DOT/FAA/AM-95/10

Office ofAviation Medicine

Washington, D.C. 20591

Enhancing the Effects of

Diversity Awareness

Training: A Review of the

Research Literature

r

XECTEfi

"% MAY 0 5 1995

Jennifer G. Myers

Civil Aeromedical Institute

Federal Aviation Administration

Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73125

March 1995

Final Report

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distribution ia unlimited

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through the National Technical Information

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Technical Report Docume

1. Report No.

DOT/FAA/AM-95/10

2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.

4. Title and Subtitle

Enhancing the Effects of Diversity Awareness Training:

A Review of the Research Literature

5. Report Date

March 1995

6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s)

Jennifer G. Myers

8. Performing Organization Report No.

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute

P.O. Box 25082

Oklahoma City, OK 73125

10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)

11. Contract or Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Agency name and Address

FAA Office of Aviation Medicine

Federal Aviation Administration

800 Independence Avenue, SW.

Washington, DC 20591

13. Type of Report and Period Covered

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. Supplemental Notes

16. Abstract

The projected changes in the demographic makeup of the workforce were primary influences in the spread of

diversity awareness training in the private and public sector. One approach to training aims at changing personal

attitudes and values to effect positive changes in treatment of others different from oneself (especially protected

groups) in the workplace. The effectiveness of training or other interventions that focus on changes in attitudes to

change behavior has not been clearly demonstrated. Training interventions need to use a combination ofmethods or

strategies before, during, and after training to enhance the measurable benefits received from diversity awareness

training and avoid the potential for "white male backlash" and psychological risk among participants.

Implementation of a training evaluation plan and a research program for identifying characteristics of effective

training are also necessary to enhance training effectiveness in the longer term.

17. Keywords

Diversity

Training

Attitudes

Experiential learning

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Document is available to the public through the

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Springfield, Virginia 22161

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Unclassified

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28

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Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized

ID I
ENHANCING THE EFFECTS OF DIVERSITY AWARENESS TRAINING:

A REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH LITERATURE

Projections ofthe demographic makeup ofworkers

in the future (Johnston & Packer, 1987) and the

increasing globalization ofthe marketplace have been

primary motivators behind the public and private

sector implementation of diversity training programs

(c.f., Jackson & Associates, 1992; U.S. Merit Systems

Protection Board, 1993). Karp and Sutton (1993)

identified two predominant approaches in diversity

training: (1) a focus on the rules and regulations of

equal employment opportunity and affirmative action programs and the need for compliance and (2)

increasing individual sensitivity to differences and

awareness of operating biases "(referred to as diversity

awareness training throughout the rest ofthe review).

Whereas the former approach concentrates on legal

and regulatory means to achieving representation of

targeted groups, the latter approach focuses on personal values and attitudes that may affect how one

treats others in the workplace who are different from

oneself (e.g., gender, race). Because of the sensitive

and potentially volatile nature of discussing personal

prejudices and the experience of prejudice in mixed

groups during diversity awareness training, some concerns about its use have been raised in the private and

public sectors (Kaufman, 1994).

One concern involves the potential for backlash

among training participants. That is, diversity awareness training may backfire, causing greater polarization between different groups and reinforcing the

attitudes that were targeted for change (Caudron,

1993; Karp & Sutton, 1993; Mobley & Payne, 1992).

The problems associated with white male backlash to

diversity awareness training programs have received

coverage from the popular media as well. A New York

Times article on diversity training in the Washington

State Ferry System reported the training led to ridicule and cynicism among training participants, as well

as fear of being accused of discrimination or sexual

harassment in the course of directing work activities

or conversing with coworkers (Egan, 1993). The

Washington State Ferry System also experienced an

increase in the number of complaints of improper

behavior and lawsuits following the training. Business

Week recently reported that white male backlash was

sufficiently problematic in some large corporations to

cause the development of new programs targeted at

white males (Galen & Palmer, 1994). While proponents ofthe Washington State Ferry System diversity

awareness training consider the backlash to be a part

of the inevitable turmoil associated with organizational change, others in the diversity training field

identify training that is poorly conceived, designed,

and implemented as being the culprit (Delatte &

Baytos, 1993; Karp & Sutton, 1993).

Another concern is that there may be some psychological risk for the participants associated with the

emotionally loaded topics under discussion (Gordon,

1993). Psychological risk in diversity awareness training can occur, for example, when individuals are asked

to share past experiences ofracism or sexism that were

painful and unresolved or when the training reveals

negative information about oneself or one' s situation

(Guteck & Koss, 1993; Reichard, Siewers, &

Rodenhauser, 1992). Reichard et al. (1992) state that

being a minority of any kind (e.g., single, old, female)

in an emotionally intense training group can lead to

distress reactions.

This report broadly reviews training and experiential learning research literature to identify ways of

enhancing diversity awareness training and minimizing the potential for backlash and adverse psychological effects. The review is broken down into four

component parts. In the first section of the report, 

experiential training that includes significant emo- 

tional events as a way of increasing self-awareness is

examined for its effectiveness in creating behavior 

change. In addition, the paper takes a broader look at 

the role ofattitudes in behavior change and how those

research findings apply to understanding the effects of

experiential learning.

Dis*

l/H

Special
ivesitywaeness aining

The second section ofthe paper addresses options

or gradations in experiential training methods that

may contribute to the achievement oftraining goals in

general. The selection of experiential training activities is briefly reviewed, as well as differences in experiential learning environments. Characteristics ofthe

trainer, the trainee, and the conduct oftraining that is

thought to influence the effectiveness of training are

also described. Finally, activities that enhance the

transfer of training back to the job and their importance in the success of training are briefly presented.

The third section of the report incorporates the

results of a diversity awareness training evaluation

conducted by the author (Myers, 1993) in the context

of research literature on experiential learning. Available information on multicultural and race awareness

training is used to identify important issues to consider

in providing experiential diversity training in the future.

Recommendations for minimizing potential risk

associated with experiential diversity training are presented in the fourth section ofthe report. This section

also includes suggestions for enhancing the effectiveness of diversity training, as well as a proposed framework for assessing the impact of diversity training on

learning and business objectives.

EFFECTIVENESS OF EXPERIENTIAL

TRAINING IN ACHIEVING BEHAVIORAL

CHANGE

What is Experiential Training?

When used in the workplace, the term training

refers to the development of skills, knowledge, or

attitudes that result in improved on-the-job performance. Experiential training is a term used to describe

learning environments that capitalize on the natural

processes that adults use when they learn from experience, Kolb (1984) conceptualized the learning process as a cycle involving four stages: (1) experiencing

a situation; (2) reflecting on the experience; (3) deriving insights based on the experience and reflection;

and (4) testing those insights in new experiences.

Kolb's stages also reflect typical styles of learning -

some individuals may have a preference for extended

reflection and deriving insights from a single experience, while others quickly engage in new experiences

and spend less time on reflection. Thus, one style or a

combination ofstyles can be favored over other styles

by individual learners. According to Kolb (1984),

going through each stage of the learning cycle is the

optimal process for learning and is characteristic of

those who have "learned how to learn."

The guiding principle in experiential learning is

that people learn best by doing. The "doing" is achieved

in experiential training through the use of a variety of

techniques and exercises that require the active participation of group members (such as role playing,

group feedback, sharing of emotional experiences).

Experiential learning objectives may include changes

in participants' knowledge, attitudes, and/or behaviors. One type of experiential training includes methods and techniques designed to elicit significant

emotional experiences among participants in order to

increase their self-awareness and thereby change their

behavior. Self-awareness is used here to describe a

person's understanding of his or her feelings and

beliefs that effect his or her behavior. Self-awareness

also includes an understanding ofthe impact of one's

behavior on others. Reichard et al. (1992) state that

"This ongoing process of self-inquiry enables the

individual, group, and organization to continually

adapt to changing conditions and forces analysis of

the suitability of present behavior" (p. 11).

Miles (1981) suggests that emotional issues are at

the heart of the training process because training

always involves individual change. To the extent that

feedback on behavior is provided by the trainer and

group members, the individual's self-image may be

challenged, with all the attendant feelings oftension,

stress, and threat. As important as emotions are in the

training that Miles describes, they are not the focal

method for achieving change. Rather, emotions are

simply another (albeit inevitable) source of data to

consider in the learning process. Sorohan (1993) also

points out that emotional risks are involved in acquiring the skills of "learning how to learn," such as

unlearning past practices, acknowledging unspoken

assumptions, and changing or giving up deeply held

beliefs. However, these are the skills that are necessary

in achieving the greatest individual growth.
Diversity Awareness Training

In contrast to Miles' (1981) view of emotional

issues in training, other types oftraining place a high

value and emphasis on eliciting and identifying feelings that influence behavior. Sensitivity training, Tgroups, and encounter groups represent three of the

more common types oftraining. All three assert that

significant emotional events experienced within training serve as the catalyst for changes in self-awareness

which, in turn, leads to changes in behavior. Reichard

et al. (1992) categorize each ofthese types oftraining

under the broad term "laboratory education." They

describe laboratory education as a "combination of

experiential and affective learning in programs to

increase self-awareness, improve interpersonal competence, encourage risk taking, build more cohesive

groups or work teams, raise self esteem, and study

group and organizational dynamics" (p. 2). The term

laboratory education will be used throughout this

review to represent sensitivity training, T-groups, and

encounter groups, except where reference materials

specify a particular type of laboratory education.

Social interactions form the basis for individual

change and changes in interpersonal relationships in

laboratory education. Bennis (1970) states "The degree to which participants can communicate their

feelings and in turn evoke valid feelings from other

members is regarded as an important criterion of

group growth" (p. 21). Thus, participants are encouraged to shed their tendency to intellectualize experiences within the group and to honestly and openly

communicate how they feel about the interactions

taking place with each other. Group member feedback is thought to contribute to participants' understanding of the effects of their behavior on other

group members, and thus increase participant selfawareness (Argyris, 1968). Goliembewski and

Blumberg (1970) point out that the prime goal ofTgroups is not individual behavioral change - "Rather,

the goal is to provide feedback and support for testing

whether change will help the individual get more of

what he wants in interpersonal and intergroup relations" (p. 7).

Although experts in training tend to see emotional

reactions as almost inevitable in the experientiallearning process, they vary as to its emphasis and use to

produce individual learning. Laboratory education

reflects the type of experiential training that emphasizes emotional content as the primary source of

learning. The goals and methods oflaboratory education, as opposed to other training methods, appear to

be most similar to those used in diversity awareness

training. The concerns raised about diversity awareness training - the potential for backlash and psychological risk - pointto a need to compare the effectiveness

of its training methods with the potential risks it

entails. In the next section, available research on the

use of laboratory education in changing behavior is

reviewed to assess its potential effectiveness as applied

to diversity awareness training.

The Influence of Emotional Experiences in

Behavior Change

Given that laboratory education does not identify

behavior change as an explicit goal of the training, it

was difficult to find research studies of laboratory

education that included behavior change as a measure

of training effectiveness. In addition, no training

evaluation studies could be found that directly compared different experiential learning techniques in

meeting the same learning objectives. Available research studies were reviewed to determine what conclusions, if any, could be made regarding the

effectiveness of laboratory education training techniques.

Seashore (1970), concluded that laboratory education was effective in changing managers' behavior, but

cited no studies in support of his claim. In fact, he

acknowledged that research on the effectiveness of

laboratory education was scarce and, what existed,

was typically methodologically flawed. Reviews of

studies of supervisor and manager laboratory education outcomes have shown that laboratory education

can result in behavioral change (Burke & Day, 1986;

Campbell & Dunnette, 1968; Smith, 1975). However, like Seashore (1970), both Campbell and

Dunnette (1968) and Smith (1975) point out problems in how the research studies were conducted.

Problems such as potential biases in observers' ratings

of post-training behavior and lack of adequate comparison groups for assessing behavior change mean

that the results ofthese studies cannot be generalized

to other laboratory education groups. Another issue
DiversityAwareness Training

noted by Campbell and Dunnette (1968) is that the

studies did not address how changes in ratings of, for

example, "flexibility" and "increased openness" influenced effectiveness in job performance. That is, "increased openness" was not specifically linked to

performance in areas such as enhancing two-way

communication with employees, increasing participative decision-making among employees, or successfully negotiating a labor-management agreement.

Burke and Day (1986) used a sophisticated statistical technique in summarizing the outcomes of research studies on the effectiveness of different

managerial training methods in changing behavior.

They found that although laboratory education did

show overall positive effects across all of the studies

they reviewed, the effect was highly variable among

individual studies. That is, training outcomes for the

laboratory education studies ranged from having no

effect to large positive effects. In addition, the authors

criticized the methods used to measure behavior

change, suggesting that observers used to provide

post-training ratings could be biased. Burke and Day

(1986) suggested that other aspects of the training,

such as trainer experience, might account for the

different outcomes across studies.

Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles (1973) also demonstrated the variable outcomes oflaboratory education

in their investigation of 18 different encounter groups

representing ten ideological schools (for example,

Gestalt, psychodrama, and transactional analytic

groups). Encounter group members showed more

psychological change, both positive and negative,

than did individuals who had not participated in a

group experience. However, two-thirds ofthe participants were unaffected by the training, dropped out of

training, experienced negative change, or underwent

significant psychological distress. Like Burke and Day

(1986), Lieberman et al. noted the trainer's influence^

on training outcomes.

Although no studies were found that directly compared laboratory education techniques with other

training techniques in achieving the same learning

and performance objectives, the review by Burke and

Day (1986) provided some indication ofthe effectiveness oflaboratory education relative to other training

techniques. They found thatthe outcomes ofresearch

studies of the behavioral modeling training method

(observing behavior demonstrated by a model, attaching key learning points, and practicing the behavior)

were positive and consistent. In comparison, the outcomes ofstudies oflaboratory education results were

somewhat unpredictable. Thus, there appear to be

methods that are more effective at changing behavior

than those used within a laboratory education approach.

Summary. Research on the effectiveness oflaboratory education provides some evidence that changes

in behavior can result from training that uses emotional experiences within groups, but the changes can

be positive or negative and may affect only a fraction

of trainees. There is no conclusive research evidence

that emotion-based experiential training is more or

less effective in changing behavior than other training

methods. However, two research reviews indicate that

laboratory education results may be relatively less

consistent compared to the results of other training

methods.

Emotional reactions in experiential training do not

need to be prevented or avoided. In fact, avoiding

emotional reactions is considered by some trainers to

be an impossibility, since it is a natural by-product of

an effective learning process. This situation is different from laboratory education aimed at creating emotionally charged environments to serve as the substance

of the individual growth process and where the process may receive little guidance or assistance from the

group leader. Research on laboratory education has

not clearly demonstrated consistent benefits for all

trainees. In fact, Lieberman et al. (1973) found that

some individuals experienced negative outcomes from

laboratory education. Thus, until evidence is accumulated to the contrary, laboratory education is not an

efficient model for achieving behavioral change for all

trainees.

The Role ofAttitudes in Changing Behavior

The laboratory education approach just described

focuses on increasing self-awareness (understanding

oneself and the impact one's behavior on others) to

create behavior change. Another approach to behavior

change is to concentrate on changing attitudes about

actions or objects related to the target behavior.
ivesitywaeness aining

Many factors influence the attitude-behavior relationship. Although training may be used to successfully alter attitudes, the individual and situational

factors that operate in the work environment make it

unlikely that any training intervention targeted solely

at shaping participants' attitudes will produce the

desired change in on-the-job behavior. Rather, training and other interventions must be directed toward

affecting a number of individual and situational factors simultaneously to ensure behavior change.

A long history ofresearch on attitudes and behavior

suggests thatthere are multiple factors influencing the

attitude-behavior relationship. Ajzen's (1991) theory

of planned behavior, an elaboration of an earlier

model proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), provides an example of how attitudes and other factors

influence behavior. The theory of planned behavior

posits that the best predictor of behavior is the intention to engage in the behavior. Intentions are a function ofattitudes toward the behavior and beliefs about

the extent to which others think the behavior should

be enacted (subjective norms). An additional factor in

the model is whether the behavior is believed to be

under behavioral control, i.e., the individual has the

opportunity and resources to perform the behavior.

According to Ajzen, accurate prediction of behavior

requires that the measurement ofattitudes and behavior be at the same level ofspecificity. As an illustration

ofAjzen's theory, the optimal measurement model for

predicting whether or not a black candidate will be

selected for a job would specifically assess an

individual's (1) attitudes about hiring a black candidate, (2) self-perceptions ofhow others feel about the

individual hiring a black candidate, and (3) perceptions of personal control over the hiring of a black

candidate. A graphic illustration ofthe modelis shown

in Figure 1.

As demonstrated in the model, attitudes are just a

part of the equation for predicting whether a certain

behavior will occur. Targeting training on attitude

change as the only intervention for changing on-thejob behavior is not likely to be successful. Rather,

concurrentinterventions aimed at changing perceived

behavioral control, intentions, and subjective norms

are needed to maximize the likelihood ofbehavior change.

Using the example above, organizational policies may

Figure 1. Model Illustrating Ajzen's (1991) Theory of Planned Behavior

ATTITUDES

WHAT ARE THE SELECTING

OFFICIAL'S ATTITUDES ABOUT

SELECTING A BLACK EMPLOYEE

FOR A JOB?

INTENTION

DOES THE SELECTING OFFICIAL

INTEND TO SELECT A BLACK

EMPLOYEE FOR A JOB?

SUBJECTIVE NORMS

TO WHAT EXTENT DOES THE

SELECTING OFFICIAL BELIEVE THAT

HER MGT, PEERS, SUBORDINATES

THINK SHE SHOULD SELECT A

BLACK EMPLOYEE FOR A JOB?

BEHAVIOR

DID THE SELECTING OFFICIAL

SELECT A BLACK EMPLOYEE

FOR A JOB?

PERCEIVED BEHAVIORAL CONTROL

DOES THE SELECTING OFFICIAL

BELIEVE SHE HAS CONTROL OVER

THE RESOURCES (E.G., PCS)

NEEDED TO RECRUIT AND HIRE A

QUALIFIED BLACK CANDIDATE?
DiversityAwareness Training

need to be changed to delegate control ofpermanentchange-of-station (PCS) funds (perceived behavioral

control). Where change in more general attitudes is

sought, such as diversity-related attitudes, training

might also involve performance contracts for on-thejob behavior (intentions). Follow-up meetings oftrainees could be a source ofsocial support for trainees to

try new behaviors (subjective norms).

Ajzen's model also requires that the detail or specificity at which attitudes and behavior are measured

must be at the same level. For example, according to

Ajzen's model, a specific measure of attitudes about

hiring black employees would do a better job of

predicting an individual's hiring of black employees

than would a general attitude on race relations. The

general attitude measure, on the other hand, would

more accurately predict a composite ofbehaviors (such

as support for special emphasis groups, participation

in cultural awareness activities, and contributing to

the United Negro College Fund) than would a specific attitude about hiring black employees. Research

findings support the importance ofcorrespondence in

the level of measurement of attitudes and behaviors

for accurate prediction (see, for example, Bagozzi,

1981 and Sjoberg, 1982). It follows thatinterventions

must consider the general-specific linkage between

attitudes and behaviors in determining which attitudes should be addressed in training to impact one or

multiple behaviors.

Another perspective on the attitude-behavior relationship argues that Ajzen's model is incomplete and

excludes individual and situational factors that also

influence the attitude-behavior relationship (Abelson,

1982). In the example used to illustrate Ajzen's model

(1991), a mediational perspective would include situational factors, such as the organization's level of

enforcement for achieving Affirmative Action goals

and rewards and recognition for increasing diversity

in the organization, as components in the attitudebehavior relationship. In addition, such individual

characteristics as the selecting official's previous experience with black persons and knowledge of recruitment techniques would be considered important to

describing and predicting the attitude-behavior relationship. Interventions following the mediational

perspective, in addition to the training and other

interventions suggested previously, might include

changing organizational personnel policies to increase

options for attracting and hiring employees (situational factors). Other possibilities include making

better use ofreward and recognition systems to reinforce the desirability of reaching Affirmative Action

goals (situational factors) and increasing the

individual's knowledge ofrecruitmenttechniques (individual factors).

Still other research in the attitude-behavior domain has focused on changing behavior to influence

changes in attitudes (for a review, see Tesser & Shaffer,

1990). This line of research has demonstrated that

individuals who engage in behavior that is counter to

their initial attitudes will, under certain conditions,

modify their attitudes to be consistent with their

behavior. In addition, social support for the behavior

from peers seems to enhance attitudinal change. Designing an intervention that is consistent with these

research findings for the example in Figure 1 might

involve first developing agency policies that influence

the occurrence of desired behavior (e.g., hiring to

meet Affirmative Action principles). Once the behavior is exhibited, a change in attitudes should follow.

Summary. Attitudes are one ofmany influences of

behavior change. Research has shown that a change in

attitude does not guarantee a change in behavior and,

in fact, changes in behavior can precede changes in

attitudes. Thus, reliance on training solely directed at

attitude change will not effectively achieve changes in

behavior. Training should include the development

ofskills and knowledge related to the desired behavior, as well as attitude change. In addition, multiple

interventions aimed at supporting new skills, knowledge, and attitudes on the job are needed to produce

and maintain behavior change.

Options or Gradations ofExperiential Training

to Ensure Effectiveness

Optimizing the impact of experiential training

requires careful consideration of a number of factors

in the planning and actual conduct of the training

course. Research on the different factors that might

influence training outcomes is scarce so that clear

empirical support for decisions regarding, for example,

length of training sessions is lacking. Nonetheless, the
Diversity Awareness Training

training literature discusses a variety of experiential

factors to be considered in developing effective training and provides some guidelines for decision-making. This section reviews those factors thought to

influence training outcomes and provides research

results where available for four broad areas: (1) the

conduct of training, (2) trainer characteristics, (3)

trainee characteristics, and (4) the transfer oftraining

back to the job.

Conduct ofTraining

Selection ofMethods. The utility of any particular

training method is defined within the context of the

purpose ofthe training. Activities such as observation,

practice, and feedback are considered vehicles for

experientiallearning, whether they take place in managerial or technical training courses. However, as Miles

(1981) stresses, the function oftraining should determine the form that training will take. For example,

activities that require the appropriate use of knowledge and procedures (e.g., trouble shooting exercises)

could be used to improve participants' problem-solving strategies. When the goal is to improve specific

behaviors, training environments can be set up to

allow individuals to respond to hypothetical situations. The situation might involve responding to

peers and subordinates, as in the case of role-play

situations, or reacting to an aircraft trying to maneuver around a storm system, as programmed into the

Dynamic Simulation used in air traffic field training.

Attitude and value change might be approached by

establishing discussion groups to meet over longer

periods of time. As demonstrated in these examples,

Kolb's (1984) model of learning through experience

(have an experience, reflect on the experience, develop

insights, and test the insights) can be applied to any

training situation.

Differences in Experiential Learning Environments. For many, experiential learning tends to bring

to mind an emotionally charged situation where individual disclosure is the key. In fact, that description

reflects only one ofthe many learning situations that

fall under experiential learning. Walter and Marks

(1981) described differences in experiential learning

environments along four different dimensions:

• focus, on either content, attitudes and emotions ofthe trainees, interactions among trainees, or a combination of the three;

• intensity, or the extent of the coverage of a

particular topic;

• mode of interaction, referring to the level of

interaction between trainees and between the

leader and trainees;

• orientation, made up of place (the training

setting and outside the training setting), time

(past, present, and future), and theoretical position of the trainer (his/her model of human

functioning).

Combinations ofthese dimensions reflect the various objectives of different training groups. Reichard

etal. (1992) discuss training objectives in terms ofthe

emphasis training groups place on learning (e.g., new

information, facts, behavior) or psychological change

(e.g., coping ability, self-esteem). Following Walter

and Marks (1981) and Reichard et al. (1982), Table 1

provides a simplified depiction of the differences in

learning environments for achieving psychological

and behavioral change.

The learning environment sets the context for how

particular exercises will be used. For example, to

create behavioral change, role-play could be used to

give trainees opportunities to develop and practice

new skills that are directly applicable to the job. In an

environment where psychological change is the goal,

role-play might be used as a means for eliciting from

trainees emotional responses that serve as the basis for

learning and understanding oneself.

Keeping trainees on the appropriate level oflearning and psychological change is the job ofthe trainer.

Managing emotional intensity experienced between

and within individuals is particularly important, since

as emotional intensity is allowed to increase, the

learning environment ofthe training may shift to that

7
DiversityAwareness Training

PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGE BEHAVIORAL CHANGE

FOCUS

Attitudes and emotions of trainees,

interactions among trainees

Content (e.g., interpersonal skills)

INTENSITY

Extensive, comprehensive examination

of self and interactions with others

Extensive, comprehensive coverage of

relevant principles and facts; modeling of

behavior

MODE OF INTERACTION

Primarily interactions are among trainees Balance of interactions among trainees

and trainees with group leader

ORIENTATION

"Here and now" (respond to interactions

among trainees in the training setting)

"There and then" (learning new skills to

be used back on the job)

Table 1. Differences between Experiential Learning Environments

which is more characteristic of laboratory education.

Without assurance that trainees possess the requisite

desire and skills to engage in that type of learning

environment, some trainees may experience negative

psychological outcomes from participation.

Length and Frequency ofTraining Sessions. The

length and frequency of training are important variables to consider in developing training. Walter and

Marks (1981) stated that one-hour sessions are typically insufficient for experiential methods because of

the time involved in introducing the activity, debriefing, and summary phases, as well as the time it takes

to do the activity itself. They suggest that three hours

is generally adequate for a single exercise. The scheduling ofsessions is another consideration in the training development process. Marathon sessions, shorter

sessions scheduled over a period ofmonths, and weeklong sessions are variations in scheduling that are

thought to impact the change process by affecting

group involvement and the opportunity for reflection

and integration.

No research was found that empirically determined

optimal scheduling for specific training methods and

desired outcomes, although Smith (1975) found some

suggestive differences between several studies, indicating that total training time and scheduling might

influence results. Smith (1975) compared the reported positive outcomes of training courses that

varied in duration and found that rates ofsuccess were

not different for courses lasting 20-25 hours, 26-35

hours, or 36 or more hours. Marathon courses (i.e.,

courses scheduled for consecutive hours on consecutive days) had a greater rate ofsuccess than did classes

scheduled over a period oftime (e.g., once a week for

an hour). At this point, it appears thattrainers in both

the private and public sector rely on their experience

and expertise, as well as practical constraints, rather

than empirical data to determine the length and

scheduling of training.

Just as the use of particular methods will influence

decisions about the length and frequency of training

sessions, practical considerations (e.g., cost, availability

8
y g

of training sites, and availability of trainees) will

constrain the training methods that are used. Training design must balance these influences to come up

with workable and effective training.

Debriefing/Process Analysis. Debriefing and process analysis are somewhat different, but related aspects of the training session. Although Walter and

Marks (1981) simply describe debriefing as "a discussion ofthe completed activity," it is critical in providing "detail, order, and meaning to the participants'

experiences" (p. 166). Objective feedback, self-disclosure and listening, and reactions to the feedback and

disclosure are parts of the reflection and integration

phases of Kolb's experiential learning cycle described

earlier in this paper. Although too much time spent in

debriefing can be detrimental to the training process

by reducing involvement and confusing the group,

the tendency is to err in allowing insufficient time for

this process. Walter and Marks (1981) suggest that

when in doubt, add more time to this phase oftraining.

Whereas debriefing focuses on the learning activity

itself, process analysis refers to taking time to assess

and reflect on the group process as trainees participate

in learning exercises (Miles, 1981). In process analysis, trainees take time out to discuss what is happening

among group members as they proceed through an

activity. Interpersonal, personal, and procedural issues may be discussed to understand the group process. Miles (1981) argues that understanding how the

group works is seen as grist for more learning and an

important component ofthe overall learning process.

Summary. The research literature has not clearly

identified specific types of training methods and activities, experiential learning environments, training

schedules, or debriefing times as more or less effective

in achieving particular outcomes. However, the training literature does suggest several guidelines for planning and conducting training. First, select training

methods that match the goals of training. For example, if trainees are expected to exhibit new skills

back on the job, they should have an opportunity to

practice those new skills during training. Second, the

environment ofthe training should be consistent with

the goals or objectives of training. That is, if behavior

change is the goal, training methods and the learning

environment should conform to the goal. If psychological change is the training goal, certain conditions

should be metto minimize potential risk and optimize

training effects. These conditions will be discussed

throughout the remainder ofthis review. Third, to the

degree possible, let the training objectives drive the

scheduling of training. If practical constraints get in

the way, develop innovative ways of separating the

training into components. For example, trainees could

complete a computer-based instruction course to obtain the knowledge portion of a training course prior

to offsite training for skills practice. Finally, make

sure that sufficient time is spent in debriefing and

process analysis to reinforce learning, tie the learning

to on-the-job behavior, and increase participant understanding of group process.

Trainer Characteristics

Trainer Behavior. Reviews of training effectiveness by Campbell and Dunnette (1968) and Burke

and Day (1986) have underscored the need for additional research to assess trainer influences in training

outcomes. Characteristics such as the level of trainer

experience and the trainer's role, especially in sensitivity training, have been identified as important variables for future research. Unfortunately, few appear to

have answered the call for further investigation of

trainer characteristics. Only one study could be found

that evaluated the influence of trainer characteristics

on training outcomes.

In a study of 18 different laboratory education

groups conducted by Lieberman et al. (1973), some

groups demonstrated more positive trainee outcomes

than did other groups. The authors attributed the

relative success of these groups not to the school of

thought to which the trainer ascribed (e.g., Gestalt),

but to the trainer's behavior in leading the group.

Trainers in the successful groups, in comparison to

those ofless successful groups, were observed to demonstrate (1) greater caring (e.g., support, praise, acceptance) and meaning attribution ( e.g., translating

feelings and experiences into ideas), (2) balanced

emotional stimulation (i.e., appropriate levels ofchallenge and confrontation), and (3) appropriate exercise

ofexecutive functions (e.g., setting limits and norms).
yg

Other authors have discussed ethical issues for

trainers (Miles, 1981; Reichard et al., 1992; Walter &

Marks, 1981) and the trainer's roles (e.g., support,

interpretation, education; Miles, 1981). The degree

to which trainers are able to effectively perform these

different roles and the influence of these roles on

training outcomes has not been empirically examined.

This is notto say thattrainer capabilities are unimportant influences of the training process. Rather, it

points to the critical need for improved measurement

of trainer performance and investigations of its impact on training outcomes.

Trainer Credibility and Other Characteristics. A

series ofexperiments on attitude change conducted in

the 1950s and 1960s demonstrated that the credibility ofthe communicator affects the likelihood and the

degree of attitude or opinion change (Hovland &

Weiss, 1951;McGuire, 1964;Kelman, 1958;Bochner

&Insko, 1965). Stelnicki and Silber (1991) described

a number of principles for teaching attitudinal objectives, including characteristics of the trainer. They

noted the need for taking steps to enhance the trainer's

(1) credibility (e.g., expert on the subject matter), (2)

attractiveness (e.g., portray the trainer as having similar attitudes as the audience), (3) power (e.g., high

social status, in control of rewards), and (4) speech

style (e.g., use of visual images) to enhance the influence of the trainer in changing attitudes.

Summary. Although there is little research on the

relationship between trainer characteristics and training outcomes, there is general agreement that trainer

skills and experience are potentially important contributors to the effectiveness of experiential training.

In the case oftraining used to produce attitude change,

other characteristics of the trainer (e.g., credibility)

are importantin influencing training outcomes. Given

the potential impact of trainer characteristics on the

success oftraining, standards for trainer performance

and methods for its assessment are needed as part of

monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness oftraining.

Trainee Characteristics

Learning Styles. Regardless ofthe type ofexperiential training that is provided, not everyone will learn

the same things from the same training experiences,

nor will everyone learn equally effectively from the

experience. This is due, in part, to the different

learning styles that adults have developed over time. A

learning style refers to the characteristic way in which

an individual perceives and processes information

about him/herself and the environment. Learning

styles can influence approaches to learning tasks (e.g.,

broadly understanding the whole task versus step-bystep detail), and attention to certain features of the

learning task (e.g., political aspects of the decisionmaking process versus potential impacts of the decision). In addition to differences in attending and

processing information, individuals may vary in the

degree to which they openly share what they think

they have learned (Lawrence, 1982). Whereas some

individuals may quietly reflect on a training activity

and keep their thoughts and feelings private, others

may be more action-oriented and prefer greater

amounts of discussion and feedback on the training

activity.

Several authors have suggested that paying attention to different learning styles is important in developing effective training (Kolb, Rubin, & Mclntyre,

1979; Mezoff, 1982; Sims, 1993). They propose that

greatersuccess in training could be achieved by matching the cognitive styles of trainees with instructional

strategies. There is some research evidence that students whose learning styles match the instructional

style of the teacher demonstrate better performance

outcomes at the end of a college course (Carlson,

1991; Cooper & Miller, 1991) and in a laboratory

setting (Pask & Scott, 1972; Pask, 1976) than those

students whose learning styles are mismatched with

the teacher's instructional style.

Others are less optimistic about the gains to be had

by matching learning and instructional styles.

Cronbach and Snow (1977), at the time of their

review, found the effects of matching learning and

instruction styles to be inconsistent and difficult to

replicate. Still, the authors remain optimistic about

the potential for maximizing training effectiveness

through attention to individual differences.

Sims (1993) points out that although matching

teacher and learner styles may make for more effective

training in the short run, there is a need for training

programs to also develop participants' capacities for

10
learning in other, less dominant ways. For example,

those whose approach to decision-making is more

analytical and logical ("thinking," according to the

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) might benefit from

exercises that demonstrate how feelings and values

might be used in decisions.

Individuals also differ in their ability to handle

emotionally-ladened material, their level ofself-awareness, as well as their readiness and willingness to use

information about themselves to change behavior.

Although these differences are not "learning styles" as

they have been described in this paper, they can affect

individual responses to training activities and goals.

Goliembewski and Blumberg (1970) noted that Tgroups do not seem to be of much worth to "those

people whose needs for structure and authority are

very high and rigid" (p. 13). Those who lack selfawareness and/or desire to change or learn are less

likely to positively respond to emotionally-based methods such as those typically used in laboratory education (Argyris, 1968; Yalom, 1985).

Group Composition and Size. Personality, ability

level, background (including previous experience with

the training methods), age, and sex are but a few ofthe

characteristics trainees bring with them to training

that may affect the functioning of groups and thus,

the training experience (Levine & Moreland, 1990;

Walter & Marks, 1981). In addition, the combination

ofthese characteristics among trainees may indirectly

affect the overall outcomes oftraining by its influence

on the learning process and the dynamics of the

group. Finally, trainee characteristics may affect the

choice oftraining methods themselves, ifthe characteristics ofthe group are known beforehand (Reichard

etal., 1992).

Walter and Marks (1981) described potential training concerns associated with these different characteristics. A mixture of high and low ability students will

affect the pace of certain exercises and the degree to

which self-directed activities can be used. Argyris

(1968) points out that participants in laboratory education need a minimal level ofself-awareness and selfacceptance to be able to listen to others and discuss,

with minimal distortion, their interpersonal impact

in a given situation. The degree to which training

participants vary in their levels ofself-awareness and

self-acceptance will affect the ability ofthe trainees to

deliver and receive feedback. The learning atmosphere can also be affected by the balance of demographic groups in the training. For example, a

predominantly male group will tend to exhibit competitiveness among members, whereas females tend

toward more cooperative interactions. "Token" types

of group members (e.g., an older person, a person of

a different race) can feel alienated and isolated from

the rest of the group.

The size ofthe group impacts group dynamics and

thus, the process of training. Certain experiential

techniques appear to work best for particular group

sizes. Ideally, the identification of training goals and

selected methods for addressing those goals will drive

the determination of group size. Walter and Marks

(1981) provide some guidelines for the group size

appropriate for particular training exercises and techniques:

• Nongroup (2-4): Best for supportive activities

such as feedback, sharing, process observation.

Too small to generate the group dynamics

needed for some simulations.

• Small group (5-15): Appropriate size for most

experiential training methods. There are some

restrictions for simulations.

• Large group (15-50): Appropriate for simulations, exercises, lecture, readings, and writing.

Toward the extreme end of this group size,

numbers of participants can limit leader-participant interactions and the degree to which

personal issues can be examined. In addition, a

larger group would need to be divided into

smaller groups for experiential activities.

• Very large group (50+): Restricted primarily to

presentations, readings, writing, and lecture.

Too large for most experiential activities; some

difficulty in breaking down into smaller groups

for experiential exercises.

Trainee Attitudes and Motivation. Noe (1986)

proposed a model of the effects of trainee attitudes

and attributes on training outcomes. Factors such as

beliefs about the relationship between individual effort and performance, reactions to skill assessment

feedback, and attitudes about the job and career are

11
yg

hypothesized to affect motivation to learn, which is

described as "a specific desire of the trainee to learn

the content ofthe training program" (p. 743). Motivation to learn is hypothesized to affect learning

which, in turn, influences behavior change. High

motivation to learn is thought to be reflected in

individuals who:

(1) believe that the assessment of their strengths

and weaknesses used as criteria for the assignment of training is accurate,

(2) believe that the content ofthe training program

can be mastered with reasonable effort,

(3) are engaged in self-development activities that

further their career plans and identify with their

job,and

(4) perceive interpersonal support from peers and

supervisors and the existence ofother resources

necessary to do the job.

Little research has been conducted to examine the

actual impact ofthese factors on training. However, a

study by Noe and Schmidt (1986) examined the

effects of trainee attitudes on the outcomes of training. They found thatthe participants' level ofinvolvement in their jobs and careers was an important

precursor to learning during training and behavior

change back on the job.

Choice and Voluntary Participation. Being offered a choice and receiving the desired choice in

training content also enhances motivation to learn. A

study by Baldwin, Magjuka, and Loher (1991) found

that those persons who received their chosen training

scored significantly higher on a pre-training measure

ofmotivation to learn than did those who were given

no choice on the training received. Although these

two groups did not differ on the post-training measure of learning, those who were offered a choice in

training and subsequently did not receive their choice,

scored significantly lower on the measure oflearning.

Similarly, greater attitude change has been found

among those who perceived greater freedom ofchoice

to participate (Brock, 1962; Brehm & Cohen, 1959;

Davis & Jones, 1960; Jones & Brehm, 1967). Conversely, when individuals perceive being coerced into

a situation designed to affect attitude change, they

tend to react by holding their original attitude more

strongly than before. Miles (1981) also argues that

people "should not be ordered, or even gently coerced" to attend training, nor to participate in specific

exercises within training. Reichard et al. (1992) and

Walter and Marks (1981) point out that experiential

training should be voluntary, since the effectiveness of

the training hinges on the involvement ofthe trainee.

If training is nonvoluntary, the concerns of trainees

should be processed up front in the training course

(Nancy Post, personal communication,July 9,1993).

Summary. Research outcomes clearly illustrate that

individual differences associated with learning styles,

personality, demographic characteristics, and background experience can influence training effectiveness. Learning styles were found to play a role in

individual responsiveness to training activities and

learning outcomes. The cost associated with identifying and matching learning and instructional styles, as

well as the possibility that employees will perceive the

assessment of individual learning styles as intrusive,

makes this a less viable use of learning styles to

enhance training. However, training should enable

individuals to apply their different approaches to

learning the objectives to the extent possible and

encourage the development of new learning approaches.

Heterogeneous training groups offer both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, members

of heterogeneous groups may benefit from the different perspectives and dynamics created by including

demographic diversity among trainees. On the other

hand, the differences may affect the level of learning

because more time is required for group process issues.

Trainers need to weigh the advantages and disadvantages, as well as consider the learning objectives that

would be affected by having homogeneous or heterogeneous groups. Ifheterogeneous training groups are

used the trainer should be aware of the potential

difficulties that might arise from a heterogeneous

training group and be prepared to manage the unique

issues in the course.

Although there was little research information on

trainee attitudes and motivation, it appears to be a

fruitful approach in determining who might benefit

the most from training and development programs.

Reduced funding for these types of programs, in12
yg

creased competition for training and development

slots, and the need to obtain the greatest investment

on training point to the importance of selecting the

individual who will optimize his or her training experience. Measures of, for example, self-development

and career planning activity, might serve as useful

screening tools for identifying such individuals.

Finally, voluntary participation is recommended

for experiential training, especially where attitude

change or psychological change is the training goal.

Where agency policy requires training, as in diversity

awareness training for supervisors and managers, time

for addressing participant concerns about the training

requirementshould be incorporated into the training.

Transfer of Training to the Workplace

Wexley and Latham (1981) define positive transfer

of training as the extent to which trainees use the

knowledge, skills, and attitudes learned in training

back on the job. Thus, maximizing training transfer

leads to a greater return on the financial investment in

training. To do this, the transfer process needs to be

managed as a partnership between trainers, managers,

and students. To manage transfer effectively, there are

a variety of practices that each person can do before,

during, and after training (Beaudin, 1987).

Transfer Activities Before Training. One way of

increasing transfer is to initiate pretraining exploration ofthe training content, e.g., through pretraining

reading assignments, data gathering, or case study

analysis (Beaudin, 1987; Garavaglia, 1993). Supervisors can play a major role in positive transfer by

demonstrating support for the training. Ways in which

supervisors might show support include being knowledgeable ofthe training content and making training

a priority, even when workload is heavy (Baldwin &

Ford, 1988). Supervisors can lay the groundwork for

transfer by discussing expectations for and benefits of

the training, and setting goals with the trainee for

improving skills before the training occurs (Wexley &

Baldwin, 1986).

TransferActivities During Training. Miles (1981)

presented a number of activities to be used during

training to help trainees bridge from the training to

the job. The activities are used to help trainees see the

relationship between what they learned in training

and its application on the job, put strong reactions to

the training in perspective, and consolidate what they

have learned. Suggested activities include "planning

what to say about the program to others on the job;

evaluating the training program for its relevance to

job problems; making "contracts" about one's future

behavior with members of one's work team; planning

specific innovations, projects, or new styles of behaving at work; and practicing difficult and needed skills"

(p. 105).

Wexley and Baldwin (1986) also identified several

ways in which transfer can be enhanced during training: (1) ensure that tasks in the training environment

are identical to those on the job, (2) teach the principles and theories that underlie the content of the

training, (3) have trainees continue to practice skills,

even after they have been mastered, and (4) provide

variability in examples used to demonstrate a knowledge or skill and the situations in which trainees

practice the skills. The latter method is particularly

important in increasing a trainee's understanding of

how the training applies to new situations and his/her

ability to generalize the skills to new situations.

Noe (1986) suggested that motivation to transfer,

the trainee's desire to apply knowledge and skills

learned in training to the work setting, provides the

link between learning and behavior change. Relatedly,

Garavaglia (1993) stated that one of the most likely

reasons for the failure of training to transfer to the

workplace is that trainees feel the training is irrelevant. Assessing a trainee's motivation to transfer

would include measurement of the trainee's confidence in using the new skills or knowledge and the

perceived applicability of the skills or knowledge to

the job. Collecting these assessments following a prototype course or a formalized course would provide an

indication ofthe effectiveness ofthe course, as well as

the likelihood that learning will transfer to the job.

Transfer Activities After Training. What happens

on the job following training is also critical to reinforcing learning and ensuring that skills are maintained. Wexley and Baldwin (1986) believe that

traditional approaches to enhancing transfer during

training are insufficient for achieving substantial

levels of transfer. They, and Garavaglia (1993),

13
STRATEGIES EXAMPLES

Additional self-training, including self-monitoring of the use

of new skills or knowledge and activities related to the

training to be completed on the job

Readings, weekly checklist, self-ratings on

skills and knowledge, shadowing

assignment

Job aids Sexual harassment desk guide for

supervisors

Post-training assignments that are relevant to the training

content and provide opportunities to practice new skills

Quality action team member, Combined

Federal Campaign chair

Changing job standards to reflect skills and knowledge

learned in training

EEO/AA critical job element included in

performance standards

Participative goal setting Development plan negotiated with

supervisor

Relapse prevention (identifying situations that might

undermine new learning and developing coping

responses for those situations)

Sessions following sexual harassment

training to discuss and practice assertive

responses to inappropriate workplace

behavior

Table 2. Post-Training Transfer Strategies and Workplace Examples

suggested a variety of post-training strategies for enhancing transfer. Several of the strategies and examples oftheir possible use are presented in Table 2.

Post-training transfer activities have tended to receive conceptual examination, rather than empirical

investigation. Where research results exist, though,

they have generally been positive. For example, Wexley

and Baldwin (1986) compared those who participated

in one of three post-training transfer conditions -

relapse prevention, assigned goal-setting, and participative goal-setting - with a group who did not participate in post-training. Participants in the goal-setting

groups demonstrated greater transfer oftraining than

did those who received no post-training sessions.

Achieving transfer after training is described by

Goldstein (1990) as building an organizational climateforthe transfer oftraining. The transfer climate is

made up ofsituationalcues (encouragement to try out

what was learned) and consequences (rewards for trying

out what was learned). These situational cues and

consequences are primarily controlled by the trainee's

management and organizational policies and procedures. One example of a situational cue is a manager

asking a subordinate supervisor to share his/her training experience and learning with coworkers on the

job. A consequence for a manager using his/her training on the job would be preferential consideration for

a new assignment. In a study reported by Goldstein,

it was found that when situational cues and consequences were present, greater transfer behavior occurred independent of the level of learning achieved

from training. Goldstein's findings suggest that active

organizational and management support is critical to

ensure new skills are actually applied back on the job.

Summary. The literature on transfer of training

suggests that experiential training is more likely to be

effective in changing behavior when (1) support for

training is demonstrated in the workplace, (2) the

application of new knowledge and skills to the job is

integrated into the training itself, (3) specific strate14
DiversityAwareness Training

gies are used following training to reinforce and maintain new skills and knowledge, and (4) the work

environment provides opportunities and rewards for

practicing and mastering the new skills.

Findings ofExperiential Learning Applied to

Diversity Awareness Training

Like other types oftraining courses, diversity awareness training can incorporate aspects of experiential

learning and associated training methods. As noted in

the introduction ofthis report, diversity training that

focuses on gender and racial differences, stereotypes,

and inequalities can produce adverse effects for participants if not handled appropriately. This section

incorporates the concerns ofdiversity awareness training participants identified in an evaluation report by

the author (Myers, 1993) to illustrate issues to be

considered in designing and delivering diversity awareness training.

Emotional Intensity ofTraining

One concern identified in the author's (Myers,

1993) training evaluation report dealt with the potential for negative psychological reactions arising from

sharing and listening to employees' emotionally

charged experiences with racism and sexism. As shown

earlier in this review, the training and laboratory

education literature acknowledges that including

emotional experiences in training can pose some potential risks to the trainee. Some respondents in the

evaluation study felt the discussions too closely mirrored a psychological intervention, while others acknowledged that the experience was emotional but

did not feel it was damaging. In fact, the latter group

ofrespondents felt that the emotional experience was

responsible for the perceived success ofthe training in

changing attitudes.

The comments ofthose interviewed about diversity

awareness training pointed to two situations from

which negative psychological reactions could occur:

(1) tisteningto the experiences ofracism and sexism of

others and (2) sharing personal experiences ofsexism

and racism. Applied to diversity awareness training,

those who listened to experiences and were confronted with information that pointedly questioned

theirself-concept, beliefs, and values could be affected

adversely by the training. Sharing past harassment

and racism experiences may also trigger adverse psychological effects for those persons who share their

experiences, exacerbating or reinflicting psychological and physiological conditions (Guteck & Koss,

1993). The possible psychological and somatic impacts on victims ofsexual harassment have been summarized by Guteck and Koss (1993) and include

depression, low-self esteem, headaches, and insomnia. A history of experienced racism can also take its

toll on the psychological and physical health of its

victims, causing hypertension (Kreiger, 1990) and

depression (Spaights & Simpson, 1986).

Robert Hayles, vice president of cultural diversity

for Grand Metropolitan Food Sector in Minneapolis,

cautioned againstimplementing training thatincluded

techniques and exercises used to uncover and explore

one's own and others' prejudices and biases, unless it

was voluntary and facilitated by professionals (Gordon, 1992). Walter and Marks (1981) discussed limits on self-disclosure in training as protecting the

freedom and privacy of training participants. They

suggested that self-disclosure be used sparingly and

strictly for the stated purpose, unless otherwise negotiated prior to the beginning oftraining. Cox (1993)

recommended that decisions to include personal experiences, rather than simply using indirect methods

(such as videotapes, readings) be based on the following: "(1) the time available for the training (don't plan

on emotion and personal experience iftime is short),

(2) knowledge of the intended audience (e.g., the

likelihood of an explosion if personal testimonies are

emphasized), and (3) the skill and experience of the

facilitators (e.g., only highly skilled trainers' should

use a personal confrontation approach)" (pp. 244-

245).

Although the inclusion of methods meant to elicit

emotional reactions may pose greater risk to participants than other experiential methods, emotional

content may still be an important component of

1

Interestingly enough, Cox (1993) and Hayles (in Gordon, 1992) speak of having "professional" and "highly skilled" trainers, but do

go on to describe the qualifications ofsuch a trainer. The need for establishing standards for trainer selection and performance is discu:

in a subsequent section ofthis report.

not

discussed

15
Diversity Awareness Training

attitude change in diversity awareness training. The

feelings to be dealt with in training, however, are those

experienced in response to targetedgroups ofindividuals.

Studies of prejudice have found that emotional feelings, such as fear and respect toward outgroups (e.g.,

homosexuals, minorities), are more highly predictive

of attitudes toward the outgroup than are Stereotypie

beliefs aboutthe outgroup (Esses, Haddock, & Zanna;

Stangor, Sullivan, & Ford, both cited in Olson &

Zanna, 1993). The key issue remaining is what type of

intervention or training will change emotional feelings toward particular groups ofindividuals. Contact

with members of outgroups is still the most widely

recommended technique for changing prejudicial attitudes (Olson & Zanna, 1993) and may also work to

change emotional feelings as well. However, for the

contact to be effective, the groups must be engaged in

a cooperative task and composed ofmembers of equal

status (Desforges, Lord, Ramsey, Mason, Van

Leeuwen, & others, 1991; Gaertner, Mann, Dovidio,

Murrell, & Pomare, 1990).

Summary. The probability ofnegative psychological impact resulting from diversity awareness training

is practically impossible to predict without a clear

understanding of the objectives, learning environment, and methods used in the training. In addition,

individual differences in responding to harassing or

discriminatory treatment, as well as reactions to feedback (e.g., "you are a racist") that is incongruent with

self-perceptions, affect whether a trainee will experience adverse effects. Given the sensitive nature ofthe

subject matter and the unknowns in predicting negative outcomes, diversity training in the future should

consider using indirect methods for presenting information on the occurrence of sexism and racism or

closely follow the guidelines suggested by Cox (1993)

for using personal experiences. The results ofresearch

on prejudice suggest that including training exercises

that involve a cooperative task would be effective in

creating positive attitudes about individual differences (e.g., race, gender, sexual orientation).

Trainer and Facilitator Behavior

A consistent comment noted in the evaluation

dealt with the confrontational style ofthe trainers and

facilitators. Some of the respondents felt that they

personally had been unfairly accused of racism and

sexism by the trainers; others had observed the confrontational responses ofthe trainer and facilitator to

training participants. Articles on the potential for

backlash in diversity training have pointed out that

confrontational styles that include finger-pointing

and blame can do significant damage to diversity

efforts (Caudron, 1993; Mobley & Payne, 1992).

Training could potentially exacerbate situations where,

as described by Gates (1993), white males are already

feeling blamed for all societal problems and are raising

self-protective defenses. Rather than moving forward

in the acceptance of one's personal racism, seen as a

critical step toward developing effective interpersonal

relationships with those who belong to a different

cultural group, individuals may take a step back in the

process (Corvin & Wiggins, 1989; Foeman, 1991).

Both too little and too much confrontation can

lower positive outcomes from the group training

experience (Yalom, 1985). The group with too little

confrontation may not be sufficiently challenged to

reexamine individual feelings and attitudes that could

lead to behavioral change. Too much confrontation

can result in pushing trainees beyond their emotional

limits, resulting in adverse psychological effects or

entrenchment in the attitudes and behavior the training was meant to change. Highly confrontative presentations can cause individuals to take action to

protect their self-esteem, for example, by tuning out

the message (Pittman & DAgostino, 1989) or by

denying the relevance of the topic or attribute under

discussion to themselves (Crocker & Major, 1989).

The appropriate use of confrontation requires that it

be accompanied by support (Miles, 1981). Similarly,

Corvin and Wiggins (1989) stated that, at different

stages of the training process, trainees may "benefit

more from acceptance and encouragement than from

intense confrontation."

These research findings are reflected in a description ofthe efforts ofDigital Equipment Corporation

in instilling a value for differences (Walker & Hanson,

1992). Self-awareness training was initially unsuccessful because managers defended accusations of being racist and sexist by shutting down communication

during training. The managers felt their personal

character was under attack and that they were being

16
DiversityAwareness Training

asked to change their values and beliefs. Subsequent

training sessions took the approach that racism and

sexism are so much a part of American culture that

everyone is responsible for racism and sexism. Once

managers understood they were not being labeled as

bad people, and realized thatthey were learning about

themselves as well as about others who are different

from them, meaningful change started to happen in

the training.

Another related concern identified in the evaluation was that the trainers and facilitators were advocating their personal agendas on racism and sexism,

rather than contributing to the learning experience.

Foeman (1991) acknowledged that trainers do come

to training with attitudes about "the place of racial

groups in a multiracial society." She suggested that

trainers/facilitators may want to share their position

with the group, where it can be accepted or rejected.

Sharing and discussing the trainer's position is meant

to show that there is no single perspective, and that

different perspectives are neither right nor wrong.

Summary. Trainers and facilitators can do more

harm than good if confrontation is not handled appropriately, particularly in diversity awareness training where the topics are sensitive for many trainees.

Rather than serving as a catalyst for change, the

trainer's behavior can cause further entrenchment in

the very attitudes and behavior that are targeted for

change. Confrontation is notthe only way people take

in feedback thatis contrary to self-perceptions. Trainers should use multiple methods (e.g., offering alternative explanations, asking the trainee questions,

allowing time for reflection) to enhance the trainees'

abilities to rethink an opinion, knowledge, or behavior. In addition, the trainer should clearly explain his/

her role to trainees (e.g., educator, interpreter, facilitator), as well as his/her position on the issues being

discussed in diversity training.

Trainer and Facilitator Qualifications

Another concern given by respondents was the

qualifications ofthe trainers and facilitators, particularly in dealing with the emotional reactions oftrainees. Positive outcomes from experiential groups depend

heavily on the ability of the leader to manage individual feelings and group dynamics. However, the

training literature more often describes what are good

qualities (e.g., warmth, genuineness) among effective

trainers than what are the necessary qualifications

(e.g., experience, education). For example, Miles

(1981) spends considerable time discussing the trainer's

role and what constitutes a good trainer. However, he

asserts that graduate education is not required for a

person to be a capable trainer, and experience can be

an adequate substitute for formal education.

Queries to National Training Laboratories and the

American Society for Training and Development revealed that specific standards for education and experience did not exist, partly because the requirements

for different types of training will vary (Dr. Allyn

Hertzbach and Dr. Holly Schneider, personal communication, October 14, 1993). A variety of factors

must be taken into consideration, including education, experience, certificates, and the requirements of

the training. Yalom (1985), for example, recommends

that group psychotherapists obtain approximately two

years of group observation, participation in a group,

and supervised postdoctoral experience as a leader.

Nancy Post, a faculty member in the Wharton business school and a person who works in executive

education, suggests a year-long membership in an

experiential group as well as education in managing

group dynamics for trainers who use experiential

techniques (Nancy Post, personal communication,

July 9, 1993).

Summary. It is somewhat surprising that, given the

consensus on the importance of trainer behavior,

more information and research on professional standards is not available. At best, the literature suggests

that the qualifications of a trainer used for delivering

diversity awareness training will vary according to the

objectives of the course. On the other hand, training

methods and exercises might be selected to be consistent with what the trainer feels he/she is capable and

comfortable in delivering.

Minimizing the Risks Associated with

Experiential Training

This section will first briefly identify the risks

associated with experiential diversity training. Based

on information from the research literature review

and the lessons learned from the diversity awareness

17
Diversity Awareness Training

training evaluation, safeguards for reducing the possibility ofrisks will be described in the remainder ofthe

report.

The term risk implies that certain actions have

consequences. Some risks can produce positive returns on investment, whereas others can produce no

return or can be harmful. The risks to the emotional

health of employees who work in harassing or discriminatory environments may outweigh the risks to

the emotional health of those who participate in

experiential diversity training. As discussed earlier in

this paper, the more emotionally intense training

experiences are those focusing on personal and interpersonal change. In these training situations, the

participant is "expected to become personally and

emotionally involved and introspective in regard to

themselves and their relationships" (Walter & Marks,

1981, p. 256). Pursuit of emotional intensity can be

problematic when the group strays from the original

learning objectives and is led by a trainer whose

qualifications and experience are insufficient for managing the training process. It is these types oftraining

situations - where adequate leadership as well as control, structure, and purpose of the emotional experience is lacking - that have received criticism (see

Odiorne, 1970) and may pose the greatest psychological risk to participants, while failing to produce positive outcomes for the individual or the organization.

Experiential training encompasses a wide variety of

techniques, each of which may vary in the risk they

pose for participants and their effectiveness in meeting learning and performance objectives. Thus, a

critical component ofreducing risks or their costs is to

design, implement, and evaluate training according to

recognized principles of performance technology and

training evaluation. Managing the procedural aspects

of training, the characteristics of trainees, and the

qualifications oftrainers are other ways ofmaximizing

training effectiveness while minimizing the risks. These

methods are discussed in the remainder ofthis report.

Training Evaluation

Just as feedback is needed to guide individual

performance, organizations require information to

determine whether interventions are achieving the

desired organizational change. Evaluation is essential

throughout the design and delivery of training to

ensure the training is on target in meeting training

goals. Evaluation following the training helps to determine whether attitudinal or behavioral change has

occurred and how organizational goals have been

affected. Collecting trainee reactions is the typical

response to training evaluation, while learning and

job performance following training are rarely assessed

(Sanders, 1989). Training evaluation at the level of

learning and job performance is more likely to occur

ifan organization establishes accountability for evaluation and provides the resources necessary to conduct

the evaluation.

Establish accountability for evaluating diversity

awareness training. Information is needed to determine iftraining participants are being exposed to risks

for which there is no return, or a negative return on

investment. The implementation of an evaluation

strategy for diversity training would be used to identify the impact of training and the potential risks or

costs associated with the training. The training department or training vendor, however, cannot be the

sole organization accountable for evaluation. Management must also commit to sharing the accountability for the results oftraining because some of the

organizational factors that influence the transfer of

training to the job, such as supervisory support and

awards, are not under the control of the training

department (Brinkerhoff, 1989). Management must

be willing to use these organizational factors to enhance the transfer of training and to reinforce new,

on-the-job behavior. With this in mind, measuring

the accomplishments ofdiversity training through the

number of training courses delivered is insufficient;

accomplishments should reflect the measurable impact of training on learning and job performance.

Develop resources for evaluating diversity awareness training. Figure 2, based on Bushnell's (1990)

model oftraining evaluation, illustrates a basic evaluation process for diversity awareness training. Each

"E" represents a point at which evaluation should

occur. The evaluation questions that should be answered at each point are also listed. The most numerous, and perhaps most critical, evaluation points are

during the design and delivery of the training.

Carnevale and Schulz (1990) state that "Iftraining is

18
DiversityAwareness Training

subject to "continuous improvement" and refinement

from front-end problem analysis onward, it has a

powerful bias toward success... In fact, use ofstate-ofthe-art instructional design technologies, rather than

post-training evaluation, is the best way to assure

training's effectiveness" (p. S-3). Thus, resources for

assisting internal trainers in course evaluation, as well

as guidelines for assessing training vendor course

proposals, are needed.

Demands to efficiently use scarce resources to meet

business objectives are growing in both the private

and public sectors, necessitating that training demonstrate a return on investment. Documentation of

training results comes from assessments of learning

and job performance, reflected in the "Output" section ofthe evaluation model. However, trainers typically see job performance-oriented evaluation as

involving too much time, money, and expertise (Sanders, 1989). Resources for conducting training evaluation are needed to overcome these possible barriers to

its implementation. One possible resource is to develop a consortium of employees to serve as internal

evaluation consultants. Another possibility is to establish an internal clearinghouse of evaluation literature and related diversity awareness training materials.

Additionaltools for measuring trainee reactions, learning, and job performance should also be developed.

Another option is to conduct an evaluation workshop

for those responsible for diversity awareness training.

The workshop could provide participants with sufficient skills to prepare for an evaluation (e.g., identify

important questions to be answered and potential

sources of information) and initiate data collection

activities.

Procedural Aspects ofTraining

Offer, but don't require, experiential diversity

training that uses laboratory education methods and

techniques. Training professionals generally agree

that emotional-based experiential training should be

voluntary, because the effectiveness of the approach

depends upon (1) the involvement ofthe trainees and

(2) the presence of requisite levels of interpersonal

skill and self-awareness. In addition, research has

Figure 2. Diversity Awareness Training Evaluation Model

Needs

Analysis

Training Design

and Delivery

Organization: What

policies and

procedures will

support the new skills?

Task/KSA: What is

needed to do the

job?

Person: Who should

be targeted for the

training course?

Plan ->Design -^Develop -^Deliver

I J I J

E1 E2 E3 E4

What strategies, methods, media,

and material will produce the necessary

learning and behavior changes?

Output Outcomes

Trainee Reactions

Learning:

-Informed about diversity

-Understand business necessity

for diverse workforce

-Recognition of prejudices

and their impact on others

Job Performance:

Behavior change

E5

-Is the training being

conducted as planned?

-What problems are

encountered that

must be corrected?

E6

Do trainees:

-like the training?

-learn?

-use what they

learn back on

the job?

Representation of

targeted groups

Employee-friendly

Greater productivity

Less turnover

Innovation

E7

What organizational

results are achieved?

19
DiversityAwareness Training

shown that receiving training without a choice and

using coercive methods tend to reduce the effectiveness of attitude change efforts.

Carefully consider whether personal experiences

ofsexual harassment and racism should be included

in the training. The experiences ofsexual harassment

and racism can negatively affect the psychological and

physical health ofits victims. Revisiting those experiences in the training setting has the potential for

exacerbating the psychological and physical condition

ofthose who share their experiences, and who may feel

pressure to do so. Ensuring individual choice in participation in exercises, where past experiences ofworkrelated sexual harassment and racial discrimination

are shared, allows individuals to make decisions about

their ability to deal with the issues under discussion.

In addition, Cox's (1993) guidelines for using personal experiences to illustrate the occurrence of racism and sexism could be used to decide whether or not

indirect methods are more appropriate: (1) is there

sufficient time to debrief the experience? (2) is the

audience able to handle the experience? and (3) does

the trainer have the right skills in sufficient amounts

for leading this type of exercise?

Provide sufficient time for intellectually and emotionally processing each experiential learning exercise during the course and for debriefing the training

as a whole. The time allowed for feedback, discussion,

and integration following each exercise and at the end

of training is an integral part of the learning and

change process (Miles, 1981; Walter & Marks, 1981).

Building in adequate time for processing the experiences also allows the trainers or facilitators to more

closely monitor the participants' reactions and take

appropriate steps to address concerns as they arise.

Build in processes and activities before, during,

andafter training that increase the use ofthe training

on the job. "Bridging" (Miles, 1981) or "positive

transfer oftraining" (Wexley & Latham, 1981) activities involving trainers, trainees, and their supervisors

can be used to enhance and maintain changes in job

performance. These can include additional sessions

following the training, working with supervisors to

provide the cues and contingencies to trainees for

demonstrating new skills, or auditing other human

resource systems for their consistency in reinforcing

changes in job performance.

Provide training follow-up in the work setting.

The purposes ofthe follow-up are to (a) discuss strong

reactions that might have been elicited during training and, if appropriate, link to changed work behavior, (b) promote organizational and peer support for

new behavior, and (c) encourage continuous learning

from the training experience. Each ofthese purposes

serves to tie the training to behavior at work. The

follow-up itself thus serves as a potent method for

refreshing the learned knowledge and skills oftrainees

and can help to create a climate for positive transfer of

training to the job. Trainers or facilitators should be

used to lead the follow-up sessions.

Characteristics ofTrainees

Screenparticipants for experiential diversity training that uses laboratory education methods and

techniques. Reichard et al. (1992) recommend, for

experiential training programs where participation is

voluntary, the use of participant application forms to

identify potential factors that may affect responses to

training. Training vendors that provide this type of

training, for example, National Training Laboratory,

often require that the potential trainee submit an

application form. Application forms may include

questions, such as whatthe individual wishes to achieve

through the training, recency ofparticipation in similar types of experiential training programs, and a

measure ofgeneral life stress. Based on the applicants'

responses, they may be asked to delay participation in

the training, or be queried further abouttheir goals for

participation to make sure the class is appropriate to

their needs and current skills. Some laboratory education vendors ask for information on previous history

ofgroup and/or individual psychotherapy and hospitalization because of the possibility that emotional

disruption will occur in the training.

Collect and use information about training participants to enhance training effectiveness. Demographic data such as the race, sex, age, and educational

level of participants, as well as attitudes about the

20
DiversityAwareness Training

issue to be addressed in training and motivation to use

the training content are examples of information

trainers could collect prior to training. Information

such as this should be used to identify possible needed

modifications to the training curriculum. For example, a heterogeneous training group may need an

exercise to address conflict that often arises when a

group is composed of dissimilar others. The trainer

may also need to adjust activities to deal with differences among trainees in initial attitudes or knowledge

about the content ofthe training (e.g., sexual harassment). Where the training group is made up ofindividuals from different organizations, post-training

transfer strategies may need greater attention (Cooper

& Harrison, 1976).

Prepare participants for training. The training

goals and methods should be clearly articulated up

front. Accurate descriptions oftraining are necessary

to eliminate trainee misconceptions, give trainees the

opportunity to prepare for the training experience

(particularly ifthey are unaccustomed to experiential

learning methods), and to provide the link between

the learning objectives and training activities. In this

way, there are no "surprises" that may derail trainees

who were expecting different training goals and methods. Reichard et al. (1992) state that "By describing

the program accurately and requiring the trainers to

meet the contract as written, sponsoring organizations can contribute significantly to the prevention of

distress" (p. 59). Preparation not only serves to reduce

risk, but can contribute to increased effectiveness of

the training.

Trainer Qualifications

Although there is some uniformity in the ethical

guidelines for instructors, a generally agreed-upon set

of professional standards was not found in the literature. Educational, licensing, and other requirements

should be commensurate with what is needed to

competently use particular training methods and approaches. For example, delivering lectures on a content area does not require the same sort ofskills, nor

the same level of performance, as does directing roleplays and leading feedback sessions on a skill area.

Diversity awareness training would appear to require

skills in managing group dynamics, a high level of

personal awareness of racism and sexism, knowledge

ofrules and regulations governing sexual harassment

and other discriminatory behavior, and experience

and background in a mental health profession. The

problem is identifying educational and other qualifications that indicate whether a trainer possesses these

skills and knowledge to the degree needed to deliver

training effectively.

A forum consisting of professionals in education

and training should be convened to identify the requisite qualifications (e.g., experience, education, and

licenses) needed for different types of training. The

forum should also identify procedures for (1) periodic

assessment of trainer performance and (2) ongoing

development of trainer skills.

Research Recommendations

Kraiger, Ford, and Salas (1993) stress the need to

evaluate learning outcomes of training from a construct-oriented, theoretical approach. This approach

contributes to determining training effectiveness, i.e.,

why the training was successful or unsuccessful in

achieving the learning outcomes. The design oftraining can also profit from theoretical developments in

learning and other psychological disciplines by using

research results to identify training methods and specific activities mostlikely to effect the desired learning

outcomes and contribute to changes in on-the-job

behavior. The framework for diversity training evaluation (i.e., whether or not the training achieved the

learning and behavior objectives) presented in the

previous section and the complex assessment issues

associated with evaluation are also important areas for

research. The major phases of training development

and evaluation identified in that framework serve as

the basis for identifying importantlines ofresearch for

the future.

Needs Analysis

Organizations need to consider up fronttheir readiness for training; i.e., whether the work environment

can support the new skills and abilities learned in

training. Measures oforganizational climate for training transfer is one possible indicator of organizational

readiness. Other human resource management processes may also require modification to be consistent

21
DiversityAwareness Training

with and to support the training. Research assessments in this area may suggest that training delivery

be delayed until sufficient organizational support is in

place.

Knowledges, skills, and abilities that reflect what

the popular literature means by "valuing and managing diversity" need to be identified. Some argue that

valuing and managing diversity is simply part of a

good manager's repertoire ofskills, while others feel

there are quantitative and qualitative differences not

captured in traditionaltaxonomies ofmanagerial competencies. This step is critical because, in addition to

serving as the basis for what will be trained, the

knowledges, skills, and abilities are the criteria upon

which the success of training will be measured.

Identifying who is most in need of training and

mostlikely to benefit from training are also important

issues. Research is needed to identify the best ways of

assessing performance deficiencies to ensure training

is provided to the appropriate recipients. Research on

attitudinal and motivational factors thatinfluence the

outcomes oftraining will also help to identify up front

who demonstrates a readiness for training.

Training Design and Delivery

A review of the training research literature identified a number offactors that may influence the effectiveness oftraining, including trainer characteristics,

training group composition and size, the length and

scheduling oftraining, and time devoted to debriefing

and process analysis. Research on the relative contributions ofthese factors on training effectiveness would

help in maximizing the utility oftraining by eliminating some ofthe guesswork that currently exists regarding the design and conduct ofthe training programs.

Designing diversity training on the basis of theoretical research also provides a framework for investigating the effectiveness of training. For example, the

attitude-behavior change literature specific to changing stereotypes and prejudices suggested that mixed

groups of equal status individuals involved in a cooperative task had been a successful strategy for reducing

prejudice, at least in the laboratory. Given its success

in a laboratory environment, investigation of the

effectiveness of this strategy in diversity training is

worth pursuing.

Training Output

As noted before, assessment of learning outcomes

from a construct-oriented approach can contribute to

determining why training was successful or unsuccessful. This information, in turn, can be used to

make improvements to the training. Another critical

research need is investigation of individual and organizational factors that hinder or promote the transfer

of training back to the job.

Training Outcomes

The possible outcomes specified in the diversity

training evaluation model suggest several areas for

research. Baseline information on organizational culture and climate could be used to assess long-term

progress toward organizational results. Tracking organizational demographics provides an indication of

how training (combined with, for example, trends in

the available labor force, recruitment efforts, and

career development programs) contributes to the increased representation of targeted groups. Research

and analysis are also needed to establish benchmarks

for training costs so that return on investment can be

calculated more accurately.

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