Wetlands and Fish: A Vital Connection 2

What is a Wetland? 3

Are Wetlands Important? 4

Wetlands and their Surroundings 5

Wetlands in the U.S. Caribbean Region 6

Distribution 6

Common Wetland Types 7

Saltwater wetlands 7

Freshwater wetlands 7

Wetland Loss and Consequences 9

Fish Need Wetlands 10

Wetlands as Habitat 10

Food from Wetlands 10

Wetlands and Clean Water 11

Wetlands of the U.S. Caribbean and Associated Fish 12

Saltwater Wetlands 12

Seagrass beds 12

Common fish found in seagrass beds 13

Mangrove wetlands 14

Common fish found in mangrove wetlands 16

Freshwater Wetlands 18

Freshwater marsh 18

Forested wetland 18

Freshwater aquatic 19

Common fish found in freshwater wetlands 19

A Case Study: Mangroves, Seagrasses, and Coral Reefs in the Caribbean, and their Associated Fish 22

Mangroves, Seagrasses, Coral Reefs, and Associated Fish 23

Natural and Human Impacts on Caribbean Wetlands and Coral Reefs 24

Natural Impacts 24

Human Impacts 25

Protecting our Wetlands and Coral Reefs 26

Wetland and Coral Reef Protection Through Legislation 26

Citizen Action 27

Awareness: You Can Make a Difference 27

Glossary 28

References 30

TABLE OF CONTENTS
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAA Fisheries

Office of Habitat Conservation

1315 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, MD 20910

(301) 713-2325

www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat
2 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

etlands are very common land features found almost everywhere in the world, and the

Caribbean is no exception. In addition to coral reefs, wetlands such as mangroves and

seagrass beds are the dominant ecosystems along the Caribbean coast. For many years

wetlands were highly undervalued and consequently they were often destroyed or

degraded. Today the many values of wetlands have been recognized and efforts towards

wetland protection and conservation are more the rule than the exception. The connection between wetlands and

the health, abundance and diversity of fish and other organisms was one of the first widely recognized

justifications for defending wetland preservation. Many species of fish use wetlands as nursery grounds and as a

habitat, finding both food and shelter. Wetlands are a vital ecosystem for fish.

This document will explain the important link between wetlands and the various species of fish inhabiting them,

with particular attention to the U.S. Caribbean region (Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands). We have included

general information about wetlands, their importance to fish and other organisms, and their connections to their

surroundings. More specific information is also given about the use of wetlands by fish, including a description of

common species of fish that can be found in different types of wetlands. Also included is a case study describing

the interactions among mangrove wetlands, seagrass beds and coral reefs, and their associated fish communities.

Finally, we address the current threats wetlands are facing, both human and natural, and what we can do to protect

these valuable environments. While this document focuses on the wetlands and fish communities of the U.S.

Caribbean, the general information about wetlands as well as some of the information regarding their fish

communities might also be applicable to other Caribbean countries. Throughout this document, the term "U.S.

Caribbean region" refers to both Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (St. John, St. Croix and St. Thomas). 

Mangroves showing root system below the water surface: important fish habitat.

WETLANDS AND FISH: 

A VITAL CONNECTION

W

Photo courtesy of National Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration (NOAA).
3

etlands can be found on all continents

except Antarctica and in all climates.

Wetlands vary in size from a small

pond to a large expanse such as the

Florida Everglades. Because of the

wide geographic distribution and environmental conditions in which

wetlands occur, the term "wetland" can mean different things to

different people. There are, however, three main features that are

usually considered to characterize a wetland: 

The presence of standing water or saturated soils for at

least part of the year.

Unique soil conditions that differ from adjacent uplands.

The presence of unique vegetation and/or organisms

adapted to such wet conditions.

Although wet areas without vegetation can also be defined as

wetlands, for the purpose of this publication we will only consider

vegetated wetlands because of the services they provide to

associated fauna such as fish. Even though seagrasses sometimes are

not considered wetlands, they are classified as such under the

classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United

States, provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Photos courtesy of Lisamarie Carrubba

W

WHAT IS A WETLAND?
4 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

etlands are among the most important environments on earth. They render many services

to nature and humans, making them very valuable from both an ecological and socioeconomical point of view: 

Ecological importance: Wetlands provide habitat, food, and protection to many different species of animals

including fish, birds, mammals, reptiles, and invertebrates, including endangered and commercially important

species of fish, shrimp, crabs, and shellfish. Wetlands can also function as “filters” by removing excess

sediments, nutrients, and contaminants that come from the associated watershed (area of land that drains

to a particular body of water such as a river, lake or wetland). By doing this, wetlands provide cleaner water

to their inhabitants and to plants and animals of adjacent environments.

Socio-economic importance: The socio-economic value of wetlands comes from direct and indirect use of

their resources. Forested wetlands, for example, provide firewood, building materials, and wood for charcoal

production. Humans have also used wetlands as a source of medicinal plants and food. An indirect, but wellrecognized value of wetlands is their role as nurseries for commercially important species of fish. A positive

linkage has been established between wetland acreage and fishery production for different regions around

the world. Wetlands also are valuable for their role in storm protection, shoreline stabilization, flood

attenuation, water quality improvement, and tourism. 

ARE WETLANDS IMPORTANT?

W
5 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

etlands are not isolated, but are connected to their surroundings. Because they

are often located at the transition between upland and open water, wetlands can

be affected by activities and conditions in both terrestrial and aquatic areas. This

dual interaction is part of what makes wetlands very productive and dynamic

environments.

The transition zone between wetland and upland is important as an interchange zone for species of plants and

animals that use both ecosystems. A wetland’s proximity to uplands, however, makes it vulnerable to human

impacts related to development and agriculture. Even though the sediments and nutrients in freshwater runoff

are important for wetland growth and development, excess sedimentation and high input of contaminants and

nutrients might cause negative impacts. For example, high sediment accumulation on wetlands as a result of

agricultural activities or storms can smother or bury plants, causing their death. More direct effects on wetlands

occur when development on adjacent uplands extends into wetlands through the filling or clearing of those

wetlands. 

Equally important are the interactions between wetlands and adjacent open water areas. In the coastal zone,

saltwater input affects a wetland’s salinity, tides affect water levels and the movement of materials in and out of

the wetland, and waves affect wetland colonization and growth. In inland and riparian wetlands, the interaction

with adjacent waters is important in seed dispersion and nutrient exchange. Similar to what occurs at the upland

boundary, the transitional zone with the open water allows the interchange of species, especially fishes, between

the two systems. A wetland's proximity to open water also makes it vulnerable to natural impacts such as storms,

hurricanes, and sea level rise, and human impacts related to water pollution, marine transportation, tourism, and

fishing activities. 

W

WETLANDS AND THEIR 

SURROUNDINGS

Mangrove and brackish wetlands, Puerto Rico. 

Photo courtesy of Lisamarie Carrubba.
6 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

WETLANDS in THE U.S. CARIBBEAN 

DISTRIBUTION

he Caribbean Sea covers 1,943,000 km2. Its coastal zone is shared by more than 25 countries, including

islands and continental lands. The Caribbean is bordered by South America in the south, the Central

America isthmus in the west, Cuba, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands in the north, and

thousands of small islands primarily in the east, but scattered around all coasts. This document focuses

on the U.S. Caribbean, which includes Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. 

Wetlands within the U.S. Caribbean can be found in river basins, along the shores of estuaries and lagoons, in

offshore sandbars and low islands, and bordering lakes and ponds. Along the coast, their distribution is generally

discontinuous, limited to areas protected from high wave energy. Mangrove wetlands and seagrass beds are the

dominant coastal wetland ecosystems in this part of the Caribbean.

T

O

COLOMBIA

VENEZUELA

CUBA

HAITI

JAMAICA

DOMINICAN

REPUBLIC

PUERTO

RICO

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Caroni

a

Cauca

Apure

Rio Grande

Red

t e

Brazos

Balsas

M i s s i s s i p p i

e n a

O r i n o c o

U r a r i c u e r a

Great

Inagua

Andros I.

Isla de la

Juventad

Barbuda

Antigua

Guadeloupe

St. Kitts

& Nevis Montserrat

Domínica

Martinique

St. Lucia

Barbados

St. Vincent

Grenada

Trinidad

Tobago

B A H A M A S I S .

Netherlands

Antilles

L E S S E R A N T I L L E S

GULF OF MEXICO

Bahia de

Campeche

Golfo de

Tehuantapec

A TLANTIC OCEAN

CARIBBEAN SEA

Yu c a t a n C h a n n e l

Yucatan

Peninsula

Laguna de

Terminos

A D R E O R I E N T A L
7 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

SALTWATER WETLANDS

Saltwater wetlands are the most common wetlandsin the U.S. Caribbean region, found throughout

almost the entire coastal zone. Salty (saline) water and

the influence of tides are defining factors of this type of

wetland. The salinity of saltwater wetlands is not a

fixed value, but rather changes with distance from the

ocean, water depth, freshwater input (i.e. precipitation,

runoff, ground water) and season. The two main types

of saltwater wetlands found in the U.S. Caribbean are

seagrass beds and mangroves, both of great importance

to fish.

Seagrass beds:

Seagrass beds are generally found in the shallow subtidal

zone of the coastal environment, although occasionally

they may be exposed to the air during very low tides.

Seagrasses are a type of rooted submerged vegetation

that resembles grass, although they are not part of the

grass family. In the Caribbean, seagrass beds are generally

associated with mangrove wetlands and coral reefs. 

Mangrove wetlands:

The term mangrove is used to refer to a group of trees

and shrubs that inhabit the coastal intertidal zone.

Mangrove wetlands may also include other associated

vegetation including trees, herbs, and ferns, which are

generally found in the upland transitional zone, or the

intertidal zone as is the case for the leather fern

Acrostichum. Mangroves are found only in the tropics

and subtropics along protected coastlines, including

cays, away from the direct action of waves. 

Mangrove trees have developed special adaptations to

survive the variable flooding and salinity conditions

imposed by the coastal environment.

FRESHWATER WETLANDS

Freshwater wetlands are often associated with a

body of fresh water such as a river, lake, or pond,

but the wetland's freshwater supply also can come

from precipitation or ground water. Examples of this

type of wetland in the U.S. Caribbean are freshwater

marshes, forested wetlands, and freshwater aquatic

wetlands. In addition to natural freshwater wetlands,

human-made impoundments also serve as important

habitats for freshwater fish.

COMMON WETLAND TYPES

Photo courtesy of Lisamarie Carrubba

Photo courtesy of Carlos Pacheco, DNER
8 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

Freshwater marshes:

Depending on their location with respect to the coast,

some freshwater marshes can still experience the

influence of tides. Even freshwater marshes that are

not influenced by the tide can experience water level

changes associated with rainfall or ground water.

Freshwater marshes are generally vegetated by a

diverse group of plants including grasses, sedges,

rushes, broad-leaved aquatic plants, and soft stemmed

aquatic plants such as cattails, arrowheads,

pickerelweed and reeds. Characteristic examples of

freshwater marshes in the U.S. Caribbean region

include a giant sedge marsh or a cattail marsh

(although the latter is considered an invasive,

undesirable species in Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin

Islands). 

Forested wetlands:

This type of wetland occurs along rivers and streams

and occasionally is flooded by these water bodies.

When not flooded, these forests remain dry for varying

periods during the year. The vegetation in forested

wetlands consists mainly of trees and is very diverse.

The types of plants found in a forested wetland

generally depend on the amount of flooding that

occurs in a particular area. A swamp bloodwood forest

(Pterocarpus officinalis) is an example of this type of

wetland in the U.S. Caribbean.

Freshwater aquatic:

These wetlands are associated with streams, rivers,

ponds, lakes, canals or reservoirs. In Puerto Rico,

freshwater aquatic wetlands are also associated with

groundwater upwelling. Freshwater aquatic wetlands

can be semi-permanently or permanently flooded with

still or moving water. These wetlands are dominated by

free-floating or rooted aquatic herbs such as naiad,

fanwort, hornwort and pondweeds. Water hyacinth

and water lily are also species found in freshwater

aquatic wetlands; these are however, considered

invasive and undesirable species in Puerto Rico.

Photo courtesy of Lisamarie Carrubba Photo courtesy of Lisamarie Carrubba
9 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

Unfortunately, the Caribbean is no exception when it

comes to the historical and continuing degradation of

wetlands around the world. Erosion, sedimentation,

pollution, water nutrient enrichment, salt water

intrusion, and loss of biodiversity have been identified

as the most significant factors affecting wetlands in

the Caribbean. The causes of these impacts include

deforestation, tourism, urban development, industry,

agriculture, damming and diversion of rivers, and

dredging for navigation. In addition, natural

phenomena such as tropical storms and hurricanes, sea

level rise, and global warming also threaten the health

and function of these valuable ecosystems.

There are many consequences of wetland loss as these

important ecosystems are destroyed or degraded.

Wetland decline will lead to a reduction of the benefits

these habitats provide as spawning, nursery grounds,

and food supply, which ultimately will affect not only

natural ecosystem functions but commercial and

recreational fishing as well. In La Parguera, Puerto Rico

for example, a recent survey determined that 

both commercial and recreational fishing have 

sharply declined, as reported by García et al. (1998). 

Although a direct relationship has not been

established, a parallel decline in mangrove habitat has

been recorded as a result of clearing for house

construction. Associated wetlands and coastal systems

that are important habitats for fish are also being

altered. For example, salt marshes have been filled,

and seagrass beds and coral reefs have been damaged

by excessive and uncontrolled tourist activities such as

boating and diving.

As a consequence of this continuing degradation of

wetlands in the Caribbean, it is necessary to develop

integrated conservation and management plans that

will ensure the preservation of such valuable resources

for future generations. 

Las Mareas Harbor, Guayama, Puerto Rico. 

WETLAND LOSS AND CONSEQUENCES

Photo courtesy of Lisamarie Carrubba
10 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

WETLANDS AS HABITAT

Wetlands are very important habitats for fish.Wetlands provide fish with a place to live, a

place to protect themselves from predators, and a place

to reproduce and nurture their young. Many different

species of fish, some of commercial importance (such as

white mullet and shrimp), use wetland habitats as

nursery and spawning grounds. As a result, the presence

of wetlands has been proven to be of great importance

to commercial and recreational fishing for many regions

around the world, including the Caribbean.

Fish can use wetlands as a permanent or temporary

home depending on the fish's needs and its adaptation

to the wetland’s changing environment. For example,

some species of shellfish, such as bivalves, spend all

their lives in wetland environments. Some species of

shrimp, on the other hand, only use wetlands during

their juvenile stages when they migrate to the

wetlands to find food and protection from predators.

For both permanent and temporary residents, wetland

structures such as roots, leaves, fallen branches, and

woody debris provide perfect places to hide from

predators. Plant growth can visually confuse predators

and camouflage small fish; it also obstructs the

entrance of big predators. In mangrove wetlands, 

for example, many young fish find protection in the

dense and intricate roots. Other characteristics of

wetlands, such as turbidity and shallowness, 

provide conditions that favor hiding from predators.

Turbidity (reduced water clarity due to sediment or

other suspended materials in the water) reduces

visibility, and shallowness limits the movement of large

predators into habitats.

Wetlands as spawning and nursery grounds for fish is

one of the most important roles attributed to these

habitats. Wetlands offer calm, shallow waters,

abundant food, and protection from predators for eggs,

larvae, and juvenile fish. Many fish species use the

dense vegetation of wetlands, branches, leaves and

dead plant material to hide or attach their eggs,

providing them protection. Once the eggs hatch, the

same wetland habitat continues to provide food and

shelter from predators to the young.

There are many examples of fish and shellfish that use

wetlands as spawning and nursery areas. The threadfin

shad or sardina de agua dulce, for example, attach its

eggs to aquatic vegetation of freshwater wetlands. 

The Nassau grouper depends on seagrass beds for

protection and food as juveniles. After spawning in

offshore waters, larvae and juveniles of the great

barracuda reside in mangrove wetlands and seagrass

beds, where they find food and shelter. While the

saucereye porgy adults are frequently found in coral

areas, the young prefer seagrass beds where they find

protection and food.

FOOD FROM WETLANDS

Wetlands provide food to a diverse animalcommunity, including fish, through two major

pathways. Wetland biomass can be consumed directly

through a herbivore-based food web, or can be

FISH NEED WETLANDS

hree main wetland functions provide fish with resources they need to survive: habitat, food production,

and water filtering. The longer or more frequently a wetland is flooded, the more time fish can spend Tthere and profit from these wetland services.
11 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

consumed indirectly by entering the detrital food web.

The detrital food web is based on detritus, which is

(wetland) plant material being decomposed through

physical, biological, and chemical processes, into an

energy-rich organic material. This detritus serves as the

main food source for organisms within the first levels of

the food web, which are subsequently preyed on by

organisms within the higher levels of the food web. 

Many fish and other marine organisms are present at

different levels of a wetland food web, depending on

their eating habits. Some fish, mollusks, shrimps,

crabs, and other invertebrates are found at the lower

levels of a detrital food web, and are known as

detritivores (they eat detritus). Detritivores are then a

source of food for organisms present at higher levels of

the food web called carnivores. Some fish (and other

organisms) can benefit from the large food source

supplied by wetlands by feeding on both herbivores

and detritivores. In fact, by eating fish that feed on

either herbivores or detritivores (or both), humans can

also form part of the food web that begins in wetlands.

Because of their interconnectivity, food webs have a

delicate balance. For example, wetland degradation

will affect not only anchovies that eat and live in

swamps, but also herons, egrets, and fish hawks that

feed on anchovies. As a result, any wetland alteration

that might disrupt the food web will have a cascading

effect on fish, wildlife, as well as human populations

that benefit from this food web.

WETLANDS AND CLEAN WATER

Clean water is to fish what clean air is to people.

Unfortunately, as a result of human activities,

aquatic environments are being degraded as they

receive excess sediments from deforested areas,

contaminated waters from cities and agricultural

fields, and other human and animal wastes. Located at

the interface between land and water, wetlands

intercept water and sediments coming from uplands.

In this position, wetlands act as natural filters where

excess nutrients can be stored or transformed in the

sediments or taken up by plants for growth.

Contaminants (e.g. agro-chemicals and heavy metals)

can be bound to sediments, dissolved in runoff water,

or transformed to less harmful forms by plants or

microbes. Wetland vegetation also slows runoff and

traps sediments that otherwise would go offshore

increasing water turbidity and sedimentation in 

the oceans.

By improving water quality, wetlands provide an

invaluable service to adjacent environments and their

flora and fauna. Fish and many other aquatic

organisms enjoy a cleaner and healthier environment

than they would without wetlands. In addition,

establishment and growth of adjacent corals thrive in

the clean, clear waters filtered through wetlands. 
12 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

SEAGRASS BEDS:

Seagrasses are a type of submerged aquaticvegetation that evolved from terrestrial plants and

have become specialized to live in the marine

environment. Three dominant seagrass species found

in the U.S. Caribbean region are: turtle grass (Thalassia

testudinum), shoal grass (Halodule wrightii), and

manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme), with four other

species being also common. These species of grass can

be found alone or mixed, forming small or large

seagrass beds. The extent of a seagrass bed depends on

factors such as substrate, temperature, water clarity

and protection from wave energy. Seagrasses prefer

protected areas with clear waters that allow good light

penetration.

Since seagrass beds are almost always under water

(except under exceptionally low tides), fish have access

to them all the time. Seagrass beds are areas of high

productivity and are important to fish and other

organisms as a direct or indirect source of food. 

The queen conch and fish such as the scrawled filefish,

sharpnose puffer, keeled needlefish and ocean surgeon

are some examples of species that eat grass blades

directly. Other fish find their food in these habitats by

feeding on detritus from decomposing leaves,

invertebrates, small fish, and/or shellfish that can be

found attached to their leaves or living within the

plants. Some snappers and parrotfishes, for example,

move to seagrass beds at night to feed on small fishes,

crustaceans and other organisms.

Seagrasses also provide living space, refuge from

predators, and essential nursery areas to commercial and

recreational fishery species and to a great number of

invertebrates that live within or migrate to these

habitats. Juvenile stages of many fish species spend their

early days in the relative safety and protection of

seagrasses. For example, the young of redband parrotfish

and redtail parrotfish are usually found in seagrasses

where they find the necessary protection and food.

By forming extensive plant carpets, seagrass beds can

diminish the effects of strong currents, providing

protection to fish and invertebrates and preventing the

erosion of bottom areas. By stabilizing the sediment

and increasing deposition of suspended particles,

seagrasses also help to provide clear water for adjacent

coral reefs.

WETLANDS OF THE U.S. CARIBBEAN

AND ASSOCIATED FISH

ver 500 species of fish utilize the different wetland habitats within the U.S. Caribbean region. 

While some species can be unique to only one type of wetland, many use different wetland types during

the same day, during the year, during the seasons or during the different stages of their life cycles. 

Within this section of the document we provide some detailed information about some common species

found in the different wetland types. 

Because of their similar geographic position, climatic condition, and coastal habitats, there are many similarities

among Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands in terms of the vegetation and fish species that can be found in the

different wetland habitats. However, because of their smaller size and physical characteristics, wetlands in the U.S.

Virgin Islands are more limited in type and extent with mangrove wetlands and seagrass beds being the most

common wetland types.

SALTWATER WETLANDS

O
13 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

COMMON FISH FOUND IN

SEAGRASS BEDS:

Blackear wrasse or Capitán (Halichoeres poeyi)

The blackear wrasse is commonly found in seagrass

beds, where it finds food and refuge. It is seen less

often on reefs and in shallow muddy bays. This fish

feeds upon crustaceans and mollusks. The blackear

wrasse can grow up to 20 cm long. Because of its

small size it is not of interest to commercial fisheries.

It has, however, value as a trade species in aquariums.

Nassau grouper or Cherna (Epinephelus striatus)

This grouper is common on offshore rocky bottoms and

coral reefs throughout the Caribbean region. Juveniles

are found closer to shore in seagrass beds that offer a

nursery habitat. It is solitary and mainly diurnal but

sometimes forms schools. When threatened by

predators, this fish can camouflage itself, blending in

with its surroundings. The Nassau grouper has a diet

that consists mainly of fish, shrimp, crab, lobster, and

octopus. It can grow to a maximum of 1.2 m and weight

over 50 pounds. It is one of the largest fish found on the

reef, but in the U.S. Caribbean this species is no longer

common due to overfishing.

The Nassau grouper is considered an important food

fish throughout the Caribbean and in the West Indies.

Because of overfishing, harvesting of this species is

currently prohibited in the U.S. and U.S. Caribbean and

it has been made a candidate for the U.S. Endangered

Species List.

Peacock flounder or Tapaculo (Bothus lunatus)

This flounder lives in sandy areas among seagrass,

mangroves, coral or rubble. It remains immobile on the

bottom and changes colors to camouflage itself with

its surroundings, which helps it to escape predators or

trap its prey. Because of its great ability to change

colors it is known as “the chameleon of the sea”. It also

often buries itself in the sand with just its eyes out,

while waiting for its prey. Peacock flounders are

carnivorous, feeding mainly upon small fishes, as well

as crustaceans and octopi.

This species has minor commercial fishery importance,

but is traded as an aquarium fish. Currently, the

peacock flounder is managed under a Fisheries

Management Plan (FMP) of the Caribbean Fisheries

Management Council (CFMC).

Queen conch or Carrucho (Strombus gigas)

Queen conchs are mainly found in shallow turtle grass

beds, sandy bottoms, and coral reef habitats, where

they find food and protection. They can be large, up to

30 cm in length. Adults are most active during the

night, feeding on algae adhered to seagrass blades. 

As larvae they eat plankton. Queen conchs are eaten by

crabs, turtles, sharks, rays, and humans.

This species supports an important subsistence and

commercial fishery. They are highly valued as a

nutritious food source in the West Indies and the

Caribbean. In the U.S. Caribbean, queen conchs are

highly valued in comparison with many commercial

fish species.

Photo courtesy of Andrew Bruckner

Photo courtesy of Andrew Bruckner
14 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

As a result of a growing concern on the depletion of

queen conch populations in the U.S. Caribbean due to

overfishing, this species is currently under management

through a CFMC FMP. Management measures include

the designation of a minimum harvest size, a maximum

of individuals harvested per day, establishment of a

close harvest season during the spawning period, and

regulation on the use of fishing devices.

Scorpionfish or Rascana (Scorpaenopsis grandicornis)

The scorpion fish is commonly seen lying on or near the

bottom in seagrass beds, grassy bays, and channels, as

well as in coral areas. It is not a very active fish and

moves only when disturbed. Because of their coloration

and shape they camouflage very well with their

surroundings. This poisonous fish has venom glands at

the base of the dorsal fin, which are only used in

defense. Wounds caused by it are extremely painful, but

not fatal. The scorpionfish feeds on crustaceans,

cephalopods (such as octopus and squids), and fishes

employing a sit-and-wait strategy, remaining stationary

and snapping prey that comes near. 

This species is managed under a CFMC FMP.

Sergeant major or Sargento (Abudefduf saxatilis)

The sergeant major is found in coral reefs and

associated habitats such as seagrass beds, where they

find food and protection. Often they are seen inshore

around rocks and man-made structures. Juveniles are

common in tide pools while adults are commonly found

over shallow reef tops. This is an omnivorous species

and likes to eat a variety of foods of plant or animal

origin, including algae, small crustaceans and fish, and

invertebrate larvae. 

This species can be territorial and aggressive. They will

vigorously guard their feeding territories and their eggs

during reproduction. During the breeding period,

sergeant major males will turn blue when guarding

their reddish purple eggs.

The sergeant major is a species of minor importance in

commercial fisheries. However, this species is

important in aquarium trading, where it has been

reared in captivity. The sergeant major is managed

under a CFMC FMP. 

Spiny lobster or Langosta común (Panulirus argus)

The spiny lobster can be found hiding under coral heads,

rocks, and any other place that offers protection from

predators. Juveniles are observed in seagrass beds and

mangrove areas, which serve as nursery habitats. This is

a nocturnal species, coming out at night in search of

food. They feed on a variety of foods including clams,

Photo courtesy of Andrew Bruckner Photo courtesy of Andrew Bruckner

Photo courtesy of Andrew Bruckner
15 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

mussels, crabs, and worms, and occasionally plants.

There is also evidence of cannibalism.

The spiny lobster is an important source of income for

many fisherman of the Caribbean. It is exported from

various Caribbean countries, but not Puerto Rico or U.S.

Virgin Islands, where it is used only for local consumption.

Because of high exploitation, harvesting of this species

is managed under a CFMC FMP. Management measures

include establishing harvesting periods during the 

year and limiting the number of individuals that can 

be caught.

Spotted goatfish or Salmonete colorado 

(Pseudupeneus maculatus)

Adults of this species are seen foraging in small schools

among rubble, sandy or muddy areas adjacent to rocky

and coral reefs. Juveniles are often found in seagrass

beds, which serve as shelter from predators. This fish

uses its barbels (slender tactile organs on the lips) to

locate and eat benthic invertebrates that are buried in

the sand or hiding under small rocks. Their diet

consists of crabs, shrimp, other benthic crustaceans,

polychaetes (marine worms), and bivalves.

The spotted goatfish is an important commercial

species, and it is currently managed under a CFMC FMP.

MANGROVE WETLANDS:

Mangrove forests are limited to the tropics andsubtropics because they can not withstand

freezing conditions. Along the coastline, mangroves

generally grow in the intertidal zone. To survive in this

changing environment, mangroves have developed

special morphological and physiological adaptations to

cope with flooding and salinity changes. Adaptations to

withstand flooding include shallow roots to avoid the

lack of oxygen in deeper soils and aerial roots, to

transport oxygen from the atmosphere to the root

system. To cope with varying salinity conditions,

different mangrove species have developed different

mechanisms to tolerate, exclude or secrete excess salt.

Mangroves are found bordering the coastline, lagoons,

and canals or forming large forests within river deltas.

In Puerto Rico, mangroves are found surrounding most

of the island, but they are especially abundant in areas

sheltered from the direct action of waves. In the U.S.

Caribbean region mangrove wetlands are dominated by

one or a combination of four species: the red mangrove

(Rhizophora mangle), the black mangrove (Avicennia

germinans), the white mangrove (Laguncularia

racemosa), and the button mangrove (Conocarpus

erectus). Associated vegetation includes other trees,

shrubs, ferns and some herbaceous species. The red

mangrove dominates in the wetter parts or seaward

edge of the coast, while black, white, and button

mangrove trees predominate in the landward parts of

the wetlands. The red mangrove is generally the

dominant species and can be easily distinguished by

the formation of a thick root system that rises above

the soil and water surfaces. Mangrove cays are

commonly dominated by white mangroves.

Due to the influence of tides, most mangroves get

flooded at least twice during the day, which facilitates

the movement of fish in and out of the wetland. As a

result, many different species of fish use mangroves for

the same reasons they use seagrass beds. The presence

of intricate root systems, fallen branches, wood, and

leaves make these wetlands attractive to fishes and

Photo courtesy of Andrew Bruckner
16 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

many other organisms that look for food and shelter

from predators. Aerial roots of red mangroves are

sometimes flooded for long periods of time, allowing

crustaceans, sponges, mollusks, and marine vegetation

to adhere to the roots and form a rich marine

microhabitat. Marine life growing on these flooded

aerial roots then provides additional food for fish.

COMMON FISH FOUND IN

MANGROVE WETLANDS:

Anchovy or Bocua (Cetengraulis edentulus)

Anchovies are small silvery fish with blue-green backs.

They usually do not grow larger than 20 cm. Anchovies

generally occur inshore, entering brackish waters of

lagoons and estuaries. Mangroves growing in these

coastal environments generally provide anchovies with

food and protection. This species forms large schools.

They are filter-feeders feeding on both phytoplankton

and zooplankton.

This fish is commonly used as bait and considered of

minor commercial importance. However, in some

countries such as Perú the anchovy represents an

important fisheries resource. Anchovies are highly

appreciated for human consumption in countries such

as France and Spain. In mangrove ecosystems, this

species is important as part of the food web of young

groupers.

Gray snapper or Pargo prieto (Lutjanus griseus)

The gray snapper is found in coastal as well as

offshore waters around coral reefs, rocky areas,

estuaries, mangrove habitats, and sometimes in lower

reaches of rivers (especially the young). This diversity

of location indicates the tolerance of this species to

different salinity ranges. A variety of inshore habitats

represent important nursery areas for the young gray

snapper. Their post-larvae generally settle in

mangroves and seagrass beds, where they find food

and protection from predators. The gray snapper is a

nocturnal feeder, preying on small fishes, shrimps,

crabs and other invertebrates. 

This species of snapper is a very popular game and food

fish. Although it is fished commercially, it is sought

largely as a seasonal supplement to other fisheries. 

The gray snapper has been successfully reared for

aquaculture, and is also exhibited in commercial

aquariums. In the U.S. Caribbean, this species is

managed under a CFMC FMP.

Great barracuda or Picúa (Sphyraena barracuda)

The great barracuda is often found in nearshore

mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs. After being

spawned in offshore waters, the larvae and then oneyear old juveniles reside in mangroves and seagrass

beds, where they find food and safety. Adults live

generally near the surface and occur in a wide variety

of habitats from inner harbors to the open sea.

Because of its sharp teeth and ability to swim at high

speed, the great barracuda is a very efficient predator

feeding mainly on fishes, cephalopods and sometimes

shrimps. It can reach a size of 2 m and weigh 50 kg

and is generally not dangerous to humans.

The great barracuda is a commercial species in the U.S.

Caribbean, although in Puerto Rico there is a threat of

ciguatera poisoning, especially when consuming larger

individuals. In some areas it is commercialized fresh or

dried/salted. This is a highly esteemed gamefish. It is

also a species commonly shown in aquariums.

Photo courtesy of Andrew Bruckner Photo courtesy of Andrew Bruckner
17 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

Mangrove oyster or Ostión de mangle (Crassostrea

rhizophorae)

The mangrove oyster is characterized by irregular

and rough purple shells, which can reach a maximum

length of about 12 cm. It is a sessile organism,

generally found in brackish waters forming clusters

on the roots of red mangrove trees as well as in rocks

or other hard bottoms. Because of their location 

in the intertidal zone, these communities can

become exposed to the air during low tides or

submerged during high tides. The mangrove oyster is

a filter-feeding organism, which feeds mainly 

on phytoplankton. 

This species is consumed by different organisms

including the starfish and some birds. It is also

considered a delicacy by humans. It is commercially

important in the Boquerón area of Puerto Rico.

Mutton snapper or Sama (Lutjanus analis)

The mutton snapper occurs in offshore areas as well as

the clear waters around islands. Large adults are

usually found among rocks and corals. Juveniles occur

in mangroves, canals and over sandy, vegetated

(usually seagrass) environments, where they find

protection. This species forms small aggregations

during the day. It is a diurnal and nocturnal feeder. 

Its diet consists mainly of fishes, shrimps, crabs, and

other invertebrates.

This is a highly valued commercial species, and it is also

popular in recreational fishing. Currently it is

considered to be vulnerable to overfishing, and is

managed under a CFMC FMP. The management plan

includes a closed season, specific size limits, and 

gear restrictions.

Irish pompano or Mojarra (Diapterus auratus)

The Irish pompano lives in shallow coastal waters with

mud or sand bottom, especially in mangrove-lined

creeks and lagoons. It is also found on vegetated sand

grounds in marine areas. Occasionally, it can be

observed in fresh water. Juveniles have a wider

distribution than adults. This species feeds mainly 

on invertebrates.

The Irish pompano is considered a species of minor

commercial importance. It is, however, an important

bait fish. It can be a fun species to catch on light line.

Common snook or Róbalo (Centropomus undecimalis)

The common snook is the most abundant of all snook

species. It is often found around mangrove-fringed

estuarine habitats, which provide food and shelter.

They can also be found in freshwater rivers, nearshore

canals, salt marshes, seagrass beds, and reefs. 

The common snook is a carnivorous species, feeding

primarily on other fish. It also eats shrimps, crabs and

other crustaceans. 

Photo courtesy of Lisamarie Carrubba

Photo courtesy of Andrew Bruckner
18 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

Because of its popularity as a gamefish and because of

its excellent flesh, common snook have declined in

certain regions as a result of commercial and

recreational over harvesting. Habitat degradation or

destruction is another cause of this species' decline.

Tarpon or Sábalo (Megalops atlanticus)

Tarpon inhabit a wide variety of habitats, but are

mainly found in coastal waters, bays, estuaries and

mangrove-lined lagoons. These areas serve as nursery

habitats for their larvae, providing food and shelter.

This species can also be observed entering fresh

waterways or in offshore waters. Because of its ability

to inhale air from the surface through a modified air

bladder, this species is able to tolerate low oxygen

environments. This species is, however, very sensitive

to low temperatures. Tarpon feeding habits change

with developmental stage. For example, juveniles are

planktivorous (feed on plankton) while adults are

carnivorous, feeding on fish, shrimp and crabs.

The tarpon is highly prized as a recreational fish due to

its great strength and fast swimming speed. A female

tarpon can reach over 2.5 m in length and near 161 kg

in weight. Even though this species is not valued as a

food fish, in some countries such as Panama, the West

Indies, and Africa it is considered a delicacy.

FRESHWATER WETLANDS

FRESHWATER MARSH:

This type of wetland occurs mainly in the lowland

coastal areas, and is generally associated with

rivers, lakes, lagoons, streams, or ponds, and in areas of

groundwater upwelling known as “sumideros” in

Puerto Rico. The vegetation found in these

environments can be very diverse and generally

consists of a mix of species including grasses, sedges,

rushes, and broad-leaved aquatic plants. Some

dominant species found in this type of wetland are the

swamp fern, sawgrass, giant sedge, water grass,

hibiscus, arrowhead, and cattail. This latter species is

however, considered an invasive nuisance species

typically found in disturbed areas. These marshes can

be flooded for long periods of time or they might be

inundated infrequently. How often and for how long

these marshes are flooded is a very important factor

determining the abundance and species of fish utilizing

them. The deeper the water and the longer the marsh

is covered with water, the greater the probability of

finding fish in them.

FORESTED WETLAND:

Forested wetlands are normally found in the low-lying

and flat coastal areas. As a result of burning, clearing for

agriculture, cutting for wood, or damage by hurricanes,

this type of wetland can only be found in a few areas

within the U.S. Caribbean region. Remnant forested

wetlands are commonly found landward of mangrove

forests but also inland in swamps and along streams and

rivers. Trees of up to 15 m height constitute the main

Photo courtesy of NOAA

Photo courtesy of Andrew Bruckner
19 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

kind of vegetation forming these wetlands. 

The dominant tree species growing in these forested

wetlands is swamp bloodwood or palo de pollo

(Pterocarpus officinalis) with associated species such as

royal palm, the slender spiny escambrón, pitch apple or

cupey, pond apple or corazón cimarrón, leather ferns or

palmitas del río, and many others. 

FRESHWATER AQUATIC:

These systems are generally found within the flat

coastal lowlands, but also occur in human-made

impoundments located inland. Freshwater aquatic

communities are dominated by free-floating and

rooted herbaceous species. Some common examples of

plants found in this type of wetlands are water lily,

alligator weed, naiad, fanwort, and water hyacinth.

This latter considered an invasive species that often

out-competes native species. In these wetlands water

level changes are often associated with rainfall.

COMMON FISH FOUND IN

FRESHWATER WETLANDS:

American eel or Anguila (Anguilla rostrata)

The American eel lives most of its life in freshwater,

usually in permanent rivers or lakes. This species finds

food and protection within the wetland vegetation that

grows in these water bodies. It hides from the light

during the day in holes or other shelters, often burying

itself in the substrate. It is active at night, swimming

near the bottom in search of food. Its diet changes

according to its level of maturity. Adults feed mainly

upon insects, crustaceans, clams, worms, fish, and frogs. 

The American eel is a catadromous species, which

means that after spending most of its life in fresh

water, it returns to salt water to spawn. Because of

this, the species undertakes a long migration from

freshwater habitats to its spawning site at the

Sargasso Sea. After spawning, the adults die and the

young are then transported by currents to rivers and

streams where they finish their development.

The American eel is considered of great economic

importance. It is sold for human consumption

(especially in Japan, Taiwan and Europe) and as bait for

other fisheries. It is also used in the aquaculture

industry. Even though the American eel is not listed as

threatened, the destruction of freshwater habitat

through pollution and dam construction, and over

harvesting of juveniles is making it difficult for this

species to survive.

Bigmouth sleeper or Guavina (Gobiomorus dormitor)

The bigmouth sleeper is common in brackish coastal

lagoons and freshwater coastal streams. Adults occur

typically in flowing fresh water, often well inland.

Most of the time it stays on the bottom in the slower

moving parts of streams, sometimes on logs, large

stones, gravel or debris, or in heavy vegetation, where

Photo courtesy of L. Miranda, FWS

Photo courtesy of B. Yoshioka, FWS
20 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

it finds protection from predators. This is not a very

active species; it is nocturnal and takes advantage of

its cryptic coloration to capture its prey, generally fish

and crustaceans such as shrimp. Spawning occurs in

freshwater or brackish water. 

Even though this species is considered of no

commercial or recreational importance, it plays an

important role within the food web as a source of food

for larger fish.

Fat sleeper or Mapiro (Dormitator maculatus)

The fat sleeper is generally found in fresh water, but is

also observed in brackish environments. It can be

found inhabiting marshes, mangroves, muddy ponds,

and channels. These habitats provide food and shelter

during the different stages of their life cycle. This is a

solitary species and feeds mainly on plants, sediments,

and invertebrates. During reproduction it changes its

coloration and performs a complex mating dance. The

adults guard the nest. Since they are quite pretty and

are easy to maintain, they are offered in aquarium

stores. Fat sleeper is also used as a bait fish.

Mosquitofish or Pez mosquito (Gambusia affinis)

The mosquitofish prefers standing or slow-flowing

water environments. It is generally found in vegetated

ponds and lakes, backwaters and quiet pools of

streams. It is also observed in brackish waters.

Juveniles form small schools and use the presence of

vegetation for their protection. This is one of the few

freshwater fish species that bears live young.

The mosquitofish was introduced to the Caribbean and

many other regions around the world as a way to

control mosquitoes, hence the common name. They

feed on a variety of foods, including mosquito larvae

and pupae, plankton, algae, diatoms (one-celled algae),

and detritus. They can also tolerate poor water quality

environments. Even though they are effective in

mosquito control, they compete with indigenous fish

and thus represent an immediate threat to the

ecological balance of native ecosystems.

Mountain mullet or Dajao (Agonostomus monticola)

The mountain mullet is found in rivers and steep

mountain streams within the forest. Young are

sometimes observed in brackish waters. This is the only

mullet that ascends inland to spend its adult life in

freshwater. This species is an opportunistic feeder,

feeding mainly on aquatic insects and algae, but also

on mollusks, small shrimp and detritus. This fish often

feeds near the water’s surface and depends on its sight

to locate its prey. 

The mountain mullet is caught and consumed by local

populations, thus representing an important species of

subsistence fisheries. Its flesh is reported to be of good

quality.

River crab or Buruquena (Epilobocera sinuatifrons)

The river crab is frequently observed in stream rapids. An

active predator, it often feeds on mayfly nymphs as a

Photo courtesy of B. Yoshioka, FWS Photo courtesy of B. Yoshioka, FWS
21 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

juvenile. The species is fished for human consumption.

However, the loss or alteration of streams in the U.S.

Caribbean due to development and agricultural activities

has led to a decline in the species. 

River prawn or Langostino (Macrobrachium spp.)

Many species of Macrobrachium are found within the

U.S. Caribbean region, including M. acanthurus, M.

carcinus, M. crenulatum, M. faustinum and M.

heterochirus. These species are observed inhabiting

environments such as rivers, bays, ponds, streams and

marshes, where they find food and protection. They

can be found in holes, under rocks, organic materials,

or among submerged vegetation. Most river prawn

species are omnivorous, feeding on vegetation, small

invertebrates, detritus, algae, and aquatic insects.

River prawns can tolerate high salinities, and depend

on saline water for larval development. Post larval

stages migrate from estuaries to upstream pools.

River prawns are currently of commercial interest

because of their potential in aquaculture. Some species

are also used in subsistence fisheries. These species are

currently vulnerable due to habitat loss and degradation

in addition to unregulated harvest of adults.

Swordtail or Pez cola de espada (Xiphophorus hellerii)

The swordtail fish is an introduced species. It is mainly

found in rapidly flowing streams and rivers, preferring

heavily vegetated habitats, which provide important

protection from predators and a good source of food.

This fish also occurs in warm springs, weedy canals,

and ponds. This is a schooling, non-aggressive species.

The swordtail is omnivorous, feeding on worms,

crustaceans, insects, algae, and plant matter.

Because of its beauty, especially the red variety, the

swordtail is a popular species in the aquarium trade. It

is also used as bait in some regions and for genetic

research.

Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus)

Tilapia is an introduced species that can live almost

anywhere including ponds, reservoirs, drainage ditches,

canals, rivers, estuaries, and coastal lakes. Vegetated

aquatic environments are important for this species as

a source of food and protection, especially for the

young. Tilapia can tolerate a broad range of

temperature and salinity conditions, low oxygen levels,

poor water quality, and pollution. It feeds on almost

anything available from algae to insects to crustaceans

and small fish, showing some preference for detritus

and plant matter.

As a result of its flexible habitat preferences,

aggressive breeding habits, and simple food

requirements this species has colonized a variety of

habitats and it is competing with native species.

However, Tilapia has also become a species of high

commercial importance. It is often used in aquaculture

and is also used in recreational fishing and as an

aquarium species. 

Photo courtesy of B. Yoshioka, FWS
22 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

MANGROVES, SEAGRASSES, AND

CORAL REEFS IN THE CARIBBEAN,

AND THEIR ASSOCIATED FISH

n the Caribbean region there is often a close association between mangrove stands, seagrass beds, and

coral reefs. Stable climate, low wave energy, high water transparency, and low urban coastal

development are factors favoring the coexistence of these three ecosystems. Mangroves and corals

have somewhat different environmental requirements, so they rarely adjoin one another. Instead,

seagrasses are commonly found between mangroves and coral reefs. 

Because of their proximity to the uplands, mangroves serve as a barrier to filter sediments and nutrients being

transported in runoff. Through this filtering function, mangroves shelter adjacent waters from excessive

sedimentation and turbidity. This is important for seagrass establishment but is especially important to coral reefs,

I

A CASE STUDY:
23 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

For fish, mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs aregreat places to live. These habitats provide living

space, food, protection, spawning, and nursery areas

for as many as 500 different species of fish and

shellfish in the U.S. Caribbean region. Fish find spaces

to live and hide among the intricate root systems,

dense vegetation, and coral structures. Food in these

habitats is also plentiful. Herbivores feed on plants,

algae or detritus. Carnivores and omnivores have an

array of choices including small invertebrates, shells,

crustaceans, and other fish. As observed, the fish

diversity found in mangroves, seagrasses and corals is

very high and reflects the importance of these

ecosystems for their subsistence.

Mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs are

characterized by their own particular fauna, but at the

same time, many species of organisms, especially fish,

move among these habitats. Fish migrate from one

ecosystem to the other in search of food, protection or

for reproduction purposes. In other words, some fish

species depend not only on one habitat, but on others

too. For example, the French grunt needs not only

seagrasses, where its larvae settle and spend their first

few months, but also reef habitats where they forage

as small juveniles.

Different fish use mangroves, seagrass beds, and/or

coral habitats in different ways depending on their

needs. Species such as the foureye butterflyfish and

the butter hamlet depend on coral reefs for protection

from predators, as a source of food, or as a place to

spawn. Juvenile fishes of many species such as the

great barracuda and gray snappers find shelter among

red mangrove aerial roots. Some species, such as the

bucktooth parrotfish and fringed filefish live their

entire lives in seagrass beds whereas other species use

these habitats only as nursery areas (french grunts) or

for nocturnal feeding (many snappers and grunts). 

The scrawled filefish is an example of a fish species

that depends on soft coral habitats since it feeds

mainly on a type of coral known as gorgonians.

Many of the fish species that use seagrass beds,

mangroves, and coral reefs as nursery habitats are

commercially important, giving these ecosystems high

economic value. In Puerto Rico, for example,

approximately 75% to 90% of the marine fauna with

commercial or recreational importance use mangroves

during a given period within their life cycles and/or are

associated with coral reefs. An example is the red hind

or cabrilla, which is commercially important in terms of

numbers caught and total weight of landings in the

Caribbean. Other commercially important species in

the Caribbean that use mangroves, seagrasses, and/or

coral reefs include snappers, jacks, and snooks. 

which need clean clear water to grow. Excess sediment in the water column is a leading cause of coral mortality

in the Caribbean. In addition to filtering sediments, mangroves also remove contaminants such as heavy metals,

which are trapped within sediments or absorbed by plants. Mangroves and seagrasses also contribute organic

matter for coral nutrition and serve as important foraging and nursery habitats for coral reef fishes and other

organisms. Corals, in return, buffer seagrasses and mangroves from excessive wave action and provide storm

energy protection.

Mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs exist in a delicate balance that can be affected by human activities and/or

natural phenomena of terrestrial and marine origin. Seagrasses and corals are sensitive to changes in water quality

and are used as indicator species to reflect the overall health of coastal and marine ecosystems.

MANGROVES, SEAGRASSES, CORAL REEFS, AND ASSOCIATED FISH
24 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

Storms and hurricanes can be very devastatingforces, particularly to coastal ecosystems, which

are more exposed to winds and waves. Wind-driven

waves may break or uproot seagrasses and damage

coral reef structures, while strong winds can devastate

a mangrove forest. This kind of habitat loss has

subsequent effects on associated fauna such as fish,

which use these areas for shelter and feeding. 

Climate change, which is associated with a gradual

increase in sea level rise and changes in water

temperature, is also responsible for the loss and

degradation of wetlands and coral reefs. Higher water

levels increase the flooding of wetlands beyond normal

ranges and high water temperatures can cause massive

coral bleaching. Grazing and diseases also impact

wetlands and corals. For example, excessive foraging

of sea urchins and manatees can severely disturb

seagrass communities.

NATURAL AND HUMAN IMPACTS ON

CARIBBEAN WETLANDS AND CORAL REEFS

mpacts to wetlands and coral reefs can be classified in two main groups: those of natural origin and

those associated with human activities. The final effect these impacts have on wetlands and coral reefs

depends on both the nature and the severity of the impact. Wetlands within the U.S. Caribbean have

been reduced by more than 50%, mostly due to draining for agriculture, flood control projects, and

urban and industrial development. In Puerto Rico, for example, approximately 65% of the original

mangrove area has been destroyed and only a few areas of forested freshwater wetland (bloodwood

forests) remain today. It is important to remember that the degradation of these habitats has direct implications

to associated fauna including fish that depend on them.

NATURAL IMPACTS

I

Impact of Hurricane Georges, 1998 in a mangrove forest in Boqueroñ, Puerto Rico. 

Photo courtesy of Lisamarie Carrubba
There are many impacts associated with human

activities. Within the U.S. Caribbean deforestation,

tourism, urban development, industry, agriculture,

damming and diversion of rivers, and navigation are

among the human activities affecting wetlands and coral

reefs. Deforestation has both a direct and an indirect

effect on wetlands and corals. Direct extraction of wood

products or clearing for housing, agriculture or industry

has devastated most of the freshwater forested wetlands

and a great portion of the mangrove forests in Puerto

Rico. Deforestation also increases erosion and, as a

result, more sediments are transported via runoff to

water bodies, increasing turbidity. Higher water

turbidity affects seagrasses and especially coral reefs by

decreasing the amount of light reaching these

submerged habitats. Excessive sediment accumulation

in the roots of plants such as mangroves can also lead to

mortality by reducing oxygen exchange.

In addition to sediments, runoff can also carry

contaminants (chemicals, pesticides, etc.) and nutrients

from agricultural fields and urban areas. Excessive

nutrients in the water can cause massive blooms of

algae, which reduce water clarity. Reduction of water

clarity plus depletion of nutrients is followed by the

death and decomposition of these algae. This process of

decomposition degrades water quality by using up most

of the dissolved oxygen in the water column, which can

lead to fish kills. Water pollution, especially in coastal

areas, can also be the result of oil spills or

contamination from boat transportation.

Even tourism can have serious adverse effects on the very

ecosystems that attract tourists. Hotel construction

sometimes occurs directly in wetlands or immediately

adjacent to seagrass beds. An increase in Caribbean

tourism has resulted in more frequent anchor damage

and boat groundings, causing devastating effects on

coral reefs and seagrass beds. As an example of the

magnitude of this kind of damage, in October of 1988 a

cruise ship dropped an anchor on a coral reef in Virgin

Islands National Park, St. John, leaving a scar 128 m long

and 3 m wide. Because they grow very slowly, some only

0.5 cm per year, corals require a long time to recover from

this kind of damage. 

25 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

HUMAN IMPACTS

Photo courtesy of Lisamarie Carrubba

Human impacts on wetlands, Las Mareas Harbor, Guayama, Puerto Rico. 
26 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

The governments of Puerto Rico and U.S. VirginIslands have developed and expanded through

the years a series of environmental laws and

regulations in an effort to avoid and prevent further

degradation to their coastal resources, including

wetlands, coral reefs and associated fish communities.

Many of the laws were created for the protection,

conservation and management of each country’s

natural resources. The creation of national parks,

protected reserves, and designation of sensitive areas

are some of the steps taken to preserve their coastal

ecosystems. More specific regulations were developed

to limit and control public access to sensitive areas,

control the extraction of natural resources, including

fisheries, control ship anchorage, and regulate

environmental pollution, for example. A series of

management and restoration plans have also been

developed to better assure the preservation and

management of wetlands, coral reefs, and associated

resources. 

Some laws under the jurisdiction of the Department of

Commerce of the United States, such as the MagnusonStevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act,

identify and help protect important fishery habitat

including wetlands. Local governments, too, have an

PROTECTING OUR WETLANDS

AND CORAL REEFS

etlands and coral reefs are too valuable to allow them to degrade or disappear. It is up to

everyone to make an effort to preserve these beautiful and valuable ecosystems. 

Considering the increasing threat to coastal wetlands and coral reefs, especially due to

human activities, there is an immediate need to protect these habitats. Preservation efforts Wcan range from a small restoration project to the creation of wetland legislation.

WETLAND AND CORAL REEF PROTECTION THROUGH LEGISLATION

Mangrove restoration project, Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico. 

Photo courtesy of Lisamarie Carrubba
27 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

important role to play in efforts to conserve wetlands

and coral reefs, especially when it comes to law

enforcement, and to ensure the use of appropriate 

management plans and monitoring programs within

specific regions.

CITIZEN ACTION

Even though national and local legislation plays animportant role in protection, conservation,

management, and restoration efforts geared toward

wetlands, coral reefs, and associated fauna,

partnerships and community involvement are essential

to continued success. It is very important that citizens,

government, businesses, and other interested parties

work together to ensure the protection of these

valuable resources.

An example of a successful partnership restoration

effort in the U.S. Caribbean is the Partners for Fish and

Wildlife Program (formed by 27 organizations

including small local organized groups, local

universities, local governmental institutions as well 

as world recognized conservation organizations). 

Even though this Partner Program started working in

the Caribbean just recently, they have restored among

other ecosystems, more than 100 acres of wetlands and

have established about 3 miles of riparian buffers.

Even though much has been accomplished by this

Partnership Program, restoration needs within the U.S.

Caribbean are great and there is still much to do. 

By joining existing programs or promoting similar

efforts we can make a difference in restoring and

preserving our valuable ecosystems and protecting

organisms that depend on them.

AWARENESS: YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE

Afirst step toward protecting our wetlands and coral reefs is raising personal and communityawareness of the importance of these ecosystems and their value to associated fauna and our

economy. It is important to become an active steward for the protection and preservation of such

valuable habitats.

WHAT CAN WE DO?

Some possibilities include:

Help in the development of educational

programs for our children (primary and

secondary levels) to teach them about the

importance of wetlands and coral reefs and

the importance of protecting and preserving

them.

Join a local conservation organization.

Participate in local efforts to protect and

restore wetlands, including participation in

the public comment period for development

projects.

Become involved in local community land-use

planning to prevent wetland destruction.

Become a voice to raise awareness to others in

your community about the importance of

wetlands for fish and other organisms,

including us.

Volunteer in restoration programs organized

by local organizations.

Help to keep our wetlands clean and healthy.

Share this publication with friends, family and

anyone who care about our wetlands, coral

reefs and the fish that depend on them. 
28 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

AMPHIPOD: A small shrimp-like crustacean.

BENTHIC: Organisms that live on the bottom of a

water body. They are not free-floating like pelagic

organisms.

BIODIVERSITY: The variability among living organisms

from all sources, including land-based and aquatic

ecosystems, and the ecosystems of which they are part.

BIOMASS: The total mass of material resulting from

the growth of an organism or weight of living

organisms (plant or animal) per unit area.

COASTLINE: The line that forms the boundary between

land and the water. 

COPEPOD: A member of a large group of species of

very small shrimp like crustaceans; common in marine

and, to a lesser extent, freshwater systems.

CRIPTIC: Refers to a behavior or coloration that tends

to conceal an animal.

DEBRIS: The remains of something that has been

destroyed or broken up.

DEGRADATION: The deterioration in quality, level, or

performance of a functional system.

DEMERSAL: Refers to fish and animals that live near

water bottoms.

DIATOM: Unicellular algae capable of photosynthesis

and characterized by producing a thin outer shell made

of silica.

DIURNAL: Belonging to or active during the day.

ECOSYSTEM: A community of plants and animals

interacting with one another and with their

environment.

ENDANGERED: As defined under the Federal

Endangered Species Act, a species is considered

endangered if it is in danger of extinction throughout

all or a significant portion of its range.

ESTUARY: A semi-enclosed body of water with an

open connection to the sea, where saltwater and

freshwater mix.

FISHERY/FISHERIES: The act, process, and industry of

catching fish, crustaceans, mollusks, or other aquatic

organisms for commercial, recreational, subsistence or

other purpose.

FOOD WEB: Elaborate, interconnected feeding

relationships in an ecosystem.

GLOBAL WARMING: An increase in the average

temperature of the Earth's surface, which occurs

following an increase in greenhouse gases.

GROUND WATER: Underground water that is generally

found in the pore space of rocks or sediments.

HABITAT: The place and conditions in which an

organism lives. 

HERBIVORE: An animal that eats plants.

HERMAPHRODITE: An animal or plant, which has both

male and female reproductive organs.

INSULAR: Related to, characteristic of, or situated on

an island.

INTERTIDAL: Refers to the zone between high and low

tides, which is alternately exposed to the air and to the

sea.

LITTORAL ZONE: Area on or near the shore of a body

of water.

GLOSSARY
29 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

NERITIC: Refers to fish and organisms that live in near

shore waters.

NURSERY: The part of a fish's or animal's habitat

where the young grow up. 

OFFSPRING: Immature or young fish. 

OMNIVOROUS: Feeding on all kinds of foods, plant or

animal material.

PELAGIC: Refers to fish and other organisms that live

in the open sea, in the water column, away from the

sea bottom.

RIVER BASIN: Drainage area of a river and its

tributaries. 

RUNOFF: That part of precipitation or irrigation water

that flows from the land to streams or other surface

waters. 

SALINITY: Measure of the salt content of water or

other liquids.

SANDBAR: A ridge of sand built up by currents,

especially in a river or in coastal waters. 

SARGASSUM: A brown algae forming dense floating

masses in tropical Atlantic waters such as the Sargasso

Sea.

SEA LEVEL RISE: An increase in the mean level of the

ocean. 

SESSILE: Organisms that are permanently attached or

fixed to a surface. Oysters for example are sessile

organisms.

SHELLFISH: Any aquatic animal that has a shell, such

as crustaceans and mollusks.

SPAWN/SPAWNING: Process of releasing and

fertilizing eggs.

SUBSISTENCE FISHERY/FISHERIES: A fishery in

which the harvested resource is used directly without

sale for profit; not considered a leisure or sporting

activity.

SUBTIDAL: Zone below the low-tide mark, which is

always submerged in the water.

THREATENED: As defined under the Federal

Endangered Species Act, a species is considered

threatened if it is likely to become an endangered

species.

TIDAL: Pertaining to, affected by, or having tides.

TROPHIC LEVEL: Relating to processes of energy and

nutrient transfer from one or more organisms to others

in an ecosystem.

TUNICATE: A primitive marine organism characterized

by a saclike un-segmented body.

TURBIDITY: A measure of the cloudiness of water,

which is a function of the amount of suspended

material, both organic and inorganic.

UPLAND: The ground above the floodplain that is not

covered by water. 

WATERSHED: An area of land that drains to a

particular body of water.

ZOOBENTHOS: Animals that live on or near the

bottom of a water body.
30 WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION

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FOR ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS

DOCUMENT, CONTACT:

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAA Fisheries

Office of Habitat Conservation

1315 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

(301) 713-2325

www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/

AUTHORS:

Patricia Delgado and Susan-Marie Stedman

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAA Fisheries

Office of Habitat Conservation

1315 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

SPECIAL THANKS TO THE FOLLOWING

REVIEWERS:

Lisamarie Carrubba, NOAA Fisheries, Southeast

Regional Office, Habitat Conservation Division,

Puerto Rico Field Office

Melanie Harris, NOAA Fisheries, Office of Habitat

Conservation, Maryland

Jennifer Macal, NOAA Fisheries, Office of Habitat

Conservation, Maryland

Andy Bruckner, NOAA Fisheries, Office of Habitat

Conservation, Maryland

Ana Román, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Puerto Rico

Miguel Lugo, NOAA, National Ocean Service, Maryland

FOR PROVIDING INFORMATION

SPECIAL THANKS TO:

Lisamarie Carrubba, NOAA Fisheries, Southeast

Regional Office, Habitat Conservation Division,

Puerto Rico Field Office

Graciela García, Caribbean Fisheries Management

Council, Puerto Rico

Beverly Yoshioka, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,

Puerto Rico

Chris Caldow, NOAA, National Ocean Service,

Maryland

John Calgiano, NOAA Fisheries, Office of Habitat

Conservation, Maryland

IN COOPERATION WITH:

Dail Brown, NOAA Fisheries, Office of Habitat

Conservation, Ecosystem Assessment Division,

Maryland

COVER PAGE:

Photographs: Top right photo courtesy of 

Lisamarie Carrubba, Fish photos bottom left 

courtesy of Andrew Bruckner

BACK COVER PAGE:

Row 1: Left & Right photos courtesy of Lisamarie

Carrubba; Middle photo courtesy of L. Miranda, FWS.

Row 2: Left photo courtesy of NOAA; Middle & Right

photos courtesy of Lisamarie Carrubba.

Row 3: Left & Right photos courtesy of Lisamarie

Carubba; Middle photo courtesy of Andrew Bruckner.

THE U.S. CARIBBEAN REGION

WETLANDS AND FISH: A VITAL CONNECTION
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAA Fisheries

Office of Habitat Conservation

1315 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, MD 20910

(301) 713-2325

www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat