U.S. Department of the Interior a U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey

Programs in New York

0 2,000

500

800

600

400

200

Sea Level

200

400

600

Shale

Limestone

Dolomite

Shale with salt content

increasing with depth

 Salt Mine

Silt and clay

Alluvium Subsidence of as 

much as 70 feet 

Silt, sand and gravel,

and till

Collapse

zone

Till

(18,000 gallons per minute 

ground-water inflow to the mine)

Major water-bearing zones that

are sources of inflow to the mine Unconformity

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X 10

0 1,000 METERS

4,000 FEET

West East

Till

FEET

The mission of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is to provide geologic, topographic, hydrologic, and biological information that contributes to the wise management of the Nation’s natural resources and 

promotes the health, safety, and well-being 

of the people. This information consists of 

maps, data bases, and descriptions and 

analyses of the water, biota, energy, and 

mineral resources; land surface; underlying 

geologic structure; and dynamic processes 

of the Earth. 

Effects of Underground Mine 

Collapse

The USGS, in cooperation with the Livingston County Department of Health, is 

assessing the effects of ground-water drainage into a collapse zone of a salt mine on the 

regional aquifer system in the Genesee 

River Valley. The salt mine, which had been 

in operation for 109 years, supplied road 

salt to 14 States in the Northeast. An underground room collapsed on March 12, 1994, 

and an adjacent room collapsed on April 18. 

Two large, circular collapse features several 

hundred feet apart developed above them at 

land surface. Fractures in the rocks above 

the mine transmitted ground water (fig. 1) 

into the mine at a rate of about 18,000 gallons per minute. This dewatered the aquifers 

above and adjacent to the mine. Consequently, 

some water-supply wells have gone dry. 

The USGS has provided technical expertise in the assessment of land subsidence in 

the area and has aided in maintaining a 

regional monitoring network to record the 

rate of water-level declines. The New York 

State Geological Survey installed a temporary earthquake-monitoring network to 

detect sudden subsidence. The USGS also is 

developing computer models to estimate 

the area affected by ground water that 

drains into the mine; to predict the rate, 

extent, and magnitude of water-level 

declines; to estimate the time needed for 

water levels in overlying aquifers to 

recover to equilibrium conditions when 

mine flooding is complete; and to determine the rate and extent of subsidence. 

Protecting Water for Wells

Ground-water suppliers are implementing programs to protect recharge areas from 

contamination. Although some methods of 

delineating contributing areas to wells are 

inexact, more precise methods may not be 

cost effective. The USGS is examining 

which methods are best applied to different 

hydrologic conditions. One USGS study, in 

cooperation with the Suffolk County Water 

Authority on Long Island, showed that a 

simple approach of delineating circular 

recharge areas of unconfined aquifers gave 

better results than more sophisticated and 

expensive methods. In contrast, a USGS

study in the Susquehanna River Basin, in 

cooperation with the New York State 

Department of Environmental Conservation 

and the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (USEPA), showed that ground-water 

flow modeling might be needed where the 

wells are close to rivers and streams. A 

third USGS study showed contributing areas 

to wells screened in confined aquifers, such 

as areas of the Magothy aquifer on Long 

Island, are large and diffuse, which results 

in increased ground-water traveltimes and 

reduces the significance of a parcel of land 

in protecting a deep well. 

Index of Subjects

Effects of Underground Mine Collapse

Protecting Water for Wells

Constructed Wetlands

Fish Restoration

Natural Gas

Water Resources

Drought

Watershed Geochemistry

Outreach

Teaming Up With New York

Mapping 

Marine Environment 

Figure 1. Conceptual hydrologic framework near a salt mine in the Genesee River Valley.

Earth Science in the Public Service
Sacandaga

Reservoir

Hudson River

ALBANY

GREEN

ISLAND

ALBANY

POUGHKEEPSIE

LONG ISLAND

KINGSTON

MASSACHUSETTS CONNECTICUT

NEW JERSEY

West Point

41°00'

41°30'

42°00'

42°30'

74°00' 73°30'

0 5 10 20 MILES

0 5 10 20 KILOMETERS

Gage stations

NEW

CITY

YORK

NEW YORK CITY

NEW YORK

EXPLANATION

Physical

Biological

Chemical

Treated water

Plants transfer

oxygen to the

root zone LEACHATE

Constructed Wetlands

Nearly all landfills in humid areas produce leachate, which is the liquid created 

when rainwater percolates through the layers of waste in a landfill, and this leachate 

can contaminate ground and surface waters. 

Modern landfills have bottom liners that 

catch the leachate and funnel it to collection 

tanks. Ideally, leachate is processed on-site 

to minimize the cost and risks of transporting it to a distant processor. The USGS, in 

cooperation with Monroe County and the 

New York State Energy Research and 

Development Authority, is investigating the 

use of constructed (artificial) wetlands as a 

passive, inexpensive on-site method to treat 

landfill leachate (fig. 2). This approach 

could significantly reduce the cost of solidwaste management while reducing the 

threat to the landfill’s surroundings.

Fish Restoration

The USGS Biological Resources Division 

(formerly the National Biological Service) 

conducts research and provides scientific 

data needed for sustained economic benefits 

from and conservation of New York's terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The Lake 

Ontario Biological Station, Great Lakes Science Center, provides the critical information needed by resource managers to restore 

native lake trout populations to Lake 

Ontario. Lake trout disappeared from Lake 

Ontario in the mid-1900’s. Stocking the lake 

with hatchery-reared fish began in the 

1970’s. Studies are identifying the trout 

most likely to reproduce and evaluating the 

effectiveness of sea lamprey control; this 

exotic species is a major source of lake trout 

mortality. Success has been demonstrated by 

the recent captures of juvenile lake trout 

produced by mature hatchery fish that 

spawned in the Lake. 

Economically important sport fishing 

for hatchery-reared trout and salmon in 

Lake Ontario depends heavily on the productivity of forage fish populations, which 

serve as food for the sport fish species. USGS

biologists focus on the population dynamics 

of alewives, rainbow smelt, and slimy 

sculpins, which are the key forage species in 

the Lake. Studies emphasize how changes in 

stocking rates and exotic species affect forage fish populations. 

Additional USGS studies include investigating fish losses in Lake Ontario to predation by double-crested cormorants, 

evaluating the effects of zebra mussels on 

native mussel populations, and providing 

data that can be used to develop control 

strategies for zebra mussels. 

Natural Gas 

A large, continuous-type natural gas 

accumulation may exist in ancient rocks in 

part of the Appalachian Basin in western 

New York and nearby States. These 

sandstone gas reservoirs in the proposed 

continuous-type accumulation are deeper 

and less permeable, contain less formation 

water, and yield smaller quantities of gas 

per well than gas reservoirs in discrete-type 

accumulations. However, the reservoirs in 

the continuous-type accumulation are 

assumed to be saturated with gas and nearly 

all wells drilled into them are expected to be 

productive after hydrofracturing. The 1995 

USGS National Assessment of U.S. Oil and 

Gas Resources indicates that many trillions 

of cubic feet of gas may be recoverable 

from the accumulation. Recognizing the 

great potential for this energy resource, 

USGS scientists have begun a multiyear 

investigation in New York and adjoining 

States to define the nature, size, and origin 

of the accumulation. 

Water Resources

The USGS is cooperating with the Nassau 

County Department of Public Works to 

delineate the subsurface hydrogeology and 

the extent of saltwater intrusion along the 

northern shore of Long Island, which 

includes the Great Neck Peninsula. Ground 

water is the sole source of drinking water for 

the Peninsula, and four distinct wedgeshaped areas of saltwater intrusion have 

been identified in Great Neck. These data 

provide water-resource managers with better 

definition of the area’s complex hydrogeologic framework and the extent of saltwater 

intrusion. The data may be used to develop 

water-supply pumping plans to minimize 

pumping stresses and to prevent further 

intrusion of saltwater. 

Drought

The 1995 drought in the Northeastern 

United States adversely affected water suppliers throughout much of southern and 

eastern New York. Hard hit were water suppliers that use the lower Hudson River as 

their water source. The lower Hudson River 

between Albany and New York City is a 

tidal estuary (fig. 3). Freshwater flows into 

the estuary from the Hudson River north of 

Albany and from smaller rivers, and saltwater ebbs and flows into the estuary from the 

south with the tidal cycle. The location of 

the interface between fresh and salty water 

(salt front) is controlled by the quantity of 

freshwater discharged into the estuary and 

the magnitude of ocean tides. Monthly 

mean flows of the Hudson River near 

Albany in July and August 1995 were the 

third lowest in the last 50 years; only flows 

during the drought in 1964 and 1965 were 

lower. The reduced freshwater inflow to the 

Figure 2. Contaminant removal processes in 

a constructed wetland. Figure 3. Location of the Hudson River 

salt-front study area.
Hudson River Estuary allowed the salt 

front to move as far upriver as the city of 

Poughkeepsie, which uses the Hudson River 

for water supply. The USGS has monitored 

salt-front locations and streamflow in the 

Hudson River since 1989. During the 1995 

drought, the USGS worked with the New 

York State Department of Health (NYSDOH) 

to predict water releases from the Sacandaga Reservoir that would prevent further 

upstream movement of the salt front while 

minimizing adverse effects on the Reservoir. These releases were successful in preventing further upstream movement of the 

salt front. The USGS, in cooperation with 

NYSDOH, made 30 measurements of the saltfront location in the Hudson River under 

drought conditions in 1995 that will 

improve the accuracy of predictions during 

future droughts. 

Watershed Geochemistry

The USGS, in cooperation with the New 

York City Department of Environmental 

Protection, is identifying the processes that 

control the chemical quality of streams and 

rivers in the Catskill Mountains that are 

tributary to the New York City reservoir system. Atmospheric deposition of nitrate is 

greater in the Catskill region than anywhere 

else in the Northeast. Nitric acid from precipitation increases the nitrate concentration 

in streams during storms and snowmelt, 

causes acidification in streams, and 

increases inorganic aluminum concentrations to levels that are toxic to fish. High 

nitrate concentrations in streams could 

cause New York City water-resource managers to consider stricter requirements on 

discharges from farms, sewage-treatment 

plants, and other sources of nitrogen within 

Catskill basins. One USGS study focuses on 

the mechanisms by which nitrate in soil and 

ground water is transported to streams and 

reservoirs in the Catskill Mountains and the 

effects of different logging practices on 

nitrogen uptake and release in soil. Information on nitrogen processes and movement 

will help define the transport of aluminum 

and nitrate and how management of forests 

in reservoir basins can help control nitrate 

concentrations in surface water. 

Calcium concentrations have decreased 

in forest soils in the Northeast since the 

onset of acid deposition. Depletion of calcium, which is an essential nutrient for tree 

growth, is linked to growth decline and dieback of red spruce trees, which is occurring 

throughout the Northeast. A major advance 

in knowledge of how acidic deposition 

reduces calcium concentrations in soil 

occurred recently in a study by a USGS scientist, who was working in collaboration 

with scientists from the U.S. Forest Service, 

the University of Illinois, and Yale University. Results indicate that acid deposition is 

increasing aluminum concentrations in the 

forest floor and that displacement of calcium by aluminum on soil ion-exchange 

sites is reducing the storage of calcium in 

soil. This reduction in the soil’s ability to 

store calcium in a form available to roots 

will make restoration of calcium in soil difficult even if acid deposition is decreased. 

Outreach

In New York, the USGS has been experimenting with new methods to reach out and 

inform the educational community and the 

public of the information resources that the 

USGS provides. The USGS District Office in 

Troy held an open house in fall 1995 with 

12 technical demonstrations and more than 

20 poster presentations. Tours were given 

to more than 160 junior high and high 

school students. The USGS participates in the 

Hudson River Watch, which is a program 

for middle and high school students in 

which they monitor stream-water quality 

near their schools, by providing some funding and technical advice and demonstrating 

sampling procedures. This program, which 

is coordinated by River Watch Network, 

Inc., includes 21 schools throughout much 

of the Hudson River Basin and has been 

extremely successful. 

The USGS also is funding the efforts of an 

educator from the Frost Valley YMCA to create an earth science curriculum by using 

USGS materials and to distribute this curriculum to other YMCA’s nationwide. The USGS

is creating an Earth Science Resource Center at Hudson Valley Community College 

from which earth science teachers can borrow teaching aids, such as rock collections, 

hydrologic models, and instruments. Workshops are held to familiarize teachers with 

the resources available. The USGS created 

the Hudson River National Water-Quality 

Assessment Program Liaison Committee to 

improve communication and coordination 

of the Hudson River assessment with other 

government officials, researchers, and the 

public. A streamflow data base is available 

on the Internet to provide current streamflow data for the public and water professionals at:

http://wwwdnyalb.er.usgs.gov/htmls/pub/info.html 

The Earth Science Information Center 

(ESIC) in Albany was established under a 

cooperative agreement between the USGS

and the New York State Department of 

Transportation Map Information Unit. As 

part of the national ESIC network, this office 

provides information on such earth science 

topics as cartography, geography, digital 

data, remote sensing, geology, geophysics, 

geochemistry, hydrology, geohydrology, 

aerial photography, and land use. It is supported by the USGS with reference materials, technical assistance, training and 

outreach activities, and access to USGS data 

bases. 

Teaming Up With New York

A single agency can not provide all the 

personnel, expertise, or financial resources 

needed to understand natural resources and 

the factors that influence them—a team 

approach is needed. The products of USGS

projects are generally the result of the 

cumulative efforts of many agencies and 

individuals working independently and 

together to advance the understanding of 

natural resources. 

For example, the USGS communicates 

frequently with the New York State Geological Survey (NYSGS) and relies on its maps, 

data, and interpretations. As part of this 

cooperation, the NYSGS is working with the 

USGS’s Mineral Resource Surveys Program 

to refine information on the location and 

types of mineral deposits in New York and 

to develop new approaches to working and 

evaluating these mineral resources. The 

NYSGS maps surficial and bedrock geology, 

compiles mapping done by others, and 

issues surficial and bedrock geology maps 

at various scales. In New York State, the 

USGS Detailed Aquifer Mapping Project has 

made extensive use of surficial and bedrock 

geologic maps provided by the NYSGS. 

Some of these maps are based partly on 

records collected by the USGS, and the USGS

has provided part of the funding for some of 

these efforts. Currently, the NYSGS is mapping the South Onondaga, Tully, and Otisco 

quadrangles in Tulley Valley; this is a geologically active area in central New York 

State in which mudboils occur and where 

the largest landslide in New York in the last 

75 years destroyed several houses in 1993. 

The NYSGS is receiving some USGS funding 

from the STATEMAP component of the 

National Cooperative Geologic Mapping 

Program for this work and geologic mapping in the Mt. Kisco quadrangle in 

Westchester County. 
For More

Information

New York

Bight

New Jersey

Long Island

N

Mapping

The use of maps and digital cartographic data is widespread, and needs for 

this information are expanding rapidly. The 

USGS, through its National Mapping Program, strives to ensure the availability of 

map information in graphic and digital 

forms to the general public through timely 

and effective data-collection and revision 

procedures. Among the most popular and 

versatile products of the USGS are its 

1:24,000-scale topographic maps (1 inch 

on the map represents 2,000 feet on the 

ground). These maps depict natural and 

cultural features of the landscape, such as 

lakes and streams, highways and railroads, 

boundaries, and geographic names. New 

York encompasses 1,018 quadrangles 

mapped at this scale. These maps have long 

been favorites with both the general public 

for outdoor uses, as well as scientists and 

engineers for technical applications.

As the lead agency for the National 

Aerial Photography Program (NAPP), the 

USGS is cooperating with the USEPA to 

complete statewide color infrared aerial 

photography coverage. The NAPP photographs are used to support many environmental, land, and resource-management 

applications and also are used to prepare 

digital orthophotoquads (DOQ’s). Planning 

is underway to use this photography to 

produce color infrared DOQ’s statewide. 

The agencies planning the DOQ project 

with the USGS are the NYSDEC, the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), the 

USEPA, the National Park Service, and the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural 

Resources Conservation Service. 

Marine Environment 

The New York–New Jersey metropolitan area is the most populated coastal 

region in the United States. The harbor 

estuary and offshore area are used for 

waste disposal, transportation, recreation, 

and commercial fishing. Bottom sediments 

in some areas have become contaminated 

as a result of these activities over the last 

century, and environmentally acceptable 

areas for disposal of dredged material 

from the harbor now need to be identified. 

The USGS is conducting a long-term multidisciplinary study to map the distribution 

of contaminated sediments in the New 

York–New Jersey region (fig. 4) and to 

develop a predictive capability for the transport and long-term fate of sediments and 

contaminants. Federal, State, and local 

agencies need this regional analysis of the 

sea-floor geology for the management and 

wise use of the ocean near coastal areas, 

and scientists need the information to plan 

and conduct research and monitoring. The 

study is being conducted cooperatively 

with scientists at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Rutgers Institute for 

Coastal and Marine Science, the National 

Marine Fisheries Service, and the USACE.

Long Island Sound is a major estuary in 

a heavily urban area adjacent to New York 

Harbor. Sewage, wastes, and chemicals 

enter the Sound from direct-waste discharges, river runoff, and the atmosphere 

and cause widespread contamination of 

bottom sediments and loss of habitat for 

bottom-dwelling (benthic) organisms. The 

USGS, in cooperation with the USEPA, has 

initiated a multidisciplinary basinwide 

program to document the sea-floor processes that control the distribution of 

benthic habitats and sediment-related contaminants. The program, which uses unique 

USGS capabilities in sea-floor imaging, 

contaminant-transport modeling, and 

geochemical sampling, is basic to a wide 

range of environmental issues for Long 

Island Sound, which, in turn, affect millions of people who use the Sound each 

year for recreation and commerce.

USGS state representative

425 Jordan Road

Troy, NY 12180

(518) 285-5600

Fax:(518) 285-5601

Email: dc_ny@usgs.gov

Additional earth science

information can be found by

accessing the USGS Home Page

on the World Wide Web at

http://www.usgs.gov/

For more information on

all USGS reports and products

(including maps, images,

and computerized data), call

1-800-USA-MAPS

The USGS provides maps,

reports, and information to help

others meet their needs to manage,

 develop, and protect America’s water,

energy, mineral, biological, and land

resources. We help find the natural

resources needed to build tomorrow,

and supply the scientific understanding needed to help minimize or mitigate the effects of natural hazards

and environmental damage caused

by natural and human activities. The

results of our efforts touch the daily

 life of almost every American.

U.S. Geological Survey

Fact Sheet FS–032–96

Figure 4. Sea-floor topology of the New York 

Bight. Red boxes show the area surveyed in 

1995 (solid) and 1996 (dashed).