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i

iii

Strategic Studies Institute

and

U.S. Army War College Press

DEVELOPING EMERGING LEADERS:

THE BUSH SCHOOL AND THE 

LEGACY OF THE 41ST PRESIDENT

Joseph R. Cerami

Editor

September 2015

The views expressed in this report are those of the author and 

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The Bush School gratefully acknowledges the generous support of the U.S. Army War College, Strategic Studies Institute 

(SSI) for this project on “Civil-Military Education and Training Gaps: A Cross-Sector Analysis of Civilian and Military 

Leader Development for ‘Whole of Government’ Interagency 

Operations.” 

SSI Director Douglas C. Lovelace, Jr., and Director of Research Dr. Steven Metz have provided outstanding leadership, 

guidance, and support from the inception of this research pro-
v

posal. The SSI External Research Associates Program continues 

to have a significant and lasting impact on bridging the gaps between academic and practitioner research and study communities. Thanks also to Dr. James G. Pierce, the SSI Editor for Production, and Ms. Rita A. Rummel, Publications Assistant, for their 

extraordinary support, professionalism, and patience.

Given Texas A&M University’s focus on leadership and

leader development, as well as the Bush School’s commitment to 

leadership and public service, this monograph is intended to add 

value to the scholarly and professional communities engaged in 

leadership studies and leader development in the public, private, 

and nonprofit sectors. The author especially appreciates the significant time and effort by University research assistants, Robert B. McDyre, Jr., Tam Phuong, and Huyen Thi Minh Van. Each 

provided thoughtful research, analysis, and writing in preparing 

chapters for this monograph. 

As principle investigator and author, I, of course, remain

responsible for any errors in thinking or writing in this monograph. I do welcome comments, questions, and criticisms of this 

book and look forward to learning more about the ongoing research devoted to leadership and leader development.

JOSEPH R. CERAMI

Director, Public Service Leadership Program

Bush School of Government and Public Service

Texas A&M University

ISBN 1-58487-701-4

vii

CONTENTS

Foreword ...........................................................ix

Douglas C. Lovelace, Jr.

Preface: Developing Emerging Leaders—

 The Bush School and the 

 Legacy of the 41st President ..........................xii

Ryan C. Crocker

1. Introduction: The Emerging Leadership

 Gaps—The Tensions Among 

 Opposites .......................................................... 1

Joseph R. Cerami

2. Assessing Current Approaches to

 Emerging Leader Development in the 

 U.S. Government ............................................11

Robert B. McDyre, Jr.

3. Pathways: Leading with Ideas and Questions ...53

Joseph R. Cerami

4. Annotated Bibliography: Learning to Lead:

 The Public Sector .............................................81

Joseph R. Cerami

5. Annotated Bibliography: Learning to Lead:

 The Nonprofit Sector ......................................101

To Tam Phuong

6. Annotated Bibliography: Learning to Lead:

 The Private Sector ...........................................129

Huyen Thi Minh Van
7. Patterns Across Sectors in Emerging

 Leader Development: Ideas and Actions ........169

Joseph R. Cerami

8. Afterword: Emerging Leaders—

 New Directions for the Next Generation........179

Joseph R. Cerami

About the Contributors ....................................189

About the Bush School of Government 

and Public Service....................................................193

Strategic Studies Institute .....................................195

viii
ix

FOREWORD

Leadership remains at the core of the military profession. Gaining a reputation as an effective and ethical leader is the foundation for a successful career as a 

commissioned and noncommissioned officer. Naturally, a great deal of attention in pre-commissioning and 

professional military schools, as well as experiential 

learning in a variety of demanding positions, is necessary for advancement. Understanding the ideas and 

best practices of expert leaders as individuals and as a 

member of groups, teams, organizations, and institutions remain an important area of research and study 

for individual and organizational learning. Learning 

leaders and learning organizations are the focus of this 

monograph. Specific attention is placed on identifying 

the key ideas and actions, or best practices, in comparing the leadership studies and research literature that 

bridge the guiding civilian and military approaches, 

and compares ideas and practices across the public, 

private, and nonprofit sectors. 

The literature selected for the monograph is representative of the state of the art and science in leadership studies. For the public sector review, the doctrinal writings on leadership in the U.S. Government’s 

defense, diplomatic, and development (3-Ds) agencies are highlighted. This review, therefore, is more 

representative than comprehensive. The leadership 

definitions, concepts, and practices of federal agencies 

are particularly important in reflecting on the recent 

experiences of the ongoing wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, where interagency operations and international 

collaboration among the 3-Ds remains a significant 

area for assessing and learning lessons on leadership, 

especially for preparing current and future emerging 

and senior leaders. 
As outlined in the 2014 Army Operating Concept

(available from www.tradoc.army.mil/tpubs/pams/tp525-

3-1.pdf), the strategic environment is not expected to 

be less complex or turbulent than the decades since 

September 11, 2001. Dr. Joseph Cerami and his research and study colleagues at Texas A&M University 

have reviewed the leadership literature and reflected 

upon the public, private, and nonprofit sector literature as well as their Bush School of Government Public Service’s approach in their Public Service Leadership Program, whose mantra is “educating principled 

leaders.” The authors point out that there are a variety 

of approaches that include values based, individual 

approaches across an equally expansive number of 

organizational and institutional contexts. 

The field of university leadership studies also has 

a variety of academic homes, from schools of public 

and international affairs, such as the Bush School, to 

colleges of liberal arts and departments of philosophy, 

politics, and psychology, to the professional colleges 

of education, business, health sciences, and engineering. While the authors recognize the difficulties of 

generalizing about leadership and emerging leader 

development, the comparison of leadership ideas 

and activities is important for recognizing the existing state of the field, as well as to suggest areas for 

additional research. The Bush School’s Dean, Career 

Ambassador Ryan Crocker writes in the preface: 

The opportunity for lifelong learning in an age of globalization provides more opportunities for growth 

and development and so continuing to think, adapt 

and adjust require both creative thinking as well as active experimentation. 

x
xi

The Strategic Studies Institute is pleased to present this monograph to continue to engage in the ongoing debates about the best way to prepare emerging 

leaders to think, practice, experiment and learn how 

to lead effectively and ethically in today’s complex 

world.

DOUGLAS C. LOVELACE, JR.

Director

Strategic Studies Institute and

 U.S. Army War College Press
xii

PREFACE

DEVELOPING EMERGING LEADERS:

THE BUSH SCHOOL AND THE 

LEGACY OF THE 41ST PRESIDENT

Ryan C. Crocker

 Dean and Executive Professor

Bush School of Government 

and Public Service,

 Texas A&M University

Public Service is a noble calling, and we need men and 

women of character to believe they can make a difference in their communities, in their states and in their 

country.

George H. W. Bush1

This monograph focuses on the theory and practice 

of developing emerging leaders for careers of public 

service. There are, of course, many alternative approaches in the art and science of the study of leadership, as well as the best practices and programs suggested for developing individuals as leaders. Here we 

present a framework or pathway for emerging leaders 

with an emphasis on the work of principled public servants. In America today, this spans the public, private, 

and nonprofit sectors. Dr. Joseph Cerami provides an 

opportunity to pause and reflect on what we think we 

know about leader development, based on both his 

considerable real world experience and his extensive 

study. He explores the state of the field of emerging 

leader development grounded in part on our graduate level program here at the Bush School. This Public 

Service Leadership Program and this research draws 
xiii

on the best ideas for preparing for work in public service. Some of these ideas are grounded in practice and 

experience and others have been formed in the process 

of academic research. There is no single path; there are 

many creative insights that should be presented, discussed, and developed as Dr. Cerami does here. The 

opportunity for lifelong learning in an age of globalization provides more opportunities for growth and 

development and so continuing to think, adapt, and 

adjust require both creative thinking as well as active 

experimentation. This monograph then aims for the 

ideal of lifelong learning while recognizing the challenges that face this next generation of leaders.

Government and Public Service: 

The Foundations—A Legacy of Leadership. 

The Bush School’s Public Service Leadership Program was founded in 2002 and is based on President 

George H. W. Bush’s ideal that public service is a noble 

calling and requires men and women of character who 

can make a difference. The Public Service Leadership 

Program is integrated through the 2 years of study for 

graduate students in our master’s degree programs in 

public service and administration, and in international 

affairs. The program’s mission is to educate principled 

leaders for careers in public and international affairs, integrating leader development within the Bush 

School experience, conducting leadership research 

and outreach activities, and producing leadership 

publications. 

After an initial assessment by former Dean Richard Chilcoat and selected faculty, the Bush School 

defined leadership as the art of influencing people, 

organizations, and institutions to accomplish missions 
xiv

that serve the public interest. For our specific master’s 

degree level, graduate school programs in both public 

service and administration and international affairs, 

leader development is the art of educating people in 

the theory and practice of leadership in the context of 

public service. 

Making Differences: Guiding Ideas 

and Assumptions.

There are several supporting ideas for focusing on 

an emerging leader development approach. First, and 

perhaps most significantly, there is a dynamic and creative tension between the ideal and the real. In an ideal 

world, the advice to emerging leaders to “follow your 

dreams” makes sense. In the imperfect world of complex organizations and real world challenges defined 

by uncertainty, ambiguity, and complexity, a leader 

is compelled to deal with the reality of problems and 

how to solve them. The optimism of envisioning and 

developing an ideal paradigm in contrast to the inherent problem-solving challenges of real teams and organizations is something that is addressed by Daniel 

Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie McKee in Primal Leadership (Harvard Business School Press, 2002). 

Emerging leaders must be attuned to both guideposts, 

which include developing and adjusting their vision 

of their ideal selves over time, while encountering the 

many daily problems associated with work in team 

and organizational contexts.

Second, there is no one best way to develop leaders. 

Emerging leader development, for those in the 20-to30-age group, preparing for and starting out in their 

careers, requires critical thinking. The need for reflection, self awareness, and social awareness are essen-
xv

tial to understand and appreciate the significance of 

emotional and contextual intelligence; team dynamics; 

organizational culture; international and social norms; 

identification and behavior; as well as many other 

factors.

Third, a development program requires individual planning along with extensive coaching and support. For graduate students, we have found it helpful 

to focus on the study of leadership, plus experiential 

learning and reflection on five key components and 

questions: 

1. Vision: Who am I and who do I want to become? 

2. Values: Who do I want to be and do I know my 

guiding principles? 

3. Attributes: How do professionals act in my chosen field; do I know my image; can I adapt my style 

and preferences to different contexts? 

4. Skills: Do I have the necessary soft and hard skills 

to be effective? 

5. Knowledge: What do I know and can I draw insights from relevant theories, conceptual frameworks 

and ideas? 

This is hard work for leaders at all levels of development, which is why coaching and mentoring is key 

to success for emerging leaders as well as for the effective practice of individual, team, and organizational 

development.

The Noble Calling of Public Service: 

Challenges for Emerging Leaders.

The Public Service Leadership Program and the approach suggested in this monograph are intended to 

open pathways for critical thinking about leader devel-
xvi

opment. Of course, we recognize that many challenges 

remain in today’s dynamic work environment—an environment that demands lifelong leadership learning, 

but that empowers individuals, teams, and organizations across all public, private, and nonprofit sectors. 

Questions remain, and research is needed on developing programs that educate, develop, measure, assess, 

and track emerging leaders and their development as:

1. Individuals, team members, and professional 

experts;

2. Leaders and managers in a variety of large, 

medium and small organizations;

3. Entry-level apprentices preparing for roles of increased scope and responsibility at the local, regional, 

national and international levels;

4. Individuals capable of collaborative work across 

the public, private, and nonprofit sectors;

5. People who appreciate the opportunities for making a difference in the changing and dynamic work environment, domestically and internationally, in an age 

of globalization.

There is much work to be done. This research project examines the ideas and techniques for the education and training development of emerging leaders in 

the public, private, and nonprofit sectors. The project 

addresses the gaps in military and civilian education 

in preparing emerging leaders for “whole of government” and cross-agency and cross-sector organizational environments. The main focus is to synthesize the 

top research on leadership and leader development by 

highlighting the needs for preparing leaders committed to careers of service in the public, private, and nonprofit sectors. There is a significant gap of published 

literature focused on the young, emerging leaders, 
xvii

those with 10-15 years of experience; yet these are the 

leaders who hold the future of our country. This gap is 

notable in published material for public, private, and 

nonprofit sector organizations. 

Personal Mastery: Challenges for Emerging 

Leaders.

The ideas here are meant to stimulate both thinking 

and action. They are drawn from the interdisciplinary 

literature and experience, and there is no claim to a 

unique approach that is “guaranteed to change your 

life” as so many leadership programs claim. Each individual has to chart his or her own path and pursue a 

lifetime of learning. 

ENDNOTE

1. Available from www.bush41.org/award-public-service, accessed on September 2, 2015.

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION:

THE EMERGING LEADERSHIP GAPS—

THE TENSIONS AMONG OPPOSITES

Joseph R. Cerami

This research project examines the ideas and techniques for the education and training development of 

emerging leaders in the public, private, and nonprofit 

sectors. The project addresses the gaps in military and 

civilian education in preparing emerging leaders for 

“whole of government,” cross-agency, and cross-sector organizational environments. The main focus is to 

synthesize the top research on leadership and leader 

development and to highlight the needs for developing leaders committed to careers of service in the public, private, and nonprofit sectors. The foundation for 

the research is based on the ideas drawn from leadership and management literature, government reports, 

think tank studies, and case studies. The experience 

of the authors will inform the research in addressing the subject from the perspectives of government, 

business, and graduate level programs for developing 

leadership knowledge and skills for emerging leaders, generally in the 20-to-30-year-old age group. The 

approach is to build on foundational concepts and 

research found useful in more than a decade of experience in developing emerging leaders in the Public 

Service Leadership Program at the Bush School of 

Government and Public Service, a graduate program 

at Texas A&M University.

Previous collaborative efforts between the Bush 

School and the Strategic Studies Institute (SSI) of the 

U.S. Army War College (USAWC) have produced a 
2

range of significant conference, colloquia, and workshop reports and books that have reached a variety 

of national and international government agencies, 

university research programs, and think tanks. This 

monograph’s focus is drawn from the Academic Year 

2013 USAWC Key Strategic Issues List and will address the functional strategic issues of “Leadership, 

Civil-Military Relations, and Culture.”

The topic areas from the issues list included the 

following two topics: (1) Evaluate potential changes 

to U.S. institutions, founding documents, or policy 

formulation processes to reflect the 21st-century security environment and the changed nature of armed 

conflict: Are the current efforts and programs sufficient to achieve the envisioned benefits of “whole of 

government” approaches to contemporary security 

challenges?; and (2) Assess the apparent gap between 

civilian and military cultures and its effect on interagency interaction and cooperation.1

In sum, this research project will examine the ideas 

and techniques for the education and training development of emerging leaders in the public, private, and 

nonprofit sectors. The project addresses the gaps in 

military and civilian education in preparing emerging 

leaders for “whole of government” and cross-agency 

and cross-sector organizational environments. The 

main focus is to synthesize the top research on leadership and leader development by highlighting the 

needs for preparing leaders committed to careers of 

service in the public, private, and nonprofit sectors. 

There is a significant gap of published literature focused on the young, emerging leaders, those with 10 

to 15 years of experience; yet these are the leaders of 

the future. This gap is notable in published material 

for both public and private sector organizations. One 
3

of the outcomes of this research project is a sample 

curriculum that will address the gaps in leadership 

development and offer an alternative approach as a 

solution.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What are the most important ideas and techniques for the education and training development of 

emerging leaders in the public, private, and nonprofit 

sectors? (Primary Research Question)

2. What are the gaps in military and civilian education in preparing emerging leaders for “whole 

of government” and cross-agency and cross-sector 

organizational environments?

3. What are the major research gaps in the published literature focused on emerging leaders? Have 

researchers (and practitioner-experts) determined the 

major research needs for emerging leader development education and training programs?

4. Are there sample educational curricula or training development programs that are assessed (by professional associations or other experts) as the best approaches for emerging leader development? What are 

the main alternative approaches?

5. Are there recognized “best practices” for emerging leader development in the public, private, nonprofit, and university sectors? What are the significant 

similarities and differences across sectors?

6. Are there effective approaches accepted across 

the U.S. Government for developing emerging leaders 

for government and interagency work environments?

7. What are the most highly regarded models or 

concepts for developing emerging leaders?
4

TENSIONS BETWEEN OPPOSITES

Given the wealth of leadership research and studies, as well as the diversity of opinions on leadership 

development, including views from those who may 

not have had the opportunity to read the extensive, interdisciplinary literature, this monograph begins with 

a discussion of the key study assumptions. The basic 

approach is to consider the philosophically grounded 

idea that truth and beauty are to be found in the tension between opposites. This idea was highlighted in a 

book by Paul Nitze, a well-known and highly respected Cold War government official, primary author of 

the National Security Council-68 memorandum outlining the strategy of containment, and later Dean of 

the School of Advanced International Studies at Johns 

Hopkins University. In brief, drawing on ancient Greek 

philosophy, Nitze suggests this approach as one that 

he would recommend for any university commencement speech. For those looking for certainty and the 

potential for “one best way” to approach leadership 

challenges, Nitze, citing Heraclitus, suggests critical 

thinking and considering a more complex set of options, or the “assertion that truth and beauty were to 

be found in the tensions between opposites.”2 Let us 

look briefly at several of the common tensions, paradoxes, and dilemmas facing emerging leaders as they 

approach their first jobs. In later chapters, the literature reviews are presented by sector—public, private, 

and nonprofit. Here, one or two books for each section 

will be highlighted to illustrate these topic areas for 

guiding emerging leaders.
5

THINKERS AND DOERS

One piece of stereotypical thinking is in overcoming the distinction between the academic and practitioner spheres. The notion here is that there is nothing 

as practical as a good, grounded theory.3 Ideas and 

action must be linked. It does not help overcome the 

challenges facing emerging leaders and their organizations if those who think do not act, and those who 

act do not think. One key assumption to this approach 

to emerging leader development is the imperative to 

bridge the gaps between theory and practice, academics and practitioners, and ideas and action.

THE CENTER AND THE PERIPHERY

Hierarchy matters, regardless of current management ideas regarding horizontal organization and 

self-managed teams. While well-meaning in theory, 

in that real world, especially in government agencies 

where political appointees are at the top of organizational structures, it remains critical to connect at all 

levels, including senior, middle, and ground levels.

Aligning and integrating the work of organizations is 

important and often overlooked. To be blunt, no one 

hires individuals at the entry-level to define an organizations purpose, vision, or mission. That said, the 

alignment of top- through entry-level leaders remains 

important for organizations in all sectors. As the research consistently suggests, communications within 

and among organizations remains a key obstacle to 

creating effective teams and work groups, ensuring 

interagency coordination, and sustaining collaborative, flexible, and adaptable work environments. 
6

THE PUBLIC, THE PRIVATE, AND 

THE NONPROFIT SECTORS

Graham Allison’s classic article, “Public and Private Management: Are They Fundamentally Alike in 

All Unimportant Respects?” deserves another look.4

One of Allison’s findings, that there is a fundamental 

constitutional difference between the public and private sector, remains true today as in the past.5

 Other 

aspects of his comparisons, including concerns about 

complexity, authority relationships, organizational 

performance, incentive structures, and personal characteristics are more closely related than ever in the 

past. Government organizations routinely are tasked 

to measure performance. Private corporations are increasingly engaged in public-private partnerships as 

well as programs emphasizing corporate social responsibility. Nonprofits are often teamed with both 

corporations and government agencies in pursuing 

their programs and projects. Certainly, the recent wars 

in Iraq and Afghanistan have highlighted the increasing involvement of all three sectors in humanitarian 

operations, political and economic development, and 

even in military combat. 

THE WASHINGTON, DC, INTERAGENCY

The tensions in the area of interagency cooperation in what is referred to as the “interagency” have 

been emphasized by scholars and policymakers in the 

Washington, DC, policy community. Most recently, 

the concept of the defense, diplomatic, and development (3-D) agencies or integrating the efforts of diplomats, defense and military officials, and development 

experts, within the Washington beltway community, 
7

as well as in overseas embassies and within the ambassador’s country team, remains a challenge. In 2 

years of intense study for instance, the Project on National Security Reform has researched a large number 

of case studies that reflect upon the 60-year-old national security system that “inconsistently supports, 

obstructs, and even undermines” the efforts of the talented men and women working to protect America.6

The tensions for emerging leaders entering this complex environment requires a renewed commitment 

to understanding and improving the knowledge and 

skill of the newest public servants as well as equipping agencies with the incentive structures to enable 

the critical and creative thinking necessary to meet the 

rapidly changing international environment.

CONCLUDING ADVICE

The following passage from a Swedish crime novel reinforces several key points regarding leadership 

experience, communication, trust, coaching, and lifelong learning. The selection is from a “peer coaching 

session” between two senior detectives and long-time 

friends, one is complaining about being in a dead end 

and uninteresting job.

“I’ll give you some good advice.” 

“I’m listening,” said Johansson, nodding. I really 

am, he thought. 

 “Stop whining.” . . . 

“Give some real thought to how you want it to be 

instead, and then it’s just a matter of seeing to it that it 

turns out that way. Write it down on a piece of paper 

and clip it securely to your big snout so you don’t forget what you’ve promised yourself.”
8

First you decide how you want it to be, and then 

you see to it that it turns out that way, thought Johansson. Sounds rather obvious, actually. 

“Sounds good,” said Johansson, nodding, because 

he really thought so. “I’ll think about doing that. 

Seriously,” he added.

“That’s not good enough, Lars,” said his best friend, 

shaking his head. “You already think too much. Just 

do as I say, then it will work out famously.” 

“I’ll do as you say, said Johansson, nodding. “Although I’ll lose that bit with the piece of paper.”

I’ll do it. It’s starting to be high time, he thought.7

ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 1

1. U.S. Army War College (USAWC) Key Strategic Issues 

List (KSIL), Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, USAWC, 

2013, p. 10.

2. Paul H. Nitze, Tension between Opposites: Reflections on the 

Practice and Theory of Politics, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 

1993, pp. 16-17. Nitze provides the text of his 1953 commencement address to further explain this idea, located on p. 16: 

This unity of apparent opposites seems to me to involve 

a basic and crucial point. Twenty-five hundred years ago, 

Heraclitus, using the analogies of the bow and of the lyre, 

suggested that harmony and truth were to be found in the 

tension of opposites. Today advanced modern scientists, 

such as Robert Oppenheimer and Niels Bohr, apply a parallel idea. They tell us that an undertaking of the basic truths 

in their field can be attained only by the concurrent application of complementary ideas which to our senses seem contradictory, as for example, we can understand the behavior 

of light only by perceiving it in two opposite concepts, that 

of the wave and that of the particle. They call this the principle of complementarity. Heraclitus and the atomic scientists 

go on to suggest that this principle of complementarity of 

opposites applies not only to the work of physics, but generally, including the world of human affairs.
9

3. Kurt Lewin, Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical 

Papers, Dorwin Cartwright, ed., New York: Harper & Row, 1951. 

Two books that address theory-practice gaps are noteworthy. In 

Jeffrey Pfeffer and Robert I. Sutton, The Knowing-Doing Gap: How 

Smart Companies Turn Knowledge into Action, Boston, MA: Harvard 

Business School Press, 2000, the authors analyze why managers 

who understand organizational performance, say smart things, 

and work hard, find it difficult to overcome obstacles in firms 

that do things the smart managers know will undermine their 

organization’s performance (p. ix). A variant of the knowingdoing tension is illustrated in Richard P. Rumelt, Good Strategy 

Bad Strategy: The Difference and Why it Matters, New York: Crown 

Business, 2011. Rumelt addresses the difference between “good” 

strategy, as including a “diagnosis, a guiding policy, and coherent 

action” whereas “bad” strategy emphasizes “goal setting rather 

than problem solving” to avoid obstacles and the “wish to not 

offend anyone . . . cover all the bases rather than focus resources 

and actions” (pp. 7-8). One of Rumelt’s key points is that many 

organizations, including the U.S. Army, do not really know what 

good strategy is (often confusing strategic thinking with inspirational leadership) and, therefore, are prone to fail in their responsibilities to identify their biggest challenges and devise coherent 

approaches in practice (p. 2).

4. Graham T. Allison, “Public and Private Management: Are 

They Fundamentally Alike in All Unimportant Respects? (1980)” 

in Jay M. Shafritz and Albert C. Hyde, eds., Classics of Public 

Administration, 3rd Ed., Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing 

Company, 1992. 

5. Ibid., p. 466.

6. One of their reports writes: 

The increasingly interlinked challenges of today—from 

global jihad to global warming—push the boundaries of 

traditional national security and demand integrated strategies, unity of effort, and timely resourcing tailored to U.S. 

objectives. Yet, the present system, instead of empowering 

policymakers, too often prevents leaders from planning rationally and effectively for future contingencies and from 

matching resources to objectives. Largely hierarchical struc-
10

tures impede unity of effort and are not conducive to the 

integration of hard and soft assets of power. The costs of 

these deficiencies are readily apparent, in unnecessary U.S. 

casualties, dollars wasted, opportunities lost, and American 

prestige undermined.

Richard Weitz, ed., Project on National Security Reform: Case Studies 

Working Group Report, Vol. II, Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, March 2012, p. vii.

7. Leif G. W. Persson, Between Summer’s Longing and Winter’s 

End: The Story of a Crime, Paul Norlen, trans. from the Swedish, 

New York: Pantheon Books, 2010, pp. 484-485.
11

CHAPTER 2

ASSESSING CURRENT APPROACHES TO

EMERGING LEADER DEVELOPMENT 

IN THE U.S. GOVERNMENT

Robert B. McDyre, Jr.

America can succeed only with leaders who are themselves full-spectrum in their thinking. The military 

will not be able to train or educate you to have all the 

right answers—as you might find in a manual—but 

you should look for those experiences and pursuits in 

your career that will help you to at least ask the right 

questions.

 Former Secretary of Defense 

 Robert Gates, 20111

INTRODUCTION

In 2014, the U.S. Army released its new Army Operation Concept (AOC), “Win in a Complex World,” 

to adjust Army capabilities to meet the challenges for 

achieving U.S. policy objectives in a dynamic, turbulent strategic environment. According to the author, 

General David G. Perkins, “the environment the Army 

will operate in is unknown. The enemy is unknown, 

the location is unknown, and the coalitions involved 

are unknown,” thus the Army faces the problem of 

how to succeed in new, ambiguous environments facing new, complex challenges.2

 Leadership has always 

been a core Army value and a competitive advantage 

that the Army relies on when facing difficult challenges, but like other strategies and objectives, leadership 

must be refined to operate in the new, complex security environment.3

 The Army has long sought to be in-
12

novative in its leader development. Most recently, the 

Army’s Human Dimension White Paper supports the 

“Win in a Complex World” document by emphasizing the Army’s desire to become the nation’s leader in 

“human development.”4

As noted throughout the rest of this monograph, 

the public, private, and nonprofit sectors are all reexamining their approaches for developing emerging 

leaders, the new millennial generation, those young 

20-something leaders entering the workforce. As seen 

in these new documents, the Army fully intends to focus attention and resources on developing its emerging leaders to continue to retain its reputation in the 

leader development field and to maintain its effectiveness in the complex operational environments in current and future conflicts. Since the uniformed military 

does not possess the ability to recruit executive leaders 

from the outside, it must begin developing the leaders of tomorrow today. To succeed in today’s complex 

operating environments, while preparing for the near 

future, learning leaders must be able to adapt and react to ambiguous situations. This assumes not only 

understanding the nature of conventional as well as 

unconventional threats, but also being able to respond 

while leading or acting as team members in what has 

been called a “whole of government” approach for 

complex, civil-military operations. In short, the AOC 

requires that emerging leaders must understand the 

political-social-military environmental context, the 

diplomatic-development-defense policies of the U.S. 

Government, and their roles as emerging leaders and 

followers, in a variety of operational settings. Collaboration, not just within the Army, but across government agencies, will be crucial to success in this complex operating environment. 
13

This chapter assesses the Army’s leader development practices in light of the Army’s focus on preparing leaders to “win in a complex world.” Because a 

whole of government approach to leadership is needed, this chapter will review Army emerging leaders 

development practices by focusing on the framework 

of knowledge, skills, attributes, and values, and then 

compare these to other agencies involved in the 3-Ds 

of defense, diplomacy, and development. The main 

goals of this chapter are to (1) critically access the gaps 

between the emerging leader development literature 

and current U.S. Army practices; and (2) compare and 

contrast the Army’s emerging leader development 

programs with the programs of other U.S. agencies 

and institutions engaged in national security affairs.

PREPARING LEADERS THROUGH A 

KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, ABILITIES, 

AND VALUES FRAMEWORK

One way to understand how leaders are developed 

is to examine what an organization considers as key 

competencies. For instance, Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Values (KSAVs) are descriptive components 

used by U.S. federal agencies to identify leader competencies. Often competency modeling is used as both 

a foundation for leader development and a basis for 

leader selection.5

The Army, like most other government organizations, has a defined list of KSAVs to assess leadership. 

Discussion of leadership KSAVs is particularly important now because competencies are an appropriate 

method for describing and evaluating leadership behaviors in future terms.6

 Thus, this section will discuss 

what KSAVs U.S. military organizations consider im-
14

portant for emerging leaders. The brief overview and 

analysis of military leadership competencies serves 

to illuminate gaps in specific programs by suggesting 

which approaches are highlighted and which are supported by research on emerging leaders. This comparison is important for assessing the potential for greater 

interagency cooperation. As military operations continue the trend toward more interagency coordination (and including the private and nonprofit sectors), 

there is an increasing need for a common language to 

enhance the U.S. Government’s effectiveness in complex operating environments.7

 Later chapters will suggest an approach to emerging leader development to 

overcome some of these gaps and encourage broader 

leader development in preparing for aligning and integrating leadership within the U.S. Government and 

across the agencies engaged in the day-to-day work of 

national security agencies.

Soldiers’ Competencies: Army Leadership KSAVs.

One advantage we have, especially in time of decreasing budgets, derives from our ability to develop the 

right leaders—noncommissions officers, officers, and 

civilians—who can think in this very complex world.

 General Raymond T. Odierno, 20147a

The Army defines a leader as “anyone who by virtue of assumed role or assigned responsibility inspires 

and influences people to accomplish organizational 

goals,” but such a broad statement does not truly capture what the abilities an Army leader of the future 

needs to succeed in an uncertain strategic environment.8

 The 2014 AOC and the 2014 Human Dimension White Paper both stress that future Army leaders 
15

must be agile and must adapt to constantly evolving 

and changing geopolitical complexities.9 Thus, the 

emerging Army leader must not only inspire and 

influence others to achieve the Army’s internal organizational goals, but he or she must understand the 

wider global, strategic context and have the ability to 

adapt in ambiguous theaters of operation. To meet 

this demand, the Army is focused on human capital, 

broadly defined—to develop future leaders who think 

critically about the nature of the conflict in which they 

are engaged, innovate rapidly in the field, and understand that their tactical activities can affect the wider 

strategic context.10

The KSAVs the Army deems important for leaders 

are identified in the Army Leadership Requirements 

model. The model defines the essential competencies 

leaders—at any level—must possess to be effective 

in inspiring and influencing others to accomplish the 

Army’s mission. The Army Leadership Requirements 

Model presents leadership development in terms of 

ends, ways, and means. The ends are the objectives 

to be achieved and answer the central question of 

“What do Army leaders need to be successful?” There 

are two components of the ends: (1) attributes, which 

speak to the leader’s internal characteristics; and (2) 

competencies, which are the actionable skills and behaviors a leader must be capable of carrying out. In 

the terms of the Army’s “be, know, do” model, leaderships attributes comprise the “be” and “know” while 

competencies make up the “do.” 

The required attributes of a leader are character, 

presence, and intellect. Character, or the internal identity of a leader, is derived from integrity and identity, 

and assesses the ability of the leader to understand 

right from wrong and whether he or she is willing to 
16

do what is right. Presence is determined by the image 

others possess of the leader. Intellect is defined as the 

mental and social faculties possessed by a leader, but 

essentially it defines how a leader seeks to solve problems and make sound decisions. The new demands of 

Army leaders for complex environments will surely 

change the understanding of these three concepts. 

First, the new challenging operating environments 

will place a larger burden on intellect than ever before. Future leaders will be required to understand 

cultures, political-economic-social development, languages, and other complicated geopolitical factors.11

The emphasis for agility in the future is mental—facing 

ambiguous situations, leaders will be forced to make 

creative decisions with limited information. Second, 

the presence of a leader has changed with advances 

in technology as the presence of an Army leader is 

not only seen by his Army constituents, but also now 

by other facets of the U.S. Government, the citizens 

of the United States, and the enemy and the enemy’s 

population. Third, the character of Army leaders must 

remain steadfast, and in some instances, be corrected 

to handle future challenges. As the military-industrial 

complex grows and the Army evolves, so, too, does 

the Army bureaucracy. 

The increasing demands of future theaters, in addition to the domestic socio-political context on the 

home front, place intense pressure on Army leaders. 

A recent study by Leonard Wong and Stephen Gerras illuminated a growing problem in the Army, that 

increasingly leaders have become “ethically numb” 

after repeatedly being forced to use their signature as 

their honor to navigate Army bureaucracy.12 Although 

character is typically considered a stronghold for U.S. 

Army leadership, the Army must remain aware of 

growing pressures and seek to continually educate 
17

and train leaders in areas of strengths, like character. 

To be successful in future environments, the Army 

must seek to develop the attributes of Army leaders 

according to future challenges.

The leadership competencies of the Army Leadership Requirements Model are essential skills universal to all leaders. They are considered trainable skills, 

and thus much of the Army’s leadership development 

focuses on these skills. The “Attributes,” or abilities, 

and “Competencies” of leaders are explained in Army 

Doctrine Publication (ADP) 6-22 and provided in Table 

2-1. The three areas of competencies are to lead others, 

develop the environment, and achieve organizational 

goals.13 Like the attributes of leaders, the competencies must also be geared at developing leaders for the 

future in line with the 2014 AOC. 

Table 2-1. Army Leadership Requirements 

Model from ADP 6-22.

The ADP 6-22 on Army leadership defines the lead 

competency as “influencing Soldiers and Army Civil-
18

ians in the leader’s organization,” but the demands 

of the future will force the Army to operate within a 

larger, whole of government context. The Human Dimension White Paper clearly states that “American 

military power is joint power” and that to combat future conflicts that arise from disruption of peace and 

disorder, “land forces are required to overcome the 

effects of this disorder through military operations 

that integrate joint, interorganizational, and multinational capabilities.”14 Thus, the Army must begin 

to train leaders to lead not only their own organization, but those of other governmental as well as nongovernmental organizations to be able to contribute 

efficiently to the joint, interagency nature of conflict 

management in complex operations. 

Additionally, the Army believes leaders must possess the capability of achieving traditional military 

organizational goals. Like many of the other competencies and attributes of Army leadership, achieving 

goals must be restructured for the future—leaders 

must not only address the Army’s internal goals but, 

because future conflict will require joint and combined operations, they also must meet the interagency 

goals of collaborating with and within multinational 

coalitions. The ad hoc nations of coalition in warfighting as well as peacekeeping missions will entail some 

compromise and a great deal of flexibility from Army 

leaders. Leadership competencies are trainable and, 

therefore, the Army must begin training competencies beyond traditional warfighting to meet the future 

strategic environment.
19

Army Leadership Development Practices: 

Developing KSAVs in Emerging Leaders for the 

Complex Environment.

Once the core requirements for leader development have been established, the Army must develop 

the “ends” especially for individuals as emerging 

leaders.” To do so, the Army Leadership Requirements Model establishes “ways” and “means” for 

developing the attributes and competencies of individuals. The “ways” are the methods for developing 

leaders and the “means” are the resources involved 

in the development. The essential “means” are will, 

time, people, and funding.15 For the purpose of leader 

development, will and time are most important because leadership development should be ongoing and 

constant, and requires a significant amount of will 

from the emerging leaders and those helping them 

to develop. The essential “ways” of development for 

Army leaders are standard to most other leadership 

programs by including education, job specific training, and self-development. The ways and means are 

focused through three lines of effort and occur in three 

domains, which will be the focus of the next sections.

Lines of Effort.

To develop the necessary and desired KSAVs, 

Army leaders need to be effective; and the Army focuses on three lines of effort: training, education, and 

experience. The 2014 Human Dimension White Paper, 

“Optimizing Human Performance,” adds other lines 

of effort as it seeks to enhance the human element of 

the Army by building soldiers’ abilities. Leadership is 

a focal point of optimizing the human element of the 
20

Army for the future. Following that context, this section explains the Army’s traditional lines of effort in 

light of new focus on optimizing human performance 

as it concerns leadership development practices.

First, training seeks to increase leaders’ performance through development of leadership skills. The 

training line of effort is important for leadership as it 

seeks to build the basic and universal components of 

leadership. Training is most effective when it is tied 

to immediate job-related duties and skills. The Army 

has identified this need to relate training to job specific tasks and skills by defining “executing realistic 

training” as a line of effort for optimizing human performance. Under this line of effort, the Army vows to 

integrate the ambiguous nature of conflict in the modern world into training. The effect on leadership is 

twofold as: (1) leaders must organize this type of training to prepare their soldiers for complex problems; 

and, (2) leaders must use this training to develop their 

skills and abilities to solve complex problems through 

teamwork.16 As will be discussed, while traditional 

training approaches will continue to be of value, new 

approaches to training for developing critical thinking will be more important than relying exclusively 

on past approaches to training in defined skills (such 

as repetitive drills and scenario-based exercises that 

do not include free play or dynamic, opposing forces).

Second, education teaches leadership knowledge, 

attributes, and values. It is under the education line 

of effort that leader’s develop traits like agility, judgment, and creativity.17 These attributes and the process of education will be even more important under 

the 2014 AOC as these abilities will separate the Army 

leader of the future from the Army leaders of the past. 

Realizing this consistent emphasis on education, the 
21

Army is centralizing its education under the Army 

University and under the control of its Training and 

Doctrine Command (TRADOC) to create a more collaborative and holistic approach to education.18 While 

this may improve the efficiency of education, it will 

be interesting to see how it affects the development 

of diversity in creative thinking and mental agility appropriate for individuals in various stages of 

development.

The “Drive Institutional Agility” line of effort for 

the Army’s goal of optimizing human performance 

to educate individuals to become adaptive emphasizes innovation and adapting in the face of emerging threats and technologies.19 Simply, “institutional 

agility is about changing as fast as the strategic environment changes.”20 The education line of effort is 

intended to allow the Army to develop intuitional 

agility by developing leaders who understand geopolitical factors and who can solve complex problems 

with limited information and on the fly. 

Third, experience is the accumulation of development processes that occur during a soldier’s time in the 

Army in various assignments. Although important, 

it appears that the role of experience will be slightly 

diminished in the future. This is exemplified by the 

“establishing cognitive dominance” line of effort, 

which encompasses all the activities related to creating leaders who are capable and comfortable to act in 

uncertain strategic environments.21 In the Army 2014 

strategy, there are two contributing factors as to why 

the role of experience is downplayed. First, leader development in the operational domain has accounted 

for much more of a soldier’s experience than desired 

in the Army Leadership Development Strategy because 

soldiers of the past decade have had so much experi-
22

ence in war. Thus, current soldiers already possess an 

adequate amount of experience. Second, experience 

will be less beneficial to Army leaders in the future 

as each conflict will pose novel challenges. Leadership 

education in the Army remains the same for the future, 

focusing on core components of leadership development—education, training, and experience; however, 

it is expected that the new AOC and the new lines of 

effort for Optimizing Human Performance will affect 

the leader development practices under those lines of 

effort.

The 2014 Human Dimension White Paper offers a 

human dimension operational approach that is similar to the previous strategies for developing leaders. 

Previous strategies focused on developing KSAVs of 

leaders, whereas the human dimension operational 

approach seeks to optimize human performance at 

every level of the Army team. The lines of effort in 

this approach are similar, but more geared toward the 

new AOC. It is unclear at this point if they will replace 

ADP 6-22, the Army’s Leadership manual. These new 

lines of effort are more specific than the previous lines 

of effort, but they affect the same basic concepts: education, experience, and training.

Domains of Development.

Traditionally the Army has executed development 

in three domains. Each of these domains is designed 

to create specific opportunities to enhance leadership 

strengths or fill development gaps. First, the institutional domain seeks to develop knowledge, attributes, 

and competencies; and it includes all activities of development that are outside of the soldier’s unit.22 The 

education line of effort falls tightly within the institu-
23

tional domain as leadership development in this domain most often takes the form of training schools and 

extended coursework. 

Second, most soldiers' leadership development occurs in the operational domain, as on-the-job training, 

where they develop within their units. The operational domain should contribute to the new AOC goals 

of having leaders who think broadly about the nature 

of conflict by placing soldiers in various assignments. 

One researcher suggests that most assignments are not 

broad and thus fail to adhere to the spirit of the Army 

Leadership Development Strategy. He argues that assignments are tied to promotions, not to development.23 If 

the Army seriously wants to improve leadership development and create strategic thinkers for complex 

future environments, it must integrate development 

in the operational domain to adhere more strictly to 

its future organizational goals. Suggested changes include increasing consistency in development processes across units24 and aligning specific objectives to specific organizational goals.25 Managing transitions and 

linking related progressive development assignments 

over time will be a major challenge for the military’s 

personnel systems.

Managing transitions also applies to the third domain, self-development, and places the onus on the 

developing individual. According to the Army development doctrine, self-development should bridge 

the gaps between what is learned and what can be acquired in other domains.26 Much of the development 

and success in this domain are based on the individual’s motivation and ability to actively seek opportunities to develop leadership capabilities. Every organization wants self-motivated leaders of course, but in 

reality, can an organization rely on emerging leaders 
24

to motivate themselves? Studies show there are flaws 

to this approach. 

For leadership self-development practices to be 

successful, they must be tied to relevant work objectives and tasks. Herein lies the problem with the selfdevelopment domain in Army leadership practices—

in short, it must become more relevant. In a review of 

the Army Leadership Development Strategy, Drew found 

that practices of the self-development domain are too 

general and often inconsistent with the overall leadership development strategy. Further, he found there 

is often not enough guidance in the self-development 

domain.27 This may seem contradictory to the premise of self-development, but self-development exists 

outside of operational and institutional domains to 

add a personal element to developing an individual’s 

KSAVs. Thus, it supplements other development 

practices. Therefore, emerging leaders often require 

assistance, with generous and experienced mentoring and coaching to identify needs and implement 

projects for self-development. The self-development 

domain is important in every leadership development 

strategy, but often it is the most difficult to execute. 

Certainly, self-development requires good mentoring 

and coaching to incorporate it into the overarching development strategy and fill gaps to create a complete 

leader. More on these self-development challenges 

apply across the public, private, and nonprofit sectors and will be discussed in later chapters. Given the 

need for joint operations, and the potential for gaps 

between the service doctrines, the following sections 

will compare/contrast the Navy and Air Force’s writing with the Army doctrinal approach to emerging 

leader development.
25

Sailors’ Competencies: Navy Leadership KSAVs.

As a starting point, given the complex security challenges America faces around the globe, the future of 

our maritime services will ultimately depend less on 

the quality of their hardware than on the quality of 

their leaders.

 Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, 201028

Historically, the Navy has operated independently 

of other military organizations and relied, more than 

the other military services, on on-the-job experience 

to develop leaders. Today, the Navy prescribes the 

Navy Leadership Competency Model to define leadership KSAVs at every level of leadership. However, 

in 2012, recognizing the changing security environment, the Navy adopted a more systematic approach 

to leader development.29 The Navy’s new approach 

also points out that sailors need to be better prepared 

to lead within an intraorganizational context and 

in uncertain domains. This change is not unlike the 

changes the Army has made in 2014 with the new 

AOC and the Human Dimension White Paper. Both 

changes account for emerging trends of the future 

and seek to adjust leadership development strategies to better address dynamic geopolitical concerns. 

Underlining that change is the Navy leadership development strategy known as the Navy Leader Development Continuum. This next section evaluates 

the Navy Leadership Competency Model, discusses 

the recent Navy Leader Development Continuum, 

and provides areas of effective Navy emerging leader 

development.30

First, the Navy Leadership Competency Model is 

used to define what behaviors a Navy leader exhibits 
26

to be an effective leader. The model is based on five 

competencies: accomplishing mission, leading people, 

leading change, working with people, and resource 

stewardship. These competencies are behaviors that 

leaders at every level should exhibit to be effective 

and are explained in the Navy Leadership Competency Model.31 Accomplishing mission is the ability to 

make decisions and to produce and evaluate results. 

Leading people is the ability to plan and execute strategies to accomplish missions while maintaining ethical standards. Leading change is the ability to develop 

and implement the Navy’s organizational vision. This 

involves balancing change and continuity and creating 

an environment for innovation. Working with people 

deals with the ability to communicate and collaborate 

with others. Finally, resource stewardship is using effectively all types of resources, such as financial and 

human resources. 

Second, the Navy Leader Development Continuum is an outcomes based approach. The outcomes, 

based on specific career points, are the attributes, 

behaviors, and skills the Navy seeks in its leaders. 

There are four foundational elements of the outcomes 

in the continuum: core values, moral character, judgment, and leadership.32 This continuum approach is 

similar to that of the Army in that it seeks to integrate 

education, training, experience, and self-development 

throughout a leader’s career. Further, the new Naval 

strategy for developing leaders shares many similar 

characteristics defined by the 2014 Army effort in 

“Optimizing Human Potential.” It suggests leaders 

must be internationally focused and that the demands 

of the future will require leaders to possess critical 

thinking and foster innovation, have broad strategic 

and cultural perspectives, and possess the capabilities 
27

to act in coalitions.33 The concepts and focal points of 

the Navy Leader Development Continuum are similar 

to current efforts of the Army; however, the process 

of the Navy is more specific as to what competencies 

leaders should possess at each stage of their career 

development. 

By specifically delineating competencies to each 

level, leaders can trace a progression throughout their 

career. This may be beneficial to the self-development 

component of leader development, as leaders and 

their mentors can better evaluate missing competencies. Using the listed developmental outcomes, the 

emerging leaders know what is expected at their current level and what to do to prepare for the next level. 

For example, an enlisted sailor can see when he or she 

starts his or her career in leadership and is expected to 

become a “trusted team member” who is “loyal to and 

respects authority.” Over time, he or she will progress to be a “valued team leader” who “motivates and 

instills pride in others,” then to “command-respected 

leader” who “builds unity of purpose and sense of 

ownership,” finally becoming an “exemplar of the 

naval profession of arms” that “strengthens the chain 

of command.”34 The outcomes based approach clearly 

defines what is expected of every leader at every level. 

It may be a more beneficial approach to developing 

emerging leaders because millennials need constant 

feedback on their progress. A more comprehensive 

career progression-based approach such as the Navy 

Leadership Development Continuum can assist in 

providing emerging leaders with the instant, continuous feedback they crave and may more effectively 

guide emerging leader development.
28

Airmen’s Competencies: Air Force 

Leadership KSAVs.

Sure, everyone wants to be an effective leader, whether it be in the Air Force or in the community. You can 

and will be if you identify your strengths, capitalize 

on them, and consciously strive to reduce and minimize the times you apply your style inappropriately.

 Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force 

 Robert D. Gaylord, 1977-7935

The Air Force defines leadership as “the art and 

science of influencing and directing people to accomplish the assigned mission.” This definition is similar 

to that of the Army because its main components are 

influencing others and accomplishing an organizational mission. A clear definition of leadership builds 

a strong foundation for developing and accessing 

leaders. Both the Army and Air Force have clear definitions of leadership that are easily found in all documents related to leadership. On the contrary, none of 

the Navy documents reviewed have a clear definition 

of leadership. The Air Force’s definition of leadership, 

leadership core values, leadership competencies, leadership actions, and leadership development process 

(or Force Development Construct) are clearly stated 

and defined in the Air Force Doctrine (AFD) Document 

1-1, Leadership and Force Development.

The Air Force promotes three core values, or guiding characteristics of all leaders: (1) Integrity; (2) Service before Self; and, (3) Excellence in All that We 

Do. These universal and unchanging characteristics 

equate to values in a KSAV framework. These core 

values resemble clusters and have subcomponents, 

which further explain each core value. First and considered the most important by the Air Force, Integrity
29

is the willingness to do what is right at all times. Other 

characteristics under the integrity core value are courage, honesty, responsibility, accountability, justice, 

openness, self-respect, humility, and honor. The second core value is Service before Self or a dedication 

to duty in all circumstances. Duty, respect for others, 

self-discipline, self-control, appropriate actions or 

desires, tolerance, and loyalty are components of Service before Self. Third, Air Force leaders must always 

strive to perform at their best, and this is represented 

by the core value, Excellence in All that We Do. Subcomponents of Excellence in All that We Do are personal excellence, product/service excellence, resource 

excellence, community excellence, and operations 

excellence. 

The nexus of Leadership Competencies and Leadership Levels in the Air Force culminate in the knowledge and skills leaders require to lead effectively. The 

Air Force notes three levels of leadership that build 

progressively on each other: Personal Leadership, 

Team Leadership, and Institutional Leadership. Personal Leadership is displayed as close, interpersonal 

interactions. Team Leadership involves larger interpersonal interactions and Institutional Leadership is 

seen at the largest, strategic scale. Each of these competencies requires unique skills, which are presented 

here as a chart. Each leadership skills or competency 

applies in each of the three Leadership Levels: Strategic, Operational, and Tactical. Further, each level of 

leadership requires specific knowledge. The Tactical 

Level is the most basic level and requires leaders to 

learn about themselves in the context of their primary 

duties. The Operational Level requires more broad 

knowledge of the Air Force, and the Strategic Level is 

the widest, requiring leaders to have vast knowledge 

to broadly apply leadership competencies. Interest-
30

ingly, the Air Force notes knowledge at the Strategic 

Level is reserved primarily for senior level leaders.36

This logic is based on the element of progression 

that comprises the Force Development Construct, as 

it would take years of education and experience for 

a leader to reach the strategic level thinking. On the 

other hand, the Army’s aim for the future seems to be 

that all leaders and soldiers possess the knowledge to 

make decisions in a strategic context as it asks soldiers 

of the future to “think broadly about the nature of 

the conflict” and “appreciate the wider strategic context.”37 This difference may be accounted by the fact 

that the Air Force Doctrine has not been updated since 

2004 and the Army’s doctrines were recently released 

in 2014. (See Table 2-2.)

Table 2-2. The Three Levels of Air Force 

Leadership.
31

The “Leadership Actions of the Force Development” can be evaluated as abilities within a KSAV 

framework. These actions or abilities are behaviors 

that leaders must exhibit to get things done. First, 

leaders influence—they motivate and inspire others. This ability is central to the Air Force definition 

of leadership. Second, leaders improve, or they create 

growth within their team or organization. An essential 

component to this concept is creating more leaders, 

which is similar to the Army’s emphasis on leaders 

developing future leaders. Lastly, leaders accomplish

missions and obtain desired objectives. These leadership actions are essential abilities a leader needs to 

lead effectively. (See Table 2-3.)

Table 2-3. Relationship of Leadership Levels with 

Enduring Leadership Competencies.
32

The Air Force documents that relay leadership 

competencies and expectations are exceptionally clear 

and easy to understand. Emerging leaders, those new 

to leadership studies, potentially can become lost in 

overly complicated leadership manuals, but the Air 

Force’s use of analytic clusters and models simplify 

the Air Force’s conceptual approach. The progression 

model used by the Air Force, similar to that of the modeling used by the Navy, is something the Army should 

consider in refining its approach to leadership development as it places each leader in a specific context 

rather than just generally professing what leadership 

should be. On the other hand, the Air Force should 

follow the lead of the Army and Navy by adjusting 

its leadership requirements to address the nature of 

operations in the future. The Air Force manuals do not 

mention the changing strategic environment, whereas 

the Army and Navy narrow in on how an evolving 

battlefield will affect leadership development. 

Additionally, the Air Force development programs only minimally address concepts specific to the 

development of emerging leaders and focus primarily on senior leaders. This lack of emphasis on emerging leaders is a common flaw in many organizational 

leadership programs. Specifically, the Air Force leaves 

the strategic level of leadership to upper echelon leaders, but such a concept is outdated. As discussed in 

later chapters, all emerging military leaders will need 

to understand the strategic operation environment 

to adequately understand the threats and opportunities they are facing as lifelong learners in their public 

service careers. This chapter now turns to examining 

the nature of leader development programs in the remaining two Ds, the other major agencies with major operational requirements in the complex global 

strategic environment.
33

LEADER DEVELOPMENT IN DIPLOMACY 

AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS

In current and future operating environments, the 

defense, diplomatic, and development organizations 

increasingly will operate collaboratively. This idea of 

operating within an interagency environment, or “a 

whole of government approach,” is derived from the 

2010 National Security Strategy, which seeks to broaden the U.S. national security approach by integrating 

skills, resources, and assets among government agencies.38 Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has stressed 

this need to use smart power and leverage civilian 

power alongside military power in foreign policy.39

Following this framework, it will be useful to compare and contrast leader development in diplomacy 

and development organizations. This section provides 

information and analysis on emerging leader development programs and strategies in the United States 

Agency for International Development (USAID) and 

United States Department of State.

Development Organizations: USAID.

USAID is the leading U.S. Government organization tasked with international development. Its mission is to “end extreme poverty and to promote resilient, democratic societies while advancing our security 

and prosperity.”40 Interestingly, USAID has several 

programs for developing leaders in foreign nations in 

support of its mission abroad. But, how does USAID 

develop its own leaders internally? 

Unlike the Army and other U.S. military organizations, USAID outsources its leader development to 

the Office of Personnel Management’s (OPM) Federal 
34

Executive Institute (FEI). USAID, through the FEI, has 

a four-tiered approach to developing its leaders. The 

four tiers are composed of four successive development programs: the Emerging Leader Program; Leading Teams; Leadership Program; and Senior Executive 

Seminar. To attend a seminar, USAID employees must 

notify their supervisors of their interest when the programs list is distributed, once a year. Then, a prioritized list of candidates is made by the supervisor and 

sent to the agency to make selections. Selections are 

made once per year to ensure in advance that all spots 

are allocated.41 This approach is significantly different 

than that of the Army and other military organizations that insist all individuals, from privates to general officers, engage in leader development training 

and education. 

Leader development at USAID depends more 

upon individuals assuming a leadership role and 

taking charge of their own development. This type 

of system allows the top echelon of leaders to rise 

to the top—those that are serious about developing 

themselves as leaders have the opportunity to separate themselves from others who are less motivated. 

Additionally, charging leaders with their own development may cause them to personally invest more 

in themselves, as they are not expected to engage 

throughout the prescribed educational paths. On the 

other hand, leaders emerging in this system may often 

be discouraged at the obstacles to their own development, and some leaders may need an extra push to 

become a full participant to their own development. 

Moreover, it is believed that the study of leadership 

and ethics principles is retained for many years, even 

when not used, and may emerge in leader behaviors 

years after completing leadership training.42 Thus, the 
35

research suggests that it may be more useful to educate all personnel in principles of leadership so that in 

the future they will have the knowledge, skills, and 

abilities if called upon.

The first tier of the USAID leader development 

program is the Emerging Leaders Program and is 

of interest to this chapter. USAID defines emerging 

leaders as “mid-level employees who supervises others or manage significant agency programs,” though 

Presidential Management Fellows completing their 

fellowship at a GS-12 level are also able to attend the 

Emerging Leaders Program. It should be noted here 

that emerging leaders in the USAID program may 

tend to be older and more experienced than emerging leaders in other programs discussed in other parts 

of this chapter; however, the premise remains that 

emerging leaders are nonexecutive level leaders. The 

Emerging Leaders Program is a 7-day program that 

focuses on “leadership and management, presentation skills, intercultural communication, and effective one-on-one interactions,” and includes both an 

individual development plan and an individual needs 

assessment.43 The Emerging Leaders Program aims to 

develop tangible skills required of leaders at an entrylevel of leadership, as coursework teaches emerging 

leaders to know themselves and to interact with their 

constituents. 

The Emerging Leaders Program uses OPM leadership competencies. These competencies are used 

throughout the four-tiered approach to leader development at the FEI and are commonly used throughout government in the selection of leaders. First, leading change is the ability to “bring strategic change, 

both within and outside the organization.”44 Second, 

leading people is the ability to lead people to meet 
36

the organizations goals, and it incorporates conflict 

management, diversity, developing others, and team 

building. Third, results driven describes a leader’s 

ability to produce and accomplish goals. Fourth, 

business acumen refers to a leader’s ability to leverage resources strategically. This concept is extremely 

important in smaller organizations, such as USAID, 

where budgets are smaller than defense organizations and leaders must be innovative and strategic in 

their use of capital. Note that incorporating a business 

sense to leadership may prove beneficial for military 

organizations as well. Fifth is building coalitions

with other organizations to achieve common goals. 

Building coalitions is heavily emphasized in USAID’s 

leader development principles and it appears to be 

extremely important to USAID personnel who routinely must work hand in hand with other agencies 

and governments to work toward their organization’s 

mission. Such an emphasis is the heart of the National 

Security Strategy’s “whole of government” approach, 

that by integrating capabilities and aligning resources, 

military and civilian institutes can operate seamlessly 

together to achieve the mission of the U.S. Government.45 OPM’s FEI also coordinates an Interagency 

Rotation Program from the President’s Management 

Counsel (PMC) for higher level leaders to develop an 

individual’s experience in cross-agency work. Other 

agencies may consider building outside coalitions as a 

key element of the leader development process to further comply with the whole of government approach, 

and similar rotational programs may be a viable option to further develop collaboration.

In sum, USAID (via OPM’s FEI) offers a much different approach to emerging leader development than 

programs in defense agencies. In general, there is a 
37

much larger burden on individuals to take ownership 

of their own personal development. Future research 

should explore this area in respect to emerging leaders—for instance, are emerging leaders in USAID 

more or less willing than past generations to take 

ownership of their own development? 

Additionally, many leadership competencies and 

leader development strategies are similar to defense 

agencies; however, others, such as building coalitions, 

vary in that they focus more on the interagency process. USAID and other smaller government agencies 

must often work with state, local, international, private, and nonprofit partners to complete their missions. Historically, interagency collaboration has long 

been a priority at USAID. Other organizations should 

consider adopting more clearly defined interagency 

collaboration and similar skills geared toward relationship-building. This should include training and 

education outside of their own agencies as a priority 

of emerging leader development programs to prepare 

leaders for the interagency environment. 

Diplomacy: U.S. Department of State.

The U.S. Department of State is, of course, the 

main diplomatic organ of the U.S. Government. As 

an organization, it functions to “shape and sustain a 

peaceful, prosperous, just, and democratic world and 

foster conditions for stability and progress for the benefit of the American people and people everywhere.”46

To fulfil this mission, the State Department requires 

strong leadership from its personnel both at home and 

abroad. This section will evaluate the leader development strategy of the State Department, particularly 

for emerging leaders and in a whole of government 

context. 
38

The whole of government paradigm was created 

to ensure all government entities work toward a common goal. In light of that goal, several cross-agency 

processes have been developed to increase the ability 

of organizations to collaborate effectively. Leadership 

has not yet been formally identified as one of those 

processes. The State Department and USAID have a 

shared mission and joint strategic goals, yet their approaches to leader development are very different.47

The State Department develops its leaders internally 

through their Foreign Service Institute (FSI), whereas 

leaders at USAID receive training through the OPM 

Federal Executive Institute. Also within the whole of 

government approach, diplomacy and development 

organizations work increasingly with military organizations to further the interests of the U.S. Government, but leader development is even more different 

across these three spectrums. Defense agencies push 

leadership principles on all of their people, while 

USAID only offers leadership training to those who 

seek it. If USAID and the U.S. military are opposite 

ends on the spectrum, the Department of State falls 

somewhere between the two with respect to who receives leader development training. The fact that the 

State Department develops leaders within the agency 

makes leader development more accessible in contrast to USAID; yet State individuals must still seek 

out classes and take ownership of their personal development—certainly more so than in defense agencies. Thus, the U.S. State Department offers a different 

leader development approach.

Much of the U.S. State Department’s leader development falls on the shoulders of the emerging 

leader. The core of the State Department’s leader development programs is an amalgamation of classes 

and training opportunities designed to target specific 
39

competencies, and it is up to leaders to choose classes 

according to their own development needs. Therefore, 

leader development at the State Department begins 

with self-assessment. After a self-assessment of an individual’s strengths and weaknesses comes a review 

of positional competencies to see what is required of 

his or her positional and of future positions. The next 

steps to development are feedback, typically from supervisors, and an organizational assessment. The final 

steps are for the individual to establish future goals 

and then create an individual development plan to set 

his or her development on track. This process of selfdevelopment is guided by three principles: “know 

thy self,” learn from experience or experiential learning, and learn from people.48 In this respect, the State 

Department’s approach to leader development is not 

atypical.

The State Department does not have a program 

explicitly designed for “emerging leaders,” per the 

definition used by the authors highlighted in later 

chapters. However, the State Department distinguishes between levels of leadership and begins developing 

personnel early in their careers for leadership roles. 

As with the other programs surveyed, competencies 

or KSAVs drive the State Department’s leader development strategy. The Leadership Competency Framework provides the competencies expected of leaders 

at each level. A basic level provides nonsupervisory 

leadership competencies in addition to the three levels 

of leadership: supervisors, managers, and executives. 

Each level of leadership builds on the competencies of 

others and is provided briefly in Table 2-4. After determining what competencies they should build through 

self-assessment and personal goal setting, leaders at 

the State Department will find a class structured at 
40

developing that competency. The competencies listed 

in this framework also tie into the competencies for 

leaders listed by OPM as each agency has its OPM 

competency. For example, leveraging diversity is an 

element of leading people and human resource management is an element of business acumen.

49 In this 

respect, USAID and the Department of State are seeking to develop similar leadership competencies.50

Table 2-4. Leadership Competency Framework.

This discussion will now focus on the competencies of the supervisor level as they relate to the first 

tier of leadership that is similar to our understanding 

of emerging leaders. The first-level competency of the 

Leadership Competency Framework prepares emerging 

leaders to begin taking charge of others. In addition 

to the 10 basic competencies, there are eight first-level 
41

leadership competencies highlighted by the State 

Department. They are provided in Table 2-5.

Table 2-5. Eight First-Level Leadership 

Competencies, U.S. State Department.51

First-Level Competencies (Supervisory)

Leveraging Diversity (Leading People)—Recruits, develops, and retains a diverse, high 

quality workforce in an equitable manner. Leads and manages an inclusive workplace that 

maximizes the talents of each person to achieve sound business results. Respects, understands, values, and seeks out individual differences to achieve the vision and mission of the 

organization. Develops and uses measures and rewards to hold self and others accountable 

for achieving results that embody the principles of diversity.

Resilience (Leading Change)—Deals effectively with pressure; maintains focus and intensity and remains optimistic and persistent, even under adversity. Recovers quickly from 

setbacks. Effectively balances personal life and work.

Conflict Management (Leading People)—Identifies and takes steps to prevent potential situations that could result in unpleasant confrontations. Manages and resolves conflicts and 

disagreements in a positive and constructive manner to minimize negative impact.

Team Building (Leading People)—Inspires, motivates, and guides others toward goal 

accomplishments. Consistently develops and sustains cooperative working relationships. 

Encourages and facilitates cooperation within the organization and with customer groups; 

fosters commitment, team spirit, pride, and trust. Develops leadership in others through 

coaching, mentoring, rewarding, and guiding employees. 

Influencing/Negotiating (Building Coalitions/Communication)—Persuades others; builds 

consensus through give and take; gains cooperation from others to obtain information and 

accomplish goals; facilitates “win-win” situations.

Human Resource Management (Business Acumen)—Assesses current and future staffing 

needs based on organizational goals and budget realities. Using merit principles, ensures 

staff are appropriately selected, developed, utilized, appraised, and rewarded; takes corrective action.

Accountability (Results Driven)—Assures that effective controls are developed and 

maintained to ensure the integrity of the organization. Holds self and others accountable for 

rules and responsibilities. Can be relied upon to ensure that projects within areas of specific 

responsibility are completed in a timely manner and within budget. Monitors and evaluates 

plans; focuses on results and measuring attainment of outcomes.

Integrity/Honesty (Leading People)—Instills mutual trust and confidence; creates a culture 

that fosters high standards of ethics; behaves in a fair and ethical manner toward others, 

and demonstrates a sense of corporate responsibility and commitment to public service.
42

The Planning Individual Development Activities 

handbook provides a further in-depth explanation of 

each competency as well as “What does this mean,” 

“Why is it important,” “How can you develop it,” and 

the training courses associated with each competency. The list of competencies not only examines what 

it required of leaders, but it goes further to explain 

its importance and to create an actionable plan for 

development. The courses listed in the competency 

framework can then be cross referenced to the Foreign Service Institute’s course catalog. For example, 

an in-depth review of a first-level leader competency, 

resilience, reveals the practicality and detail of State 

Department strategy. Many leader development programs stop at this stage, but the State Department explains to a developing leader that resilience is dealing 

with pressure, maintaining focus and optimism when 

facing adversity, recovering from setbacks, and creating a positive work-life balance.52 Even more so, the 

State Department explains in a specific instance that it 

“means” handling bad news well. By inserting relatable situations, the State Department conveys its leadership competencies fully to developing leaders. 

Next, the importance of resilience is explained by 

saying that resiliency “sets the tone and an example 

for others around you.” Then, an example of how 

to develop resiliency is cited as “observing coworkers who handle tough and emotional situations very 

well.” Finally, a developing leader looking to build 

resiliency skills should seek FSI courses: PT-251 Productively Managing Stress and PT-216 Seven Habits 

of Highly Successful People.53 Cross-referencing the 

resiliency competency with the FSI course catalog 

and the listing for PT-216, a developing leader would 

see the course objectives, the OPM competencies ad-
43

dressed, and the Foreign Service Precepts addressed 

in this 4-day seminar.54 By taking this detail and 

practicality emphasized approach to leader development, the State Department streamlines the process 

for emerging leaders to guide their own development 

based upon their individual needs. 

The driving forces of the State Department’s leader 

development strategy are self-assessment of needs 

and creation of an individual leadership plan. Developing leaders at the State Departments are responsible 

for their own development and should rely on those 

assessment tools to guide their development process. 

In theory, this is an efficient tactic, yet in practice, it 

may not be a best practice. A 2011 Government Accountability Office (GAO) study of the State Department’s training program found several positives to 

the approach, but also found several strategic weaknesses. The study found the State Department’s training program to be extensive and encompassing many 

elements of an effective program; however, the study 

also found gaps in the Department’s ability to:

strategically plan and prioritize training, ensure efficient and effective training design and delivery, and 

determine whether or how training and development 

effort contribute to improved performance and desired results.55

 Thus, the State Department’s strategy for leader 

development, which is an accumulation of specific 

training classes and self-development, could be an effective program for developing leaders given its size 

and underlying strategy, only if the program can provide the necessary guidance and strategy for development. This is an area the State Department is working 

to fix per the GAO’s recommendations.56
44

For the State Department’s approach to leader 

development to succeed, leaders, and particular 

emerging leaders, must buy in to the process and 

understand how to follow through in their development. Under this strategy, developing leaders must be 

critical in their self-assessments and follow through 

in their individual development plans. Completion 

of an individual development plan, which describes 

both short- and long-term goals, is not required for 

most State Department employees, and GAO found 

that few employees voluntarily completed individual 

development plans.57 Here, it may be necessary to 

visit the reoccurring question throughout this section 

of the chapter—is it better to push leader development on everyone? Both the State Department and 

USAID do not push their employees into leader development training; whereas the U.S. military agencies train and educate their individuals in leadership 

principles from the start of their service, as well as 

in pre-commissioning programs such as the Reserve 

Officer Training Corps. 

For the State Department and USAID, the lack 

of prioritizing leader development training for their 

workforce may hinder the preparation of their future 

leaders. On the other hand, the literature on emerging 

leaders tells us that a key requirement of successful 

leader development is for leaders to take a stake in 

their own developmental processes. Further research 

should longitudinally explore the development of 

leadership in these organizations. Additionally, along 

this line of argument, the State Department and the 

military approach the publication and accessibility 

of leadership principles differently. The Army, for 

example, continually produces official publications, 

such as ADP 6-22 discussed previously, that describe 
45

the official Army strategy on leadership development. 

The State Department’s publications are less official and less timely. Further, Army publications are 

widely distributed and discussed both throughout the 

organization and in public circles, whereas the State 

Department resources are difficult to track down and 

some are even restricted to their Intranet. In effect, 

this has made discussions of leadership in the Army 

a priority while the availability of resources at the 

State Department has restricted leader development 

discussions. Organizations designing leader development programs should contemplate how often their 

programs should be updated and how widely they 

can distribute their publications.

There are many notable takeaways to be explored 

for use in other programs from the leader development program at the State Department. First, the State 

Department has successfully included many interagency elements in its development process that will 

allow leaders at the State Department to work in a 

whole of government context. Even though the State 

Department has its own leadership competencies, it 

is still able to relate them back to competencies suggested by OPM. This contributes to a more universal 

understanding in government of leadership practices 

and a universal language for discussing leadership. 

Second, the specificity of classes, which depend on 

leader competencies, conveys the importance of specific competencies better than several-day training 

sessions that address a myriad of competencies simultaneously. Developing leaders know exactly why they 

are going to a certain class and what they expect to 

take away from it. Also, they may find it easier to fit a 

short seminar into their busy schedules. 
46

Third, the State Department documents of leader 

development contain an element of practicality not 

seen in military documents. Each leadership competency explains “why is it important,” which is 

important for emerging leaders who may not fully 

understand how specific principles relate to leadership. Millennials as a generation always want to know 

“why,” and the State Department’s approach feeds 

an emerging leader’s desire to understand both the 

“why” and the “what” of development. Therefore, 

programs for emerging leaders should seek to further 

explain meaning and importance of leadership principles and skills to emerging leaders. Finally, the State 

Department documents contain guidance on how to 

apply leadership principles in practice. The competencies addressed all include a section on how it can 

be developed, and there is also a section in the Planning Individual Development Activities workbook on 

how to transfer skills learned in workshops to practice 

immediately after learning them. A similar approach 

for individual development planning is suggested 

in later chapters in this monograph. Other programs 

should consider the utility of this practice, especially 

for emerging leaders looking for grounded techniques 

to begin their leadership development practices. In 

sum, the State Department’s approach to developing 

leaders may be a work in progress, but it is premised 

on sound developmental theory, and several aspects 

of the programs cater to the developmental needs of 

emerging leaders. Organizations seeking to develop 

a program for emerging leaders can learn from the 

approach of the State Department.
47

TOWARD AN EMERGING LEADER PROGRAM 

IN THE WHOLE OF GOVERNMENT APPROACH

The previous sections highlight the many similarities and differences in the leader development 

programs from the 3-Ds, U.S. Government agencies. 

Through this analysis, many questions arise about the 

underlying strategies of developing emerging leaders. 

First, when should strategic thinking become a point 

of emphasis for emerging leaders? In the Army, leaders at every level are expected to understand the strategy behind their duties and the new AOC reinforces 

this element of leader development. The Air Force 

and the U.S. Department of State doctrines do not 

specifically require leaders to think strategically until 

reaching an executive level. It is unclear what causes 

the discrepancies between organizations, but the timing of developing strategic thinking should be carefully considered in implementing an emerging leader 

program. 

Second, to what extent would cross-agency collaboration in the development of emerging leaders 

further the whole of government approach? Smaller 

agencies within the U.S. Government, such as USAID, 

develop their leaders via OPM training programs; and 

thus it must be considered that, by training together, 

these leaders may work better cooperatively and in 

cross-agency coalitions. Similar interagency leader 

development programs may enhance an emerging 

leader’s ability to work within a whole-of-government 

context. Third, are there metrics that can be used to 

assess the strengths and weaknesses of an emerging 

leader development program? This analysis relies 

on comparing leadership competencies (knowledge, 

skills, and abilities) to evaluate leader development 
48

programs for emerging leaders, but more progressive 

literature on leadership is beginning to suggest the use 

of performance metrics for evaluating leaders. Future 

research and those seeking to implement an emerging leader development program should explore the 

value of performance management strategies on measuring leader development outcomes.

The following chapters of this monograph analyze current trends in leader development literature 

from the public, private, and nonprofit sectors. Each 

section will explore the current themes from literature on each sector and will analyze how the themes 

contribute to the base of knowledge for developing 

emerging leaders. The conclusion of this monograph 

will suggest several recommendations for emerging 

leader development programs across all sectors and 

all agencies engaged in the diplomatic, development, 

and defense work characterized by the concept of the 

whole of government.

ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 2

1. Quote was taken from a speech given by Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, NY, 

February 25, 2011. The speech is available from www.defense.gov/

speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=1539. 

2. Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) Pamphlet 525-3-

1, Win in a Complex World, Washington, DC: Department of the 

Army, October 7, 2014, p. iii.

3. Army Leadership Development Strategy, Washington, DC: 

Department of the Army, 2013, p. 3.

4. The Human Dimension White Paper: A Framework for Optimizing Human Performance, Ft. Leavenworth, KS: U.S. Army 

Combined Arms Center, October 9, 2014, p. iii.
49

5. Jeffrey D. Horey and Jon J. Falleson, “Leadership Competencies: Are We All Saying the Same Thing?” Proceedings of 

the 45th annual conference of the International Military Testing 

Association, 2003.

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid.

7a. The Human Dimension White Paper: A Framework for Optimizing Human Performance, p. 6.

8. Army Doctrine Publication (ADP) 6-22, Army Leadership, 

Washington, DC: Department of the Army, August 1, 2012. p. 2.

9. The Human Dimension White Paper: A Framework for Optimizing Human Performance, p. 6.

10. Ibid., p. 7.

11. Ibid., p. 6.

12. Leonard Wong and Stephen J. Gerras, Lying to Ourselves: 

Dishonesty in the Army Profession, Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies 

Institute, U.S. Army War College, February 2015.

13. ADP 6-22, p. 7. 

14. The Human Dimension White Paper: A Framework for Optimizing Human Performance, pp. 7-8.

15. Army Leadership Development Strategy, p. 9.

16. The Human Dimension White Paper: A Framework for Optimizing Human Performance, p. 15.

17. Army Leadership Development Strategy, p. 11.

18. The Human Dimension White Paper: A Framework for Optimizing Human Performance, p. 17.

19. Ibid., p. 16.
50

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid., p. 14.

22. Army Leadership Development Strategy, p. 11.

23. Christopher T. Drew, “Limitations for a Successful Army 

Leader Development Strategy,” January 2013, p. 32.

24. Lawrence M. Hanser, Louis W. Miller, Herbert J. Shukiar, 

and Bruce Newsome, Developing Senior Navy Leaders: Requirements 

for Flag Officer Expertise Today and in the Future, Santa Monica, CA: 

RAND, 2008, p. xix.

25. Drew.

26. Army Leadership Development Strategy, p. 11.

27. Drew.

28. The Navy Leader Development Strategy, The Pentagon, VA: 

Department of the Navy, January 31, 2013.

29. Ibid.

30. The leader development strategy of the U.S. Marine Corp 

is currently in a final production stage. The author chose not to 

include the U.S. Marine Corps in his analysis to avoid being outdated upon publication. For more information on the strategy, see 

Marine Corps Leader Development, Quantico, VA: Lejeune Leadership Institute, available from https://www.mcu.usmc.mil/sites/

leadership/SitePages/main.aspx.

31. See www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/navy/navy-ldr-comp.htm.

32. Navy Leader Development Outcomes, The Pentagon, VA: 

Department of the Navy, August 1, 2013.

33. The Navy Leader Development Strategy, The Pentagon, VA: 

Department of the Navy, January 31, 2013.

34. Navy Leader Development Outcomes.
51

35. Air Force Leadership Development Model, The Pentagon, VA: 

Department of the Air Force, January 2004.

36. Ibid.

37. The Human Dimension White Paper: A Framework for Optimizing Human Performance, p. 7.

38. Barack Obama, National Security Strategy, Washington, 

DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, May 2010, p. 14. The National Security Strategy from 2010 explains the “whole of government approach” and why all government entities should work in 

coordination toward the mission of the U.S. Government.

39. Hillary Clinton, The First Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review (QDDR): Leading Through Civilian Power, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2010, p. ii.

40. “What We Do,” Silver Spring, MD: USAID, available from 

www.usaid.gov/what-we-do, accessed on February 2, 2015.

41. ADS Chapter 458: Training and Career/ Professional Development, Washington, DC: USAID, August 11, 2014, p. 24.

42. This concept was referenced in a talk by Dr. Nancy Dickey 

at the Bush School of Government and Public Service on January 26, 2015. The talk, part of the Conversation in Leadership series, was put on by the Public Service Leadership Program at the 

Bush School. Dr. Dickey is a professor at the Health Sciences Center at Texas A&M University and was formerly President of the 

American Medical Association.

43. “What We Do.” 

44. “Senior Executive Service: Executive Core Qualifications,” 

Washington, DC: OPM, available from www.opm.gov/policydata-oversight/senior-executive-service/executive-core-qualifications/, 

accessed on February 2, 2015.

45. Obama, p. 14.
52

46. “Bureau of Budget and Planning,” Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of State, available from www.state.gov/s/d/rm/index.

htm#mission, accessed on February 2, 2015.

47. Ibid.

48. Bureau of Human Resources, U.S. Department of State, 

Planning Individual Development Activities: Tools, Ideas and Suggestions, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, October, 2006. This document is an actionable plan provided by the 

State Department for how to create and establish an individual 

development plan for employees.

49. Ibid., p. 29.

50. Ibid., p. 66.

51. Ibid., p. 29.

52. Ibid., p. 78.

53. Ibid., pp. 78-79.

54. Foreign Service Institute Course Catalog, Arlington, VA: 

U.S. Department of State, George P. Shultz National Foreign Affairs Training Center, October 1, 2011. The Foreign Service Institute provides training and development classes for the U.S. State 

Department. The catalog is available from fsitraining.state.gov.

55. “Department of State: Additional Steps Are Needed to 

Improve Strategic Planning and Evaluation of Training for State 

Personnel,” Report to the Honorable Daniel K. Akaka, U.S. Senate, publically released March 8, 2011, Washington, DC: U.S. 

Government Accountability Office, January 25, 2011.

56. Ibid. See “Table 4: Key Strategic Weaknesses in State’s 

Efforts to Train Personnel” on p. 25.

57. Ibid., p. 29.
53

CHAPTER 3

PATHWAYS:

LEADING WITH IDEAS AND QUESTIONS

Joseph R. Cerami

You always start with ideas. And if you don’t start 

with ideas, you’ll get lost.

 George Shultz, 19931

ASSUMPTIONS

This chapter provides the foundation for developing a deep understanding of the leadership and 

management in the development of emerging leaders. 

The conceptual foundation for developing emerging 

leaders in public service is framed by the definitions 

of leadership and leader development: Leadership is 

the art of influencing people, organizations, and institutions to accomplish missions that serve the public 

interest; Leader Development is the art of educating 

people through formal education and training; experiential learning through extracurricular activities; and 

self-study through individualized reflection and feedback in the theory and practice of leadership in the 

context of public service.2

What are some starting assumptions for developing emerging leaders preparing for careers of public 

service? One assumption is that development involves 

preparing leaders and managers for public service in 

government and nonprofit organizations that have 

significant national and international responsibilities 

in coordinating the work of multiple agencies involving foreign policy, defense, homeland security, intelli-
54

gence, and domestic as well as international political, 

social, and economic policy arenas. A public service 

orientation for the emerging leader is centered primarily, but not exclusively, within the context of the 

institutions, organizations, and people engaged in interagency governance and public service—in international and public affairs. This focus is just the opening 

phase of a long-term, lifelong project of change and 

continual development. Patience, persistence, and 

judgment are necessary at a relatively early phase of 

the emerging leader’s career.

The power to inspire others matters, in statecraft as in 

politics. But patience, persistence, and clarity of judgment—those virtues Obama admires in hard-shell realists like Baker and Scowcroft—ultimately carry the 

day.

 James Traub, 20103

A second assumption is that preparing emerging 

leaders for long-term public sector careers involves 

introducing them to the research and study of both 

the leading theories and best practices of public executives. Professional knowledge and skill development 

for the long term includes grounding students in a 

variety of theoretical perspectives on leadership and 

management to prepare them for lifelong learning in 

part by examining the scholarly literature, relevant 

research and case studies, as well as focusing their 

attention on enhancing their personal, interpersonal 

and group skills.

 Key is to define these skills and relate them to 

your ethical, professional, and organizational values 

(and being able to relate those values publically and 

without blushing). The balance for an effective, ethical, emerging leader lies somewhere between the Boy 

and Girl Scouts, and Machiavelli.
55

If you distinguish the personal qualities you think you 

would like a bureau chief (or other public servant) to 

have from those you think he needs on the job, you 

would probably come up with two very different lists. 

The first would sound like a description of an ideal 

Boy Scout. The other would sound like Machiavelli’s 

prince.

 Herbert Kaufman, 19814

A third assumption is that the development of 

emerging leaders should include the notion of leading change, or change management and entrepreneurship. There is a broader theme here regarding: globalization and the changing international environment; 

the demands for institutional and organizational innovation, reform, and imagination to adapt to those 

changes; and the impact of these demands on politicians and public managers, as effective, ethical, and 

entrepreneurial leaders—operating at all levels and in 

multinational and multicultural environments. 

Those emerging leaders interested in national security, international diplomacy, and development 

should be aware of ongoing research efforts and calls 

for major national security, intelligence, homeland 

security, diplomacy, and international development 

reforms. Some degree of specialization is necessary. 

For example, those interested in international economic development should know more about the 

significance of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and other international 

institutions concerned with new approaches to governance, including local, regional, and global political, 

social, and economic development. So, the ideas of 

leadership, innovation, and entrepreneurship; public 

sector institutional and organizational reform; all in 
56

the context of a turbulent globalizing environment, 

are worthy of attention—especially given the multidimensional nature of national and international affairs 

and the growing interdependence of work in the public, private, and nonprofit sectors. The core assumption necessary for emerging leader development is to 

understand that they should expect continuous white 

water—a turbulent work environment of continuous 

change. 

Then you better start swimmin’ or you’ll sink like a 

stone for the times they are a-changin’.

 Bob Dylan, 19635 

One overall theme to understand for development 

in light of these other assumptions is that there is no 

one best way to lead. For instance, leadership for the 

public, private, and nonprofit sectors requires several types of intelligence, including rational, critical 

thought as normally associated with IQ (intelligence 

quotient), as well as emotional and contextual intelligence. Some of the expert commentary on leadership studies will describe the numerous definitions, 

competing lexicons and frameworks, the tendencies 

toward faddism, etc. These are all valid observations, 

but the assumption here is that the attention being 

paid to leadership studies provides many useful ideas. 

In other words, the many approaches to leadership 

and leader development offer abundant resources for 

those who want to improve their ability to achieve 

their own effectiveness in leading individuals, groups, 

teams, organizations, and even institutions. 

As the U.S. Army War College has taught for many 

years, the strategic environment is vague, uncertain, 

complex, and ambiguous. Leadership is different 
57

at the strategic, operational, and tactical levels. Cultures differ across nations and ethnic groups as well 

as within organizations. One guiding assumption for 

this monograph, then, is that there is no one way to 

describe leadership in terms of some magic formula 

for success or even effectiveness, for that matter. Individual leader development is considered a process of 

learning, self-study, and personal growth. Reflection 

and analytical thinking are essential. These are not 

necessarily qualities that are associated with young 

professionals from this or any era. Nevertheless, the 

approach suggested assumes that leader development 

for emerging leaders can be structured as dynamic 

and flexible plans to build momentum for personal development for goal-directed behaviors. What follows 

is a structured framework for leader development 

that should be guided by the individual’s needs and 

interests and helped along by mentors and coaches.

The work is hard. Do the work.

 Anonymous, 20126

START WITH VISION

The components for development planning include 

identifying an individual’s core values and a personal 

vision statement. In general, the plan proposed here 

modifies the federal government’s competency framework of knowledge, skills, attributes, and values, 

as well as the Army’s development approach of be, 

know, do. This framework therefore includes four areas for leader development—knowledge (knowing), 

skills (doing), and attributes and values (being), along 

with an upfront reflective analysis for designing a 

personal vision.
58

The personal vision statement is a critical starting 

point. The assumption here is that, before you can 

lead others, you must be able to lead yourself. A personal vision statement focuses on individuals reflecting about their life. Therefore, as a precursor to development, the individuals must clarify their purpose 

and what is really important to them—whether it be 

achievement, affiliation, and/or power and influence. 

Time is necessary to reflect on the things that are central to the individual’s being in order to address the 

questions: “Who am I and what is my higher calling?” 

After reflecting and writing the vision statement, it 

should be used as the criteria or standard for judging 

prospective activities and choices and thinking about 

short-, medium-, and long-term development goals.

The late Stephen Covey, in The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, captures the essence of a personal vision 

statement in the following ways. One approach is to 

think of a vision statement as a personal constitution, 

the basis for making major, life-directing decisions, 

and the basis for making daily decisions in the midst 

of the emotion and circumstances that affect our lives. 

There are a variety of ways to write a personal vision 

statement. Some may choose lists, paragraphs, threeto-five-word mantras, or even poems. Covey suggests 

that “Because each individual is unique, a personal 

mission statement should reflect that uniqueness both 

in content and form.” The vision will provide a sense 

of direction, but not a definitive formula or roadmap.7

Each individual’s personal criteria for evaluating the usefulness of the vision should be addressed 

through additional reflection. Does the vision statement represent the things that the individual really 

cares about, including a representation of his or her 

authentic character and integrity? Does the statement 
59

provide a relatively clear signal of direction, purpose, 

challenge, and motivation? Later on in the process, 

in applying the vision statement to the development 

plan, does it provide an explicit indication, or an 

awareness of strategies and skills that will help the individual accomplish what he or she envisioned? If the 

person were to share the vision with others, including 

peer coaches, mentors, and eventually supervisors, is 

he or she truly comfortable that the vision statement 

is an accurate portrait of who he or she wants to be? 

Finally, does the vision truly inspire the individual? 

As the individual pauses to reflect on these questions, 

and discusses them with trusted individuals, he or she 

should continue to refine and adjust the personal vision—especially after seeking insights from coaches, 

mentors, peers, and other admired professionals. Key 

to point out here is that a vision is a starting point and 

not in and of itself sufficient for guiding an individual’s or organization’s development plan.8

CORE VALUES

Adopting a values-based approach assumes that 

values include the principles individuals will use to 

define and govern their life’s work and to shape and 

elevate their self-awareness, including their personal 

integrity and ethics. In brief, effective, ethical leaders hold fast to their values and use them to weigh 

thoughtfully their choices and decisions. All leaders 

will need a list of values to assist in measuring what 

they consider worthwhile, including identifying quality, esteem and professionalism. In this approach, 

values are the core of a leader’s character and should 

become apparent in relatively short order to all those 

with whom the individual comes in contact. It is im-
60

portant that values are reflected in the personal vision statement. It is idealistic that vision and values 

become core components of a person’s professional 

identity, but also pragmatic and helpful to determine 

development goals and meaningful action plans. 

Next is a listing of common values that are useful for 

reflection.

• Achievement—a sense of accomplishment, 

mastery, and goal attainment.

• Adventure—new and challenging opportunities, excitement, and risk.

• Affiliation—interacting with other people; recognition as a member of a particular group or 

team; involvement; and belonging.

• Affluence/Wealth—high income, financial success, and prosperity.

• Authority—position and power to control 

events and other people’s activities.

• Autonomy—the ability to act independently 

with few constraints, self-reliance, and the ability to make decisions and choices.

• Balance—a lifestyle that allows adequate time 

for self, family, work and community.

• Challenges—continually facing complex and 

demanding tasks and problems.

• Community Service—serving and supporting a 

purpose that supersedes personal desire, making a difference.

• Competence—demonstrating high proficiency 

and knowledge, showing above average effectiveness and efficiency in performing tasks.

• Creativity—discovering, developing, or designing new ideas, formats, programs, or things; 

demonstrating innovation and imagination.
61

• Diverse Perspectives—unusual points of view 

that may not seem right or be popular at first, 

but bear fruit in the long run.

• Economic Security—steady and secure employment, adequate financial rewards, and low 

tolerance for risk.

• Fame—prominence, being well-known.

• Family—spending time with a partner, children, parents, and extended family.

• Freedom—fairness, equality, ability to voice 

opinion and create your own future.

• Friendship—close personal relationships with 

others.

• Health/Fitness—physical and mental well-being and vitality.

• Humor—being about to laugh at oneself and 

life’s challenges.

• Influence—having an impact or effect on the attitudes or opinions of other people; persuasiveness.

• Inner Harmony—happiness, contentment, being at peace with oneself.

• Loyalty—faithfulness, dedication to individuals, traditions, and organizations.

• Meaningful Work—fulfilling profession and 

dedication to what one does.

• Personal Development—dedication to maximizing one’s potential.

• Responsibility—dependability, reliability, and 

accountability for results.

• Self-Respect—pride, self-esteem, and a sense of 

personal identity.

• Spirituality—a strong set of spiritual or religious beliefs and a need for moral fulfillment.

• Status—being respected for one’s job or association with a prestigious group or organization.
62

• Wisdom—sound judgment based on knowledge, experience, and understanding.

• Working Together—close and cooperative 

working relationships with groups and teams.

In thinking through these personal, or core values, 

this approach recommends selecting the three to five 

values that align most closely and most meaningfully 

with projecting “who you are” and “who you want 

to be.” Emerging leaders should keep these in mind 

as they explore different career fields and the values 

highlighted in organizational literature and professional codes of ethics. Aligning personal and professional values is an important exercise and should 

include your consideration of establishing sensitive 

lines, or “redlines,” in terms of understanding the 

principles for making decisions and those principles 

that you consider nonnegotiable. Exploring how 

your values influence your personal decisionmaking, as well as your ability to embrace your organization’s values, are key components for establishing an 

authentic, mature, professional image.9

ATTRIBUTES AND PROFESSIONAL IMAGE

Effective, ethical leaders possess both self and social (interpersonal) awareness. They reflect on their 

personal strengths as well as their desires for areas of 

personal and professional improvement. Their selfawareness includes understanding their own preferences, and those of others, in specific situations or 

contexts.10 Leaders also understand that taking strategic, thoughtful and proactive approaches to developing and managing their professional image pays 

off. In short, effective leaders have self, social, and 
63

situational awareness, and the adaptability to manage 

themselves and their relationships. 

The good news is that with practice, coaching, and 

a commitment to improve, individuals can consciously become the author of their own identity. This, of 

course, requires spending some time reflecting on an 

individual approach and the needs for developing a 

professional image. Answering several questions will 

help. First, can you identify your desired professional 

image? In other words, what would you want key 

constituents, coworkers, supervisors, and friends to 

say about you, when you are not in the room, concerning your core competencies and character traits? 

Second, are individuals honestly aware of their 

current image as well as the ideal image of highly 

regarded individuals in their chosen professional culture? Do individuals have a realistic assessment of the 

expectations of their colleagues and other audiences? 

In other words, what are the expectations for achieving a professional image in the field that they are pursuing? How do they measure up in terms of the ideal 

and the reality of how others perceive you? 

The third attribute to consider is the individual’s 

strategic self-presentation. Are there stereotypes that 

others correlate with the profession and the individual as a professional? If so, what are these stereotypes, 

and how will an emerging leader handle them? In the 

meantime, how, specifically, will the individual build 

credibility while maintaining authenticity as a “true 

professional”?

Fourth, and perhaps most important for development, is addressing the cost-benefit analysis for 

changing a professional image. The emerging leader 

has to address the tough questions: Do you really care 

about improving other’s perceptions of you? Are you 
64

capable of changing your image, and are there real 

benefits that are worth the costs? These costs include 

cognitive/learning, psychological, emotional, and 

physical efforts. The efforts at establishing, maintaining, and improving the attributes that will mark you 

as a professional require much time and effort. As in 

other areas of development, mentoring and coaching 

always help.11

SKILLS

Skills are the abilities that leaders use to translate 

their styles, strategies and plans, tools, and techniques 

into practice. Another way to think of skills is what 

leaders “do” to complete their tasks in the grounded 

reality of their workplaces. Identifying skills for development requires a level of self-reflection (Step 1 in 

the pages to follow) to determine those skills that you 

have developed and used in previous developmental 

and professional opportunities. Skill development is 

enhanced by thinking about the skills that will be important to your future success (Step 2 in the pages to 

follow). 

Step 1. Identifying Skills from Experience.

For a first step, we recommend working with a 

mentor, supervisor, and/or experienced peer to identify the skills that you have developed and used in 

previous leadership and professional opportunities. 

In particular, think ahead to those skills that are likely 

to improve your opportunity to serve in positions of 

increased scope and responsibility. One question to 

consider is: What might a prospective employer want 

to know about my skill level? Another question to 
65

consider is: When I observe those at the next higher 

level, where do I see myself working in the next 2 to 

5 years, what can they do that I cannot? Both beg the 

question, then, of how to develop those skills to prepare for my future roles.

A skills-experience matrix can assist in determining your skills and skill development needs. For example, let us say you want to work in the nonprofit 

sector. There, the skills of volunteer coordination will 

be essential, especially but not exclusively for new 

hires. Next to the listing of this skill, you should include a “highlight” focused on a task, method, purpose, value, and outcome from one of your experiences. One highlight from a past experience may read 

something like: 

Sponsored an event in which a large number of volunteers were needed. Solicited volunteers through the 

university volunteer network, and recruited and assigned shifts. The purpose of the event was to provide 

a meal and other needed materials for the areas less 

fortunate, resulting in the university’s only student 

run, community coordinated service event. Over 60 

homeless men and women received a hot meal and essentials such as toiletries and clothes.

Note that quantifying the amount of time and efforts as well as the program’s achievements are important for identifying the scope of the event and your 

contributions. How many hours did the project require for coordination and design? How many people 

volunteered, and how many were served? How much 

money was required for logistics, and how much 

money was raised through donor contributions and 

grants? How many people received assistance, meals, 

and clothing? 
66

Step 2: Identifying Skills for Future

Career Effectiveness.

What follows are lists of skills that many organizations, including government agencies, nonprofit 

organizations, and business firms deem important for 

leadership roles. You can identify those skills that you 

think you should improve. Another way to identify 

needed skills is to find a job description in the area 

that you are most interested in for your career progression. Review several job descriptions that would interest you. You might also choose to focus on skill areas 

that you are already good at, but can strengthen by 

applying them in other contexts, or by working with 

other groups of individuals. Again, mentors, coaches, 

engaged supervisors, and peers can assist in working 

through this process.

• Personal Skills:

o Developing Self-Awareness

o Managing Personal Stress

o Solving Problems Analytically and 

 Creatively

• Interpersonal Skills:

o Coaching, Counseling, and Supportive 

 Communication

o Gaining Power and Influence

o Motivating Others

o Managing Conflict

• Group Skills:

o Empowering and Delegating

o Building Effective Teams and Teamwork

o Managing Change
67

• Technical Skills:

o Making Oral and Written Presentations

o Policy Analysis

o Economic Analysis

o Personnel Management

o Budgeting

o Project Management

o Language Proficiency

o Technical Skills

• Other Skills:

o Think through your intended career field

o Skills identified in those job announcements

o Ideas from mentors, supervisors, peers

o Skills highlighted in professional journals 

and organizational development programs

Step 3: Your Priorities for Skill Development.

From Steps 1 and 2, identify the one to three skills 

on which to focus. The norm recommended for your 

planning timeline is to consider your next 1 to 3 years 

of developmental and experiential learning opportunities. As you continue your development plan, you 

should reflect on these skills and especially their relationship to your career and action plan goals. An 

action plan can be as simple as a listing of the one to 

three goals; the specific actions, events, and activities 

to be taken to develop your skills; a list of the resources needed to assist development; and a timeline with 

completion dates and desired outcomes. The role of 

coach and mentors cannot be overstated. Peer coaches 

can also assist.12
68

KNOWLEDGE

Naturally, effective leaders must spend time studying their specialties and developing their expertise 

and competence as related to their professional goals 

and organizational responsibilities. This monograph 

assumes that emerging leaders also should spend time 

studying the field of leadership and management. Of 

course, all leaders need knowledge and must be capable of processing information efficiently and effectively. Emerging leaders must also consider when to 

be critical and analytical in their thinking, when to be 

creative, and when to take the time to engage others in 

their work. Knowing when as well as the best way to 

use a particular skill requires a thoughtful assessment 

of what lies just over the horizon to prepare for future 

challenges. In the information age, innovation, imagination, incubation, investment and improvement in 

knowledge, and idea management are all part of the 

current literatures on change management and analytical and creative problem solving.13

One approach is to list the one to three critical skills 

and place them in the time horizon of the next 2 to 3 

years. In other words, of the knowledge I need, what 

will be important to develop over the near term. Some 

knowledge will, of course, require a longer timeline, 

like achieving advanced degrees or certifications for 

instance. In any case, this approach argues for dealing 

with the near term of the next couple of years, even 

if it means starting with smaller goals in mind. The 

idea here is to start now, experiment, and discover a 

pathway for developing your knowledge base, rather 

than dreaming big dreams for an ideal without a starting line or a realistic time frame. A 2-year window 

with specific goals and performance tasks should pro-
69

vide motivation as well as identify near term tasks to 

ground developmental goals in a meaningful way. 

For instance, if change management is a top priority for your development plan, then consider what you 

need to understand, assess what experience you will 

have to build on, and determine your developmental needs. Most organizations talk about the need for 

change and being open to new ideas and approaches 

as well as looking for new opportunities. If change is 

inevitable, then are you prepared for change? Is your 

team ready? Are your supervisors and coworkers really ready to adopt new practices? What do the experts say? Are there case studies and research that is 

relevant? 

Thinking through this becomes new knowledge 

for you, but it is a topic with broad academic literature from organization theory, bureaucratic politics, 

and public administration and management. So, regarding change management for instance, you should 

ask: Who are the thought leaders? Does their research 

and writing apply to your situation? From your own 

personal experience, did you observe or participate 

in past attempts at change management? Were there 

people who have been adept at change management 

who will talk with you? If you or they had to do it 

again, what are the options for starting on a path that 

would increase the likelihood of success? Who can inform you about the obstacles to expect? Who in your 

organization can offer advice before you start a change 

process? In turn, you should consider your individual 

and your team’s needs to prepare for a new experience. Emerging leaders should ask how they can gain 

the information needed to be an effective change manager, without reinventing the wheel or adopting the 

false choice of learning from failure or assuming risk. 
70

Each situation requires sufficient, critical thought to 

seek knowledge about change management, while 

benefiting from the information that can be gained 

ahead of time from subject matter experts, research 

and mentors. 

LEADER DEVELOPMENT GOALS

No doubt doing the thoughtful, reflective work of 

identifying your vision, values and the needed professional attributes, skills, and supporting knowledge 

are all challenging tasks. That is why coaching is essential, as well as consciously scheduling time for 

reflection. Getting to this point in the process cannot 

be shortchanged, whether it is through completing a 

workbook or journaling next to a reflecting pool. In 

any event, the approach here suggests writing down 

all of these elements for becoming more self-aware.

From this point, the developmental work can begin to identify the grounded tasks for development. 

This step emphasizes developing two or three stretch 

goals with one or two subordinate manageable goals 

for each stretch goal. The overarching stretch goals are 

those that require a major effort that is designed to 

produce a personal breakthrough for achieving your 

personal vision. 

Manageable goals are “SMART” goals that provide 

the small wins that build the foundation and spark 

the initiative for reaching further to achieve stretch or 

even “Everest” goals (as in climbing Mount Everest). 

The SMART acronym is a method suggested to improve the likelihood that goals will be achieved. The S 

stands for “specific” and answers the journalist’s questions of who, what, where, when, which, and why. M 

is for “measurable” and establishes concrete, numerically based criteria for measuring progress. When you 
71

measure your progress you can stay on track or make 

adjustments in real time. Measurable criteria address 

questions, such as: How much? How many? How will 

I know when I have accomplished a task?

The A stands for “attainable.” When you limit 

identifying the goals that are most important to you 

(your top three priorities), you can figure out ways 

to make them achievable. The key here is to examine 

those goals and be sure that you will have the motivation, time, and resources to accomplish them. This requires also that the goals are “realistic” (R) in terms of 

both your willingness and ability to achieve them. Are 

the conditions right for you to accomplish your goals? 

Finally, the goals should be “timely” (T). Grounding the goals in a feasible time frame is critically important. With no time frame, there will be no sense 

of urgency and accomplishment. Vague timelines 

into the “future” will likely fail, so, anchor your goals 

within a meaningful time frame, and then you can set 

your mind to actively begin working on the necessary 

tasks. 

SMART goals should be adjusted as you go to be 

sure you remain on track. Periodic reviews with a 

coach will assist and develop a sense of accountability. The coaching research generally recommends a 

1-hour coaching session once per month, but of course 

individual preferences and calendars will vary. Adjusting the goals every 6 months is also recommended. 

A personal annual review will be helpful. Nevertheless, it is the individual’s willingness to change, the 

ability to achieve self-awareness, and the discipline to 

accomplish manageable and stretch goals that are the 

keys to success. In the end, no one else can do this for 

the emerging leader committed to his or her personal 

development.
72

ACTION PLANNING

Our experience strongly suggests the importance 

of writing a plan, even if it is on one side of one sheet 

of paper. As the Swedish policeman advises in the 

Persson novel mentioned in the introduction: 

Give some real thought to how you want it to be instead, and then it’s just a matter of seeing to it that it 

turns out that way. Write it down on a piece of paper 

and clip it securely to your big snout so you don’t forget what you’ve promised yourself.14

 Similarly, J. Richard Hackman of the Harvard Business School writes: “Authoritatively setting direction 

about performance aspirations has multiple benefits: 

It energizes team members, it orients their attention 

and action, and it engages their talents.”15

Here, individual learning styles will matter. Individuals should tailor their action plan to whatever 

works. Spreadsheets, journals, calendars, and lists are 

all useful, but only if they are used. One approach to 

emerging leader development used at the Bush School 

has suggested one-page action plans that clarifies the 

very specific steps, the resources, and the support 

system to build to reach your goals and work toward 

achieving and refining your personal vision. The plan 

should actually move you from your current reality to 

becoming the leader that you want to be.

FOUR BIG QUESTIONS

Some individuals will find it very helpful to start 

by asking several big questions. Of course, if you are 

sure of your career aspirations and are engaged with 

a professional development coach or mentor, it will 
73

still be useful to reflect on these questions and, again, 

to write down your answers or intended approach 

for addressing these questions. Discussing your ideas 

with peers and coaches before meeting with your supervisors, supporting teammates, and subordinates is 

also an important decision to be sure you have thought 

things through, are committed to your goals (for you 

as an individual, and at some point for your team and 

even organization) and have developed a realistic action plan. At the same time, being open to feedback, 

suggestions, new thoughts, and additional expertise 

will provide the potential for continuous improvement and personal growth. The notion of lifelong 

learning is a serious proposition for those emerging 

leaders who want to become true professionals as well 

as rise within their organizations to influence people 

and create lasting value.16

The first question is: Who do I want to become? 

Addressing this question is helped by writing the personal vision statement. One approach, focused on the 

concept of emotional intelligence suggested by Daniel 

Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie McKee, is in 

“uncovering your ideal self—the person you would 

like to be, including what you want in your life and 

work.”17 They call this the first discovery in their selfdirected learning approach. 

Two other approaches would be to develop a mission statement or mantra. Similar to an organization or 

military mission statement, it should address the who, 

what, and why of your personal vision and provide a 

short but effective way of defining who you want to 

become. Another approach is to develop a short mantra of three to five words that reflects your vision. For 

example, the Bush School’s Public Service Leadership 

Program mantra is: “Educating principled leaders.” In 
74

practice, we have found this to be difficult for most 

people, but it is worth the time and effort. A valuable, 

short YouTube video by Silicon Valley entrepreneur 

and former Apple executive Guy Kawasaki is helpful 

for understanding the idea of a mantra for organizations and individuals.18

The second question addresses defining your core 

purpose by asking: “What do I like to do?” For some, 

passion is the operative word to describe their life’s 

purpose. For others, who have yet to discover their 

true purpose, then we suggest thinking through what 

your preferences are. Best of all is to have found your 

purpose through doing the work and experiencing 

what you truly like to do in the reality of complex 

work environments. Reading and studying can only 

take you so far in imagining the reality of the real 

work in different organizations and cultural settings. 

A third question to ask is: “What am I good at doing?” Current approaches for leadership development 

stress building on your strengths rather than struggling to overcome your gaps or weaknesses.19 Using 

a “StrengthFinder” profile instrument is helpful for 

identifying individual strengths. One caution is that 

organizational roles and responsibilities can and usually do require certain skills or activities as part of an 

individual’s roles and responsibilities. Public speaking, creative writing, collaborative approaches to conflict management, and analytical problem solving may 

be individual weaknesses and take individuals out of 

their comfort zones. In those cases where overcoming 

a particular weakness is necessary for job performance 

as well as career development, then, of course, educational programs, workshops, and certifications are 

all important. In the end, the goal of personal mastery 

in skill development requires combinations of intel-
75

ligence, including rational, analytical thinking (IQ), 

emotional intelligence or relationship building, as 

well as contextual intelligence relating to individual, 

the organization, and the work environment. In the 

end, like the vaudeville joke about the out-of-towner 

asking a New Yorker for directions, “how do I get 

to Carnegie Hall”—the advice holds true: “practice, 

practice, practice.”

The final question relates to the individual’s career 

choices. The fourth question is: “Who will hire me?” 

Key to addressing this question is the hard choice in 

determining the individual’s career field. For each 

field, the relative significance of being a professional 

will change in terms of the required knowledge, skills, 

attributes, and values, as discussed earlier. Considerations for development from the ground up (as in 

the military progression from the tactical, operational, 

and strategic levels, for example) will help guide the 

long-term plan. Thinking creatively and fitting together your personal vision, purpose, personal mastery, 

and professionalism is truly the foundation of lifelong 

learning for real leader development.

Learning to lead is therefore always a work in 

progress starting with the entry-level for emerging 

leaders. Again, there is a wealth of interdisciplinary research and writing on leadership studies upon 

which to draw. The next three chapters provide literature reviews with annotated bibliographies. The selection for the recommended books, articles, research 

centers, and programs is based on their relevance for 

emerging leaders. The bibliographies are considered 

important source materials to supplement preparatory programs, work experience and self-study to 

help emerging leaders for their work in the public, 

private, and nonprofit sectors. The final chapter will 
76

assess and compare the literature related to each of 

these sectors to identify patterns of convergence and 

divergence and, in conclusion, to discuss approaches 

for additional research that suggests new directions 

for the next generation of emerging leaders.

ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 3

1. George P. Shultz, “Turmoil and Triumph: The George 

Shultz Years,” PBS Documentary, July 12, 19, 26, 2010, available 

from turmoilandtriumph.org/.

2. Since 2002, the Bush School’s Public Service Leadership 

Program has provided an integrated program for graduate level 

student education and learning development throughout a 2-year 

program. The Bush School relies on the distinction provided between leadership and leader development to frame and guide its 

practices for educating and developing leaders.

3. James Traub, “The Two Obamas,” Foreign Policy, August 6, 

2010, available from foreignpolicy.com/2010/08/06/the-two-obamas/.

4. Herbert Kaufman, The Administrative Behavior of Federal Bureau Chiefs, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 

1981, p. 175.

5. Bob Dylan, “The Times They Are A-Changin’,” available 

from www.bobdylan.com/us/songs/times-they-are-changin.

6. Anonymous graduate school professor. See Nick Paumgarten, “Written In Stone,” The New Yorker, June 4, 2012, available 

from newyorker.com/talk/2012/06/04/120604ta_talk_paumgarten, accessed on August 26, 2014.

7. Stephen R. Covey, The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People: Powerful Lessons in Personal Change, 1980/2004, New York: Free Press, 

1989, p. 14. Another resource for developing a personal vision 

statement and engaging in self-reflection and coaching to determine leadership strengths and weaknesses can be found in Daniel 

Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie McKee, Primal Leadership: 
77

Realizing the Power of Emotional Intelligence, Boston, MA: Harvard 

Business School Press, 2002.

8. See Richard Rumelt, Good Strategy Bad Strategy: The Difference and Why It Matters, New York: Crown Business, 2011, p. 2.

9. A comprehensive explanation of determining values and 

priorities is found in David A. Whetten and Kim S. Cameron, 

Developing Management Skills, 8th Ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ: 

Pearson-Prentice Hall, 2011. Their Chapter 1, “Developing SelfAwareness,” provides research and practice for increasing selfawareness and understanding the concepts of sensitive lines, 

personal values, moral maturity, ethical decisionmaking, as well 

as cultural values dimensions (pp. 45-103). The authors point out 

that, “It is not a simple matter . . . to generate a personal set of universal, comprehensive, and consistent principles that can guide 

decision making” (p. 73). Nevertheless, they encourage leaders to 

develop their principles in a personal values statement and offer 

a series of “tests” that provide standards for an individual’s principles of making moral or ethical choices (p. 73). These include 

a front page test; golden rule test; dignity and liberty test; costbenefit test; good night’s sleep test; etc. (p. 74). Again, as Whetten 

and Cameron stress, developing a values statement is not a 

simple matter and requires a good deal of study, reflection, and 

critical thinking.

10. An extensive discussion of context as “contextual intelligence” is found in Joseph S. Nye, Jr., The Powers to Lead, New 

York: Oxford University Press, 2008. Nye defines contextual intelligence as “an intuitive-diagnostic skill that helps a leader to align 

tactics with objectives to create smart strategies in varying situations” (p. 87). He points out that others have called this wisdom 

or judgment. He discusses five important dimensions: “culture, 

distribution of power resources, followers’ needs and demands, 

time urgency, and information flows” (p. 91). Nye’s notion of 

leadership includes understanding intuitively and through studies and experiences the “conceptual triad” of leaders, followers, 

and context (p. 85).

11. See Mallory Stark’s interview on professional image in her 

interview with Laura Morgan Roberts, available from hbsworkingknowledge.hbs.edu/.
78

12. For additional ideas on peer coaching, see Stew Friedman, 

“How to Cultivate a Peer Coaching Network,” Harvard Business 

Review (HBR) Blog Network, February 5, 2010, available from 

blogs.hbr.org/2010/02/cultivate-your-coaching-networ-2/, accessed on 

August 26, 2014.

13. Whetten and Cameron, p. 180, discuss four types of creativity: incubation, imagination, improvement, and investment.

14. Leif G. W. Persson, Between Summer’s Longing and Winter’s 

End: The Story of a Crime, Paul Norlen, trans., from the Swedish, 

New York: Pantheon Books, 2010, p. 485.

15. J. Richard Hackman, Leading Teams: Setting the Stage 

for Great Performances, Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press, 

2002, p. 63.

16. For instance, see Boris Groysberg, “Keep Learning Once 

You Hit the C-Suite,” HBR Blog Network, June 11, 2014, available 

from blogs.hbr.org/2014/06/keep-learning-once-you-hit-the-c-suite/, 

assessed August 27, 2014. Similar to the development path suggested in this monograph, Groysberg emphasizes self-assessment; 

peer and subordinate feedback; mentoring; and formal education 

and developmental assignments.

17. Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie McKee, 

Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of Emotional Intelligence, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 2002, pp. 115-116. An 

illustration of the Boyatzis Theory of Self-Directed Learning is on 

p. 110 and includes Five Discoveries: the ideal self; the real self 

and assessing strengths and gaps; designing a learning agenda; 

experimenting and practicing; and developing trusting relationships to support an individual’s progress for each step in his or 

her recommended process.

18. Guy Kawasaki, “Don’t Write a Mission Statement, Write a 

Mantra,” Stanford, CA: Stanford’s Entrepreneurship Corner, June 

21, 2011, available from youtube.com/watch?v=hIAooYt8_QY, accessed on August 27, 2014. See also Guy Kawasaki, The Art of the 

Start, New York: Portfolio, Penguin Group, 2004. Among Kawasaki’s ideas for starting things (applicable in part for starting careers 

for emerging leaders), he includes: make meaning; make mantra; 
79

get going; define your business model (how to make money); and 

weave a mat (milestones, assumptions and tasks), pp. 3-4.

19. One popular “StrengthsQuest” program at Texas A&M 

University is based on the work of Marcus Buckingham and 

Douglas O. Clifton’s book, Now, Discover your Strengths, New 

York: The Free Press, 2001.

81

CHAPTER 4

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

LEARNING TO LEAD: 

THE PUBLIC SECTOR

Joseph R. Cerami

INTRODUCTION

This annotated bibliography is intended to guide 

emerging leaders in designing reading lists that 

would support their development programs. As suggested earlier, self-study is but one of the three main 

components for leader development, the other two 

being course work1 and experiential learning. The 

sections on the succeeding pages were developed to 

cover a short range of readings in topic areas relevant 

for emerging leaders. The sections include literatures 

on research and studies; organizations and bureaucracies; individual and team skills and development; and 

ethical and philosophical foundations. No doubt this 

list is incomplete. Given the array of interdisciplinary 

research and writing, this list could easily be tripled 

in terms of the number of books recommended. These 

selections are intended as important perspectives 

that are research-based and readable for emerging 

leaders.2

OVERVIEWS OF LEADERSHIP RESEARCH 

AND STUDIES

The selections herein provide a grounded knowledge base for emerging leaders. Bruce Avolio’s book 

is representative of those teachers and coaches who 

provide their leader development approach based on 
82

their long-term personal research and program experience. For Avolio, this experience includes designing 

several university programs, as well as his research 

and consulting for the U.S. military. The SAGE handbook is extensive and covers most of the major areas of 

theory-based and policy-centered leadership research. 

Barbara Kellerman, the founding executive director 

of the Harvard Kennedy School’s Center for Public 

Leadership, provides a critique of the “leadership industry” and important insights on the limits of leadership theory and charting directions for improving 

leadership theory and concepts, as well as designing 

more realistic and relevant development programs. 

Another Harvard professor and former Kennedy 

School dean, Joseph Nye, emphasizes his perspective 

on the leadership literature from his long experience 

as a teacher of emerging leaders in a university setting—as sharpened by years of organizational work in 

a wide range of Washington, DC, government agencies and think tanks. Nye’s book analyzes the utility of leadership concepts, such as transformational 

and transactional theories; contextual intelligence; 

and traits, effective styles, and skills. In addition, he 

explains the significance of the “power” to lead, including “soft, hard, and smart power,” terms used 

extensively by high-ranking government officials in 

speeches and policy reviews. 

Finally, there is Christopher Peterson and Martin 

Seligman’s handbook and classification guide for the 

study of character and virtue from the University of 

Pennsylvania’s positive psychology school. For those 

engaged in character-based education and valuesbased organizations, the American Psychological Association’s handbook provides important ideas on the 

state of “character and virtues” research, knowledge, 

and assessment instruments.
83

Bruce J. Avolio, Full Range Leadership Development, 

2nd Ed., Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2011.

This book is a very thoughtful leader development 

guide by a highly regarded expert in university, government (especially military), and corporate development programs. The author’s conversational style 

comes very close to building a sense of a personal 

connection that is significant for establishing the trust 

essential for a meaningful leadership coaching relationship. Based on decades of extensive program development experience, as well as academic research, 

Avolio provides ideas and actions for becoming a 

more self-reflective and adaptable leader and leader 

development coach. Each chapter includes thoughts 

on ideas (or concepts worth repeating and reflecting 

on from a variety of interdisciplinary experts, case 

studies, and experiences) from his previous writing, 

along with short exercises and insights supplemented 

by relevant research. The author builds on previous 

work in the area of transformational leadership (based 

on a long-time collaboration with Bernard Bass) to 

establish the overriding need for connecting the fundamental ideas of transactional and transformational 

leadership. The author places heavy emphasis on 

thinking about development streams, described as 

leader-follower relationships over time. Avolio highlights the work of teachers and coaches in developing 

a sense of personal ownership for their development. 

He sees how ownership informs leader development 

in stages or levels, from accountability (compliance) to 

efficacy to a sense of belonging to the highest level of 

identification. Identification means “you see your organization and its mission and values as synonymous 

with your own” (p. 9). Full range leadership development explains how to get there.
84

Alan Bryman, David Collinson, Keith Grint, Brad 

Jackson, and Mary Uhl-Bien, eds., The SAGE Handbook 

of Leadership, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2011. 

This handbook provides an extensive review of 

the “significant expansion of theoretical, empirical, 

and policy-centered contributions to leadership studies” (p. ix). The major schools of thought and relevant 

concepts are addressed. Book chapters are divided 

into the various interdisciplinary perspectives that 

include: an overview of leadership studies history, 

research methods, theories and development; macro 

and sociological research on organization theory, strategic leadership, charisma, gender, networks, trust, 

culture, and cross-cultural leadership; political and 

philosophical writings on critical studies, power, politics, cults, ethics, philosophy, and aesthetics; psychology schools on predictors, contingency, transformation, leader-member exchange, attachment theory, 

teams, authentic leadership, emotions, the shadow 

side, psychoanalytic and creative and innovation; and 

emerging studies of followership, hybrid configurations, mediations, complexity, spirituality, discursive 

approaches, identities, and virtual leaders. The book 

includes extensive author and subject indexes. Curiously, there is not a chapter on emerging leadership, 

but various chapters include sections useful for gaining insights on the research on the various schools of 

leader development and leadership studies. As a reference book on leadership research, this book stands 

out, but some digging is necessary for ideas that relate 

more directly to emerging leadership. 
85

Barbara Kellerman, The End of Leadership, New 

York: HarperCollins, 2012.

The author provides a thoughtful critique of leadership to highlight her views on the current gap between 21st century leadership teaching and practice. 

Kellerman has had a distinguished career with professorships in major universities. She is currently the 

James MacGregor Burns Lecturer in Public Leadership 

at the Harvard Kennedy School, where she was the 

Founding Executive Director of their Center for Public Leadership. The book provides a useful review of 

the major 20th century leadership studies along with 

examining a view of historical patterns that suggest 

the lessening of traditional power, hierarchy, and top 

down control—toward the growing importance of followership and informational technology. The target 

for her critique is her catchall term, the “leadership 

industry,” including the expansion of many for profit 

leadership centers, seminars, workshops, conferences, 

and consultants, etc. Her recommendations are that 

leadership should focus more on: followers (see her 

book, Followership, 2008, Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press); the significance of context; differentiating between power (compellence), authority (capacity), and influence (persuasion); worldwide patterns 

of dominance and deference; and assessing “good” 

leaders as both effective and ethical. The author also 

stresses the imperative that leadership studies adopt 

her recommendations, which include educating women and men to be good, smart followers and leaders, 

and develop both their contextual and emotional intelligence. These global trends and Kellerman’s reforms 

are key for raising an emerging leaders’ awareness of 

the possibilities and limits of leadership studies. In 
86

sum, as she points out, too many leadership programs 

promise more than they can deliver. Kellerman’s concerns and suggestions will sharpen learning about the 

strengths and weaknesses of the content of emerging 

leader development ideas and programs. 

Joseph S. Nye, Jr., The Powers to Lead, New York: 

Oxford University Press, 2008.

The book is a short, analytical primer from longtime Harvard Kennedy School faculty professor, 

former Dean and a high-level public official. Nye includes his assessment of the leadership gaps/crises 

identified in several Kennedy School Center for Public 

Leadership surveys. He, of course, makes reference to 

his concept of smart power and identifies styles and 

skills for leaders in modern, democratic societies. Nye 

also includes critiques of the charismatic, transformation, and transactional leadership schools. Also, he 

discusses contextual and emotional intelligence, and 

ethical leadership. This book will provide emerging 

leaders with key ideas about leadership and what 

they should consider for preparing their long-term 

development plans. Nye’s distinction between, and 

synthesis of, hard and soft power as smart power has 

been adopted by high-level officials, such as Hillary 

Clinton and Robert Gates. This book provides a fundamental understanding of how leadership concepts 

become adopted in the language and visions of highlevel officials and organizations. Nye’s book provides 

key insights into the links among ideas and supporting research as drawn from leadership studies and the 

influence of his experiences with academic as well as 

government programs and practices.
87

Christopher Peterson and Martin E. P. Seligman,

Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification, American Psychological Association, New 

York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

This book emerged from research exploring the 

intersection of positive youth development and positive psychology. The authors are highly regarded psychologists at the University of Pennsylvania. The book 

presents a classification of strengths to reclaim the 

study of character and virtue. The book is organized 

into three sections. Part 1 includes background research, explains the authors’ classification efforts, and 

defines terms. Part 2 includes chapters on the state of 

knowledge on 24 character strengths. The chapters include definitions; research/theoretical traditions; individual measures (self-reports, questionnaires, interviews, assessments, etc.), correlates and consequences 

(outcomes) of the strengths; how strengths develops 

across a life span; factors that encourage or thwart 

development; gender, cross-national and cross-cultural aspects; interventions; what research does not 

know; and a bibliography. In all, for those interested 

in leadership as character development as well as the 

insights from positive psychology, this book serves as 

a preeminent research tool.

INSTITUTIONS, ORGANIZATIONS, 

AND BUREAUCRACY 

For those aspiring to careers in the public sector, 

there is a wide range of literature to consider—useful from entry-level through the middle level to the 

top level of public agencies. In the succeeding pages 

is a representative sample of each of the three areas 
88

where leadership studies are of significant, practical 

help. These areas include thinking about work in political institutions, organizations, and bureaucracies. 

Leadership in each area takes on a different set of challenges and different (usually overlapping) levels of 

knowledge and skills. This list suggests that emerging 

leaders should consider their own participation first as 

followers of institutional, organizational, and bureaucratic leaders. Perspectives on the necessary knowledge, skills, attributes, and even values will change 

over time and with experience. Philip Selznick’s book 

continues to be considered a classic for differentiating 

between the very highest levels of a society’s institutional leadership and organizational leaders. While 

short on theory, Richard Haass provides experiencebased, practical insights on the knowledge and skills 

that emerging leaders should develop to be effective in 

any traditional organizational context. James Q. Wilson’s book is filled with theory-building ideas as well 

as interesting case studies that illustrate the nature of 

work in public agencies. These three selected books 

will provide a foundation for areas of study necessary 

to pursue lifelong learning in public institutions, political organizations, and bureaucratic politics. 

Richard N. Haass, The Bureaucratic Entrepreneur: 

How to Be Effective in Any Unruly Organization, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1999. 

Haass provides a primer for emerging leaders to 

succeed in the government and nonprofit sectors. 

His compass metaphor illustrates developing effective relationships with your boss, staff, colleagues, 

and others (media, Congress, and the public). Haass 

prescribes five principles: setting an agenda; seeking 
89

opportunities; serving with integrity; maintaining 

awareness and being prepared; and paying attention 

to relationships.

Philip Selznick, Leadership in Administration: A 

Sociological Interpretation, Berkeley, CA: University of 

California Press, 1957.

This classic book distinguishes institutional leaders 

as statesmen in contrast with administrative organizational leaders. Selznick’s argument is that institutional 

leaders must be responsive to change while tending 

to larger social needs and pressures. He stresses that 

at the top levels, institutions must be adaptive organisms guided by institutional leaders who promote and 

protect fundamental and overarching values while 

continuing to manage the engineering functions of 

organizational work. 

James Q. Wilson, Bureaucracy: What Government 

Agencies Do and Why They Do It, New York: Basic 

Books, Perseus Books Group, 2000.

This is a true master work for understanding bureaucracies, especially federal agencies. Case studies 

are highlighted on armies, prisons, and schools. The 

author provides useful advice for thinking about ways 

to become a skilled public leader, including: identifying critical tasks; infusing a sense of mission; and 

integrating and aligning the agency’s incentives, culture, and authority. This book will give the emerging 

leader a deeper understanding of the nature of public 

bureaucracies in the context of organizational theory 

and bureaucratic politics. 
90

SKILLS AND LEADER DEVELOPMENT

Knowledge matters, of course. Perhaps more importantly for emerging leaders is knowing how “to 

do” the work that organizational life demands. For 

emerging leaders’ employers, there is often more 

emphasis placed on “doing” than the other areas of 

“knowing” and “being.” Certainly, developed skills, 

demonstrated through experience, are highly valued 

in the work environment facing new employees. The 

books mentioned in the succeeding pages will acquaint emerging leaders with the commonly accepted 

skills recommended for individual, interpersonal, 

workgroup, team, and organizational effectiveness. 

Naturally, much effort is required to implement the 

recommended procedures for practicing and applying the authors’ recommendations. Covey’s 7 Habits

have been tested and validated by many. The Covey 

Center includes a good deal of background information as well as extensive training materials and supporting tools for applying the seven habits in daily 

life. Given current growth in the field of neuroscience 

and the popularity of the concept of emotional intelligence, Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie 

McKee’s book provides an important and readable introduction to the application of emotional intelligence 

to developing resonant leadership styles while minimizing toxic leadership. Included is organizational 

theorist Boyatzis’s notion of self-directed learning that 

is significant for charting a personal assessment and 

development plan. Similar in approach to Boyatzis 

is the book by Charles and Jason Stoner that focuses 

specifically on the developmental needs of emerging 

leaders. 
91

The handbook by the highly regarded Center for 

Creative Leadership provides important background 

information that is useful at all organizational levels 

and provides background on the relevant best practices, development research, and techniques. For those 

wanting to start off with a focused development plan 

for the short term, Michael Watkins provides charts, 

checklists, and planning tools, including an “app” for 

the first 90 days in a new job. David Whetten and Kim 

Cameron’s book, developed initially for University of 

Michigan MBA (master’s of business administration) 

students, includes self-assessment instruments, skill 

learning (ideas, concepts, and theories), case studies, 

and application exercises. More suitable for seminars 

and graduate course work, Developing Management 

Skills provides the most comprehensive approach for 

learning and practicing skill development.

Stephen R. Covey, The 7 Habits of Highly Effective 

People: Restoring the Character Ethic, New York: Simon 

& Schuster, 1989.

This is a useful self-help book for those seeking a 

well-developed program for character based individual leadership. The author’s original research included his doctoral work in “reviewing 200 years of success literature.” Covey provides insights for achieving 

individual effectiveness along with work-life balance. 

Supporting materials, such as training programs, 

workbooks, calendars, etc., are available through the 

Covey Leadership Center (see www.franklincovey.com/

tc/). The seven habits and related leadership concepts 

include: (1) be proactive (personal vision); (2) begin 

with the end in mind (personal leadership): (3) put first 

things first (personal management); (4) think win/win 

(interpersonal leadership); (5) seek first to understand, 
92

then to be understood (empathic communication); (6) 

synergize (creative cooperation); and (7) sharpen the 

saw (balanced self-renewal).

Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie 

McKee, Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of Emotional Intelligence, 2002. 

Emotional intelligence draws on new “brain” research to understand how emotions guide leaders and 

their interpersonal relationships. While the research 

is new and evolving as neuroscience progresses, the 

Goleman work on modeling behavior has grown significantly with the publication of this and other books 

on emotional intelligence, usually abbreviated as EI 

or EQ. The model includes the domains of personal 

competence and social competence. The first involves 

developing self-awareness and self-management; the 

second involves social awareness and relationship 

management. Goleman’s approach suggests developing a repertoire of leadership styles and choosing 

the style that best meets the needs of the particular 

situation. In brief, visionary, coaching, affiliative, and 

democratic styles build resonance; while the dissonant 

and potentially “toxic” commanding and pacesetting 

styles should be used with caution. The leadership 

development process used by the Bush School draws 

on “Boyatzis’s Theory of Self-Directed Learning” that 

includes a cycle of five discoveries for leader development. The five discoveries include: the ideal self of 

who you want to be; the real self of who you are in 

terms of strengths and gaps; the learning agenda of 

building on strengths and reducing gaps; experimenting with new behavior, thoughts, and feeling; and developing supporting and trusting relationships.3

 The 
93

book also covers useful ideas for action learning at the 

individual, team, and organizational levels. Emerging 

leaders will find their self-directed learning approach, 

including action plans, complement the ideas in Watkins and other practically minded leadership experts 

and coaches. It will be interesting to see how the EI/

EQ approach evolves in light of expanding effort in 

neuroscience research.

Charles R. Stoner and Jason S. Stoner, Building 

Leaders: Paving the Path for Emerging Leaders, New 

York: Routledge, 2013.

The authors provide a detailed approach for developing emerging leaders in an organizational context. 

Focus is more on the private sector. This book includes 

insights drawn from the preeminent leadership experts from the academic and consulting communities 

as well as long-term experience in executive as well as 

emerging university leader development programs. 

The authors emphasize the concept of leader development as a transition from being an individual performer to an effective team leader. Chapters address 

ideas and actions to become more effective, including: 

challenges; character; confidence; clarity; conflict; connection (communication); commitment; change; and 

crisis (resilience). The concluding thoughts strongly 

suggest setting challenging goals, communicating effectively, maintaining a problem-solving attitude, and 

leading change with clarity, commitment, and values, ultimately to make a difference. Overall, this is a 

solid primer that reinforces the mainstream ideas on 

emerging leader development. 
94

Ellen Van Velsor, Cynthia D. McCauley, and Marian N. Ruderman, eds., The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership Development, 3rd Ed., 2010. 

 The Center for Creative Leadership is a top ranked 

leadership development firm. Their long-standing research and educational mission has been driven by the 

question: “How can people develop the skills and perspectives necessary to be effective in leadership roles?” 

(p. 2). They distinguish between leader development, 

as an individual’s roles and the processes to set direction, create alignment, and maintain commitment for 

groups of people; and leadership development, as a 

collective’s capacity to produce direction, alignment 

and commitment. The book’s themes include: feedback-intensive leader development, including 360-degree feedback programs; formal one-on-one coaching 

with trained facilitators; formal and informal work 

related development; and cross-cultural and crossboundary leadership involving relationships, systems, and organizational as well as societal cultures. 

This important development handbook claims to be 

applicable to developing leaders at all levels and in all 

sectors; however, it does not focus attention specifically on emerging leader development. 

Michael D. Watkins, The First 90 Days: Proven Strategies for Getting Up to Speed Faster and Smarter, Boston, 

MA: Harvard Business Review Press, 2013.

Watkins offers practical advice and a process to 

prepare for a new position. The book is offered as a 

method in the author’s words for “new leaders at all 

levels” (p. 16). The author offers insight on how to 

avoid the “vicious cycle” of poor transitions as well as 
95

the ways to promote a “virtuous cycle” with emphasis 

on focused learning and effective relationship building (pp. 7-8). Key to the approach are the concepts of 

personal reflection and self-awareness; assessments 

and learning; and aligning your understanding of the 

organizational strategy, structures, system, skills, and 

culture. In sum, Watkins’s warning to the emerging 

leader would be that, in addition to focusing on developing your technical expertise, spend time to understand more deeply the politics and culture of your 

new environment. The book includes helpful charts, 

checklists, and planning tools—all designed to form 

an action plan useful for what the author regards as 

the essential foundation for success in “onboarding.” 

The author also stresses the significance of team building, internal and external alliances, and coaching networks. Emerging leaders will have to apply critical 

thinking skills to determine the best way to use Watkins’s approach. That said, an emerging leader that 

uses this approach appropriately will be sure to build 

a solid foundation for understanding the core issues 

facing the organization and in a context that should be 

addressed by leaders at any level. 

David A. Whetten and Kim S. Cameron, Developing 

Management Skills, 8th Ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ: 

Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2011.

The authors of this book take a human resources 

approach to leadership/management skill development. Chapter sections include skill learning, analysis 

(cases), and application (exercises). Chapters address 

personal skills (self-awareness, stress, and problem 

solving); interpersonal skills (communication, power, 

influence, motivation, and conflict); and group skills 
96

(empowering and delegating, teams, and change). The 

book includes useful supplements with practical advice on oral and written presentations, interviewing, 

and meetings. This book provides important insights 

from leadership and management theory and practice, with self-awareness instruments and very practical insights and techniques for mastering the essential 

skills. The book is written by two top management and 

human resource development scholars in consultation 

with approximately 40 leading university colleagues.

ETHICS AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY 

The final section in this chapter emphasizes the 

ethical dimensions of leadership. As introduced previously, authors such as Nye and Kellerman highlight the need for definitions of leadership to include 

both effectiveness and ethics. The selections that follow should be supplemented with biographies and 

case studies of highly regarded leaders from various 

cultures to reflect on the impact notions of right and 

wrong, and good and evil have had on their roles and 

responsibilities. For emerging leaders, ethical leadership has to go beyond a simple prescription to not 

lie, cheat, or steal. The titles address the challenges 

of operating as ethical leaders in a turbulent world of 

wicked problems and competing value systems. Mark 

Amstutz includes the philosophical roots of ethics. 

His case studies from history and current events illustrate the nature of the ethical foundations of moral 

philosophy as well as the reality of ethical decisionmaking in global affairs. For a classical perspective, 

Marcus Aurelius’ Meditations illustrates the common 

problems along with practical advice that have confounded leaders throughout history. Robert Coles 
97

provides a more recent personal narrative of his experiences and reflections on the nature of moral leadership from leaders at all levels of American society. 

The Coles book should encourage emerging leaders 

to consider what they can learn by engaging in public 

sector work committed to making a difference in individual lives at all levels of government. Often cited 

among the most meaningful books ever written is 

Man’s Search for Meaning. From his training as a Viennese psychiatrist, to his experience as a concentration 

camp survivor, Victor Frankl’s book and philosophy

continue to inspire those engaged in helping people 

embrace the nobility of service in changing people’s 

lives and truly making a difference.

Mark R. Amstutz, International Ethics: Concepts, 

Theories, and Cases in Global Politics, 4th Ed., Lanham, 

MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2013. 

Amstutz’s chapters include the philosophical roots 

for studying ethics in international affairs. Each chapter includes two or three case studies. Case studies include classical (Peloponnesian War) as well as current 

history (Bush Doctrine, global war on terrorism). Cases also include humanitarian issues (Rwanda, Haiti, 

and Somalia) and contemporary policy issues (foreign 

aid, immigration, climate change, drones, and interrogation). The book is organized into two parts. Part 

1 addresses ethical foundations, including the morality and ethics of foreign policy, global society, traditions of realism and idealism, and decisionmaking. 

Part 2 covers global issues regarding human rights, 

political reconciliation, the use of force, terrorism and 

irregular war, interventions, finance and economic 

sanctions, international justice, global public goods 
98

and governance. In an age of globalization, emerging 

leaders should be conversant in these and other moral 

and ethical issues for their development as principled 

public, private, and nonprofit leaders.

Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, Maxwell Staniforth, 

trans., Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1964.

This book is the classic, personal journal of Roman 

Caesar Marcus Aurelius (born AD 121). His reflections are noted for their “humane wisdom and gentle 

charm” in addressing the timeless philosophical questions on the nature of the universe and living a noble 

life. This philosophy of stoicism is considered as one 

of the foundations for Christian theology and Western values. For those who argue there is nothing new 

under the sun, you will find that Aurelius faced many 

of the same challenges, problems, and concerns that 

bedevil current generations of emerging leaders. An 

argument can be made that people’s nature, preferences, and predicaments have been consistent since 

ancient times. Meditations addresses common problems and offers sound advice for leaders of any era. 

Robert Coles, Lives of Moral Leadership, New York: 

Random House, 2000.

Coles is professor of Psychiatry and Medical Humanities, Emeritus, at the Harvard Medical School. 

He was awarded a Pulitzer Prize for his five-volume 

study of Children of Crisis. In Lives of Moral Leadership,

he examines “moral leadership” and tells of his personal relationships with well-known individuals, like 

Robert Kennedy; as well as “ordinary folks” such as 

bus driver, Albert Jones, who volunteered to drive 
99

and mentor students during school integration in Boston. Coles’s personal reflections provide much to consider, including his conclusion that moral leadership 

involves lives of mutual regard and respect in daily 

expressions and that “one dares think, hope—circles 

of human moral connectedness growing, touching, 

informing the lives of individuals and of the communities to which we belong” (p. 247). Coles provides an 

important book for emerging leaders to consider in 

developing their moral consciousness and leadership 

as individuals in any circumstances, from the White 

House to the classroom.

Viktor E. Frankl, Man’s Search For Meaning, Boston, 

MA: Beacon Press, 2006.

This book by Frankl, a Viennese psychiatrist and 

concentration camp survivor, is widely cited as the 

book that profoundly changes peoples’ lives. In brief, 

finding meaning in life is the individual’s choice on 

how to respond to a situation. The fact that Frankl was 

able to survive in concentration camps and go on to 

resume a highly successful life as a therapist, author, 

and public figure is authentically inspirational. His 

“doctrine of logotherapy” is summarized in a concluding chapter, after his autobiographical account of 

his time in death camps. He points out that summarizing 20 volumes of his research is not easy, but he provides enough insights to inform and provide a foundation that is further examined more recently by the 

various schools of positive psychology. Frankl’s book 

provides an “activist” approach that includes the need 

for responsibility to complement the ideas of liberty 

and freedom. For Americans, he offers a memorable 

challenge (in italics in the original text): “That is why 
100

I recommend that the Statue of Liberty on the East Coast 

be supplemented by a Statue of Responsibility on the West 

Coast” (p. 132).

ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 4

1. Outside of a traditional academic environment, “course 

work” to consider should include certificate programs, skill development workshops, professional association and work related 

seminars, and online programs offered by universities, companies, coaching firms, etc. The latest opportunities on the Internet 

are available from many major university programs in what are 

called Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCS).

2. To any authors not included, or their publishers, please 

feel free to contact Dr. Joseph Cerami with recommendations for 

any future editions of bibliographies on emerging leadership and 

leader development at jcerami@tamu.edu.

3. Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie McKee, Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of Emotional Intelligence, Boston, 

MA: Harvard Business School Review, 2002, p. 110.
101

CHAPTER 5

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

LEARNING TO LEAD:

THE NONPROFIT SECTOR

To Tam Phuong

INTRODUCTION

With a number of 1.8 million nonprofit organizations and combined assets of nearly $3 trillion in the 

U.S. and expanding about $1.3 trillion annually,1 the 

nonprofit sector plays a critical role and is a driving 

force for socioeconomic development. However, leadership development for the next generation’s leaders 

becomes a more urgent task than ever when many 

predict a leadership drain of 30 percent or more in 

the near future in this sector resulting from retiring 

baby boomers, the burn out of the existing leaders, 

and the unwillingness by the younger generation to 

take on leadership roles.2 The literature on emerging 

leader development in nonprofits provides comprehensive research and practices, which are studied and 

implemented by scholars and practitioners. Literature also denotes a collective effort among nonprofits 

and scholars outside of the sector in enhancing next 

generation leadership capacities. 

For the purpose of this bibliography, emerging 

leadership development is considered a process involving the interaction of individual leader development and the social-culture environment in which 

leaders function for the purpose of meeting nonprofits’ missions and community benefits.3

 The purpose of 
102

this bibliography is to examine what and how emerging leaders learn to lead in the nonprofit sector. 

While developing this bibliography, three assumptions were created. The first assumption is that this 

bibliography of emerging leader development in nonprofits provides a comprehensive view and insights 

into the topic of leadership development in general 

and emerging leadership nonprofits in particular. 

This bibliography comprises: (1) scientific and professional journals, articles published in the popular 

press, peer review journals, books, and World Wide 

Web resources; (2) descriptions of programs focusing 

on developing leadership in nonprofits provided by 

research centers, organizations, and university centers; and, (3) a list of centers and organizations providing resources for emerging leader development. 

Second, the bibliography analyzes emerging leaders 

in nonprofits, taking into account the uniqueness of 

the nonprofit sector. The author believes that the sector uniqueness, such as limited budgets, insufficient 

salaries, multifunctional leadership and management, 

and fundraising function, will strongly affect the 

contents and methods of developing next generation 

leaders. Finally, although this bibliography focuses 

on emerging leader development in nonprofits, it also 

reviews theories and practices of leadership development in general. 

There are several reasons for doing this bibliography. Literature about emerging leader development in nonprofits reveals reliable resources of specific observation, solutions, approaches, and practical 

guidelines. These resources are research, program 

evaluation, and experiences of scholars, consultants, 

executive leaders, and managers in emerging leader 

development. But not all of these results are based on 
103

strict empirical evidence or extensive emerging leader 

development work. Moreover, there is a high demand 

for emerging leader development in the nonprofit sector due to a predicted leadership deficit in the next few 

years. Finally, emerging leader development in nonprofits has not received due attention in research and 

practice. Thus, to fill in the gap in the literature and 

the need of real practice in emerging leader development, the bibliography will provide an introduction to 

the current research and practices about the relevant 

thinking of leadership development in the nonprofit 

sector. The information in this bibliography will provide a solid starting point for further discussion about 

identifying and developing leaders in nonprofit, for 

profit and public sectors. 

BOOKS

Tom Adams, The Nonprofit Leadership Transition 

and Development Guide: Proven Paths for Leaders and 

Organizations, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.

This book serves as a useful guide for nonprofit 

organizations to conduct leadership transmission 

through succession planning. The guide book addresses unique challenges and opportunities of leadership with sound advice and concrete examples from 

this sector. Specially, nonprofit leaders at all levels can 

benefit from Tom Adams, an expert working as lead 

consultant for more than 400 organizations, and learn 

how to lead the transitions and diversify leadership. 

Readers also find how to make the most of scarce investments, especially the investment on transition 

leadership in successive plan and creating ongoing 

organizational success.
104

Kirk Kramer and Preeta Nayak, Nonprofit Leadership Development: What’s Your “Plan A” for Growing 

Future Leaders? Boston, MA: Bridgespan Group, 2013. 

www.bridgespan.org/getmedia/826aa90b-abf0-48d7-ae7e4cde2e5bbc0a/Nonprofit-Leadership-Development-Guide.

pdf.aspx.

Bridgespan offers a practical book kit derived from 

reliable resources: in-depth interviews, wide range 

surveys, review of classical studies and writing conducted in the nonprofit sector and best practices of 

the for profit sector. The toolkit provides a straightforward roadmap, plan A, to develop future leadership. 

The roadmap consists of five steps: engaging senior 

leaders, understanding future needs, developing future leaders, hiring leaders externally as needed, and 

monitoring and improving practices. Each step is explored in each chapter, with suggested action steps 

for implementation, as well as detailed explanations 

of real life practices and sample tools. Chief Executive 

Officers (CEOs) , Executive Directors, and senior leading teams will benefit from this book when they seek 

to adopt practical ingoing leadership processes from 

other successful organizations for developing future 

leadership at their own organizations. 

Ellen Van Velsor, Cynthia McCauley, and Marian 

Ruderman, The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook 

of Leadership Development, Vol. 122, Hoboken, NJ: John 

Wiley & Sons, 2010.

The handbook summarizes and integrates knowledge drawn from vast stories and expertise of hundreds of thousands of executives and managers in 

different emerging leader developments worldwide 
105

from the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) research for over 40 years. From research and practical 

perspectives, this comprehensive handbook presents 

knowledge that human resource professionals and 

managers can employ in designing customized leadership development processes and programs to enhance 

individual leadership’s capacity to contribute to more 

effective organizations.

Judith Wilson and Michelle Gislason, Coaching 

Skills For Nonprofit Managers And Leaders: Developing 

People To Achieve Your Mission, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2009.

The book provides readers with coaching expertise 

combined with practical examples and case studies 

transferable to readers’ real life situations in nonprofits. Nonprofit leaders and managers benefit from the 

clear coaching model and skills to attract, retain, and 

leverage talented people. Also, readers are equipped 

with a clear framework and step-by-step guide in how 

to shift coaching culture in developing future nonprofit leaders.

Ronald Riggio and Sarah Orr, Improving Leadership 

in Nonprofit Organizations, Vol. 208, Hoboken, NJ: John 

Wiley & Sons, 2004.

Riggio and Orr capture the substance of the Kravis-de Roulet Leadership Conference, which focused 

on improving leadership in nonprofit organizations.

In this guidebook, several themes are addressed, including changes in and transformation of nonprofits, 

the special nature of nonprofit leadership, and the 

ways in which ideas and actions are interconnected. 
106

Well-grounded in theory, research, and practice, this 

book is a comprehensive resource offering the up-todate thoughts in the sector and stimulating leaders’ 

thinking. 

Robert Herman, The Jossey-Bass Handbook of Nonprofit Leadership and Management, Hoboken, NJ: John 

Wiley & Sons, 2011.

The handbook assembled 26 essays about a wide 

array of nonprofit leadership and management practices, which are appropriate and applicable to the 

whole nonprofit sector. This single comprehensive 

volume provides insights and explanations of the 

most recent research, theory, and experience in a broad 

range of issues in the nonprofit sector, such as leading, 

governing, and managing an organization, its financial resources, and people. This handbook will be an 

important resource to people who practice nonprofit 

leadership or management, work with nonprofit organizations, as well as those who aspire to do so. 

Laura Leviton, The Handbook of Leadership Development Evaluation, Vol. 32, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & 

Sons, 2006. 

Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and more than 

30 authors collaborated to write The Handbook of Leadership Development Evaluation. Their book is a valuable 

guide in evaluating leadership development by those 

who practice and fund leadership development and 

evaluation in commercial and nonprofit organizations. This volume brings together distinguished authors with knowledge and expertise about leadership 

development evaluation, whose contributions can 
107

benefit leadership development evaluators, practitioners, and ultimately those participating in leadership 

development programs.

Gary Yukl, Leadership in Organizations, San Antonio, TX: Pearson Education, Inc., 2013.

This is a comprehensive book about organizational 

leadership. Major theories are presented with explanations and evaluations, empirical research findings 

are summarized, and references are provided for 

those who seek resources about leadership in organizations. There are 16 chapters covering two broad 

topics: determinants of leadership effectiveness and 

how leaders can be improved. Each chapter has a case 

study helping readers to gain an in-depth understanding about the theories, concepts, and practices. This 

book is used as a guiding book for emerging leaders, 

managers, and trainers. It is also widely used as a textbook and is recommended for students at all levels in 

social sciences. 

ARTICLES AND RESEARCH (ACADEMIC 

JOURNALS AND PROFESSIONAL 

MAGAZINES/CENTERS)

Supporting Next-Generation Leadership, Rochester, NY: Grantmakers for Effective Organizations, 

February 2008, available from www.cce-rochester.org/

ResourceLibraryPages/ResourceLibraryFiles/Supporting_

Next_Gen_Leaders.pdf.

The report provides an action guide for grant makers on how to support next generation leadership in 

nonprofits. In the first part, the report analyzes typi-
108

cal challenges facing the sector when investing in the 

future leaders. The rest of the report presents specific 

ways that grant makers can help attract, retain, and 

develop new nonprofit leaders and examples of successes and challenges from grant makers in supporting the next generation leadership. 

Strategic Leadership Development Toolkit, Executive Transition Initiative, Milwaukee, WI: Greater 

Milwaukee Foundation, available from www.leading

transitions.com/pdfs/ETIToolkit_4.pdf.

The purpose of the Strategic Leadership Development Toolkit is to provide readers with a roadmap 

through the succession planning and leadership development process in organizations. The toolkit introduces a number of strategies that Executive Directors 

and board members can employ, along with specific 

tools and resources, to support ongoing leadership 

development. The toolkit was the result of a national 

study of leadership transition in the nonprofit sector and expertise of some leading experts in emerging leader development. Thus, all explanations and 

examples used in this report are useful for nonprofit 

leadership development programs. 

Arlene Etengoff, “Building Leadership Capacity through Integrated Leadership Development 

Programs,” Journal for Nonprofit Management, Vol. 11, 

No, 1, 2007, pp. 49-54, available from supportcenter

online.org/wp-Content/uploads/2013/04/scnm_

journal_07_F2.pdf.

The researcher argues about the effectiveness of 

integrative and holistic leadership development pro-
109

gramming in leadership capacity building. Programming should be based on the compilation of lists 

criteria: current required knowledge and skills at the 

present and in the future, the strategic vision of the 

organization, proportion of classroom learning and 

experience learning, investment in a strong leadership 

throughout the organization, executive coaching and 

other one-on-one learning opportunities, and followup evaluation. 

Kristin Linscott: “Filling the Leadership Pipeline: 

Driving Forces and Their Effect on the Next Generation of Nonprofit Leaders,” SPNHA Review, Vol. 

7, No. 4, October 2011, pp. 31-50, scholarworks.gvsu.

edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=spnha

review&seiredir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.

google.com%2Fscholar%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3DFilling

%2Bthe%2Bleadership%2Bpipeline%253A%2BDriving

%2Bforces%2Band%2Btheir%2Beffect%2Bon%2Bthe%

2Bnext%2Bgeneration%2Bof%2Bnonprofit%2Bleaders.

%2B%26btnG%3D%26as_sdt%3D1%252C44%26as_

sdtp%3D#search=%22Filling%20leadership%20

pipeline%3A%20Driving%20forces%20their%20

effect%20next%20generation%20nonprofit%

20leaders.%22.

The report provides an insightful analysis of the 

driving forces of nonprofit factors and their effects on 

long-term plans of the coming professionals. Driving 

forces include organizational structure issues, student 

debt, compensation, work-life balance, staff turnover, 

recruitment and retention efforts, and lack of professional development and advancement opportunities. 

These driving forces affect the potential crisis for nonprofit organizations and professionals. Based on this 
110

analysis, recommendations are given to the existing 

leaders to recruit and retain talented youth for nonprofit future leaders. The report becomes more meaningful when the authors analyze typical issues of 

the nonprofit sector, along with for profit and public 

sectors. 

Mary Genis, “So Many Leadership Programs, So 

Little Change: Why Many Leadership Development 

Efforts Fall Short,” Journal for Nonprofit Management, 

Vol. 12, No. 1, 2008, pp. 32-40, supportcenteronline.org/

wp-content/uploads/2013/04/scnm_journal_2008.pdf.

This paper argues that leadership programs should 

shift their emphasis from building managerial skills 

to building leadership capabilities and incorporating 

accepted best practices of adult learning. These modifications will help ensure university leadership programs meet the training objectives in equipping more 

leaders who are able to meet the increasing challenges. 

RESEARCH STUDIES

Kelly Hannum, Jennifer Deal, Liz Howard, Linshuang Lu, Marian Ruderman, Sarah Stawiski, Nancie 

Zane, and Rick Price, Emerging Leadership in Nonprofit Organizations: Myth, Meaning, and Motivations, 

Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership, 

2007, pp. 1-35.

The report provides a comprehensive understanding of how to develop emerging leaders in the nonprofit sector. The report provides answers to common 

questions about the definitions of emerging leaders, 

contextual issues that affect leadership and identifica-
111

tion of emerging leaders for leadership opportunities, 

availability, and gaps in supporting leadership. Practical recommendations, both easy and low cost ideas, 

and those that require a significant shift, are given 

to current leaders, emerging leaders, funders, and 

leadership developers. 

Barbara Duffy and Jarad Parker, Professional Development of Nonprofit Leadership, Milwaukee, WI: University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Center for Urban Initiatives and Research, July 2012.

The report provides an overview of national 

trends in developing leaders in nonprofit organizations and recommends available programs. Using a 

grant maker’s framework for understanding nonprofit leadership development to review literature, the 

report found that of programs for emerging leaders 

focused on individuals, organizations, or geographic 

communities, the best programs aim to develop individual capacities. The report discussed in detail the 

four national trends in leadership development: sabbaticals, executive coaching, mentoring, and 360-degree evaluation. The report made recommendations 

on leadership development programs that focus on 

building capability and enhancing leadership skills for 

emerging leaders. 

Jean Crawford, “Profiling the Nonprofit Leader of 

Tomorrow,” Crawford Connect, May-June 2010, iveybusinessjournal.com/topics/leadership/profiling-the-nonprofit-leader-of-tomorrow.

The research identifies the type of future nonprofit 

leaders who are able to demonstrate combined attri-
112

butes in both business sectors and traditional nonprofit 

sector. To help and to guide nonprofits in developing 

their future generation leaders, the authors proposed 

a Manager-Leader Model, a composite profile of nonprofit leaders, including 15 attributes under three criteria: competencies, personal traits, and knowledge/

expertise. These attributes and the Manager-Leader 

Model will be used as reference for customized core 

characteristics needed to implement a leadership development strategy successfully in response to the 

challenges that nonprofits must face. 

Maria Cornelius and Patrick Corvington, Ready 

to Lead? Next Generation Leaders Speak Out, Baltimore, 

MD: Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2008. Research 

method: survey with 5,754 respondents.

This national study released findings from a survey 

of 5,754 leaders and six focus groups about the disadvantages and benefits of joining the nonprofit sector. 

From their perspectives, although they were aware 

of substantial barriers in their job, a significant number are inspired and committed to become leaders in 

nonprofits. The report also provides comprehensive 

recommendations for key forces in the section, aiming to conduct positive changes among individuals 

in all stages of the leadership development, including 

emerging leaders.

M. Cornelius, R. Moyers, and B. Bell, “Daring to 

Lead 2011: A National Study of Executive Director 

Leadership,” USA: CompassPoint Nonprofit Services and 

the Meyer Foundation, 2011, daringtolead.org/wp-content/

uploads/Daring-to-Lead-2011-Main-Report-online.pdf.
113

The third Daring to Lead report, released in 2011, 

is a national study of more than 3,000 executive directors in nonprofits. The report covers keys findings 

in leadership during a period of recession, including 

high turnover rate, under-preparation for transition 

in leadership, instability of financial sustainability, 

and positive attitudes toward their work. Solutions 

proposed for the successful leadership transitions include planning, financial sustainability understanding, available professional development options for 

executive directors, and performance improvement of 

the boards. 

Ann Deaton, Susan Wilkes, and Rachel Douglas, 

“Strengthening the Next Generation: A Multi-Faceted 

Program to Develop Leadership Capacity in Emerging Nonprofit Leaders,” Journal of Nonprofit Education 

and Leadership, Vol. 3, No, 1, 2013, pp. 34-36, scholar.

google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=Strengthening+the+Next+

Generation%3A+A+multifaceted+program+to+develop+l

eadership+capacity+in+emerging+nonprofit+leaders.+&bt

nG=&as_sdt=1%2C44&as_sdtp=.

When there is a leadership deficit in the nonprofit 

sector, it is vital to have leadership development programs that allow emerging leaders to enhance themselves and take leading roles in the future. This report 

shared the whole process of organizing a successful 

8-month leadership development program with explanations of distinctive features such as individual 

coaching, strong peer learning, involvement of exemplary senior leaders, and alumni engagement. The 

program was designed based on a strong literature 

review and conceptual framework, giving ideas for 

organizing customized programs. 
114

ORGANIZATIONAL PROGRAMS

The Neighborhood Builders Leadership Program,

www.centerforleadershipinnovation.org/programs/bankof-america-neighborhood-builder-leadership-program.

The Neighborhood Builders Leadership Program 

is sponsored by the Bank of America Charitable foundation and conducted by The Center for Leadership 

Innovation. It provides opportunities for pairing leadership and training, bringing benefits for nonprofit executives and emerging leaders with workshops, peer 

coaching groups, and an online network to discuss 

opportunities and challenges in leading their organizations. The program aims to increase the effectiveness of these leaders in achieving the missions of their 

organizations and enhance their ability to change the 

world. The Neighborhood Builders Program is widely acclaimed as one of the most powerful leadership 

development programs in the United States.

American Express Nonprofit Leadership Academy.

Building the Next Generation of Women Leaders 

in the Nonprofit Sector is conducted by the National 

Council for Research on Women and funded by the 

American Express Foundation. The purpose of the 

program is to promote retention and advancement of 

women leaders in the nonprofit sector by providing 

trainings that develop and enhance women’s managerial skills, and engage them in career planning, networking, and professional development. The program 

offers skill-building workshops, mentoring, and networking opportunities that provide promising young 

leaders with access to career guidance and resources 

for professional development.
115

National Urban League, New York, about.americanexpress.com/csr/leadership.aspx.

The National Urban League Emerging Leaders Program is a 9-month professional development 

opportunity for high potential leaders from Urban 

Leagues affiliates across the nation and is funded by 

American Express. Participating leaders are prepared 

for key challenges at the next level and will be able 

to immediately apply their learning. Additionally, the 

program builds a network of professionals connected 

by this experience and committed to the success of the 

National Urban League Movement. The training combines face-to-face sessions at National Urban League 

events, webinars, and case studies for a strategic view 

of nonprofit management.

Future Executive Directors Fellowship.

Future Executive Directors Fellowship is a 1-year 

new leaders program, organized by Gelman, Rosenberg, and Freedman and sponsored by American Express. The purpose of the program is to strengthen 

emerging leaders in the nonprofit community. The 

program combines six key elements: Leadership and 

Skills Development, Executive Director Modeling, 

Peer Coaching, Mentoring, Networking, and Stretch 

Assignments. Participants have opportunities to engage in intensive learning and group conversation 

with exceptional Executive Directors in the nonprofit 

community, receive advice and support from peers, 

match with mentors, have exposure to broad and rich 

networks, and personalize and pursue their specific 

learning goals.
116

American Express NGen Fellows Program, www.

independentsector.org/ngen.

The American Express NGen Fellows Program is 

conducted by the Independent Sector for those who 

are new to the nonprofit and philanthropic sector. 

During a 12-month comprehensive program, participants engage with other talented emerging leaders 

and interact with established sector leaders to learn 

leadership skills through activities, such as networking and learning, an in-person workshop, conference 

calls, and a collaborative project. The program aims to 

build their personal and professional networks, learn 

adaptive leadership skills, and impact sectors through 

work on a collaborative project. 

Center for Volunteer and Nonprofit Leaders.

The Emerging Leader Program, organized by Center for Volunteer and Nonprofit Leaders and sponsored by the U.S. Bank, addresses the core managerial 

competencies and leadership skills needed to effectively manage nonprofit organizations and successfully develop leaders within their quickly changing 

sector. This 4-day program covers a wide range of topics, such as leadership development, finance and human resources, branding business strategy, and staff 

management.

Executive Program for Nonprofit Leaders, www.

gsb.stanford.edu/programs/social-innovation/executiveprogram-nonprofit-leaders.

Executive Program for Nonprofit Leaders is a 10-

day residential program, organized by Stanford Uni-
117

versity to further professional development of current 

and future leaders in the nonprofit sectors. The program integrates conceptual knowledge from Stanford 

faculty’s most current thinking and research, while 

keeping pace with the rapid changing management 

environment and integrating participants’ own experiences to generate powerful and practical insights 

about leadership and management. By taking part in 

a variety of activities, including classes, small group 

discussions, and individual learning, participants are 

expected to gain more confidence in their leadership 

abilities, develop strong networks, and interact with 

the world’s leading faculty.

Emerging Leaders Program, www.gnof.org/emergingleaders-program/.

The Emerging Leaders Program for nonprofit 

managers is organized by the Greater New Orleans 

Foundation and funded by Kresge Foundation. The 

program aims to improve management and leadership capabilities, increase the sustainability of current 

and future employment by organizations, and create 

a pool of potential executive directors to address the 

gap in leadership in the nonprofit sector. The training 

provides participants with practical knowledge, skills, 

and strategies that help the organizations face tough 

challenges. 
118

Emerging Nonprofit Leaders Program, nonprofitlearningpoint.org/enlp/.

Emerging Nonprofit Leaders Program is a dynamic 8-month experience for the next generation of 

nonprofit leaders in the metro Richmond area. In this 

engaging program, participants will have the opportunity to foster a deeper understanding of their leadership capacity, advance their understanding and practice of leading in the nonprofit sector, and strengthen 

their network of nonprofit colleagues.

Maximizing Your Leadership Potential.

Maximizing Your Leadership Potential is the program organized by the Center for Creative Leadership 

for beginning leaders. The course provides new leaders with perspectives needed to become effective leaders, knowledge to improve the ability to lead others, 

and practical skills to get the work done, solve problems, and deal with conflicts. Through assessment 

and feedback from peers, small groups, and guidance 

coaches, participants are able to improve their key 

competencies: self-awareness, learning agility, communication, and influence.

Acumen, New York.

A globally accessible online leadership academy 

is built from Acumen’s 7+ years of experience running its flagship Global Fellows Programs. Acumen 

uses online tools to scale the impact of this traditional 

leadership development program so that more emerging leaders can gain the skills and networks they need 

to improve the lives of people around the world. The 
119

+Acumen Online Leadership Academy, a globally 

accessible online leadership academy is aimed at individuals who are ready to play an active role in creating social change, whether they are students, professionals, or entrepreneurs. Participants gain access 

to tangible leadership skills, appreciate the nuances of 

social change work and grow their networks. In the 

first year, over 20,000 people from around the world 

registered for this online course on leadership.

Arizona State University Lodestar Center, Phoenix, 

AZ, about.americanexpress.com/csr/leadership.aspx.

The Generation Next Nonprofit Leadership Academy, presented by Arizona State University’s Lodestar 

Center for Philanthropy and Nonprofit Innovation, 

delivers a competitive program to a select group of 

emerging leaders, providing knowledge and tools for 

leadership development. The program includes best 

practice approaches to leading and managing nonprofits from the university’s professors and practitioners, as well as established leaders from the nonprofit 

community. The curriculum is covered in 9 full days, 

with ongoing feedback, interaction, and workshops 

as hallmarks of the program. The Generation Next 

Nonprofit Leadership Academy is designed to build 

the capacity of the social sector by enhancing the effectiveness of those who manage, and will ultimately 

lead, nonprofit organizations.

Developing New Leaders for Tomorrow, about.americanexpress.com/csr/leadership.aspx.

Developing New Leaders for Tomorrow, funded 

by American Express, provides practical opportunities for current and future nonprofit leaders. Through 
120

these opportunities, emerging leaders are able to learn 

and build leadership skills, aiming to transform their 

organizations through best practices in management 

and leadership. With the focus on the nonprofit sectors in arts, environment, higher education, and social 

service arenas, the program also accepts requests from 

programs that support the public sector and from entrepreneurs, although limited. Learners are provided 

the best methods, programs, and partners. 

CENTERS AND INSTITUTIONS

Young Nonprofit Professionals Network, ynpn.org/.

The Young Nonprofit Professionals Network 

(YNPN) promotes an efficient, viable, and inclusive 

nonprofit sector that supports the growth, learning, 

and development of young professionals. YNPN engages and supports future nonprofit and community 

leaders through professional development, networking, and social opportunities designed for young 

people involved in the nonprofit community. Today, 

YNPN National provides support and resources for 

local YNPN chapters through chapter leadership development, networking, and advocacy on behalf of 

members across the sector.

Partnership for Nonprofit Excellence, www.pnerichmond.org/about/us/.

The Partnership for Nonprofit Excellence has a 

mission to support nonprofits in the Greater Richmond Region through four strategies and supportive 

objectives: collaborate, empower, innovate, and optimize. The Partnership for Nonprofit Excellence is a 
121

collaboration of four programs that offer nonprofits 

the tools they need to improve their effectiveness and 

efficiency for greater impact. The programs are Professional and Leadership Development; Volunteer Opportunities, Training, and Management; Technology, 

Training, and Communication; and Organizational 

and Board Development. These programs provide a 

comprehensive support system so nonprofits can collaborate successfully, employ best practices, and gain 

access to a wealth of volunteers. By opening the door 

to resources such as project management expertise, 

communications tools, and ongoing professional development, the Partnership helps nonprofits achieve 

their missions.

Leadership Learning Community, leadershiplearning.

org/.

Leadership Learning Community (LLC) is a national nonprofit organization focusing on leveraging leadership as a means to create a more just and 

equitable society. To drive the innovation and collaboration needed to make leadership more effective, 

LLC combines its expertise in identifying, evaluating, 

and applying ideas and promising practices with its 

engagement in a national network of hundreds of 

experienced funders, consultants and leadership development programs. LLC resources include many 

publications, learning communities, and leadership 

development programs. LLC’s network is devoted to 

sharing knowledge, best practices, and resources related to leadership development for the nature of “collective leadership.” 
122

Center for Creative Leadership, www.ccl.org.

In the 2014 Financial Times worldwide ranking of 

executive education, the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) was proclaimed No. 4 of more than 75 

institutions. CCL remains the only one that focuses 

exclusively on leadership development. CCL is a wellknown resource for leadership development in both 

for profit and nonprofit sectors. The Center provides 

a variety of leadership assessments, coaching services, 

programs, and publications. According to the President and CEO, “At CCL, we help clients leverage leadership to drive the results that matter most to them,” 

and the annual rankings confirm that the CCL can deliver to clients at individual, team, organizational, and 

social levels. 

Bridgespan Group, www.bridgespan.org/About.aspx#.

U4-iO_nIZtE.

Bridgespan Group is a nonprofit advisor and resource for nonprofits and philanthropists. The group 

collaborates with nonprofit leaders to create social 

change, enhance leadership, and advance the effectiveness of social work and learning. The Bridgespan 

Group works on the core issues of solving the challenges and breaking the cycles of intergenerational 

poverty. Bridgespan Group provides a wide variety 

of services, such as strategic consulting, leadership 

development, philanthropy advising, and developing 

and sharing practical sights. Especially, Bridgespan’s 

executive team development program, Leading for 

Impact, helps build the skills of nonprofit leadership 

teams. 
123

Center on Nonprofits and Philanthropy (Urban Institute and Research), www.urban.org/center/cnp/.

The Urban Institute’s Center on Nonprofits and

Philanthropy conducts research on the nonprofit sector

to inform decisionmakers in government, nonprofits,

foundations, and businesses. The center’s mission is, 

through research, to provide an overview of nonprofit 

sectors, improve its effectiveness through transparency and accountability, and evaluate policy effects. 

The center acts as an agent between policymakers, 

nonprofits, and businesses across sectors, while providing a wealth of data through publication.

Stanford Center on Philanthropy and Civil Society

(Stanford PACS), pacscenter.stanford.edu/overview.

Stanford PACS is a research center, aiming to explore, develop, and share knowledge to improve philanthropy, strengthen civil society, and effect social 

change. Its primary participants are Stanford faculty, 

visiting scholars, postdoctoral scholars, graduate and 

undergraduate students, and nonprofit and foundation practitioners. The center provides a variety of resources for connecting its participants. Stanford Social 

Innovation Review Journal connects students, scholars, 

and practitioners by providing space for participants 

of interdisciplinary and cross sectors to share insights 

and ideas to advance social change. The relationship 

between PACS and five schools and departments provides a platform to share the diverse faculty’s intellectual assets with nonprofit and for profit community. 

PACS also offers financial support for undergraduates, fellowships for postdoctoral scholars, and Ph.D. 

fellowships. Finally, PACS sponsors monthly pro-
124

fessional events, such as public speaking, symposia, 

and salons. 

Independent Sector, www.independentsector.org/about.

Independent Sector is the leading network for nonprofits, foundations, and corporations, representing 

tens of thousands of organizations and individuals 

locally, nationally, and internationally. Independent 

Sector organizes meeting grounds for the leaders of 

America’s charitable and philanthropic sectors, sponsors groundbreaking research, seeks support for 

nonprofit sectors from public policies, and creates 

resources. Nonprofits play a multitude of important 

roles throughout the communities. There are several 

nonprofit leadership opportunities such as the NGen 

program, Gardner Leadership Award, and Initiative 

for Nonprofit Talent and Leadership. The website 

describes various initiatives related to developing 

the effectiveness of nonprofit organization with an 

emphasis on leadership. 

Midwest Center for Nonprofit Leadership in the 

Henry W. Bloch School of Management at the 

University of Missouri-Kansas City. 

The Midwest Center for Nonprofit Leadership 

(MCNL) is a service and outreach unit of the Department of Public Affairs in the Henry W. Bloch School 

of Management at the University of Missouri-Kansas 

City. It is a research and education center dedicated to 

building nonprofit leadership capacity and is known 

nationally and beyond as an excellent resource for 

public service leaders and executives. MCNL creates 

opportunities for the leaders of this vital community 
125

to come together as colleagues to learn, network, and 

support each other, and to encourage personal, professional, and organizational renewal and effectiveness. The center provides a wide variety of high quality community-oriented education, applied research, 

problem solving, and service. MCNL focuses on applying the resources and talents of the university to 

solve problems and issues facing nonprofits, aiming 

to enhance the performance and effectiveness of the 

sector.

CompassPoint Nonprofit Sector, www.compasspoint.

org/about-us.

For the purpose of achieving progress in social 

equity, CompassPoint concentrates on enhancing 

leadership and management capacities of leaders and 

organizations in the nonprofit sector. To that end, 

CompassPoint provides guidance for nonprofits to 

help them become better managed and more adaptive, and achieve higher impacts. Especially, improving today’s leaders and helping grow future leaders 

are priorities of CompassPoint. CompassPoint also 

creates collaborative opportunities by recruiting partners, linking emerging leader developments, and 

network strengthening. CompassPoint provides integrated practices offering consulting, coaching, and 

peer learning that is grounded in deep nonprofit leadership experiences. In addition, CompassPoint also 

organizes conferences, workshops, and development 

research. 
126

REFERENCES

Articles.

Supporting Next-Generation Leadership, Grantmakers for Effective Organizations, February 2008.

Strategic Leadership Development Toolkit, Executive Transition initiative, Greater Milwaukee 

Foundation.

Arlene Etengoff, “Building Leadership Capacity through Integrated Leadership Development Programs,” Journal for Nonprofit Management, Vol. 11, No, 

1, 2007, pp. 49-54.

Kristin Linscott, “Filling the Leadership Pipeline: 

Driving Forces and Their Effect on the Next Generation of Nonprofit Leaders,” SPNHA Review, Vol. 7, No. 

4, October 2011, pp. 31-50.

Mary Genis, “So Many Leadership Programs, So 

Little Change: Why Many Leadership Development 

Efforts Fall Short,” Journal for Nonprofit Management, 

Vol. 12, No. 1, 2008, pp. 32-40.

Kelly Hannum, Jennifer Deal, Liz Howard, Linshuang Lu, Marian Ruderman, Sarah Stawiski, Nancie 

Zane, and Rick Price, Emerging Leadership in Nonprofit 

Organizations: Myth, Meaning, and Motivations, Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership, 2007, 

pp. 1-35.

Barbara Duffy, Jarad Parker, Professional Development of Nonprofit Leadership, University of Wisconsin-
127

Milwaukee, Center for Urban Initiatives and Research, 

July 2012.

Jean Crawford: “Profiling the Nonprofit Leader of 

Tomorrow,” Crawford Connect, May-June 2010, available from iveybusinessjournal.com/topics/leadership/

profiling-the-non-profit-leader-of-tomorrow, accessed on 

May 1, 2014.

Maria Cornelius and Patrick Corvington, Ready 

to Lead? Next Generation Leaders Speak Out, Baltimore, 

MD: Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2008.

Ann Deaton, Susan Wilkes, and Rachel Douglas: 

“Strengthening the Next Generation: A Multi-Faceted 

Program to Develop Leadership Capacity in Emerging Nonprofit Leaders,” Journal of Nonprofit Education 

and Leadership, Vol. 3, No, 1, 2013, pp. 34-36.

Leslie Booer and Jessica Obergas, Nonprofit Leadership Development: A Model for Identifying and Growing Leaders within the Nonprofit Sector, Looking Glass 

Institute and Dewey & Kaye.

Books.

Tom Adams, The Nonprofit Leadership Transition 

and Development Guide: Proven Paths for Leaders and 

Organizations, John Wiley & Sons, 2010.

Kirk Kramer and Preeta Nayak, Nonprofit Leadership Development: What’s Your “Plan A” for Growing 

Future Leaders? Bridgespan Group, 2013.
128

Ellen Velsor, Cynthia McCauley, and Marian Ruderman, The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook 

of Leadership Development, Vol. 122, John Wiley & 

Sons, 2010.

Judith Wilson and Michelle Gislason, Coaching 

Skills For Nonprofit Managers And Leaders: Developing People To Achieve Your Mission, John Wiley & 

Sons, 2009.

Ronald Riggio and Sarah Orr, Improving Leadership in Nonprofit Organizations, Vol. 208, John Wiley & 

Sons, 2004.

Robert Herman, The Jossey-Bass Handbook of Nonprofit Leadership and Management, John Wiley & 

Sons, 2011.

Laura Leviton, The Handbook of Leadership Development Evaluation, Vol. 32, John Wiley & Sons, 2006. 

Gary Yukl, Leadership in Organizations, Pearson 

Education, Inc., 2013.

ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 5

1. Leslie Booer and Jessica Obergas, Nonprofit Leadership Development: A Model For Identifying And Growing Leaders Within 

The Nonprofit Sector, Pittsburgh, PA: Looking Glass Institute and 

Dewey & Kaye.

2. Supporting Next-Generation Leadership, Grantmakers for 

Effective Organizations, February 2008.

3. Strategic Leadership Development Toolkit, Executive Transition Initiative, Milwaukee, WI: Greater Milwaukee Foundation.
129

CHAPTER 6

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

LEARNING TO LEAD:

THE PRIVATE SECTOR

Huyen Thi Minh Van

INTRODUCTION 

This chapter is a literature review on emerging 

leadership development in the private sector with a 

view to gathering the best practices and viable lessons and proposing a series of steps and practices 

for the building and development of high potential 

young leaders—those newly entering the workforce. 

Research materials include books, journal articles, research studies, professional magazines, organizational websites and communication, as well as programs 

offered by universities and centers. In terms of selection criteria for the review, the starting point is the 

Leadership Competency Framework designed by the 

Bush School of Government and Public Service. In the 

framework, the factors needed for public service leadership development include Knowledge (“What to 

understand”), Skills (“What to do”), Attributes (“How 

to act”), and Values (“How to be”), all of which start 

with Vision (“Who am I?” and “What do I want?”). 

These elements have been used as frame of reference 

for the searched materials in this review. 

This annotated bibliography is intended to guide 

emerging leaders in designing reading lists that will 

support their development programs. At the same 

time, it is a reflection of best practices for emerging 

leadership development in the business sector from 
130

10 Fortune 500 companies in 2013, which is a good 

source for other companies as well. The content covered includes the themes of leadership and leader 

development that emerged from the screening of the 

sources mentioned earlier (roughly 10 items for each 

topic area): 1. Definitions of the emerging leader and 

literature focus on leader development; 2. Distinctions 

between leader development and leadership development; 3. Emerging leaders in relation to leadership 

development: vertical versus horizontal development; 

4. Corporate programs (and university programs and 

projects); 5. Horizontal development and linking business strategy with leader development; and others. It 

is obvious and understandable that this list of sources 

is not exhaustive in coverage. The following bibliography entries are regarded as important perspectives 

that are research-based and readable for emerging 

leaders. Should the reader be interested in giving recommendations for future bibliographies on emerging 

leadership and leader development, please feel free to 

contact Van Huyen at huyen.van@tamu.edu.

DEFINITIONS OF THE EMERGING

LEADER AND LITERATURE FOCUS 

ON LEADER DEVELOPMENT

“The emerging leader” is used in our research to 

refer to young employees with potential for leadership positions, who are generally from 20 to 30 years 

old and doing entry-level jobs. Bearing this definition 

in mind, this scan of the top 10 works (for each source 

type) on emerging leadership development targeted 

the business sector, including books, journal articles, 

research studies, corporate programs, and university 

and center’s programs and projects has revealed three 
131

categories of the emerging leaders: age-based (with 

overlapping ranges), loosely linked to age, and middle managers. In terms of age, the emerging leader 

primarily defined by the literature is 22 (new college 

graduates) to 35 years of age. Without strict regard to 

age, the emerging leaders are described based on leadership potential capacity and not explicitly related to 

whether they are young enough or not. 

The reader will have a deeper understanding of 

the difference between leader development and leadership development when having a closer look at the 

next section. Furthermore, it is found with this research that there are other names with similar connotation with the selected “emerging leader” including 

tomorrow’s leaders, future leaders, potential leaders, 

would-be leaders, high-potential employees (high 

potentials), next-generation leaders, and emergent 

leaders. 

Harry J. Martin and Dennis F. Lekan, The Best and 

The Worst of Leadership: Essential Learning for Emerging 

Leaders, Edina, MN: Adams Business & Professional, 

2008.

Clearly intended for new and emerging leaders 

and future potential leaders, the authors’ experiences 

taking multiple relevant roles relating to leadership 

study build up 10 stories of five successful leaders and 

five failures. The book also focuses on the introduction 

of the “high-order leadership” concept, or custodial 

or servant leadership (focus on the welfare of others, 

not the leader himself or herself). The stories used are 

based on real managers and real situations, yet they 

have fictional content and are not biographically accurate. They are followed by the authors’ insightful 
132

analysis on lessons learned from the stories. The book 

comprises 12 chapters: the first 10 are the 10 stories; 

chapter 11 is a call to higher-order leadership; andchapter 12 includes resources for further development 

and growth for emerging leaders. Each chapter promotes learning on three levels: the story itself, more 

advanced learning when concepts and research are 

linked, and the tools provided to apply the concepts. 

Maureen Metcalf, Innovative Leadership Workbook 

for Emerging Leaders and Managers, Integral Publishers, 

2012.

Taking a practical format, this workbook is especially designed for emerging leaders (defined within 

the innovative leadership development continuum 

with emerging leaders in the second stage: shifting 

primarily from leading self to leading and managing 

others with detailed description in the workbook; also 

defined in terms of six job requirements). The workbook is a self-evaluation or development framework 

to refine and develop one’s leadership skills through 

practical homework for emerging leaders. It utilizes 

activities and conversations in text form that are philosophically embedded with a view to helping young 

people connect with the idea that they can lead; they 

have the passion, skills, or talents but they have not 

yet realized it. Each chapter has a summary, end-ofchapter reflection questions and worksheets for practice. In terms of organization, the workbook includes 

a self-assessment of innovative leadership before 

chapter 1 (elements) and chapter 2 (positioning of 

emerging leaders in innovative leadership). Chapters 

3 to 8 describe in detail every step in the leadership 

development process.
133

Sherry H. Penney and Patricia Akemi Neilson, 

Next Generation Leadership: Insights from Emerging 

Leaders, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.

This book is a product of a qualitative study of the 

collaborative efforts of 20 emerging leaders (primarily 

Generation Xers, a few Boomers, and a few Generation Yers in the northeastern region) who participated 

in an Emerging Leadership Program from 2002 to 2009 

and contributed their essays and ideas. The perspective of the book is purely from the emerging leaders’ 

point of view with the authors’ rationale that says, “If 

we are to have effective leaders in the future, we must 

find those potentials now and provide them with 

leadership training and development.” As a result, the 

book is full of real-life examples and experiences as 

the emerging leaders tell their own stories. The book 

is explicitly structured around points of concerns, 

major leadership challenges, and learned leadership 

experiences.

Charles R. Stoner and Jason S. Stoner, Building 

Leaders: Paving the Path for Emerging Leaders, 1st Ed., 

New York, and London, UK: Routledge (Taylor & 

Francis Group), 2013.

The two authors specially target emerging leaders 

defined as “young people in their 20s and 30s who are 

engaged in their first experiences in leading others in 

an organizational context.” The makeup of the book 

lies strongly in solid evidence from their own studies 

of leadership discipline, research, and writing conducted by people in the field and their original works 

as well as the authors’ real experience in working with 

and coaching emerging leaders over 30 years. Conse-
134

quently, the lively examples from emerging leaders 

are authentic and easy to grasp. The organization of 

the book includes toolkits available in each chapter.

P.L. Quaglieri, S.H. Penney, and J. Waldner, “Developing Future Business and Civic Leaders: The 

Emerging Leaders Program,” Management Decision, 

Vol. 25, No. 10, 2007, pp. 1685-94.

Aimed at The Emerging Leaders Program at the 

College of Management at University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA, for mid-career professionals (average age 35) in the Greater Boston area, this article discusses good practices for developing future business 

and civic leaders. According to the participants, this 

program employs a hands-on approach to leadership 

that is quite effective for young professionals. They 

also cite development, enhanced networking across 

sectors, and an increased appreciation for diversity 

as most positive benefits. As analyzed by the authors, 

the innovative elements of the program include active 

involvement of the business community’s leaders, 

team experience, program continuity, and encouragement for individuals to cross boundaries and sectors 

in meaningful and long-lasting ways. The authors also 

emphasize the strong regional replicability of such a 

program. Interestingly, this article posits a detailed 

definition of emerging leaders as the talented young 

professional individuals who have been identified, 

received training, and now have the skills and experience needed to take on major leadership roles as the 

current business and community leaders retire.
135

Sherry H. Penney, “Introduction,” Journal of Leadership Studies, Vol. 5, No. 3, Fall 2011, available from 

search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&A

N=70599991&site=bsi-live.

A specialized series of symposium articles was 

published by the Journal of Leadership Studies with a 

desire to bring researchers and practitioners together 

to build a common framework for discussion about 

leadership theory and practice, through which models for implementation could be developed. The research subjects are up-and-coming emerging leaders 

of Generation (Gen) X and Generation Y. In particular, 

the five articles in this symposium focus on the crossgenerational relationship. The workplace nowadays is 

characterized by multi-generations thriving together, 

which creates both opportunities and threats for Gen 

X and Gen Y leadership. Some commonalities exist 

for both Gen X and Gen Y: being more collaborative 

and inclusive than previous generations; bringing a 

fresh approach to leadership and shift away from the 

leader as “hero” or all-knowing source of power and 

influence; attaching great importance to integrity and 

seeing the role of authentic leadership for organizational strength; and working well across cultures and 

comfort better with inclusion and diversity than the 

previous generations. There are several suggestions 

for working with and retaining young professionals so that their leadership skills are enhanced. Their 

suggestions include support and honest feedback; 

differentiating reward systems; flexible work arrangements; and corporate social responsibility in the business world. They conclude that Gen X and Gen Y are 

ready to assume leadership roles, and they want a 

different style of leadership, so we need development 
136

programs to get them well-equipped for the task and 

prepare them to lead. 

Jennifer J. Deal, Karen Peterson, and Heidi GailorLoflin, Emerging Leaders: An Annotated Bibliography, 

Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership, 2001.

According to the research group, emerging leaders at the time of the study belong to Generation X 

population who were born between 1964 and 1978 

with unique characteristics. This research highlights 

the general conflict in the workplace and it is partly 

attributed to behavioral differences, not values. As for 

these Gen X emerging leaders, current managers and 

leaders proposed some development tactics of learning new and marketable skills (to enhance job security) and the use of frequent feedback along with clear, 

flexible, self-directed, and entertaining training. The 

authors address the following patterns of characteristics of the emerging leaders’ population: attitudes and 

perceptions toward managerial authority; employer 

loyalty; developmental opportunities; and the relationship between direct reports and their managers. 

Based on this basis, organizations can find their own 

way to recruit, develop, and retain emerging leaders.

The Guide to Managing and Developing Young Professionals, Fullerton, CA: California State University, 

2012, available from www.fullerton.edu/CREW.

This study does not directly and explicitly address 

“emerging leaders” but is still applicable because it 

mentions young professionals entering the workforce 

with demands for training and development opportunities. Now, these young professionals belong to 
137

Generation (Gen) Y. Based on a multigeneration nationwide survey of 2,300 respondents across multiple 

companies and industries and best practices across 

leading companies related to this research and practical advice and strategies, this guide is a valuable 

resource for both companies and young employees 

in recruitment, retention, management and development areas. 

Some of the interesting findings about Gen Y are 

mentioned. First, money is the greatest stimulus for 

Gen Y to accept a job offer and stay with a company. 

Secondly, to secure continuous improvement, Gen Y 

values constructive feedback and desires “Mentoring 

and Training” from their bosses. Also, mentoring and 

reverse mentoring allow generations to network and 

build relationships. Finally, for career advancement, 

Gen Y (more than any other generation) wants more 

opportunities, like the challenge of the position, job 

security, opportunities for learning, fun, ability to 

work with effective teams, or access to job rotation opportunities. One helpful remark from the study posits 

that “one’s stage in life rather than one’s age group 

plays a large role in generational issues.” Both Gen Y 

and Gen X employees focus on developing the skills 

and competencies that will make them tick on the 

market at any time. This study of corporate programs 

also shares this aspect: Gen Y valued “Job Rotation 

Program Available” more than any other generation. 

Rotation enables Gen Y to experience different departments, thus helps widen their perspectives. Some 

Fortune 500 companies set up such programs from basic levels as “great ways to gain experience quickly” 

to more advanced levels as “more exposure to and 

understanding of the company and . . . its goals and 

customers.” 
138

DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN LEADER 

DEVELOPMENT AND LEADERSHIP 

DEVELOPMENT

Although this research’s objectives are geared toward the person—the emerging leader—for training 

and development, it is still beneficial for both business 

managers/leaders and the “emerging leaders” themselves to make a distinct differentiation between the 

two concepts of “leader development” and “leadership development.” Leader development is built up to 

enhance an individual’s capacities (knowledge, skills, 

attributes, and values) to lead an organization or to 

incubate potential employees for leadership positions; 

in other words, it pays attention to human capital, or 

intrapersonal content development. Leadership development aims to raise social capital (interpersonal 

content development), including social awareness and 

social skills in the overall context of the company, the 

community, and the society. The readings that follow 

help clarify this distinction.

D.D. DeRue and C.G. Myers, Leadership Development: A Review and Agenda for Future Research, Oxford, 

UK: Oxford Handbook Online, 2013.

The book includes a chapter that clearly targets 

business and management leaders and scholars with 

a central conceptual framework of PREPARE. The 

“P” means Purpose, which aligns leadership development and organizational strategy. “R” is for Result 

as the process of identifying the desired outcomes of 

leadership development. “E” stands for Experience, 

meaning developing leadership through lived experi-
139

ence. The second “P” is the abbreviation of Point of 

intervention, or determining the level of analysis in 

leadership development, while “A” is a short form of 

Architecture, referring to developing a social and organizational context that enables leadership development. Reinforcement (“R”) implies creating positive 

feedback loops in leadership development, whereas 

Engagement (“E”) points to learning leadership. The 

book reviews the leadership literature on the rationale 

that the environment is now changing and becoming 

complex, so effective leadership is needed more than 

ever. Although the budget for leadership development 

programs is huge (2009 accounted for nearly onequarter of the $50 billion that U.S. organizations spent 

on learning and development; O’Leonard, 2010), the 

leadership talent crisis persists. Ironically, at the same 

time, leadership development research has reached 

its peak. Three reasons for not addressing the crisis 

include: a heavier focus on individual leader development; narrow attention to the knowledge, skills and 

abilities required for effective leadership; and lack of 

a coherent and integrative framework for organizing 

the existing literature on leadership development. 

The authors conclude that most traditional research 

has been on the effects of leadership rather than on 

development of leadership. Leadership development 

is not simply about developing leadership knowledge 

and skills, but also about developing people’s motivation to lead, their effect on the rewards and risks associated with leadership, their identity as leaders, as 

well as their cognitive schemas about what it means to 

participate in a leadership process. 

Michael A. Genovese, Building Tomorrow’s Leaders 

Today: On Becoming a Polymath Leader, 1st Ed., New 
140

York and London, UK: Routledge (Taylor & Francis 

Group), 2014.

This book’s intended audience is quite broad, from 

students who are committed to making a difference 

in their communities to those wishing to rise in their 

organizations and anyone hoping to sharpen their 

skills and advance their causes. It employs a transdisciplinary approach, notably philosophical perspectives sourced back from great thinkers as an overarching framework. Examples and illustrations are in 

various fields including political science, psychology, 

and classic literature. Overall mindsets and “specific” 

advice are in Chapter 6 as the concluding chapter.

D.V. Day, J.W. Fleenor, L.E. Atwater, R.E. Strum, 

and R.A. McKee, “Advances in Leader and Leadership Development: A Review of 25 Years of Research 

and Theory,” The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 25, 2014, 

pp. 63-82. 

Strictly based on The Leadership Quarterly outlets, this article provides an overview of leadership 

research and theory and leadership development 

(broadly defined to include leader development.) If 

research and theory development on leadership has 

a long history of more than 1 century, leadership development occupies a shorter time of 10 to 15 years. 

There are two important findings in this article. First, 

leadership theory and research contributes little to 

leadership development. Second, leader development 

is different from leadership development. Specifically, leader development is the development of intrapersonal content including experience and learning, 

skills, personality, and self-development; whereas 

leadership development is the development of inter-
141

personal content consisting of social mechanisms and 

authentic leadership. In summary, the authors state 

that leadership development should start at a young 

age involving the development and application of 

various skills. It is shaped by factors such as personality and relationships with others and can be measured 

in a variety of ways including multisource ratings. 

More importantly, developmental practices should be 

carefully customized based on current developmental needs of the leader. The authors recommend that 

future research include process-oriented research, the 

choice of relevant outcome variables, focus on personal trajectories of development, broadening of the 

development focus, practicing leadership, and selfawareness and 360-degree feedback.

A. Martin and Christopher Ernst, “Leadership, 

Learning, and Human Resource Management: Exploring Leadership in Times of Paradox and Complexity,” 

Corporate Governance: The International Journal of 

Effective Board Performance, Vol. 5, No. 3, 2005, pp. 82-94, 

available from search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=

true&db=bth&AN=20171501&site=bsi-live.

This article intends to identify new demands for 

leadership and possible courses of development in the 

face of complex social change being integrated into 

business. It is an exploratory, multi-method program 

of research at the Center for Creative Leadership. It 

pools cross-national data from 157 practicing managers for the purpose of uncovering the patterns that 

exist between the societal context, organizations, and 

the changing nature of leadership. One of the findings 

of this research is a shift in the practice of leadership 

from traditional, individual approaches to more innovative, collaborative ones. Noticeably, when being 
142

asked about skills individual leaders need to be successful in the future, 85 leaders in an open enrollment 

program emphasized building relationships, collaboration, and change management. In the discussion 

section, the authors state the importance of examining 

leadership from three perspectives: the individual, 

the organization, and across cultures. For individuals, 

to ensure effective leadership, they need not only focus on proficiency but also greater collaboration and 

shared commitment. For organizations, it is a must to 

reach a greater balance between traditional leadership 

approaches and more innovative interactions. To conclude, the article’s writers emphasize that individual 

leader development is a necessary starting point for 

building organizational capacity for leadership and 

that the present methods for leader development (assessment for development, coaching, tactile learning, 

and module-based training) are no longer sufficient. 

Instead, customized, action-learning-based interventions built around the culture, complex challenges, 

and structures are necessary. Another noticeable approach of this article is toward leadership investment 

in the middle of the organization because this is where 

strategic intent and values/norms become permanently melded with stakeholder (customer, supplier, 

and society) expectations. Developmental interventions addressing either the bottom or the top will be 

miscalculated and development will be compromised.

Joseph A. Raelin, “We the leaders: In Order to 

Form a Leaderful Organization,” Journal of Leadership 

& Organizational Studies (Baker College), Vol. 12, No. 

2 (Special), 2005, pp. 18-30, available from search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=19051950

&site=bsi-live.
143

This article broadens our view about leadership in 

emphasizing that leadership does not only reside in an 

individual person, but it is a process which involves 

the whole organization to make it “leaderful practice.” 

The author conducts secondary research by reviewing 

literature with company cases to present that the only 

possible way to lead us out of trouble in management 

is to become mutual and to share leadership. “Leaderful practice” is argued to be an emerging concept of 

leadership for the 21st century because all members of 

a community need to contribute to its growth, both independently and interdependently with one another. 

The traditional leadership model with leadership to 

be serial, individual, controlling, and dispassionate 

has shifted to “leaderful practice” of concurrent, collective, collaborative, and compassionate leadership. 

This movement has resulted from institutional forces 

breaking down bureaucratic authority to allow lateral 

relationships across the overall organization. To prepare for a leaderful organization, start with the self 

for “leaderful” development, effective coaching and 

mentoring, and with the organization with the role of 

internal and external change agents. 

Institute for Educational Leadership, “Thinking 

and Learning About Leader and Leadership Development,” available from www.iel.org/_assets/docs/epfp/

literature-review.pdf, accessed September 30, 2014.

This paper acknowledges the distinction between 

leader development and leadership development. 

Such famous institutions and experts as the Center for 

Creative Leadership and David Day are quoted. As 

for leader development, the individual skills include 

self-management capabilities, social capabilities, and 
144

work facilitation capabilities. In terms of leadership 

development, a more abstract definition is given, 

which is “develops individual and collective capacities to create shared meaning to engage effectively in 

interdependent work across boundaries, and to enact 

tasks of leadership in a way that is more inclusive.” 

In another contrast, leader development is concerned 

about human capital while leadership development 

is social capital that includes social awareness (e.g., 

empathy, service, orientation and developing others) 

and social skills (e.g., collaboration and cooperation, 

building bonds, and conflict management). Leadership development is conducted by means of feedback 

instruments, executive coaching, mentoring, networking, job assignments, and action learning.

Claire Reinelt, Paul Foster, and Siobhan Sullivan, 

Evaluating Outcomes and Impacts: A Scan of 55 Leadership Development Programs, Battle Creek, MI: W.K. Kellogg Foundation, 2002.

The W. K. Kellogg Foundation asked the Development Guild/DDI to undertake this scan to grasp 

how various leadership development programs are 

evaluating outcomes and impacts. Based on certain 

criteria (one of which is the exclusion of corporate 

leadership programs), 80 programs were identified, 

and substantive contact was made with 55 programs. 

Broadly speaking, these include programs of fellowship, individual skill-building, social entrepreneurship, community service, pipeline, organizational development, community-based grassroots leadership, 

and issue and/or field-based programs. The Foundation has published a Logic Model Development Guide 

that defines outcomes and impacts. Outcomes are spe-
145

cific change in attitudes, behavior, knowledge, skills, 

status, or level of functioning expected to result from 

program activities. Outcomes may be short-term (1-3 

years) or long-term (4-6 years). Impact refers to the 

results expected 7-10 years after an activity is underway—the future social change a program is working 

to create. In this study, the outcomes scanned are individual leadership outcomes, organizational outcomes, 

community leadership outcomes, and field leadership 

outcomes. For individuals, the development of skills 

and knowledge; changes in attitudes, perspective and 

behaviors; and clarification of values and beliefs along 

with longer-term outcomes of leadership paths and 

relationships are all possible outcomes after a leadership program. As far as organizational development 

is concerned, enhancing organizational leadership 

capacity and providing opportunities for youth, program innovation and expansion, and changes in organizational functioning are accomplished. Regarding 

communities, the outcomes include broadened leadership participation and collaboration. In terms of field 

leadership, these programs aim at developing future 

leaders in the field, replicating leadership programs, 

connecting and networking, and policy knowledge. 

EMERGING LEADERS IN RELATION TO 

LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT: 

VERTICAL VS. HORIZONTAL DEVELOPMENT

Horizontal development is understood as the accumulation of leadership competencies, while vertical 

development is growth of bigger minds. In the business sector, corporations can continue to develop their 

emerging leaders horizontally for the time being, but 

they should raise both management and employees’ 
146

awareness when training and developing in establishing the leadership and management pipeline. Businesses should employ a wider perspective of future 

leadership within networks and vertical development 

toward effective decisionmaking. Of course, deciding 

on what level of development is appropriate will depend on the required task in question. This theme is 

reflected in the list that follows.

Sara N. King, David G. Altman, and Robert J. Lee, 

Discovering the Leader in You: How to Realize Your Leadership Potential, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2011.

The authors catch the attention of various targets, 

including new employees fresh out of college. It generally helps move leaders from adrift into clarity. The 

book is an analysis and self-evaluation of leaders and 

would-be leaders with down-to-earth practical questions and issues. It is composed of thought-provoking 

situations in the introductory chapter (1) and handson work from numerous classes of the Center for Creative Leadership. Examples include great contemporary thinkers’ philosophies, experiences of established 

leaders, and lessons from colleagues. This book centers on a systematic framework (namely the Discovering Leadership Framework) connecting the leader to 

his or her organizational and personal realities. Being 

a leader can embrace leadership vision, values and 

profile embedded in the current context of the organization and personal uniqueness. Reflection parts are 

integrated within and at the end of each chapter.
147

Nick Petri, White Paper, Future Trends for Leadership Development, 2014, available from www.ccl.org/

leadership/pdf/research/futuretrends.pdf.

This white paper from the Center for Creative 

Leadership anticipates the future trends in leadership development pooled from the author’s 1-year 

study at Harvard University and leadership development literature as well as interview findings from 

30 experts in the field. These trends include more 

focus on leadership development, transfer of greater 

developmental ownership to the individual, greater 

focus on collective rather than individual leadership, 

and much greater focus on innovation in leadership 

development methods. These trends also show the 

transitions in leadership development. According to 

the interview findings, the most common leadership 

competencies cover: adaptability, self-awareness, 

boundary-spanning, collaboration, and network 

thinking. Reviews on Chief Executive Officer (CEO) 

opinions about the key skills needed for future leaders address: creativity; strategic thinking and effective 

change management; and systems thinking affordable 

with ambiguity. Especially for young leaders, competency models can still be applicable, yet in the long 

run, it is not the only means of developing leaders. Put 

another way, to grow emerging leaders, horizontal 

development (accumulation of competencies) should 

gradually be supplemented by vertical development 

(growth of bigger minds) because of the demands of 

new situations. As a result, the most common recent 

methods for developing leaders consist of training, 

job assignments, action learning, executive coaching, 

mentoring, and 360-degree feedback. However, looking into the future of leadership development requires 
148

a wider perspective of leadership residing within networks as a natural phenomenon and vertical development toward effective decisionmaking. 

Ellen Van Velsor and Joel Wright, “Expanding the 

Leadership Equation: Developing Next-Generation 

Leaders, A White Paper,” Greensboro, NC: Center for 

Creative Leadership, 2012.

This study introduces earlier and broader leadership development initiatives and sees the development 

of the next-generation leaders from the perspective of 

462 respondents from all sectors, at all organizational 

levels and across all age ranges, 53 percent of which 

work in the corporate sector. According to the authors, leadership development should start by age 21. 

It also lists the top five most important competencies 

in developing young leaders 20 years ago, today, and 

10 years from today. Respondents from the business 

sector were significantly more likely to choose selfmotivation and effective communication as important now. Despite absence from the now top five list, 

they incorporate resourcefulness in the leadership 

equation as another essential competency for young 

people entering the workforce. Respondents assuming leadership positions express both excitement and 

concerns about young people having what is needed 

for success. Worries about young potential leaders 

not getting the development needed to face a difficult future come from the lack of visible positive role 

models and development experiences, coaching, and 

mentoring. A possible solution can be multilayered, 

two-way, cross-generational leadership and mentoring intervention (including reverse mentoring.)
149

CORPORATE PROGRAMS AND OTHERS—

STRATEGIC BUSINESS LINKAGE AND THE 

INCLINATION TOWARD HORIZONTAL

DEVELOPMENT

As for the corporate leadership development programs, the selection process for corporations has been 

thorough and concrete. On the basis of the 2013 Fortune 500, the top 50 were chosen for the presence of 

internal leadership development. The associated website of each company was visited with reference to the 

criteria set forth for this research: an American business entity; availability of such programs focused on 

emerging leader development; and the fit of program 

features with the Bush School’s approach. After three 

screenings over each time period, 10 out of 50 companies were selected and briefly summarized in the 

table in the Appendix section at the end of this chapter. In the 10 big Fortune 500 companies studied by 

the author, emerging leader development is not left to 

chance. More strategically, their leadership development programs are integrated into each corporation’s 

business and human resource strategies, which reflect 

the importance attached to developing the next generation of business leaders within the organization. An 

interesting difference between research and practice 

has been reflected clearly when it comes to horizontal 

leader development. In the previous section, literature 

emphasizes the significance of developing leadership 

vertically, not simply leader development by adding 

as many skills to the potential leaders as possible. In 

the workplace, future leaders are still paid sufficient 

attention by the company in terms of the need to acquire the necessary work-related skills for the purpose 

of doing well on the job.
150

When analyzing the leadership development programs of the 10 companies, the researcher can come up 

with a list of commonalities and differences. In terms 

of comparison points, the leadership development 

programs of these companies all seek participation of 

young recent graduates with sound track-records and 

relevant degrees. Their purpose is the development of 

relevant skills, the accumulation of experiences, and 

their readiness for the company’s future and their 

personal career advancement. The implementation 

approach for all of them is total immersion with more 

focus on job rotations, mentoring, and networking 

and less time spent in formal classroom training. 

With regard to points of differentiation, these programs slightly differ in defining “emerging leaders.” 

Some of the corporations orient entry-level positions, 

while others target middle-managing positions (for 

example, the Johnson & Johnson Company). In addition, program duration varies depending on the program objectives, job content, and corporate strategy 

and culture.

D.R. Tobin, Feeding Your Leadership Pipeline: How to 

Develop the Next Generation of Leaders in Small to Midsized Companies, 1st Ed., Alexandria, VA: American 

Society for Training & Development, 2010.

Small- to mid-sized companies trying to determine 

how to grow their next generation of leaders with 

constrained budgets may find this book helpful and 

suitable in their contexts. One notable thing about this 

book is the author’s working definition of emerging 

leaders, although he does not use this term. He sees 

high-potential mid-managers as the next generations 

of leaders in the companies. On the basis of over 15 
151

years of consulting work and book research on corporate learning strategies, the author has collected 

excellent practices from many companies around the 

world to design the leadership development program 

in this book. As a result, this book contains real-life 

personal encounters in leadership development; minicases; and applicable worksheets, tables, figures, and 

templates. With regard to organization, the book centers around a 2-year leadership development program 

designed for small- to mid-sized companies. It starts 

with identifying the high-potentials and has four main 

components: formal education session (once per quarter), action-learning project assignments (between 

sessions), individual development plans (for each program participant), and mentoring and coaching (for 

some participants). 

John Burgoyne, John Mackness, and Sadie Williams, “Baseline Study of Leadership Development in 

Higher Education,” Research and Development Series,

London, UK: Leadership Foundation for Higher Education, 2009.

Not exactly targeting the business sector but referring to it for reflection on the higher education sector, 

this review still provides a good source for leadership 

development initiatives in corporations. Based on three 

well-known rankings by Fortune magazine, Executive 

Excellence Publishing, and Chief Executive magazine, 

it particularly refers to what top companies do to develop leadership internally. Best practices from them 

include: responsibility of leaders at all levels to create 

a motivating work climate for employees; top focus 

on leadership development by the company and its 

senior management; provision of training and coach-
152

ing for both individual leaders and leadership teams; 

and rotational job assignments for high potentials. 

These companies’ best practices could be designed 

toward mid-level managers such as external leadership development programs, web-based self-study 

leadership modules, and executive MBA programs. 

Interestingly enough, this study reviews some “poor 

practices” that are worth considering in developing 

leadership in companies. They are outdoor activity 

based programs; paper-based self-study leadership 

modules; and job shadowing for senior managers. 

Note that executive MBAs and web-based self-study 

modules become worst practices when implemented 

too late in the executive’s career. 

Margaret Alldredge, Cindy Johnson, Jack Stoltzfuz, 

and Albert Vicere, “Leadership Development at 3M: 

New Process, New Techniques, New Growth,” HR 

People & Strategy. Vol. 26, 2003, available from ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=10964105

&site=bsi-live.

An article about the leadership development program at 3M Company, it centers on the process, techniques, and growth of leadership development with 

a formula: classroom-style instruction and dialogue, 

individual development planning, group work, action 

learning, and presentations to senior management. 

Therefore, this approach is designed for developing 

3M’s high-potential leaders on capabilities, mindsets, 

and actions to propel 3M to a higher level of future 

success. The leadership attributes, though not directly 

tied to entry-level leaders, are listed, such as chart the 

course, raise the bar, energize others, resourcefully 

innovate, live 3M values, and deliver desired results. 
153

The program targets high-potential leaders identified 

by their Operations Committee, using inputs from the 

business leaders and the succession review process. 

The program takes into account “personalized learning,” which involves leaders as teachers (convergence 

with Four Trends study senior leaders and selected 

external experts) and action-learning projects. The 

three major components of the program are Action 

Learning, Coaching, and Reflection. 

C. Schooley, “Drive Employee Talent Development Through Business Mentoring Programs,” Business Process Professionals, Vol. 1, 2010, pp. 1-21.

Here is another perspective of developing potential leaders, or employee talents, by means of business 

mentoring technology. The corporate world has long 

known and relied upon mentoring as a proven technique for promoting in-house leadership. Today mentoring is experiencing resurgence thanks to its benefits 

of transferring knowledge among employees and easier access to mentoring technology for large numbers 

of mentoring relationships. Mentoring brings about 

higher employee retention, more engaged employees, 

and stronger succession bench strength. The authors 

review a group of mentoring technology vendors 

and two international organizations that have implemented mentoring successfully, Rockwell Collins and 

Xerox. With the support of technology, business mentoring can provide coaching, sharing, and knowledge 

transfer. To ensure effectiveness, mentoring requires 

careful planning, an understanding of employee needs, 

and selection of appropriate mentoring technology by 

human resource and/or business executives.
154

MOR Associates. The Cornell Emerging Leaders 

Program.

This organization offers three leadership programs 

for emerging leaders, MOR leaders, and advanced 

leaders with unique approaches. Despite not being 

as popular as the other two programs, the Emerging 

Leaders Program is geared toward individual contributors, technical leads, and front-line managers who 

do not have direct reports, or only one or two if they 

do. It empowers the participants to lead “from where 

they are.” On the basis of the same overview of leadership as the other two programs, the Emerging Leaders 

Program focuses more on foundational skills, such as 

facilitating meetings and influencing without authority and less on higher level leadership competencies 

such as strategic thinking and public communications. Participation involves a 1-year commitment and 

workshops are held at Cornell University. The program is designed on the four tracks: Workshop track 

(competencies needed for the leadership and management roles), Applied Learning track (application, engagement, and exploration), Individual Development 

track (“work on self”—creation and pursuance of an 

individual development plan), and Leadership Community track (building of a leadership community). 

EMERGING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 

METHODS AND PRACTICES

This section pays more attention to the specific 

methods to develop leaders and real practices at the 

corporate level from different industries. Some of the 

books, articles, or studies can craft the process for future leadership development and benefits for both the 
155

individual leaders and their organizations. Therefore, 

the literature here provides relevant and practical tips 

for the emerging leaders and the business sector to 

help develop people of high potential.

Ron A. Carucci, Leadership Divided: What Emerging 

Leaders Need and What You Might Be Missing, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2006.

This book targets the audience of both the incumbent and emerging leaders. It is written based on various data sources: interviews with more than 60 senior 

executives across different economic sectors; essay 

survey with more than 1,100 incumbent and emerging 

leaders; essay survey conducted with MBA students 

(University of Washington Business School); essay 

survey with the Northwestern University Alumni Association; and extensive secondary research. Therefore, it includes real-life stories and experiences of the 

leaders involved. This study is well-organized in terms 

of the composed sections: an organizational story at 

the beginning of each chapter and “for the moment” 

section within text to raise questions and demand 

reflections.

L.L. Carden and J.L. Callahan, “Creating Leaders 

or Loyalists? Conflicting Identities in a Leadership 

Development Programme,” Human Resource Development International, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2007, pp. 169-186.

This article is written for business and management 

leaders and scholars to explore the role incongruities 

associated with work and nonwork identities in a leadership development program. Such a program aims to 

increase leader capacity, establish a leadership pipe-
156

line and enculturate participants in an organization. 

Emerging leaders, as participants of that program, are 

involved in a continual learning process where their 

professional and personal identities intersect and diverge. The article’s implications include three aspects. 

From an individualistic position, if participants resolve the role conflict via participation in a leadership 

program, they are likely to become more committed 

and supportive of leadership goals. At the organizational level, the company manipulates a participant’s 

core identity by associating success with compliance 

and conformity. Therefore, as leadership training programs continue to be developed and implemented, it 

is necessary to attend to participants’ perceptions of 

their own experiences by means of feedback tools to 

determine the level of learning transfer and to gauge 

organizational support for career development and 

work-life balance. 

K.S. Groves, “Six Steps for Confronting the Emerging Leadership Succession Crisis: Talent Management 

Best Practices from the Healthcare Industry,” A Journal of Relevant Information and Analysis, Vol. 13, No. 1, 

2010.

Although the research object of the article is the 

healthcare industry, not the private sector, the principles involved are largely applicable because the crisis 

of emerging leadership succession is prevailing across 

sectors. Organizations are facing a “5-50” leadershipsuccession crisis (over the next 5 years, firms could 

lose 50 percent of their executive personnel.) This 

qualitative study of 13 U.S. healthcare organizations 

(with exemplary talent-management practices and 

records of effective executive-succession decisions: 
157

15 interviews with human resource, organization development, and chief administrative executives) have 

identified six processes to deal with the crisis. They 

include building the business case for talent management, defining high-potential leaders, identifying 

and codifying high-potential leaders, communicating 

high-potential designations, developing high-potential leaders, and evaluating and embedding talentmanagement system. Obviously, these six steps could 

also pose some potential threats of rising expectations 

of high potentials on career advancement, repeated 

talent management process for full engagement, and 

the organizational culture’s degree of support for 

employee learning. 

Claire M. Kilian and Dawn Hukai, “Building Diversity in the Pipeline to Corporate Leadership,” Journal of Management Development, Vol. 24, No. 2, 2005, 

pp. 155-168.

Although the authors analyze diversity in terms of 

gender and race, there are several points that relate to 

our study of training and developing young leaders 

such as barriers to organizational advancement, skills 

of great leadership, and tools for individuals to develop their leadership skills. In concrete terms, barriers to 

the top can include lack of mentors and role models, 

and lack of significant line experience, visible and/or 

challenging assignments, among others; while skills 

of great leadership are the ability to engage others in 

shared meaning, a distinctive and compelling voice, 

a sense of integrity, and adaptive capacity, an ability 

to conquer a negative situation and emerge stronger. 

Successful interventions require strong senior management commitment. At the same time, individual 
158

leaders can utilize three-dimensional networks (for 

functions, position and locations, and demography) 

and mentoring as well as reverse mentoring. 

J. Mattone, Talent Leadership: A Proven Method for 

Identifying and Developing High-Potential Employees, 

New York: AMACOM, 2012.

This book is particularly written for leaders of human resource, talent management, organization development, and operating managers responsible for 

identifying, managing, and developing high-potential 

and emerging leaders, which is and will continue to 

be one of the top business issues facing CEOs. It is 

a research and empirically based book that uses the 

Stealth Fighter Model as a foundation to explain the 

relationship between an organization’s leadership 

assessment and development practices and their accomplishment of final operating success. This book 

originated from four sources: 30-year global travelling 

experiences of the author, his previous research on 

trends in talent management and executive development, consulting with more than 250 organizations, 

and coaching over 200 executives. The three “leading 

indicators” that drive organizational success as identified by the author are leadership capability, commitment, and alignment. 

EMERGING LEADERS AND 

GENERATIONAL ISSUES

Diversity, including generation differences in the 

workplace, is a big issue for management. It is a matter of fact that emerging leaders now are working with 

people from different generations. In the research ma-
159

terials, there is increasing attention to generational issues. If emerging leaders are tied to the age, and typically in U.S. society, Generation Y (or Millennials) are 

people in consideration as emerging leaders now. 

Donna L. Haeger and Tony Lingham, “Intergenerational Collision and Leadership in the 21st Century,” 

Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, Vol. 11, 2013, 

pp. 286-303.

This is another article about leadership in the intergenerational environment, particularly the collision 

between young leaders and their much older direct 

supervisors. By means of interviews, 13 leaders under 

36 and 13 direct reports at least 20 years older were 

approached for their lived experiences of interactions. 

The intended audiences include human resource management, board of directors, and top management 

teams as well as higher education institutions focused 

on training future institutional and organizational 

leaders. The intergenerational workplace requires a 

new leadership style that is more task, productivity, 

and multitask-centered, and current approaches to 

leadership development may no longer be relevant. 

Therefore, a new stream of leadership and team research focusing on the evolution of leadership will be 

necessary. The article also raises a question about current understanding of effective leadership as leadership is changing, through the workplace, the behavior 

of young leaders. 
160

CONCLUSION

This secondary research is based on different sources of information and has revealed several tenets of 

emerging leadership development in the U.S. private 

and business sector. It starts with how the concept of 

emerging leader is defined. Moreover, the distinctions 

between leader development and leadership development are analyzed in depth. As seen from the perspective of development, vertical development is also put 

in comparison with horizontal development, which is 

the inclination and tendency in corporate programs. 

Specificity of leadership development methods and 

generational issues are also discussed. To conclude, 

the results of this research can be a relevant source 

for emerging leaders in the private sector to develop 

themselves and a good reference for profit companies 

and organizations. 
161

CHAPTER 6

APPENDIX

The following table depicts the main features of 

leadership development programs of the 10 companies in point. 

Company Requirements Leadership Development 

Program Characteristics

Walmart (Retailing) - Target: top-performing undergrads

- Purpose: transition, hands-on experience, 

career growth

- Role in organization and leadership 

opportunity

- Mentoring

- Networking

- Combination of training 

techniques

- Duration: 6 – 9 months

General Electric

 (Appliances)

- Target: recent college graduates, entrylevel talent

- Purpose: talent development; businessrelated skill development; innovation for 

future; accelerated career growth

- Role and opportunity: leadership advancement

- Rotational assignments

- Formal classroom studies

- Reports and presentations 

to seniors

- Mentoring + coaching

- Interactive seminars

- Duration: 2 – 3 years

AT&T (Communication) - Target: MBA/master's holders with 

2-7 years of experience; one program 

requires bachelors’ degree

- Purpose: career growth, skill expansion 

(“Take college degree to the next level”)

- Role: supervisory for some programs, 

paid employees with benefits

- Networking

- Mentoring

- On-site classes

- Rotations (customized)

- Duration: 1 – 3 years

Verizon Communications 

(Mobile Communication)

- Target: not clearly stated

- Purpose: create and develop change 

agents; skill development; technical 

expertise emphasis

- Rotations

- Networking

- Duration: 2 – 3 years

J. P. Morgan (Financial 

Services)

- Target: black, Hispanic and Native Americans, varied with programs 

- Purpose: talent promotion; individual career acceleration; future leader creation; 

visibility enhancement

- Peer mentorship

- Access to senior leaders

- Networking events

- Related skill development

Table 6-1. Features of Leadership 

Development Programs.
162

Table 6-1. Features of Leadership 

Development Programs. (cont.)

Cardinal Health (Health 

Care)

- Target: recent graduates

- Purpose: advanced preparation for the 

next positions of management; business 

and leadership skills development; career 

advancement (discipline exploration, real 

experience at work); sources of innovation; company knowledge enhancement

- Role: full-time benefit eligible employees

- Rotations: different departments and locations

- Networking

- Rotational assignments

- Cross-functional training

- Workshop, e-learning

- Duration: 2 – 4 years

Boeing (Airline) - Target: high-potential recent/new graduates

- Purpose: development of technical, analytical, and leadership skills; help shape 

the future of the company; long-term 

career growth

- Role: potential for management position 

later

- Rotations

- Assignments spanning the 

business

- Mentoring 

- Networking

- Duration: 2 – 3 years

Caterpillar (Heavy Equipment Manufacturer)- Target: exceptional college graduates of 

all disciplines

- Purpose: personal career fulfillment; 

excellent service provision to the company and customers; knowledge and skill 

building

- Role: employees with permanent position

- Multi-rotational assignments

- Technical training

- Cross-functional on-the-job 

training

 - Mentoring for leadership 

skills 

- Exposure to senior leaders

- Opportunity for travel and 

relocation

- Duration: 1 – 3 years

Comcast (Internet Services 

& NBC Network)

- Target: young professionals

- Purpose: shape future leaders and serve 

the community

- Mentorship

- Networking

- Community services

- Teaching innovation

- Collaboration

- Professional development

- Duration: not mentioned 

United Technologies

(Aerospace and Building 

High-Tech Provider) - 01 

program

- Target: new financial talents

- Purpose: leadership, analytical, communication, organizational, and time 

management skills; establishment of a 

professional network; enhance learning 

experience and business acumen

- Mentoring

- Personal guidance from top 

leaders/managers/alumni

- Annual training conferences 

and projects

- Assignments

- Duration: 2 years
163

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Corporate Websites.

AT&T (Communications), att.jobs/careers/college/development-programs. Development Programs. Launching Leaders, https://careers.jpmorganchase.com/career/

jpmc/careers/student. An overview of the leadership 

programs. Leadership Development Program, att.

jobs/careers/college/development-programs/managementprograms/leadership-development-program#top.

Boeing (Airline), www.boeing.com/boeing/careers/collegecareers/BCFP.page; Biz Career Foundation Program, 

www.boeing.com/boeing/careers/collegecareers/ECFP.

page; Engineering Career Foundation Program, 

www.boeing.com/boeing/careers/collegecareers/ITCFP.

page; Information Technology Career Foundation 

Program.

Cardinal Health (Health care). cardinalhealth.com/

us/en/Careers/CollegeStudents/LeadershipDevelopmentProgram. Leadership Development Program EMERGE, 

cardinalhealth.com/us/en/Careers/CollegeStudents/Recent 

Graduates; Entry-level professionals.

Caterpillar (Heavy equipment manufacturer), 

www.caterpillar.com/en/careers/career-areas/college-
168

university/development-programs/leadership-technicaldevelopment.html; General Professional Development 

Programs, www.caterpillar.com/en/careers/career-areas/

college-university/development-programs/communications-professionals.html; The Communications Professional Development Program, www.caterpillar.com/

en/careers/career-areas/college-university/developmentprograms/logistics.html; The Logistics Professional 

Development Program.

Comcast (Internet services and NBC Network), 

jobs.comcast.com/en/why-choose-comcast/employee-resource-groups.

General Electric (Appliances), www.ge.com/careers/

culture/university-students. The Entry-Level Leadership Programs. 

J. P. Morgan Chase & Co. (Financial services), careers.jpmorgan.com/student/jpmorgan/careers/launchingleaders.

United Technologies (Financial services), www.utc.

com/Careers/Leadership-Programs/Pages/Financial-Leadership-Program.aspx.

Verizon Communications (Mobile communication), www.verizon.com/jobs/campus_entrylevel.html.

Wal-Mart Stores (Retailing), careers.walmart.com/

university/. Merchant Leadership and Replenishment 

Leadership programs for new graduates.
169

CHAPTER 7

PATTERNS ACROSS SECTORS IN 

EMERGING LEADER DEVELOPMENT:

IDEAS AND ACTIONS

Joseph R. Cerami

This chapter reviews the state-of-the-art of emerging leader development. The main points examined 

here are emphasized in the research questions outlined in the introductory chapter. In reviewing the 

public, private, and nonprofit sector literatures, there 

are patterns that emerge. No doubt there are pockets 

of excellence and innovation in many organizations 

that are not written about or subject to research studies. That said, there are observable patterns in the respective literatures that provide ideas and actions for 

developing individuals as emerging leaders and for 

designing organizational professional development 

programs.

While it is difficult to score the most important 

ideas and techniques, as the saying goes: what is difficult is not impossible. Given the variety of individual 

and organizational practices, programs, and development philosophies, certain ideas stand out. First and 

foremost is the convergence around the notion that ultimately a leader’s development is a personal responsibility. Self-awareness is a critical skill. Becoming 

self-aware is in itself a task and has to be linked to persistence for an individual’s very personal ownership 

and authentic commitment to lifelong learning. While 

individual learning is a key personal responsibility, 

there are practices for integrating leader development 

into academic, professional, and work environments.
170

Because of the range of organizations considered 

in this research, there are clear gaps in the nature 

of organizational programs across sectors. For one 

thing, it is clear that much more research appears 

to be directed for the development and coaching of 

executives rather than emerging leaders. Given the 

high stakes involved at senior levels in business, the 

economic incentives are clear. That said, the military 

continues to focus its efforts on the accession, training, 

and education at all the junior officer levels (but not 

necessarily for its civilian workers who operate under 

very different personnel and educational systems). In 

brief, then, there are more focused and professional 

development opportunities through a variety of executive programs at the senior levels which, of course, 

are offered to much fewer numbers than are provided 

for mid-career and junior officers. Nevertheless the 

opportunities for integrated leader development are 

part of the DNA of military organizations at all levels, 

but subject, of course, to the preferences, experiences, 

and priorities of its many organizational leaders commanding on many levels. 

Overall a key pattern for emerging leader development in all sectors, as revealed in the previous chapters, remains understanding the unique differences in 

the context as described in the research and practice 

of individuals, as well as organizations with different cultures, norms, and work environments. For example, the relatively recent and ongoing explosion of 

U.S. and international nonprofit organizations, which 

includes many young, idealistic leaders, has created 

a large pool of individuals who have a commitment 

to public and international service and who have development needs. It is natural that the relative lack of 

organizational capacity, especially for the newest and 
171

smallest nonprofits in this expanding sector, will raise 

the demand for emerging leader professional development programs and activities. The demands for guidance, support, expertise (in complicated areas such as 

grant writing, fund-raising, contracting, and accounting, etc.), and “best practices” will involve all the attending issues regarding building interpersonal and 

interorganizational relationships with unique players, 

such as boards of directors, volunteers, and project 

managers, within and outside the organizations. 

With all of that, the nonprofit sector is one where 

the roles and responsibilities of “followers” will be 

extremely important. Building networked, horizontal, virtual, and multicultural teams (as increasing 

numbers of individuals and organizations are working internationally) will remain important tasks for 

nonprofit leaders. The research gaps in this sector 

will also require more attention. Perhaps, because of 

the differences in size, scope, tasks, and relationships 

(both internal and external), the area of research that 

may be most promising is collecting case studies and 

narratives that suggest developmental approaches 

rather than attempting to develop generalizable notions to link the theory and practice of emerging leader 

development. 

While there is no licensing board for approving 

emerging leader education, training, and development programs, there are approaches that report 

promising results. In his autobiography reflecting 

on his time in British politics, former Prime Minister 

Tony Blair expressed an important point about the 

notion of complexity.1 His comment is that the voting 

public will demand that politicians propose simple 

solutions to solve complex problems. Blair offers that 

the antidote to complexity is not simplicity, but clar-
172

ity. Clarity about the goals and purposes of individual 

and organizational programs are essential for credibility and continued learning. Barbara Kellerman’s 

critique of the “leadership industry” and some of its 

false promises set up unrealistic expectations that, of 

course, can lead to passive aggressive behavior as well 

as cynicism about any attempts at improving individual, work group, team, and organizational performance through what organization’s may characterize 

as “leadership development.” 

The recent nature of much of the research on millennials, for instance, implies that there are differences 

between generations that are unique to today’s world. 

This assumption is debatable and challenged by other 

researchers who find similar intergenerational tensions in studies of previous generational cohorts. In 

addition, today the scientific and technological advances in neuroscience imply that humankind is on 

the verge of discovering important insights into the 

nature of human intelligence, learning, motivation, 

etc. Whether future research will bear out the early 

ambitions and optimistic projections remains to be 

seen. Regardless, it is important for programs in university and work settings to clarify the expectations 

and requirements for development. This is especially 

important for those programs that present a one-sizefits-all description of leadership versus those niche 

programs designed specifically for emerging leader 

development. Answering questions up front about 

design (Is this approach traditional or innovative?); 

outcome and goals (Will this program provide the 

knowledge and skills to improve specific performance 

areas?); as well as the utility of various instruments 

(How will these survey instruments, case study seminars, and discussions contribute to applying your self 
173

and social awareness to the learning or work environments?) is essential to clarifying expectations. In the 

near future, as neuroscience progresses, there are sure 

to be bioethical issues in using technology to enhance 

the creation of more capable and possibly more intelligent human beings. The imagined possibilities of 

science fiction will become more relevant with new 

scientific discoveries, certainly within the lifespan of 

current emerging leaders. Leader developers will have 

to work fast to keep up with the latest advances and 

to update their programs to find a balance between 

traditional and innovative approaches. 

Again, because of resources, it is reasonable to 

expect that the most innovative advances will occur 

in the private sector and at the executive levels. How 

the newest, most relevant practices filter though the 

public and nonprofit sectors will also require expertise, time, and money. The scarce resources required 

for individual development may also lead to an excessive focus on high potentials. Those selected for their 

university degrees and potential will no doubt benefit 

from mentoring, participating in high visibility events, 

experiencing selective job rotations, cross-functional 

learning workshops, etc. A question remains as to 

what development opportunities are made available 

to the rest of the workforce. 

Another set of assumptions about horizontal 

teams, flat organizations, and diverse workforces will 

have to be addressed for those individuals and organizations seeking collaborative work environments. If 

the trend line is, in fact, for a higher demand among 

emerging leaders for individual participation, development, feedback, and mentoring, then designing 

effective programs will be a major supervisory challenge in the years ahead. Another complicating factor, 
174

besides sector and contextual differences, is the time 

lag between development and performance impact. If 

we accept the assumption that emerging leaders, such 

as current millennials, demand real-time feedback, 

mentoring, and results, then programs that measure 

outcomes over 7- to 10-year time frames will not meet 

the demands of emerging leaders. Similarly, measuring the performance of leadership networks that focus 

on collaboration among a number of organizations 

(such as community centers that promote education, 

health, and child care) or military organizations2 that 

advise foreign armies and require the collaborative 

work of military officers, diplomats, as well as U.S. 

and nonprofit development officials, are all important 

considerations.

Indeed, experts highlight collaborative skills as essential for development programs. These include selfawareness (about motivations for individual achievement, team affiliations, and power or influence) plus 

adaptability, boundary spanning, network thinking, 

creativity, and change management. There is also research on the overall effectiveness of past practices, 

including outdoor programs, paper-only self studies, 

job shadowing, etc. Bridging the gaps among high potentials and the rest; past practices and new approaches; and short-term versus long-term performance outcomes remain important considerations for program 

design as well as for individual action plans. 

Current concerns about the burden of university 

student debt, as well as the unpredictability of emerging leader recruiting and retention, means that more 

creative and personalized development approaches 

are needed. Without the likelihood of additional resources, including staffing and funding, individual 

development will require a greater use of develop-
175

ment as integrated into the work environment and 

experience. The demands of individual mentoring 

may be supplemented with generous extraorganizational efforts aimed at recruiting experienced senior 

volunteers, while concurrently building formal relationships with members of professional associations. 

Self-starters or those individuals with the wherewithal to locate and maintain contacts with a number of 

mentors will be well served. 

The research suggests, however, that a surer path 

is to build clarity into programs that link development 

with the individual’s work. While workshops, academic certificates, and personal coaches and mentors 

can assist, there is much more potential in utilizing the 

development opportunities where the time and space 

exists for in-depth and meaningful development, and 

that can best occur while you are working in your day 

job. Integrating leader development would be of practical value as well for emerging leaders and their supervisors and peers in what are sometimes described 

as the “newer” skills competencies. For instance, in 

the nonprofit sector, that would be for developing 

team–based leadership skills as expectations in ethics 

and values, in promoting diversity awareness, and in 

building relationships with boards and volunteers. For 

the military engaged in counterinsurgency and advisory efforts, that would include internal leader development for working with an interagency or country 

team and for external development for working with 

the multiple cultures of foreign armies, government 

officials, international nongovernmental organizations, tribes, and ethnic groups in humanitarian, 

stability and reconstruction, and combat operations. 

While specialized leadership programs, such as those 

provided by university professional programs, corpo-
176

rate sponsored centers, and city or regionals leadership hubs, will be useful, they should be considered as 

supplementary to the development that occurs in the 

work environment. 

In brief, external development efforts will not 

meet the internal organizational demands for lifelong 

learning for an engaged and committed workforce 

with large numbers of emerging leaders. Likewise, 

for those involved in workplaces in geographically 

diverse locations, the most likely development will 

come in the multicultural work environment that is 

difficult, if not impossible, to replicate in universities, 

centers, and U.S. training bases. Here the notion of 

horizontal and vertical development deserves attention, that is, setting leader development goals for the 

immediate work environment while keeping an eye 

out for the next stage expected in a career progression. 

Other techniques that show promise in research studies, such as 360-degree appraisals; using psychometric 

instruments and surveys; building formal mentoring and personal coaching relationships; sabbaticals; 

and quickly progressing through job assignments of 

increased scope and responsibility would all be helpful in an ideal world. The reality of time and money 

resource demands for these types of specialized programs will make them out of the reach for most emerging leaders. For the most part, and for the best professional development, the research clearly suggests that 

the self-directed, responsible and engaged emerging 

leader will profit from working in those organizations 

in the public, private, and nonprofit sectors that integrate professional leader development into the everyday work experience.
177

ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 7

1. For thoughtful insights on leadership and learning, after 

reflecting upon his long career in British politics, as well as his 

thoughts regarding the U.S. leadership role in international affairs, see Tony Blair, A Journey: My Political Life, New York: Alfred 

A. Knopf, 2010.

2. One example of research in military studies on counterinsurgency leadership, with insights on reconstruction in Afghanistan and Iraq, is Mark Moyar, A Question of Command: Counterinsurgency from the Civil War to Iraq, New Haven, CT: Yale University 

Press, 2009. In this book, Moyar examines case studies to explain 

the leadership attributes necessary at the operational and tactical levels for effective counterinsurgency warfare. For a deeper 

understanding of leadership at the top in the military, see James 

W. Browning, Leading at the Strategic Level in an Uncertain World, 

Washington, DC: National Defense University, 2013. Browning 

provides a strategic leadership model with insights on organizations, environmental dynamics, leader competency, teams, decisionmaking, negotiation, communication, climate, and culture.

179

CHAPTER 8

AFTERWORD:

EMERGING LEADERS—

NEW DIRECTIONS FOR THE NEXT 

GENERATION

Joseph R. Cerami

Several ideas follow from this review that suggest 

a degree of clarity for emerging leaders and those with 

the responsibilities for educating and training future 

leaders. Proposals for new directions should provide 

opportunites for considering creative approaches that 

build on solid foundations while offering opportunities for innovation. One assumption that underlines 

any attempts to forecast even over the next several years is that the state of knowledge creation is moving rapidly. For instance, Harvard Business School’s expert 

on change management, John Kotter, has a book titled: 

Accelerate: Building Strategic Agility for a Faster-Moving 

World. In reviewing the differences between management and leadership, Kotter offers six specific tasks 

for leadership: (1) establishing direction; (2) aligning 

people; (3) motivating people; (4) inspiring people; (5) 

mobilizing people to achieve astonishing results; and 

(6) propelling us into the future. Kotter’s eight tasks 

for management are: (1) planning; (2) budgeting; (3) 

organizing; (4) staffing; (5) measuring; (6) problem 

solving; (7) doing what we know how to do exceptionally well; and, (8) constantly producing reliable, 

dependable results.1 Kotter, of course, is writing for 

an audience of senior executives, and especially for 

those in cutting edge corporations. If emerging lea-
180

ders do not find this prescripton for becoming both a 

capable leader and manager daunting, then they are 

not paying attention or do not fully understand the 

extensive nature of Kotter’s leadership and management tasks.2

Emerging leaders get another perspective from a 

leadership coach, David Brendel, publishing in the 

Harvard Business Review Blog Network. In “How Philosophy Makes You a Better Leader,” the author offers 

a sane mnemonic. Socrates: “What is the most challenging question someone could ask me about my current 

approach?”; Aristotle: “What character virtues are 

most important to me and how will I express them?”; 

Nietzsche: “How will I direct my ‘will to power,’ manage my self-interest, and act in accordance with my 

chosen values?”; and Existentialists: “How will I take 

full responsibility for my choices and the outcomes to 

which they lead?”3

Because of the accelerating pace of change—do 

emerging leaders need to know Kotter’s principles of 

change management? Beyond knowing, do they need 

specific skills to participate effectively in today’s work 

environment? How will being “mindful” in reflecting 

on the practical wisdom of a philosophical approach 

help those starting out?4 Certainly, there is much to 

be gained by studying philosophy and change management. No doubt, as argued earlier in this study, the 

interdisciplinary nature of leadership research is one 

of the strengths of the field. 

Yet, applying task lists meant for senior strategic leaders, as well as pondering deep philosophical 

questions, can create dilemmas for emerging leaders. 

For one, the research suggests that Kotter’s list of the 

management skills would be more important for early 

performance, or even getting a job, than aspiring at 
181

an early career stage to focus on what he describes as 

leadership. Similarly, while developing and reflecting 

on a set of values is important at any stage of life, is 

anyone ever asked their views on classical philosophy 

when launching a career? 

So for emerging leaders and their supervisors, 

mentors, and coaches, the pathway approach discussed here provides a practical alternative, while suggesting that lifelong learning should include adding 

to an individual’s knowledge base—and that would 

include reading the insights of distinguished scholars 

like John Kotter, as well as thoughtful approaches by 

practicing leadership coaches like David Brendel.

As a first order task, the emerging leader should 

consider all levels suggested in the Bush School approach. Those would include leadership at the institutional, organizational, and personal and interpersonal 

levels. While an awareness of the whole range of leadership layers is important, learning where to focus attention over the next 6 months to 2-year time period 

for those starting out will ground development planning in the practical goals for what is timely, relevant, 

and achievable. Similarly, specifiying development 

competencies of knowledge, skills, attributes, and 

values will also focus an individual’s attention. Those categories can be grouped into a matrix whose design will not be formulaic, but instead serve as a sound 

framework for defining relevant areas for professional 

and leader development.

Other themes standout in the literature. One area is 

thinking about how the metacompetencies for leading 

should balance the tensions between effectiveness and 

ethical behaviors and goals. Wong and Gerras warn 

this may already be occuring in the Army as leaders 

compromise their ethical leadership principles due to 
182

increasing bureaucratic burdens and endless complicance checks.5

 The dangers of achieving effectiveness 

in the near term, by burning out individuals and teams for short-term gains, is as important for emerging 

leaders as thinking about the supposed “effectiveness” of Adolf Hitler and Saddam Hussein in gaining 

power and influence while ultimately wrecking their 

countries.6

Another idea stressed earlier in this monograph is 

the notion of an individual’s intelligence working on 

several levels simultaneously. These intelligences include developing a deep understanding of emotional 

intelligence and the art of personal emotional mastery 

as well as builing and maintaining social relationships 

across multicultural and intergenerational teams and 

interoganizational networks. As Joseph Nye highlights in The Powers to Lead, emotional intelligence 

and contextual intelligence, including cultural intelligence, are all required. It is, of course, not simple 

to follow Nye’s advice to understand the evolving 

environment, capitalize on trends, and adjust an individual’s style to the shifting context and according 

to follower’s needs.7 Having a well-developed set of 

early experiences and education as well as a reasonably high intelligence quotient should help. In all, 

starting off with a general framework as envisioned 

in the action planning process for individual development will assist. As argued earlier, the effects of being 

generally pointed in the right direction will be enhanced when guided by the helping hand of generous8

mentors and coaches. 

In charting new directions for emerging leader 

development, while there is much research from 

multiple sources that suggest pathways, there is as 

in all fields of study the need for additional research. 
183

As Kotter suggests, given the rapid pace of change, 

there is no guarantee that what was suggested based 

on past research regarding emerging leader development will last over time. While a philosophical grounding is certainly of importance, even the topics of values, character, and virtue deserve constant attention. 

For integrating emerging leader development in the 

workplace then, there are three areas that deserve continuing and even increasing attention, especially linking assessment instruments and performance measures; considering the role of apprenticeships as part 

of professional development; and bridging transitons 

for individuals at all levels. 

From experience at the university level, it is safe 

to say that students prefer individual attention. Onesize-fits-all assessment tools that are not linked to personal development planning and coaching are not taken seriously. This, of course, adds to the tasks of organizations and supervisors. In short, it may be better to 

make no claims about an organization’s emphasis on 

developing human capital if resources, including people, time, and programs, are not devoted to guiding 

the use of assessement tools. For organizations too, 

there is a need to explain how the development process creates value in terms of improving performance 

at the individual, team, organizational, and even institutional levels. Those performance indicators become 

both more important as well as more difficult when 

engaging in cross-sector and cross-national work environments. In national security reform intitiatives, 

struggling with gaining support for “whole of government” efforts, the benefits of individual contributions and overall agency/organizational performance 

should be addressed more fully in the future.9
184

For instance, several of the Project on National Security Reform’s (PNSR) “Significant Implementation 

Initiatives” that relate directly to emerging leader development require futher research and study. In addition to the recommended broader agency structural 

reforms, their initiative on “Human Capital: Align 

personnel incentives, leader development, personnel 

preparation, and organizational culture with strategic 

objectives” deserves more focused attention.10 PNSR’s 

proposals for creating a national security professionals program is important in its potential to improve emerging leader development programs across 

government. In addition, those private and nonprofit 

organizations immersed in public-private partnerships, contracting, and collaborative operational efforts would benefit from cross training that includes a 

certification process to ensure some level of common 

knowlege as well as skill requirements. 

The PNSR proposal blends well with emerging 

ideas about resurrecting “apprenticeships.” Given the 

explosion in online university and certificate programs 

as well as the costs of moving, housing, and losing 

time in the workforce, other opportunities outside of 

traditional schooling should be explored. Integrating 

the work experience as supplemented with the learning opportunities available from new sources, such 

as Massive Open Online Courses, should make integrated, work-learning experiences relevant for individual development while improving performance in 

the workplace, in real time for individuals, teams and 

organizations. 

Sarah Ayres, a policy analyst for the Center for 

American Progress, captures the potential for structured apprenticeships in “5 Reasons Expanding Apprenticeships Will Benefit Millennials.” Going beyond 
185

the common internship experience for emerging leader education programs will provide benefits. Ayres 

explains these five benefits in several studies. She 

points out that: (1) apprenticeships are jobs; (2)

apprentices earn higher wages; (3) apprentices gain 

an education with little or no debt; (4) apprenticeships 

create a pathway to middle-class jobs for those without 

a 4-year degree; and (5) apprenticeships grow the economy by making American businesses more competitive.11 Translating Ayres’s ideas from the private sector into the government and nonprofit sectors opens 

an avenue for creative thinking and suggests potential 

intiatives for improving human capital and professionalism in all sectors. Incorporating apprenticeship 

programs on a meaningful scale has the potential to 

link individual needs and performance, prescribe certifications and the equivalent of professional licensing 

(similar to that for doctors and engineers), identify skills-based standards, and create opportunities for action 

learning in working enviroments. Imagination is necessary for implementing these initiatives and research on the feasibility, affordability and effectiveness of 

these approaches is needed.

A final area for consideration is the need to assist 

individuals with transitions. For instance, universities 

provide career services and leader development programs, but these efforts are mainly contained within 

the undergraduate and graduate level experiences. 

Making the difficult early transition from the school 

to the work environment is the equivalent for highwire acrobats “flying without a net.” Because of 

those early stresses, complicated by the expectations 

of both entry-level workers and supervisors, there is a 

much greater need for early transition coaching than 

is necessary for leaders at the mid- and senior-levels, 
186

after all, most thoughtful individuals will have developed experience based knowledge as well as strong 

networks to enter new career paths. That said, there 

are few resources available for the emerging leaders 

to bridge the school to workplace gap. Research will 

assist in thinking about better ways for individuals 

and organizations to bridge those development gaps. 

Creative, research based ideas are essential for those 

development programs that aspire to assist emerging 

leaders in transitioning relatively seamlessly from 

their educational experiences into the workplace with 

a commitment to a career of lifelong learning.

ENDNOTES - CHAPTER 8

1. John P. Kotter, Accelerate: Building Strategic Agility for a Faster-Moving World, Boston, MA: Harvard Business Review Press, 

2014, p. 61.

2. Even more challenging would be taking on what Kotter 

presents as “The Eight Accelerators” for an organization facing “The Big Opportunity” by: (1) creating a sense of urgency; 

(2) building a guiding coalition; (3) forming strategic vision and 

initiatives; (4) enlisting a volunteer army; (5) enabling action by 

removing barriers; (6) generating short-term wins; (7) sustaining 

acceleration; and, (8) instituting change. Kotter, p. 28.

3. For existentialists, the author lists Jen-Paul Sartre, 

which unfortunately for his sane mnemonic does not begin with an E. David Brendel, “How Philosophy Makes 

You a Better Leader,” Harvard Business Review (HBR) 

Blog Network, September 19, 2014, available from blogs.

hbr.org/2014/09/how-philosophy-makes-you-a-better-leader/, 

accessed September 20, 2014.

4. In considering mindful and self-reflective behaviors, Brendel’s claim is that “Contemplating timeless philosophical values 

can fuel timely behavior changes in the service of growth and lasting success” (p. 2).
187

5. Leonard Wong and Stephen J. Gerras, Lying to Ourselves: 

Dishonesty in the Army Profession, Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies 

Institute, U.S. Army War College, February 2015.

6. For an example of military focused research on toxic leadership, see George E. Reed, “Toxic Leadership, Unit Climate, and 

Organizational Effectiveness,” Air and Space Power Journal, August 

2014. See also the chapter on “dissonant styles” of commanding 

and pacesetting approaches in Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, 

and Annie McKee, Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of Emotional Intelligence, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 

2002, pp. 71-88. On the need for “good” leadership to be both effective and ethical see Joseph S. Nye, Jr., The Powers to Lead, New 

York: Oxford University Press, 2008, pp. 109-145.

7. Nye, p. 83.

8. I am indebted for this idea on the critical importance of 

mentors who are generous with their time and effort to James 

Abruzzo, Co-Director of the Institute of Ethical Leaders in the 

Department of Management and Global Business, at the Rutgers 

Business School-Newark and New Brunswick, NJ.

9. See, for instance, the efforts of the Project on National Security Reform (PNSR) reports and case studies now located on 

the web page of the Center for Complex Operations, Washington, 

DC: National Defense University, available from cco.dodlive.mil/

pnsr-case-studies/, accessed September 20, 2014. The number and 

quality of the cases are extensive. Linking past experiences with 

current contexts and designing individual and organizational assessment tools and performance measures, such as connecting lessons learned centers with training and education programs, plus 

the potential for guiding efforts for informing current operations 

remains a critical research need. For the main PNSR report, see 

Turning Ideas Into Action, September 2009, available from www.

pnsr.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/pnsr_turning_ideas_into_action.pdf, accessed September 20, 2014. The Bush School participated in several workshops and conferences with PNSR participants 

and other subject matter experts. Books, monographs, and reports 

published by the Strategic Studies Institute include: The Interagency and Counterinsurgency Warfare; Leadership and National Security 

Reform; Rethinking Leadership and “Whole of government” National 
188

Security Reform; and National Security Reform 2010: A Mid-Term 

Assessment, available from www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/

pubs/people.cfm?authorID=518, accessed September 20, 2014.

10. PNSR Report, p. vi.

11. Sarah Ayres, “5 Reasons Expanding Apprenticeships 

Will Benefit Millennials,” Washington, DC: Center for American 

Progress, available from americanprogress.org/?s=ayres, assessed 

August 11, 2014.
189

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

JOSEPH R. CERAMI joined the Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M University (TAMU) in 2001. He teaches courses in national 

security policy and leadership studies in the Master’s 

Program in International Affairs. He was appointed 

as the founding director of the Bush School’s Public 

Service Leadership Program in 2002. During a 30-year 

military career, Colonel Cerami (U.S. Army, Retired) 

served in Germany and the Republic of Korea. His last 

military assignment was as the chairman of the Department of National Security and Strategy at the U.S. 

Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania, 

from 1998-2001. From 1993-98, he served on the faculty there as director of International Security Studies. Cerami completed his doctoral studies at Penn 

State University’s School of Public Affairs and earned 

a certificate for Senior Officials in National Security 

from the Harvard Kennedy School. His book, Leadership and Policy Innovation-From Clinton to Bush: Countering the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, 

was published by Routledge in 2013. His publications 

for the Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War 

College on strategy, leadership, national security reform, and counterinsurgency warfare can be found at 

www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/people.cfm?

q=518&email=false. In January 2016, Dr. Cerami will 

join the University of St. Thomas in Houston as the 

Burnett Family Distinguished Chair in Leadership 

and Director of the new University Center for Ethical 

Leadership.

TAM PHUONG started her doctoral program in Human Resource Development (HRD) in the School of 

Education and Human Development at TAMU in Au-
190

gust 2011. Between 1994 and 2011, she was a lecturer, 

and from 2008 to 2011, she held the position of Associate Dean in a university in Hanoi, Vietnam. She 

joined the Emerging Leadership Development project 

at the Bush School of Government and Public Service 

at TAMU as a research assistant in May 2014. She now 

works as a research assistant for the project of English 

Language and Literacy Acquisition funded by the U.S. 

Department of Education and conducted at the School 

of Education and Human Development at TAMU. She 

is interested in research on leadership development 

and faculty development. She has conducted two 

studies about faculty development in Southeast Asian 

countries and in Vietnam. She has chosen to complete 

her dissertation on junior faculty development in public universities in Vietnam and hopes to complete her 

Ph.D. program in 2016.

HUYEN THI MINH VAN (local Vietnamese name: 

Van Thi Minh Huyen) is currently a sponsored doctoral student and graduate teaching assistant in the HRD 

program, College of Education and Human Development, TAMU. She has developed research interests in 

indigenization in HRD and people development in 

services marketing. Before joining TAMU in August 

2013, she had been a lecturer of business studies and 

marketing principles since 1998 in Foreign Trade University, Vietnam. From 2006 to 2013, she also worked 

for the Vietnam-Japan Human Resource Corporation 

Center as an assistant interpreter and translator for 

business courses. In 2008, she got a scholarship from 

Honda Corporation to take part in a leadership program for Association of South East Asian Nations 

(ASEAN) young leaders in Japan. Huyen Van has 

both her B.A. and M.A. degrees in international busi-
191

ness and economics. She will return to academia upon 

completion of the Ph.D. degree. 

ROBERT MCDYRE is a second-year graduate student 

pursuing a master’s degree in international affairs at 

the Bush School of Government and Public Service at 

TAMU. Prior to beginning his master’s degree at the 

Bush School, he was employed as an Investigator for 

the Montgomery County Detective Bureau in Montgomery County, PA. He is currently a Graduate Assistant in Research at the Bush School for Dr. Joseph 

R. Cerami and will graduate in 2015 with a master’s 

degree in international affairs. He holds a B.S. in psychology and a minor in administration of justice from 

the University of Pittsburgh.

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ABOUT THE BUSH SCHOOL OF 

GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC SERVICE

The Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M University is located in College 

Station, TX. Established in 1997, the Bush School was 

created to honor the vision of its founder, George 

Bush, the 41st President of the United States. At the 

groundbreaking of the compound, President Bush 

shared his conviction that working for government, 

whether as an elected official or civil servant, should 

be viewed as dedication to public service:

I want to share with the students my thoughts on public service—that service to a county is a calling and 

that . . . in a far broader sense it means helping others 

and sacrificing and contributing to causes bigger than 

yourself.

The Bush School is dedicated to academic integrity, 

leadership development, professional experience, and 

unique relationships between professors and students 

academically and in research. In the Bush School, there 

are two distinct master degrees: The Master of Public 

Service and Administration (MPSA) and the Master 

in International Affairs. The MPSA program focuses 

on public management and public policy analysis and 

offers five areas of concentration, including nonprofit 

management; state/local policy and management; energy, environment, and technology policy and management; security policy and management; health 

policy and management; and individually created options. The International Affairs program focuses upon 

international economics and development and national security and diplomacy. It features concentrations, 

including American diplomacy, intelligence as state-
194

craft, defense policy and military affairs, international 

politics, homeland security, regional studies (Europe, 

Middle East, and China), international economics, international economic development, and multinational 

enterprises and public policy. The Bush School program also offers students opportunities at national 

and international internships, and emphasizes the development of written and oral communication skills. 

For the past decade, the Bush School has prepared 

leaders who can share the work of public service with 

a more diversified set of players—both in and out of 

government. Its graduates have established themselves in exciting careers in government, nonprofits, 

international organizations, think tanks, international 

financial institutions, and businesses. For additional 

information on the Bush School, see bush.tamu.edu/.
195

STRATEGIC STUDIES INSTITUTE

The Strategic Studies Institute (SSI) is the U.S. 

Army’s center for geostrategic and national security 

research and analysis. SSI conducts strategic research 

and analysis to support the U.S. Army War College 

(USAWC) curriculum, provides direct analysis for 

Army and Department of Defense (DoD) leadership, 

and serves as a bridge to the wider strategic community. SSI is composed of civilian research professors, uniformed military officers, and a professional 

support staff. All have extensive credentials and 

experience.

SSI is divided into four components: the Strategic 

Research and Analysis Department focuses on global, transregional, and functional issues, particularly 

those dealing with Army transformation; the Regional 

Strategy Department focuses on regional strategic issues; the Academic Engagement Program creates and 

sustains partnerships with the global strategic community; and the Publications Department maintains 

a web of partnerships with strategic analysts around 

the world, including the foremost thinkers in the 

fields of security and military strategy. In most years, 

about half of SSI’s publications are written by these 

external partners. SSI documents are published by the 

Institute and distributed to key strategic leaders in the 

Army and the DoD, the military educational system, 

Congress, the news media, other think tanks and defense institutes, and major colleges and universities. 

SSI publications use history and current political, 

economic, and military factors to develop strategic 

recommendations.
196

SSI has a variety of publications, including:

• Books - SSI publishes about 3-5 books per year 

consisting of authored works or edited compilations.

• Monographs – Policy-oriented reports provide 

recommendations. They are usually 25-90 pages 

in length.

• Carlisle Papers - The best of the student papers 

submitted in compliance with requirements for 

graduation from the USAWC are highlighted.

• LeTort Papers - These feature essays, retrospectives, or speeches of interest to the defense academic community.

• Colloquium Reports - For larger conferences, SSI 

may produce a report on the proceedings.

• Colloquium Briefs - These 2- to 4-page briefs 

are produced after the colloquia that SSI has cosponsored or helped fund.

At the request of the Army leadership, SSI sometimes provides shorter analytical reports on pressing 

strategic issues. The distribution of these is usually 

limited. Additionally, every year SSI compiles a Key 

Strategic Issues List (KSIL) based on input from the 

USAWC faculty, the Army Staff, the Joint Staff, the 

unified and specified commands, and other Army 

organizations. This is designed to guide the research 

of SSI, the USAWC, and other Army-related strategic 

analysts.

SSI analysts publish widely outside of the Institute’s own products. They have written books for 

Cambridge University Press, Princeton University 

Press, University Press of Kansas, Duke University 

Press, Praeger, Frank Cass, Rowman and Littlefield, 
197

and Brassey’s. They have contributed chapters to 

many other books, including publications for the 

Brookings Institution, Jane’s Defense Group, and the 

Center for Strategic and International Studies. SSI 

analysts have written articles for more than 50 

journals and periodicals on history, strategy, national 

security, and a myriad of other relevant topics.

SSI also co-sponsors academic conferences to examine issues of importance to the Army, collaborating 

with some of the leading universities in the country. 

Recent partners have included Georgetown, Princeton, Harvard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

(MIT), Columbia, University of Chicago, University of 

Miami, Stanford, Georgia Tech, Johns Hopkins, and 

the Bush School of Government and Public Service at 

Texas A&M University.
U.S. ARMY WAR COLLEGE

Major General William E. Rapp

Commandant

*****

STRATEGIC STUDIES INSTITUTE

and

U.S. ARMY WAR COLLEGE PRESS

Director

Professor Douglas C. Lovelace, Jr.

Director of Research

Dr. Steven K. Metz

Editor

Dr. Joseph R. Cerami

Editor for Production

Dr. James G. Pierce

Publications Assistant

Ms. Rita A. Rummel

*****

Composition

Mrs. Jennifer E. Nevil