Importation of Fresh Avocado, Persea americana Miller, 

from Continental Spain into the United States, Including 

Hawaii and U.S. Territories

A Qualitative, Pathway-Initiated Risk Assessment

November 22, 2011

Version 5

Agency contact:

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

United States Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 300

Raleigh, North Carolina 27606
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 ii

Executive Summary

In this document we assess the risks associated with the importation of fresh fruits of all avocado 

varieties, Persea americana Miller, from continental Spain into the entire United States, 

including Hawaii and U.S. territories. A search of print and electronic resources identified 

onequarantine-significant pest that occurs in Spain and could be introduced into the United 

States in shipments of the commodity. The quarantine pest was qualitatively analyzed based on 

international principles and internal guidelines as described in the PPQ guidelines for PathwayInitiated Pest Risk Assessments version 5.02 (USDA, APHIS, 2000).

Information on pests associated with avocado in Spain revealed that Ceratitis capitata

Weidemann (Diptera: Tephritidae) was the only quarantine insect pest we found that could be 

introduced into the entire United States, including territories, via this pathway.

We rated the pest risk potential of C. capitata to be High. Additional phytosanitary measures are 

strongly recommended to guard against the introduction and establishment of this pest, as port of

entry inspection is deemed insufficient as a sole mitigative measure. Risk management will be 

done in a separate stage.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 iii

Table of Contents

Executive Summary...................................................................................................................... ii

1. Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1

2. Risk Assessment ........................................................................................................................ 1

2.1. Initiating Event..................................................................................................................... 1

2.2. Assessment of the Weed Potential of Avocado ................................................................... 2

2.3. Previous Decisions, Current Status, and Pest Interceptions ................................................ 2

2.4. Pest Categorization .............................................................................................................. 3

2.5. Quarantine pests following the pathway............................................................................ 13

2.6. Consequences of Introduction............................................................................................ 14

2.7. Likelihood of Introduction................................................................................................. 15

2.8. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 16

3. Authors and Reviewers........................................................................................................... 16

4. Literature Cited ...................................................................................................................... 17
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 1

1. Introduction

This risk assessment was prepared by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), 

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology (CPHST), Plant Epidemiology and Risk 

Analysis Laboratory (PERAL) after a request from the Subdirection General de Sanidad Vegetal, 

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Spain. Plant pest risks associated with the 

importation of fresh fruit of avocado, Persea americana Miller, from continental Spain into the 

United States were estimated and assigned the qualitative terms high, medium or low in 

accordance with the template document, Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, 

Version 5.02 (USDA, 2000).

The methods used to initiate, conduct and report the plant pest risks associated with importation 

of fresh fruits of avocado from continental Spain into the United States conform to international 

standards provided by the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) of the United 

Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (IPPC, 1996a, 2004). Biological and 

phytosanitary terms conform to the definitions in International Standards for Phytosanitary 

Measures: Glossary of Phytosanitary Terms (IPPC, 2002a).

Avocado most likely originated in southern Mexico (Morton, 1987), but it is now grown in 

approximately 50 countries worldwide (Ploetz et al., 1994). Most authors recognize three 

botanical races of avocado that differ in skin thickness and cold-hardiness: the Guatemalan race,

Persea americana var. guatemalensis Miller (Hass), bears thick-skinned fruit and is somewhat 

cold-hardy; the Mexican race, Persea americana var. drymifolia Miller (Schldl. and Cham.) S.F. 

Blake, bears thin-skinned fruit and is cold-hardy; and the West Indian race, Persea americana

var. americana Miller, bears fruit with an intermediate skin thickness and only thrives in tropical 

climates (Ploetz et al., 1994). The green-skinned Fuerte cultivar, which is a natural hybrid 

between the Guatemalan and Mexican races, and the dark-skinned Hass cultivar, which was 

developed in California from the Guatemalan race, dominates commercial production worldwide 

(Ploetz et al., 1994). World avocado production is estimated at 2.1 million metric tons annually, 

with Mexico, the United States, the Dominican Republic, and Brazil being the top four producers 

(CABI, 2003; Ploetz et al., 1994).

2. Risk Assessment

2.1. Initiating Event

This risk assessment was developed in response to a request by the government of Spain through 

the Counselor for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Embassy of Spain, Washington, D.C. for 

USDA authorization to permit importation of fresh avocado fruit into the United States. Entry of 

this commodity into the United States presents a potential pathway for the introduction of plant 

pests. Title 7, Part 319, Section 56 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations (7 CFR 

§319.56) provides regulatory authority for the importation of fruits and vegetables from foreign 

sources into the United States.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 2

2.2. Assessment of the Weed Potential of Avocado

The potential of the commodity to become a weed after it enters the United States was examined

in this step (Table 1). A pest-initiated risk assessment was not conducted because the analysis did 

not indicate that the commodity had a significant weed potential.

Table 1. Assessment of the weed potential of avocado

Commodity: Avocado (Persea americana) (Lauraceae)

Phase 1: Avocado is cultivated in commercial and private orchards in USDA Plant Hardiness 

Zones 9-11 of the United States (USDA-NRCS, 2002). Avocados are commercially grown in 

California, Florida and Hawaii (Bevacqua, 1991; Toth and Stinner, 2003).

Phase 2: Is the species listed in:

No Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Holm et al., 1979)

No World’s Worst Weeds (Holm et al., 1977) or World Weeds: Natural Histories and 

Distribution (Holm et al., 1997)

No Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate Noxious Weeds: Exotic Weeds for 

Federal Noxious Weed Act (Gunn and Richie, 1982)

No Economically Important Foreign Weeds (Reed, 1977)

No Weed Science Society of America Composite List of Weeds (WSSA, 2003)

No Does any literature indicate weed potential (e.g. AGRICOLA, CAB, Biological 

Abstracts, AGRIS search on “species name” combined with “weed”)

Phase 3: Avocado is a common evergreen tree that is widely prevalent in areas of the United 

States that are suitable for its survival. This species and its botanical varieties were not listed as 

weeds in the United States or in any foreign countries; therefore, a pest-initiated risk assessment 

was not necessary.

2.3. Previous Decisions, Current Status, and Pest Interceptions

We examined previous decisions, current status, and pest interceptions. Only one previous 

decision was found: a 1998 request to import avocados from Spain was denied for the stated 

reason that no acceptable treatment existed for Ceratitis capitata. Title 7, Part 319, Section 56 of 

the United States Code of Federal Regulations (7 CFR §319.56) does not currently permit 

importation of fresh avocado fruit from continental Spain into the United States.

We summarized pest interceptions on avocados from Spain below (Table 2).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 3

Table 2. Pest Interceptions on Avocados from Spain (1985-2008) (PestID, 2011).

Pest Plant Part 

Infested

Location of 

Interception 

(no.)

Purpose Interceptions

(no.)

Aleuropleurocelus abnormis No Explanation Baggage (1) Consumption 1

Ceratitis capitata Fruit Ship Quarters (1)Consumption 1

Cladosporium sp. Fruit Baggage (1) Consumption 1

Sphaceloma sp. Fruit Ship Stores (1) No Explanation 1

Hemiberlesia lataniae Fruit Baggage Consumption 2

2.4. Pest Categorization

We listed below any pests that were associated with avocado anywhere in the world and occur in 

Spain (Table 3). Information on the geographic distribution of these pests, affected plant part(s), 

quarantine status with respect to the United States, and relevant references on the distribution 

and biology were also included in Table 3; as a result, Table 3 served as a “master list” that 

provided the basis for selecting pests for further analyses.

Quarantine pests that were reasonably likely to follow the pathway (i.e. accompany shipments of 

avocado) were listed in Table 4 and subjected to steps 5 to 7 (USDA, 2000) in this document.

Numerous pests included in Table 3 were not subjected to further analyses for the following

reasons: they were widely established in the United States, they were associated mainly with 

plant parts other than the commodity, or they were associated with the commodity, but not likely 

to remain with the commodity during processing.

Pest risk analyses, by necessity, must focus on organisms for which biological information is 

available; therefore, none of the pests listed at the level of genus or higher were selected for 

further analyses if the genus or other broader taxon already occurred in the United States. Lack 

of specific information or identification to the specific level does not indicate that a pest does not 

pose a serious phytosanitary risk to agriculture in the United States. It may simply indicate the 

quality of the specimen or the limits of current taxonomic knowledge. If pests identified to 

higher taxa are intercepted in the future, a reevaluation of risk may occur.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 4

Table 3. Pests associated with avocado in Continental Spain 1

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant part 

affected3

Quarantine PestFollow 

Pathway

References

ARTHROPODA

ACARI

Tarsonemidae

Polyphagotarso-nemus 

(Hemitarsonemus) latus

Banks

ES, US I, L No No CABI, 2003; Jeppson et al., 

1975; Smith, 1973

Tetranychidae

Panonychus citri McGregor ES, US F, L, S No Yes Bolland et al., 1998; CABI, 

2003

Tetranychus neocaledonicus

André

ES, US F, L, S No Yes Bolland et al., 1998; CABI, 

2003; Ferragut and Santonja, 

1989; Jeppson et al., 1975; 

Singh et al., 1981

Tetranychus urticae Koch ES, US F, L, S No Yes Bolland et al., 1998; CABI, 

2003; Jeppson et al., 1975

Coleoptera: Bostrichidae

Apate monachus Fabricius ES S Yes No CABI, 2003; Saninet, 2002

Sinoxylon conigerum

Gerstaecker

ES, US S No No CABI, 2003

Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Pantomorus cervinus

(Boheman)

ES, US L, R No No CABI, 2003; Peirce et al., 

1999

Diptera: Tephritidae

Ceratitis capitata Weidemann ES, US (HI) F Yes Yes Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; 

CABI, 2003; Mau and 

Martin, 1992; Weems, 1981; 

White and Elson-Harris, 

1992

Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae

Aleurodicus dispersus Russell ES, US L No No CABI, 2003

Aleurothrixus floccosus

(Maskell)

ES, US (CA, 

FL, HI, TX)

L No No CABI, 2003; Saninet, 2002

Bemisia tabaci (B biotype) 

(Gennadius) (= B. argentifolii

Bellows, Perring, Gill and 

Hendrick)

ES, US L No No CABI, 2003; Mau and Lee, 

1995

Parabemisia myricae 

(Kuwana)

ES, US (CA, 

FL, HI)

L, S [Yes]4 No CABI, 2003; Mound and 

Halsey, 1978

 

1 We included data for some pests that occur only in the Canary Islands, which are not part of continental Spain. We included 

these pests because some references list these pests as occurring in Spain without specification. Because we think these 

species are unlikely to occur in continental Spain, they were not likely to follow the pathway.

2 ES = Spain; US = United States (specific states were listed only if the distribution was limited; CA = California; FL = 

Florida; HI = Hawaii; NY = New York; OR = Oregon; TX = Texas)

3

F = Fruit; I = Inflorescence; L = Leaf; R = Root; S = Stem; Sd = Seed; Ws = Systemic
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 5

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant part 

affected3

Quarantine PestFollow 

Pathway

References

Trialeurodes vaporariorum

(Westwood)

ES, US L No No CABI, 2003

Hemiptera: Aphididae

Aphis gossypii Glover ES, US I, L, S No No Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; 

CABI, 2003

Aphis spiraecola Patch ES, US I, L, S No No Blackman and Eastop, 2000; 

CABI, 2003; Saninet, 2002

Myzus persicae Sulzer ES, US L, S No No Blackman and Eastop, 2000; 

CABI, 2003

Toxoptera aurantii Boyer de 

Fonscolombe (= T. 

aurantiae)

ES, US L, S No No CABI, 2003; HYPPZ, 2003; 

Saninet, 2002

Hemiptera: Coccidae

Ceroplastes ceriferus

(Fabricius)

Canary Isls., 

US

L, S No No CABI, 2003; Smith, 1973; 

Scalenet, 2003

Ceroplastes floridensis

Comstock

ES, US L, S No No CABI, 2003; Crane et al., 

2001; Saninet, 2002

Ceroplastes rusci (Linnaeus) ES, US (FL) L, S [Yes]4 No CABI, 2003; Scalenet, 2003

Ceroplastes sinensis Del 

Guercio

ES, US (FL) L, S [Yes]4 No CABI, 2003; Scalenet, 2003

Coccus hesperidum Linnaeus ES, US L, S No No CABI, 2003; Scalenet, 2003

Coccus longulus (Douglas) Canary Isls., 

US

L, S No No CABI, 2003; Scalenet, 2003

Parasaissetia nigra (Nietner) ES, US L, S No No CABI, 2003; Scalenet, 2003

Parthenolecanium corni

(Bouché) (= Lecanium corni

Bouché)

ES, US L, S No No CABI, 2003; Peirce et al., 

1999

Parthenolecanium persicae

(Fabricius)

ES, US L, S No No CABI, 2003; Scalenet, 2003

Protopulvinaria pyriformis

(Cockerell)

ES, US L, S No No CABI, 2003; Crane et al., 

2001; Saninet, 2002; 

Scalenet, 2003

Pulvinaria psidii Maskell Canary Isls., 

US

F, L, S No No1 CABI, 2003; Scalenet, 2003; 

Mau and Kessing, 1992

Saissetia coffeae (Walker) (= S. 

hemisphaerica (Targioni))

ES, US L, S No No CABI, 2003; Saninet, 2002; 

Scalenet, 2003

Saissetia oleae (Olivier) ES, US L, S No No Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; 

CABI, 2003; Saninet, 2002; 

Scalenet, 2003

Hemiptera: Diaspididae

Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) ES, US F, L, S No Yes CABI, 2003

 

4

Species is not under official control but the U.S. is temporarily considering it as a quarantine species until its official status 

is recognized (Paul A. Courneya, personal communication).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 6

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant part 

affected3

Quarantine PestFollow 

Pathway

References

Aspidiotus destructor Signoret Canary Isls., 

US (CA, FL, 

HI)

F, L, S No No1 CABI, 2003; Rosen, 1990; 

Saninet, 2002

Chrysomphalus aonidum

(Linnaeus)

ES, US F, L, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Crane et al., 

2001

Chrysomphalus dictyospermi

(Morgan)

ES, US F, L, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Crane et al., 

2001; Saninet, 2002; Smith, 

1973

Diaspis boisduvalii Signoret ES, US F, L, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Scalenet, 2003

Fiorinia fioriniae (Targioni 

Tozzetti)

ES, US F, L, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Saninet, 2002; 

Scalenet, 2003

Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret)ES, US F, L, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Crane et al., 

2001; Smith, 1973

Hemiberlesia rapax

(Comstock)

ES, US F, L, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Tenbrink and 

Hara, 1992a

Howardia biclavis (Comstock) ES, US S No No CABI, 2003; Saninet, 2002; 

Scalenet, 2003

Pinnaspis strachani (Cooley) Canary Isls., 

US (CA, FL, 

HI)

F, L, S No No1 CABI, 2003; Scalenet, 2003; 

Tenbrink and Hara, 1992b

Unaspis (Chionaspis) citri

(Comstock)

ES, US F, L, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Saninet, 2002; 

Scalenet, 2003

Hemiptera: Lygaeidae

Nysius ericae (Schilling) ES, US S No No CABI, 2003; Peirce et al., 

1999; Rivero and Garcia 

Mari, 1983

Oxycarenus hyalinipennis

(Costa)

ES L, S Yes No CABI, 2003; Swirski et al., 

1995

Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

Nezara viridula (Linnaeus) ES, US F, I, L, S No No5 CABI, 2003; Saninet, 2002

Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae

Dysmicoccus brevipes

(Cockerell)

Canary Isls., 

US

F, L, R, S No No1 CABI, 2003; Saninet, 2002

Dysmicoccus grassii Leonardi 

(= D. alazon (Leonardi))

Canary Isls., 

US

F No No1 Ben-Dov, 1994; CABI, 2003; 

Miller and Miller, 2002; 

Perez et al., 1984; Scalenet, 

2003; Williams and Granara 

de Willink, 1992

Nipaecoccus nipae (Maskell) ES, US F, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Saninet, 2002

Planococcus citri (Risso) ES, US F, L, R, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Hill, 1993; 

Scalenet, 2003; Williams and 

Granara de Willink, 1992

 

5 Large, mobile arthropods that fed externally on fruits were considered not likely to follow the pathway because minimal 

processing of the commodity would remove these pests prior to shipment.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 7

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant part 

affected3

Quarantine PestFollow 

Pathway

References

Planococcus ficus Signoret ES, US F, L, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Scalenet, 2003

Pseudococcus calceolariae

(Maskell)

ES, US F, L, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Peirce et al., 

1999

Pseudococcus longispinus

(Targioni Tozzetti) (= P. 

adonidum (Linnaeus) 

Westwood)

ES, US F, L, S No Yes Ben-Dov, 1994; CABI, 2003; 

Saninet, 2002; Scalenet, 

2003

Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae

Lymantria dispar Linnaeus ES, US I, L Yes No CABI, 2003; Robinson et al., 

2003

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Peridroma saucia (Hubner) ES, US F, I, L, S No No5 CABI, 2003; Carter, 1984; 

Robinson et al., 2003; Zhang, 

1994

Spodoptera littoralis

(Boisduval)

ES F, L Yes No6 Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; 

CABI, 2003; Carter, 1984; 

Hill, 1993; Sneh and Gross, 

1981; Zhang, 1994

Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Cryptoblabes gnidiella Millière ES, US (HI, 

NY)

F, L, S Yes No7 Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; 

CABI, 2003; Carter, 1984; 

McQuate et al., 2000; Zhang, 

1994

Lepidoptera: Sessiidae

Bembecia chrysidiformis Epler ES R, S Yes No CABI, 2003; Robinson et al., 

2003; Scott and Sagliocco, 

1991; UK Biodiversity 

Group, 1999

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae

Cacoecimorpha pronubana

Hübner

ES, US (OR) F, I, L [Yes]4 No7 CABI, 2003; Swirski et al., 

1995

Thysanoptera: Thripidae

Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis

Bouché

ES, US F, L No Yes CABI, 2003; Saninet, 2002

 

6 We considered S. littoralis unlikely to follow the pathway because only instars three through six are capable of feeding on 

avocado (Sneh and Gross, 1981). Those that are capable of surviving on avocado are large, feed externally on the fruit 

(Swirski et al., 1995), and are primarily nocturnal (CABI, 2003). Most S. littoralis larvae are, therefore, unlikely to be 

associated with the commodity during harvest, and any that are present are likely to be detected and removed prior to 

shipment of the commodity.

7 Cacoecimorpha pronubana and Cryptoblabes gnidiella are both feed on avocado, but damage is predominantly external and 

likely to be detected and removed prior to shipment of the ecommodity. Neither of these pests have been intercepted on 

avocado, and internal feeding, while reported, is likely to occur in conjunction with external feeding damage.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 8

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant part 

affected3

Quarantine PestFollow 

Pathway

References

FUNGI

Athelia (Corticium) rolfsii

(Curzi) C. C. Tu and Kimbr. 

(Polyporales: Atheliaceae)

[anamorph = Sclerotium 

rolfsii Sacc.]

ES, US F, I, L, R, 

S, Sd

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 2003

Armillaria mellea (Vahl) P. 

Kumm. (Agaricales: 

Marasmiaceae)

ES, US R, S No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; López-Herrera and 

Melero-Vara, 1992; Ohr et 

al., 1993

Armillaria tabescens (Scop.) 

Dennis, P.D. Orton and Hora 

(Agaricales: Marasmiaceae)

ES, US R, S No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; Ohr et al., 1993; 

Tsopelas, 1999

Botryosphaeria dothidea

(Moug.) Ces. and de Not. 

(Dothideales Botryosphaeriaceae) [anamorph = 

Fusicoccum aesculi Corda]

ES, US F, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; Sanchez et al., 2003

Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) 

Whetzel (Helotiales: 

Sclerotiniaceae) [anamorph = 

Botrytis cinerea Pers.: Fr]

ES, US F, I, L, S, 

Sd

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; Ohr et al., 1993

Botryosphaeria (Physalospora)

obtusa (Schwein.) Shoem. 

(Dothideales 

Botryosphaeriaceae) 

[anamorph = Sphaeropsis 

malorum Berk.]

ES, US S No No Armengolm et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; Knowledge Master, 

2003; Ohr et al., 1993

Botryosphaeria ribis Grossenb. 

and Duggar (Dothideales 

Botryo-sphaeriaceae)

[anamorph = Dothiorella 

gregaria Sacc.]

ES, US F, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Peirce et al., 

1999; Sanchez Hernandez et 

al., 2002

Ceratocystis fimbriata Ellis and

Halst. (Microascales: 

Ceratocystidaceae) (= C.

fimbriata f. platani J.M. 

Walter)

ES, US F, L, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Cadahia, 1986; 

Farr et al., 2003; Smith et al., 

1997

Cochliobolus sativus (S. Ito and

Kurib.) Drechsler ex Dastur 

(Pleosporales: Pleosporaceae) 

[anamorph = Bipolaris 

sorokiniana (Sacc.) 

Shoemaker]

ES, US I, L, R, S, 

Sd

No No CABI, 2003; Ohr et al., 1993

Colletotrichum acutatum

Simmonds ex Simmonds 

(Anamorphic Glomerella)

ES, US F, I, L, R, 

S

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 2003
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 9

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant part 

affected3

Quarantine PestFollow 

Pathway

References

Colletotrichum crassipes

(Spegazzini) von Arx 

(Anamorphic Glomerella)

ES, US L No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 2003

Cylindrocarpon sp. 

(Anamorphic Nectria) 

ES F, I, L, R, 

S, Sd

Yes No8 López-Herrera and MeleroVara, 1992

Cylindrocladium scoparium

Morg. (Anamorphic Nectria)

ES, US L, R, S No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; Ohr et al., 1993

Fusarium sp. (Anamorphic 

Gibberrella)

ES F, I, L, R, 

S, Sd

Yes No8 López-Herrera and MeleroVara, 1992

Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) 

Spauld. and Schrenk (Incertae 

sedis: Glomerellaceae) 

[anamorph = Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides (Penz.) Sacc.]

ES, US F, I, L, S, 

Sd

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; Korsten et al., 1994; 

Ohr et al., 1993

Khuskia oryzae Huds. 

(Trichosphaeriales: Incertae 

sedis) [anamorph = 

Nigrospora oryzae (Berk. and 

Broome) Petch ]

ES, US L No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; Guarro et al., 1986; 

Tsukiboshi, 2003

Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) 

Griffiths and Maubl. 

(Anamorphic Botryosphaeria)

ES, US F, I, L, S, 

Sd

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; Korsten et al., 1994

Macrophomina phaseolina

(Tassi) Goid (Anamorphic 

Ascomycetes)

ES, US F, I, L, R, 

S, Sd

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; López-Herrera and 

Melero-Vara, 1992

Mycosphaerella tassiana (de 

Not.) Johanson (Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae) [anamorph = 

Cladosporium herbarum

(Pers.:Fr.) Link]

ES, US F, L, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; Pelaez et al., 1998

Nectria haematococca

(Wollenw.) Gerlach 

(Hypocreales: Nectriaceae) 

[anamorph = Fusarium 

solani (Martius) Sacc.]

ES, US R, S No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; Korsten et al., 1994

 

8

Pests not identified to the specific level in this document belong to genera that are present in the United States. These pests 

may or may not be quarantine pests. We did not further analyze them because either their risk is encompassed in the 

analysis of another pest, or we found no evidence of other pests in the taxon being associated with the commodity in the 

region examined. If pests identified to higher taxa are intercepted in the future, APHIS may take action at the port-of-entry, 

and a reevaluation of risk may occur.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 10

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant part 

affected3

Quarantine PestFollow 

Pathway

References

Nectria inventa Pethybr. 

(Hypocreales: Nectriaceae) 

(= Acrostalagmus 

cinnabarinus Corda) 

[anamorph = Verticillium 

tenerum (Pers.: Fr.) Link]

ES, US L, R, S No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 2003

Nitschkia broomeiana (Berk.) 

Nannf. (Sordariales: 

Nitschkiaceae) (= 

Fracchiaea heterogenea

Sacc.)

ES, US S No No Farr et al., 2003

Penicillium expansum Link 

(Anamorphic Botryotinia)

ES, US F No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 2003

Pestalotiopsis adusta (Ellis & 

Everh.) Steyaert 

(Anamorphic 

Pestalosphaeria) (= 

Pestalotia adusta Ellis & 

Everh. (Anamorphic 

Broomella))

ES, US L, S No No Farr et al., 2003; Ohr et al., 

1993

Phytophthora cactorum (Lebert 

and Cohn) Schröter

(Pythiales: Pythiaceae)

ES, US F, L, R, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 2003 

Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands 

(Pythiales: Pythiaceae)

ES, US L, R, S No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; López-Herrera and 

Melero-Vara, 1992; Ohr et 

al., 1993

Phytophthora citricola Sawada 

(Pythiales: Pythiaceae)

ES, US F, R No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al. 2003; 

Ohr et al., 1993

Phytophthora citrophthora

(R.H. Sm. & E. Sm.) 

Leonian (Pythiales: 

Pythiaceae)

ES, US F, L, R, S, 

Sd

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al. 2003

Phytophthora cryptogea

Pethybr. and Lafferty 

(Pythiales: Pythiaceae)

ES, US F, L, R, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 2003

Phytophthora megasperma

Drechsler (Pythiales: 

Pythiaceae)

ES, US F, R, S No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al. 2003

Phytophthora nicotianae Breda 

de Haan (Pythiales: 

Pythiaceae)

ES, US F, L, R, S, 

Sd

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al. 2003

Phytophthora palmivora (E. J. 

Butler) E. J. Butler 

(Pythiales: Pythiaceae)

ES, US F, I, L, R, 

S, Sd

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al. 2003; 

Ohr et al., 1993

Phytophthora spp. (Pythiales: 

Pythiaceae)

ES F, I, L, R, 

S, Sd

Yes No8 López-Herrera and MeleroVara, 1992
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 11

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant part 

affected3

Quarantine PestFollow 

Pathway

References

Pythium coloratum Vaartaja 

(Pythiales: Pythiaceae)

ES, US R No No CABI, 2003

Pythium debaryanum Hesse 

(Pythiales: Pythiaceae)

ES, US R No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al. 2003

Pythium irregulare Buisman 

(Pythiales: Pythiaceae)

ES, US R, S No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al. 2003; 

Rodriguez Molina et al., 

1998

Pythium spp. (Pythiales: 

Pythiaceae) 

ES F, I, L, R, 

S, Sd

Yes No8 López-Herrera and MeleroVara, 1992

Pythium torulosum Coker and

Patt. (Pythiales: Pythiaceae)

ES, US R, S No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al. 2003; 

Rodriguez Molina et al., 

1998

Pythium ultimum Trow 

(Pythiales: Pythiaceae)

ES, US R No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al. 2003; 

Melero Vara and Jimenez 

Diaz, 1990

Rhizoctonia sp. (Anamorphic 

Ceratobasidium)

ES F, I, L, R, 

S, Sd

Yes No8 López-Herrera and MeleroVara, 1992

Rhizopus stolonifer (Ehrenb.) 

Lind (Mucorales: 

Mucoraceae)

ES, US F No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al. 2003; 

Ohr et al., 1993

Rosellinia necatrix Prill.

(Xylariales: Xylariaceae).

[anamorph = Dematophora 

necatrix R. Harting]

ES, US R, S No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; López-Herrera and 

Melero-Vara, 1992; Ohr et 

al., 1993; Sztejnberg and 

Madar; 1980

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) 

de Bary (Helotiales: 

Sclerotiniaceae)

ES, US F, I, L, R, 

S, Sd

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; Ohr et al., 1993

Thanatephorus cucumeris

(Frank) Donk 

(Ceratobasidiales: 

Ceratobasidiaceae) [anamorph 

= Rhizoctonia solani Kühn]

ES, US F, I, L, R, 

S, Sd

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al. 2003; 

Melero Vara and Jimenez 

Diaz, 1990

Trichothecium roseum Link 

(Anamorphic Ascomycetes)

ES, US F No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; Fernandez Magan 

1974; Korsten et al., 1994; 

Ohr et al., 1993

Verticillium albo-atrum Reinke 

and Berthold (Anamorphic 

Hypomyces)

ES, US F, L, R, S, 

Sd

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 2003

Verticillium dahliae Kleb. 

(Anamorphic Hypomyces) 

ES, US F, I, L, R, 

S, Sd

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2003; López-Herrera and 

Melero-Vara, 1992; Ohr et 

al., 1993
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 12

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant part 

affected3

Quarantine PestFollow 

Pathway

References

BACTERIA

Erwinia carotovora subsp. 

carotovora (Jones) Bergey et 

al. (Enterobacteriales: 

Enterobacteriaceae)

ES, US L, R, S No No Bradbury, 1986; CABI, 2003

Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

syringae van Hall

ES, US F, I, L, R, 

S, Sd

No Yes Bradbury, 1986; CABI, 

2003; Ohr et al., 1993

Rhizobium (Agrobacterium) 

radiobacter (Beijerinck and 

van Delden) Young et al.

(Rhizobiales: Rhizobiaceae)

ES, US R, S No No Bradbury, 1986; CABI, 

2003; Ohr et al., 1993

VIRUSES

Tobacco mosaic virus 

(Tobamovirus)

ES, US Ws No Yes9 Alper et al., 1978; Brunt et 

al., 1996; CABI, 2003; 

Jordan et al., 1983

VIROIDS

Avocado sunblotch viroid 

(Avsunviroidae: 

Avsunviroid)

ES, US Ws No Yes10 CABI, 2003; Ohr et al., 1993

PHYTOPLASMA

Stolbur ES Ws Yes No11 CABI, 2003; Lavina et al., 

2002; Smith et al., 1997

MOLLUSCA

STYLOMMATOPHORA

Helicidae

Cornu aspersa Muller (=Helix) ES, US F, I, L, R, 

S, Sd

Yes12 No CABI, 2003; Peirce et al., 

1999

NEMATODA

DORYLAIMIDA

Aporcelaimidae

Aporcelaimellus (Dorylaimus) 

obscurus (Thorne and 

Swanger)

ES, US R No No USDA, 2003; Velasco, 2002

 

9 Viruses are typically transmitted from plant to plant through sap, seed, pollen, dodder (Cuscuta sp.) and fungi or arthropod 

vectors (Agrios, 1997). Only viruses that are seed transmissible or spread by aerial arthropods and detected in fruit are 

likely to follow the pathway.

10 Viroids are not well understood, but they are typically transmitted from plant to plant through mechanical inoculation (e.g. 

pruning and grafting) (Agrios, 1997). Only those viroids that are seed transmissible or spread by aerial arthropods and 

detected in fruit are likely to follow the pathway.

11 Phytoplasmas are typically present in only a few phloem elements of an infected plant, and they are usually transmitted 

from plant to plant by aerial arthropods (Agrios, 1997). Because the commodity (i.e. avocados) contains few phloem 

elements and because potential vectors are not likely to gain access to these elements, phytoplasmas were unlikely to 

follow the pathway.

12 No action except in Florida, Alabama and Puerto Rico (Pest ID, 2011).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 13

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant part 

affected3

Quarantine PestFollow 

Pathway

References

Longidoridae

Longidorus spp. ES, US R No No CABI, 2003

Xiphinematidae

Xiphinema americanum Cobb 

[= X. californicum Lamberti 

and Bleve-Zaches]

ES, US R No No CABI, 2003; Ferris and 

Caswell-Chen, 2003

Xiphinema diversicaudatum

(Micoletzky) Thorne

ES, US (CA) R No No CABI, 2003; Ferris and 

Caswell-Chen, 2003

TRIPLONCHIDA

Trichodoridae

Trichodorus spp. ES, US R No No CABI, 2003

TYLENCHIDA

Hoplolaimidae

Helicotylenchus dihystera

(Cobb) Sher

ES, US R No No CABI, 2003

Helicotylenchus multicinctus

(Cobb) Golden

Canary Isls., 

US

R No No CABI, 2003

Helicotylenchus 

pseudorobustus (Steiner) 

Golden

ES, US R No No CABI, 2003

Rotylenchulus reniformis

Lindford and Olivera

ES, US R No No CABI, 2003; Ferris and 

Caswell-Chen, 2003; Goodey 

et al., 1965

Pratylenchidae

Pratylenchus penetrans (Cobb) 

Filipjev and SchuurmansSteckhoven

ES, US R No No CABI, 2003

Pratylenchus vulnus Allen and 

Jensen

ES, US R No No CABI, 2003; Goodey et al., 

1965; Pinochet et al., 1992

2.5. Quarantine pests following the pathway

The fruit fly, C. capitata (Medfly), was the only pest we analyzed further, because it was a

quarantine pest for the United States, and likely to follow the pathway (i.e. accompany shipments 

of avocado). 

Medfly was likely to follow the pathway because it lays eggs in or on, and develops inside fresh 

fruit (Weems, 1981). Although avocados are not the primary host of C. capitata (CABI, 2003; 

Weems, 1981), Medfly has been intercepted eight times at U.S. ports-of-entry in avocado fruits, 

including once on produce from Spain (PestID, 20011.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 14

2.6. Consequences of Introduction

Consequences of Introduction were estimated using five risk elements: climate-host interaction, 

host range, dispersal potential, economic impact and environmental impact. Pests were assigned 

a rating of Low (1 point), Medium (2 points), or High (3 points) for each risk element, and a 

Cumulative Risk Rating was calculated by summing all risk elements for each pest analyzed 

(USDA, 2000). The Consequences of Introduction values were summarized in Table 5.

Ceratitis capitata Risk Value

Risk Element 1: Climate-Host Interaction

Ceratitis capitata is widely distributed in the Mediterranean, South and Central 

America, west Asia (CABI, 2003) and northern Australia (Hassan, 1977). Based 

on this distribution and the geographic range predicted by Vera et al. (2002), it 

is estimated that C. capitata could become established in the United States in 

USDA Hardiness Zones 8-11. One or more of its potential hosts occur in these 

Zones (USDA-NRCS, 2002).

High (3)

Risk Element 2: Host Range

Ceratitis capitata has been recorded on hosts from numerous plant families, 

including Anacardiaceae, Arecaceae, Chrysobalanaceae, Cucurbitaceae, 

Ebanaceae, Lauraceae, Longaniaceae, Malpighiaceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae, 

Myrtaceae, Oleaceae, Podocarpaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, 

Sapotaceae, Solanaceae and Sterculiaceae (CABI, 2003; Weems, 1981; White 

and Elson-Harris, 1992).

High (3)

Risk Element 3: Dispersal Potential

A female C. capitata can mature and deposit up to 800 eggs during her life 

(Weems, 1981). The fly can complete several overlapping generations each year 

(Hassan, 1977). Adult C. capitata can fly up to 20km during their two month 

life, and larvae can be transported over long distances in infested fruit (CABI, 

2003).

High (3)

Risk Element 4: Economic Impact

In some Mediterranean countries, C. capitata infestation of stone fruits hovers 

near 100% (Weems, 1981). In addition to substantial yield reductions, C. 

capitata lowers crop values by requiring controls, and its presence in the United 

States would cause foreign and domestic markets to be lost (Weems, 1981).

Ceratitis capitata is listed by EPPO as an A2 quarantine pest for Europe (Smith 

et al., 1997).

High (3)

Risk Element 5: Environmental Impact

Ceratitis capitata is extremely polyphagous and could potentially attack plants 

listed as Threatened or Endangered (e.g., Opuntia treleasei and Prunus 

geniculata). It would undoubtedly initiate chemical or biological control 

programs if introduced into the United States because it is a major pest of 

numerous economic crops (e.g., apple, citrus, fig and peach).

High (3)
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 15

Table 5. Risk ratings summary for Consequences of Introduction

Pest Climate-Host 

Interaction

Host 

Range

Dispersal 

potential

Economic 

Impact

Environmental ImpactCumulative 

Risk Rating

Ceratitis capitata High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15)

2.7. Likelihood of Introduction

Cumulative Risk Ratings for the Likelihood of Introduction were estimated from the quantity of 

the commodity that was expected to be imported annually and the probabilities that a pest would

survive postharvest treatment and shipment, enter the United States undetected, and arrive in an 

area with a climate and host plants capable of supporting reproduction (USDA, 2000).

Cumulative Risk Ratings for the Likelihood of Introduction were summarized in Table 6.

2.7.1. Quantity Imported Annually

The government of Spain indicated that the quantity of avocados exported would be less than 10 

containers per year. 

2.7.2. Survive Post-Harvest Treatment

Internal feeding arthropods were expected to survive minimal postharvest treatments, such as 

washing and culling. The fruit fly, C. capitata was therefore rated high for this sub-element.

2.7.3. Survive Shipment

The optimum temperature for shipping avocados is 12-13oC (Lawrence, 2003). Even if the 

optimum temperature was maintained while transporting the commodity via a modern cargo 

ship, which should take about eight days to cross the Atlantic Ocean, assuming fair weather, a 

distance of 3,589 miles and a constant speed of 16 knots, some individuals of each pest would 

likely survive. For example, C. capitata is one of the least cold-hardy pests analyzed here, and 

USDA (2007) currently recommends in cold treatment T107-a, that fruit be stored at 1.11oC or 

below for 14 days to kill all C. capitata larvae. Ceratitis capitata was assigned a high risk rating 

for this sub-element.

2.7.4. Not Detected at Port of Entry

The probability that an arthropod pest is detected at the port of entry is a function of their size 

and degree of concealment. Because internal feeders are well concealed, they have a high 

probability of escaping detection. Ceratitis capitata was therefore given high risk rating for this 

sub-element.

2.7.5. Moved to Suitable Habitat

Avocados have widespread acceptance among consumers in the United States (Affleck, 1992).

Such widespread acceptance means that markets exist in all parts of the United States, and 

infested fruits are likely to arrive in areas that are suitable for pest survival. Risk ratings for this 

sub-element were, therefore, based on the area of the United States where each pest could 

potentially establish. The pest was rated medium for this sub-element because it was estimated as 

having the potential to establish in USDA Hardiness Zones 8-11 which represents less than an 

estimated 33% of the United States.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 16

2.7.6. Contact with Host Material

C. capitata has a wide host range and iscapable of long distance aerial dispersal (CABI, 2003).

Therefore, it was considered likely to come into contact with suitable hosts and assigned a pest 

risk rating of high for this sub-element.

Table 6. Risk ratings summary for Likelihood of Introduction

Pest Quantity 

Imported 

Annually

Survive 

Postharvest 

Treatment

Survive 

Shipment

Not Detected 

at Port of 

Entry

Moved to 

Suitable 

Habitat

Contact 

Host 

Material

Cumulative 

Risk Rating

Ceratitis 

capitata

Low (1) High (3) High (3) High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (15)

2.8. Conclusion

Pest Risk Potentials, which are summations of the Consequences of Introduction and Likelihood 

of Introduction values, were recorded in Table 7. Pest Risk Potential is an estimation of the risk 

associated with importation of the commodity in the absence of any mitigative measures.

According to the template document, Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, 

Version 5.02 (USDA, 2000), port of entry inspection provides sufficient phytosanitary security 

for pests assigned Low pest risk potentials. Additional measures are strongly recommended for 

pests with High pest risk potentials.

Table 7. Pest Risk Potential

Pest Consequences of 

Introduction

Likelihood of 

Introduction

Pest Risk Potential

Ceratitis capitata High (15) High (15) High (30)

3. Authors and Reviewers

3.1. Authors 

R. Kahn and P. Lima (consultants) developed a first draft of this document. It was subsequently 

updated and revised by USDA APHIS staff including Mr. K.Colpetzer. Dr. R.A. Sequeira and 

Dr. D.M. Borchert.

3.2. Reviewers (in alphabetic order)

Bentley, W., Entomologist, University of California, Kearney Agricultural Center

Converse, R., Plant Pathologist, USDA, ARS, HCRL (Retired)

Lightfield, J., Plant Pathologist, USDA, APHIS, PPQ (Retired)

Pfeiffer, D., Entomologist, Virginia Tech, Department of Entomology
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 17

4. Literature Cited

Affleck, M. 1992. The United States avocado market. pp. 643-645. In Proceedings of the Second 

World Avocado Congress. Available:

http://www.avocadosource.com/wac2/wac2_p643.htm. Accessed :December 2007

Agrios, G.N. 1997. Plant Pathology, 4th Ed. Academic Press. San Diego, California.

Alper, M., J.M. Bar, R. Salomon and G. Loebenstein. 1978. Some characteristics of an avocado 

strain of tobacco mosaic virus. Phytoparasitica. 6(1): 15-20.

Armengol, J., A. Vincent, L. Torne, F. Garcia Figueres and J. Garcia Jimenez. 2001. Hongos 

asociados a decaimientos y afecciones de madera en vid en diversa zonas espanolas. 

Boletin de Sanidad Vegetal Plagas. 27(1): 137-153.

Avidov, Z. and Harpaz, I. 1969. Plant Pests of Israel. Israel Universities Press, Jerusalem.

Barclay, H. J., and J. W. Hargrove. 2005. Probability models to facilitate a declaration of pestfree status, with special reference to tsetse (Diptera: Glossinidae). Bulletin of 

Entomological Research 95(1):1-11.

Ben-Dov, Y. 1994. A Systematic Catalogue of the Mealybugs of the World (Insecta: Homoptera: 

Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae and Pittidae) with Data on Geographical Distribution, Host 

Plants, Biology and Economic Importance. Intercept Ltd., Andover, United Kingdom.

Bevacqua, R.F. 1991. Hawaii's avocado industry. California Avocado Society Yearbook. 78: 43-

45. Available: 

http://www.avocadosource.com/cas_yearbooks/cas_78_1994/cas_1994_pg_043-045.pdf.

Accessed: December 2007

Blackman, R.L. and V.F. Eastop. 2000. Aphids on the Worlds Crops: An Identification and 

Information Guide. John Wiley and Sons, New York, New York.

Bolland, H.R., J. Gutierrez and C.H.W. Flechtmann. 1998. World Catalog of the Spider Mite 

Family (Acari: Tetranchidae). Brill. Boston, Massachusetts.

Bradbury, J.F. 1986. Guide to Plant Pathogenic Bacteria. CAB International Mycological 

Institute. CAB International, Slough, United Kingdom.

Brunt, A.A., K. Crabtree, M.J. Dallwitz, A.J. Gibbs, L. Watson and E.J. Zucher. 1996. Plant 

Viruses Online: Descriptions and Lists from the VIDE Database. Available: 

http://image.fs.uidaho.edu/vide/.

CABI, 2003. Crop Protection Compendium. CAB International. Wallingford, United Kingdom. 

[CD-ROM].

CABI, 2006. Crop Protection Compendium. CAB International. Wallingford, United Kingdom. 

[CD-ROM].

Cadahia, D. 1986. Problemes phytosanitaires forestiers dus aux organismes de quarantaine OEPP 

introduits recemment en Espagne. Bulletin OEPP. 16(3): 537-541.

Capinera, J. L. 2001. Handbook of Vegetable Pests. Academic Press, San Diego, California.

Carter, D.J. 1984. Pest Lepidoptera of Europe, with Special Reference to the British Isles.

Klumer Academic Publishers. Hingham, Massachusetts.

Crane, J., M. Aerts and M. Mossler. 2001. Crop Profile for Avocado in Florida. University of 

Florida. Homestead, Florida. Available: 

http://www.ipmcenters.org/cropprofiles/docs/flavocado.html.

Dreistadt, S. H. 1994. Pests of Landscape Trees and Shrubs: An Integrated Pest Management 

Guide. Univhhersity of California, Davis, California.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 18

Farr, D.F., A.Y. Rossman, M.E. Palm and E.B. McCray. 2003. Fungal Databases. USDA, 

Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Available: http://nt.arsgrin.gov/fungaldatabases/ Accessed; December 2007.

Fernandez Magan, F.J. 1974. Trichothecium roseum in the destruction of forest fruits. Anales del 

Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias Recursos Naturales, No. 1. 179-185.

Ferragut, F. and M.C. Santonja. 1989. Taxonomia y distribucion de los acaros del genero 

Tetranychus Dufour 1832 (Acari: Tetranychidae), en Espana. Boletin de Sanidad Vegetal 

Plagas. 15(3): 271-281.

Ferris, H. and E.P. Caswell-Chen. 2003. Nemabase. University of California, Davis. Available: 

http://plpnemweb.ucdavis.edu/nemaplex/index.htm. Accessed: December 2007

Goodey, J.B., M.T. Franklin and D.J. Hooper. 1965. The Nematode Parasites of Plants 

Catalogued Under Their Hosts. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux. Bucks, England.

Guarro, J., F. Fort and L. Punsola. 1986. Contributions to the study of Hyphomycetes in Spain. 

Revista Iberica de Micologia. 3(2): 61-68.

Gunn, C.R. and C. Ritchie. 1982. Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate Noxious 

Weeds: Exotic Weeds for Federal Noxious Weed Act (unpublished).

Hassan, E. 1977. Major Insect and Mite Pests of Australian Crops. Ento Press. Gatton, 

Queensland.

Hill, D.S. 1993. Agricultural Insect Pests of the Tropics and Their Control, 2nd Ed. Cambridge 

University Press. New Delhi, India.

Holm, L.G., D.L. Plucknett, J.V. Pancho and J.P. Herberger. 1977. The World's Worst Weeds.

University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Holm, L.G., J. Doll, E. Holm, J.V. Pancho and J.P. Herberger. 1997. World Weeds: Natural 

Histories and Distribution. John Wiley and Sons, New York, New York.

Holm, L.G., J.V. Pancho, J.P. Herberger and D.L. Plucknett. 1979. A Geographical Atlas of 

World Weeds. Krieger Publishing Co., Malabar, Florida.

HYPPZ. 2003. Hypermedia Plant Protection Zoology on line. Available:

http://www.inra.fr/Internet/Produits/HYPPZ/species.htm.

IPPC. 1996a. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures: Guidelines for Pest Risk 

Analysis. International Plant Protection Convention of the United Nations Food and 

Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy.

IPPC. 1996b. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures: Requirements for the 

Establishment of Pest Free Areas. International Plant Protection Convention of the United 

Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy.

IPPC. 1999. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures: Requirements for the 

Establishment of Pest Free Places of Production and Pest Free Production Sites. 

International Plant Protection Convention of the United Nations Food and Agriculture 

Organization, Rome, Italy.

IPPC. 2002a. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures: Glossary of Phytosanitary

Terms. International Plant Protection Convention of the United Nations Food and 

Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy.

IPPC. 2002b. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures: The Use of Integrated 

Measures in a Systems Approach for Pest Risk Management. International Plant 

Protection Convention of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 

Italy.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 19

IPPC. 2004. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures: Pest Risk Analysis for 

Quarantine Pests including Analysis of Environmental Risks and Living Modified 

Organisms. International Plant Protection Convention of the United Nations Food and 

Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy.

IPPC. 2005. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures: Requirements for the 

Establishment of Areas of Low Pest Prevalence. International Plant Protection 

Convention of the United Nations Food & Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy.

Jeppson, L.R., H.H. Keifer and E.W. Baker. 1975. Mites Injurious to Economic Plants. 

University of California Press, Berkeley, California.

Jordan, R.L., J.A. Dodds and H.D. Ohr. 1983. Evidence for virus-like agents in avocado, Persea 

americana. Phytopathology. 73(8): 1130-1135.

Knowledge Master. 2003. Avocado. In Crop Knowledge Master. University of Hawaii. Manoa, 

Hawaii. Available: http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/crops/avocado.htm.

Accessed: December 2007

Korsten, L., G.M. Sanders and E. Grosse Wieschede. 1994. Isolation and pathogenicity of 

avocado post-harvest pathogens from Westfalia and other avocado producing areas. 

South African Avocado Growers' Association. 17: 46-48.

Lavina, A., A. Batlle, J. Garcia Faraco and C.J. Lopez Herrera. 2002. First report of stolbur 

phytoplasma in avocado in Spain. Plant Disease. 86(6): 692.

Lawrence, J. 2003. Post Harvest Handling of Avocado (Persea americana). Rural Agriculture 

Development Authority. Kingston, Jamaica. Available: http://www.radajamaica.com.jm/. 

Accessed: December 2007.

López-Herrera, C.J. and J.M. Melero-Vara. 1992. Diseases of Avocado Caused by Soil Fungi in 

the Southern Mediterranean Coast of Spain. pp. 119-121. In Proceedings of the Second 

World Avocado Congress. Available: 

http://www.avocadosource.com/wac2/wac2_p119.htm. Accessed: December 2007

Mau, R. and J. Kessing. 1992. Pulvinaria psidii Maskell. In Crop Knowledge Master. University

of Hawaii. Manoa, Hawaii. Available: 

http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/Type/p_psidii.htm. Accessed: December 2007

Mau, R. and J. Martin. 1992. Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann). In Crop Knowledge Master. 

University of Hawaii. Manoa, Hawaii. Available: 

http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/Type/b_argent.htm. Accessed: December 

2007

Mau, R. and S. Lee. 1995. Bemisia argentifolii (Bellows and Perring). In Crop Knowledge 

Master. University of Hawaii. Manoa, Hawaii. Available: 

http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/Type/ceratiti.htm. Accessed: December 2007

McQuate, G.T., P.A. Follett and J.M. Yoshimoto. 2000. Field infestation of rambutan fruits by 

internal-feeding pests in Hawaii. Journal of Economic Entomology. 93: 846-851.

Melero Vara, J.M. and R.M. Jimenez Diaz. 1990. Etiology, incidence and distribution of cotton 

seedling damping-off in southern Spain. Plant Disease. 74(8): 597-600.

Michaels, F. 2005. Organic Fruit Fly Control. Green Harvets, Maleny, Australia. Available: 

http://www.greenharvest.com.au/pestcontrol/fruit_fly_info.html. Accessed: 15 February

2006.

Miller, G.L. and D.R. Miller. 2002. Dysmicoccus Ferris and similar genera (Hemiptera: 

Coccoidea: Psuedococcidae) of the Gulf State Region including descriptions of a new 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 20

species and new United States records. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of 

Washington. 104(4): 968-979.

Morton, J. 1987. Avocado. In: Fruits of warm climates. p. 91–102., Miami, FL. 

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/avocado_ars.html. Accessed: December 

2007

Mound, L.A. and S.H. Halsey. 1978. Whitefly of the World: A Systematic Catalogue of the 

Aleyrodidae (Homoptera) with Host Plant and Natural Enemy Data. John Wiley and 

Sons, New York.

Ohr, H.D., M.D. Coffer and R.T. McMillan, Jr. 1993. Diseases of Avocado (Persea americana 

Miller). The American Phytopathological Society. St. Paul, Minnesota. Available: 

http://www.apsnet.org/online/common/names/avocado.asp.

Peirce, S., M. Hoddle, B. Faber, P. Phillips, H. Ohr, J. Barcinas, T. Roberts and M. Hand. 1999. 

Crop Profile for Avocados in California. University of California. Riverside, California. 

Available: http://pestdata.ncsu.edu/cropprofiles/docs/caavocados.html. Accessed: 

December 2007

Pelaez, F., J. Collado, F. Arenal, A. Basilio, M.T. Diez Matas, J.B. Garcia, V. Gonzalez, J. 

Gorrochategui, P. Hernandez, I. Martin, G. Platas and F. Vicente. 1998. Endophytic fungi 

from plants living on gypsum soils as a source of secondary metabolites with 

antimicrobial activity. Mycological research. 102(6): 755-761.

Perez, G., A. Carnero and J. Barquin. 1984. Dysmicoccus alazon (Homoptera: Coccoidea) plaga 

de la platanera: II. Biologia y control. Anales de Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones 

Agrarias. No. 26. 113-135.

PestID. 2003. Pest Identification Database (PestID). United States Department of Agriculture, 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine.

https://mokcs14.aphis.usda.gov/aqas/login.jsp. (Archived at PERAL)

PestID. 2011. Pest Identification Database (PestID). United States Department of Agriculture, 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine. (Queried 

8/4/2011) https://mokcs14.aphis.usda.gov/aqas/login.jsp. (Archived at PERAL)

Pinochet, J., S. Verdejo, A. Soler and J. Canals. 1992. Host range of a population of 

Pratylenchus vulnus in commercial fruit, nut, citrus, and grape rootstocks in Spain. 

Journal of Nematology. 24(4): 693-698.

Pirone, P. P. 1978. Diseases and Pests of Ornamental Plants (Fifth). John Wiley and Sons, New 

York, New York. 566 pp.

Ploetz, R.C., G.A. Zentmyer, W.T. Nishijima, K.G. Rohrbach and H.D. Ohr. 1994. Compendium 

of Tropical Fruit Diseases. The American Phytopathological Society. St. Paul, 

Minnesota.

Reed, C.F. 1977. Economically Important Foreign Weeds. USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 

498.

Rivero, J.M. and F. Garcia Mari. 1983. El hemiptero heteroptero chinche gris, Nysius ericae 

(Schill.), como plaga. Boletin del Servicio de Defensa contra Plagas e Inspeccion 

Fitopatologica. 9(1): 3-13.

Robinson, G.S., P.R. Ackery, I.J. Kitching, G.W. Beccaloni and L.M. Hernandez. 2003. HOSTS 

- A database of the hostplants of the world's Lepidoptera. The Natural History Museum. 

London, United Kingdom. Available: http://internt.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/researchcuration/projects/hostplants/. Accessed December 2007
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 21

Rodriguez Molina, M.C., J.C. Tello, L.M. Torres Villa and P. Bielza. 1998. Aspectos ecologicos 

de la microflora de los suelos de Caceres: Densidad de poblacion, composicion especifica 

y patogeneicidad de Pythium. Boletin de Sanidad Vegetal Plagas. 24(3): 541-550.

Rosen, D. [Ed.]. 1990. Armored Scale Insects: Their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. In 

World Crop Pests, Volume 4b. Elsevier Science. Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

Sanchez, M.E., J. Venegas, M.A. Romero, A.J.L. Phillips and A. Trapero. 2003. Botryosphaeria 

and related taxa causing oak canker in southwestern Spain. Plant Disease. 87(12): 1515-

1521.

Sanchez Hernández, M.E., J. Gutiérrez García and A. trapero Casas. 2002. Botryosphaeria 

canker of Cistus ladanifer. Plant Pathology. 51: 365-373.

Saninet. 2002. Indice Preliminar de Plagas, Enfermedades y Malezas de Plantas Cultivadas en la 

Republic Dominicana. Publicaciones de Sanidad Vegetal. Instituto Interamericano de 

Cooperación para la Agricultura, Red Sudamericana de Información Sanitaria 

Agropecuaria..

Scalenet. 2003. Scalenet: A Database of the Scale Insects of the World. USDA, Systematic 

Entomology Laboratory. Available: http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/scalenet/scalenet.htm.

Scott, J.K. and J.L. Sagliocco. 1991. Host-specificity of the root borer, Bembecia chrysidiformis 

(Lep.: Sessiidae), a potential control agent for Rumex spp. (Polygonaceae) in Australia. 

Entomophaga. 36(2): 235-244.

Singh, S.P., N.S. Rao and K.K. Kumar. 1981. Occurrence of vegetable mite, Tetranychus 

neocaledoniocus Andre, on passion fruit, Passiflora edulis Sims, and evaluation of 

certain acaricides. Pestology. 5(1): 25-27.

Sneh, B. and S. Gross. 1981. Toxicity of avocado leaves (Persea americana) to young larvae of 

Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Zeitschrift fuer Angewandte 

Entomologie. 92(2): 420-422.

Smith, D. 1973. Insect pests of avocados. Queensland Agricultural Journal, 99(12):645-653.

Smith, I.M., D.G. McNamara, P.R. Scott, and M. Holderness (Eds.). 1997. Quarantine Pests for 

Europe, 2nd ed. CAB International. Wallingford, United Kingdom.

Swirski, E., M. Wysoki and Y. Izhar. 1995. Avocado Pests In Israel. pp. 419-428. In Proceedings 

of the World Avocado Congress III. Available: 

http://www.avocadosource.com/WAC3/WAC3_p419.htm. Accessed December 2007

Sztejnberg, A. and G. Madar. 1980. Host range of Dematophora necatrix, the cause of white root 

rot disease in fruit trees. Plant Disease 64: 662-664.

Tenbrink, V. and A. Hara. 1992a. Hemiberlesia rapax (Comstock). In Crop Knowledge Master. 

University of Hawaii. Manoa, Hawaii. Available: 

http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/Type/h_rapax.htm. Accessed December 2007

Tenbrink, V. and A. Hara. 1992b. Pinnaspis strachani (Cooley). In Crop Knowledge Master. 

University of Hawaii. Manoa, Hawaii. Available: 

http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/Type/p_strach.htm. Accessed December 2007

Toth, S. and R. Stinner. 2003. USDA Crop Profiles. North Carolina State University, National 

Science Foundation Center for Integrated Pest Management. Available: 

http://cipm.ncsu.edu/CropProfiles/.

Tsopelas, P. 1999. Distribution and ecology of Armillaria species in Greece. European Journal of 

Forest Pathology. 29: 103-116.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Spain

Ver. 5 November 22, 2011 22

Tsukiboshi, T. 2003. Nigrospora oryzae (Berk. & Br.) Petch. Japanese Fungi on Plants No. 42. 

Available: http://www.niaes.affrc.go.jp/inventry/microorg/eng/z57e-Nigro-ory.html.

Accessed December 2007

UK Biodiversity Group. 1999. Action Plan for Bembecia chrysidiformis. pp.299. In Tranche 2 

Action Plans - Volume IV: Invertebrates. English Nature. Peterborough, United 

Kingdom.

USDA. 2000. Guidelines for Pathway-initiated Pest Risk Assessments, Version 5.02. USDA, 

APHIS, PPQ. Riverdale, MD 31 pp.

USDA. 2003. Nematode Database. Beltsville Agriculture Research Center. Beltsville, Maryland. 

Available: http://nt.ars-grin.gov/nematodes/search.cfm.

USDA. 2003b. Agricultural Quarantine Inspection Monitoring Handbook. United States 

Department of Agriculture. 

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/ports/downloads/aqim_handbo

ok.pdf. Accessed: December 2007

USDA. 2007. Treatment Manual. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 

Available

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/ports/downloads/treatment.pdf. 

Accessed: Accessed: December 2007.

USDA-NRCS. 2002. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. National Plant Data Center, Baton 

Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA. Available: http://plants.usda.gov.

Van der Geest, L. and H. Evenhuis. 1991. Tortricid Pests: Their Biology, Natural Enemies and 

Control. Elsevier. New York, New York.

Velasco, V.R. 2002. Dorylaimidae (Metazoa, Nemathelminthes). In The Animal Kingdom on the 

Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales. Madrid, 

Spain.

Venette, R. C., R. D. Moon, and W. D. Hutchison. 2002. Strategies and statistics of sampling for 

rare individuals. Annual Review of Entomology 47:143-174.

Vera, M.T., R. Rodriguez, D.F. Segura, J.L. Cladera and R.W. Sutherst. 2002. Potential 

geographical distribution of the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: 

Tephritidae), with emphasis on Argentina and Australia. Environmental Entomology. 31: 

1009-1022.

Weems, H.V. 1981. Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: 

Tephritidae). Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. Entomology

Circular No. 230.

White, I.M. and M.M. Elson-Harris. 1992. Fruit Flies of Economic Significance: Their 

Identification and Bionomics. CAB International. Wallingford, United Kingdom.

Williams, D.J. and M.C. Granara de Willink. 1992. Mealybugs of Central and South America. 

CAB International. Wallingford, United Kingdom.

WSSA. 2003. Composite List of Weeds. Weed Science Society of America. Available: 

http://www.wssa.net/.

Zhang, B.C. 1994. Index of Economically Important Lepidoptera. CAB International.

Wallingford, United Kingdom.