www.osha.gov

Preventing Mold-Related

Problems in the 

Indoor Workplace

A Guide for Building Owners, Managers and Occupants

OSHA 3304-04N 2006
Employers are responsible for providing a safe and

healthful workplace for their employees. OSHA’s

role is to assure the safety and health of America’s

workers by setting and enforcing standards; providing training, outreach and education; establishing

partnerships; and encouraging continual improvement in workplace safety and health. 

This handbook provides a general overview of a

particular topic related to OSHA standards. It does

not alter or determine compliance responsibilities in

OSHA standards or the Occupational Safety and

Health Act of 1970. Because interpretations and enforcement policy may change over time, you should

consult current OSHA administrative interpretations

and decisions by the Occupational Safety and Health

Review Commission and the Courts for additional

guidance on OSHA compliance requirements.

This publication is in the public domain and may be

reproduced, fully or partially, without permission.

Source credit is requested but not required.

This information is available to sensory impaired

individuals upon request. Voice phone: (202) 693-

1999; teletypewriter (TTY) number: (877) 889-5627.
U.S. Department of Labor

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

OSHA 3304-04N

2006

Preventing MoldRelated Problems in 

the Indoor Workplace

A Guide for Building Owners, 

Managers and Occupants 
2

Contents

Introduction . . . 4

Background . . . 5

Overview . . . 6

Mold . . . 6

Where molds are found . . . 6

The causes of molds in buildings . . . 6

Why building owners and managers need to be

concerned about mold . . . 7

Building-related illnesses (BRIs) . . . 8

How sick building syndrome (SBS) differs from BRI . . . 8

BRIs linked to mold exposure . . . 8

Building-Related Illnesses . . . 9

Health effects that can be caused by mold . . . 9

Preventive Maintenance . . . 9

Preventing mold growth in occupied areas . . . 9

Preventing mold and bacterial growth in the building’s

ventilation system . . . 10

Cleaning the building’s air ducts . . . 11

Protecting building occupants during building

renovations or remodeling . . . 11

Building Evaluation . . . 12

What to do if you suspect that your building 

has mold . . . 12

Selecting a qualified professional who can assist in

providing a safe and healthful work environment . . . 12

Sampling for mold . . . 13

Mold sampling strategies . . . 14
3

The meaning of mold sampling results that are in 

CFU/m2 and CFU/m3 . . . 14

Mold Control and Remediation . . . 15

The purpose of mold remediation . . . 15

Actions for Employees to Take . . . 15

What to do about mold in the workplace . . . 15

Additional Help in Addressing Mold-Related Problems . . . 16

Where to get more information . . . 16

Methods . . . 17

Appendix . . . 18

Allergy . . . 18

Allergic rhinitis . . . 18

Allergic asthma . . . 18

Hypersensitivity pneumonitis . . . 19

Ventilation pneumonitis . . . 20

How HP differs from asthma . . . 20

Infection . . . 20

Systemic fungal infections . . . 20

Toxin-Mediated Conditions . . . 21

Mycotoxins . . . 21

Toxic mold . . . 22

References . . . 23

OSHA Assistance . . . 27

OSHA Regional Offices . . . 32
Introduction

This guide provides basic information about mold, mold

sources, and building-related illnesses. Brief discussions are

included on building design considerations for healthy indoor air,

as well as building evaluation and sampling for mold. However,

detailed information about indoor air quality diagnostic studies

(e.g., normal vs. abnormal levels) and the design and execution of

exposure sampling strategies is not included as this information is

beyond the scope of this initiative. For approaches to remediation

of moldy areas and the appropriate response based on the degree

of the contamination, the reader should consult OSHA’s Safety and

Health Information Bulletin (SHIB 03-10-10) “A Brief Guide to Mold

in the Workplace” (1). Additional information on mold is available

through OSHA’s “Molds and Fungi” safety and health topics

webpage at http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/molds/index.html, which

contains a collection of hyperlinks to various sources of information

regarding mold.

This guidance document is not a standard or regulation, and it creates no

new legal obligations. The guidance is advisory in nature, informational

in content, and is intended to provide relevant information to building

owners, managers, and occupants regarding mold prevention and

remediation in buildings. Contractors and other professionals (e.g., environmental consultants and health or safety professionals) who respond to

mold and moisture situations in buildings, as well as members of the

general public, also may want to refer to these guidelines.

Employers are required to comply with hazard-specific safety and health

standards as issued and enforced by either the Federal Occupational

Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), or an OSHA-approved State

Plan. In addition, Section 5(a)(1) of The Occupational Safety and Health

Act, the General Duty Clause, requires employers to provide their

employees with a workplace free from recognized hazards likely to cause

death or serious physical harm. Employers can be cited for violating the

General Duty Clause if there is such a recognized hazard and they do not

take reasonable steps to prevent or abate the hazard. However, failure to

implement these guidelines is not, in itself, a violation of the General

Duty Clause. Citations can only be based on standards, regulations, and

the General Duty Clause.

4
Background

In 1994, OSHA published in the Federal Register a comprehensive proposed rule on indoor air quality (IAQ) that addressed

adverse health effects attributable to environmental tobacco smoke

(ETS) and other indoor pollutants, including bioaerosols (59 FR

15968). During the IAQ rulemaking, the Agency received comments

and scientific and technical information on indoor mold exposures

associated with building-related illnesses (BRIs). While the IAQ

proposed rule was withdrawn in its entirety in December 2001 (66

FR 64946), the Agency retained the voluminous docket (consisting

of approximately 120,000 documents), which contains valuable

information on ETS and other indoor pollutants, such as chemicals,

bacteria, and molds. 

In preparing this guide OSHA has reviewed the IAQ docket and

recent scientific literature pertaining to mold exposures.1 As a

result of this review, it is clear that the entrance of water (i.e.,

incursion) into buildings that are damaged, poorly designed, or

improperly maintained, is the main source of mold-associated

building-related illness. Consequently, the focus of the review was

directed toward preventive measures to reduce potential environments for mold growth at the source.

The purpose of this guide is to help owners, managers, and

occupants understand and prevent building-related illnesses

associated with mold problems in offices and other indoor

workplaces.2 It is not the intent of this guide to address the special

considerations of building designers, developers, and similar

building professionals; however, they may find certain general

information helpful. In addition, health care professionals,

maintenance workers, custodians, and others who have a role in

the prevention and correction (i.e., remediation) of mold problems

in buildings may derive benefit from the information and recommendations outlined here.

1 See Methods Section of this document for further details regarding the process

used to review the scientific literature and analyze the IAQ docket information

concerning mold exposures.

2 Building-related illnesses discussed in this guide are limited to those illnesses that

arise in nonindustrial, nonresidential buildings.

5
Overview

Mold

Molds are the most common forms of fungi found on the earth.

Fungi are classified as neither plants nor animals, and include

yeasts, mildews, puffballs, and mushrooms (2). Most molds reproduce through the formation of spores, tiny microscopic cells that

float through the indoor and outdoor air on a continual basis (3).

We are all exposed to mold spores in the air we breathe on a daily

basis, both indoors and outdoors. When mold spores land on a

moist surface indoors, they may begin to grow and digest the

surface. Left unchecked, molds can eventually destroy the surfaces

they grow on (3). Molds can be any color.

Molds, their fragments, and metabolic by-products have been

associated with adverse health effects. Some diseases are known to

be caused by specific molds. However, in many occupational

settings health conditions suspected to be mold-related cannot be

linked to a specific mold as the only possible cause. In a wellknown case an initial finding that Stachybotrys chartarum (also

known as S. atra) was linked to acute pulmonary hemorrhage/

hemosiderosis in infants living in a water-damaged environment in

Cleveland, Ohio was subsequently disproved (4). 

Where molds are found

Molds are found almost everywhere in our environment, both

outdoors and indoors. Their spores float continually in the air we

breathe. Molds can grow on just about any substance, as long as

moisture and oxygen are available. Mold growth may occur when

excessive moisture accumulates in buildings or on building materials including carpet, ceiling tile, insulation, paper, wallboard,

wood, surfaces behind wallpaper, or in heating, ventilation, and air

conditioning (HVAC) systems (3, 5).

The causes of molds in buildings

It is impossible to eliminate all molds and mold spores in 

the indoor environment. However, moisture control is the most

important strategy for reducing indoor mold growth. 

6
Common sources of moisture in buildings include plumbing,

roof, and window leaks; flooding; condensation on cold surfaces

(e.g., pipe sweating); poorly maintained drain pans; and wet

foundations due to landscaping or gutters that direct water into or

under the building. Water vapor from unvented or poorly vented

kitchens, showers, combustion appliances, or steam pipes can also

create conditions that promote mold growth (3).

Mold can grow wherever there is dampness. Damp or wet

building materials and furnishings should be cleaned and dried

within 24 to 48 hours to prevent the growth of mold (1, 3).

Why building owners and managers need to be

concerned about mold

Building owners and managers, among others, make numerous

decisions about design, operation, and maintenance throughout the

life cycles of their buildings. 

Structural damage to buildings from mold growth is one concern for building owners and managers. If sources of moisture are

not controlled, mold, which is always present to some degree,

can spread and cause damage to building materials, finishes, and

furnishings. Additionally, some molds can cause structural damage

to wood (6). 

Structural damage, however, is not the only concern. Large

amounts of mold growth in buildings can create odors and may

trigger health effects, such as allergic reactions, in some individuals.

Illnesses that are associated with mold exposures in buildings have

been evaluated in this document. The results of this evaluation

indicate that, in general, the relationships between poor indoor air

quality due to the presence of mold and building-related illnesses

(BRIs) are unclear. This stems, in part, from the lack of standardized

and meaningful methods by which to measure mold exposures

and their effects on occupants. However, widespread symptoms

related to a building can lead to environmental investigation,

mitigation activities, relocation of occupants, and loss of tenants or

property value. Problems that follow an onset of health complaints

associated with buildings may impact employers located in buildings

and sometimes the building owners who may have to bear high

costs to resolve the underlying issues.

7
Information on indoor mold exposures is constantly changing.

As new and critical information develops, building professionals

and occupants who access the information will be able to incorporate the information into successful resolution of any existing

building mold problems (7). 

Building-related illnesses (BRIs)

The term building-related illness (BRI) is used to describe

illnesses that are characterized by objective clinical findings related

to specific exposures in the indoor environment. Building-related

illnesses (BRIs) are diagnosed by evaluation of signs and symptoms

by physicians or other licensed health care professionals. Moldrelated BRIs result from mold contamination that has occurred in

buildings under specific conditions. All BRIs are preventable by

eliminating and controlling the conditions that can lead to the

harmful exposures.

How Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) differs from BRI

Terms such as Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) have been used

to describe situations in which building occupants experience a

variety of symptoms that, unlike BRIs, appear to be linked to time

spent in a building, but no specific illness or cause can be identified

(8). Symptoms often disappear after occupants leave the building

(9).

BRIs linked to mold exposure

The health effects of concern from exposure to mold contamination in an indoor environment can be common allergic BRIs such as

allergic rhinitis, allergic asthma, and hypersensitivity pneumonitis

(also called extrinsic allergic alveolitis) (10, 11), and infections such

as histoplasmosis and cryptococcosis. Mycotoxins can also produce

toxin-mediated adverse health effects. The following discussions of

selected mold-related BRIs are not intended to be comprehensive,

i.e., the descriptions do not include diagnostic tests or medical

treatments. Rather, the discussions are informational and focused

on common BRIs.

8
Building-Related Illnesses

Health effects that can be caused by mold

Most people experience no health effects from exposure to the

molds present in indoor or outdoor air. However, some individuals

with underlying health conditions may be more sensitive to molds.

For example, individuals who have other allergies or existing

respiratory conditions such as asthma, sinusitis, or other lung

diseases may be more easily affected. Similarly, persons who have

a weakened immune system tend to be more sensitive to molds.

A person’s immune system can be weakened if the individual has

conditions such as pregnancy, diabetes, autoimmune disease,

leukemia or AIDS; or if the individual is recovering from recent

surgery or receiving chemotherapy or long-term treatment with

steroids; or if the individual is the recipient of a recent organ or

bone marrow transplant. In addition, infants, children, and the

elderly have been shown to be more susceptible to health problems attributable to molds (1, 5, 9). 

The most common health effects associated with mold exposure

include allergic reactions similar to common pollen or animal

allergies (5). Symptoms include sneezing, runny nose, eye irritation,

coughing, congestion, aggravation of asthma, and skin rash (1, 3).

These symptoms are also common reactions to other agents that

cause allergies, and it is not always possible to single out the

specific cause. More severe health reactions, such as hypersensitivity pneumonitis, can occur in susceptible individuals. 

The three types of adverse health effects in humans caused by

mold are allergy, infection, and toxin-mediated conditions (12).

Further discussion of these health effects is provided in Appendix A

of this document. 

Preventive Maintenance

Preventing mold growth in occupied areas

The key to mold prevention is moisture control. The most

important initial step in prevention is a visual inspection. Regular

checks of the building envelope and drainage systems should be

made to assure that they are in working order. Identify and, to the

9
extent possible, eliminate sources of dampness, high humidity, and

moisture to prevent mold growth. Wet or damp spots and wet, nonmoldy materials should be cleaned and dried as soon as possible

(preferably within 24 to 48 hours of discovery).

Moisture due to condensation may be prevented by increasing

the surface temperature of the material where condensation is

occurring, or by reducing the moisture level in the air (humidity).

To increase the material’s surface temperature, insulate it from the

colder area or increase air circulation of warmer air. To reduce

the moisture level in the air, repair leaks, increase ventilation (if

outside air is cold and dry) or dehumidify (if outside air is warm

and humid). Indoor relative humidity should be maintained below

70% (25-60%, if possible) (3).

All buildings should be checked routinely for water leaks,

problem seals around doors and windows, and visible mold in

moist or damp parts of the building. Any conditions that could be

causes of mold growth should be corrected to prevent future mold

problems.

Other prevention tips include venting moisture-generating

appliances, such as dryers, to the outside where possible; venting

kitchens (cooking areas) and bathrooms according to local code

requirements; providing adequate drainage around buildings and

sloping the ground away from the building foundations; and

pinpointing areas where leaks have occurred, identifying the

causes, and taking preventive action to ensure that they do not

reoccur (3).

Preventing mold and bacterial growth in the building’s

ventilation system 

Ventilation systems should be checked regularly, particularly for

damp filters and overall cleanliness (1). A preventive maintenance

plan should be put into place for each major component of the

building’s ventilation system. Contact your equipment supplier or

manufacturer for recommended maintenance schedules and

operations and maintenance manuals. Components that are

exposed to water (e.g., drainage pans, coils, cooling towers, and

humidifiers) require scrupulous maintenance to prevent microbial

10
growth and the entry of undesired microorganisms or chemicals

into the indoor air stream (8).

Cleaning the building’s air ducts 

Air duct cleaning generally refers to the cleaning of various

heating and cooling system components of forced air systems (13).

The components of these systems may become contaminated with

mold if moisture is present within the system, resulting in the

potential release of mold spores throughout the building. 

All components of the system must be cleaned. Failure to clean

a component of a contaminated system can result in re-contamination of the entire system. Water-damaged or contaminated porous

materials in the ductwork or other air handling system components

should be removed and replaced (1, 8, 13). Ventilation system

filters should be checked regularly to ensure that they are seated

properly. Filters should be replaced on a routine schedule.

Protecting building occupants during building

renovations or remodeling

The best strategy is to isolate the building area(s) undergoing

renovations from occupied areas. Isolating the renovated area(s)

usually means erecting barriers made of either plywood or polyethylene sheeting. Supply and return ducts should be covered in the

area under renovation to prevent the spread of odors and construction dust. Air handling units serving areas under renovation should

also be turned off if they serve only the area being renovated. Air

handling units that are being serviced as part of the renovation

should be locked out while they are being serviced. Ensure that the

renovated area is under negative or neutral pressure in relation to

adjacent occupied space. Evaluate work areas for potential harm to

workers and relocate occupants as needed; prevent contamination

from spreading to occupied areas.

When undertaking renovations that break the integrity of the

building envelope, such as roofing work, regular checks should be

made for water intrusions at the breaks in the envelope. Water

damage and standing water should be cleaned up immediately. 

11
Building Evaluation

What to do if you suspect that your building has mold

You should look for and eliminate the source of moisture problems in the building. As stated earlier in this document, moisture

problems can have many sources, including uncontrolled humidity,

roof leaks, and landscaping or gutters that direct water into or

under the building. Unvented combustion appliances and standing

water following a flood are other sources. Also, you should remove

all visible mold. Visible mold on external surfaces, especially on

the walls of a building, may be an indicator of more severe contamination beneath the surface. However, mold removal without also

the correction of the underlying water/moisture problem would not

be effective since the mold would just grow back. If a greater

problem is suspected, or a moisture problem has resulted in

extensive fungal growth, an environmental investigation with

emphasis on physical inspection is recommended (14). An

experienced professional should be consulted to evaluate the

situation and recommend or supervise the proper corrective

action.

Selecting a qualified professional who can assist in

providing a safe and healthful work environment

Occupational safety and health professionals are typically able to

evaluate a building for mold, whereas occupational health care professionals are qualified to assess and treat illnesses and injuries.

OSHA Publication 3160, The Occupational Health Professional’s

Services and Qualifications: Questions and Answers, provides a

thorough discussion of the roles of occupational health physicians,

occupational health nurses, industrial hygienists, industrial engineers, safety professionals and other occupational health professionals (15). This document is available at: http://www.osha.gov/

Publications/osha3160.pdf

Occupational physicians must have completed additional

training in occupational medicine beyond the qualifications

necessary for medical doctor or doctor of osteopathy licensure.

12
13

Physicians may be certified in the field after meeting rigorous

qualifying standards and successfully completing the examination

in occupational medicine given by the American Board of

Preventive Medicine. The American College of Occupational and

Environmental Medicine (www.acoem.org) maintains a directory of

some 6,000 physicians and other health professionals specializing

in occupational and environmental medicine. Your general practice

physician may be able to refer you to a specialist from this list. 

The American Industrial Hygiene Association (www.aiha.org)

and the American Society of Safety Engineers (www.asse.org)

maintain lists of consulting firms for occupational safety and

health. Certified Industrial Hygienists (CIHs) and Certified Associate

Industrial Hygienists (CAIHs) must have at least a bachelor’s degree

with a concentration in the sciences, have five years professional

experience, and pass a rigorous certification examination. The

American Board of Industrial Hygiene (www.abih.org) maintains a

complete listing of all CIHs and CAIHs in good standing with the

organization. 

Certified Safety Professionals (CSPs) also must meet academic

requirements, have at least four years of experience, and pass a

rigorous certification examination. A roster of CSPs is maintained

by the Board of Certified Safety Professionals (www.bcsp.com).

Both CIHs and CSPs are required to attend continuing education

courses to stay current in their field of practice. 

Sampling for mold

Where visible mold is present, cleanup can proceed on the basis

of the visual inspection. Sampling for molds and other bioaerosols

is not usually necessary (1). There are currently no governmental or professional recommendations for airborne concentrations

of mold, mold spores, mycotoxins, and other bioaerosols with

which to compare any sampling results (16). However, sampling for

mold may be considered in the following situations:

■ When medical diagnosis is consistent with mold-associated

illness; 

■ To delimit the outer boundaries of severely contaminated

areas before and during a mold cleanup project; and 
■ After a cleanup, to show that the types and concentrations

of mold in the area are similar to background levels (17).

Sampling for mold, mold spores, mycotoxins, and other

bioaerosols are not part of a routine building evaluation. 

Mold sampling strategies

Sampling and analysis of mold are complex and can become

expensive. There is a lack of standard procedures for sampling and

analysis (18). Sampling should be undertaken only after careful

delineation of the sampling goals. For assistance with mold

sampling, consult an experienced health and safety professional.

Health and safety professionals, working closely with an accredited

environmental microbiology laboratory, can determine and document the details concerning the necessary sampling strategy,

including when and where to sample. Standardized methods, such

as ACGIH, AIHA, NIOSH and OSHA methods, should be followed

where available. Accredited laboratories that participate in the

AIHA Environmental Microbiology Proficiency Analytical Testing

(EMPAT) Program are listed on the AIHA website at http://www.aiha.org/

LaboratoryServices/html/empat1.htm.

The meaning of mold sampling results that are in

CFU/m2 and CFU/m3

Sampling results for viable (living) microorganisms are presented as concentrations, and the units used will vary depending

on the sample collection methods. Air sampling results are

reported as colony-forming units per cubic meter of air (CFU/m3).

Specialized sampling is reported in terms of the entity collected,

i.e., if only spores were sampled, the results would be reported

as spores/m3 (19). Bulk samples may be reported as colony-forming

units per gram (CFU/g) of dust or material or colony-forming units

per milliliter (CFU/ml) of stagnant water or slime (20). Wipe sample

results are reported as colony-forming units per surface area such

as CFU/m2 or CFU/ft2

. These units represent the culturable

portion of mold concentrations only and do not quantify the

fragments and by-products of mold that may also exist.

14
15

Mold Control and Remediation

The purpose of mold remediation

The purpose of mold remediation is to identify and correct the

water or moisture problem, remove or clean all contaminated

materials, prevent the spread of contamination to other areas, and

protect the health and safety of the building occupants. During

any remediation, the health and safety of remediation workers

must also be a priority. In every case of microbial contamination,

including mold contamination, the underlying cause of the contamination must be rectified or the growth will recur (1).

These are the basic principles of mold remediation. For more

thorough discussions of methods, recommendations, and

remediation approaches for various levels of contamination, see

OSHA’s Safety and Health Information Bulletin entitled, “A Brief

Guide to Mold in the Workplace” (SHIB 03-10-10), (1) which is

available at: http://www.osha.gov/dts/shib/shib101003.html.

In particular, see discussions concerning:

■ Additional measures for cleaning contaminated ductwork

■ Biocides vs. antimicrobial agents

■ Informing building occupants about mold remediation

■ Informing remediation employees about the hazards of mold

■ Personal protective equipment (PPE) for remediation

employees.

Actions for Employees to Take

What to do about mold in the workplace

There are no standards that say how much mold is hazardous to

your health. However, there should not be visible mold growth or

objectionable moldy odors in your workplace. If you see or smell

mold, or if you or others are experiencing mold-related health

problems, report the problem to your employer so the problem can

be investigated. If you believe that there is a mold hazard, you have

the right to file a complaint with Federal OSHA or, in states with

OSHA-approved state plans, the state occupational safety and
health agency. You can contact your local Area Office of Federal

OSHA or state occupational safety and health office or file a complaint online at http://www.osha.gov/as/opa/worker/complain.html.

Links to the addresses and telephone numbers of the state occupational safety and health agency offices are available online at

http://www.osha.gov/fso/osp/index.html. In addition, assistance

with filing complaints, receiving workplace health and safety

information and requesting OSHA publications, among other types

of information, are available by calling OSHA’s toll-free number

at 1-800-321-6742.

Additional Help in Addressing 

Mold-Related Problems

Where to get more information

The following sources provide links to additional programs and

information regarding mold:

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) www.osha.gov

Search “indoor air quality” or “molds and fungi” to link to sources of

information related to Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) and mold.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/

Indoor Air Quality Information Clearinghouse (IAQ Info)

1-800-438-4318

P.O. Box 37133 

Washington, DC 20013-7133

e-mail: iaqinfo@aol.com

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)

www.cdc.gov/niosh 1-800-35-NIOSH (1-800-356-4674)

Education and Information Division

Publications Dissemination

4676 Columbia Parkway 

Cincinnati, OH 45226-1988

e-mail: pubstaft@cdc.gov

16
International Facility Management Association

www.ifma.org 713-623-4362

1 E. Greenway Plaza, Suite 1100

Houston, TX 77046-0194

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning

Engineers (ASHRAE)

www.ashrae.org 1-800-527-4723

1791 Tullie Circle, N.E.

Atlanta, GA 30329

Methods

Relevant publications used as references for this document were

located through a PubMed (National Library of Medicine) search.

PubMed was selected because of its broad scope of publications:

Medline (National Library of Medicine), other life sciences journals,

and links to sites providing full-text articles. Key words used to

execute the search included mold, epidemiology, BRI, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, farmer’s lung, air conditioner or humidifier lung,

mycotoxins, and respiratory illness.

The size of the search results was managed, where appropriate,

by limiting searches to the English language and human studies.

Single word and Boolean logic operators (AND, OR, and NOT) were

used to link words and phrases for more precise searches which

yielded summary abstracts (from a choice of display formats).

Search summaries were quickly reviewed and further refined for

useable selections. Articles were obtained either directly from

online sources or through the OSHA Technical Data System and

were reviewed both by OSHA staff and contractors.

Similar searches of the OSHA IAQ Docket (H-122) were made

through the Intra–OSHA Document Management System (DMS).

This system contains the entire IAQ docket in a format that allows

full-text selection of documents and returns a list of exhibit

numbers that contain the term(s) of interest, which can then be

viewed for usefulness and retrieved as desired. 

Articles were chosen for their subject matter and relevance to

workplace building-related illness and were reviewed by OSHA and

its contractors. Not all papers reviewed were utilized. 

17
Appendix 

Molds can cause three types of adverse health effects in

humans; allergy, infection, and toxin-mediated conditions. These

adverse health effects are discussed in more detail below.

Allergy

Allergic rhinitis

Allergic rhinitis has several signs and symptoms. The symptoms

of allergic rhinitis include sneezing; itchy eyes, nose, and throat; a

stuffy or runny nose; sore throat; cough; watery eyes; headache;

and fatigue. These symptoms may be worse in indoor environments and may peak in hot and humid seasons. Common physical

findings include red or bloodshot eyes, a runny nose, watery

eyes, and thickened nasal mucous membranes. Multiple airborne

allergens other than molds (e.g., pollens, animal dander, and dust

mites) may be involved. However, when a person is also sensitized

to mold, an indoor environment contaminated with mold spores

may aggravate the signs and symptoms of allergic rhinitis (18).

Allergic asthma

Allergic asthma is a chronic lung disease that is caused by

breathing in substances known to be allergens (sensitizers).

Asthma occurs when the airways become inflamed and the

surrounding muscles tighten and contract. Asthma causes

breathing difficulties by making it harder for air to flow in and out

of the lungs. Symptoms of asthma include tightness of the chest,

shortness of breath, coughing, and wheezing (21). Although a

complete patient history and physical exam are the most important

methods employed to diagnose asthma, chest X-rays, pulmonary

function testing, and immunologic studies occasionally are also

used.

Exposure to mold clearly plays a role in asthma. Molds produce

a large variety of compounds that are potentially allergenic (e.g.,

proteins). Potency varies among these allergens. The epidemi18
ological evidence from well-conducted studies documents the

sensitizing potential of mold allergens. Also, well-documented

evidence indicates that fungal sensitization is related to asthma (22).

Hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP)

HP (or extrinsic allergic alveolitis) refers to a group of allergic

lung diseases caused by the inhalation of antigens contained in a

wide variety of organic dusts. Antigens are substances that

provoke an allergic reaction (i.e., an immune response with the

formation of antibodies) when introduced into the body. HP

occurs when very small antigenic particles (5 micrometers or

less in diameter and invisible to the naked eye) penetrate into the

deepest areas of the lungs (the alveoli) and cause inflammation.

HP may occur as an acute, subacute, or chronic condition.

Symptoms and signs of the acute form may occur 4-6 hours after

significant antigen exposure and include chest tightness, difficulty

breathing, fever, chills, cough, and muscle aches (5, 23). If exposure to the antigen is repeated frequently, scars can form on

the lungs, resulting in a disabling condition known as fibrosis

(23, 24). Symptoms and signs associated with the subacute and

chronic forms of the disease include cough, shortness of breath,

fatigue, and weight loss (23). 

A variety of organic dust sources may cause HP. The causative

agents may include bacteria, fungi, animal proteins, insects, and

chemicals. The numerous clinical syndromes are generally given

names reflecting the circumstances or sources of exposure. For

example, farmer’s lung results from exposures to moldy hay, straw,

grain, and compost. Pigeon breeder’s or bird-fancier’s disease/lung

results from exposures to avian protein in bird dander, feathers,

and droppings. Although HP is not commonly reported as a BRI,

sources of concern for building owners and managers include

molds, bacteria, and other organisms growing in heating,

ventilating, and air conditioning systems, humidifiers, and waterdamaged buildings. To a lesser extent, HP may be associated with

exposure to birds or bird droppings during building cleaning and

maintenance activities.

19
Ventilation pneumonitis

Ventilation pneumonitis (also called air-conditioner lung,

humidifier lung, and humidifier fever) is hypersensitivity

pneumonitis (HP) that is due to fungal and microbial growth in

ventilation and air conditioning systems. Onset can occur when

maintenance work is performed on these systems. Diagnosis is

based on a combination of characteristic symptoms, chest X-ray

findings, pulmonary function abnormalities, and sometimes

immunologic study findings. Inspection of the heating, ventilation,

and air conditioning (HVAC) systems and confirmation of the

diagnoses are more useful than sampling for mold (8, 25).

How HP differs from asthma

HP differs from asthma in several ways including pathology,

diagnosis, and treatment. For example, HP differs from asthma in

the location of the inflammation. Asthma is characterized by

inflammation of the larger airways close to the mouth and nose.

HP is characterized by inflammation of the smallest airways

(bronchioles) and the air sacs (alveoli) (24).

Infection

Systemic fungal infections

Histoplasmosis and cryptococcosis are examples of infections

caused by fungi (Histoplasma capsulatum and Cryptococcus

neoformans, respectively). The main source of exposure to both

organisms is debris around bird roosts and soil contaminated with

bird and bat droppings. Concern about health risks may be

warranted in situations where there is a significant accumulation of

bird or bat droppings near ventilation systems and in attics. Both

infections are primarily seen in immunocompromised individuals

such as those with AIDS, but can also occur in normal healthy

individuals (26, 27, 28).

20
Toxin-Mediated Conditions

Mycotoxins

Mycotoxins are metabolic by-products produced by some

molds that can cause toxic reactions in humans or animals.

Some mycotoxins are concentrated on or within mold spores

(3). Mycotoxins may be hazardous through ingestion, inhalation, or

skin contact (29). The most well-known and studied mycotoxin is

aflatoxin. Although not included within the scope of this document,

aflatoxin is one of the most potent liver carcinogens known and

has been found on contaminated peanuts, grains, and other human

and animal foodstuffs (3). 

A wide variety of molds, even some of the most commonly

found molds that are generally considered harmless, are capable

of producing mycotoxins (30). Some molds can produce several

mycotoxins (3). Mycotoxin production varies widely depending on

the species and growth conditions, such as availability of nutrients,

the suitability of the surface on which growth can take place, environmental factors (e.g., relative humidity, temperature, light,

oxygen, and carbon dioxide), the season, maturity of the fungal

colony, and competition with other microorganisms (12, 15). 

The presence of mycotoxin-producing mold in a building does

not necessarily mean that mycotoxins are present or that building

occupants have been exposed to mycotoxins (3, 12, 15).

Mycotoxins are generally not volatile (i.e., do not become airborne

easily), and according to recent studies, mycotoxins have not been

shown to cause health problems for occupants at concentrations

usually seen in residential or commercial buildings (12, 29, 31).

Adverse health effects that may be due in part to mycotoxins

have been reported to occur among agricultural workers. However,

these effects are due to the inhalation of very high levels of molds

(e.g., in silage and spoiled grain products) that are orders of

magnitude greater than the typical exposures that might be seen

when mold is found growing in the indoor environment (29). 

21
Toxic mold

The phrase “toxic mold” has been used by journalists and many

others to refer to molds that have been implicated in severe health

effects in humans. Although not a scientific term, it is typically

used in the press to refer to those molds capable of producing

mycotoxins and incorrectly implies that these molds are more

dangerous than others. In fact, all molds under the right conditions have the potential to cause allergic reactions, infections, and

toxin-mediated conditions (32).

Individuals who believe that they are suffering from moldrelated symptoms should seek medical attention. Although there

is no singular medical specialty that addresses the indoor air

environment, an occupational medicine physician has specialty

training addressing diseases associated with the work environment.

See page 12 of this document for assistance in selecting a

qualified professional, including a health care professional. 

22
References

1. U.S. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA). 2003. “A Brief Guide to Mold in the

Workplace.” Safety and Health Information Bulletin (SHIB 03-10-10).

Available online at http://www.osha.gov/dts/shib/shib101003.html

2. Burge, H.A. (ed.). 1995. Bioaersols (Indoor Air Research Series).

Boca Raton: CRC Press, Inc. 

3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2001. “Mold

Remediation in Schools and Commercial Buildings.” Office of Air

and Radiation, Indoor Environments Division. Document Number

EPA 402-K-01-001, March 2001. Available online at

http://www.epa.gov/iaq/molds/graphics/moldremediation.pdf

4. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). 2000.

“Update: Pulmonary Hemorrhage/Hemosiderosis Among Infants –

Cleveland, Ohio, 1993-1996.” MMWR, 49(09):180-184, March 10,

2000 (Note: Also see Errata: 49(10):213, March 17, 2000). 

5. California Department of Health Services (CDHS), 2001. “Molds

in Indoor Workplaces.” Hazard Evaluation System & Information

Service (HESIS), CDHS, Occupational Health Branch. March 2001.

Available online at http://www.dhs.cahwnet.gov/ohb/HESIS/

molds.pdf

6. American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA). 2002. “The

Facts About Mold.” Available online at www.aiha.org/

GovernmentAffairs-PR/html/oomold.htm

7. Mendell, M.J., et al. 2002. “Improving the Health of Workers in

Indoor Environments: Priority Research Needs for a National

Occupational Research Agenda.” American Journal of Public

Health, 92(9):1430-1440.

8. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1991. “Building Air

Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and Facility Managers.”

Office of Air and Radiation, Indoor Air Division and U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service,

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. December

23
1991. Available online at http://www.epa.gov/iaq/largebldgs/

baqtoc.html

9. Rafferty, P.J. (ed.). 1993. “The Industrial Hygienist’s Guide 

to Indoor Air Quality Investigations.” The American Industrial

Hygiene Association (AIHA). Technical Committee on Indoor Air

Quality. 

10. Pope, A.M., Patterson, R. and Burge, H. (eds.). 1993. “Indoor

Allergens: Assessing and Controlling Adverse Health Effects.”

Committee on the Health Effects of Indoor Allergens. Division of

Health Promotion and Disease Prevention. Institute of Medicine.

Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Available online at

http://books.nap.edu/catalog/2056.html

11. Morey, P.R. and Singh, J. 1991. “Indoor Air Quality in

Nonindustrial Occupational Environments.” In: Clayton, G.D. and

Clayton, F.E. (eds.). 1991. Patty’s Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology,

4th Edition, Volume I, Part A. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,

pp. 531-594.

12. American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine

(ACOEM). 2002. “Adverse Human Health Effects Associated with

Molds in the Indoor Environment.” ACOEM Evidence-based

Statement, October 27, 2002.

13. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1997. “Should

You Have the Air Ducts in Your Home Cleaned?” Office of Air and

Radiation, Indoor Environments Division. Document Number EPA402-K-97-002, October 1997. Available online at

http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/airduct.html

14. Fung, F. and Hughson, W.G. 2003. “Health Effects of Indoor

Fungal Bioaerosol Exposure.” Applied Occupational and

Environmental Hygiene, 18(7):535-544.

15. U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA). 1999. “The Occupational Health

Professional’s Services and Qualifications: Questions and

Answers.” OSHA 3160, 1999 (revised). Available online at

http://www.osha.gov/ Publications/osha3160.pdf

24
16. Mahoney, D.P. and Spear, J.E. 2003. “Mold Risk Assessment &

Remediation.” Professional Safety. August 2003, pp. 20-26.

17. Macher, J. (ed.). 1999. Bioaerosols – Assessment and Control.

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

(ACGIH). Cincinnati, OH.

18. Arora, A.S. 2003. “Understanding the Health Effects of Mold.”

Guest Column. The AIH Diplomate, Fall 2003, Issue #03-3, pp. vi –

vii. Available online at

http://www.aiha.org/TheAcademy/documents/Diplo03-3.pdf

19. Ness, S.A. 1991. Air Monitoring for Toxic Exposures – An

Integrated Approach. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 

20. U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA). 1999. “Indoor Air Quality Investigation.”

OSHA Technical Manual, Directive Number TED 1-0.15A, Section III:

Chapter 2, January 20, 1999. Available online at

http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm_iii/otm_iii_2.html

21. Queensland Government. 2000. “Occupational Asthma - Worker

Guide.” Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Workplace

Health and Safety, Queensland, Australia, October 2000. Available

online at http://www.whs.qld.gov.au/guide/gde52.pdf

22. Institute of Medicine. 2000. Clearing the Air: Asthma and Indoor

Exposures. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. pp. 158-175.

23. Fink, J. 1986. “Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis.” In: Merchant, J.A.

(ed.). Occupational Respiratory Diseases, U.S. Department of Health

and Human Services (DHHS), Public Health Service, National

Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). DHHS

(NIOSH) Publication No. 86-102, September 1986. pp. 481-529.

Available online at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/86-102.html

24. Levy, B.S. and Wegman, D.H. 1995. (eds.). Occupational Health:

Recognizing and Preventing Work-Related Disease and Injury. 3rd

Edition. Boston: Little Brown and Company. 

25. Bierbaum, P.J. 1989. Testimony before the Subcommittee on

Natural Resources, Agriculture Research, and Environment,

25
Committee on Science, Space and Technology, U.S. House of

Representatives, September 27, 1989, OSHA IAQ Docket, H-122 (Ex.

3-1160E).

26. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).

1997. “Histoplasmosis: Protecting Workers at Risk.” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), Public Health Service,

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, NIOSH, National Center

for Infectious Diseases. Publication No. DHHS (NIOSH) 97-146,

September 1997. Available online at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/97-

146.html

27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2002.

“Cryptococcosis.” CDC, National Center for Infectious Diseases.

Available online at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/

cryptococcosis_t.htm

28. Perfect, J.R. and Casadevall, A. 2002. “Cryptococcosis.”

Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 16(4):837-74. 

29. Robbins, C.A., Swenson, L.J., Nealley, M.L., Gots, R.E., and

Kelman, B.J. 2000. “Health Effects of Mycotoxins in Indoor Air: A

Critical Review.” Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene,

15(10):773-784.

30. Gots, R.E., 2001. “Mold and Mold Toxins: The Newest Toxic

Tort.” Journal of Controversial Medical Claims, Vol. 8, No. 1,

February 2001.

31. Page, E.H. and Trout, D.B. 2001. “The Role of Stachybotrys

Mycotoxins in Building-Related Illness.” American Industrial

Hygiene Association Journal, 62:644-648. 

32. Davis, P.J. 2001. “Molds, Toxic Molds, and Indoor Air Quality.”

California Research Bureau (CRB), California State Library,

Sacramento, CA. CRB Note. Vol. 8, No.1, March 2001. Available

online at http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/01/notes/v8n1.pdf

26
OSHA Assistance

OSHA can provide extensive help through a variety of programs,

including technical assistance about effective safety and health

programs, state plans, workplace consultations, voluntary protection programs, strategic partnerships, training and education,

and more. An overall commitment to workplace safety and health

can add value to your business, to your workplace and to your life.

Safety and Health Program Management Guidelines

Effective management of worker safety and health protection is

a decisive factor in reducing the extent and severity of work-related

injuries and illnesses and their related costs. To assist employers

and employees in developing effective safety and health programs,

OSHA published recommended Safety and Health Program

Management Guidelines (54 Federal Register 3904-3916, January

26, 1989). These voluntary guidelines apply to all places of

employment covered by OSHA.

The guidelines identify four general elements that are critical to

the development of a successful safety and health management

program:

Management leadership and employee involvement;

Work analysis;

Hazard prevention and control; and

Safety and health training.

The guidelines recommend specific actions under each of these

general elements to achieve an effective safety and health program.

The guidelines can be viewed on OSHA’s website at www.osha.gov/

safetyhealth/standards.html under the heading Federal Registers.

State Programs

The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSH Act)

encourages states to develop and operate their own job safety and

health plans. States with plans approved by OSHA under section

27
18(b) of the OSH Act must adopt standards and enforce requirements that are at least as effective as federal requirements. There

are currently 26 state plan states: 22 of these administer plans

covering both private and public (state and local government)

employees; the other plans, Connecticut, New Jersey, New York

and the Virgin Islands, cover public sector employees only. 

Consultation Services

Consultation assistance is available on request to employers

who want help in establishing and maintaining a safe and healthful

workplace. Largely funded by OSHA, the service is provided at no

cost to the employer. Primarily developed for smaller employers

with more hazardous operations, the consultation service is

delivered by state governments employing professional safety

and health consultants. Comprehensive assistance includes an

appraisal of all mechanical systems, work practices and occupational safety and health hazards of the workplace and all aspects of the

employer’s present job safety and health program.

The program is separate from OSHA’s inspection efforts. No

penalties are proposed or citations issued for hazards identified by

the consultant. The service is confidential. For more information

concerning consultation assistance, see the OSHA website at

www.osha.gov/dcsp/smallbusiness/consult.html.

Voluntary Protection Programs

Voluntary Protection Programs (VPPs) and onsite consultation

services, when coupled with an effective enforcement program,

expand worker protection to help meet the goals of the OSH Act.

The three levels of VPP—Star, Merit, and Star Demonstration—are

designed to recognize outstanding achievement by companies that

have successfully incorporated comprehensive safety and health

programs into their total management system. The VPPs motivate

others to achieve excellent safety and health results in the same

outstanding way as they establish a cooperative relationship

among employers, employees and OSHA.

28
For additional information on VPPs and how to apply, visit OSHA’s

website at: www.osha.gov/dcsp/vpp/index.html or contact your nearest

OSHA Area or Regional Office listed at the end of this publication.

Strategic Partnership Program

OSHA’s Strategic Partnership Program, the newest of OSHA’s

cooperative programs, helps encourage, assist and recognize the

efforts of partners to eliminate serious workplace hazards and

achieve a high level of worker safety and health. Whereas OSHA’s

Consultation Program and VPP entail one-on-one relationships

between OSHA and individual worksites, most strategic partnerships seek to have a broader impact by building cooperative relationships with groups of employers and employees. These partnerships are voluntary, cooperative relationships between OSHA,

employers, employee representatives and others (e.g., labor

unions, trade and professional associations, universities and other

government agencies). For more information on this and other

cooperative programs, contact your nearest OSHA office, or visit

OSHA’s website at www.osha.gov

Alliance Programs

The Alliances Program enables organizations committed to

workplace safety and health to collaborate with OSHA to prevent

injuries and illnesses in the workplace. OSHA and the Alliance

participants work together to reach out to, educate and lead the

nation’s employers and their employees in improving and

advancing workplace safety and health.

Groups that can form an Alliance with OSHA include employers,

labor unions, trade or professional groups, educational institutions

and government agencies. In some cases, organizations may be

building on existing relationships with OSHA through other

cooperative programs.

There are few formal program requirements for Alliances and the

agreements do not include an enforcement component. However,

OSHA and the participating organizations must define, implement

and meet a set of short- and long-term goals that fall into three

29
categories: training and education; outreach and communication;

and promoting the national dialogue on workplace safety and health.

Training and Education

OSHA’s area offices offer a variety of information services, such

as compliance assistance, publications, audiovisual aids, technical

advice, and speakers for special engagements.

OSHA’s Training Institute in Arlington Heights, IL, provides basic

and advanced courses in safety and health for federal and state

compliance officers, state consultants, federal agency personnel

and private sector employers, employees and their representatives.

The OSHA Training Institute also has established OSHA

Training Institute Education Centers to address the increased

demand for its courses from the private sector and from other

federal agencies (see OSHA’s website at: www.osha.gov/fso/ote/

training/edcenters/index.html). These centers are nonprofit

colleges, universities and other organizations that have been

selected after a competition for participation in the program.

OSHA also provides funds to nonprofit organizations, through

grants, to conduct workplace training and education in subjects

where OSHA believes there is a lack of workplace training.

Grants are awarded annually. Grant recipients are expected to

contribute 20 percent of the total grant cost.

For more information on grants, training and education, contact

the OSHA Training Institute, Office of Training and Education, on

OSHA’s website at: www.osha.gov/dcsp/ote/index.html, or at 2020

South Arlington Heights Road, Arlington Heights, IL 60005-4102,

(847) 297-4810, Fax (847) 297-4874. For further information on any

OSHA program, contact your nearest OSHA area or regional office

listed at the end of this publication.

Information Available Electronically

OSHA has a variety of materials and tools available on its

website at www.osha.gov. These include e-Tools such as Expert

Advisors, Electronic Compliance Assistance Tools (e-cats),

Technical Links; regulations, directives and publications; videos

30
and other information for employers and employees. OSHA’s

software programs and compliance assistance tools walk you

through challenging safety and health issues and common problems

to find the best solutions for your workplace.

A wide variety of OSHA materials, including standards, interpretations, directives, and more, can be purchased on CD-ROM from

the U.S. Government Printing Office, Superintendent of Documents,

phone toll-free (866) 512-1800.

OSHA Publications

OSHA has an extensive publications program. For a listing of

free or sales items, visit OSHA’s website at www.osha.gov or

contact the OSHA Publications Office, U.S. Department of Labor,

200 Constitution Avenue, NW, N-3101, Washington, DC 20210.

Telephone (202) 693-1888 or fax to (202) 693-2498.

Contacting OSHA

To report an emergency, file a complaint or seek OSHA advice,

assistance or products, call (800) 321-OSHA or contact your nearest

OSHA regional or area office listed below. The teletypewriter (TTY)

number is (877) 889-5627.

You can also file a complaint online and obtain more information on OSHA federal and state programs by visiting OSHA’s

website at www.osha.gov.

For further information on any OSHA program, contact your

nearest OSHA area or regional office listed at the end of this

publication. 

31
OSHA Regional Offices

* These 26 states and territories operate their own OSHA-approved job

safety and health programs (Connecticut, New Jersey, New York and the

Virgin Islands plans cover public employees only). States with approved

programs must have standards that are identical to, or at least as effective

as, the Federal OSHA standards.

Note: To get contact information for OSHA Area Offices, OSHAapproved State Plans and OSHA Consultation Projects, please visit us

online at www.osha.gov or call us at 1-800-321-OSHA.

Region I

(CT,* ME, MA, NH, RI, VT*) 

JFK Federal Building, Room E340

Boston, MA 02203

(617) 565-9860

Region II

(NJ,* NY,* PR,* VI*)

201 Varick Street, Room 670

New York, NY 10014

(212) 337-2378

Region III

(DE, DC, MD,* PA, VA,* WV)

The Curtis Center

170 S. Independence Mall West

Suite 740 West

Philadelphia, PA 19106-3309

(215) 861-4900

Region IV 

(AL, FL, GA, KY,* MS, NC,* SC,* TN*)

61 Forsyth Street, SW

Atlanta, GA 30303

(404) 562-2300

Region V

(IL, IN,* MI,* MN,* OH, WI)

230 South Dearborn Street 

Room 3244

Chicago, IL 60604

(312) 353-2220

Region VI

(AR, LA, NM,* OK, TX)

525 Griffin Street, Room 602

Dallas, TX 75202

(214) 767-4731 or 4736 x224

Region VII

(IA,* KS, MO, NE)

City Center Square

1100 Main Street, Suite 800

Kansas City, MO 64105

(816) 426-5861

Region VIII

(CO, MT, ND, SD, UT,* WY*)

1999 Broadway, Suite 1690

PO Box 46550

Denver, CO 80202-5716

(720) 264-6550

Region IX 

(American Samoa, AZ,* CA,* HI,* NV,*

Northern Mariana Islands)

71 Stevenson Street, Room 420

San Francisco, CA 94105

(415) 975-4310

Region X

(AK,* ID, OR,* WA*)

1111 Third Avenue, Suite 715

Seattle, WA 98101-3212

(206) 553-5930

32

www.osha.gov