rectangular pattern

that is horizontally perpendicular to the extended centerline of the takeoff runway and is entered by making

approximately a 90° turn from the upwind leg. On the

crosswind leg, the airplane proceeds to the downwind

leg position.

Since in most cases the takeoff is made into the wind,

the wind will now be approximately perpendicular to

the airplane’s flightpath. As a result, the airplane will

have to be turned or headed slightly into the wind

while on the crosswind leg to maintain a ground track

that is perpendicular to the runway centerline extension.

Additional information on airport operations can be

found in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).

Ch 07.qxd 5/7/04 7:54 AM Page 7-4
NORMAL APPROACH AND LANDING

A normal approach and landing involves the use of

procedures for what is considered a normal situation;

that is, when engine power is available, the wind is

light or the final approach is made directly into the

wind, the final approach path has no obstacles, and the

landing surface is firm and of ample length to

gradually bring the airplane to a stop. The selected

landing point should be beyond the runway’s approach

threshold but within the first one-third portion of

the runway.

The factors involved and the procedures described for

the normal approach and landing also have applications

to the other-than-normal approaches and landings

which are discussed later in this chapter. This being the

case, the principles of normal operations are explained

first and must be understood before proceeding to the

more complex operations. So that the pilot may better

understand the factors that will influence judgment and

procedures, that last part of the approach pattern and

the actual landing will be divided into five phases: the

base leg, the final approach, the roundout, the

touchdown, and the after-landing roll.

It must be remembered that the manufacturer’s

recommended procedures, including airplane

configuration and airspeeds, and other information

relevant to approaches and landings in a specific make

and model airplane are contained in the FAA-approved

Airplane Flight Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating

Handbook (AFM/POH) for that airplane. If any of the

information in this chapter differs from the airplane

manufacturer’s recommendations as contained in

the AFM/POH, the airplane manufacturer’s

recommendations take precedence.

BASE LEG

The placement of the base leg is one of the more

important judgments made by the pilot in any landing

approach. [Figure 8-1] The pilot must accurately judge

the altitude and distance from which a gradual descent

will result in landing at the desired spot. The distance

will depend on the altitude of the base leg, the effect of

wind, and the amount of wing flaps used. When there is

a strong wind on final approach or the flaps will be

used to produce a steep angle of descent, the base leg

must be positioned closer to the approach end of the

runway than would be required with a light wind or no

Figure 8-1. Base leg and final approach.

8-1

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-1
flaps. Normally, the landing gear should be extended

and the before landing check completed prior

to reaching the base leg.

After turning onto the base leg, the pilot should start

the descent with reduced power and airspeed of

approximately 1.4 VSO. (VSO—the stalling speed

with power off, landing gears and flaps down.) For

example, if VSO is 60 knots, the speed should be 1.4

times 60, or 84 knots. Landing flaps may be partially

lowered, if desired, at this time. Full flaps are not

recommended until the final approach is established.

Drift correction should be established and

maintained to follow a ground track perpendicular

to the extension of the centerline of the runway on

which the landing is to be made. Since the final

approach and landing will normally be made into

the wind, there will be somewhat of a crosswind

during the base leg. This requires that the airplane be

angled sufficiently into the wind to prevent drifting

farther away from the intended landing spot.

The base leg should be continued to the point where a

medium to shallow-banked turn will align the

airplane’s path directly with the centerline of the

landing runway. This descending turn should be

completed at a safe altitude that will be dependent

upon the height of the terrain and any obstructions

along the ground track. The turn to the final approach

should also be sufficiently above the airport elevation

to permit a final approach long enough for the pilot to

accurately estimate the resultant point of touchdown,

while maintaining the proper approach airspeed. This

will require careful planning as to the starting point

and the radius of the turn. Normally, it is recommended

that the angle of bank not exceed a medium bank

because the steeper the angle of bank, the higher the

airspeed at which the airplane stalls. Since the base-tofinal turn is made at a relatively low altitude, it is

important that a stall not occur at this point. If an

extremely steep bank is needed to prevent

overshooting the proper final approach path, it is

advisable to discontinue the approach, go around, and

plan to start the turn earlier on the next approach rather

than risk a hazardous situation.

FINAL APPROACH

After the base-to-final approach turn is completed, the

longitudinal axis of the airplane should be aligned with

the centerline of the runway or landing surface, so that

drift (if any) will be recognized immediately. On a

normal approach, with no wind drift, the longitudinal

axis should be kept aligned with the runway centerline

throughout the approach and landing. (The proper way

to correct for a crosswind will be explained under the

section, Crosswind Approach and Landing. For now,

only an approach and landing where the wind is

straight down the runway will be discussed.)

After aligning the airplane with the runway centerline,

the final flap setting should be completed and the pitch

attitude adjusted as required for the desired rate of

descent. Slight adjustments in pitch and power may

be necessary to maintain the descent attitude and the

desired approach airspeed. In the absence of the

manufacturer’s recommended airspeed, a speed

equal to 1.3 VSO should be used. If VSO is 60 knots,

the speed should be 78 knots. When the pitch

attitude and airspeed have been stabilized, the

airplane should be retrimmed to relieve the

pressures being held on the controls.

The descent angle should be controlled throughout the

approach so that the airplane will land in the center

of the first third of the runway. The descent angle is

affected by all four fundamental forces that act on an

airplane (lift, drag, thrust, and weight). If all the

forces are constant, the descent angle will be constant

in a no-wind condition. The pilot can control these

forces by adjusting the airspeed, attitude, power, and

drag (flaps or forward slip). The wind also plays a

prominent part in the gliding distance over the

ground [Figure 8-2]; naturally, the pilot does not have

control over the wind but may correct for its effect

on the airplane’s descent by appropriate pitch and

power adjustments.

Increased Airspeed Flightpath

Normal Best Glide Speed

Flightpath

Figure 8-2. Effect of headwind on final approach.

8-2

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8-3

Considering the factors that affect the descent angle on

the final approach, for all practical purposes at a given

pitch attitude there is only one power setting for one

airspeed, one flap setting, and one wind condition.

A change in any one of these variables will require

an appropriate coordinated change in the other controllable variables. For example, if the pitch attitude

is raised too high without an increase of power, the

airplane will settle very rapidly and touch down

short of the desired spot. For this reason, the pilot

should never try to stretch a glide by applying backelevator pressure alone to reach the desired landing

spot. This will shorten the gliding distance if power is

not added simultaneously. The proper angle of descent

and airspeed should be maintained by coordinating

pitch attitude changes and power changes.

The objective of a good final approach is to descend at

an angle and airspeed that will permit the airplane to

reach the desired touchdown point at an airspeed

which will result in minimum floating just before

touchdown; in essence, a semi-stalled condition. To

accomplish this, it is essential that both the descent

angle and the airspeed be accurately controlled. Since

on a normal approach the power setting is not fixed as

in a power-off approach, the power and pitch attitude

should be adjusted simultaneously as necessary, to

control the airspeed, and the descent angle, or to attain

the desired altitudes along the approach path. By lowering the nose and reducing power to keep approach

airspeed constant, a descent at a higher rate can be

made to correct for being too high in the approach.

This is one reason for performing approaches with partial power; if the approach is too high, merely lower

the nose and reduce the power. When the approach is

too low, add power and raise the nose.

USE OF FLAPS

The lift/drag factors may also be varied by the pilot to

adjust the descent through the use of landing flaps.

[Figures 8-3 and 8-4] Flap extension during landings

provides several advantages by:

• Producing greater lift and permitting lower

landing speed.

• Producing greater drag, permitting a steep

descent angle without airspeed increase.

• Reducing the length of the landing roll.

Flap extension has a definite effect on the airplane’s

pitch behavior. The increased camber from flap deflection produces lift primarily on the rear portion of the

wing. This produces a nosedown pitching moment;

however, the change in tail loads from the downwash

deflected by the flaps over the horizontal tail has a

significant influence on the pitching moment.

Consequently, pitch behavior depends on the design

features of the particular airplane.

Flap deflection of up to 15° primarily produces lift with

minimal drag. The airplane has a tendency to balloon

No Flaps

Half Flaps

Full Flaps

With: Constant Airspeed

Constant Power

Flatter Descent Angle

Steeper Descent Angle

With: Constant Airspeed

Constant Power

No Flaps Half Flaps Full Flaps

Figure 8-3. Effect of flaps on the landing point.

Figure 8-4. Effect of flaps on the approach angle.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-3
up with initial flap deflection because of the lift

increase. The nosedown pitching moment, however,

tends to offset the balloon. Flap deflection beyond 15°

produces a large increase in drag. Also, deflection

beyond 15° produces a significant noseup pitching

moment in high-wing airplanes because the resulting

downwash increases the airflow over the horizontal tail.

The time of flap extension and the degree of deflection

are related. Large flap deflections at one single point in

the landing pattern produce large lift changes that

require significant pitch and power changes in order to

maintain airspeed and descent angle. Consequently, the

deflection of flaps at certain positions in the landing

pattern has definite advantages. Incremental deflection

of flaps on downwind, base leg, and final approach

allow smaller adjustment of pitch and power compared

to extension of full flaps all at one time.

When the flaps are lowered, the airspeed will decrease

unless the power is increased or the pitch attitude

lowered. On final approach, therefore, the pilot must

estimate where the airplane will land through

discerning judgment of the descent angle. If it appears

that the airplane is going to overshoot the desired

landing spot, more flaps may be used if not fully

extended or the power reduced further, and the pitch

attitude lowered. This will result in a steeper approach.

If the desired landing spot is being undershot and a

shallower approach is needed, both power and pitch

attitude should be increased to readjust the descent

angle. Never retract the flaps to correct for undershooting since that will suddenly decrease the lift and cause

the airplane to sink even more rapidly.

The airplane must be retrimmed on the final approach

to compensate for the change in aerodynamic forces.

With the reduced power and with a slower airspeed,

the airflow produces less lift on the wings and less

downward force on the horizontal stabilizer, resulting

in a significant nosedown tendency. The elevator must

then be trimmed more noseup.

It will be found that the roundout, touchdown, and

landing roll are much easier to accomplish when they

are preceded by a proper final approach with precise

control of airspeed, attitude, power, and drag resulting

in a stabilized descent angle.

ESTIMATING HEIGHT AND MOVEMENT

During the approach, roundout, and touchdown, vision

is of prime importance. To provide a wide scope of

vision and to foster good judgment of height and

movement, the pilot’s head should assume a natural,

straight-ahead position. The pilot’s visual focus should

not be fixed on any one side or any one spot ahead of

the airplane, but should be changing slowly from a

point just over the airplane’s nose to the desired

touchdown zone and back again, while maintaining a

deliberate awareness of distance from either side of

the runway within the pilot’s peripheral field of vision.

Accurate estimation of distance is, besides being a

matter of practice, dependent upon how clearly objects

are seen; it requires that the vision be focused properly

in order that the important objects stand out as clearly

as possible.

Speed blurs objects at close range. For example,

most everyone has noted this in an automobile

moving at high speed. Nearby objects seem to merge

together in a blur, while objects farther away stand

out clearly. The driver subconsciously focuses the

eyes sufficiently far ahead of the automobile to see

objects distinctly.

The distance at which the pilot’s vision is focused

should be proportionate to the speed at which the

airplane is traveling over the ground. Thus, as speed is

reduced during the roundout, the distance ahead of the

airplane at which it is possible to focus should be

brought closer accordingly.

If the pilot attempts to focus on a reference that is too

close or looks directly down, the reference will

become blurred, [Figure 8-5] and the reaction will be

either too abrupt or too late. In this case, the pilot’s

tendency will be to overcontrol, round out high, and

make full-stall, drop-in landings. When the pilot

focuses too far ahead, accuracy in judging the

closeness of the ground is lost and the consequent

reaction will be too slow since there will not appear to

be a necessity for action. This will result in the

airplane flying into the ground nose first. The change

of visual focus from a long distance to a short distance

requires a definite time interval and even though the

time is brief, the airplane’s speed during this interval is

such that the airplane travels an appreciable distance,

both forward and downward toward the ground.

Figure 8-5. Focusing too close blurs vision.

If the focus is changed gradually, being brought progressively closer as speed is reduced, the time interval

8-4

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8-5

and the pilot’s reaction will be reduced, and the whole

landing process smoothed out.

ROUNDOUT (FLARE)

The roundout is a slow, smooth transition from a normal approach attitude to a landing attitude, gradually

rounding out the flightpath to one that is parallel with,

and within a very few inches above, the runway. When

the airplane, in a normal descent, approaches within

what appears to be 10 to 20 feet above the ground, the

roundout or flare should be started, and once started

should be a continuous process until the airplane

touches down on the ground.

As the airplane reaches a height above the ground

where a timely change can be made into the proper

landing attitude, back-elevator pressure should be

gradually applied to slowly increase the pitch attitude

and angle of attack. [Figure 8-6] This will cause the

airplane’s nose to gradually rise toward the desired

landing attitude. The angle of attack should be

increased at a rate that will allow the airplane to continue settling slowly as forward speed decreases.

When the angle of attack is increased, the lift is momentarily increased, which decreases the rate of descent.

Since power normally is reduced to idle during the

roundout, the airspeed will also gradually decrease.

This will cause lift to decrease again, and it must be

controlled by raising the nose and further increasing the

angle of attack. During the roundout, the airspeed is

being decreased to touchdown speed while the lift is

being controlled so the airplane will settle gently onto

the landing surface. The roundout should be executed

at a rate that the proper landing attitude and the proper

touchdown airspeed are attained simultaneously just as

the wheels contact the landing surface.

The rate at which the roundout is executed depends on

the airplane’s height above the ground, the rate of

descent, and the pitch attitude. A roundout started

excessively high must be executed more slowly than

one from a lower height to allow the airplane to

descend to the ground while the proper landing attitude

is being established. The rate of rounding out must also

be proportionate to the rate of closure with the ground.

When the airplane appears to be descending very

slowly, the increase in pitch attitude must be made at a

correspondingly slow rate.

Visual cues are important in flaring at the proper altitude and maintaining the wheels a few inches above

the runway until eventual touchdown. Flare cues are

primarily dependent on the angle at which the pilot’s

central vision intersects the ground (or runway) ahead

and slightly to the side. Proper depth perception is a

factor in a successful flare, but the visual cues used

most are those related to changes in runway or terrain

perspective and to changes in the size of familiar

objects near the landing area such as fences, bushes,

trees, hangars, and even sod or runway texture. The

pilot should direct central vision at a shallow downward angle of from 10° to 15° toward the runway as

the roundout/flare is initiated. [Figure 8-7]

Maintaining the same viewing angle causes the point

Increase

Angle of

Attack

Increase

Angle of

Attack Increase

Angle of

Attack

78 Knots

70 Knots

65 Knots

60 Knots

10° to 15°

Figure 8-7.To obtain necessary visual cues, the pilot should look toward the runway at a shallow angle.

Figure 8-6. Changing angle of attack during roundout.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-5
of visual interception with the runway to move

progressively rearward toward the pilot as the airplane

loses altitude. This is an important visual cue in

assessing the rate of altitude loss. Conversely, forward

movement of the visual interception point will indicate

an increase in altitude, and would mean that the pitch

angle was increased too rapidly, resulting in an over

flare. Location of the visual interception point in

conjunction with assessment of flow velocity of nearby

off-runway terrain, as well as the similarity of

appearance of height above the runway ahead of the

airplane (in comparison to the way it looked when the

airplane was taxied prior to takeoff) is also used to

judge when the wheels are just a few inches above

the runway.

The pitch attitude of the airplane in a full-flap approach

is considerably lower than in a no-flap approach. To

attain the proper landing attitude before touching

down, the nose must travel through a greater pitch

change when flaps are fully extended. Since the roundout is usually started at approximately the same height

above the ground regardless of the degree of flaps

used, the pitch attitude must be increased at a faster

rate when full flaps are used; however, the roundout

should still be executed at a rate proportionate to the

airplane’s downward motion.

Once the actual process of rounding out is started, the

elevator control should not be pushed forward. If too

much back-elevator pressure has been exerted, this

pressure should be either slightly relaxed or held

constant, depending on the degree of the error. In some

cases, it may be necessary to advance the throttle

slightly to prevent an excessive rate of sink, or a stall, all

of which would result in a hard, drop-in type landing.

It is recommended that the student pilot form the habit

of keeping one hand on the throttle throughout the

approach and landing, should a sudden and unexpected

hazardous situation require an immediate application

of power.

TOUCHDOWN

The touchdown is the gentle settling of the airplane

onto the landing surface. The roundout and touchdown

should be made with the engine idling, and the airplane

at minimum controllable airspeed, so that the airplane

will touch down on the main gear at approximately

stalling speed. As the airplane settles, the proper

landing attitude is attained by application of whatever

back-elevator pressure is necessary.

Some pilots may try to force or fly the airplane onto

the ground without establishing the proper landing

attitude. The airplane should never be flown on

the runway with excessive speed. It is paradoxical that

the way to make an ideal landing is to try to hold the

airplane’s wheels a few inches off the ground as

long as possible with the elevators. In most cases,

when the wheels are within 2 or 3 feet off the

ground, the airplane will still be settling too fast for

a gentle touchdown; therefore, this descent must be

retarded by further back-elevator pressure. Since

the airplane is already close to its stalling speed and

is settling, this added back-elevator pressure will

only slow up the settling instead of stopping it. At

the same time, it will result in the airplane touching

the ground in the proper landing attitude, and the

main wheels touching down first so that little or no

weight is on the nosewheel. [Figure 8-8]

After the main wheels make initial contact with the

ground, back-elevator pressure should be held to

maintain a positive angle of attack for aerodynamic

braking, and to hold the nosewheel off the ground until

the airplane decelerates. As the airplane’s momentum

decreases, back-elevator pressure may be gradually

relaxed to allow the nosewheel to gently settle onto the

runway. This will permit steering with the nosewheel.

At the same time, it will cause a low angle of attack

and negative lift on the wings to prevent floating or

skipping, and will allow the full weight of the airplane

to rest on the wheels for better braking action.

Near-Zero Rate of Descent

15 Feet

2 to 3 Feet 1 Foot

Figure 8-8. A well executed roundout results in attaining the proper landing attitude.

8-6

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8-7

It is extremely important that the touchdown occur

with the airplane’s longitudinal axis exactly parallel to

the direction in which the airplane is moving along the

runway. Failure to accomplish this imposes severe side

loads on the landing gear. To avoid these side stresses,

the pilot should not allow the airplane to touch down

while turned into the wind or drifting.

AFTER-LANDING ROLL

The landing process must never be considered complete until the airplane decelerates to the normal taxi

speed during the landing roll or has been brought to a

complete stop when clear of the landing area. Many

accidents have occurred as a result of pilots abandoning their vigilance and positive control after getting the

airplane on the ground.

The pilot must be alert for directional control difficulties immediately upon and after touchdown due to the

ground friction on the wheels. The friction creates a pivot

point on which a moment arm can act. Loss of directional

control may lead to an aggravated, uncontrolled, tight

turn on the ground, or a ground loop. The combination

of centrifugal force acting on the center of gravity (CG)

and ground friction of the main wheels resisting it during

the ground loop may cause the airplane to tip or lean

enough for the outside wingtip to contact the ground.

This may even impose a sideward force, which could

collapse the landing gear.

The rudder serves the same purpose on the ground as it

does in the air—it controls the yawing of the airplane.

The effectiveness of the rudder is dependent on the airflow, which depends on the speed of the airplane. As

the speed decreases and the nosewheel has been lowered to the ground, the steerable nose provides more

positive directional control.

The brakes of an airplane serve the same primary

purpose as the brakes of an automobile—to reduce

speed on the ground. In airplanes, they may also be

used as an aid in directional control when more positive control is required than could be obtained with

rudder or nosewheel steering alone.

To use brakes, on an airplane equipped with toe brakes,

the pilot should slide the toes or feet up from the rudder pedals to the brake pedals. If rudder pressure is

being held at the time braking action is needed, that

pressure should not be released as the feet or toes are

being slid up to the brake pedals, because control may

be lost before brakes can be applied.

Putting maximum weight on the wheels after touchdown is an important factor in obtaining optimum

braking performance. During the early part of rollout,

some lift may continue to be generated by the wing.

After touchdown, the nosewheel should be lowered to

the runway to maintain directional control. During

deceleration, the nose may be pitched down by braking

and the weight transferred to the nosewheel from the

main wheels. This does not aid in braking action, so

back pressure should be applied to the controls without

lifting the nosewheel off the runway. This will enable

the pilot to maintain directional control while keeping

weight on the main wheels. 

Careful application of the brakes can be initiated after

the nosewheel is on the ground and directional control

is established. Maximum brake effectiveness is just

short of the point where skidding occurs. If the brakes

are applied so hard that skidding takes place, braking

becomes ineffective. Skidding can be stopped by releasing the brake pressure. Also, braking effectiveness is not

enhanced by alternately applying and reapplying brake

pressure. The brakes should be applied firmly and

smoothly as necessary.

During the ground roll, the airplane’s direction of

movement can be changed by carefully applying pressure on one brake or uneven pressures on each brake in

the desired direction. Caution must be exercised when

applying brakes to avoid overcontrolling.

The ailerons serve the same purpose on the ground as

they do in the air—they change the lift and drag components of the wings. During the after-landing roll,

they should be used to keep the wings level in much

the same way they were used in flight. If a wing starts

to rise, aileron control should be applied toward that

wing to lower it. The amount required will depend on

speed because as the forward speed of the airplane

decreases, the ailerons will become less effective.

Procedures for using ailerons in crosswind conditions

are explained further in this chapter, in the Crosswind

Approach and Landing section.

After the airplane is on the ground, back-elevator pressure may be gradually relaxed to place normal weight on

the nosewheel to aid in better steering. If available

runway permits, the speed of the airplane should be

allowed to dissipate in a normal manner. Once the

airplane has slowed sufficiently and has turned on to

the taxiway and stopped, the pilot should retract the

flaps and clean up the airplane. Many accidents have

occurred as a result of the pilot unintentionally operating

the landing gear control and retracting the gear instead

of the flap control when the airplane was still

rolling. The habit of positively identifying both of these

controls, before actuating them, should be formed from

the very beginning of flight training and continued in all

future flying activities.

STABILIZED APPROACH CONCEPT

A stabilized approach is one in which the pilot establishes and maintains a constant angle glidepath

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8-8

towards a predetermined point on the landing runway.

It is based on the pilot’s judgment of certain visual

clues, and depends on the maintenance of a constant

final descent airspeed and configuration.

An airplane descending on final approach at a constant

rate and airspeed will be traveling in a straight line

toward a spot on the ground ahead. This spot will not

be the spot on which the airplane will touch down,

because some float will inevitably occur during the

roundout (flare). [Figure 8-9] Neither will it be the spot

toward which the airplane’s nose is pointed, because

the airplane is flying at a fairly high angle of attack,

and the component of lift exerted parallel to the Earth’s

surface by the wings tends to carry the airplane forward horizontally.

The point toward which the airplane is progressing is

termed the “aiming point.” [Figure 8-9] It is the point

on the ground at which, if the airplane maintains a

constant glidepath, and was not flared for landing, it

would strike the ground. To a pilot moving straight

ahead toward an object, it appears to be stationary. It

does not “move.” This is how the aiming point can be

distinguished—it does not move. However, objects in

front of and beyond the aiming point do appear to move

as the distance is closed, and they appear to move in

opposite directions. During instruction in landings, one

of the most important skills a student pilot must acquire

is how to use visual cues to accurately determine the

true aiming point from any distance out on final

approach. From this, the pilot will not only be able to

determine if the glidepath will result in an undershoot

or overshoot, but, taking into account float during

roundout, the pilot will be able to predict the touchdown point to within a very few feet.

For a constant angle glidepath, the distance between

the horizon and the aiming point will remain constant.

If a final approach descent has been established but the

distance between the perceived aiming point and the

horizon appears to increase (aiming point moving

down away from the horizon), then the true aiming

point, and subsequent touchdown point, is farther

down the runway. If the distance between the perceived aiming point and the horizon decreases (aiming

point moving up toward the horizon), the true aiming

point is closer than perceived.

When the airplane is established on final approach, the

shape of the runway image also presents clues as to

what must be done to maintain a stabilized approach

to a safe landing.

A runway, obviously, is normally shaped in the form

of an elongated rectangle. When viewed from the

air during the approach, the phenomenon known as

perspective causes the runway to assume the shape of

a trapezoid with the far end looking narrower than the

approach end, and the edge lines converging ahead.

If the airplane continues down the glidepath at a

constant angle (stabilized), the image the pilot sees

will still be trapezoidal but of proportionately larger

dimensions. In other words, during a stabilized

approach the runway shape does not change. [Figure

8-10]

If the approach becomes shallower, however, the

runway will appear to shorten and become wider.

Conversely, if the approach is steepened, the runway will appear to become longer and narrower.

[Figure 8-11]

The objective of a stabilized approach is to select an

appropriate touchdown point on the runway, and

adjust the glidepath so that the true aiming point and

the desired touchdown point basically coincide.

Immediately after rolling out on final approach, the

pilot should adjust the pitch attitude and power so that

the airplane is descending directly toward the aiming

point at the appropriate airspeed. The airplane should

Distance Traveled in Flare

Touchdown

Aiming Point (Descent Angle Intersects Ground)

Figure 8-9. Stabilized approach.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-8
be in the landing configuration, and trimmed for

“hands off” flight. With the approach set up in this

manner, the pilot will be free to devote full attention

toward outside references. The pilot should not stare at

any one place, but rather scan from one point to

another, such as from the aiming point to the horizon,

to the trees and bushes along the runway, to an area

well short of the runway, and back to the aiming point.

In this way, the pilot will be more apt to perceive a

deviation from the desired glidepath, and whether or

not the airplane is proceeding directly toward the

aiming point.

If the pilot perceives any indication that the aiming

point on the runway is not where desired, an adjustment

must be made to the glidepath. This in turn will move

the aiming point. For instance, if the pilot perceives that

the aiming point is short of the desired touchdown

point and will result in an undershoot, an increase in

pitch attitude and engine power is warranted. A constant

airspeed must be maintained. The pitch and power

change, therefore, must be made smoothly and

simultaneously. This will result in a shallowing of

the glidepath with the resultant aiming point moving

towards the desired touchdown point. Conversely,

if the pilot perceives that the aiming point is farther

down the runway than the desired touchdown point

and will result in an overshoot, the glidepath should be

steepened by a simultaneous decrease in pitch attitude

and power. Once again, the airspeed must be held constant. It is essential that deviations from the desired

glidepath be detected early, so that only slight and

infrequent adjustments to glidepath are required.

3°Approach Angle

4000' x 100' Runway

1600' From Threshold

105' Altitude

Same Runway, Same Approach Angle

800' From Threshold

52' Altitude

Same Runway, Same Approach Angle

400' From Threshold

26' Altitude

Figure 8-10. Runway shape during stabilized approach.

Too High

Proper Descent Angle

Too Low

Figure 8-11. Change in runway shape if approach becomes

narrow or steep.

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8-10

The closer the airplane gets to the runway, the larger

(and possibly more frequent) the required corrections

become, resulting in an unstabilized approach.

Common errors in the performance of normal

approaches and landings are:

• Inadequate wind drift correction on the base leg.

• Overshooting or undershooting the turn onto

final approach resulting in too steep or too shallow a turn onto final approach.

• Flat or skidding turns from base leg to final

approach as a result of overshooting/inadequate

wind drift correction.

• Poor coordination during turn from base to final

approach.

• Failure to complete the landing checklist in a

timely manner.

• Unstabilized approach.

• Failure to adequately compensate for flap extension.

• Poor trim technique on final approach.

• Attempting to maintain altitude or reach the runway using elevator alone. 

• Focusing too close to the airplane resulting in a

too high roundout.

• Focusing too far from the airplane resulting in a

too low roundout.

• Touching down prior to attaining proper landing

attitude.

• Failure to hold sufficient back-elevator pressure

after touchdown.

• Excessive braking after touchdown.

INTENTIONAL SLIPS

A slip occurs when the bank angle of an airplane is too

steep for the existing rate of turn. Unintentional slips

are most often the result of uncoordinated

rudder/aileron application. Intentional slips, however,

are used to dissipate altitude without increasing airspeed, and/or to adjust airplane ground track during a

crosswind. Intentional slips are especially useful in

forced landings, and in situations where obstacles must

be cleared during approaches to confined areas. A slip

can also be used as an emergency means of rapidly

reducing airspeed in situations where wing flaps are

inoperative or not installed.

A slip is a combination of forward movement and

sideward (with respect to the longitudinal axis of the

airplane) movement, the lateral axis being inclined

and the sideward movement being toward the low

end of this axis (low wing). An airplane in a slip is in

fact flying sideways. This results in a change in the

direction the relative wind strikes the airplane. Slips

are characterized by a marked increase in drag and

corresponding decrease in airplane climb, cruise, and

glide performance. It is the increase in drag, however, that makes it possible for an airplane in a slip to

descend rapidly without an increase in airspeed.

Most airplanes exhibit the characteristic of positive

static directional stability and, therefore, have a natural tendency to compensate for slipping. An intentional

slip, therefore, requires deliberate cross-controlling

ailerons and rudder throughout the maneuver.

A “sideslip” is entered by lowering a wing and applying

just enough opposite rudder to prevent a turn. In a

sideslip, the airplane’s longitudinal axis remains parallel to the original flightpath, but the airplane no

longer flies straight ahead. Instead the horizontal

component of wing lift forces the airplane also to

move somewhat sideways toward the low wing.

[Figure 8-12] The amount of slip, and therefore the

rate of sideward movement, is determined by the bank

angle. The steeper the bank—the greater the degree of

slip. As bank angle is increased, however, additional

opposite rudder is required to prevent turning.

A “forward slip” is one in which the airplane’s

direction of motion continues the same as before the

slip was begun. Assuming the airplane is originally

in straight flight, the wing on the side toward which

Direction of Movement

Relative Wind

Sideslip

Figure 8-12. Sideslip.

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8-11

the slip is to be made should be lowered by use of the

ailerons. Simultaneously, the airplane’s nose must be

yawed in the opposite direction by applying opposite

rudder so that the airplane’s longitudinal axis is at an

angle to its original flightpath. [Figure 8-13] The

degree to which the nose is yawed in the opposite

direction from the bank should be such that the

original ground track is maintained. In a forward slip,

the amount of slip, and therefore the sink rate, is

determined by the bank angle. The steeper the bank—

the steeper the descent.

In most light airplanes, the steepness of a slip is

limited by the amount of rudder travel available. In

both sideslips and forward slips, the point may be

reached where full rudder is required to maintain

heading even though the ailerons are capable of further

steepening the bank angle. This is the practical slip

limit, because any additional bank would cause the

airplane to turn even though full opposite rudder is

being applied. If there is a need to descend more

rapidly even though the practical slip limit has been

reached, lowering the nose will not only increase the

sink rate but will also increase airspeed. The increase

in airspeed increases rudder effectiveness permitting

a steeper slip. Conversely, when the nose is raised,

rudder effectiveness decreases and the bank angle must

be reduced.

Discontinuing a slip is accomplished by leveling the

wings and simultaneously releasing the rudder

pressure while readjusting the pitch attitude to the

normal glide attitude. If the pressure on the rudder is

released abruptly, the nose will swing too quickly into

line and the airplane will tend to acquire excess speed.

Because of the location of the pitot tube and static

vents, airspeed indicators in some airplanes may have

considerable error when the airplane is in a slip. The

pilot must be aware of this possibility and recognize a

properly performed slip by the attitude of the airplane,

the sound of the airflow, and the feel of the flight

controls. Unlike skids, however, if an airplane in a slip

is made to stall, it displays very little of the yawing

tendency that causes a skidding stall to develop into a

spin. The airplane in a slip may do little more than tend

to roll into a wings level attitude. In fact, in some

airplanes stall characteristics may even be improved.

GO-AROUNDS 

(REJECTED LANDINGS)

Whenever landing conditions are not satisfactory, a

go-around is warranted. There are many factors that

can contribute to unsatisfactory landing conditions.

Situations such as air traffic control requirements,

unexpected appearance of hazards on the runway,

overtaking another airplane, wind shear,

wake turbulence, mechanical failure and/or an

unstabilized approach are all examples of reasons to

discontinue a landing approach and make another

approach under more favorable conditions. The

assumption that an aborted landing is invariably the

consequence of a poor approach, which in turn is due

to insufficient experience or skill, is a fallacy. The

go-around is not strictly an emergency procedure. It

is a normal maneuver that may at times be used in an

emergency situation. Like any other normal maneuver,

the go-around must be practiced and perfected. The flight

instructor should emphasize early on, and the student

pilot should be made to understand, that the go-around

maneuver is an alternative to any approach

and/or landing.

Although the need to discontinue a landing may arise

at any point in the landing process, the most critical

go-around will be one started when very close to the

ground. Therefore, the earlier a condition that warrants a

go-around is recognized, the safer the go-around/rejected

landing will be. The go-around maneuver is not

inherently dangerous in itself. It becomes dangerous

only when delayed unduly or executed improperly.

Delay in initiating the go-around normally stems from

two sources: (1) landing expectancy, or set—the

anticipatory belief that conditions are not as

threatening as they are and that the approach will

surely be terminated with a safe landing, and (2)

pride—the mistaken belief that the act of going around

is an admission of failure—failure to execute the

approach properly. The improper execution of the goaround maneuver stems from a lack of familiarity with

the three cardinal principles of the procedure: power,

attitude, and configuration.

POWER

Power is the pilot’s first concern. The instant the

pilot decides to go around, full or maximum allowable takeoff power must be applied smoothly and

without hesitation, and held until flying speed and

controllability are restored. Applying only partial

power in a go-around is never appropriate. The pilot

Direction of Movement

Relative Wind

Forward Slip

Figure 8-13. Forward slip.

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must be aware of the degree of inertia that must be

overcome, before an airplane that is settling towards

the ground can regain sufficient airspeed to become

fully controllable and capable of turning safely or

climbing. The application of power should be smooth

as well as positive. Abrupt movements of the throttle

in some airplanes will cause the engine to falter.

Carburetor heat should be turned off for maximum

power.

ATTITUDE

Attitude is always critical when close to the ground,

and when power is added, a deliberate effort on the part

of the pilot will be required to keep the nose from

pitching up prematurely. The airplane executing a goaround must be maintained in an attitude that permits a

buildup of airspeed well beyond the stall point before

any effort is made to gain altitude, or to execute a turn.

Raising the nose too early may produce a stall from

which the airplane could not be recovered if the

go-around is performed at a low altitude. 

A concern for quickly regaining altitude during a goaround produces a natural tendency to pull the nose up.

The pilot executing a go-around must accept the fact

that an airplane will not climb until it can fly, and it

will not fly below stall speed. In some circumstances,

it may be desirable to lower the nose briefly to gain

airspeed. As soon as the appropriate climb airspeed and

pitch attitude are attained, the pilot should “rough

trim” the airplane to relieve any adverse control pressures. Later, more precise trim adjustments can be

made when flight conditions have stabilized.

CONFIGURATION

In cleaning up the airplane during the go-around, the

pilot should be concerned first with flaps and secondly

with the landing gear (if retractable). When the decision is made to perform a go-around, takeoff power

should be applied immediately and the pitch attitude

changed so as to slow or stop the descent. After the

descent has been stopped, the landing flaps may be

partially retracted or placed in the takeoff position as

recommended by the manufacturer. Caution must be

used, however, in retracting the flaps. Depending on

the airplane’s altitude and airspeed, it may be wise to

retract the flaps intermittently in small increments to

allow time for the airplane to accelerate progressively

as they are being raised. A sudden and complete retraction of the flaps could cause a loss of lift resulting in

the airplane settling into the ground. [Figure 8-14]

Unless otherwise specified in the AFM/POH, it is generally recommended that the flaps be retracted (at least

partially) before retracting the landing gear—for two

reasons. First, on most airplanes full flaps produce

more drag than the landing gear; and second, in case

the airplane should inadvertently touch down as the

go-around is initiated, it is most desirable to have the

landing gear in the down-and-locked position. After a

positive rate of climb is established, the landing gear

can be retracted.

When takeoff power is applied, it will usually be necessary to hold considerable pressure on the controls to

maintain straight flight and a safe climb attitude. Since

the airplane has been trimmed for the approach (a low

power and low airspeed condition), application of

maximum allowable power will require considerable

control pressure to maintain a climb pitch attitude. The

addition of power will tend to raise the airplane’s nose

suddenly and veer to the left. Forward elevator pressure

must be anticipated and applied to hold the nose in a

safe climb attitude. Right rudder pressure must be

increased to counteract torque and P-factor, and to keep

the nose straight. The airplane must be held in the proper

flight attitude regardless of the amount of control

pressure that is required. Trim should be used to

relieve adverse control pressures and assist the pilot in

maintaining a proper pitch attitude. On airplanes that

produce high control pressures when using maximum

power on go-arounds, pilots should use caution when

reaching for the flap handle. Airplane control may

become critical during this high workload phase.

Retract Remaining

Flaps Positive Rate

of Climb, Retract

Gear, Climb

at VY

500'

Cruise Climb

Timely Decision to

Make Go-Around Apply Max Power

Adjust Pitch Attitude

Allow Airspeed to Increase

Assume Climb Atttude

Flaps to

Intermediate

Figure 8-14. Go-around procedure.

8-12

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8-13

The landing gear should be retracted only after the initial or rough trim has been accomplished and when it is

certain the airplane will remain airborne. During the

initial part of an extremely low go-around, the airplane

may settle onto the runway and bounce. This situation

is not particularly dangerous if the airplane is kept

straight and a constant, safe pitch attitude is maintained. The airplane will be approaching safe flying

speed rapidly and the advanced power will cushion any

secondary touchdown.

If the pitch attitude is increased excessively in an effort

to keep the airplane from contacting the runway, it may

cause the airplane to stall. This would be especially

likely if no trim correction is made and the flaps

remain fully extended. The pilot should not attempt to

retract the landing gear until after a rough trim is

accomplished and a positive rate of climb is established.

GROUND EFFECT

Ground effect is a factor in every landing and every

takeoff in fixed-wing airplanes. Ground effect can also

be an important factor in go-arounds. If the go-around

is made close to the ground, the airplane may be in the

ground effect area. Pilots are often lulled into a sense

of false security by the apparent “cushion of air” under

the wings that initially assists in the transition from an

approach descent to a climb. This “cushion of air,”

however, is imaginary. The apparent increase in airplane performance is, in fact, due to a reduction in

induced drag in the ground effect area. It is “borrowed”

performance that must be repaid when the airplane

climbs out of the ground effect area. The pilot must

factor in ground effect when initiating a go-around

close to the ground. An attempt to climb prematurely

may result in the airplane not being able to climb, or

even maintain altitude at full power.

Common errors in the performance of go-arounds

(rejected landings) are:

• Failure to recognize a condition that warrants a

rejected landing.

• Indecision.

• Delay in initiating a go-round.

• Failure to apply maximum allowable power in a

timely manner.

• Abrupt power application.

• Improper pitch attitude.

• Failure to configure the airplane appropriately.

• Attempting to climb out of ground effect prematurely.

• Failure to adequately compensate for torque/Pfactor.

CROSSWIND 

APPROACH AND LANDING

Many runways or landing areas are such that landings

must be made while the wind is blowing across rather

than parallel to the landing direction. All pilots should

be prepared to cope with these situations when they

arise. The same basic principles and factors involved

in a normal approach and landing apply to a crosswind

approach and landing; therefore, only the additional

procedures required for correcting for wind drift are

discussed here.

Crosswind landings are a little more difficult to perform than crosswind takeoffs, mainly due to different

problems involved in maintaining accurate control of

the airplane while its speed is decreasing rather than

increasing as on takeoff.

There are two usual methods of accomplishing a crosswind approach and landing—the crab method and the

wing-low (sideslip) method. Although the crab method

may be easier for the pilot to maintain during final

approach, it requires a high degree of judgment and

timing in removing the crab immediately prior to

touchdown. The wing-low method is recommended in

most cases, although a combination of both methods

may be used.

CROSSWIND FINAL APPROACH

The crab method is executed by establishing a heading

(crab) toward the wind with the wings level so that the

airplane’s ground track remains aligned with the centerline of the runway. [Figure 8-15] This crab angle is

maintained until just prior to touchdown, when the

longitudinal axis of the airplane must be aligned with

the runway to avoid sideward contact of the wheels

with the runway. If a long final approach is being

flown, the pilot may use the crab method until just

before the roundout is started and then smoothly

change to the wing-low method for the remainder of

the landing.

Figure 8-15. Crabbed approach.

The wing-low (sideslip) method will compensate for a

crosswind from any angle, but more important, it

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-13
enables the pilot to simultaneously keep the airplane’s

ground track and longitudinal axis aligned with the

runway centerline throughout the final approach,

roundout, touchdown, and after-landing roll. This

prevents the airplane from touching down in a sideward motion and imposing damaging side loads on

the landing gear.

To use the wing-low method, the pilot aligns the airplane’s heading with the centerline of the runway,

notes the rate and direction of drift, and then promptly

applies drift correction by lowering the upwind wing.

[Figure 8-16] The amount the wing must be lowered

depends on the rate of drift. When the wing is lowered,

the airplane will tend to turn in that direction. It is then

necessary to simultaneously apply sufficient opposite

rudder pressure to prevent the turn and keep the airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned with the runway. In

other words, the drift is controlled with aileron, and

the heading with rudder. The airplane will now be

sideslipping into the wind just enough that both the

resultant flightpath and the ground track are aligned

with the runway. If the crosswind diminishes, this

crosswind correction is reduced accordingly, or the

airplane will begin slipping away from the desired

approach path. [Figure 8-17]

To correct for strong crosswind, the slip into the wind

is increased by lowering the upwind wing a considerable amount. As a consequence, this will result in a

greater tendency of the airplane to turn. Since turning

is not desired, considerable opposite rudder must be

applied to keep the airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned

with the runway. In some airplanes, there may not be

sufficient rudder travel available to compensate for the

strong turning tendency caused by the steep bank. If

the required bank is such that full opposite rudder will

not prevent a turn, the wind is too strong to safely land

the airplane on that particular runway with those wind

conditions. Since the airplane’s capability will be

exceeded, it is imperative that the landing be made on Figure 8-16. Sideslip approach.

Figure 8-17. Crosswind approach and landing.

8-14

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8-15

a more favorable runway either at that airport or at an

alternate airport.

Flaps can and should be used during most approaches

since they tend to have a stabilizing effect on the airplane. The degree to which flaps should be extended

will vary with the airplane’s handling characteristics,

as well as the wind velocity.

CROSSWIND ROUNDOUT (FLARE)

Generally, the roundout can be made like a normal

landing approach, but the application of a crosswind

correction is continued as necessary to prevent

drifting.

Since the airspeed decreases as the roundout progresses, the flight controls gradually become less

effective. As a result, the crosswind correction being

held will become inadequate. When using the winglow method, it is necessary to gradually increase the

deflection of the rudder and ailerons to maintain the

proper amount of drift correction.

Do not level the wings; keep the upwind wing down

throughout the roundout. If the wings are leveled, the

airplane will begin drifting and the touchdown will

occur while drifting. Remember, the primary objective

is to land the airplane without subjecting it to any side

loads that result from touching down while drifting.

CROSSWIND TOUCHDOWN

If the crab method of drift correction has been used

throughout the final approach and roundout, the crab

must be removed the instant before touchdown by

applying rudder to align the airplane’s longitudinal

axis with its direction of movement. This requires

timely and accurate action. Failure to accomplish this

will result in severe side loads being imposed on the

landing gear.

If the wing-low method is used, the crosswind correction (aileron into the wind and opposite rudder)

should be maintained throughout the roundout, and

the touchdown made on the upwind main wheel.

During gusty or high wind conditions, prompt adjustments must be made in the crosswind correction to

assure that the airplane does not drift as the airplane

touches down.

As the forward momentum decreases after initial

contact, the weight of the airplane will cause the

downwind main wheel to gradually settle onto the

runway.

In those airplanes having nosewheel steering interconnected with the rudder, the nosewheel may not be

aligned with the runway as the wheels touch down

because opposite rudder is being held in the crosswind

correction. To prevent swerving in the direction the

nosewheel is offset, the corrective rudder pressure

must be promptly relaxed just as the nosewheel

touches down.

CROSSWIND AFTER-LANDING ROLL

Particularly during the after-landing roll, special

attention must be given to maintaining directional

control by the use of rudder or nosewheel steering,

while keeping the upwind wing from rising by the use

of aileron.

When an airplane is airborne, it moves with the air

mass in which it is flying regardless of the airplane’s

heading and speed. When an airplane is on the ground,

it is unable to move with the air mass (crosswind)

because of the resistance created by ground friction on

the wheels.

Characteristically, an airplane has a greater profile or

side area, behind the main landing gear than forward

of it does. With the main wheels acting as a pivot point

and the greater surface area exposed to the crosswind

behind that pivot point, the airplane will tend to turn or

weathervane into the wind.

Wind acting on an airplane during crosswind landings

is the result of two factors. One is the natural wind,

which acts in the direction the air mass is traveling, while

the other is induced by the movement of the airplane and

acts parallel to the direction of movement. Consequently,

a crosswind has a headwind component acting along

the airplane’s ground track and a crosswind component

acting 90° to its track. The resultant or relative wind is

somewhere between the two components. As the

airplane’s forward speed decreases during the afterlanding roll, the headwind component decreases and the

relative wind has more of a crosswind component. The

greater the crosswind component, the more difficult it is

to prevent weathervaning.

Retaining control on the ground is a critical part of the

after-landing roll, because of the weathervaning effect

of the wind on the airplane. Additionally, tire side load

from runway contact while drifting frequently generates roll-overs in tricycle geared airplanes. The basic

factors involved are cornering angle and side load.

Cornering angle is the angular difference between the

heading of a tire and its path. Whenever a load bearing

tire’s path and heading diverge, a side load is created.

It is accompanied by tire distortion. Although side load

differs in varying tires and air pressures, it is completely

independent of speed, and through a considerable

range, is directional proportional to the cornering angle

and the weight supported by the tire. As little as 10° of

cornering angle will create a side load equal to half the

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-15
supported weight; after 20° the side load does not

increase with increasing cornering angle. For each

high-wing, tricycle geared airplane, there is a cornering angle at which roll-over is inevitable. The roll-over

axis being the line linking the nose and main wheels.

At lesser angles, the roll-over may be avoided by use

of ailerons, rudder, or steerable nosewheel but not

brakes.

While the airplane is decelerating during the afterlanding roll, more and more aileron is applied to keep

the upwind wing from rising. Since the airplane is

slowing down, there is less airflow around the ailerons

and they become less effective. At the same time, the

relative wind is becoming more of a crosswind and

exerting a greater lifting force on the upwind wing.

When the airplane is coming to a stop, the aileron control must be held fully toward the wind.

MAXIMUM SAFE CROSSWIND VELOCITIES

Takeoffs and landings in certain crosswind conditions

are inadvisable or even dangerous. [Figure 8-18] If the

crosswind is great enough to warrant an extreme drift

correction, a hazardous landing condition may result.

Therefore, the takeoff and landing capabilities with

respect to the reported surface wind conditions and the

available landing directions must be considered.

Figure 8-18. Crosswind chart.

Before an airplane is type certificated by the Federal

Aviation Administration (FAA), it must be flight tested

to meet certain requirements. Among these is the

demonstration of being satisfactorily controllable with

no exceptional degree of skill or alertness on the part

of the pilot in 90° crosswinds up to a velocity equal to

0.2 VSO. This means a windspeed of two-tenths of the

airplane’s stalling speed with power off and landing

gear/flaps down. Regulations require that the demonstrated crosswind velocity be included on a placard in

airplanes certificated after May 3, 1962.

The headwind component and the crosswind component

for a given situation can be determined by reference

to a crosswind component chart. [Figure 8-19] It is

imperative that pilots determine the maximum

crosswind component of each airplane they fly, and

avoid operations in wind conditions that exceed the

capability of the airplane.

Figure 8-19. Crosswind component chart.

Common errors in the performance of crosswind

approaches and landings are:

• Attempting to land in crosswinds that exceed the

airplane’s maximum demonstrated crosswind

component.

• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on the

turn from base leg to final approach, resulting in

undershooting or overshooting.

• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on final

approach.

• Unstabilized approach.

• Failure to compensate for increased drag during

sideslip resulting in excessive sink rate and/or

too low an airspeed.

• Touchdown while drifting.

60

50

40

30

20

10

 0

Wind Velocity – MPH

20 40 60 80 100

Wind Angle – Degrees

Direct

Crosswind

8-16

60

50

40

30

20

10

 0

Headwind Component

10 20 30 40 50 60

Crosswind Component

10° 0° 20°

30°

40°

50°

60°

70°

80°

90°

WIND VELOCITY

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-16
• Excessive airspeed on touchdown.

• Failure to apply appropriate flight control inputs

during rollout.

• Failure to maintain direction control on rollout.

• Excessive braking.

TURBULENT AIR 

APPROACH AND LANDING

Power-on approaches at an airspeed slightly above the

normal approach speed should be used for landing in

turbulent air. This provides for more positive control

of the airplane when strong horizontal wind gusts, or

up and down drafts, are experienced. Like other

power-on approaches (when the pilot can vary the

amount of power), a coordinated combination of both

pitch and power adjustments is usually required. As in

most other landing approaches, the proper approach

attitude and airspeed require a minimum roundout and

should result in little or no floating during the landing.

To maintain good control, the approach in turbulent air

with gusty crosswind may require the use of partial

wing flaps. With less than full flaps, the airplane will

be in a higher pitch attitude. Thus, it will require less

of a pitch change to establish the landing attitude, and

the touchdown will be at a higher airspeed to ensure

more positive control. The speed should not be so

excessive that the airplane will float past the desired

landing area.

One procedure is to use the normal approach speed

plus one-half of the wind gust factors. If the normal

speed is 70 knots, and the wind gusts increase 15 knots,

airspeed of 77 knots is appropriate. In any case, the airspeed and the amount of flaps should be as the airplane

manufacturer recommends.

An adequate amount of power should be used to maintain the proper airspeed and descent path throughout

the approach, and the throttle retarded to idling position

only after the main wheels contact the landing surface.

Care must be exercised in closing the throttle before the

pilot is ready for touchdown. In this situation, the sudden

or premature closing of the throttle may cause a sudden

increase in the descent rate that could result in a hard

landing.

Landings from power approaches in turbulence should

be such that the touchdown is made with the airplane

in approximately level flight attitude. The pitch attitude

at touchdown should be only enough to prevent the

nosewheel from contacting the surface before the main

wheels have touched the surface. After touchdown, the

pilot should avoid the tendency to apply forward pressure on the yoke as this may result in wheelbarrowing

and possible loss of control. The airplane should be

allowed to decelerate normally, assisted by careful use

of wheel brakes. Heavy braking should be avoided until

the wings are devoid of lift and the airplane’s full

weight is resting on the landing gear.

SHORT-FIELD APPROACH 

AND LANDING

Short-field approaches and landings require the use of

procedures for approaches and landings at fields with a

relatively short landing area or where an approach is

made over obstacles that limit the available landing area.

[Figures 8-20 and 8-21] As in short-field takeoffs, it is

one of the most critical of the maximum performance

operations. It requires that the pilot fly the airplane at

one of its crucial performance capabilities while close to

the ground in order to safely land within confined areas.

This low-speed type of power-on approach is closely

related to the performance of flight at minimum

controllable airspeeds.

8-17

Effective Runway

Length

Obstacle Clearance

Figure 8-20. Landing over an obstacle.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-17
To land within a short-field or a confined area, the pilot

must have precise, positive control of the rate of

descent and airspeed to produce an approach that will

clear any obstacles, result in little or no floating during

the roundout, and permit the airplane to be stopped in

the shortest possible distance.

The procedures for landing in a short-field or for landing approaches over obstacles, as recommended in the

AFM/POH, should be used. A stabilized approach is

essential. [Figures 8-22 and 8-23] These procedures

generally involve the use of full flaps, and the final

approach started from an altitude of at least 500 feet

higher than the touchdown area. A wider than normal

pattern should be used so that the airplane can be

properly configured and trimmed. In the absence of

the manufacturer’s recommended approach speed, a

speed of not more than 1.3 VSO should be used. For

example, in an airplane that stalls at 60 knots with

power off, and flaps and landing gear extended, the

approach speed should not be higher than 78 knots. In

gusty air, no more than one-half the gust factor should

be added. An excessive amount of airspeed could result

in a touchdown too far from the runway threshold or

an after-landing roll that exceeds the available landing

area.

After the landing gear and full flaps have been

extended, the pilot should simultaneously adjust the

power and the pitch attitude to establish and maintain

the proper descent angle and airspeed. A coordinated

combination of both pitch and power adjustments is

required. When this is done properly, very little change

in the airplane’s pitch attitude and power setting is

necessary to make corrections in the angle of descent

and airspeed.

The short-field approach and landing is in reality an

accuracy approach to a spot landing. The procedures

previously outlined in the section on the stabilized

approach concept should be used. If it appears that

the obstacle clearance is excessive and touchdown

will occur well beyond the desired spot, leaving

insufficient room to stop, power may be reduced

while lowering the pitch attitude to steepen the

descent path and increase the rate of descent. If it

appears that the descent angle will not ensure safe

clearance of obstacles, power should be increased

while simultaneously raising the pitch attitude to

shallow the descent path and decrease the rate of

descent. Care must be taken to avoid an excessively

low airspeed. If the speed is allowed to become too

slow, an increase in pitch and application of full power

Non-Obstacle Clearance Effective Runway Length

Figure 8-21. Landing on a short-field.

Figure 8-22. Stabilized approach.

8-18

Stabilized

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-18
may only result in a further rate of descent. This occurs

when the angle of attack is so great and creating so

much drag that the maximum available power is

insufficient to overcome it. This is generally referred

to as operating in the region of reversed command

or operating on the back side of the power curve.

Because the final approach over obstacles is made at a

relatively steep approach angle and close to the airplane’s stalling speed, the initiation of the roundout or

flare must be judged accurately to avoid flying into the

ground, or stalling prematurely and sinking rapidly. A

lack of floating during the flare, with sufficient control

to touch down properly, is one verification that the

approach speed was correct.

Touchdown should occur at the minimum controllable

airspeed with the airplane in approximately the pitch

attitude that will result in a power-off stall when the

throttle is closed. Care must be exercised to avoid closing the throttle too rapidly before the pilot is ready for

touchdown, as closing the throttle may result in an

immediate increase in the rate of descent and a hard

landing.

Upon touchdown, the airplane should be held in this

positive pitch attitude as long as the elevators remain

effective. This will provide aerodynamic braking to

assist in deceleration.

Immediately upon touchdown, and closing the throttle,

appropriate braking should be applied to minimize the

after-landing roll. The airplane should be stopped

within the shortest possible distance consistent with

safety and controllability. If the proper approach speed

has been maintained, resulting in minimum float

during the roundout, and the touchdown made at

minimum control speed, minimum braking will be

required.

Common errors in the performance of short-field

approaches and landings are:

• Failure to allow enough room on final to set up

the approach, necessitating an overly steep

approach and high sink rate.

• Unstabilized approach.

• Undue delay in initiating glidepath corrections.

• Too low an airspeed on final resulting in inability

to flare properly and landing hard.

• Too high an airspeed resulting in floating on

roundout.

• Prematurely reducing power to idle on roundout

resulting in hard landing.

• Touchdown with excessive airspeed.

• Excessive and/or unnecessary braking after

touchdown.

• Failure to maintain directional control.

SOFT-FIELD APPROACH 

AND LANDING

Landing on fields that are rough or have soft surfaces,

such as snow, sand, mud, or tall grass requires unique

procedures. When landing on such surfaces, the

objective is to touch down as smoothly as possible,

and at the slowest possible landing speed. The pilot

must control the airplane in a manner that the wings

support the weight of the airplane as long as practical, to minimize drag and stresses imposed on the

landing gear by the rough or soft surface.

The approach for the soft-field landing is similar to the

normal approach used for operating into long, firm

landing areas. The major difference between the two is

Figure 8-23. Unstabilized approach.

Unstabilized

8-19

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-19
that, during the soft-field landing, the airplane is held

1 to 2 feet off the surface in ground effect as long as

possible. This permits a more gradual dissipation of

forward speed to allow the wheels to touch down gently at minimum speed. This technique minimizes the

nose-over forces that suddenly affect the airplane at

the moment of touchdown. Power can be used

throughout the level-off and touchdown to ensure

touchdown at the slowest possible airspeed, and the

airplane should be flown onto the ground with the

weight fully supported by the wings. [Figure 8-24]

The use of flaps during soft-field landings will aid in

touching down at minimum speed and is recommended

whenever practical. In low-wing airplanes, the flaps

may suffer damage from mud, stones, or slush thrown

up by the wheels. If flaps are used, it is generally inadvisable to retract them during the after-landing roll

because the need for flap retraction is usually less

important than the need for total concentration on

maintaining full control of the airplane.

The final approach airspeed used for short-field landings is equally appropriate to soft-field landings. The

use of higher approach speeds may result in excessive

float in ground effect, and floating makes a smooth,

controlled touchdown even more difficult. There is,

however, no reason for a steep angle of descent unless

obstacles are present in the approach path.

Touchdown on a soft or rough field should be made at

the lowest possible airspeed with the airplane in a

nose-high pitch attitude. In nosewheel-type airplanes,

after the main wheels touch the surface, the pilot

should hold sufficient back-elevator pressure to keep

the nosewheel off the surface. Using back-elevator

pressure and engine power, the pilot can control the

rate at which the weight of the airplane is transferred

from the wings to the wheels.

Field conditions may warrant that the pilot maintain a

flight condition in which the main wheels are just

touching the surface but the weight of the airplane is

still being supported by the wings, until a suitable taxi

surface is reached. At any time during this transition

phase, before the weight of the airplane is being supported by the wheels, and before the nosewheel is on

the surface, the pilot should be able to apply full

power and perform a safe takeoff (obstacle clearance

and field length permitting) should the pilot elect to

abandon the landing. Once committed to a landing,

the pilot should gently lower the nosewheel to the

surface. A slight addition of power usually will aid in

easing the nosewheel down.

The use of brakes on a soft field is not needed and

should be avoided as this may tend to impose a heavy

load on the nose gear due to premature or hard contact

with the landing surface, causing the nosewheel to dig

in. The soft or rough surface itself will provide sufficient reduction in the airplane’s forward speed. Often it

will be found that upon landing on a very soft field, the

pilot will need to increase power to keep the airplane

moving and from becoming stuck in the soft surface.

Common errors in the performance of soft-field

approaches and landings are:

• Excessive descent rate on final approach.

• Excessive airspeed on final approach.

• Unstabilized approach.

• Roundout too high above the runway surface.

• Poor power management during roundout and

touchdown.

• Hard touchdown.

• Inadequate control of the airplane weight transfer from wings to wheels after touchdown.

• Allowing the nosewheel to “fall” to the runway

after touchdown rather than controlling its

descent.

Figure 8-24. Soft/rough field approach and landing.

8-20

Ground Effect

Transition

Area

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-20
8-21

POWER-OFF ACCURACY

APPROACHES

Power-off accuracy approaches are approaches and

landings made by gliding with the engine idling,

through a specific pattern to a touchdown beyond and

within 200 feet of a designated line or mark on the runway. The objective is to instill in the pilot the judgment

and procedures necessary for accurately flying the airplane, without power, to a safe landing.

The ability to estimate the distance an airplane will glide

to a landing is the real basis of all power-off accuracy

approaches and landings. This will largely determine the

amount of maneuvering that may be done from a given

altitude. In addition to the ability to estimate distance, it

requires the ability to maintain the proper glide while

maneuvering the airplane.

With experience and practice, altitudes up to approximately 1,000 feet can be estimated with fair accuracy,

while above this level the accuracy in judgment of height

above the ground decreases, since all features tend to

merge. The best aid in perfecting the ability to judge

height above this altitude is through the indications of the

altimeter and associating them with the general

appearance of the Earth.

The judgment of altitude in feet, hundreds of feet, or

thousands of feet is not as important as the ability to

estimate gliding angle and its resultant distance. The

pilot who knows the normal glide angle of the airplane

can estimate with reasonable accuracy, the approximate

spot along a given ground path at which the airplane

will land, regardless of altitude. The pilot, who also has

the ability to accurately estimate altitude, can judge

how much maneuvering is possible during the glide,

which is important to the choice of landing areas in an

actual emergency.

The objective of a good final approach is to descend at

an angle that will permit the airplane to reach the

desired landing area, and at an airspeed that will result

in minimum floating just before touchdown. To

accomplish this, it is essential that both the descent

angle and the airspeed be accurately controlled.

Unlike a normal approach when the power setting is

variable, on a power-off approach the power is fixed at

the idle setting. Pitch attitude is adjusted to control the

airspeed. This will also change the glide or descent

angle. By lowering the nose to keep the approach airspeed

constant, the descent angle will steepen. If the airspeed is

too high, raise the nose, and when the airspeed is too low,

lower the nose. If the pitch attitude is raised too high, the

airplane will settle rapidly due to a slow airspeed and

insufficient lift. For this reason, never try to stretch a glide

to reach the desired landing spot.

Uniform approach patterns such as the 90°, 180°, or

360° power-off approaches are described further in this

chapter. Practice in these approaches provides the pilot

with a basis on which to develop judgment in gliding

distance and in planning an approach.

The basic procedure in these approaches involves closing the throttle at a given altitude, and gliding to a key

position. This position, like the pattern itself, must not

be allowed to become the primary objective; it is

merely a convenient point in the air from which the

pilot can judge whether the glide will safely terminate

at the desired spot. The selected key position should be

one that is appropriate for the available altitude and the

wind condition. From the key position, the pilot must

constantly evaluate the situation.

It must be emphasized that, although accurate spot

touchdowns are important, safe and properly executed

approaches and landings are vital. The pilot must never

sacrifice a good approach or landing just to land on the

desired spot.

90° POWER-OFF APPROACH

The 90° power-off approach is made from a base leg and

requires only a 90° turn onto the final approach. The

approach path may be varied by positioning the base leg

closer to or farther out from the approach end of the runway according to wind conditions. [Figure 8-25]

The glide from the key position on the base leg through

the 90° turn to the final approach is the final part of all

accuracy landing maneuvers.

The 90° power-off approach usually begins from a

rectangular pattern at approximately 1,000 feet above

the ground or at normal traffic pattern altitude. The

airplane should be flown onto a downwind leg at the

same distance from the landing surface as in a normal

traffic pattern. The before landing checklist should be

completed on the downwind leg, including extension

of the landing gear if the airplane is equipped with

retractable gear.

After a medium-banked turn onto the base leg is completed, the throttle should be retarded slightly and the

airspeed allowed to decrease to the normal base-leg

speed. [Figure 8-26] On the base leg, the airspeed,

wind drift correction, and altitude should be maintained

while proceeding to the 45° key position. At this

position, the intended landing spot will appear to be

on a 45° angle from the airplane’s nose.

The pilot can determine the strength and direction of

the wind from the amount of crab necessary to hold the

desired ground track on the base leg. This will help in

planning the turn onto the final approach and in lowering the correct amount of flaps.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-21
At the 45° key position, the throttle should be closed

completely, the propeller control (if equipped)

advanced to the full increase r.p.m. position, and altitude maintained until the airspeed decreases to the

manufacturer’s recommended glide speed. In the

absence of a recommended speed, use 1.4 VSO. When

this airspeed is attained, the nose should be lowered to

maintain the gliding speed and the controls retrimmed.

The base-to-final turn should be planned and accomplished so that upon rolling out of the turn the airplane

will be aligned with the runway centerline. When on

final approach, the wing flaps are lowered and the

pitch attitude adjusted, as necessary, to establish the

proper descent angle and airspeed (1.3 VSO), then the

controls retrimmed. Slight adjustments in pitch attitude

or flaps setting may be necessary to control the glide

Light Wind

Medium Wind

Strong Wind

Figure 8-25. Plan the base leg for wind conditions.

Figure 8-26. 90° power-off approach.

8-22

45°

Power Reduced

Base Leg Speed

Close Throttle

Established 1.4 V

Base Key

Position

Lower Partial Flaps

Maintain 1.4 V

Lower Full Flaps

(As Needed)

Establish 1.3 V

S0

S0

S0

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-22
8-23

angle and airspeed. However, NEVER TRY TO

STRETCH THE GLIDE OR RETRACT THE FLAPS

to reach the desired landing spot. The final approach

may be made with or without the use of slips.

After the final approach glide has been established, full

attention is then given to making a good, safe landing

rather than concentrating on the selected landing spot.

The base-leg position and the flap setting already

determined the probability of landing on the spot. In

any event, it is better to execute a good landing 200

feet from the spot than to make a poor landing precisely on the spot.

180° POWER-OFF APPROACH

The 180° power-off approach is executed by gliding

with the power off from a given point on a downwind

leg to a preselected landing spot. [Figure 8-27] It is an

extension of the principles involved in the 90° poweroff approach just described. Its objective is to further

develop judgment in estimating distances and glide

ratios, in that the airplane is flown without power from

a higher altitude and through a 90° turn to reach the

base-leg position at a proper altitude for executing the

90° approach.

The 180° power-off approach requires more planning

and judgment than the 90° power-off approach. In the

execution of 180° power-off approaches, the airplane

is flown on a downwind heading parallel to the landing

runway. The altitude from which this type of approach

should be started will vary with the type of airplane,

but it should usually not exceed 1,000 feet above the

ground, except with large airplanes. Greater accuracy

in judgment and maneuvering is required at higher

altitudes.

When abreast of or opposite the desired landing spot,

the throttle should be closed and altitude maintained

while decelerating to the manufacturer’s recommended

glide speed, or 1.4 VSO. The point at which the throttle

is closed is the downwind key position.

The turn from the downwind leg to the base leg should

be a uniform turn with a medium or slightly steeper

bank. The degree of bank and amount of this initial

turn will depend upon the glide angle of the airplane

and the velocity of the wind. Again, the base leg should

be positioned as needed for the altitude, or wind condition. Position the base leg to conserve or dissipate

altitude so as to reach the desired landing spot.

The turn onto the base leg should be made at an altitude high enough and close enough to permit the

airplane to glide to what would normally be the

base key position in a 90° power-off approach.

Although the key position is important, it must not be

overemphasized nor considered as a fixed point on

the ground. Many inexperienced pilots may gain a

conception of it as a particular landmark, such as a

tree, crossroad, or other visual reference, to be

reached at a certain altitude. This will result in a

mechanical conception and leave the pilot at a total

Figure 8-27. 180° power-off approach.

Medium or

Steeper Bank

Lower Partial Flaps

Maintain 1.4 Vs0

Lower Full Flaps

(as Needed)

Establish 1.3 Vs0

Key Position

Close Throttle

Normal Glide Speed

90°

Downwind Leg

Key Position

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-23
8-24

loss any time such objects are not present. Both altitude and geographical location should be varied as

much as is practical to eliminate any such conception.

After reaching the base key position, the approach and

landing are the same as in the 90° power-off approach.

360° POWER-OFF APPROACH

The 360° power-off approach is one in which the airplane glides through a 360° change of direction to

the preselected landing spot. The entire pattern is

designed to be circular, but the turn may be shallowed,

steepened, or discontinued at any point to adjust the

accuracy of the flightpath.

The 360° approach is started from a position over the

approach end of the landing runway or slightly to the

side of it, with the airplane headed in the proposed

landing direction and the landing gear and flaps

retracted. [Figure 8-28]

It is usually initiated from approximately 2,000 feet or

more above the ground—where the wind may vary significantly from that at lower altitudes. This must be

taken into account when maneuvering the airplane to a

point from which a 90° or 180° power-off approach

can be completed.

After the throttle is closed over the intended point of

landing, the proper glide speed should immediately be

established, and a medium-banked turn made in the

desired direction so as to arrive at the downwind key

position opposite the intended landing spot. At or just

beyond the downwind key position, the landing gear

may be extended if the airplane is equipped with

retractable gear. The altitude at the downwind key

position should be approximately 1,000 to 1,200 feet

above the ground.

After reaching that point, the turn should be continued

to arrive at a base-leg key position, at an altitude of

about 800 feet above the terrain. Flaps may be used at

this position, as necessary, but full flaps should not be

used until established on the final approach.

The angle of bank can be varied as needed throughout

the pattern to correct for wind conditions and to align

the airplane with the final approach. The turn-to-final

should be completed at a minimum altitude of 300 feet

above the terrain.

Common errors in the performance of power-off accuracy approaches are:

• Downwind leg too far from the runway/landing

area.

• Overextension of downwind leg resulting from

tailwind.

• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on base

leg.

• Skidding turns in an effort to increase gliding

distance.

Figure 8-28. 360° power-off approach.

Normal Glide Speed

Normal Glide

Speed

Lower Partial Flaps

Maintain 1.4 Vs0

Lower Flaps

as Needed

Establish 1.3 Vs0

Key Position

Key Position

Close Throttle, 

Retract Flaps

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-24
• Failure to lower landing gear in retractable gear

airplanes.

• Attempting to “stretch” the glide during undershoot.

• Premature flap extension/landing gear extension.

• Use of throttle to increase the glide instead of

merely clearing the engine.

• Forcing the airplane onto the runway in order to

avoid overshooting the designated landing spot.

EMERGENCY APPROACHES AND

LANDINGS (SIMULATED)

From time to time on dual flights, the instructor should

give simulated emergency landings by retarding the

throttle and calling “simulated emergency landing.”

The objective of these simulated emergency landings

is to develop the pilot’s accuracy, judgment, planning,

procedures, and confidence when little or no power is

available.

A simulated emergency landing may be given with the

airplane in any configuration. When the instructor calls

“simulated emergency landing,” the pilot should

immediately establish a glide attitude and ensure that

the flaps and landing gear are in the proper configuration for the existing situation. When the proper glide

speed is attained, the nose should then be lowered and

the airplane trimmed to maintain that speed.

A constant gliding speed should be maintained because

variations of gliding speed nullify all attempts at accuracy in judgment of gliding distance and the landing

spot. The many variables, such as altitude, obstruction,

wind direction, landing direction, landing surface and

gradient, and landing distance requirements of the

airplane will determine the pattern and approach procedures to use.

Utilizing any combination of normal gliding maneuvers,

from wings level to spirals, the pilot should eventually

arrive at the normal key position at a normal traffic pattern altitude for the selected landing area. From this

point on, the approach will be as nearly as possible a

normal power-off approach. [Figure 8-29]

With the greater choice of fields afforded by higher

altitudes, the inexperienced pilot may be inclined to

delay making a decision, and with considerable altitude in which to maneuver, errors in maneuvering and

estimation of glide distance may develop.

All pilots should learn to determine the wind direction

and estimate its speed from the windsock at the airport,

smoke from factories or houses, dust, brush fires, and

windmills.

Once a field has been selected, the student pilot should

always be required to indicate it to the instructor.

Normally, the student should be required to plan and

fly a pattern for landing on the field first elected until

the instructor terminates the simulated emergency

Figure 8-29. Remain over intended landing area.

Retract Flaps

Base Key Point

Lower Flaps

Spiral Over

Landing Field

8-25

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-25
landing. This will give the instructor an opportunity to

explain and correct any errors; it will also give the student an opportunity to see the results of the errors.

However, if the student realizes during the approach

that a poor field has been selected—one that would

obviously result in disaster if a landing were to be

made—and there is a more advantageous field within

gliding distance, a change to the better field should be

permitted. The hazards involved in these last-minute

decisions, such as excessive maneuvering at very low

altitudes, should be thoroughly explained by the

instructor.

Slipping the airplane, using flaps, varying the position

of the base leg, and varying the turn onto final

approach should be stressed as ways of correcting for

misjudgment of altitude and glide angle.

Eagerness to get down is one of the most common

faults of inexperienced pilots during simulated emergency landings. In giving way to this, they forget about

speed and arrive at the edge of the field with too much

speed to permit a safe landing. Too much speed may be

just as dangerous as too little; it results in excessive

floating and overshooting the desired landing spot. It

should be impressed on the students that they cannot

dive at a field and expect to land on it.

During all simulated emergency landings, the engine

should be kept warm and cleared. During a simulated

emergency landing, either the instructor or the student

should have complete control of the throttle. There

should be no doubt as to who has control since many

near accidents have occurred from such misunderstandings.

Every simulated emergency landing approach should

be terminated as soon as it can be determined whether

a safe landing could have been made. In no case

should it be continued to a point where it creates an

undue hazard or an annoyance to persons or property

on the ground.

In addition to flying the airplane from the point of

simulated engine failure to where a reasonable safe

landing could be made, the student should also be

taught certain emergency cockpit procedures. The

habit of performing these cockpit procedures should

be developed to such an extent that, when an engine

failure actually occurs, the student will check the critical items that would be necessary to get the engine

operating again while selecting a field and planning

an approach. Combining the two operations—

accomplishing emergency procedures and planning

Figure 8-30. Sample emergency checklist.

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Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-26
and flying the approach—will be difficult for the student during the early training in emergency landings.

There are definite steps and procedures to be followed

in a simulated emergency landing. Although they may

differ somewhat from the procedures used in an actual

emergency, they should be learned thoroughly by the

student, and each step called out to the instructor. The

use of a checklist is strongly recommended. Most

airplane manufacturers provide a checklist of the

appropriate items. [Figure 8-30]

Critical items to be checked should include the position of the fuel tank selector, the quantity of fuel in the

tank selected, the fuel pressure gauge to see if the electric fuel pump is needed, the position of the mixture

control, the position of the magneto switch, and the use

of carburetor heat. Many actual emergency landings

have been made and later found to be the result of the

fuel selector valve being positioned to an empty tank

while the other tank had plenty of fuel. It may be wise

to change the position of the fuel selector valve even

though the fuel gauge indicates fuel in all tanks

because fuel gauges can be inaccurate. Many actual

emergency landings could have been prevented if

the pilots had developed the habit of checking these

critical items during flight training to the extent that

it carried over into later flying.

Instruction in emergency procedures should not be limited to simulated emergency landings caused by power

failures. Other emergencies associated with the operation

of the airplane should be explained, demonstrated, and

practiced if practicable. Among these emergencies are

such occurrences as fire in flight, electrical or hydraulic

system malfunctions, unexpected severe weather

conditions, engine overheating, imminent fuel

exhaustion, and the emergency operation of airplane

systems and equipment.

FAULTY APPROACHES 

AND LANDINGS

LOW FINAL APPROACH

When the base leg is too low, insufficient power is used,

landing flaps are extended prematurely, or the velocity of

the wind is misjudged, sufficient altitude may be lost,

which will cause the airplane to be well below the proper

final approach path. In such a situation, the pilot would

have to apply considerable power to fly the airplane (at

an excessively low altitude) up to the runway threshold.

When it is realized the runway will not be reached

unless appropriate action is taken, power must be

applied immediately to maintain the airspeed while the

pitch attitude is raised to increase lift and stop the

descent. When the proper approach path has been

intercepted, the correct approach attitude should be

reestablished and the power reduced and a stabilized

approach maintained. [Figure 8-31] DO NOT increase

the pitch attitude without increasing the power, since

the airplane will decelerate rapidly and may approach

the critical angle of attack and stall. DO NOT retract

the flaps; this will suddenly decrease lift and cause the

airplane to sink more rapidly. If there is any doubt

about the approach being safely completed, it is advisable to EXECUTE AN IMMEDIATE GO-AROUND.

HIGH FINAL APPROACH

When the final approach is too high, lower the flaps as

required. Further reduction in power may be necessary,

while lowering the nose simultaneously to maintain

approach airspeed and steepen the approach path.

[Figure 8-32] When the proper approach path has been

intercepted, adjust the power as required to maintain a

Figure 8-31. Right and wrong methods of correction for low final approach.

8-27

Normal Approach Path

Add Power 

Nose Up

Hold Altitude

Wrong (Dragging it in with 

High Power / High Pitch Altitude)

Intercept Normal Glidepath

Resume Normal Approach

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-27
stabilized approach. When steepening the approach

path, however, care must be taken that the descent does

not result in an excessively high sink rate. If a high sink

rate is continued close to the surface, it may be difficult

to slow to a proper rate prior to ground contact. Any

sink rate in excess of 800 - 1,000 feet per minute is considered excessive. A go-around should be initiated if

the sink rate becomes excessive.

SLOW FINAL APPROACH

When the airplane is flown at a slower-than-normal

airspeed on the final approach, the pilot’s judgment of

the rate of sink (descent) and the height of roundout

will be difficult. During an excessively slow approach,

the wing is operating near the critical angle of attack

and, depending on the pitch attitude changes and control usage, the airplane may stall or sink rapidly, contacting the ground with a hard impact.

Whenever a slow-speed approach is noted, the pilot

should apply power to accelerate the airplane and

increase the lift to reduce the sink rate and to prevent

a stall. This should be done while still at a high

enough altitude to reestablish the correct approach

airspeed and attitude. If too slow and too low, it is

best to EXECUTE A GO-AROUND.

USE OF POWER

Power can be used effectively during the approach and

roundout to compensate for errors in judgment. Power

can be added to accelerate the airplane to increase lift

without increasing the angle of attack; thus, the descent

can be slowed to an acceptable rate. If the proper

landing attitude has been attained and the airplane is

only slightly high, the landing attitude should be

held constant and sufficient power applied to help

ease the airplane onto the ground. After the airplane

has touched down, it will be necessary to close the

throttle so the additional thrust and lift will be

removed and the airplane will stay on the ground.

HIGH ROUNDOUT

Sometimes when the airplane appears to temporarily

stop moving downward, the roundout has been made

too rapidly and the airplane is flying level, too high

above the runway. Continuing the roundout would

further reduce the airspeed, resulting in an increase

in angle of attack to the critical angle. This would

result in the airplane stalling and dropping hard onto

the runway. To prevent this, the pitch attitude should

be held constant until the airplane decelerates enough

to again start descending. Then the roundout can be

continued to establish the proper landing attitude.

This procedure should only be used when there is

adequate airspeed. It may be necessary to add a slight

amount of power to keep the airspeed from decreasing

excessively and to avoid losing lift too rapidly.

Although back-elevator pressure may be relaxed

slightly, the nose should not be lowered any perceptible amount to make the airplane descend when fairly

close to the runway unless some power is added

momentarily. The momentary decrease in lift that

would result from lowering the nose and decreasing

the angle of attack may be so great that the airplane

might contact the ground with the nosewheel first,

which could collapse.

When the proper landing attitude is attained, the airplane is approaching a stall because the airspeed is

decreasing and the critical angle of attack is being

approached, even though the pitch attitude is no longer

being increased. [Figure 8-33]

It is recommended that a GO-AROUND be executed

any time it appears the nose must be lowered significantly or that the landing is in any other way uncertain.

Figure 8-32. Change in glidepath and increase in descent rate for high final approach.

No Flaps

Full Flaps

Steeper Descent Angle 

Increased Rate of Descent

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Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-28
8-29

LATE OR RAPID ROUNDOUT

Starting the roundout too late or pulling the elevator

control back too rapidly to prevent the airplane from

touching down prematurely can impose a heavy load

factor on the wing and cause an accelerated stall.

Suddenly increasing the angle of attack and stalling the

airplane during a roundout is a dangerous situation

since it may cause the airplane to land extremely hard

on the main landing gear, and then bounce back into

the air. As the airplane contacts the ground, the tail will

be forced down very rapidly by the back-elevator pressure and by inertia acting downward on the tail.

Recovery from this situation requires prompt and

positive application of power prior to occurrence of

the stall. This may be followed by a normal landing if

sufficient runway is available—otherwise the pilot

should EXECUTE A GO-AROUND immediately.

If the roundout is late, the nosewheel may strike the

runway first, causing the nose to bounce upward. No

attempt should be made to force the airplane back onto

the ground; a GO-AROUND should be executed

immediately.

FLOATING DURING ROUNDOUT

If the airspeed on final approach is excessive, it will

usually result in the airplane floating. [Figure 8-34]

Before touchdown can be made, the airplane may be

well past the desired landing point and the available

runway may be insufficient. When diving an airplane

on final approach to land at the proper point, there will

be an appreciable increase in airspeed. The proper

touchdown attitude cannot be established without producing an excessive angle of attack and lift. This will

cause the airplane to gain altitude or balloon.

Any time the airplane floats, judgment of speed,

height, and rate of sink must be especially acute. The

pilot must smoothly and gradually adjust the pitch attitude as the airplane decelerates to touchdown speed

and starts to settle, so the proper landing attitude is

attained at the moment of touchdown. The slightest

Figure 8-33. Rounding out too high.

Figure 8-34. Floating during roundout.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-29
error in judgment and timing will result in either ballooning or bouncing.

The recovery from floating will depend on the amount

of floating and the effect of any crosswind, as well as

the amount of runway remaining. Since prolonged

floating utilizes considerable runway length, it should

be avoided especially on short runways or in strong

crosswinds. If a landing cannot be made on the first

third of the runway, or the airplane drifts sideways, the

pilot should EXECUTE A GO-AROUND.

BALLOONING DURING ROUNDOUT

If the pilot misjudges the rate of sink during a landing

and thinks the airplane is descending faster than it

should, there is a tendency to increase the pitch attitude and angle of attack too rapidly. This not only

stops the descent, but actually starts the airplane

climbing. This climbing during the roundout is

known as ballooning. [Figure 8-35] Ballooning can

be dangerous because the height above the ground is

increasing and the airplane may be rapidly

approaching a stalled condition. The altitude gained

in each instance will depend on the airspeed or the

speed with which the pitch attitude is increased.

When ballooning is slight, a constant landing attitude

should be held and the airplane allowed to gradually

decelerate and settle onto the runway. Depending on

the severity of ballooning, the use of throttle may be

helpful in cushioning the landing. By adding power,

thrust can be increased to keep the airspeed from

decelerating too rapidly and the wings from suddenly

losing lift, but throttle must be closed immediately

after touchdown. Remember that torque will be created as power is applied; therefore, it will be necessary

to use rudder pressure to keep the airplane straight as it

settles onto the runway.

When ballooning is excessive, it is best to EXECUTE

A GO-AROUND IMMEDIATELY; DO NOT

ATTEMPT TO SALVAGE THE LANDING. Power

must be applied before the airplane enters a stalled

condition.

The pilot must be extremely cautious of ballooning

when there is a crosswind present because the crosswind correction may be inadvertently released or it

may become inadequate. Because of the lower airspeed

after ballooning, the crosswind affects the airplane

more. Consequently, the wing will have to be lowered

even further to compensate for the increased drift. It

is imperative that the pilot makes certain that the

appropriate wing is down and that directional control

is maintained with opposite rudder. If there is any

doubt, or the airplane starts to drift, EXECUTE A

GO-AROUND.

BOUNCING DURING TOUCHDOWN

When the airplane contacts the ground with a sharp

impact as the result of an improper attitude or an

excessive rate of sink, it tends to bounce back into the

air. Though the airplane’s tires and shock struts

provide some springing action, the airplane does not

bounce like a rubber ball. Instead, it rebounds into

the air because the wing’s angle of attack was

abruptly increased, producing a sudden addition of

lift. [Figure 8-36]

The abrupt change in angle of attack is the result of

inertia instantly forcing the airplane’s tail downward

when the main wheels contact the ground sharply. The

severity of the bounce depends on the airspeed at the

moment of contact and the degree to which the angle

of attack or pitch attitude was increased.

Since a bounce occurs when the airplane makes contact with the ground before the proper touchdown

Figure 8-35. Ballooning during roundout.

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Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-30
8-31

attitude is attained, it is almost invariably accompanied by the application of excessive back-elevator

pressure. This is usually the result of the pilot realizing

too late that the airplane is not in the proper attitude

and attempting to establish it just as the second touchdown occurs.

The corrective action for a bounce is the same as for

ballooning and similarly depends on its severity. When

it is very slight and there is no extreme change in the

airplane’s pitch attitude, a follow-up landing may be

executed by applying sufficient power to cushion the

subsequent touchdown, and smoothly adjusting the

pitch to the proper touchdown attitude.

In the event a very slight bounce is encountered while

landing with a crosswind, crosswind correction must

be maintained while the next touchdown is made.

Remember that since the subsequent touchdown will

be made at a slower airspeed, the upwind wing will

have to be lowered even further to compensate for

drift.

Extreme caution and alertness must be exercised any

time a bounce occurs, but particularly when there is a

crosswind. Inexperienced pilots will almost invariably

release the crosswind correction. When one main

wheel of the airplane strikes the runway, the other

wheel will touch down immediately afterwards, and

the wings will become level. Then, with no crosswind

correction as the airplane bounces, the wind will cause

the airplane to roll with the wind, thus exposing even

more surface to the crosswind and drifting the airplane

more rapidly.

When a bounce is severe, the safest procedure is to

EXECUTE A GO-AROUND IMMEDIATELY. No

attempt to salvage the landing should be made. Full

power should be applied while simultaneously maintaining directional control, and lowering the nose to a

safe climb attitude. The go-around procedure should

be continued even though the airplane may descend

and another bounce may be encountered. It would be

extremely foolish to attempt a landing from a bad

bounce since airspeed diminishes very rapidly in the

nose-high attitude, and a stall may occur before a

subsequent touchdown could be made.

PORPOISING

In a bounced landing that is improperly recovered,

the airplane comes in nose first setting off a series of

motions that imitate the jumps and dives of a porpoise—

hence the name. [Figure 8-37] The problem is improper

airplane attitude at touchdown, sometimes caused by

inattention, not knowing where the ground is, mistrimming or forcing the airplane onto the runway.

Ground effect decreases elevator control effectiveness

and increases the effort required to raise the nose. Not

enough elevator or stabilator trim can result in a noselow contact with the runway and a porpoise develops.

Porpoising can also be caused by improper airspeed

control. Usually, if an approach is too fast, the airplane

floats and the pilot tries to force it on the runway when

the airplane still wants to fly. A gust of wind, a bump in

the runway, or even a slight tug on the control wheel

will send the airplane aloft again.

The corrective action for a porpoise is the same as for

a bounce and similarly depends on its severity. When

it is very slight and there is no extreme change in the

airplane’s pitch attitude, a follow-up landing may be

executed by applying sufficient power to cushion the

subsequent touchdown, and smoothly adjusting the

pitch to the proper touchdown attitude.

Small Angle

of Attack

Decreasing Angle

of Attack

Rapid Increase in

Angle of Attack

Normal Angle

of Attack

Figure 8-36. Bouncing during touchdown.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-31
When a porpoise is severe, the safest procedure is to

EXECUTE A GO-AROUND IMMEDIATELY. In a

severe porpoise, the airplane’s pitch oscillations can

become progressively worse, until the airplane strikes

the runway nose first with sufficient force to collapse

the nose gear. Pilot attempts to correct a severe porpoise with flight control and power inputs will most

likely be untimely and out of sequence with the oscillations, and only make the situation worse. No attempt

to salvage the landing should be made. Full power

should be applied while simultaneously maintaining

directional control, and lowering the nose to a safe

climb attitude.

WHEELBARROWING

When a pilot permits the airplane weight to become

concentrated about the nosewheel during the takeoff or

landing roll, a condition known as wheelbarrowing will

occur. Wheelbarrowing may cause loss of directional

control during the landing roll because braking action is

ineffective, and the airplane tends to swerve or pivot on

the nosewheel, particularly in crosswind conditions.

One of the most common causes of wheelbarrowing

during the landing roll is a simultaneous touchdown

of the main and nosewheel, with excessive speed,

followed by application of forward pressure on the

elevator control. Usually, the situation can be corrected by smoothly applying back-elevator pressure.

However, if wheelbarrowing is encountered and

runway and other conditions permit, it may be advisable

to promptly initiate a go-around. Wheelbarrowing will

not occur if the pilot achieves and maintains the correct

landing attitude, touches down at the proper speed, and

gently lowers the nosewheel while losing speed on

rollout. If the pilot decides to stay on the ground rather

than attempt a go-around or if directional control is

lost, the throttle should be closed and the pitch attitude smoothly but firmly rotated to the proper landing

attitude. Raise the flaps to reduce lift and to increase

the load on the main wheels for better braking action.

HARD LANDING

When the airplane contacts the ground during landings,

its vertical speed is instantly reduced to zero. Unless

provisions are made to slow this vertical speed and

cushion the impact of touchdown, the force of contact

with the ground may be so great it could cause

structural damage to the airplane.

The purpose of pneumatic tires, shock absorbing landing

gears, and other devices is to cushion the impact and to

increase the time in which the airplane’s vertical descent

is stopped. The importance of this cushion may be

understood from the computation that a 6-inch free fall

on landing is roughly equal, to a 340-foot-per-minute

descent. Within a fraction of a second, the airplane must

be slowed from this rate of vertical descent to zero,

without damage.

During this time, the landing gear together with some

aid from the lift of the wings must supply whatever

force is needed to counteract the force of the airplane’s

inertia and weight. The lift decreases rapidly as the

airplane’s forward speed is decreased, and the force

on the landing gear increases by the impact of

touchdown. When the descent stops, the lift will be

practically zero, leaving the landing gear alone to

carry both the airplane’s weight and inertia force.

The load imposed at the instant of touchdown may

easily be three or four times the actual weight of the

airplane depending on the severity of contact.

TOUCHDOWN IN A DRIFT OR CRAB

At times the pilot may correct for wind drift by crabbing

on the final approach. If the roundout and touchdown are

made while the airplane is drifting or in a crab, it will

contact the ground while moving sideways. This will

impose extreme side loads on the landing gear, and if

severe enough, may cause structural failure.

The most effective method to prevent drift in primary

training airplanes is the wing-low method. This technique keeps the longitudinal axis of the airplane

aligned with both the runway and the direction of

motion throughout the approach and touchdown.

There are three factors that will cause the longitudinal

axis and the direction of motion to be misaligned

during touchdown: drifting, crabbing, or a combination of both.

Decreasing Angle

of Attack

Decreasing Angle

of Attack

Rapid Increase in

Angle of Attack

Rapid Increase in

Angle of Attack

Normal Angle

of Attack

Normal Angle

of Attack

Figure 8-37. Porpoising.

8-32

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8-33

If the pilot has not taken adequate corrective action to

avoid drift during a crosswind landing, the main

wheels’ tire tread offers resistance to the airplane’s

sideward movement in respect to the ground.

Consequently, any sidewise velocity of the airplane is

abruptly decelerated, with the result that the inertia

force is as shown in figure 8-38. This creates a moment

around the main wheel when it contacts the ground,

tending to overturn or tip the airplane. If the windward

wingtip is raised by the action of this moment, all the

weight and shock of landing will be borne by one main

wheel. This could cause structural damage.

Figure 8-38. Drifting during touchdown.

Not only are the same factors present that are attempting to raise a wing, but the crosswind is also acting on

the fuselage surface behind the main wheels, tending

to yaw (weathervane) the airplane into the wind. This

often results in a ground loop.

GROUND LOOP

A ground loop is an uncontrolled turn during ground

operation that may occur while taxiing or taking off,

but especially during the after-landing roll. Drift or

weathervaning does not always cause a ground loop,

although these things may cause the initial swerve.

Careless use of the rudder, an uneven ground surface,

or a soft spot that retards one main wheel of the airplane may also cause a swerve. In any case, the initial

swerve tends to make the airplane ground loop,

whether it is a tailwheel-type or nosewheel-type.

[Figure 8-39]

Nosewheel-type airplanes are somewhat less prone to

ground loop than tailwheel-type airplanes. Since the

center of gravity (CG) is located forward of the main

landing gear on these airplanes, any time a swerve

develops, centrifugal force acting on the CG will tend

to stop the swerving action.

If the airplane touches down while drifting or in a crab,

the pilot should apply aileron toward the high wing and

stop the swerve with the rudder. Brakes should be used

to correct for turns or swerves only when the rudder is

inadequate. The pilot must exercise caution when

applying corrective brake action because it is very easy

to overcontrol and aggravate the situation.

If brakes are used, sufficient brake should be applied

on the low-wing wheel (outside of the turn) to stop the

swerve. When the wings are approximately level, the

new direction must be maintained until the airplane has

slowed to taxi speed or has stopped.

In nosewheel airplanes, a ground loop is almost always

a result of wheelbarrowing. The pilot must be aware that

even though the nosewheel-type airplane is less prone

than the tailwheel-type airplane, virtually every type of

airplane, including large multiengine airplanes, can be

made to ground loop when sufficiently mishandled.

WING RISING AFTER TOUCHDOWN

When landing in a crosswind, there may be instances

when a wing will rise during the after-landing roll. This

may occur whether or not there is a loss of directional

Wind Force

Center of

Gravity

Force Resisting

Side Motion

Inertia Force

Weight

Airplane Tips

and Swerves

CG Continues Moving in

Same Direction of Drift

Touchdown

Roundout

Roundout

Figure 8-39. Start of a ground loop.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-33
8-34

control, depending on the amount of crosswind and the

degree of corrective action.

Any time an airplane is rolling on the ground in a

crosswind condition, the upwind wing is receiving a

greater force from the wind than the downwind wing.

This causes a lift differential. Also, as the upwind wing

rises, there is an increase in the angle of attack, which

increases lift on the upwind wing, rolling the airplane

downwind.

When the effects of these two factors are great enough,

the upwind wing may rise even though directional

control is maintained. If no correction is applied, it is

possible that the upwind wing will rise sufficiently to

cause the downwind wing to strike the ground.

In the event a wing starts to rise during the landing roll,

the pilot should immediately apply more aileron pressure toward the high wing and continue to maintain

direction. The sooner the aileron control is applied,

the more effective it will be. The further a wing is

allowed to rise before taking corrective action, the

more airplane surface is exposed to the force of the

crosswind. This diminishes the effectiveness of the

aileron.

HYDROPLANING

Hydroplaning is a condition that can exist when an

airplane is landed on a runway surface contaminated

with standing water, slush, and/or wet snow.

Hydroplaning can have serious adverse effects on

ground controllability and braking efficiency. The

three basic types of hydroplaning are dynamic

hydroplaning, reverted rubber hydroplaning, and viscous hydroplaning. Any one of the three can render

an airplane partially or totally uncontrollable anytime

during the landing roll.

DYNAMIC HYDROPLANING

Dynamic hydroplaning is a relatively high-speed

phenomenon that occurs when there is a film of water

on the runway that is at least one-tenth inch deep. As the

speed of the airplane and the depth of the water increase,

the water layer builds up an increasing resistance to

displacement, resulting in the formation of a wedge of

water beneath the tire. At some speed, termed the

hydroplaning speed (VP), the water pressure equals the

weight of the airplane and the tire is lifted off the runway

surface. In this condition, the tires no longer contribute to

directional control and braking action is nil.

Dynamic hydroplaning is related to tire inflation

pressure. Data obtained during hydroplaning tests have

shown the minimum dynamic hydroplaning speed (VP)

of a tire to be 8.6 times the square root of the tire

pressure in pounds per square inch (PSI). For an

airplane with a main tire pressure of 24 pounds,

the calculated hydroplaning speed would be

approximately 42 knots. It is important to note that the

calculated speed referred to above is for the start of

dynamic hydroplaning. Once hydroplaning has

started, it may persist to a significantly slower speed

depending on the type being experienced. 

REVERTED RUBBER HYDROPLANING

Reverted rubber (steam) hydroplaning occurs during

heavy braking that results in a prolonged locked-wheel

skid. Only a thin film of water on the runway is

required to facilitate this type of hydroplaning. 

The tire skidding generates enough heat to cause the

rubber in contact with the runway to revert to its

original uncured state. The reverted rubber acts as a

seal between the tire and the runway, and delays

water exit from the tire footprint area. The water

heats and is converted to steam which supports the

tire off the runway.

Reverted rubber hydroplaning frequently follows an

encounter with dynamic hydroplaning, during which

time the pilot may have the brakes locked in an attempt

to slow the airplane. Eventually the airplane slows

enough to where the tires make contact with the

runway surface and the airplane begins to skid. The

remedy for this type of hydroplane is for the pilot to

release the brakes and allow the wheels to spin up

and apply moderate braking. Reverted rubber

hydroplaning is insidious in that the pilot may not

know when it begins, and it can persist to very slow

groundspeeds (20 knots or less).

VISCOUS HYDROPLANING

Viscous hydroplaning is due to the viscous properties

of water. A thin film of fluid no more than one

thousandth of an inch in depth is all that is needed. The

tire cannot penetrate the fluid and the tire rolls on top

of the film. This can occur at a much lower speed than

dynamic hydroplane, but requires a smooth or smooth

acting surface such as asphalt or a touchdown area

coated with the accumulated rubber of past landings.

Such a surface can have the same friction coefficient

as wet ice.

When confronted with the possibility of hydroplaning,

it is best to land on a grooved runway (if available).

Touchdown speed should be as slow as possible

consistent with safety. After the nosewheel is

lowered to the runway, moderate braking should be

applied. If deceleration is not detected and

hydroplaning is suspected, the nose should be raised

and aerodynamic drag utilized to decelerate to a

point where the brakes do become effective.

Proper braking technique is essential. The brakes

should be applied firmly until reaching a point just

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short of a skid. At the first sign of a skid, the pilot

should release brake pressure and allow the wheels to

spin up. Directional control should be maintained as

far as possible with the rudder. Remember that in a

crosswind, if hydroplaning should occur, the

crosswind will cause the airplane to simultaneously

weathervane into the wind as well as slide downwind.

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9-1

PERFORMANCE MANEUVERS

Performance maneuvers are used to develop a high

degree of pilot skill. They aid the pilot in analyzing the

forces acting on the airplane and in developing a fine

control touch, coordination, timing, and division of

attention for precise maneuvering of the airplane.

Performance maneuvers are termed “advanced”

maneuvers because the degree of skill required for

proper execution is normally not acquired until a pilot

has obtained a sense of orientation and control feel in

“normal” maneuvers. An important benefit of

performance maneuvers is the sharpening of

fundamental skills to the degree that the pilot can cope

with unusual or unforeseen circumstances occasionally

encountered in normal flight.

Advanced maneuvers are variations and/or

combinations of the basic maneuvers previously

learned. They embody the same principles and

techniques as the basic maneuvers, but require a higher

degree of skill for proper execution. The student,

therefore, who demonstrates a lack of progress in the

performance of advanced maneuvers, is more than

likely deficient in one or more of the basic maneuvers.

The flight instructor should consider breaking the

advanced maneuver down into its component basic

maneuvers in an attempt to identify and correct

the deficiency before continuing with the

advanced maneuver.

STEEP TURNS

The objective of the maneuver is to develop the

smoothness, coordination, orientation, division of

attention, and control techniques necessary for the

execution of maximum performance turns when the

airplane is near its performance limits. Smoothness of

control use, coordination, and accuracy of execution

are the important features of this maneuver.

The steep turn maneuver consists of a turn in either

direction, using a bank angle between 45 to 60°. This

will cause an overbanking tendency during which

maximum turning performance is attained and

relatively high load factors are imposed. Because of the

high load factors imposed, these turns should be

performed at an airspeed that does not exceed the

airplane’s design maneuvering speed (VA). The

principles of an ordinary steep turn apply, but as a

practice maneuver the steep turns should be continued

until 360° or 720° of turn have been completed.

[Figure 9-1]

Figure 9-1. Steep turns.

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9-2

An airplane’s maximum turning performance is its

fastest rate of turn and its shortest radius of turn, which

change with both airspeed and angle of bank. Each

airplane’s turning performance is limited by the

amount of power its engine is developing, its

limit load factor (structural strength), and its

aerodynamic characteristics.

The limiting load factor determines the maximum

bank, which can be maintained without stalling or

exceeding the airplane’s structural limitations. In most

small planes, the maximum bank has been found to be

approximately 50° to 60°.

The pilot should realize the tremendous additional load

that is imposed on an airplane as the bank is increased

beyond 45°. During a coordinated turn with a 70°

bank, a load factor of approximately 3 Gs is placed on

the airplane’s structure. Most general aviation type

airplanes are stressed for approximately 3.8 Gs.

Regardless of the airspeed or the type of airplanes

involved, a given angle of bank in a turn, during which

altitude is maintained, will always produce the same

load factor. Pilots must be aware that an additional load

factor increases the stalling speed at a significant

rate—stalling speed increases with the square root of

the load factor. For example, a light plane that stalls at

60 knots in level flight will stall at nearly 85 knots in a

60° bank. The pilot’s understanding and observance of

this fact is an indispensable safety precaution for the

performance of all maneuvers requiring turns.

Before starting the steep turn, the pilot should ensure

that the area is clear of other air traffic since the rate of

turn will be quite rapid. After establishing the

manufacturer’s recommended entry speed or the

design maneuvering speed, the airplane should be

smoothly rolled into a selected bank angle between 45

to 60°. As the turn is being established, back-elevator

pressure should be smoothly increased to increase the

angle of attack. This provides the additional wing lift

required to compensate for the increasing load factor.

After the selected bank angle has been reached, the

pilot will find that considerable force is required on the

elevator control to hold the airplane in level flight—to

maintain altitude. Because of this increase in the force

applied to the elevators, the load factor increases

rapidly as the bank is increased. Additional

back-elevator pressure increases the angle of attack,

which results in an increase in drag. Consequently,

power must be added to maintain the entry altitude

and airspeed.

Eventually, as the bank approaches the airplane’s

maximum angle, the maximum performance or

structural limit is being reached. If this limit is

exceeded, the airplane will be subjected to excessive

structural loads, and will lose altitude, or stall. The

limit load factor must not be exceeded, to prevent

structural damage.

During the turn, the pilot should not stare at any one

object. To maintain altitude, as well as orientation,

requires an awareness of the relative position of the

nose, the horizon, the wings, and the amount of bank.

The pilot who references the aircraft’s turn by

watching only the nose will have difficulty holding

altitude constant; on the other hand, the pilot who

watches the nose, the horizon, and the wings can

usually hold altitude within a few feet. If the altitude

begins to increase, or decrease, relaxing or increasing

the back-elevator pressure will be required as

appropriate. This may also require a power adjustment

to maintain the selected airspeed. A small increase or

decrease of 1 to 3° of bank angle may be used to

control small altitude deviations. All bank angle

changes should be done with coordinated use of

aileron and rudder.

The rollout from the turn should be timed so that the

wings reach level flight when the airplane is exactly

on the heading from which the maneuver was started.

While the recovery is being made, back-elevator

pressure is gradually released and power reduced, as

necessary, to maintain the altitude and airspeed.

Common errors in the performance of steep turns are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Excessive pitch change during entry or recovery.

• Attempts to start recovery prematurely.

• Failure to stop the turn on a precise heading.

• Excessive rudder during recovery, resulting in

skidding.

• Inadequate power management.

• Inadequate airspeed control.

• Poor coordination.

• Gaining altitude in right turns and/or losing

altitude in left turns.

• Failure to maintain constant bank angle.

• Disorientation.

• Attempting to perform the maneuver

by instrument reference rather than visual

reference.

• Failure to scan for other traffic during the

maneuver.

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9-3

STEEP SPIRAL

The objective of this maneuver is to improve pilot

techniques for airspeed control, wind drift control,

planning, orientation, and division of attention. The

steep spiral is not only a valuable flight training

maneuver, but it has practical application in providing

a procedure for dissipating altitude while remaining

over a selected spot in preparation for landing,

especially for emergency forced landings.

A steep spiral is a constant gliding turn, during which a

constant radius around a point on the ground is

maintained similar to the maneuver, turns around a

point. The radius should be such that the steepest bank

will not exceed 60°. Sufficient altitude must be

obtained before starting this maneuver so that the

spiral may be continued through a series of at least

three 360° turns. [Figure 9-2] The maneuver should

not be continued below 1,000 feet above the surface

unless performing an emergency landing in

conjunction with the spiral.

Operating the engine at idle speed for a prolonged

period during the glide may result in excessive engine

cooling or spark plug fouling. The engine should be

cleared periodically by briefly advancing the throttle

to normal cruise power, while adjusting the pitch

attitude to maintain a constant airspeed. Preferably,

this should be done while headed into the wind to

minimize any variation in groundspeed and radius

of turn.

After the throttle is closed and gliding speed is

established, a gliding spiral should be started and a turn

of constant radius maintained around the selected spot

on the ground. This will require correction for wind

drift by steepening the bank on downwind headings

and shallowing the bank on upwind headings, just as in

the maneuver, turns around a point. During the

descending spiral, the pilot must judge the direction

and speed of the wind at different altitudes and make

appropriate changes in the angle of bank to maintain a

uniform radius.

A constant airspeed should also be maintained

throughout the maneuver. Failure to hold the airspeed

constant will cause the radius of turn and necessary

angle of bank to vary excessively. On the downwind

side of the maneuver, the steeper the bank angle, the

lower the pitch attitude must be to maintain a given

airspeed. Conversely, on the upwind side, as the bank

angle becomes shallower, the pitch attitude must be

raised to maintain the proper airspeed. This is

necessary because the airspeed tends to change as the

bank is changed from shallow to steep to shallow.

During practice of the maneuver, the pilot should

execute three turns and roll out toward a definite object

or on a specific heading. During the rollout,

smoothness is essential, and the use of controls must

be so coordinated that no increase or decrease of speed

results when the straight glide is resumed.

Figure 9-2. Steep spiral.

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9-4

Common errors in the performance of steep spirals are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Failure to maintain constant airspeed.

• Poor coordination, resulting in skidding and/or

slipping.

• Inadequate wind drift correction.

• Failure to coordinate the controls so that no

increase/decrease in speed results when straight

glide is resumed.

• Failure to scan for other traffic.

• Failure to maintain orientation.

CHANDELLE

The objective of this maneuver is to develop the pilot’s

coordination, orientation, planning, and accuracy of

control during maximum performance flight.

A chandelle is a maximum performance climbing turn

beginning from approximately straight-and-level

flight, and ending at the completion of a precise 180°

of turn in a wings-level, nose-high attitude at the

minimum controllable airspeed. [Figure 9-3] The

maneuver demands that the maximum flight

performance of the airplane be obtained; the airplane

should gain the most altitude possible for a given

degree of bank and power setting without stalling.

Since numerous atmospheric variables beyond control

of the pilot will affect the specific amount of altitude

gained, the quality of the performance of the

maneuver is not judged solely on the altitude gain, but

by the pilot’s overall proficiency as it pertains to climb

performance for the power/bank combination used,

and to the elements of piloting skill demonstrated.

Prior to starting a chandelle, the flaps and gear (if

retractable) should be in the UP position, power set to

cruise condition, and the airspace behind and above

clear of other air traffic. The maneuver should be

entered from straight-and-level flight (or a shallow

dive) and at a speed no greater than the maximum

entry speed recommended by the manufacturer—in

most cases not above the airplane’s design

maneuvering speed (VA).

After the appropriate airspeed and power setting have

been established, the chandelle is started by smoothly

entering a coordinated turn with an angle of bank

appropriate for the airplane being flown. Normally,

this angle of bank should not exceed approximately

30°. After the appropriate bank is established, a

climbing turn should be started by smoothly applying

back-elevator pressure to increase the pitch attitude at

a constant rate and to attain the highest pitch attitude

as 90° of turn is completed. As the climb is initiated in

airplanes with fixed-pitch propellers, full throttle may

be applied, but is applied gradually so that the

maximum allowable r.p.m. is not exceeded. In

airplanes with constant-speed propellers, power may

be left at the normal cruise setting.

Figure 9-3. Chandelle.

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Once the bank has been established, the angle of bank

should remain constant until 90° of turn is completed.

Although the degree of bank is fixed during this

climbing turn, it may appear to increase and, in fact,

actually will tend to increase if allowed to do so as the

maneuver continues.

When the turn has progressed 90° from the original

heading, the pilot should begin rolling out of the bank

at a constant rate while maintaining a constant-pitch

attitude. Since the angle of bank will be decreasing

during the rollout, the vertical component of lift will

increase slightly. For this reason, it may be necessary

to release a slight amount of back-elevator pressure in

order to keep the nose of the airplane from rising

higher.

As the wings are being leveled at the completion of

180° of turn, the pitch attitude should be noted by

checking the outside references and the attitude

indicator. This pitch attitude should be held

momentarily while the airplane is at the minimum

controllable airspeed. Then the pitch attitude may be

gently reduced to return to straight-and-level

cruise flight.

Since the airspeed is constantly decreasing throughout

the maneuver, the effects of engine torque become

more and more prominent. Therefore, right-rudder

pressure is gradually increased to control yaw and

maintain a constant rate of turn and to keep the airplane

in coordinated flight. The pilot should maintain

coordinated flight by the feel of pressures being

applied on the controls and by the ball instrument of

the turn-and-slip indicator. If coordinated flight is

being maintained, the ball will remain in the center of

the race.

To roll out of a left chandelle, the left aileron must be

lowered to raise the left wing. This creates more drag

than the aileron on the right wing, resulting in a

tendency for the airplane to yaw to the left. With the

low airspeed at this point, torque effect tries to make

the airplane yaw to the left even more. Thus, there are

two forces pulling the airplane’s nose to the left—

aileron drag and torque. To maintain coordinated

flight, considerable right-rudder pressure is required

during the rollout to overcome the effects of aileron

drag and torque.

In a chandelle to the right, when control pressure is

applied to begin the rollout, the aileron on the right

wing is lowered. This creates more drag on that wing

and tends to make the airplane yaw to the right. At the

same time, the effect of torque at the lower airspeed is

causing the airplane’s nose to yaw to the left. Thus,

aileron drag pulling the nose to the right and torque

pulling to the left, tend to neutralize each other. If

excessive left-rudder pressure is applied, the rollout

will be uncoordinated.

The rollout to the left can usually be accomplished

with very little left rudder, since the effects of aileron

drag and torque tend to neutralize each other.

Releasing some right rudder, which has been applied

to correct for torque, will normally give the same effect

as applying left-rudder pressure. When the wings

become level and the ailerons are neutralized, the

aileron drag disappears. Because of the low airspeed

and high power, the effects of torque become the more

prominent force and must continue to be controlled

with rudder pressure.

A rollout to the left is accomplished mainly by

applying aileron pressure. During the rollout,

right-rudder pressure should be gradually released, and

left rudder applied only as necessary to maintain

coordination. Even when the wings are level and

aileron pressure is released, right-rudder pressure must

be held to counteract torque and hold the nose straight.

Common errors in the performance of chandelles are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Too shallow an initial bank, resulting in a stall.

• Too steep an initial bank, resulting in failure to

gain maximum performance.

• Allowing the actual bank to increase after establishing initial bank angle.

• Failure to start the recovery at the 90° point in

the turn.

• Allowing the pitch attitude to increase as the

bank is rolled out during the second 90° of turn.

• Removing all of the bank before the 180° point

is reached.

• Nose low on recovery, resulting in too much

airspeed.

• Control roughness.

• Poor coordination (slipping or skidding).

• Stalling at any point during the maneuver.

• Execution of a steep turn instead of a climbing

maneuver.

• Failure to scan for other aircraft.

• Attempting to perform the maneuver by

instrument reference rather than visual reference.

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9-6

LAZY EIGHT

The lazy eight is a maneuver designed to develop

perfect coordination of controls through a wide range

of airspeeds and altitudes so that certain accuracy

points are reached with planned attitude and airspeed.

In its execution, the dive, climb, and turn are all

combined, and the combinations are varied and applied

throughout the performance range of the airplane. It is

the only standard flight training maneuver during

which at no time do the forces on the controls

remain constant. 

The lazy eight as a training maneuver has great value

since constantly varying forces and attitudes are

required. These forces must be constantly coordinated,

due not only to the changing combinations of banks,

dives, and climbs, but also to the constantly varying

airspeed. The maneuver helps develop subconscious

feel, planning, orientation, coordination, and speed

sense. It is not possible to do a lazy eight mechanically,

because the control pressures required for perfect

coordination are never exactly the same.

This maneuver derives its name from the manner in

which the extended longitudinal axis of the airplane is

made to trace a flight pattern in the form of a figure 8

lying on its side (a lazy 8). [Figure 9-4]

A lazy eight consists of two 180° turns, in opposite

directions, while making a climb and a descent in a

symmetrical pattern during each of the turns. At no

time throughout the lazy eight is the airplane flown

straight and level; instead, it is rolled directly from one

bank to the other with the wings level only at the

moment the turn is reversed at the completion of each

180° change in heading.

As an aid to making symmetrical loops of the 8 during

each turn, prominent reference points should be

selected on the horizon. The reference points selected

should be 45°, 90°, and 135° from the direction in

which the maneuver is begun.

Prior to performing a lazy eight, the airspace behind

and above should be clear of other air traffic. The

maneuver should be entered from straight-and-level

flight at normal cruise power and at the airspeed

recommended by the manufacturer or at the airplane’s

design maneuvering speed.

The maneuver is started from level flight with a

gradual climbing turn in the direction of the 45°

reference point. The climbing turn should be planned

and controlled so that the maximum pitch-up attitude

is reached at the 45° point. The rate of rolling into the

bank must be such as to prevent the rate of turn from

becoming too rapid. As the pitch attitude is raised, the

airspeed decreases, causing the rate of turn to increase.

Since the bank also is being increased, it too causes

the rate of turn to increase. Unless the maneuver is

begun with a slow rate of roll, the combination of

increasing pitch and increasing bank will cause the

rate of turn to be so rapid that the 45° reference point

will be reached before the highest pitch attitude

is attained.

At the 45° point, the pitch attitude should be at

maximum and the angle of bank continuing to

Figure 9-4. Lazy eight.

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increase. Also, at the 45° point, the pitch attitude

should start to decrease slowly toward the horizon and

the 90° reference point. Since the airspeed is still

decreasing, right-rudder pressure will have to be

applied to counteract torque.

As the airplane’s nose is being lowered toward the 90°

reference point, the bank should continue to increase.

Due to the decreasing airspeed, a slight amount of

opposite aileron pressure may be required to prevent

the bank from becoming too steep. When the airplane

completes 90° of the turn, the bank should be at the

maximum angle (approximately 30°), the airspeed

should be at its minimum (5 to 10 knots above stall

speed), and the airplane pitch attitude should be

passing through level flight. It is at this time that an

imaginary line, extending from the pilot’s eye and

parallel to the longitudinal axis of the airplane, passes

through the 90° reference point.

Lazy eights normally should be performed with no

more than approximately a 30° bank. Steeper banks

may be used, but control touch and technique must be

developed to a much higher degree than when the

maneuver is performed with a shallower bank.

The pilot should not hesitate at this point but should

continue to fly the airplane into a descending turn so

that the airplane’s nose describes the same size loop

below the horizon as it did above. As the pilot’s

reference line passes through the 90° point, the bank

should be decreased gradually, and the airplane’s nose

allowed to continue lowering. When the airplane has

turned 135°, the nose should be in its lowest pitch

attitude. The airspeed will be increasing during this

descending turn, so it will be necessary to gradually

relax rudder and aileron pressure and to

simultaneously raise the nose and roll the wings level.

As this is being accomplished, the pilot should note the

amount of turn remaining and adjust the rate of rollout

and pitch change so that the wings become level and

the original airspeed is attained in level flight just as

the 180° point is reached. Upon returning to the

starting altitude and the 180° point, a climbing turn

should be started immediately in the opposite direction

toward the selected reference points to complete the

second half of the eight in the same manner as the first

half. [Figure 9-5]

Due to the decreasing airspeed, considerable rightrudder pressure is gradually applied to counteract

torque at the top of the eight in both the right and left

turns. The pressure will be greatest at the point of

lowest airspeed.

More right-rudder pressure will be needed during the

climbing turn to the right than in the turn to the left

because more torque correction is needed to prevent

yaw from decreasing the rate of turn. In the left

climbing turn, the torque will tend to contribute to the

90° POINT

1. BANK APPROX 30°

2. MINIMUM SPEED

3. MAXIMUM ALTITUDE

4. LEVEL PITCH ATTITUDE

135° POINT

1. MAX. PITCH-DOWN

2. BANK 15°(APPROX.)

45° POINT

1. MAX. PITCH-UP

 ATTITUDE

2. BANK 15°

 (APPROX.)

ENTRY:

1. LEVEL FLIGHT

2. MANEUVERING OR CRUISE 

 SPEED WHICHEVER IS LESS

 OR MANUFACTURER'S 

 RECOMMENDED SPEED.

180° POINT 

1. LEVEL FLIGHT

2. ENTRY AIRSPEED

3. ALTITUDE SAME AS

 ENTRY ALTITUDE 

Figure 9-5. Lazy eight.

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turn; consequently, less rudder pressure is needed. It

will be noted that the controls are slightly crossed in

the right climbing turn because of the need for left

aileron pressure to prevent overbanking and right

rudder to overcome torque.

The correct power setting for the lazy eight is that

which will maintain the altitude for the maximum and

minimum airspeeds used during the climbs and

descents of the eight. Obviously, if excess power were

used, the airplane would have gained altitude when the

maneuver is completed; if insufficient power were

used, altitude would have been lost.

Common errors in the performance of lazy eights are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Using the nose, or top of engine cowl, instead of

the true longitudinal axis, resulting in

unsymmetrical loops.

• Watching the airplane instead of the

reference points.

• Inadequate planning, resulting in the peaks of the

loops both above and below the horizon not

coming in the proper place.

• Control roughness, usually caused by attempts

to counteract poor planning.

• Persistent gain or loss of altitude with the

completion of each eight.

• Attempting to perform the maneuver

rhythmically, resulting in poor pattern

symmetry.

• Allowing the airplane to “fall” out of the tops of

the loops rather than flying the airplane through

the maneuver.

• Slipping and/or skidding.

• Failure to scan for other traffic.

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