DOT/FAA/AR-05/24 

Office of Aviation Research 

Washington, D.C. 20591

An Inferred European Climatology 

of Icing Conditions, Including 

Supercooled Large Droplets 

June 2005 

Final Report 

This document is available to the U.S. public 

through the National Technical Information 

Service (NTIS), Springfield, Virginia 22161. 

U.S. Department of Transportation 

Federal Aviation Administration
NOTICE 

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. 

Department of Transportation in the interest of information exchange. The 

United States Government assumes no liability for the contents or use 

thereof. The United States Government does not endorse products or 

manufacturers. Trade or manufacturer's names appear herein solely 

because they are considered essential to the objective of this report. This 

document does not constitute FAA certification policy. Consult your local 

FAA aircraft certification office as to its use. 

This report is available at the Federal Aviation Administration William J. 

Hughes Technical Center's Full-Text Technical Reports page: 

actlibrary.tc.faa.gov in Adobe Acrobat portable document format (PDF). 
 Technical Report Documentation Page

1. Report No.

DOT/FAA/AR-05/24

2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.

5. Report Date 

June 2005

 4. Title and Subtitle 

AN INFERRED EUROPEAN CLIMATOLOGY OF ICING CONDITIONS, 

INCLUDING SUPERCOOLED LARGE DROPLETS 6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s)

Ben C. Bernstein 

8. Performing Organization Report No. 

10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS) 

 

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

Research Applications Program 

National Center for Atmospheric Research

3450 Mitchell Lane 

Boulder, CO 80301

11. Contract or Grant No.

 

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

U.S. Department of Transportation 

Federal Aviation Administration

13. Type of Report and Period Covered

 Final Report

Office of Aviation Research 

Washington, DC 20591

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

 AIR-100

15. Supplementary Notes 

The FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center Technical Monitor was Dr. James Riley. 16. Abstract 

The need for new regulations concerning flight into supercooled large droplet (SLD) icing conditions is currently under 

consideration. One aspect of determining the need for such regulations is to assess frequency of occurrence, spatial distribution, 

temporal distribution, and extent of icing conditions, including those from SLD. Little information on these topics is available, 

due to a lack of regular, direct measurements. Research aircraft provide in situ observations, but the sample set is small and can 

be biased. Other techniques must be used to infer the presence of such conditions to create a more unbiased climatology. Their 

presence and absence can be inferred using surface weather observations in conjunction with vertical profiles of temperature and 

moisture. Such a technique was successfully undertaken for the North American continent. In this study, a similar climatology

of icing and SLD was created for Europe and surrounding areas using 15 years of coincident, 12-hour surface weather reports 

and balloon-borne soundings. Icing conditions were found to be most common across northern and central Europe, especially 

over Scandinavia, Germany, and nearby locales. SLD was most common over the northern portions of the continent. Prime 

locations mostly moved latitudinally and vertically with changes in season. Most events appeared to occur below 15,000 ft. SLD

events were typically less than 2000 ft deep and formed via the nonclassical mechanism. 

17. Key Words 

Icing, Freezing drizzle, Freezing rain, Supercooled large 

droplet, Climatology 

18. Distribution Statement 

This document is available to the public through the National 

Technical Information Service (NTIS) Springfield, Virginia 

22161.

19. Security Classif. (of this report) 

 Unclassified

20. Security Classif. (of this page) 

 Unclassified

21. No. of Pages 

 68 

22. Price

Form DOT F1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ix 

1. INTRODUCTION 1 

1.1 Purpose 1 

1.2 Background 1 

2. DATA SETS AND METHODOLOGY 3 

2.1 Soundings 3 

2.2 Surface Observations 5 

2.3 Current Icing Potential and the CIP Sounding Technique 5 

2.3.1 Determining Cloud Presence and Candidate Altitudes 6 

2.3.2 Icing and SLD Scenarios 7 

2.4 Frequency and Layer Depth Calculations 9 

3. RESULTS 9 

3.1 Geographic Distribution 9 

3.2 Time-Height Distributions 21 

3.3 Supercooled Large Droplet Layer Depths 54 

4. COMPARISON WITH PAST EUROPEAN CLIMATOLOGIES 55 

5. IMPLICATIONS FOR COMMUTER FLIGHTS 55 

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS 56 

7. REFERENCES 56 

iii
LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure Page 

1a Location of Sounding Sites Across Europe and Some Surrounding Countries 3 

1b Geopolitical Map of Europe 4 

2 Example Skew-T Plot for Sounding Taken at Emden, Germany Through a TwoLayer Cloud With Above-Freezing Precipitation at the Surface 7 

3 Examples of (a) Classical and (b) Nonclassical SLD 8 

4a Annual Average Column Icing Frequencies (%) Over Europe, Using a 

Threshold of 0.4 10 

4b Annual Average Column SLD Frequencies (%) Over Europe, Using a 

Threshold of 0.4 10 

4c Annual Average Column Icing Frequencies (%) Over Europe, Using a 

Threshold of 0.6 11 

4d Annual Average Column SLD Frequencies (%) Over Europe, Using a 

Threshold of 0.6 11 

5a Percentage of all Surface Observations That had Overcast Sky Cover 12 

5b Percentage of all Surface Observations That had DZ 13 

5c Percentage of all Surface Observations That had RA 13 

5d Percentage of all Surface Observations That had FZDZ 14 

5e Percentage of all Surface Observations That had FZRA 14 

6a Map of Full-Column Icing Frequencies for January, Using a Threshold of 0.4 15 

6b Map of Full-Column Icing Frequencies for March, Using a Threshold of 0.4 15 

6c Map of Full-Column Icing Frequencies for May, Using a Threshold of 0.4 16 

6d Map of Full-Column Icing Frequencies for July, Using a Threshold of 0.4 16 

6e Map of Full-Column Icing Frequencies for September, Using a Threshold of 0.4 17 

6f Map of Full-Column Icing Frequencies for November, Using a Threshold of 0.4 17 

7a Map of Full-Column SLD Frequencies for January, Using a Threshold of 0.4 18 

iv
7b Map of Full-Column SLD Frequencies for March, Using a Threshold of 0.4 18 

7c Map of Full-Column SLD Frequencies for May, Using a Threshold of 0.4 19 

7d Map of Full-Column SLD Frequencies for July, Using a Threshold of 0.4 19 

7e Map of Full-Column SLD Frequencies for September, Using a Threshold of 0.4 20 

7f Map of Full-Column SLD Frequencies for November, Using a Threshold of 0.4 20 

8a Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing Frequency (%) for all European 

Stations Combined 22 

8b Time-Height Distribution of Inferred SLD Frequency (%) for all European 

Stations Combined 22 

9a Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of De Bilt, The Netherlands 23 

9b Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Nancy, France 25 

9c Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Lyon, France 26 

9d Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Nimes, France 27 

9e Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Ajaccio, France 28 

9f Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Rome, Italy 29 

9g Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Bordeaux, France 30 

9h Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Madrid, Spain 31 

9i Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Lisbon, Portugal 32 

9j Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Vienna, Austria 33 

9k Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Budapest, Hungary 34 

v
9l Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Belgrade, Yugoslavia 35 

9m Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Istanbul, Turkey 36 

9n Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Athens, Greece 37 

9o Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Brindisi, Italy 38 

9p Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Trapani, Sicily 39 

9q Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Warsaw, Poland 40 

9r Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Kiev, Ukraine 41 

9s Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Bjornoya Island, Norway 43 

9t Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Murmansk, Russia 44 

9u Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Pocora, Russia 45 

9v Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Bodovi, Norway 46 

9w Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Orland, Norway 47 

9x Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Stockholm, Sweden 48 

9y Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Jokionen, Finland 49 

9z Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Keflavik, Iceland 50 

9aa Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Stornoway, Scotland 51 

vi
9ab Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of London, England 52 

9ac Time-Height Distribution of Inferred Icing and SLD Frequency (%) for the 

Individual Station of Brest, France 53 

10 Supercooled Large Droplet Layer Depth Distributions for Classical and 

Nonclassical Structures 54 

vii
LIST OF ACRONYMS 

CIP Current icing potential 

CTT Cloud top temperature 

DZ Drizzle 

FZDZ Freezing drizzle 

FZRA Freezing rain 

NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research 

NCDC National Climatic Data Center 

PL Ice pellets 

RA Rain 

RH Relative humidity 

SLD Supercooled large droplet 

SN Snow 

TH Thunder 

UK United Kingdom 

viii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Little information has been available about the frequency of occurrence, spatial distribution, 

temporal distribution, and extent of icing conditions, including those from supercooled large 

droplets (SLD), due to a lack of regular, direct measurements. Research aircraft provide in situ 

observations, but the sample set is small and can be biased. Other techniques must be used to 

infer the presence of such conditions to create a more unbiased climatology. Their presence and 

absence can be inferred using surface weather observations in conjunction with vertical profiles 

of temperature and moisture. In this study, a climatology of icing and SLD was created using 15 

years of coincident, 12-hourly surface weather reports and balloon-borne soundings taken across 

Europe and the surrounding areas. Icing conditions were found to be most common across 

northern and central Europe, especially over Scandinavia, Germany, and nearby locales. SLD 

was most common over the northern United Kingdom, Iceland, the Faeroe and Shetland Islands, 

western Norway, and northern Germany. Prime locations mostly moved latitudinally and 

vertically with changes in season. Most events appeared to occur below 15,000 ft. SLD events 

were typically less than 2000 ft deep and formed via the nonclassical mechanism. 

ix/x
1. INTRODUCTION. 

1.1 PURPOSE. 

The need for new regulations concerning flight into supercooled large droplet (SLD) icing 

conditions is currently under consideration. One aspect of determining need is to assess how 

frequently these conditions and all icing conditions exist in the atmosphere. Actual 

measurements of natural icing and SLD have been done using research aircraft over the last ~20 

years. The data sets are cumbersome to analyze, but researchers have examined data from recent 

flight programs, primarily sampling clouds and precipitation over North America. The results 

showed that the SLD icing was more prevalent than once thought, occurring in 5% or more of 

the data set, depending on criteria applied to it. The fact that many of the missions were made in 

icing-prone areas, for the purpose of finding icing (and in some cases SLD) conditions, indicated 

that the values might be biased high when compared to random flights. It would be of great 

value to have an indication of the frequency of icing and SLD for all locations, all times of the 

year, and all altitudes. The cost of pursuing such a flight program is prohibitive, so such 

information must be inferred using other methods. This can be accomplished using coincident 

observations of temperature and dew point from balloon-borne soundings and surface reports of 

cloud cover and precipitation type. One such climatology was completed for North America. 

The North American results were consistent with research aircraft findings, suggesting higher 

than expected SLD frequencies in some areas. Analysis of European data sets has been 

undertaken in part to extend this analysis to, and test for consistency in the results over, another 

continent with large amounts of air traffic. 

1.2 BACKGROUND.

In-flight icing can pose a significant hazard to aircraft and has been implicated in a number of 

accidents. SLD, in particular, was noted as a contributing factor in the crash of an ATR-72 on 

31 October 1994 [1]. SLD icing-related incidents and accidents continue to this day, but little 

information is available about the frequency, spatial and temporal distribution, and extent of 

icing, including that which is associated with SLD, due to a lack of regular, unbiased, direct 

measurements. Although pilot reports provide sporadic, inconsistent information about the 

occurrence of icing, research aircraft provide essentially the only direct observations of SLD 

aloft. However, geographic coverage is limited, the sample set is small and it may be biased by 

the purpose of the flight program (i.e., to find icing) [2 and 3]. Surface-based climatologies can 

provide some clues about SLD, but no information about the vertical extent of the phenomenon 

or its presence aloft when freezing precipitation does not reach the surface. Thus, other 

techniques must be used to create a more unbiased climatology. By properly combining 

coincident surface weather observations and vertical profiles of temperature and moisture from 

balloon-borne instruments, the potential for the presence of icing and SLD can be inferred. Such 

a climatology was completed for Canada and the United States [4], supplying geographic and 

altitude distributions as well as estimates of SLD layer depth. In this report, the same approach 

was used to extend the climatology to cover Europe and some surrounding areas. The North 

American climatology included information about spatial coverage and persistence of SLD 

events, using gridded diagnoses. Such data was not available for Europe, so this analysis was 

not done. 

1
Researchers have attempted to estimate icing and SLD frequencies aloft over parts of the globe 

using a variety of data sets. Icing climatologies were constructed using pilot reports [5 and 6], 

icing algorithm output [5 and 7], soundings [8 and 9], surface observations [6, 10, 11, and 12], 

combinations of soundings and surface observations [3], ice detectors on mountains [13], in situ 

reports from reconnaissance aircraft [14] and research aircraft [15], manually generated icing 

forecasts [3], and computer-generated weather model output [16]. Some approaches are twodimensional, while others include information on occurrence versus altitude or pressure. Most 

cover specific regions (e.g., North America or Europe), while others cover the entire northern 

hemisphere. Results vary with data sets and methodologies employed, location, time of year, 

and altitude, but some were reasonably consistent [e.g., 3, 4, and 9]. It is beyond the scope of 

this document to intercompare the results of the climatologies, but comparisons between them 

and the results described here are made in section 4. 

Most SLD climatologies have depended solely on surface reports of freezing drizzle (FZDZ) and 

freezing rain (FZRA), which strongly imply the presence of SLD aloft, since the droplets had to 

have fallen from above. Ice pellets also imply the presence of SLD aloft, since they are typically 

formed from FZRA droplets that have frozen before impacting the surface. While such analyses 

can provide a first cut at the frequency, location, time of year, and even time of day, SLD 

commonly occur aloft in the absence of FZDZ, FZRA, or ice pellets (PL) at the surface [4]. 

Thus, this approach results in an underestimate of SLD frequencies aloft. For example, FZDZ or 

FZRA aloft may fall into above-freezing air, resulting in drizzle (DZ) or rain (RA) at the surface. 

One could examine DZ and RA observations, but far from all DZ and RA result from FZDZ and 

FZRA aloft. Most RA is formed from snow that has melted before reaching the surface. A 

significant percentage of DZ at the surface results from clouds that are at above freezing 

temperatures throughout their depth. Thus, a surface-based analysis using FZDZ, FZRA, PL, 

DZ, and RA would result in an overestimate of SLD frequency aloft. 

However, given additional information about the temperature and moisture profile that exists 

above such observations, one can infer the process that formed the precipitation aloft and 

determine whether or not SLD was likely aloft and at what altitudes. Automated icing 

algorithms have been developed by the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) to 

accomplish this task. One special version was designed to perform this task using climatological 

data sets of coincident surface observations and balloon-borne soundings of temperature and 

moisture. This technique has been applied successfully to large data sets taken across North 

America [4]. 

2
2. DATA SETS AND METHODOLOGY. 

This section describes the climatological data sets and methods used to create the European SLD 

icing climatology. 

2.1 SOUNDINGS. 

Vertical profiles of temperature and moisture were derived from a National Climatic Data Center 

(NCDC) database of balloon-borne soundings taken at 336 sites across Europe and surrounding 

areas between 1980 and 1994 (see figure 1a for site locations and figure 1b for identification of 

countries). Quality control was applied to the sounding data exceeding NCDC standards to only 

include those that had good temperature and moisture data up to at least T = -35°C, reached 

400 mb, and had at least 10 data points at or below this level. This limited the database to 

profiles that were of relatively good quality, had adequate resolution, and were deep enough to 

reach temperatures where ice-phase (rather than liquid-phase) cloud tops were very likely to 

dominate. The ten vertical level minimum was less than ideal, but adequate for analysis. Most 

soundings had significantly more vertical resolution. 

Note that political changes in far eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union are not depicted on this 

or any other map. Letters match figures 9a through 9ac. 

FIGURE 1a. LOCATION OF SOUNDING SITES (GREY DOTS) ACROSS EUROPE AND 

SOME SURROUNDING COUNTRIES 

3
FIGURE 1b. GEOPOLITICAL MAP OF EUROPE 

Soundings were launched at 1100 and 2300 (all times coordinated universal time). The 15-year 

data set resulted in up to ~10,500 soundings per site. Horizontal coverage was fairly uniform 

across the domain, eliminating most geographic biases. Interpolation of results between sites 

was reasonable except in areas where local effects are important, such as near mountain ranges 

and large water bodies. Local maxima and minima may exist in these areas but will not be 

captured here. 

4
2.2 SURFACE OBSERVATIONS.

Surface Observations were derived from NCAR and NCDC archives. At each sounding site, all 

observations made within a 100 km radius were considered in the diagnosis of cloud cover and 

precipitation type. Station elevations had to be within 2000 ft (609 m) of the sounding site to 

eliminate the use of irrelevant observations in areas of steep terrain. The number of surface 

stations available varied from site to site, with several sites having only one surface station (e.g., 

Jan Mayen, Norway), while others had ten or more (e.g., London, England). Sounding sites with 

more nearby stations had a better chance of identifying spotty or sporadic precipitation. 

The presence or absence of clouds was determined using the maximum cloud cover reported at 

all stations within 100 km. If all of the stations reported either clear or scattered sky cover, then 

it was considered to be a cloud free sounding for icing purposes. Nearly all icing occurs in 

places where at least broken sky cover is reported [17]. If any of the stations within the 100 km 

radius reported broken, overcast, or obscured sky cover, then the ceiling height was set to the 

height of the lowest deck that met these criteria (all heights are in meters above mean sea level). 

Precipitation observations were checked for the presence of the following precipitation types: 

FZDZ, FZRA, PL, RA, snow (SN), and DZ. The system also searches for observations of 

thunder (TH), which provide an indication of the presence of deep convection. For ceiling and 

precipitation reports, data from the valid time of the launch (0 or 12 UTC) were used because 

they were the most reliably available and were still representative of the conditions present 

during the balloon flight. Icing and SLD associated with TH were not included in the results 

shown here. 

2.3 CURRENT ICING POTENTIAL AND THE CIP SOUNDING TECHNIQUE. 

Meteorologists at the NCAR developed a multiple data source, hybrid approach to the diagnosis 

of icing, the current icing potential (CIP) [18]. In March 2002, CIP became an official Federal 

Aviation Administration and National Weather Service product. The latest version of CIP 

combines satellite, radar, surface, and lightning observations with numerical model output and 

pilot reports of icing to create an hourly, three-dimensional diagnosis of the potential for icing, 

and SLD. CIP uses observations to diagnose the locations of clouds and precipitation, and then 

combines them with numerical model output in a situationally based, fuzzy logic system. It also 

divides the ground surface into regions and associate a vertical column of the atmosphere with 

each region. The physical structure of each atmospheric column is assessed, and an icing 

scenario is identified using a decision tree. Data are treated differently for each scenario, and 

fuzzy logic membership functions are applied to fields such as temperature and relative humidity 

in an appropriate manner. The algorithm determines icing and SLD potentials for each level in 

the sounding. The potential is essentially a confidence or likelihood that such conditions were 

present. Their presence becomes increasingly more (less) likely at the higher (lower) thresholds, 

and the algorithm was more (less) efficient at capturing pilot reports while warning for a 

relatively small (large) volume of airspace in this range. Throughout this report, the threshold of 

0.4 will be used. Locations where potentials exceeded 0.4 were considered to have had a good 

potential for the conditions, while experience indicates that this threshold is fairly efficient in 

avoiding overwarning or overdiagnosing. Regardless of threshold choice, geographic patterns 

and vertical distributions in the results were essentially the same (see section 3 for an example). 

5
Sensitivity tests indicated that the use of higher (lower) thresholds resulted in lower (higher) 

frequencies, and shallower (deeper) layers. A more complete description of CIP, its components 

and application of fuzzy logic, is found in reference 18. 

A special version of CIP was developed that diagnoses icing and SLD potentials in a column 

using the vertical profile of temperature and moisture from a balloon-borne sounding in 

combination with coincident surface observations. Such an approach can be applied to historical 

data sets to determine the frequency at which icing and SLD can be expected above a given site 

as well as across a region, continent, or even the globe. The CIP sounding technique essentially 

mirrors that of the real-time CIP described in reference 18. The technique is quite complex, so 

only the aspects that are unique to the CIP sounding system are described here. In short, the 

cloud top height and temperature are determined using the moisture profile in the sounding, 

rather than satellite data, while the occurrence of precipitation and precipitation type are 

determined solely from surface observations, rather than both surface observations and radar 

reflectivity. Pilot reports of icing and forecasts of vertical velocity and explicit supercooled 

liquid water are not available for climatological studies, so they are not used in the sounding 

CIP. Stricter versions of the relative humidity and cloud top temperature membership functions 

are applied because the improved quality of moisture data in soundings (as compared to 

numerical weather model forecasts) provides more accurate estimates of cloud locations and 

cloud top temperatures. 

2.3.1 Determining Cloud Presence and Candidate Altitudes. 

The first step in finding icing and SLD is to see if clouds and precipitation are present. If the 

surface observations indicate that the sounding ascended through a cloud-free environment, then 

the icing and SLD potentials are set to zero throughout the column. If clouds are present, then 

the altitudes that are likely to contain clouds and precipitation are identified and all other 

altitudes are considered to be free of icing and SLD. The lowest altitude considered for icing 

and SLD is set to ground level when any form of liquid or freezing precipitation is present, since 

it is possible for icing and SLD to exist from cloud base down to the ground. 

Cloud top height is estimated by searching downward through the profile until relative humidity 

(RH) with respect to water or ice either (1) meets or exceeds 87% or (2) meets or exceeds 84% 

and the RH of the level above is at least 3% lower [19]. The presence of multiple cloud layers is 

inferred if the dry layer beneath a cloud deck appears to be adequate for complete sublimation or 

evaporation of any particles falling from it. If adequate dry air is present and an additional layer 

meeting the RH thresholds is found beneath the dry layer, then a new cloud deck is identified 

(see example in figure 2). The cloud top temperature (CTT) of each layer is set to the 

temperature where the RH threshold is first met. All altitudes above the highest cloud top are 

indicated as free of icing and SLD. SLD potential is only determined for the lowest cloud layer 

and altitudes between it and the surface, since only this layer is likely to form precipitation 

reported at the surface. 

Once cloudy and/or precipitating altitudes are found, the sounding structure and precipitation are 

examined to determine the meteorological situation that is present. This situational approach is 

6
critical, since the meaning of an individual piece of data can be very different for different 

situations. 

Boxed area to the right of temperature profile contains the diagnosed icing (orange line) and SLD 

potentials (dark blue line) on a 0 to 1 scale. Reported precipitation types are indicated in red. The 

solid blue and black curves are for temperature and dew point. 

FIGURE 2. EXAMPLE SKEW-T PLOT FOR SOUNDING TAKEN AT EMDEN, GERMANY 

THROUGH A TWO-LAYER CLOUD WITH ABOVE-FREEZING PRECIPITATION 

AT THE SURFACE 

2.3.2 Icing and SLD Scenarios. 

While icing forms via several mechanisms, two primary mechanisms are responsible for the 

formation of SLD: classical and nonclassical. By determining the mechanism and examining 

the temperature and moisture profiles as well as the observed precipitation type, the sounding 

CIP can be used to diagnose the SLD potential. The classical and nonclassical mechanisms are 

7
described below because of their criticality for SLD. Alternative icing mechanisms are 

described in reference 18. They include single- and multilayer nonprecipitating clouds and deep 

convection. 

2.3.2.1 Classical. 

Classical icing and SLD occurs when a layer of temperature (T) T>0oC (warm nose) is located 

between two layers with T<0o

C, surface freezing or liquid precipitation is observed and the CTT 

(cloud top temperature) is less than -12oC (figure 3(a)). The relatively cold CTTs indicate that 

an ice process is likely to be active above the warm nose. Snow falls into the warm nose, melts 

to form liquid precipitation, which subsequently falls into the lower subfreezing layer to form 

classical SLD, usually in the form of FZRA. The precipitation typically reaches the surface in 

the form of FZRA, PL, or RA, depending on the strength of the warm nose and the T and RH 

within and beneath the lower subfreezing layer [20]. It occasionally reaches the surface in the 

form of FZDZ or DZ when very light snow starts the process above the melting zone or the 

process is entirely nonclassical, but this is uncommon. 

FIGURE 3. EXAMPLES OF (a) CLASSICAL AND (b) NONCLASSICAL SLD 

2.3.2.2 Nonclassical. 

Nonclassical (collision-coalescence) icing and SLD occurs in one of three situations 

(figure 3(b)): (a) freezing or liquid precipitation is observed when a classical warm nose is 

present, but CTT is greater than -12oC, indicating a good chance that an all-liquid process is 

responsible for the precipitation formation; (b) no warm nose is present, only RA and/or DZ are 

observed at the surface, and CTT is greater than -12o

C; and (c) no warm nose is present and 

freezing precipitation (FZDZ, FZRA, and PL) is observed at the surface. CTT is not a factor in 

case (c), since the precipitation has been formed via collision-coalescence. 

8
2.4 FREQUENCY AND LAYER DEPTH CALCULATIONS. 

Each sounding was examined for its icing and SLD potential at every level. Frequencies (%) 

were calculated by dividing the number of soundings that had SLD potential ≥ 0.4 at any level 

by the total number of soundings examined. Layer depths were calculated by finding the lowest 

altitude with a value ≥ 0.4 then checking each level above this until a value < 0.4 was found 

(figure 3). The top and bottom of the layers with SLD potential ≥ 0.4 layer were found using 

linear interpolation. SLD (but not icing) layer depth was the difference between those altitudes. 

Using this approach, the top of the icing and SLD layer was often at the top of the lowest cloud 

deck. While SLD often forms at cloud top, and proliferates through all subfreezing levels below, 

this is not always the case. SLD may have only existed through a portion of the cloud deck that 

produced the precipitation [21]. It was impossible to determine with certainty what the height of 

the top of the SLD layer was using sounding data for nonclassical SLD situations. Thus, the 

nonclassical layer depth represented the greatest possible vertical extent of the SLD, and was 

likely an overestimate of the actual SLD depth. For classical SLD, the depth of the layer was 

easily determined from the location of the upper and lower 0oC levels, so layer depths were 

expected to be quite accurate. 

3. RESULTS.

3.1 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION. 

Figures 4a and 4b show the full-year geographic distribution of icing and SLD frequencies for 

most of Europe and some surrounding areas, using a threshold of 0.4. Maximum frequencies 

were on the order of 45% for icing and 15% for SLD, but were significantly lower when a 

threshold of 0.6 was applied to the icing and SLD potentials (figures 4c and 4d). Clearly, 

absolute frequencies depend heavily on threshold choice. For the remainder of this report, the 

results found using a threshold of 0.4 will be discussed, but this sensitivity should be borne in 

mind. 

The primary icing maxima were found over Scandinavia, Germany, and the nearby surrounding 

areas. The primary SLD maxima were somewhat more confined to the United Kingdom (UK), 

western Scandinavia, and around northern Germany. Most areas had icing <30% and SLD <5% 

of the time, with minimum frequencies over southern Europe, especially near the Mediterranean 

Sea, as well as large portions of Russia (SLD only, see later discussion). While the frequencies 

may sound large, recall (section 2.3) that this number was calculated using a low-to-moderate 

threshold (0.4) and that it indicates that there was a chance of icing or SLD at any altitude, 

somewhere within 100 km of the sounding site. It does not imply that icing and SLD would be 

encountered by 30% and 5% of all flights into that area, respectively. Peak frequencies found 

using the same methodology over North America were on the order of 40% for icing and 5%-

10% for SLD, so European peak areas appear to have similar icing frequency but somewhat 

more frequent SLD. 

9
FIGURE 4a. ANNUAL AVERAGE COLUMN ICING FREQUENCIES (%) OVER EUROPE, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4

FIGURE 4b. ANNUAL AVERAGE COLUMN SLD FREQUENCIES (%) OVER EUROPE, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4

10
FIGURE 4c. ANNUAL AVERAGE COLUMN ICING FREQUENCIES (%) OVER EUROPE, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.6

FIGURE 4d. ANNUAL AVERAGE COLUMN SLD FREQUENCIES (%) OVER EUROPE, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.6 

11
Icing is found most often in places where overcast skies are common (figure 5a) and the clouds 

have a combination of ideal temperatures within them and at their tops. The locations of the 

primary SLD maxima are ones where icing clouds with relatively clean source air are expected. 

These are usually downstream of large fetches of airflow over oceans. Iceland, western Norway, 

and most of the UK are excellent examples, since their predominant wind directions come off the 

Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. Such clean source air was found to be conducive to the formation of 

FZDZ and has been observed in research flights made along the coasts of Newfoundland, the 

Arctic, and southeastern Alaska [2 and 22]. Long fetches over the ocean are not expected for 

Germany, Denmark, and the Benelux regions, where the nearest large water body (the North 

Sea) is relatively small. However, these areas are still quite cloudy and often receive drizzle or 

light rain (see figures 5b and 5c) in combination with warm cloud tops (> -12oC), a combination 

that is often associated with the presence of SLD aloft. Note that surface FZDZ and FZRA are 

uncommon across all of Europe (figures 5d and 5e), so little of the SLD aloft reaches the surface. 

For the most part, only elevated stations observed FZDZ or FZRA with significant frequency 

[11], which matches the lack of SLD below 3000 ft across most of Europe, (discussed in 

section 3.2). Icing minima occur in areas where skies tend to be less cloudy and SLD minima 

occur in these same areas and where surface drizzle and light rain is uncommon, such as across 

most of Russia. 

(Scale is shown at the top. Gradations are every 10%.) 

FIGURE 5a. PERCENTAGE OF ALL SURFACE OBSERVATIONS THAT 

HAD OVERCAST SKY COVER 

12
(Scale is shown at the top. Gradations are every 0.5%.) 

FIGURE 5b. PERCENTAGE OF ALL SURFACE OBSERVATIONS THAT HAD DZ 

(Scale is shown at the top. Gradations are every 2%.) 

FIGURE 5c. PERCENTAGE OF ALL SURFACE OBSERVATIONS THAT HAD RA 

13
(Scale is shown at the top. Gradations are every 0.05%.) 

FIGURE 5d. PERCENTAGE OF ALL SURFACE OBSERVATIONS THAT HAD FZDZ 

(Scale is shown at the top. Gradations are every 0.05%.) 

FIGURE 5e. PERCENTAGE OF ALL SURFACE OBSERVATIONS THAT HAD FZRA 

Monthly maps show that the icing and SLD maxima and minima move during the year 

(figures 6a-6f and 7a-7f). Significant icing frequencies (35%+) cover a broad area at many times 

of the year. During winter, they can be found across most of central Europe, southern 

Scandinavia, and from the Baltics and Balkans down to parts of Turkey. Peak frequencies of 

14
50%+ are focused around Germany and parts of southern Scandinavia. By summer, two distinct 

maxima are present, with one in central Europe and another in the Arctic. This pattern persists 

into early fall, and central Russia becomes active toward the end of this period. By late fall, the 

peak icing area contracts back toward its cool season centers. 

FIGURE 6a. MAP OF FULL-COLUMN ICING FREQUENCIES FOR JANUARY, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4 

FIGURE 6b. MAP OF FULL-COLUMN ICING FREQUENCIES FOR MARCH, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4 

15
FIGURE 6c. MAP OF FULL-COLUMN ICING FREQUENCIES FOR MAY, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4 

FIGURE 6d. MAP OF FULL-COLUMN ICING FREQUENCIES FOR JULY, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4 

16
FIGURE 6e. MAP OF FULL-COLUMN ICING FREQUENCIES FOR SEPTEMBER, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4 

FIGURE 6f. MAP OF FULL-COLUMN ICING FREQUENCIES FOR NOVEMBER, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4 

17
FIGURE 7a. MAP OF FULL-COLUMN SLD FREQUENCIES FOR JANUARY, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4 

FIGURE 7b. MAP OF FULL-COLUMN SLD FREQUENCIES FOR MARCH, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4 

18
FIGURE 7c. MAP OF FULL-COLUMN SLD FREQUENCIES FOR MAY, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4 

FIGURE 7d. MAP OF FULL-COLUMN SLD FREQUENCIES FOR JULY, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4 

19
FIGURE 7e. MAP OF FULL-COLUMN SLD FREQUENCIES FOR SEPTEMBER, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4 

FIGURE 7f. MAP OF FULL-COLUMN SLD FREQUENCIES FOR NOVEMBER, 

USING A THRESHOLD OF 0.4 

20
Significant SLD frequencies (5%+) extend as far south as northern Spain, southern France, the 

Alps, and Ukraine during the winter, then move northward during the summer, returning 

southward in the fall. The southward movement in the fall is more dramatic than the gradual 

northward movement in the late spring. Maxima found in places like the UK and Germany 

remain in place throughout most of the year, through the frequencies wax and wane. Maximum 

values reach 15%-20% during the peak of the winter, when particularly cloudy, drizzly 

conditions settle into these areas. In contrast, northern Norway has most of its SLD during the 

summer and relatively little during the winter, when clouds are more likely to be glaciated. 

Though they do not show up well in the full-year SLD chart, a few stations surrounding the 

Black Sea have peaks during the fall and winter. Examples from individual stations will be 

discussed in section 3.2. 

3.2 TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTIONS.

The altitudes at which icing and SLD occurred most frequently also changed during the year. 

Figures 8a and 8b show frequencies with both height and time of year for all stations combined. 

The peaks in icing (12%-15%) and SLD (1.6%-2.0%) frequency occurred during late fall and 

early winter, when they were most often found below ~6,000 ft (~2 km, all heights MSL) for 

icing and ~3000-9000 ft (~1-3 km) for SLD. The SLD peaks are more elevated than those for 

icing because much of the SLD occurred with above-freezing surface temperatures in maritime 

regions. Recall that FZDZ, FZRA, and PL are relatively unusual at the surface in Europe, except 

at mountain stations and in some parts of central and southeastern Europe. This nicely matches 

the vertical distribution of SLD at low altitudes. Icing also extends upward to slightly higher 

altitudes than SLD because of the occurrence of multilayer clouds (SLD is only attributed to the 

lowest cloud deck in this climatology) and the fact that nonclassical SLD can only be diagnosed 

with CTT of -12°C or greater, mostly precluding SLD from being diagnosed at temperatures 

colder than -12°C in this climatology, except when strong inversions existed. Icing potentials 

> 0.4 were possible with colder CTTs and thus, colder temperatures, which were sometimes 

found at higher altitudes. Seasonal transitions were quite evident as frequencies decreased and 

began to elevate during the spring, which had a secondary peak during June in the 9,000- to 

12,000-ft range. The icing and SLD maxima descended in the fall and frequencies gradually 

increased to reach their overall maxima in December between 3000 and 6000 ft. 

The time-height distributions for individual stations sometimes had patterns that were very 

similar to the European average, while others had very different patterns. A good match 

occurred at De Bilt, The Netherlands (figure 9a; see letters in figure 1a for the location of station 

4), which was located within the continental SLD maximum. Because stations in this region had 

the highest frequencies of icing and SLD and quite a few stations were clustered there, the 

pattern at these sites likely had a significant influence on the European average. Note that SLD 

was relatively unusual below 3000 ft, even in the heart of the maximum. Low-altitude 

temperatures tended to remain slightly above freezing there, even in winter. 

21
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

13.5-15

12-13.5

10.5-12

9-10.5

7.5-9

6-7.5

4.5-6

3-4.5

1.5-3

0-1.5

Months are indicated numerically along the x axis. Altitude ranges were binned 

in 3000-ft intervals. Values for each month and altitude range combination are 

valid at the intersection of horizontal and vertical lines. Contours are drawn 

around these points every 1.5% for icing. 

FIGURE 8a. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING FREQUENCY (%) 

FOR ALL EUROPEAN STATIONS COMBINED 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

1.8-2

1.6-1.8

1.4-1.6

1.2-1.4

1-1.2

0.8-1

0.6-0.8

0.4-0.6

0.2-0.4

0-0.2

Contours are drawn every 0.2%. 

FIGURE 8b. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED SLD FREQUENCY (%) 

FOR ALL EUROPEAN STATIONS COMBINED 

22
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9a. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF DE BILT, THE NETHERLANDS 

23
To the south of the continental maximum, frequencies decreased with decreasing latitude across 

France and Germany into Italy. Nearly all of the SLD to the south occurred during the cool 

season, and their lower extents became more elevated, following the freezing level. This 

transition is particularly evident across France, from Nancy (northeast corner) to Ajaccio, which 

is located on Corsica, to west of Rome (figures 9b-9e; see figure 1a for the location of stations B, 

C, D, and E). Though icing still occurred there, Rome appeared to only have very infrequent 

SLD that only occurred during the cool season (figure 9f; see figure 1a for the location of 

station F). 

To the southwest of the continental maximum the same sort of transition was found. 

Frequencies dropped off very quickly toward southwestern France (Bordeaux) and central and 

southern Spain, as well as Portugal (Madrid and Lisbon), where conditions tended to be sunnier 

and drier (figures 9g-9i, see figure 1a for the location of stations G, H, and I). Toward the 

southeast, a similar transition occurred, but summertime icing and SLD were still evident above 

9000 ft in Vienna, Austria, and Budapest, Hungary (figures 9j and 9k; see figure 1a for the 

location of stations J and K), though frequencies were markedly decreased. This was also 

evident through June in Yugoslavia and northwestern Turkey (figures 9l and 9m; see figure 1a 

for the location of stations L and M), but not in Athens, Greece (figure 9n; see figure 1a for the 

location of station N), where very low frequencies and a pattern similar to that seen in Rome 

(figure 9f; see figure 1a for the location of station F), Brindisi, located in southeastern Italy 

(figure 9o; see figure 1a for the location of station O) and Trapani, Sicily (figure 9p; see figure 

1a for the location of station P) existed. This same initial transition was found toward the east in 

Warsaw, Poland and Kiev, Ukraine (figures 9q and 9r; see figure 1a for the location of stations Q 

and R). Though SLD appears to be rare, icing still appears to occur in Italy and Greece, with 

peak frequencies exceeding 12% in the 6000- to 12,000-ft range during the cool season. 

Further to the east, SLD frequencies were quite low across most of Russia. It was not clear if the 

low values were real, or if there were quality control issues with the precipitation observations 

taken across the old Soviet Union (figures 5b to 5e). Icing clouds were quite common there, but 

there was little indication of liquid precipitation with these clouds. Snow was frequently 

observed, so precipitation was certainly not absent, but observations of drizzle, in particular, 

were lacking (figures 5b and 5d). Geopolitical discontinuities may be an issue due to differences 

in measurement techniques. A good example may be the relatively large number of drizzle and 

rain observations in Germany compared to neighboring countries (figures 5c and 5e). A sharp 

transition might be expected across the Alps or near coastlines of major water bodies, but not 

along the Germany and Poland border, where no major land or water features are present. 

Perhaps the German weather service did a better job of observing and reporting such 

precipitation types. Geopolitical discontinuities are not evident in the frequencies of snow or 

overcast skies. In fact, there was a very gradual rise in snow frequency in the eastward direction 

from France to Russia. The topic of surface observation quality may need to be explored further, 

as it could have a significant effect on the results shown here. 

24
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9b. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF NANCY, FRANCE 

25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9c. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF LYON, FRANCE 

26
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9d. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF NIMES, FRANCE 

27
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9e. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF AJACCIO, FRANCE 

28
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9f. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF ROME, ITALY 

29
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9g. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF BORDEAUX, FRANCE 

30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9h. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF MADRID, SPAIN 

31
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9i. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF LISBON, PORTUGAL 

32
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9j. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF VIENNA, AUSTRIA 

33
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9k. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF BUDAPEST, HUNGARY 

34
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9l. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF BELGRADE, YUGOSLAVIA 

35
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9m. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF ISTANBUL, TURKEY 

36
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9n. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF ATHENS, GREECE 

37
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9o. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF BRINDISI, ITALY 

38
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9p. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF TRAPANI, SICILY 

39
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9q. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF WARSAW, POLAND 

40
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9r. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF KIEV, UKRAINE 

41
To the north of the continental maximum, SLD patterns were very different. Though icing 

frequencies were quite substantial near the Arctic Circle, SLD frequencies were relatively low. 

It was during the warm season that adequately warm temperatures were present to support 

nonglaciated clouds. A good example of this was the annual pattern from Bjornoya Island, 

Norway (located at 74.5° north latitude), where SLD was most often found between June and 

August and icing was most common during April-June and September-October, all at altitudes 

below 6000 ft (figure 9s; see figure 1a for the location of station S). At such northern latitudes, 

clouds tend to be more glaciated during the very cold winter months. Similar SLD patterns were 

seen along the Arctic coast in the North American study. It was interesting to note that the 

summertime, low-altitude maximum was not evident across most of the northern coast of Russia, 

where one might also expect it. One clear exception was at Murmansk, which is very close to 

the border with Finland (figure 9t; see figure 1a for the location of station T). Ramalyekar and 

Radikson Island (not shown) also had summertime maxima, but they were quite weak. Pocora, 

to the southeast, has a distinct peak in August and September just preceding the icing maximum, 

found in the September-November time frame (figure 9u; see figure 1a for the location of 

station U). It is interesting to note that such a mismatch in timing of the icing and SLD patterns 

was found at several Arctic stations, but not over most of the rest of Europe. In the Arctic, icing 

peaks tended to occur during the spring and fall, while SLD peaks often occurred during the 

summer. Monthly frequencies of precipitation types were not created as part of this climatology, 

but based on these results, it is likely that liquid precipitation was most common during the 

summer in the Arctic. 

A gradual transition from the Arctic pattern to one more like the European average pattern was 

evident as one looks southward along the west coast of Norway at Bodovi and Orland (figures 9v 

and 9w; see figure 1a for the location of stations V and W). SLD still occurred at fairly low 

altitudes and was most common during the warm season, especially early fall. The icing and 

SLD timing mismatch was also present, but not as pronounced. These stations represent a 

transition from the Arctic summer peak to the winter peak found to the south. Compared to 

those to the west, SLD frequencies were relatively low in Oslo and Stockholm, though icing 

frequencies were only slightly low (figures 4a and 4b). Stockholm and nearby Jokioinen, 

Finland still featured somewhat of a fall peak in SLD occurrence (figures 9x and 9y; see figure 

1a for the location of stations X and Y). These sites also represent the transition toward the 

southwest from the Arctic summertime maximum in northwestern Russia to the continental 

maximum. 

To the northwest of the continental maximum, SLD frequencies were high throughout most of 

the year, with peak icing and SLD values exceeding 32% and 9%, respectively, during October, 

November, and February at Keflavik, Iceland, an important international airport near the capital 

of Rejkavik (figure 9z; see figure 1a for the location of station Z). Icing and SLD were 

consistently found in the 3,000- to 6,000-ft range throughout the year, but briefly climbed to 

6,000 to 12,000 ft during the summer. This is the only time of year when surface temperatures at 

Keflavik climb to +10°C or so. Similar patterns are found over the Faeroe Islands (not shown) 

and in northern Scotland (figure 9aa; see figure 1a for the location of station AA). Again, 

stations to the south exhibited a shift toward the cool season and higher altitudes, overall. This is 

quite evident as one compares Stornoway, Scotland to London, England and Brest, France 

(figures 9aa-9ac; see figure 1a for the location of stations AA, AB, and AC). 

42
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

2.5-3

2-2.5

1.5-2

1-1.5

0.5-1

0-0.5

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9s. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF BJORNOYA ISLAND, NORWAY 

43
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9t. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF MURMANSK, RUSSIA 

44
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9u. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF POCORA, RUSSIA 

45
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9v. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF BODOVI, NORWAY 

46
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

11-12

10-11

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9w. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF ORLAND, NORWAY 

47
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9x. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 

48
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9y. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF JOKIONEN, FINLAND 

49
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

11-12

10-11

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9z. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF KEFLAVIK, ICELAND 

50
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

11-12

10-11

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9aa. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF STORNOWAY, SCOTLAND 

51
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9ab. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF LONDON, ENGLAND 

52
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

36-40

32-36

28-32

24-28

20-24

16-20

12-16

8-12

4-8

0-4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

27-30 KFT

24-27 KFT

21-24 KFT

18-21 KFT

15-18 KFT

12-15 KFT

09-12 KFT

06-09 KFT

03-06 KFT

00-03 KFT

Month

Height Range

9-10

8-9

7-8

6-7

5-6

4-5

3-4

2-3

1-2

0-1

Color intervals are every 4% for icing and 1% for SLD. 

FIGURE 9ac. TIME-HEIGHT DISTRIBUTION OF INFERRED ICING AND SLD 

FREQUENCY (%) FOR THE INDIVIDUAL STATION OF BREST, FRANCE 

53
3.3 SUPERCOOLED LARGE DROPLET LAYER DEPTHS. 

SLD layers occurred over a wide range of depths, and their distribution was dependent on the 

formation mechanism. For classical SLD, the peak occurred at <500 ft (<~150 m; figure 10). 

About 25% of all classical SLD events fell into this range, while about half were less than 

1000 ft (~330 m) deep, ~90% were less than ~2500 ft (~800 m) deep, and ~99% were less than 

4000 ft deep. Nonclassical SLD events were deeper, in general, with the peak in the distribution 

at 1500-2000 ft (~450-600 m). About 20% of all nonclassical SLD events fell into this range, 

about half were less than ~1800 ft (~600 m), ~90% were less than ~4500 ft (~1350 m) deep, and 

~99% were less than 7000 ft deep. The deepest event may have been as much as 15,000 ft deep. 

It is important to recall that such an estimate was based on the assumption that nonclassical SLD 

proliferated throughout the lower cloud deck, so the top of the layer was often assumed to be at 

cloud top. Sounding by sounding estimates of SLD layer depths were likely not as accurate as 

those calculated for North America because of the relative lack of vertical resolution in the 

European data. This may have inflated layer depths somewhat, but to what extent, it is difficult 

to say. However, results are consistent with those from North America, so the distributions are 

likely reasonable. SLD layers documented by research aircraft over Canada, the Great Lakes 

and Colorado had depths that reasonably matched the distributions found in the climatology [2, 

23, 24, and 25]. 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

500

100015002000250030003500400045005000550060006500700075008000850090009500

1000010500

Depth (ft)

Percentage

Classical Non-classical

X axis values are the max in the bin. 

FIGURE 10. SUPERCOOLED LARGE DROPLET LAYER DEPTH DISTRIBUTIONS FOR 

CLASSICAL (BLUE) AND NONCLASSICAL (PURPLE) STRUCTURES 

54
4. COMPARISON WITH PAST EUROPEAN CLIMATOLOGIES. 

For Europe, one SLD and four icing climatologies were found in the historical literature. An 

initial sounding-based icing climatology by Katz [7], later updated by Heath and Cantrell [8] 

showed similar patterns to those found here. Icing migrated latitudinally and vertically with 

season. Frequencies were calculated at standard pressure levels (e.g., 850 mb), rather than in 

altitude bins and for the whole column, and the data used were from a few years surrounding 

1950, rather than the larger 15 year climatology presented here. To compare the new results 

with the pressure-based results, a separate test was run on the new data, calculating icing 

frequencies at the standard pressure levels. Absolute values were reasonably similar, overall, but 

were sometimes 2-4 times larger and smaller at individual locations, altitudes, and times of the 

year. The same was true in comparisons with an analysis of reconnaissance aircraft observations 

of subzero cloud taken over the UK and surrounding areas by the British military during and 

following World War II [14]. Two-dimensional maps of icing-free conditions compiled from 

two winters of output from the Meteo-France SIGMA icing algorithm [7] showed similar (but 

inverted) patterns to those found here for their domain (UK, eastern Spain, France, and bordering 

areas to the east). Only the Meteo-France study included a climatology of SLD, based solely on 

surface observations of FZDZ and FZRA from the years 1995-98. The results were, again, 

comparable with similar absolute frequencies. FZDZ maxima were found in parts of Germany 

and at significantly elevated stations, and FZRA maxima in eastern France, southern Germany 

and some parts of the Balkans. 

5. IMPLICATIONS FOR COMMUTER FLIGHTS.

Short-range commuter aircraft, in particular, have a good chance of encountering icing and even 

SLD conditions during flights over Europe. Such aircraft complete many flights per day, and 

because of their short routes, spend a relatively large percentage of their flight time at altitudes 

below 20,000 ft where nonconvective icing and SLD are most common. The frequency of 

exposure is certainly impacted by flight location. Aircraft spending most of their time flying 

close to the Mediterranean will likely encounter such conditions much less frequently than those 

flying into Scandinavia, central Europe, the Baltics, Balkans, and western Russia (icing only for 

the latter three regions). Pilots flying within the icing-prone regions should be particularly aware 

of the hazard, since they are more likely to encounter it over the course of a flight career. Of 

course, the vast majority of these events do not result in accidents, otherwise icing-related 

accidents would happen frequently. A very unique combination of meteorological conditions 

and aviation parameters must occur for the icing to contribute to an accident. The results 

presented in this document only represent an estimate of the meteorological part of the equation. 

Given the typical range of altitudes for icing and SLD, most encounters are likely to occur 

during hold, descent, or climb. Summertime encounters may occur above 12,000 ft, especially in 

deep convection. Most SLD events appear to be less than 2000 ft deep, so escape may only 

require a change in altitude of a few thousand feet. In the deepest cases, however, such an 

altitude change may not result in an exit from the conditions. Knowledge of the altitudes of the 

freezing level (if it is above ground, which it usually is over Europe) and cloud top may prove to 

be critical in these situations. 

55
6. CONCLUDING REMARKS. 

The results described here were based on the inferred presence of icing and supercooled large 

droplets (SLD) aloft, based upon coincident surface observations of cloud cover and 

precipitation type and balloon-borne soundings of temperature and dew point. The techniques 

applied have important limitations. First, icing and SLD associated with thunderstorms was not 

considered. This was done because aircraft specifically avoid flight into thunderstorms due to 

the many hazards they present, such as hail and lightning. Thus, their inclusion would have 

incorrectly inflated the inferred exposure rate. Second, any SLD aloft that was not reflected as 

freezing or liquid precipitation at the surface was missed. Since there is no reliable method to 

determine the presence of such situations from climatological data when liquid precipitation is 

not reported, this was an unavoidable shortcoming of the study. Third, a 100-km-radius circle 

was used to find surface reports in the vicinity of balloon launches. Appropriate precipitation 

types were often observed by a subset of all stations within the circle. Thus, only a portion of 

the 100-km-radius cylinder may have contained SLD. One must consider this when estimating 

the actual chances that an aircraft flying over a given location would be exposed to SLD. 

Fourth, the choice of a threshold of 0.4 permits most SLD will be captured, but may result in an 

over diagnosis in some cases when conditions for SLD are somewhat marginal. Increases 

(decreases) in threshold choice would result in decreases (increases) in frequencies. Most icing 

and SLD aloft should have been captured by the methodologies and thresholds applied here. 

Regardless of their frequency, depth, and mechanism, when combined with the wrong set of 

circumstances, encounters with SLD events can result in significant performance effects and 

even disaster. It is imperative that pilots are aware of the presence or expectation of such 

conditions along their flight route and know the appropriate escape routes to allow for a quick 

exit from the conditions. 

7. REFERENCES. 

1. Marwitz, J.D., M.K. Politovich, B.C. Bernstein, F.M. Ralph, P.J. Neiman, R. Ashenden, 

and J. Bresch, “Meteorological Conditions Associated With the ATR-72 Aircraft 

Accident Near Roselawn, Indiana on 31 October 1994,” Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 78, 

pp. 41-52, 1997. 

2. Cober, S.G., G.A. Isaac, and J.W. Strapp, “Characterizations of Aircraft Icing 

Environments That Include Supercooled Large Drops,” J. Appl. Meteor., 40, pp. 1984-

2002, 2001. 

3. Miller, D., T. Ratvasky, B. Bernstein, F. McDonough and J.W. Strapp, 

“NASA/FAA/NCAR Supercooled Large Droplet Icing Flight Research: Summary of 

Winter 96-97 Flight Operations,” 36th Aerospace Science Meeting and Exhibit, AIAA, 

Reno, NV, 12-15 January 1998. 

4. Bernstein, B.C., F. McDonough, and R. Bullock, “An Inferred Climatology of 

Supercooled Large Droplet Icing Conditions for North America,” 39th Aerospace 

56
Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, 6-10 January 2003: American Institute of Aeronautics and 

Astronautics, Washington, D.C., paper AIAA-2003-0563, 10 pp, 2003. 

5. Fowler, T.L., M. Crandell, and B.G. Brown, “An Inferred Icing Climatology—Part III: 

Icing Airmets and IIDA,” in compendium of preprints for the 10th Conference on 

Aviation, Range and Aerospace Meteorology, Portland, OR, 12-15 May 2003, pp. J25-

J28, 2003. 

6. Young, G.S., B.G. Brown, and F. McDonough, “An Inferred Icing Climatology—Part I: 

Estimation From Pilot Reports and Surface Conditions,” in compendium of preprints for 

the 10th Conference on Aviation, Range and Aerospace Meteorology, 12-15 May 2003, 

Portland OR, pp. J17-J20, 2003. 

7. LeBot, C. and J. Carriere, “Two Approaches for an Icing Climatology Over Europe: 

Surface Freezing Precipitations and Altitude Icing Areas Based on the SIGMA System,” 

FAA In-flight Icing/Ground De-icing International Conference, June 16-20, 2003, 

Chicago, Illinois, paper 2003-01-2118, 2003. 

8. Katz, L.G., “Climatological Probability of Aircraft Icing,” Air Weather Service Technical 

Report No. 194, available from the Environmental Technical Applications Center 

(ETAC), USAF, Bldg 159, Navy Yard Annex, Washington, DC 20333, 1967. 

9. Heath, E.D. and L.M. Cantrell, “Aircraft Icing Climatology for the Northern 

Hemisphere,” Air Weather Service Technical Report No. 220, available from the 

Environmental Technical Applications Center (ETAC), USAF, Bldg 159, Navy Yard 

Annex, Washington DC 20333, 1972. 

10. Stuart, R.A. and G.A. Issac, “Freezing Precipitation in Canada,” J. Atmos. Oceanic 

Technol., 37-1, pp. 87-102, 1999. 

11. Carriere, J., C. Lainard, C. LeBot, and F. Robart, “A Climatological Study of Surface 

Freezing Precipitation in Europe,” Meteor. Appl., 7, pp. 229-238, 2000. 

12. Bernstein, B.C., “Regional and Local Influences on Freezing Drizzle, Freezing Rain, and 

Ice Pellet Events,” Wea. Forecasting, 15, pp. 485-508, 2000. 

13. Ryerson, C.C., “Atmospheric Icing Climatologies of Two New England Mountains,” J. 

Appl. Meteor., 27, pp. 1261-1281, 1988. 

14. Roach, W.T., D.A. Forrester, M.E. Crewe, and K.F. Watt, “An Icing Climatology for 

Helicopters,” Royal Meteorological Office Special Investigations Memorandum 112, 

1984. 

15. Politovich, M.K. and T.A.O. Bernstein, “Aircraft Icing Conditions in Northeast 

Colorado,” J. Appl. Meteor., 41, pp. 118–132, 2002. 

57
16. Grelson, E.F., “A Climatology of Conditions Known to Lead to In-Flight Aircraft Icing 

Across North America,” M.S. Thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, 

pp. 131, 1997. 

17. Bernstein, B.C., T.A. Omeron, F. McDonough, and M.K. Politovich, “The Relationship 

Between Aircraft Icing and Synoptic Scale Weather Conditions,” Wea. Forecasting, 12, 

pp. 742-762, 1997. 

18. Bernstein, B.C., F.M. McDonough, M.K. Politovich, B.G. Brown, T.P. Ratvasky, D.R. 

Miller, and C.A. Wolff, “The Current Icing Potential (CIP),” submitted to J. Appl. 

Meteor., 2004. 

19. Wang, J.W. and W.B. Rossow, “Determination of Cloud Vertical Structure From UpperAir Observations,” J. Appl. Meteor., 34, pp. 2243-2258, 1995. 

20. Hanesiak, J.M. and R.E. Stewart, “The Mesoscale and Microscale Structure of a Severe 

Ice Pellet Storm,” Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, pp. 3144-3162, 1995. 

21. Korolev, A.V. and G.A. Isaac, “Drop Growth Due to High Supersaturation Caused by 

Isobaric Mixing,” J. Atmos. Sci., 57, pp. 1675-1685, 1995. 

22. Rasmussen, R.M., I. Geresdi, G. Thompson, K. Manning, and E. Karplus, “Freezing 

Drizzle Formation in Stably Stratified Layer Clouds: The Role of Radiative Cooling of 

Cloud Droplets, Cloud Condensation Nuclei, and Ice Initiation,” J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 

pp. 837-860, 2002. 

23. Bernstein, B.C., “Analysis of the Meteorology Associated With the 1998 NASA Glenn 

Twin Otter Flights,” NASA CR-2000-209413, 2000. 

24. Politovich, M.K. and B.C. Bernstein, “Production and Depletion of Supercooled Liquid 

Water in a Colorado Winter Storm,” J. Appl. Meteor., 34, pp. 2631-2648, 1995. 

25. Rasmussen, R.M., B.C. Bernstein, M. Murakami, G. Stossmeister, J. Reisner, and B. 

Stankov, “The 1990 Valentine’s Day Arctic Outbreak, Part I: Mesoscale and Microscale 

Structure and Evolution of a Colorado Front Range Shallow Upslope Cloud,” J. Appl. 

Meteor., 34, pp. 1481-1511, 1995. 

58