National Household 

Education Surveys of 

2001 

 

Participation in Adult 

Education and Lifelong 

Learning: 2000-01 

U.S. Department of Education 

Institute of Education Sciences 

NCES 2004-050

September 2004 

Kwang Kim 

Mary Hagedorn 

Jennifer Williamson 

Westat 

Christopher Chapman 

National Center for Education Statistics 
U.S. Department of Education

Rod Paige 

Secretary

Institute of Education Sciences

Grover J. Whitehurst 

Director

National Center for Education Statistics

Robert Lerner 

Commissioner 

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity for collecting, analyzing, and reporting data

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September 2004 

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Suggested Citation

Kim, K., Collins Hagedorn, M., Williamson, J., Chapman, C. (2004). Participation in Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: 

2000–01 (NCES 2004–050). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Government Printing Office. 

For ordering information on this report, write:

U.S. Department of Education 

ED Pubs 

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Call toll free 1–877–4ED–Pubs; or order online at http://www.edpubs.org

Contact:

Christopher Chapman 

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(e-mail) nhes@ed.gov
Acknowledgments 

The authors would like to thank Lisa Hudson, Roslyn Korb, Val Plisko, Marilyn Seastrom, Bruce

Taylor, and Jerry West of the National Center for Education Statistics, and Sandra Eyster of the Education 

Statistics Services Institute for their helpful reviews of the report. We would also like to thank Richard 

Arum of the Steinhardt School of Education at New York University and Carolyn Lee of the Office of 

Vocational and Adult Education, U.S. Department of Education, for their thoughtful reviews and 

recommendations on the final report. Finally, we would like to thank the respondents who provided the

data upon which this report is based. 

iii 
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iv 
Executive Summary 

Adults participate in various types of educational activities in order to acquire the knowledge and

skills necessary to succeed in the workforce, to earn a college or advanced degree, to learn basic skills or 

English language skills, or to enrich their lives. Taken as a whole, these activities constitute adult

education. Traditionally, full-time enrollment in postsecondary degree or diploma programs is not 

considered to be adult education participation.1

 This report holds to that convention. A recent study

indicates that participation in adult education has grown steadily over the past three decades (Kim and

Creighton 2000; Creighton and Hudson 2002). Many societal factors influence participation in adult

education activities. Changing demographics, including the aging of the population, reentry of women

into the workplace, and an influx of immigrants, alter the base of potential participants. The effect of the

global economy and technological advances on the nature of adult education has been significant. 

This is the first full report using data from the Adult Education and Lifelong Learning Survey of

the 2001 National Household Education Survey Programs (AELL-NHES:2001) on the educational 

activities of adults in the United States. The NHES:2001 was a random digit dial (RDD) telephone

survey of the civilian, noninstitutionalized population of the 50 states and the District of Columbia 

conducted from January 2 through April 14 of 2001. For the Adult Education and Lifelong Learning

Survey, the population of interest included civilian, noninstitutionalized persons ages 16 and older who

were not enrolled in elementary or secondary school at the time of the interview. 

Adult education is a diverse arena defined in a variety of ways (Cross 1984; Elias and Merriam

1984; Knowles 1980; Merriam and Caffarella 1999; Peters, Javis, and Associates 1991). Some regard

adult education as noncompulsory or voluntary learning activities constituting a continuous learning 

process throughout the life (Belanger and Tuijnman 1997). Others include required activities in their

definitions because a fairly large proportion of adults are required to participate in work-related adult

education for continuing professional development purposes (Cervero 1989). Yet another way of

defining adult education includes not only formal course work or training, but also informal educational 

activities (that is, those that do not involve an instructor). The AELL-NHES:2001 incorporates a broad

approach to the range of activities that may be considered adult education. This approach distinguishes 

 

1

 Part-time participation in postsecondary programs is considered to be adult education in this analysis, and those who were enrolled in 

postsecondary programs on a part-time basis in the previous 12 months are included as participants. Those who were full-time postsecondary

students may have also participated on a part-time basis at some point in the previous 12 months and, if so, are included as participants due to 

their part-time participation. Thus, reports of participation in postsecondary programs include those who participated on a part-time basis and 

those who participated on both part-time and full-time bases in the previous 12 months. Full-time postsecondary students may have also 

participated in adult education activities such as English as a Second language, work-related courses, or personal interest courses in addition to 

their full-time college or vocational programs and, if so, are included as participants. 

v 
voluntary and required educational activities that are formal, as defined by the presence of an instructor, 

from activities that are informal. 

In the AELL-NHES:2001, respondents were asked about both formal and informal learning

activities in which they may have participated during the 12-month period prior to the interview. The 

seven types of formal learning activities included English as a Second Language (ESL), basic skills 

education, college or university degree programs, vocational or technical diploma programs, 

apprenticeship programs, work-related courses, and personal interest courses. Work-related informal

learning activities included supervised training or mentoring, self-paced study using books or video tapes,

self-paced study using computers, attending “brown-bag” or informal presentations, attending 

conferences or conventions, and reading professional journals or magazines. 

This report provides a broad overview of the extent to which adults participate in educational 

activities and their educational experiences in such activities. Major topics include participation rates 

overall and in various types of formal educational activities; characteristics of participating adults; 

educational experiences in college or university degree programs on a part-time basis, work-related 

courses, and personal interest courses; reasons for participation in work-related courses; characteristics of 

participants who received employer support; and characteristics of participants in work-related informal

learning activities. Because there is variation in the nature and purpose of various adult education 

activities, this analysis examines individual types of activities in addition to adult education overall. 

The research questions addressed in this report are listed below along with a brief summary of the 

findings from the AELL-NHES:2001. 

Participation in Adult Education 

To what extent do adults participate in educational activities and how is participation in

educational activities related to characteristics of adults? 

The two previous NHES adult education surveys conducted during the 1990s (i.e., AENHES:1995 and AE-NHES:1999), which excluded informal work-related training, found increasing rates 

of participation in formal adult education, from 40 percent in 1995 to 45 percent in 1999 (Kim et al. 1995;

Kim and Creighton 2000; Creighton and Hudson 2002) (figure 1). In 2001, the overall participation rate 

in formal adult education during the 12-month period prior to the interview was 46 percent (table 1). 

About 92 million adults participated in one or more types of formal educational activities during this 

period. 

vi 
Adult education participation rates were higher among the population ages 50 and younger. The 

rates of participation for the three younger age groups (ages 16–30, 31–40, and 41–50) were 53 to 55

percent, compared to 41 and 22 percent for the two older age groups (ages 51–65 and 66 and older) (table

1). 

Merriam and Caffarella (1999) noted that women have had a higher rate of participation than men

since 1978. The AELL findings are consistent with this observation; females were more likely than males 

to participate in an educational activity (49 percent versus 43 percent) (table 1). 

The prior educational attainment of adults was positively associated with participation in 

educational activities. Among those who had not completed high school, 22 percent participated in

educational activities during the 12-month period prior to the interview, whereas 34 percent of those with 

a high school diploma or equivalent, 58 percent of those with some college education, and 66 percent of 

those with a bachelor’s degree or more education did so (table 1). 

The overall participation rate among adults who were never married (52 percent) was higher than

the rate among adults who were married (47 percent), unmarried and living with a partner (43 percent), 

and separated, divorced, or widowed (38 percent) (table 1). 

Participation rates in adult education also varied by the employment status and occupation of 

adults. Those adults who had worked for pay or income during the 12 months prior to the survey were 

more likely to participate in educational activities (54 percent) than those who had not worked (25 

percent). Adults in professional or managerial occupations had a higher rate of participation in adult 

education activities (71 percent) than those in other occupations (i.e., service, sales, or support 

occupations and those employed in the trades) (55 percent and 34 percent, respectively), and adults in 

service and sales occupations had a higher participation rate than those in the trades (table 1). 

Adults who had an occupational or legal requirement to take continuing education were more

likely to participate in educational activities than those who did not have such a requirement (64 percent

versus 40 percent) (table 1). 

Household income was positively related to the participation of adults in educational activities.

Adults in households with incomes over $50,000 were more likely to participate in educational activities 

(56 to 59 percent) than those in households with incomes of $50,000 or less (28 to 48 percent). 

Participation rates in adult education activities also increased at every household income level up to

$50,000 (table 1). 

vii 
Adults who had children under the age of 10 in their households were more likely to participate in

adult education activities than their counterparts. In 2001, 52 percent of adults with children under 10 in

their households participated compared with 44 percent of adults without children under age 10. 

A logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine whether the relationships between 

individual personal characteristics and participation observed in the bivariate analyses remain when these

characteristics are examined simultaneously. The regression analysis yielded findings generally 

consistent with the bivariate analyses for age, sex, race/ethnicity, employment/occupation, income, and 

prior educational attainment. Bivariate findings by the presence of children under age 10 in the 

household were not observed when the other characteristics of adults were taken into account. Somewhat 

different findings were observed by marital status, specifically, never-married adults were not more likely

to participate than married adults or those who were separated, divorced, or widowed. 

In what specific types of educational activities do adults participate and what 

characteristics of adults are associated with participation in specific types of educational

activities? 

Approximately 4 percent of adults were enrolled part-time in college or university degree or 

certificate programs in the previous 12 months. Several characteristics were found to be related to

participation in college degree or certificate programs. Participants tended to be less than 30 years of age, 

had never married, had worked in the past 12 months, had continuing education requirements for their 

occupations, had at least a high school education, or worked at professional or managerial occupations or 

service, sales, or support occupations (table 1).2

Thirty percent of adults participated in work-related courses during the 12 months prior to the 

interview. Several characteristics examined in this study were found to be associated with participation in

work-related courses. Participants tended to be of White, non-Hispanic race/ethnicity;

3

 have some 

education after high school; work in a professional or managerial occupation; have continuing education 

requirements for their occupations; to be age 31 to 50; or have children under 10 years old in the

households (table 1). 

About one in five adults (21 percent) participated in personal interest courses. Participants tended 

to be female, had completed some college or more education, worked in professional or managerial

 

2

 Readers should note that each of the characteristics noted is individually associated with participation; the intent is not to suggest that the 

combination of these individual characteristics constitute typical characteristics of participants. 

3

 For the remainder of this report, the descriptor “White” is used for ease of presentation. 

viii 
occupations, had continuing education requirements for their occupations, and had never been married

(table 1). 

Compared to the other adult education activities, a smaller percentage of adults participated in

English as a Second Language, basic skills education, vocational or technical diploma or degree 

programs, and apprenticeship programs (4 to 30 percent compared to 1 percent) (table 1). 

Characteristics of Participation in Adult Education 

The diversity of adult education is reflected not only in the various types of educational activities 

in which adults participate, but also in important features of their participation. Characteristics of 

participation in educational activities collected in the AELL-NHES:2001 included credit and instructional 

hours, instructional providers, personal expenses for participation, the use of automated technology as an 

instructional tool, and keeping or obtaining a certificate or license. 

How much time do adults spend in educational activities? 

Participation in college or university degree programs varied considerably in terms of the number 

of credit hours taken. Forty-five percent of adults who participated in college or university degree 

programs on a part-time basis took 11 credit hours or less in the previous 12 months, 26 percent took 12

to 18 credit hours, and 7 percent took 31 credit hours or more during the year (table 3). 4

There was wide variability in the amount of time that adults spent in work-related courses. 

Twenty-eight percent of adults spent 10 hours or less in such courses, 25 percent spent 11 to 25 hours, 23 

percent spent 26 to 50 hours, and 24 percent spent 51 hours or more. The amount of time that adults 

spent in personal interest courses also varied considerably. Twenty-five percent of participating adults 

spent 10 hours or less and 33 percent spent 51 hours or more in such courses during the year (table 3). 

To what extent do adults participate in educational activities provided by various

institutions or organizations? 

More adults took work-related courses provided by business and industry (49 percent) than any 

other provider type. Twenty percent of adults took work-related courses from postsecondary institutions

 

4

 Participants include those who participated in college programs on a part-time basis (an estimated 886,384 adults) as well as those who

participated on both part-time and full-time bases in the previous 12 months (an estimated 1,981,794 adults). An additional estimated 6,798,999

adults participated in college programs on a full-time basis only and are not included as adult education participants in college programs here. It

is not possible to differentiate credit hours taken on a part-time basis or a full-time basis for those who participated in both statuses in the 

previous 12 months.

ix 
(2-year and 4-year colleges, and postsecondary vocational/technical schools), 20 percent from 

professional organizations, and 15 percent from government agencies (local, state, or federal) (table 3). 

Participants in personal interest courses also received instruction from a wide variety of 

providers. Fifty percent of participants took personal interest courses from “other” types of providers, 

examples of which include community centers, public libraries, private organizations, and religious

organizations. Twenty percent of adults took personal interest courses from postsecondary institutions

and 17 percent from business or industry (table 3). 

To what extent do adults use their own resources to pay for participation in educational

activities? 

Information about personal expenses for participation in educational activities, such as tuition and 

fees and costs for books or other materials, was collected in the AELL-NHES:2001. Twenty-five percent

of the participants in college or university degree programs reported no personal expenses for their

programs, 34 percent spent $1 to $1,000, 23 percent spent $1,001 to $3,000, and 18 percent spent more 

than $3,000 (table 3). 

A large majority of participants in work-related courses (73 percent) reported that they had not 

spent any of their own or their families’ money to pay for the courses. Twenty percent reported that they

spent $1 to $500 for all of their work-related courses and 6 percent reported spending more than $500. 

Forty percent of participants in personal interest courses reported paying none of their own money to take 

courses, 48 percent spent $1 to $500, and 12 percent spent more than $500 over the previous 12 months 

(table 3). 

To what extent do adults participate in educational activities where technologies are used as

an instructional method? 

The AELL-NHES:2001 data indicate that adult education providers are turning to emerging 

technologies to increase the flexibility and accessibility of their programs. For college or university 

instruction, the use of computers was reported by more participants (57 percent) than any other automated 

technology, followed by the use of the Internet or World Wide Web (32 percent) and television, video, or

radio (26 percent) (table 3). 

The use of automated technology for instruction in work-related courses was also reported by

many participants. The types of technology most often reported were television, video, or radio, reported 

by 54 percent of participating adults, and computer instruction, reported by 53 percent (table 3). 

x 
About one third (32 percent) of participants in personal interest courses reported the use of 

television, video, or radio as an instructional mode and 19 percent reported the use of computers for 

instruction (table 3). 

To what extent do adults participate in educational activities in order to obtain or to 

maintain a certificate or license? 

About half of the adults participating in college or university degree programs on a part-time 

basis or both part-time and full-time bases reported that they did so to obtain or to maintain a state, 

industry, or company certificate or license (48 percent). Among those adults who took work-related

courses, 38 percent reported taking courses to obtain or to maintain a state, industry, or company

certificate or license (table 3).

Receipt of Employer Support for Participation 

In the AELL-NHES:2001, information was collected on employer support for participation, 

including provision of instruction, offering courses or classes at the workplace, providing courses or

classes during paid work hours, and paying for or reimbursing educational expenses. A question about 

employer requirements for taking courses or classes also was included. 

To what extent do adults report employer support and incentives for participation in 

educational activities? 

Sixty-eight percent of employed adults who participated in educational activities received some

type of employer support (table 4). Several characteristics examined in this study were found to be

associated with receipt of employer support: being White adults; having higher prior educational 

attainment; being of a marital status other than never married;5

 working in a professional or managerial

occupation; working for a large employer (i.e., 500 or more employees); having a higher household 

income;6

 or being required to participate in continuing professional education (table 5). 

A logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine whether the relationships observed in the 

bivariate analysis are also observed when they are examined simultaneously. The results of the regression

analysis were consistent with the bivariate analyses for marital status, prior educational attainment,

occupation, employer size, continuing education requirement, race/ethnicity, and household income. 

 

5

 Adults in the marital statuses of (1) currently married, (2) separated, divorced, or widowed, and (3) living with a partner were more likely to 

report receipt of employer support for adult education participation than those who had never been married.

6

 Those with household incomes of $50,000 or more were more likely to participate than those with household incomes under $35,000.

xi 
Reasons for Participation 

For what reasons do adults participate in work-related courses? 

The most frequently reported reasons for participation in work-related courses were maintaining 

or improving skills or knowledge (95 percent) and learning new skills or methods (84 percent).7

 Sixtytwo percent of participants reported being required to take courses by an employer or due to professional 

certification requirements, legal requirements, and so on. 

Work-Related Informal Learning 

Informal learning is regarded as a major source of the acquisition of new knowledge and skills in 

the workplace (Bruce, Aring, and Brand 1998). In the AELL-NHES:2001 survey, respondents were 

asked about their participation in a variety of work-related informal learning, including supervised 

training or mentoring, self-paced study using manuals, videos, or a computer; attending informal 

presentations; attending conferences; or reading professional journals or magazines. With the exception

of supervised training or mentoring, respondents were asked about each type of informal learning 

regardless of whether they were working in the 12 months prior to interview. 

To what extent do adults participate in work-related informal learning activities? 

Nearly two-thirds of adults (about 125 million) reported participating in work-related informal 

learning activities in the 12 months prior to the interview. Those adults with some college or more

education, those in professional or managerial occupations, and those with higher household incomes 

were generally more likely to participate in work-related informal learning activities (table 8). 

Summary

Education, employment and occupation, and household income were consistently associated with 

participation in adult education. Prior educational attainment is positively associated with overall

participation and with participation in the two most common forms of formal learning—work-related 

courses and personal interest courses—and with participation in work-related informal learning activities.

In addition, having worked in the previous 12 months and having a professional or managerial occupation 

 

7

 Some participants gave more than one reason, so percents sum to more than 100.

xii 
are characteristics associated with participation overall, in work-related courses, in personal interest

courses, and in work-related informal learning. Also, higher levels of household income are associated

with overall adult education participation, and participation in work-related courses, personal interest

courses, and work-related informal learning. 

The characteristics of educational activities in which adult participate are associated with the type 

of adult education activity in which they engage. The participation of adults in educational activities 

encompasses a variety of providers, with business and industry being a leading provider of instruction for 

work-related courses. Intensity of participation (e.g., number of courses and hours of instruction) varies

considerably among all education types. The use of automated technology in instruction is quite common 

in college or university degree programs, work-related courses, and, to a lesser extent, personal interest

courses. 

xiii 
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xiv 
Table of Contents 

Page

Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................................. iii 

Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................... v 

Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 1 

What is Adult Education?............................................................................................................ 2 

 Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 5 

Data Source: The National Household Education Surveys Program .......................................... 6 

Organization of the Report.......................................................................................................... 6 

Findings ............................................................................................................................................. 8 

Participation in Adult Education ................................................................................................. 8 

Who Participates in Adult Education? ........................................................................................ 12 

Participation in Specific Types of Educational Activities........................................................... 14 

A Multivariate Look at Overall Participation.............................................................................. 22 

Characteristics of Participation in Educational Activities........................................................... 26 

Employer Support for Participation............................................................................................. 32 

Multivariate Analysis of Employer Support................................................................................ 35 

Employer Support for Various Types of Activities..................................................................... 37 

Employer Requirements to Participate in Education and Training ............................................. 37 

Reasons for Participation in Work-Related Courses................................................................... 38 

Work-Related Informal Learning Activities................................................................................ 40 

Summary and Discussion................................................................................................................... 44 

References.......................................................................................................................................... 48 

Appendix: Survey Methodology and Data Reliability...................................................................... 52 

Measuring Participation in Adult Education ............................................................................... 52 

 Data Reliability............................................................................................................................ 53 

Statistical Tests for Bivariate Analyses....................................................................................... 63 

 Multivariate Analyses.................................................................................................................. 64 

xv 
List of Tables 

Page

Table 1. Number of adults and rates of participation in selected adult education and 

activities, by selected demographic, educational, and occupational 

characteristics: 2000–01................................................................................................. 9 

Table 2. Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and participation 

 in adult education: 2000–01 ............................................................................................ 25

Table 3. Number of adults and percent of adults reporting selected educational 

characteristics in college or university degree programs, work-related courses, 

 and personal interest courses: 2000–01.......................................................................... 28 

Table 4. Number of adult education participants who worked in the previous 12 months 

and the percent who received any employer support for participating, 

by selected demographic, educational, and occupational characteristics: 2000–01....... 34 

Table 5. Results of logistic regression analysis of adult characteristics and participation 

in adult education activities by selected demographic, educational, and 

 occupational characteristics: 2000–01............................................................................. 36

Table 6. Number of participants in college or university degree programs and in work-related 

courses, and percent receiving various types of employer support: 2000–01 ................ 38 

 

Table 7. Number and percent of participants in work-related courses who cited various 

reasons for participation in work-related courses: 2000–01........................................... 39 

Table 8. Number of adults and rates of participation in selected work-related 

informal learning activities, by selected demographic, educational, 

and occupational characteristics: 2000–01..................................................................... 42 

List of Figures 

Figure 1. Participation rates in adult education activities: 1995, 1999, and 2001 ......................... 11 

List of Exhibits 

Exhibit 1. Item response rates for variables used in the analysis.................................................... 56 

xvi 
Introduction 

Adults participate in various types of educational activities in order to acquire the knowledge and

skills necessary to succeed in the workforce, to earn a college or advanced degree, to learn basic skills or 

English language skills, or to enrich their lives. Taken as a group, these activities constitute adult 

education (Merriam and Caffarella 1999). Traditionally, full-time enrollment in postsecondary degree or 

diploma programs is not considered to be adult education participation.1

 This report holds to that

convention. Many societal factors influence participation in adult education activities. Changing 

demographics, including the aging of the population, reentry of women into the workplace, and an influx

of immigrants, alter the base of potential participants. The effect of the global economy and technological

advances on the nature of adult education has been significant. The shift of the economic structure of the 

United States to a service and information society has changed the configuration of the labor force and 

influences what kinds of learning take place, what is offered, and who participates (Merriam and 

Caffarella 1999). 

Tracking the participation of adults in educational activities and the nature of such activities 

provides important information about the extent to which adults in the United States are engaging in

educational activities to improve their lives and their occupational skills, the types of activities in which

they are engaged, and which adults are participants in such activities. Research has shown that

participation in educational activities among adults has increased over the past decade (Korb, Chandler, 

and West 1991; Kim et al. 1995, Kim and Creighton 2000; Creighton and Hudson 2002). In 1991, 32

percent of adults participated in adult education during the previous 12 months (Korb, Chandler, and 

West, 1991). By 1995, the participation rate had increased to 40 percent (Kim et al. 1995), and by 1999, 

the participation rate was 45 percent (Kim and Creighton 2000).

This is the first full report using data from the Adult Education and Lifelong Learning Survey of

the 2001 National Household Education Surveys Program (AELL-NHES:2001) on the educational

activities of adults in the United States from early January 2000 to mid-April 2001. The purpose of this 

report is to provide a descriptive overview of the extent to which adults participated in educational 

activities during a 12-month period prior to the interview, the types of activities in which they

participated, and their educational experiences in such activities. 

 

1

 Part-time participation in postsecondary programs is considered to be adult education in this analysis, and those who were enrolled in 

postsecondary programs on a part-time basis in the previous 12 months are included as participants. Those who were full-time postsecondary

students may have also participated on a part-time basis at some point in the previous 12 months and, if so, are included as participants due to 

their part-time participation. Thus, reports of participation in postsecondary programs include those who participated on a part-time basis and

those who participated on both part-time and full-time bases in the previous 12 months. Full-time postsecondary students may have also

participated in adult education activities such as English as a Second language, work-related courses, or personal interest courses in addition to

their full-time college or vocational programs and, if so, are included as participants. 

1 
What is Adult Education? 

Adult education encompasses a wide range of educational and learning activities and is defined in 

a variety of ways in the literature (Cross 1984; Elias and Merriam 1984; Knowles 1980; Merriam and 

Caffarella 1999; Peters, Javis, and Associates 1991). Some analysts regard adult education as 

noncompulsory or voluntary learning activities constituting a continuous learning process throughout life 

(Belanger and Tuijnman 1997). Others include required activities in their definition because a fairly large 

proportion of adults are required to participate in work-related education or training for continuing

professional development purposes (Cervero 1989). 

Much research on participation in adult education examines formal learning activities—those that 

involve classroom instruction, have a planned curriculum, and may or may not involve some form of 

evaluation of the learning that takes place. Examples of formal learning activities are college and 

university courses or programs, instruction in basic skills or English as a second language, and structured

courses or programs associated with work-related learning or personal interest. 

Another way of defining adult education includes not only formal courses or programs, but also

informal educational activities. Informal educational activities are those that do not involve an instructor 

or teacher in a traditional sense. According to Bunning (1993), "learning can be defined as changes in

behavior resulting from experience" (p. 7). This definition situates learning in a universe much wider 

than the educational institution or any classroom. Increasingly over the last several decades, scholars and 

educators have recognized that adult education comprises both formal (institutional) and informal aspects.

While formal learning is often institutionally sponsored, classroom-based, and highly structured, Marsick

and Watkins (1990) noted that informal learning may occur in institutions, but it is not typically

classroom-based or highly structured, and control of learning rests primarily in the hands of the learner. 

There have been and will continue to be many approaches to defining adult education. Existing 

surveys and studies employ different definitions, and they are often not comparable. Some research

studies include all knowledge acquisition, whether by formal or informal means. Other studies limit their 

definitions to formal arrangements. Others focus on specific types of education, for example, workrelated training or adult literacy. Other methodological differences, such as proxy reports of participation 

or limitations on populations (for example, including employed persons only), are also found. One

natural consequence of these differences is a wide range of estimates in participation rates (Collins et al. 

1997). 

2 
The AELL-NHES:2001 incorporates a broad approach to the range of education activities that 

may be considered adult education, including both formal and informal learning activities. Formal 

learning addressed in the AELL survey includes English as a Second Language (ESL), basic skills 

education, part-time postsecondary degree or diploma programs, apprenticeship programs, work-related

courses, and personal interest courses. Although informal learning can be related to either work or 

personal interest, the AELL-NHES:2001 addresses only work-related informal learning, including 

computer-based tutorials, mentoring at the workplace, attending conferences or “brown-bag” 

presentations, or reading professional journals or magazines. 

In the AELL-NHES:2001, adults were asked about participation in seven types of formal adult 

education activities during the 12 months prior to the interview. They are listed below in the order in 

which they appeared in the survey. 

• English as a Second Language (ESL)2

–classes for adults whose main language is not English

to develop the English language skills necessary to pursue further education, to enter or

advance in the job market, to enrich their personal and family lives, or to better adapt to 

American society.

• Adult Basic Education (ABE), General Educational Development (GED) preparation classes, 

and adult high school programs

3

–programs or classes to help adults improve basic reading, 

writing, and math skills or prepare for a high school diploma or its equivalent. 

• College or university degree programs–formal postsecondary programs leading to a college

or university degree, or other education certificate programs, such as post-baccalaureate,

post-master’s, or post-doctoral certificate programs. 

• Vocational or technical diploma programs–formal postsecondary programs leading to a 

postsecondary vocational or technical degree or diploma in an occupational field.

• Apprenticeship programs–formal, on-the-job training, and other related instruction leading to 

a journeyman status4

 in a skilled trade or craft. 

• Work-related courses–those related to a job or career other than postsecondary degree or 

diploma programs or apprenticeship programs, whether or not respondents had a job when 

they took the courses. Some examples are courses taken at work, courses taken elsewhere

that relate to a job or career, or courses for a license or certification for a job. 

 

2

 In the NHES:2001 survey administration, interviews were conducted in English and Spanish. As a result, the survey underrepresents 

participation in ESL among adults who speak a language other than English or Spanish.

3

 Persons who received their high school diploma or its equivalent during the 12 months prior to the interview were asked about their

participation in ABE/GED activities in the 12 months prior to the interview, as were those without a diploma or equivalent. 

4

 Journeyman status indicates that a person has received sufficient training and achieved a level of skill so as to be recognized by a state or federal 

registration agency or an industry as being qualified to perform the work of the trade or occupation. Requirements vary by field, but may include 

apprenticeship, on-the-job training, and a standard examination.

3 
• Personal interest courses–various types of educational activities that have an instructor and 

are not included in the categories described above. These courses are not taken as part of a 

college or vocational degree or diploma program. Examples include courses related to health, 

hobbies or sports lessons, foreign languages, dance or music, and Bible study.

Traditionally, full-time enrollment in college or university degree programs or vocational or 

technical degree or diploma programs has not been considered to be adult education, and this convention 

was maintained in this report. If adults participated only in postsecondary degree, certificate, or diploma 

programs as full-time students, they were not counted as adult education participants in the calculation of

the participation rates in overall adult education activities, college or university degree programs, or in

vocational or technical diploma programs. However, adults who were full-time degree seekers may have 

participated in adult education activities in addition to their full-time college or vocational education. If

so, they were counted as participants in those types of adult education. For example, if an adult was 

enrolled in a bachelor’s degree program on a full-time basis and took part in computer desktop publishing

class for work-related reasons, he/she was counted as an adult education participant in overall 

participation rate and in work-related courses. However, he/she was not counted as a participant in the

college or university degree program. On the other hand, if an adult was pursuing a master’s degree on a

part-time basis for a semester and on a full-time basis for another semester, he/she was included in the

calculation of the overall participation rate and participation rate in college or university degree programs, 

because their part-time participation in a postsecondary program is considered adult education. 

In this report, participation status was determined by whether adults participated in one or more 

of the seven formal types of learning activities during the 12-month period prior to the interview. Thus, 

adult education participation includes the following: basic skills education, English as a Second 

Language, part-time college/university or vocational/technical programs, apprenticeships, work-related 

courses, and personal interest courses. Respondents reported participation based on their understanding 

of the educational activities involved, and readers should not assume that the respondents’ definitions are 

the same as those of federal, state, or private ABE programs or ESL classes. 

In addition to the formal educational activities listed above, adults were also asked about six 

different types of work-related informal learning activities, including supervised training or mentoring, 

self-paced study using books or video tapes, self-paced study using a computer, attending “brown-bag” or 

informal presentations, attending conferences or conventions, and reading professional journals or 

magazines. Readers should also be aware that, while the survey collected information on selected workrelated informal learning activities, and these are presented later in this report (table 8), informal learning 

activities were not included in the calculation of overall adult education participation rates that are shown 

in table 1. 

4 
Research Questions 

In presenting a broad overview of the adults’ participation in educational activities, this report 

examines a number of research questions. These research questions are enumerated below, grouped 

according to the topics addressed in the report. The first set of questions concerns participation in formal 

educational activities overall and in specific types of adult education. The second set of research

questions focuses on the features of adults’ participation, including time, cost, instructional providers, and 

the use of automated technology in instruction. Other research questions addressed in this report concern 

employer support for participation, reasons for participation, and work-related informal learning. 

Participation in Formal Adult Education 

1. To what extent do adults participate in formal educational activities and how is participation

in educational activities related to characteristics of adults? 

2. In what specific types of formal educational activities do adults participate? 

3. What characteristics of adults are associated with participation in specific types of formal 

educational activities? 

Characteristics of Participation in Formal Adult Education 

4. What are the characteristics of participation in formal educational activities? 

a) How much time do adults spend in educational activities? 

b) To what extent do adults participate in educational activities provided by various

institutions or organizations? 

c) To what extent do adults use their own resources to pay for participation in educational

activities? 

d) To what extent do adults participate in educational activities where technologies are used

as an instructional method? 

e) To what extent do adults participate in educational activities in order to obtain or to

maintain a certificate or license? 

Receipt of Employer Support for Participation 

5. To what extent do adults report employer support and incentives for participation in formal 

educational activities? 

Reasons for Participation 

6. Why do adults participate in work-related courses?

5 
Participation in Work-Related Informal Learning

7. To what extent do adults participate in work-related informal learning activities? 

Data Source: The National Household Education Surveys Program 

The NHES:2001 was a random digit dial (RDD) telephone survey of the civilian, 

noninstitutionalized population of the 50 states and the District of Columbia conducted from January 2

through April 14 of 2001. For the Adult Education and Lifelong Learning Survey, the population of

interest included civilian, noninstitutionalized adults ages 16 and older who were not enrolled in 

elementary or secondary school at the time of the interview.5

 The appendix, Survey Methodology and 

Data Reliability, provides information on the survey and methodology, response rates, and data reliability. 

Additional information on these and other related topics can be found in the National Household

Education Survey of 2001, Data File User’s Manual, Volume IV, Adult Education and Lifelong Learning 

(Hagedorn et al. 2002) and at the NHES World Wide Web home page, http://nces.ed.gov/nhes. 

Organization of the Report 

This report presents a descriptive overview of participation in adult education. The first section 

of the findings addresses the first set of research questions presented above. The analysis examines the 

rates of participation in adult education overall and in seven specific types of educational activities. The 

variation in participation rates across characteristics of adults is examined. Both bivariate and 

multivariate analyses are employed to examine characteristics associated with the participation of adults 

in adult education activities. The bivariate analyses include two-way crosstabulations of variables of

interest. The multivariate analyses use logistic regression to learn whether the relations between adult 

characteristics and educational participation observed in bivariate analysis are still observed when these 

characteristics are examined simultaneously. 

The second section of the findings describes several features of adults’ participation in 

educational activities. Included in this analysis are the amount of time spent in activities, personal 

expenses for participation, instructional providers, the use of automated technology in instruction, and the 

extent to which adults participate in educational activities to obtain or to maintain certification or

licensure. These characteristics of participation were selected to give an overall picture of adult’s

educational experiences. 

 

5

 Full-time students in postsecondary programs are included in the population of interest, but their full-time participation in postsecondary 

programs is not considered to be adult education participation. Some full-time postsecondary students, however, are participants in adult 

education activities, for example, in work-related training, personal interest courses, or English as a Second Language classes. 

6 
The third section of the findings examines the extent to which adults receive support from their 

employers and the types of support they receive. The fourth section of the findings examines reasons for 

participation in work-related adult education. The fifth and final section of the findings describes adults’

participation in work-related informal learning activities. The analysis addresses participation overall and 

in six specific types of informal learning. Following the presentation and summary of the findings, the

appendix, Survey Methodology and Data Reliability, provides information about the sample, 

methodology, and response rates, and discusses the reliability of the survey estimates. 

7 
Findings 

The report relies on a series of bivariate analyses followed by multivariate analyses to provide a 

large amount of information about adult participation educational activities. The bivariate analyses are 

designed to provide characteristics of adults who participate and do not participate in educational 

activities. Bivariate statistics show relationships between two variables without consideration of 

confounding factors. For example, bivariate analyses can show how household income is related to

participation and how prior educational attainment is related to participation. However, household

income and prior educational attainment are often related to each other so it is important to see how prior 

educational attainment relates to participation while simultaneously taking into account household income

(and vice versa). 

Participation in Adult Education 

Table 1 presents the overall participation rate, rates of participation in seven types of formal 

educational activities, and bivariate statistics showing participation rates by characteristics of adults. (A

later section addresses participation in work-related informal learning activities.) The 12-month overall

participation rate for all adults in formal adult education activities was 46 percent in 2001; a total of 92

million adults participated. This overall participation rate includes adults who have taken one or more 

types of the seven formal adult education activities described in the previous section, but does not include

those whose only participation was full-time enrollment in college or university degree programs or 

vocational or technical diploma or degree programs. 

Participation in adult education activities has shown steady increases over the past few decades (Kim and 

Creighton 2000; Creighton and Hudson 2002). The first national survey of adult education, conducted by

Johnstone and Rivera in 1965, found that 22 percent of American adults participated in either formal or 

informal learning activities in the course of one year, and that the majority of these activities were

practical and skill-oriented rather than academic. Since 1969, the National Center for Education Statistics 

(NCES) has collected data about the participation of adults in formal learning through the Current 

Population Survey (CPS) from 1969 to 1984 and through the National Household Education Surveys

Program (NHES) from 1991 to 2001. In 1969, data from the first CPS adult education supplement 

revealed a 10 percent overall participation rate of adults in formal education courses; by 1984, the rate 

had risen to 14 percent (Hill 1987). As shown in figure 1, the two previous NHES adult education 

surveys (i.e., AE-NHES:1995 and AE-NHES:1999) also found increasing rates of participation, from 40

percent in 1995 to 45 percent in 1999 (Kim et al. 1995; Kim and Creighton 2000).6

 

6

 The CPS and NHES analyses did not include informal learning activities. However, informal activities were included in the Johnstone and 

Rivera (1965) study.

8 
Table 1. Number of adults and rates of participation in selected adult education activities, by selected demographic, educational, and 

2000–01

Total adults 

(in thousands)

Overall 

participation1

College or

university degree 

programs2

Work-related 

courses 

Personal 

interest 

 courses 

English as a 

Second Language3

Basic skills 

education4

Characteristic 

Number Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. 

Total............................................................ 198,803 46 0.5 4 0.2 30 0.5 21 0.5 1 1.1 1 0.1 Age

16 to 30 years old ...................................31 to 40 years old ....................................41 to 50 years old ....................................51 to 65 years old ....................................66 years and older....................................

46,905 41,778 41,255 39,523 29,342 

53 53 55 41 22 

1.5 1.4 1.5 1.2 1.1 

10 

4 4 1 # 

0.8 0.4 0.4 0.2 

# 

28 39 42 28 

4 

1.1 1.3 1.3 1.1 0.4 

24 20 21 21 19 

1.2 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.1 

 3 

1 # # #

0.7 0.3 

# # # 

3 1 1 # # 

0.5 0.2 0.3 

# # 

Sex 

Male .........................................................Female .....................................................

94,955 

103,848 

43 49 

0.8 0.8 

4 5 

0.3 0.3 

29 30 

0.7 0.7 

16 26 

0.7 0.7 

1 1 

0.3 0.1 

1 1 

0.2 0.1 

Race/ethnicity 

White, non-Hispanic................................Black, non-Hispanic ................................Hispanic...................................................Other........................................................

144,147 

22,186 21,537 10,932 

47 43 42 49 

0.6 1.5 2.3 2.5 

4 5 4 6 

0.3 0.7 0.5 1.3 

32 23 22 32 

0.5 1.5 1.2 2.8 

22 26 16 18 

0.6 1.5 1.6 1.8 

# # 8 3 

# # 

0.4 0.8 

1 3 3 1 

0.1 0.5 0.7 0.2 

Educational attainment 

Less than high school ..............................High school diploma or its equivalent ....Some college ...........................................Bachelor’s degree or higher ....................

31,343 64,606 52,559 50,295 

22 34 58 66 

1.5 0.9 1.1 1.1 

# 2 8 6 

# 

0.3 0.6 0.5 

6 

20 36 51 

0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 

11 15 26 30 

1.3 0.8 1.0 1.0 

4 1 1 1 

0.9 0.2 0.2 0.2 

7 # # † 

0.8 

# # † 

Marital status6

Married ....................................................Living with a partner, unmarried ...........Separated/divorced/widowed ..................Never married..........................................

121,455 

14,009 30,503 32,836 

47 43 38 52 

0.7 2.5 1.3 1.5 

3 5 2 

10 

0.2 0.9 0.3 0.9 

33 27 23 26 

0.6 2.2 1.1 1.2 

21 15 20 26 

0.7 1.6 1.0 1.3 

1 2 1 3 

0.2 1.2 0.1 0.5 

# 2 1 4 

# 

0.5 0.2 0.7 

Employment/Occupation7

Employed in the past 12 months.............

Professional or managerial .................Service, sales, or support ....................Trades..................................................

Not Employed in the past 12 months......

145,249 

42,230 65,298 37,722 53,553 

54 71 55 34 25 

0.7 1.1 1.0 1.3 0.9 

6 8 6 2 1 

0.3 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.2 

39 59 36 21 

5 

0.6 1.2 0.8 1.0 0.5 

22 29 23 12 19 

0.6 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.9 

1 # 1 2 1 

0.2 

# 

0.4 0.5 0.2 

1 # 2 2 1 

0.2 

# 

0.3 0.5 0.2 

9
Table 1 Number of adults and rates of participation in selected adult education activities, by selected demographic, educational, and 

2000–01—Continued 

Total adults 

(in thousands)

Overall 

participation1

College or

university degree 

programs2

Work-related 

courses 

Personal 

interest 

 courses 

English as a 

Second Language3

Basic skills 

education4

Characteristic 

Number Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. 

Continuing education requirements

Yes...........................................................No ............................................................

50,549 

148,253 

64 40 

1.1 0.6 

6 4 

0.4 0.3 

49 23 

1.2 0.5 

25 20 

1.0 0.6 

1 1 

0.2 0.2 

1 1 

0.3 0.2 

Household income 

$20,000 or less.........................................$20,001–$35,000.....................................$35,001–$50,000.....................................$50,001–$75,000.....................................$75,001 or more ......................................

40,246 38,876 33,035 40,725 45,922 

28 39 48 56 59 

1.3 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.3 

3 4 4 6 5 

0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.5 

12 20 31 39 45 

0.9 0.9 1.3 1.3 1.2 

15 18 22 24 26 

1.1 1.0 1.4 1.3 0.9 

2 2 1 # # 

0.5 0.5 0.2 

# # 

2 2 1 # # 

0.3 0.5 0.4 

# # 

Children under 10 years old in household 

Yes...........................................................No ............................................................

55,333 

143,469 

52 44 

1.3 0.6 

5 4 

0.5 0.2 

35 28 

1.1 0.5 

21 21 

1.1 0.6 

2 1 

0.5 0.1 

1 1 

0.2 0.2 

† Not applicable.# Rounds to zero or zero cases in sample.

1 Adults who participated in college or university degree or certificate programs or vocational or technical diploma programs on a full-time basis only, for part or all of the year, and did not partic

activities are not counted as participants in adult education. Adults who participated in college or university degree programs or vocational or technical diploma programs on a full-time basis oformal educational activity are included in the overall participation rate and rate for the type of non-degree/diploma programs in which they participated, but not in the college or university degree programs.

10

2 Adults who participated in college or university degree or certificate programs on a part-time basis or on both part-time and full-time bases are included in the participation rate. 3 Adults whose first language was any language other than English were asked about participation in English as a Second Language and are included in the participation rate. 4 Adults, who did not have a high school diploma or its equivalent or who received a high school diploma in the past 12 months are included in the participation rate. 5 Adults who participated in vocational or technical diploma or degree programs on a part-time basis or on both part-time and full-time bases are included in the participation rate. 

6 For the purpose of this report, marital status was coded as follows. Respondents who reported being married are coded as “Married.” Respondents living in households with another a

separated, divorced, widowed, or never married were asked if they were currently living with a partner. If the respondents reported that they were living with a partner, they are coderegardless of their current marital status (i.e., separated, divorced, widowed, and never married). Respondents not living with a partner or living in households with no other adults who repoare coded as “Separated/divorced/widowed.” Respondents not living with a partner or living in households with no other adults who reported never having been married are coded as “Neve

7 Professional or managerial occupations include executive and managerial occupations, engineers, natural scientists, social scientists, teachers, health diagnosing, registered nurses, wri

support occupations include technologists, marketing and sales occupations, administrative support, service occupations, miscellaneous occupations; trades occupations include agricuoccupations, precision production occupation, production working occupations, transportation and laborer occupations.NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Because of rounding, details may not add to totals.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education and Lifelong Learning Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES)
Figure 1. Participation rates in adult education activities: 1995, 1999, and 2001 

0 10 20 30 40 50

Percent participation

1995

1999

2001

Overall

participation

English as a 

Second Language 

Basic skills

education 

Postsecondary

degree/diploma 

programs

Apprenticeship 

programs

Work-related

courses 

Personal interest

courses 

1

 Includes those who participated in a college or university degree or certificate program or in a vocational/technical diploma or degree program 

on a part-time basis during the previous 12 months. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education and Lifelong Learning Survey of the

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2001; Adult Education Survey of the NHES, 1999; and Adult Education Survey of the 

NHES, 1995.

11
Who Participates in Adult Education?7

While participation rates have increased over the years, the demographic characteristics of adult

education participants are consistent with those found earlier. More than three decades ago, Johnstone

and Rivera (1965) described the adult learner as follows: “The adult education participant is just as often

a woman as a man, is typically under forty, has completed high school or more, enjoys an above- average 

income, works full-time and most often in a white-collar occupation, is married and has children...” (p. 

8). The characteristics of participants in 2001 are largely consistent with this observation, although some

differences were observed as discussed below. 

Age. The overall participation rate in formal educational activities was higher among adults ages 

50 and younger than among adults ages 51 or older. Specifically, adults in the three youngest age groups 

examined (ages 16–30, ages 31–40, and ages 41–50) were more likely to participate in educational

activities than adults in the two older age groups (ages 51–65 and ages 66 and older). The rates of 

participation for the three younger age groups were 53 to 55 percent, compared to 22 and 41 percent for 

the two older age groups. Older adults, those 66 and older, were less likely than any other age group to 

participate in educational activities (22 percent compared to 41 to 55 percent) (table 1). 

Sex. While Johnstone and Rivera (1965) did not find a sex difference in participation in the 

1960s, Merriam and Caffarella (1999) noted that women have had a higher rate of participation than men

since 1978. Creighton and Hudson (2002) reported that the participation rate among females was higher 

than among males in 1999. The AELL findings are consistent with these more recent observations;

females were more likely than males to participate in an educational activity (49 percent versus 43 

percent) (table 1). 

Race/Ethnicity. No differences were detected in participation rates in educational activities by

race/ethnicity. In 2001, 47 percent of White adults, 43 percent of Black adults, and 42 percent of 

Hispanic adults participated in adult education activities (table 1).8

 

Prior Educational Attainment. The prior educational attainment of adults was positively 

associated with participation in educational activities; the overall participation rate increased with each 

level of education. Specifically, among those who had not completed high school, 22 percent participated

in educational activities during the 12-month period prior to the interview, whereas 58 percent of those

 

7

 This section presents the analysis of two-way tabulations examining the relationships between several characteristics and participation in adult 

education. In a following section, a logistic regression model examines several characteristics simultaneously. The reader will see that some

apparent two-way relationships that appear in the tables are not observed when other characteristics are taken into account.

8

 For ease of presentation, White indicates that the adult is of White, non-Hispanic origin and Black indicates that the adult is of Black, nonHispanic origin. 

12
with some college education and 66 percent of those with a bachelor’s degree or more education did so. 

The AELL findings regarding the relationship between prior educational attainment and participation in 

adult education activities are consistent with those of numerous previous research studies (Bureau of

Labor Statistics 1993; Creighton and Hudson 2002; Frazis et al. 1998; Hight 1998; Lee, Clery, and 

Carroll 1999; Lynch and Black 1998; Kim et al. 1995; Kim and Creighton 2000; Veum 1993). 

Marital Status. The overall participation rate among adults who were never married (52

percent) was higher than the rate among adults who were married (47 percent), unmarried and living with

a partner (43 percent), and separated, divorced, or widowed (38 percent). In addition, the overall 

participation rate was higher among married adults than it was for separated, divorced, or widowed adults. 

The higher rates of participation among those who have never been married are at odds with the profile 

suggested by Johnstone and Rivera more than 30 years ago. To some extent, this finding may be 

associated with the relationship between age and participation. Young adults (those ages 30 and younger) 

were more likely to have never been married9 and while at the same time their participation rate is higher 

than adults ages 51 or older (table 1). This is addressed further in a later section of this report. 

Employment/Occupation. Employment status and occupational types were also found to be

associated with participation. Those adults who had worked for pay or income during the past 12 months

were more likely to participate in educational activities (54 percent) than those who had not worked

during that period (25 percent). Among those who had worked in the previous 12 months, adults in

professional or managerial occupations had a higher rate of participation in adult education activities (71 

percent) than those in service, sales, or support occupations (55 percent) and those employed in the trades 

(34 percent), and those in service, sales, or support occupations had a higher participation rate than adults

in trade occupations (table 1). Similar findings were also reported by Creighton and Hudson (2002). 

Continuing Education Requirements. Professional or occupational requirements for 

continuing education or professional development may provide a stimulus for participating in educational 

activities. As shown in table 1, about one quarter of adults reported that they are required to participate in 

continuing education or continuing professional development. Adults who had an occupational or legal 

requirement to take continuing education were more likely to participate in educational activities than 

those who did not have such a requirement (64 percent and 40 percent, respectively). 

Household Income. Household income was positively related to the participation of adults in 

educational activities. Adults in households with incomes of $50,001 or more were more likely to

participate in adult education activities (56 to 59 percent) than those in households with incomes of 

 

9

 Among adults under 30 years of age, 47 percent had never been married (s.e. 1.31). Among adults age 30 or older, only 7 percent had never 

been married (s.e. 0.29) Special tabulations, not shown in tables.

13
$50,000 or less (28 to 48 percent). Among households with incomes below $50,000, the participation 

rate increased with each household income category shown, from 28 percent among those in households 

with incomes of less than $20,000 to 48 percent among those from households with incomes of $35,001 

to $50,000 (table 1). In addition to the ability to pay for adult education activities associated with higher 

incomes, the higher rates of participation may reflect the correlation between household income and other 

factors associated with participation, such as prior educational attainment, or professional or managerial

occupations. This is examined in the regression analysis in a later section of this report. 

Children Under 10 Years Old in Household. Those adults with children under age 10 living in 

the household were more likely to participate in educational activities than those without young children

(52 percent versus 44 percent) (table 1). While this result appears surprising, it may be associated with

the relationship between age and adult education participation. For instance, adults ages 50 or younger

would be more likely than those over age 50 to have children under the age of 10; they were more likely 

to participate in adult education than adults ages 51 or older. This possibility is also examined later in

this report. 

Summary. As noted at the beginning of this section, the characteristics of participants in formal

adult education activities share much in common with the profile stated by Johnstone and Rivera (1965) 

more than three decades ago, although some differences are observed. In general, the results from these

analyses indicate that those who were more likely to participate in adult education activities were young 

to middle aged; relatively well-educated; employed in the past 12 months; working in professional,

service, sales, or support occupations; from households with relatively higher incomes; or subject to 

continuing education requirements. Contrary to Johnstone and Rivera’s profile, but consistent with the 

more recent observations of Merriam and Caffarella (1999), women were more likely than men to 

participate in adult education activities. In addition, never-married adults and those who live in

households with children under the age of 10 were also more likely to participate in adult education.

While all of these adult and household characteristics were associated with participation, they may not all

be associated with participation when considered simultaneously. In a later section of this report, a 

multivariate analysis of overall participation is presented, allowing consideration of how these adult and

household characteristics are collectively associated with overall participation in adult education 

activities. 

Participation in Specific Types of Educational Activities 

This section focuses on participation rates in three of the seven types of formal educational 

activities: college or university degree programs, work-related courses, and personal interest courses.

14
Participation rates in the other four types of educational activities (i.e., ESL, basic skills education, 

vocational or technical diploma programs, and apprenticeship programs) were very low, 1 percent for 

each, and no detailed discussion of these estimates is presented in this report. However, participation

rates in these four educational activities by characteristics of adults are included in table 1. 

Thirty percent of adults participated in work-related courses and 21 percent participated in 

personal interest courses (table 1). The rate of participation in work-related courses in the AELLNHES:2001 was higher than the work-related participation rates of 22 percent in the AE-NHES:1999 and

21 percent in the AE-NHES:1995 (figure 1); however, this may be due in part to a difference in the way

that courses were identified as work-related in the 2001 survey compared to the two previous surveys.10 

In 1995 and 1999, 20 and 22 percent participation rates, respectively, were observed for personal interest 

courses as were 6 to 9 percent rates for college/university or vocational/technical degree or diploma 

programs). For basic skills education, ESL, and apprenticeship programs, however, no differences were

detected across the three surveys; estimates are 1 to 2 percent for each year. 

Participation in College or University Degree Programs 

Four percent of adults participated in college or university degree programs on a part-time basis 

in the previous 12 months. Participating adults who were enrolled in college or university degree 

programs on a part-time basis or on both full-time and part-time bases during the 12 months prior to the

interview are included in the analysis. Since participation in college or university degree programs on a 

full-time basis only is not considered to be an adult education activity, those adults (5 percent) are 

excluded from the participation rate.11

Age. Younger adults (i.e., ages 16–30) were more likely than older adults to participate in parttime college or university degree programs (10 percent for ages 16–30 versus 4 percent or less for all

other age groups) (table 1). While many older adults return to college, the traditional path of attending 

college immediately or shortly after high school graduation persists for many young adults; the higher 

rate of part-time college participation among younger respondents reflects this. The Integrated 

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) reported that, in the fall of 1997, the median age of all 

full-time and part-time undergraduate students was 21.8 and the median age of all graduate students was

 

10 In the AE-NHES:1999 and AE-NHES:1995, adults were asked to report their work-related courses in one section of the questionnaire and their 

personal interest courses in a subsequent section. Data on the main reasons for taking courses suggest that some courses that were reported as

personal interest courses in the AE-NHES:1999 were in fact work-related courses remembered by the respondent after the work-related section

was completed. Therefore, the personal interest section may have acted to some extent as a “residual” section, including activities not recalled 

earlier in the interview. In the AELL-NHES:2001, all courses were reported together by the respondents and listed at one time, and the

respondent was asked whether each course was taken for work-related reasons, for personal interest, or both. Those reported as work-related or

both were included as work-related courses. 

11 Standard error is 0.3%; not shown in tables.

15
30.6 (National Center for Education Statistics 1999). The NHES:2001 findings, while including only

those who were enrolled on a part-time basis, are consistent with the IPEDS findings. 

Sex. In 2001, 4 percent of men and 5 percent of women participated in a part-time college or

university degree program (table 1). The difference in participation rates found here, 1 percentage point, 

is very small although statistically significant. Creighton and Hudson (2002) reported that the

participation rate in college or university degree or certificate programs did not differ by sex in 1999. 

Race/Ethnicity. No differences were detected in part-time college or university program 

participation by race/ethnicity. Four percent of White, 5 percent of Black, and 4 percent of Hispanics

participated in college or university programs in 2001 (table 1). 

Prior Educational Attainment. Adults with a high school education or higher were more likely

to participate in part-time college or university programs than adults with less than a high school

education; postsecondary programs typically require that students have a high school diploma or 

equivalent prior to enrollment. Adults with some college education or higher were also more likely to 

participate in college or university programs compared with adults with a high school education (table 

1).12 

Marital Status. Rates of participation in part-time college or university degree or certificate

programs were higher among those who had never been married (10 percent) than among those in any

other marital status (2 percent to 5 percent). In addition, married adults and unmarried adults who were 

living with a partner had higher participation rates in part-time college or university degree programs than 

did adults who were divorced, separated or widowed (table 1). 

Employment and Occupation. Consistent with the finding for overall participation, those who 

worked in the past 12 months had a higher part-time college degree program participation rate (6 percent) 

than those who had not worked in that time period (1 percent). Among those who were employed, adults

who had professional or managerial occupations or service, sales or support occupations (8 percent and 6 

percent, respectively) were more likely to participate in college or university degree programs than adults

in the trades (2 percent) (table 1). 

Continuing Education Requirements. As with the findings for overall participation, adults 

with continuing education requirements for their occupation or job were more likely to participate in part-

 

12 This finding was expected, given that unless a respondent was enrolled in his/her first semester or term in a college or university degree 

program, he/she will have completed some prior college education. 

16
time college or university programs (6 percent) compared with adults without such requirements (4

percent) (table 1). 

Household Income. Participation rates in part-time college or university degree programs 

ranged from 3 percent to 6 percent according to adult’s household incomes. There were very few 

differences in participation rates in college or university programs according to adult’s household income. 

Only those adults with the lowest household incomes (less than $20,000) had lower rates of participation 

compared with adults with household incomes over $50,001 or more (table 1). 

Children Under 10 Years Old in Household. Unlike the findings for the overall adult

education participation rate, no difference was detected between the rates of participation for adults living 

with children under age 10 and adults not living with children under age 10. In 2001, 5 percent and 4

percent of adults living with and without children under age 10, respectively, participated in college or

university programs (table 1). 

In summary, adults who were more likely to participate in college or university degree or 

certificate programs on a part-time basis or on both part-time and full-time bases tended to be under age 

30; had never been married; had at least completed high school; were employed; were working in 

professional or managerial occupations or service, sales, or support occupations; and had continuing

education requirements. 

Participation in Work-Related Courses

Thirty percent of adults participated in one or more work-related courses during the 12 months 

prior to the interview (table 1). In general, the relationships between adult characteristics and 

participation in adult education activities overall that were reported earlier are also found for participation

in work-related courses, with the exceptions of sex, race/ethnicity, and marital status. 

Age. Adults ages 31–40 and those ages 41–50 had higher rates of participation in work-related 

courses (39 to 42 percent) than did those ages 16–30 and those ages 51–65 (28 percent of each group). 

This is consistent with the findings of Creighton and Hudson (2002). Among adults ages 66 or older, 4 

percent participated in work-related courses, a lower rate than any other age group (table 1). The low rate

among older adults reflects the fact that many adults in this age group were not in the labor force.13 

 

13 Among adults age 66 and older, 57 percent were retired (standard error, 1.3) and 84 percent had not worked in the past 12 months (standard

error, 1.1). Not shown in tables.

17
Sex. Unlike the finding presented above for overall adult education participation, no sex

difference was observed in the rate of participation in work-related courses (table 1). This is consistent

with the findings of Darkenwald, Kim, and Stowe (1998) and Creighton and Hudson (2002). 

Race/Ethnicity. The rate of participation in work-related courses was higher among White 

adults (32 percent) than among Hispanic and Black adults (22 and 23 percent, respectively) (table 1). 

Prior Educational Attainment. When comparing participation rates by prior educational 

attainment, the pattern that was found for adults taking work-related courses was consistent with that

observed for overall adult education participation. Specifically, the rate of participation increased with

each level of education, from 6 percent among those who had not completed high school to 51 percent

among those with a bachelor’s degree or more education (table 1). This finding is consistent with the

findings of the 1995 and 1999 NHES adult education surveys (Kim et al. 1995; Darkenwald, Kim, and 

Stowe 1998; Kim and Creighton 2000; Creighton and Hudson 2002). 

Marital Status. A higher participation rate in work-related courses was observed among married

adults (33 percent) than among those who were never married (26 percent) or were separated, divorced, or

widowed (23 percent) (table 1). 

Employment /Occupation. Adults who had worked in the past 12 months were more likely to 

have participated in work-related courses than those who had not worked, a finding also consistent with 

previous research (Kim et al. 1995; Darkenwald, Kim, and Stowe 1998; Kim and Creighton 2000; 

Creighton and Hudson 2002). While 39 percent of those who worked in the previous year participated in

such courses, 5 percent of those who had not worked did so. Adults employed in professional or

managerial occupations had a higher rate of participation in work-related courses (59 percent) than those

in service, sales, or support occupations (36 percent) or those employed in the trades (21 percent). 

Additionally, adults employed in service, sales, or support occupations had a higher participation rate than

adults in the trades (table 1). 

Continuing Education Requirements. As with overall participation and part-time college or 

university programs, adults with continuing education requirements for their work or professions were

more likely to participate in work-related courses compared with adults with no such requirements (49 

versus 23 percent) (table 1). 

Household Income. Household income, a correlate of both prior educational attainment and 

occupation, was also positively associated with participation in work-related courses. Participation rates 

18
by household income ranged from 12 percent for adults with household incomes of less than $20,000 to 

45 percent for adults with household incomes over $75,000 (table 1). 

Children Under 10 Years Old in Household. Those with children under age 10 in their 

households were more likely to participate in work-related courses than those without children under age 

10 (35 versus 28 percent) (table 1). This is possibly because adults in the age groups most likely to

participate in work-related courses are also in the age range where they are likely to have children under

age 10. For example, 40 percent of adults ages 50 and younger had children under 10 years old living

with them; this was true for 4 percent of adults over age 50.14 Among adults 51 years old or older, no

differences were detected in participation by presence of children under age 10 in the household (20 

percent verses 17 percent). 15 Similarly, among adults 50 years old or younger, no differences were

detected in participation by presence of children under age 10 in the household (35 percent verses 37 

percent).16 

In summary, several adult characteristics were found to be associated with participation in workrelated courses. Those who were more likely to participate are adults age 31–50; those who were White;

who had higher levels of prior educational attainment; who were employed in the previous 12 months; 

who worked in a professional or managerial occupation; who had some continuing education

requirement; who lived in households with higher incomes; or who were married. 

Participation in Personal Interest Courses

About one in five adults (21 percent) participated in one or more personal interest courses in the 

12 months prior to the interview (table 1). In general, the patterns of association between adult

characteristics and overall participation rates are observed here as well, with the exception of age, 

race/ethnicity, and presence of children under age 10 in the household. 

Age. The variability in participation by age that was observed for overall participation, 

participation in college or university degree programs, and participation in work-related courses is not 

detected for personal interest courses. Instead, participation rates across age groups ranged from 19

percent among adults ages 66 and older to 24 percent among adults ages 16–30. Adults ages 16–30 were 

 

14 Standard errors are, for 40 percent, 0.8; and for 4 percent, 0.5; not shown in tables.

15 Standard errors are, for 20 percent, 6.1, and for 17 percent, 0.6; not shown in tables.

16 Standard errors are, for 35 percent, 1.1, and for 27 percent, 0.8; not shown in tables.

19
more likely to participate in personal interest courses than adults ages 66 and older (table 1); this was the

only age difference detected. 

Sex. Consistent with the findings concerning overall participation, females were more likely than 

males to participate in personal interest courses (26 percent versus 16 percent) (table 1). This is 

consistent with the pattern observed for overall adult education participation, and with Merriam and

Caffarella’s (1999) report of higher participation among females. 

Race/Ethnicity. White adults and Black adults reported participating in personal interest courses 

at higher rates than Hispanics (table 1). 

Prior Educational Attainment. As observed for participation overall and in work-related 

courses, prior educational attainment was associated with participation in personal interest courses.

Adults who attended some college or earned a college degree had higher rates of participation (26 percent 

and 30 percent) than those who did not complete high school or had only a high school diploma (11

percent and 15 percent). Additionally, adults with a bachelor’s degree or more education had a higher

participation rate than adults with some college education (table 1).

Marital Status. Adults who had never been married were more likely to participate in personal

interest courses (26 percent) than were married adults (21 percent), those who were living with a partner 

(15 percent), and those who were separated, divorced, or widowed (20 percent). Adults who were 

unmarried and living with a partner were less likely than those in any other marital status to take personal 

interest courses (table 1). 

Employment/Occupation. Consistent with the findings for adult education participation overall

and in work-related courses, employment and occupational status were associated with participation in

personal interest courses. Adults who had been employed during the prior 12 months were more likely 

than those who had not to participate in personal interest courses (22 versus 19 percent). Rates of 

participation were highest for those in professional or managerial occupations (29 percent). Those in 

service, sales, or support occupations were more likely to participate in personal interest courses (23

percent) than those employed in the trades and those who had not worked in the past 12 months (12

percent and 19 percent, respectively). Finally, those who had not worked in the prior 12 months had a 

higher rate of participation in personal interest courses than those in the trades (19 percent versus 12 

percent) (table 1). 

20
Continuing Education Requirements. Adults who had professional or legal requirements to 

participate in continuing education were more likely to participate in personal interest courses (25

percent) than adults without such requirements (20 percent) (table 1). 

Household Income. The findings concerning the association of household income with 

participation in personal interest courses are also consistent with the findings for overall participation. 

Adults from households with incomes of less than $20,000 or $20,001 to $35,000 (15 percent and 18 

percent, respectively) were less likely to participate in personal interest courses than those whose

household incomes were $50,001 to $75,000 or $75,000 or more (24 percent and 26 percent, respectively)

(table 1). 

Children Under 10 Years Old in Household. No differences were detected in participation in 

personal interest courses by the presence of children under age 10 in the household. Twenty-one percent 

of both adults living with and without children under age 10 took personal interest courses (table 1). 

In summary, adults who were more likely to participate in personal interest courses were females,

non-Hispanics, those with at least some college education, those who had never been married, those who

were employed during the past 12 months, those working in professional or managerial occupations, 

those with continuing education requirements, or those living in households with higher incomes. 

Summary 

When considering the findings across the different types of adult education, an interesting pattern

emerges. Measures of socio-economic status (household income, employment/occupation, and prior 

educational attainment) fit the general pattern in the literature and had consistent patterns of association 

across all types of adult education. On the other hand, the association of some demographic variables

with participation in adult education (e.g., sex, race/ethnicity, marital status, and presence of children in 

the household) varied by type of adult education activity. 

The characteristics of adult education participants depend on which type of adult education is 

being examined. For adult education overall and for the three specific types discussed in this report, 

participation rates were higher among adults with higher household income; employed adults; those in 

professional or managerial occupations or service, sales or support occupations; adults with continuing

education requirements; and adults with higher levels of education.

Participation rates by demographic characteristics such as age, race/ethnicity, sex, marital status, 

and presence of children in the household differed by the type of adult education. Overall participation

21
rates were higher among adults under age 50; for college or university degree programs, participation was 

higher for those ages 16–30 than for any other age group. For work-related courses, participation rates 

were lowest among the youngest and oldest adults, and highest among those ages 31–50. However, for 

participation in personal interest courses, there was little difference in participation rates by age.

Overall participation rates were higher for women than men, but this appears to be a function of 

the higher participation rate for women in personal interest courses; no differences were detected between

the sexes for work-related courses, and the difference for college or university degree programs was one

percent. No differences were found by race/ethnicity for overall participation and for college or 

university programs. However, the participation rate in work-related courses among White adults was 

higher than among Black or Hispanic adults. Also, White and Black adults had higher participation rates 

in personal interest courses than did Hispanics. 

The relationship of marital status to adult education participation also varied by the types of 

educational activities. Adults who had never married and were not living with a partner had higher

participation rates for adult education overall, college or university degree programs, and personal interest 

courses. However, for work-related courses, married adults had higher participation rates than did nevermarried adults, those not living with a partner, or separated, divorced, or widowed adults. Also, while no

differences were detected in the participation rates for postsecondary degree or diploma programs or

personal interest courses by whether children under 10 years old reside in the household, adults with

children living in their households had higher participation rates in overall adult education, which may

result from the fact that they are overrepresented among work-related course takers and among age 

groups with higher participation rates. 

A Multivariate Look at Overall Participation 

In the preceding section, the bivariate relationships of personal characteristics and adult education 

participation were presented. Although a complete multivariate analysis of adult participation in 

educational activities is beyond the scope of this report, a logistic regression analysis is presented here to 

examine whether the relationships between individual personal characteristics and participation observed

in the bivariate analyses remain when these characteristics are analyzed simultaneously. 

The regression results given in table 2 show the association of overall participation with several 

characteristics: age, sex, race/ethnicity, prior educational attainment, household income, presence of

22
children under 10 years old in the household, employment/occupation status, and continuing education

requirements.17 

The bivariate results for age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, household income, employment/ 

occupation status, and continuing education requirements were largely supported by the multivariate

results, although each individual comparison not confirmed for each variable. However, there were 

somewhat different findings for marital status and presence of children under age 10 in the household. 

The regression results indicated that adults ages 51–65 and ages 66 and older were less likely to 

participate in adult education than all other age groups. Differences were not detected between adults 

ages 16–30 and 31–40 or 41–50; nor were differences detected between those aged 31–40 and 41–50. 

Females were more likely than were males to participate, and adults with a college degree or more 

education were more likely to participate in adult education than were adults with a high school diploma 

or less education. No differences by race/ethnicity were detected. In addition, the results indicated that

those adults with household incomes of $20,000 or less had lower overall participation rates than adults 

with household incomes of $35,001 to $50,000, $50,001 to $75,000, or more than $75,000, and those 

with household incomes of $20,001 to $35,000 were less likely to participate in adult education than 

those with household incomes of $50,001 to $75,000 or more than $75,000. The regression results also 

indicated that those who did not work in the previous 12 months were less likely to participate in adult 

education than those employed in professional or managerial occupations and those employed in service, 

sales, or support occupations. Those in professional or managerial occupations were more likely to 

participate in adult education than those in service, sales, or support occupations and those in trades. 

Likewise, those in service, sales, or support occupations were more likely than those in trades to

participate in adult education. Finally, the results indicate that those adults with continuing education

requirements were more likely to participate in adult education than were those adults without.

Consistent with the bivariate results, the regression indicated that those adults who had never

married were more likely than those who were unmarried and living with a partner to participate in adult 

education. However, unlike the bivariate results, no differences were detected between never-married

adults and those who were married or who were separated, divorced, or widowed. 

When the presence of children under age 10 in the household was examined within a multivariate 

context, the results were also somewhat different from the bivariate results. While the bivariate results

 

17 All adults, including those who had not worked in the previous 12 months, were queried about continuing education requirements. This is

because adults not currently in the labor force may have professional or occupational credentials or licenses that they maintain for possible use at

a later time, for example, teacher certification, a nursing license, or a beautician’s license. 

23
indicated that those with children under age 10 in the household were more likely to participate in overall

adult education, no difference was detected in the multivariate analysis. 

24
 Table 2. Results of logistic regression analysis of adults’ characteristics and participation in adult education: 

 Table 2. 2000–01 

Characteristic Parameter estimate s.e. Odds ratio

Age (Reference category: 41 to 50 years old)

16 to 30 years old....................................................................................

31 to 40 years old....................................................................................

51 to 65 years old....................................................................................

66 years and older...................................................................................

0.19 

-0.02 

-0.39 

-0.70 

0.10 

0.09 

0.09 

0.12 

1.20 

0.98 

0.68* 

0.50* 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

Male ....................................................................................................... -0.35 0.06 0.70* 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White, non-Hispanic)

Black, non-Hispanic...............................................................................

Hispanic .................................................................................................

Other, non-Hispanic...............................................................................

-0.02 

0.12 

-0.07 

0.09 

0.11 

0.13 

0.98 

1.13 

0.94 

Educational attainment (Reference category: Bachelor’s degree or

higher)

Less than high school.............................................................................

High school diploma or its equivalent...................................................

Some college..........................................................................................

-1.08 

-0.90 

-0.10 

0.14 

0.09 

0.08 

0.34* 

0.41* 

0.90 

Marital status1 (Reference category: Never married)

Married...................................................................................................

Living with a partner, unmarried...........................................................

Separated/divorced/widowed.................................................................

 0.00 

-0.27 

 0.08 

0.09 

0.13 

0.11 

1.00 

0.76* 

1.09 

Employment /Occupation2 (Reference category: Professional or

managerial)

Service, sales, or support........................................................................

Trades.....................................................................................................

Not employed in the past 12 months.......................................................

0.24 

-0.76 

-1.05 

0.08 

0.10 

0.09 

0.79* 

0.47* 

0.35* 

Continuing education requirements (Reference category: Yes) 

No........................................................................................................... -0.64 0.06 0.53* 

Household income (Reference category: $75,001 or more)

$20,000 or less.......................................................................................

$20,001–$35,000 ...................................................................................

$35,001–$50,000 ...................................................................................

$50,001–$75,000 ...................................................................................

-0.58 

-0.33 

-0.10 

0.07 

0.09 

0.08 

0.09 

0.09 

0.56* 

 0.72* 

0.91 

1.07 

Children under 10 years old in household (Reference category: Yes) 

No........................................................................................................... -0.00 0.07 1.00 

*p < .05. 1 For the purpose of this report, marital status was coded as follows. Respondents who reported being married are coded as “Married.” Respondents

living in households with another adult member (over age 16) and who were separated, divorced, widowed, or never married were asked if they were

currently living with a partner. If the respondents reported that they were living with a partner, they are coded as “Living with a partner, not married” 

regardless of their current marital status (i.e., separated, divorced, widowed, and never married). Respondents not living with a partner or living in

households with no other adults who reported being separated, divorced, or widowed are coded as “Separated/divorced/widowed.” Respondents not 

living with a partner or living in households with no other adults who reported never having been married are coded as “Never married.” 2 Professional or managerial occupations include executive and managerial occupations, engineers, natural scientists, social scientists, teachers, health 

diagnosing, registered nurses, writers, health technologies; service, sales, or support occupations include technologists, marketing and sales

occupations, administrative support, service occupations, miscellaneous occupations; trades occupations include agricultural occupation, mechanics, 

construction occupations, precision production occupation, production working occupations, transportation and laborers occupations.

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education and Lifelong Learning Survey of the National

Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2001.

25
In summary, the regression analysis yielded findings generally consistent with the bivariate 

analyses for age, sex, race/ethnicity, prior educational attainment, income, and occupational/employment

status. Other findings of the bivariate analysis were not confirmed. Specifically, the greater rate

participation of never-married adults compared to those who were married or who were separated, 

divorced, or widowed was not observed in the multivariate analysis. However, never-married adults were 

more likely to participated than were unmarried adults living with a partner. The greater likelihood of 

participation in adult education when children under age 10 were present in the household was not 

observed when the other characteristics of adults were taken into account. 

Characteristics of Participation in Educational Activities 

The diversity of adult education is reflected not only in the various types of educational activities 

in which adults participate, but also in important features of their participation. This section provides 

information about several characteristics of participation in college or university degree or certificate 

programs, work-related courses, and personal interest courses. The analysis examines the intensity of 

participation, as measured by credit and instructional hours; personal expenditures for educational

activities; providers of instruction; the use of automated technology in instruction; and participation in 

educational activities with the goal of obtaining or maintaining a state, industry, or company certificate or

license. Readers should note that, because of differences in the nature of the various types of educational

activities, some information was collected only for pertinent types of activities (e.g., provider for workrelated and personal interest courses, credit hours for college and vocational programs). 

As noted earlier, the participation rates for overall adult education and college or university 

degree or certificate programs do not include adults whose only enrollment was in a college or university

program on a full-time basis. Those full-time-only degree-seekers are also excluded in the analysis

presented here. 

Total Credit Hours in College or University Degree Programs. Participants in college or

university degree programs varied considerably in the number of credit hours they took in the 12 months 

prior to the interview. Forty-five percent of adults who participated part-time in college or university

degree programs took 11 credit hours or less and 26 percent took 12–18 credit hours during the past 12 

months. Seven percent took 31 credit hours or more (table 3).18 Since some adults were enrolled in 

 

18 Participants include those who participated in college programs on a part-time basis (an estimated 886,384 adults) as well as those who

participated on both part-time and full-time bases in the previous 12 months (an estimated 1,981,794 adults). An additional estimated 6,798,999

adults participated in college programs on a full-time basis only and are not included as adult education participants in college programs here. It

is not possible to differentiate credit hours taken on a part-time basis or a full-time basis for those who participated in both statuses in the 

previous 12 months.

26
college degree programs on a part-time basis and others on both part-time and full-time bases at some 

time during the past 12 months, the numbers of credit hours reflects the range of full-time and part-time 

enrollment status for the latter group. Since the analysis excluded full-time-only degree seekers, table 3

shows relatively lower numbers of credit hours than if all degree-seeking participants were included in the 

analysis. 

Total Instructional Hours in Work-Related Courses and Personal Interest Courses.19 In 

college and university programs, courses are typically assigned a number of credit hours. However, while

some work-related and personal interest courses may be college courses, many are not, and an alternative

measure of intensity is needed. For these two types of courses, participants were asked to report the total 

instructional hours for their courses in the previous 12 months. Twenty-eight percent of adults spent a 

total of 10 hours or less in work-related courses, 25 percent spent 11–25 hours, 23 percent spent 26–50 

hours, and 24 percent spent 51 hours or more in work-related courses. 

A quarter of participating adults (25 percent) spent 10 hours or less in personal interest courses

during the 12-month period. One-third of participants in personal interest courses (33 percent) spent 51 

hours or more in such courses. In contrast, 24 percent of participants in work-related courses spent 51 

hours or more (table 3). Previous NHES data indicate that many work-related courses are brief and 

intensive (Darkenwald, Kim, and Stowe 1998). An example of such a course would be a one-day

management seminar. In contrast, many personal interest activities may continue for an extended period 

of time (for example, ongoing Bible study or physical fitness classes). 

Providers of Instruction for Work-Related Courses and Personal Interest Courses.

20 

According to Darkenwald and Merriam (1982), the wide variety in the number of organizations that plan 

and conduct adult education activities has been a source of vitality and effectiveness in the field. 

Examples of adult education providers include traditional providers (e.g., elementary schools, secondary

schools, colleges and universities, and vocational or technical schools) and other organizations such as 

businesses, community agencies, private organizations, voluntary organizations or groups, religious

 

19 Instructional hours are summed across courses and weighted for subsampling of courses taken for work-related reasons or personal interest. 

20 The reader will note that the percentages for the various types of instructional providers sum to more than 100 percent. This is because some

adults took courses from more than one type of provider.

27
Table 3. Number and percent of adults reporting selected educational characteristics in college or university degree 

programs, work-related courses, and personal interest courses: 2000–01 

College or university degree programs

1 Work-related courses Personal interest courses2

Characteristic 

Estimate s.e. Estimate s.e. Estimate s.e.

Number of adults (in thousands).............. 8,781 405 59,084 932 42,346 1,074

Total credit hours

3

11 credit hours or fewer...........................

12–18 hours..............................................

19–30 hours..............................................

31 hours or more ......................................

Credit hours do not apply.........................

 45%

26 

18 

7 

4 

3.0 

2.5 

2.1 

1.2 

0.9 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

Total instructional hours

10 hours or less ........................................

11–25 hours..............................................

26–50 hours..............................................

51 hours or more ......................................

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

 28%

25 

23 

24 

1.1 

1.0 

1.0 

0.9 

 25%

22 

20 

33 

1.2 

1.0 

1.0 

1.2 

Instructional providers4

Postsecondary school...............................

Other school or school district.................

Business or industry.................................

Government agency .................................

Professional association ...........................

Others5......................................................

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† 

20 

7 

49 

15 

20 

15 

0.8 

0.5 

1.1 

0.7 

0.9 

0.8 

20 

6 

17 

5 

8 

50 

0.9 

0.5 

1.0 

0.5 

0.6 

1.1 

Personal expenses for participation6

None .........................................................

$500 or less ..............................................

$501–$1,000.............................................

$1001–$3,000...........................................

$3,001 or more .........................................

25 

17 

17 

23 

18 

2.6 

1.9 

1.9 

2.4 

2.2 

73 

20 

3 

2 

1 

0.9 

0.9 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

40 

48 

7 

4 

1 

1.3 

1.4 

0.7 

0.5 

0.2 

Use of technology in instruction4

TV, video, or radio...................................

Computer..................................................

Computer conferencing............................

Internet or WWW.....................................

26 

57 

12 

32 

2.2 

3.2 

1.6 

2.5 

54 

53 

10 

16 

1.0 

1.2 

0.6 

0.8 

32 

19 

4 

8 

1.0 

0.9 

0.5 

0.6 

Participated in programs/courses to 

obtain or maintain certificate or license 

Yes............................................................

No .............................................................

48 

52 

3.9 

3.9 

38 

62 

1.1 

1.1 

† 

† 

† 

† 

† Not applicable. 

1 Participants include those who participated in college programs on a part-time basis (an estimated 886,384 adults) as well as those who participated

on both part-time and full-time bases in the previous 12 months (an estimated 1,981,794 adults). An additional estimated 6,798,999 adults

participated in college programs on a full-time basis only and are not included as adult education participants in college programs here. 

2

 Personal interest courses include educational activities that have an instructor other than English as a Second Language, basic skills courses, college

or vocational degree or diploma programs, and work-related courses. Examples include courses related to health, hobbies or sports lessons, foreign

languages, dance or music, and Bible study.

3

 Total credit hours for the previous 12 months are given. It is not possible to differentiate credit hours taken on a part-time basis or a full-time basis 

for those who participated in both statuses in the previous 12 months.

4

 Participants could give more than one response.

5 Other providers include religious organizations, community organizations, a tutor or private instructor, or some other organization.

6Participants were asked about personal expenses for tuition, fees, books, and other materials. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Because of rounding and/or because some categories are not mutually exclusive, percents may not sum to 100.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education and Lifelong Learning Survey of the National 

Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2001.

28
organizations, and government agencies. Merriam and Brockett (1997) also note that only traditional

providers have education as their primary function and nontraditional providers typically offer adult

education as a secondary function. 

Bassi, Cheney, and Van Buren (1997) collected information about providers of training programs

or courses from employers. The study reported that employers are likely to use a wide variety of external 

training providers, such as community and technical colleges, universities, for-profit learning and

development centers, and private industry associations. They also noted that another recent trend is the 

rise in 4-year universities developing corporate education departments that provide training on a contract 

basis. 

In an analysis of data from the 1995 NHES adult education survey, Darkenwald, Kim, and Stowe 

(1998) reported that 48 percent of the participants in work-related courses took courses from business or 

industry, followed by a professional organization (15 percent), 4-year college or university (12 percent), 

and private vocational, trade, business, or flight school or hospital (10 percent). Twenty-six percent of 

adults reported taking work-related courses at other institutions, including adult learning centers; federal,

state, or local government agencies; public libraries; churches or religious organizations; tutors or private 

instructors; or some other organizations. 

Similar findings were observed in the NHES:2001 (table 3). While adults took work-related

courses from a wide variety of instructional providers, more adults took courses provided by business and 

industry (49 percent) than any other provider type. Twenty percent of adults took work-related courses 

from postsecondary schools and 20 percent from professional organizations. Fifteen percent of adults

took courses from government agencies, and 7 percent from schools or school districts. In addition, 15 

percent of adults took work-related courses from other providers, including private organizations, 

religious organizations, community centers, and public libraries.

Participants in personal interest courses also took classes from a wide variety of providers, but the

distribution of providers was quite different from that of participants in work-related courses. The most

frequently reported response was “other” types of providers, which includes community centers, public 

libraries, private organizations, and religious organizations (50 percent). Twenty percent of adults took 

personal interest courses from postsecondary institutions and 17 percent from business or industry. Small

percentages of adults took personal interest courses from schools or school districts, government 

agencies, or professional associations (5 percent to 8 percent). A smaller percentage of participants in 

personal interest courses took courses from business and industry (17 percent) than did participants in

work-related courses (49 percent). 

29
Personal Expenses for Participation. The AELL-NHES:2001 collected information about 

personal expenses for participation in educational activities, such as tuition and fees and costs for books 

or other materials. Twenty-five percent of the participants in college or university degree programs 

reported no personal expenses for their classes (table 3); that is, neither they nor their families paid any of 

the expenses. Seventy-five percent of participating adults spent their own or their families’ money for 

college degree programs during the past 12 months: 17 percent of adults spent $500 or less; another 17 

percent spent between $501 and $1,000; 23 percent spent between $1,001 and $3,000; and 18 percent 

spent more than $3,000. 

Nearly three quarters of participants in work-related courses (73 percent) reported that they had

not spent any of their own or their families’ money to pay for the courses. Another 20 percent reported 

that they spent $500 or less for all of the work-related courses taken over the previous 12 months. Six

percent of participants spent more than $500 to participate in work-related courses. 

Fewer participants in personal interest courses reported that they had not spent any of their own 

or their families’ money to pay for courses (40 percent) compared to the participants in work-related

courses (73 percent). Forty-eight percent of participants in personal interest courses spent $500 or less

over the previous 12 months; few adults (12 percent) spent more than $500. 

In summary, participants in college or university degree programs were more likely to spend 

more than $500 for educational expenses than participants in work-related courses or personal interest

courses. On the other hand, participants in work-related courses were more likely to take courses without

any personal expenses than participants in college or university degree programs or personal interest 

courses. 

Use of Automated Technology in Instruction. Adult education providers are turning to

emerging technologies to increase the flexibility and accessibility of their programs (Bassi and Van Buren

1998). Some examples of such automated technology are computers, TV, video, and the Internet or 

World Wide Web. 

Bassi, Cheney, and Van Buren (1997) conducted an employer-based study in which human 

resources directors reported on training activities offered by the employers. The following techniques 

were most frequently reported to be used for training purposes: computer-based training (55 percent),

video-teleconferencing (53 percent), CD-ROM (43 percent), and Internet/World Wide Web (27 percent). 

In a 1998 report on industry trends, Bassi and Van Buren (1998) predicted the continued growth of the

30
Internet, as well as advances in intelligent tutoring systems, object-based learning, and voice-recognition

technology as having a significant impact on technology-delivered training. 

The NHES:2001 data show that the use of automated technology in instruction varied by type of 

educational activity. The use of technology for college or university instruction was reported by many 

participating adults.21 The use of computers for instruction (57 percent) was most often reported, 

followed by instruction using the Internet or World Wide Web (32 percent) as well as instruction using 

television, video, or radio (26 percent). Instruction using computer conferencing was least reported (12 

percent) (table 3). 

The use of automated technology for instruction in work-related courses was also reported by

many participants. The types of technology most often reported were television, video, or radio, reported 

by 54 percent of participating adults; and computer instruction, reported by 53 percent. Much smaller 

percentages of adults reported the use of computer conferencing and the Internet or World Wide Web (10

and 16 percent, respectively). 

The use of automated technology for instruction in personal interest courses was reported less 

often than in work-related courses. Almost one-third of adults taking personal interest courses reported

the use of television, video, or radio as an instructional mode (32 percent). A smaller percentage of adults 

reported the use of computers for instruction (19 percent). Eight percent of participating adults reported

the use of the Internet or World Wide Web for instruction. 

Obtaining or Maintaining a Certificate or License. An area that is not addressed in the

research literature is the extent to which adults participate in educational activities for the purposes of 

obtaining or maintaining a state, industry, or company certificate or license. To fill this gap, the AELLNHES:2001 asked participants whether they took educational activities for this purpose. About half of 

the adults participating in college or university degree programs on a part-time basis or both part-time and 

full-time bases reported that they did so to obtain or to maintain a state, industry, or company certificate 

or license (48 percent). Among those who took work-related courses, a smaller percentage (38 percent)

reported that they did so to obtain or to maintain a state, industry, or company certificate or license.

 

21 Percentages sum to more than 100 because respondents could report the use of more than one type of technology.

31
Employer Support for Participation 

Research on who receives employer-sponsored job training mirrors much of the research on the 

relationship between adult characteristics and adult education participation. In general, the youngest and

oldest workers were less likely to receive employer-sponsored training (Bowers and Swaim 1994; Frazis 

et al. 1998), and workers with higher education levels were more likely to receive employer-sponsored

training (Altonji and Spletzer 1991; Bowers and Swaim 1994; Frazis et al. 1998; Lynch and Black 1998). 

In general, White workers tended to receive more employer-sponsored education than did Black or

Hispanic workers (Bureau of Labor Statistics 1993; Frazis et al. 1998). Also, higher-paid workers were 

more likely to receive employer-sponsored training than lower-paid workers (Frazis et al. 1998). 

Lee, Clery, and Carroll (1999) reported that employer support for degree programs varied by

adults’ occupations. Employees in technical fields were more likely to receive employer financial aid

than adults working in occupations such as sales or marketing. In addition, employees in executive, 

management, or professional positions were more likely to receive employer financial support than those 

in administrative support occupations. Engineers, surveyors, or architects who enrolled in degree 

programs received more financial support from their employers than any other group of employees. 

In the AELL-NHES:2001, adults who participated in educational activities in the 12 months prior 

to the survey and were employed at the time they did so were asked whether they received any support 

from their employer for their participation. This section examines the characteristics of participating 

adults who received any type of employer support and the percentage of adults who received particular 

types of support for participation in college or university degree programs and in work-related courses.

Employer support includes provision of instruction, offering courses or classes at the workplace,

providing courses or classes during paid work hours, and paying for or reimbursing educational expenses. 

Age. As shown in table 4, 68 percent of employed adults who participated in adult education 

activities in the 12 months prior to the survey received some type of employer support. Consistent with 

the findings of Bowers and Swaim (1994) and Frazis et al. (1998) regarding employer-sponsored training, 

the youngest and oldest participating adults were least likely to receive any employer support. Forty 

percent of participating adults ages 66 and older received such support, as did 60 percent of those ages 

16–30. In contrast, receipt of employer support education activities was reported by 73 percent of

participating adults ages 31–40, 74 percent of those ages 41–50, and 68 percent of those ages 51–65. 

32
33

Sex. No sex difference in reports of receiving employer support was detected; 68 percent of 

males and females who participated in adult education activities reported receiving employer support for 

participation. 

Race/Ethnicity. When looking at employer support by race/ethnicity, White participants were 

more likely to receive employer support (71 percent) than Black or Hispanic participating adults (63 

percent and 53 percent, respectively). These results are consistent with findings cited earlier in this 

section regarding employer-sponsored training (Bureau of Labor Statistics 1993; Frazis et al. 1998). 

Prior Educational Attainment. The receipt of employer support was positively associated with 

the prior educational attainment of adults. The percentage of participating adults who received employer 

support increased with each level of education. 

Marital Status. Participating adults who had never married reported lower rates of employer 

support than did those who were either married or separated, divorced or widowed. Fifty-nine percent of 

participating adults who had never married reported receiving employer support, compared to 68 percent 

of separated, divorced, or widowed adults and 71 percent of married adults. 

Occupation. Participating adults working in professional or managerial occupations were more 

likely to receive employer support (78 percent) than those in service, sales, or support occupations (63 

percent) or those employed in the trades (60 percent). 

Employer Size. Employer size was also associated with the receipt of employer support. 

Participating adults who worked for large employers (i.e., 500 employees or more) were more likely to 

receive employer support for their participation (78 percent) than were adults who worked for smaller 

employers (73 percent of participants in organizations with 25–499 employees), who were in turn more 

likely to report receiving employer support for their participation than were adults from the smallest 

employers (43 percent of those in organizations with 1–24 employees). 

Continuing Education Requirements. Participants with continuing education requirements for 

their job or profession were more likely to receive employer support for their participation than were 

adults without such requirements. Seventy-four percent of participating adults with education 

requirements received support compared with 65 percent of adults without requirements. 
Table 4. Number of adult education participants who worked in the previous 12 months and the 

Table 4. percent who received any employer support for participating, by selected demographic, 

Table 4. educational, and occupational characteristics: 2000–01 

Total adults who worked in 

the previous 12 months 

(in thousands)

Any employer support

1

 for participation 

in adult education activities Characteristic 

Number Percent s.e.

Total..................................................................... 78,883 68 0.9

Age

16 to 30 years old .............................................

31 to 40 years old .............................................

41 to 50 years old .............................................

51 to 65 years old .............................................

66 years and older.............................................

22,539 

20,323 

21,223 

13,372 

1,427 

60 

73 

74 

68 

40 

2.0 

1.7 

1.5 

1.9 

5.2 

Sex 

Male ..................................................................

Female...............................................................

37,451 

41,432 

68 

68 

1.4 

1.2 

Race/ethnicity 

White, non-Hispanic.........................................

Black, non-Hispanic .........................................

Hispanic ............................................................

Other .................................................................

59,040 

8,071 

7,292 

4,481 

71 

63 

53 

70 

0.7 

2.8 

3.2 

4.0 

Educational attainment 

Less than high school .......................................

High school diploma or its equivalent..............

Some college.....................................................

Bachelor’s degree or higher .............................

4,835 

17,849 

26,394 

29,805 

34 

62 

70 

76 

4.4 

1.8 

1.5 

1.2 

Marital status2

Married .............................................................

Living with a partner, not married ...................

Separated/divorced/widowed ...........................

Never married...................................................

49,215 

5,583 

8,767 

15,319 

71 

68 

68 

59 

1.1 

3.7 

2.0 

2.3 

Occupational group3 

Professional or managerial ...............................

Service, sales, or support..................................

Trades ...............................................................

30,087 

35,883 

12,914 

78 

63 

60 

1.2 

1.4 

2.4 

Employer size

1–24 employees................................................

25–499 employees............................................

500 employees or more ....................................

18,642 

21,793 

38,448 

43 

73 

78 

1.9 

1.6 

1.1 

Continuing education requirements

Yes....................................................................

No .....................................................................

28,789 

50,094 

74 

65 

1.4 

1.1 

Household income 

$20,000 or less..................................................

$20,001–$35,000 ..............................................

$35,001–$50,000 ..............................................

$50,001–$75,000 ..............................................

$75,001 or more................................................

7,956 

12,436 

13,735 

19,970 

24,785 

48 

58 

66 

76 

75 

3.1 

2.6 

2.2 

1.5 

1.4 1 Employer support includes providing instruction, providing classes at workplace, providing classes during work hours, and paying for or

reimbursing expenses for classes, programs, or courses. 2 For the purpose of this report, marital status was coded as follows. Respondents who reported being married are coded as “Married.” 

Respondents living in households with another adult member (over age 16) and who were separated, divorced, widowed, or never married were 

asked if they were currently living with a partner. If the respondents reported that they were living with a partner, they are coded as “Living

with a partner, not married” regardless of their current marital status (i.e., separated, divorced, widowed, and never married). Respondents not 

living with a partner or living in households with no other adults who reported being separated, divorced, or widowed are coded as

“Separated/divorced/widowed.” Respondents not living with a partner or living in households with no other adults who reported never having

been married are coded as “Never married.” 3 Professional or managerial occupations include executive and managerial occupations, engineers, natural scientists, social scientists,

teachers, health diagnosing, registered nurses, writers, health technologies; service, sales, or support occupations include technologists,

marketing and sales occupations, administrative support, service occupations, miscellaneous occupations; trades occupations include

agricultural occupation, mechanics, construction occupations, precision production occupation, production working occupations, transportation 

and laborer occupations.

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Because of rounding, percents may not sum to 100. Includes participating adults who worked for pay or income in the 

previous 12 months. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education and Lifelong Learning Survey of the

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2001.

34
Household Income. Participating adults whose household incomes were more than $50,000 

received employer support at higher rates (75 to 76 percent) than adults with household incomes of

$50,000 or less (48 to 66 percent). 

Multivariate Analysis of Employer Support 

Table 5 shows the results of a logistic regression analysis examining characteristics associated

with reports of receiving any employer support for educational activities. This analysis is designed to

examine whether the relationships observed in the bivariate analysis are also observed when 

characteristics are analyzed simultaneously. Participants ages 66 and older were less likely to receive

employer support than those in any of the younger age groups. The youngest group of participating 

adults (ages 16 to 30) was less likely to receive employer support than adults ages 31 to 40, and those

ages 41 to 50; however, they were more likely to receive employer support than adults ages 66 and older.

Those who had not completed a high school diploma were less likely to report receiving employer support

than those with a high school diploma, those with some college but no college degree, and those with a 

college degree or more education. 

White participants were more likely to report receiving employer support than were Black or 

Hispanic adults. Participants who were married, separated, divorced or widowed, or unmarried and living

with a partner were more likely to receive support than those who were never married. Those in 

professional or managerial occupations, working for large employers (i.e., 500 or more employees), and 

with occupational requirements for continuing education were also more likely to have reported receiving 

employer support for participation in educational activities in the 12 months prior to the interview. 

Participating adults with household incomes of $20,000 or less and those with incomes of 

$20,001 to $35,000 were less likely to receive employer support than were adults from households with

incomes of $50,001 to $75,000 or $75,001 or more. 

35
36

Table 5. Results of logistic regression analysis of adult characteristics and receipt of any employer support for 

participating in adult education activities by selected demographic, educational, and occupational 

characteristics: 2000–01 

Characteristic Parameter estimate s.e. Odds ratio 

Age (Reference category: 41 to 50 years old) 

16 to 30 years old.................................................................................

31 to 40 years old.................................................................................

51 to 65 years old ................................................................................

66 years and older................................................................................

-0.28 

0.02 

-0.36 

-1.13 

0.13 

0.13 

0.22 

0.25 

 0.75* 

1.02 

 0.69* 

 0.32* 

Sex (Reference category: Female) 

Male .................................................................................................... 0.03 0.10 1.03 

Race/ethnicity (Reference category: White, non-Hispanic)

Black, non-Hispanic ...........................................................................

Hispanic ..............................................................................................

Other, non-Hispanic............................................................................

-0.28 

-0.41 

0.09 

0.14 

0.13 

0.20 

 0.75* 

 0.66* 

0.92 

Educational attainment (Reference category: Bachelor’s degree or 

higher) 

Less than high school .........................................................................

High school diploma or its equivalent................................................

Some college.......................................................................................

-0.83 

-0.18 

0.04 

0.26 

0.13 

0.12 

 0.43* 

0.84 

1.04 

Marital status1 (Reference category: Never married)

Married................................................................................................

Living with a partner, unmarried........................................................

Separated/divorced/widowed .............................................................

0.28 

0.48 

0.37 

0.13 

0.21 

0.15 

 1.32* 

 1.62* 

 1.44* 

Employment /Occupation2 (Reference category: Professional or 

managerial)

Service, sales, or support....................................................................

Trades..................................................................................................

-0.37 

-0.53 

0.10 

0.16 

 0.69* 

0.59* 

Employer size (Reference category: 500 employees or more) 

1–24 employees .................................................................................

25–499 employees .............................................................................

-1.48 

-0.25 

0.10 

0.11 

 0.23* 

0.78* 

Continuing education requirements (Reference category: Yes) 

No........................................................................................................ -0.31 0.11 1.37* 

Household income (Reference category: $75,001 or more) 

$20,000 or less....................................................................................

$20,001–$35,000 ................................................................................

$35,001–$50,000 ................................................................................

$50,001–$75,000 ................................................................................

-0.50 

-0.30 

-0.16 

0.16 

0.19 

0.15 

0.14 

0.11 

 0.61* 

 0.74* 

0.85 

1.17 

*p < .05. 1 For the purpose of this report, marital status was coded as follows. Respondents who reported being married are coded as “Married.” Respondents living in 

households with another adult member (over age of 16) and who were separated, divorced, widowed, or never married were asked if they were currently living 

with a partner. If the respondents reported that they were living with a partner, they are coded as “Living with a partner, not married” regardless of their current 

marital status (i.e., separated, divorced, widowed, and never married). Respondents not living with a partner or living in households with no other adults who 

reported being separated, divorced, or widowed are coded as “Separated/divorced/widowed.” Respondents not living with a partner or living in households with 

no other adults who reported never having been married are coded as “Never married.”

2 Professional or managerial occupations include executive and managerial occupations, engineers, natural scientists, social scientists, teachers, health 

diagnosing, registered nurses, writers, health technologies; service, sales or support occupations include technologists, marketing and sales occupations, 

administrative support, service occupations, miscellaneous occupations; trades occupations include agricultural occupation, mechanics, construction 

occupations, precision production occupation, production working occupations, transportation and laborer occupations. 

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education and Lifelong Learning Survey of the National Household 

Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2001. 
Employer Support for Various Types of Activities 

The extent to which participants reported receiving employer support varied considerably by 

type of educational activity (table 6). Forty percent of adults who were enrolled in college or 

university degree programs reported receiving some type of support from their employers. Among 

those in college or university degree programs, the most frequently reported form of employer 

support was reimbursement or payment of tuition and fees or books and other materials (30 percent).

Five to 7 percent of participants reported other types of employer support.

Lee, Clery, and Carroll (1999) examined ways in which employers assisted their employees 

in continuing their education, including attending postsecondary education institutions. They found 

that employers tended to support work-related programs in preference to degree programs. The 

AELL-NHES:2001 findings indicate that while 40 percent of college degree program participants did 

receive some support from their employers, 82 percent of participants in work-related courses 

received employer support. The most common types of employer support among work-related course 

participants were reimbursement or payment of course costs (74 percent) and taking courses during 

paid work hours (70 percent). In addition, 49 percent of participants in work-related courses reported 

taking these courses at their workplaces, and 46 percent reported that their employers provided course

instruction. 

Employer Requirements to Participate in Education and Training 

An employer requirement to take courses or classes may serve as a stimulus for employed 

adults to participate in adult education activities. Six percent of participants in college or university

degree programs reported that they were required to take the degree programs by their employers 

(table 6). About half of employed adults who took part in work-related courses were required by their

employers to take one or more courses. 

Summary 

The receipt of employer support was reported by 68 percent of adult education participants 

who had worked in the previous 12 months, including 82 percent of those who took work-related

courses, and 40 percent of those who were enrolled in college or university degree programs. The

most common form of employer support for college programs was the reimbursement of tuition, fees, 

and other expenses. Among participation in work-related courses, both reimbursement of costs and

taking courses during paid work hours were frequent types of employer support. The receipt of

employer support was associated with being White; being married or separated, divorced or widowed; 

having higher educational attainment; having higher household income; having a professional or 

37
managerial occupation; working for a large employer; and having an occupational requirement for 

continuing education. 

Table 6. Number of participants in college or university degree programs and in work-related courses, 

Table 6. and percent receiving various types of employer support: 2000–01 

College or university degree 

programs Work-related courses Type of employer support/incentives

Estimate s.e. Estimate s.e.

Number of participating adults (in thousands).......................... 8,781 405 59,084 932

Received any type of employer support ..................................... 40% 2.8 82% 0.9

Employer provided instruction ............................................. # # 46 1.0

Took educational activities at workplace.............................. 7 1.2 49 1.0

Took educational activities during work hours while 

being paid .............................................................................. 5 0.9 70 1.0

Received reimbursement or payment for tuition, books, 

and materials ......................................................................... 30 2.4 74 1.0

Required by employer to take educational activities1 ................ 6 1.2 50 0.8

# Estimate rounds to zero or zero cases in sample.

1

Indicates a requirement by an employer for whom the adult worked while taking the course(s).

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Includes participating adults who worked for pay or income at the time of taking programs, courses, or classes. 

Because categories are not mutually exclusive (i.e., some respondents reported more than one type of support), percents may not sum to 100.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education and Lifelong Learning Survey of the

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2001.

Reasons for Participation in Work-Related Courses 

Numerous studies have explored the social, psychological, and economic reasons adults 

participate in adult education activities. While reasons or motivations vary depending on the participants’ 

age, sex, and prior educational attainment, an analysis of data from the 1995 NHES adult education

survey (Kopka and Peng 1994) showed that job improvement was the most frequently cited reason for

participation, followed by personal, family, or social reasons, obtaining a diploma or degree, and training 

for a new job.

In AELL-NHES:2001, participants in work-related courses were asked to report the reasons for 

their participation. Table 7 shows the percentages of participants in work-related courses who reported

38
each reason for participating in work-related courses during the 12-month period prior to the interview.

Some adults took multiple courses and respondents could choose more than one reason for each of the 

courses they took. As a result, the percentages of participants giving each reason sums to more than 100. 

Table 7. Number and percent of participants in work-related courses who cited various 

Table 7. reasons for participation in work-related courses: 2000–01 

Participants in work-related courses Reasons for participation in work-related courses 

Estimate s.e.

Total number of adults (in thousands)........................................................................ 59,084 932

To maintain or improve skills or knowledge......................................................... 95% 0.5

To learn new skills or methods not already known .............................................. 84 0.9

To get a raise or promotion..................................................................................... 22 0.8

To get a new job with a different employer........................................................... 10 0.6

To get or keep a state, industry, or company certificate or license ...................... 38 1.1 

Required to take the course(s)

1

............................................................................... 62 1.0

Other reasons........................................................................................................... 22 0.9

1 Requirements may include those of an employer or other professional, legal, or license/certification requirements.

NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Because respondents could report more than one reason for each of the courses they took, percents sum 

to more than 100. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education and Lifelong Learning Survey

of the National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2001.

Ninety-five percent of the participants in work-related courses reported that they took courses to 

maintain or improve skills or knowledge, while 84 percent of the participants reported taking courses to 

learn new skills or methods. A majority of participants also reported that they took work-related courses 

because they were required to take them by their employers or to meet professional, legal, or licensing or 

certification requirements (62 percent). Thirty-eight percent of the respondents reported that they took

work-related courses to obtain or maintain a state, industry, or company certificate or license. Other 

reasons for participation included getting a raise or promotion (22 percent), getting a new job with a

different employer (10 percent), or other reasons (22 percent). 

39
Work-Related Informal Learning Activities 

In the foregoing sections, participation in relatively formal, structured educational activities has 

been examined. However, learning also takes place in informal ways. Volpe, Marsick, and Watkins 

(1999) summarized themes from informal learning research, reporting that informal learning is often

integrated with work and daily routines, may not be highly conscious, may be haphazard and influenced

by chance, and may be associated with the knowledge and learning activities of others in the person’s

environment. 

Informal learning is regarded as a major source of the acquisition of new knowledge and skills in 

the workplace; Bruce, Aring, and Brand (1998) stated that critical skills for worker and company

productivity acquired by informal learning comprise as much as 70 percent of all workplace learning. 

Merriam and Caffarella (1999) agreed that adults often acquire new skills, information, and beliefs in an 

informal way beyond the limits of established programs. 

Respondents to the NHES:2001 were asked about their participation in a variety of work-related

informal learning activities during the 12-month period prior to the interview. Work-related informal

learning includes receiving supervised training or mentoring, self-paced study using manuals or video

tapes, self-paced study using a computer, attending “brown bag” or informal presentations, attending 

conferences, or reading professional journals or magazines. Some of these informal learning activities 

may be undertaken by an adult regardless of his or her employment status. However, supervised training 

or mentoring on the job is, of course, available only to those who are employed. 

As shown in table 8, nearly two-thirds of adults (or about 125 million) reported participating in 

work-related informal learning activities. Forty three percent of all adults reported reading professional 

journals or magazines, and 30 percent of adults reported being engaged in self-paced study using books, 

manuals, or video tapes. Smaller percentages of adults engaged in self-paced study using computer-based 

software, attended “brown-bags” or other informal presentations, or attended conferences or conventions 

(20 percent to 25 percent). Among adults who worked in the past 12 months, 46 percent received

supervised training or mentoring. 

Age. Consistent with research and findings for several types of formal activities, older adults

(those ages 66 and older) were less likely to participate in work-related informal learning overall 

compared with younger adults. In general, adults under age 50 were more likely to engage in each type of 

work-related informal learning (21 percent to 58 percent) than were older adults (4 percent to 44 percent). 

40
Sex. Males were more likely than females to take part in work-related informal learning overall 

(67 percent and 59 percent, respectively). Also, males were more likely to participate in each type of

work-related informal learning activities than were females, with the exception of receiving supervised

training or mentoring. 

Race/Ethnicity. In contrast to findings concerning some formal educational activities reported 

elsewhere in this report, White adults were more likely than Hispanic adults to participate in informal 

learning activities overall (64 percent and 57 percent respectively). No such differences were observed

when comparing Black adults with White or Hispanic adults. 

Where there were differences in participation in specific informal learning activities by

race/ethnicity, White adults were generally more likely to participate than others. There were no 

race/ethnicity differences observed in reports of receiving supervised training or mentoring and engaging 

in self-paced study using books, manuals or video tapes. White adults were more likely than Hispanic

adults to report attending “brown-bags” or other informal presentations and attending conferences (20 and 

25 percent versus 15 and 20 percent, respectively). White adults were more likely than Black and 

Hispanic adults to report reading professional journals or magazines (45 percent versus 38 and 34 percent, 

respectively). Both White and Black adults were more likely than Hispanics to report engaging in selfpaced study using computer-based software (22 and 20 percent, respectively versus 15 percent). 

Prior Educational Attainment. As with formal learning activities, adults with education after 

high school were more likely to participate in work-related informal learning activities overall. This is

consistent with the pattern of higher participation rates for educational activities overall and for 

participation in work-related courses and personal interest courses noted earlier. Participation in each 

type of informal learning activity increased as adults’ prior educational attainment increased, with the

exception of the receipt of supervised training or mentoring. For this activity, adults with at least some

college education had higher rates of participation than adults with a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

Employment and Occupations. Those who were employed were more likely to take part in

work-related informal learning (62 percent to 91 percent) than those who did not work in the past 12 

months (28 percent). Those adults in professional or managerial occupations were more likely to 

participate in work-related informal learning activities overall. Adults employed in the trades (14 percent 

to 38 percent) were less likely to participate in specific types of work-related informal learning activities 

than were those in professional or managerial occupations or those in service, sales, or support 

occupations (21 percent to 77 percent). 

41
Table 8. Number of adults and rates of participation in selected work-related informal learning activities, by selected demographic, e

characteristics: 2000–01

Total adults 

(in thousands)

Any work-related 

informal learning 

activities 

Used self-paced study 

using books,

procedures manuals,

or video tapes 

Used self-paced 

study using 

computer-based 

software 

Attended “brown 

bag” or informal 

presentations 

Attended 

conferences or 

conventions 

Re

Characteristic 

Number Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Percent s.e. Per

Total............................................................ 198,803 63 0.6 30 0.5 21 0.5 20 0.5 25 0.4 Age

16 to 30 years old ....................................31 to 40 years old ....................................41 to 50 years old ....................................51 to 65 years old ....................................66 years and older ...................................

46,905 41,778 41,255 39,523 29,342 

72 71 73 58 28 

1.3 1.1 1.5 1.2 1.1 

36 35 37 26 

9 

1.3 1.2 1.4 1.0 0.7 

24 25 28 20 

5 

1.1 1.1 1.4 1.0 0.6 

21 24 25 18 

4 

1.4 1.1 1.2 0.8 0.5 

26 30 31 24 

6 

1.1 1.3 1.2 0.8 0.6 

Sex 

Male.........................................................Female .....................................................

94,955 

103,848 

67 59 

0.9 0.8 

34 27 

0.8 0.6 

23 20 

0.7 0.7 

21 18 

0.6 0.6 

29 21 

0.7 0.6 

Race/ethnicity 

White, non-Hispanic ...............................Black, non-Hispanic................................Hispanic...................................................Other........................................................

144,147 

22,186 21,537 10,932 

64 61 57 63 

0.7 1.7 2.2 2.9 

29 30 30 37 

0.6 1.7 2.5 2.9 

22 20 15 24 

0.6 1.5 1.1 2.1 

20 19 15 20 

0.6 1.5 1.4 1.9 

25 25 20 26 

0.5 1.5 1.5 2.3 

Educational attainment 

Less than high school..............................

High school diploma or its equivalent ....Some college ...........................................Bachelor’s degree or higher....................

31,343 64,606 52,559 50,295 

34 52 72 84 

1.8 1.1 1.1 0.8 

16 22 36 42 

1.8 0.9 1.2 0.9 

5 

14 27 36 

0.8 0.8 1.2 1.0 

4 

12 21 38 

0.9 0.7 1.0 1.2 

8 

16 25 46 

0.9 0.8 0.9 1.1 

Employment/Occupation2

Employed in the past 12 months 

Professional or managerial...............Service, sales, or support..................

Trades ...............................................

Not employed in the past 12 months.......

42,230 65,298 37,722 53,553 

91 73 62 28 

0.8 1.0 1.8 1.0 

47 36 29 11 

1.2 1.0 1.5 0.7 

39 25 15 

8 

1.3 0.8 1.2 0.6 

41 21 14 

4 

1.2 1.0 1.1 0.4 

52 27 17 

6 

1.4 0.9 1.3 0.5 

Marital status3

Married ....................................................Living with a partner, not married ..........Separated/divorced/widowed ..................Never married..........................................

121,455 

14,009 30,503 32,836 

63 69 49 70 

0.7 2.1 1.3 1.3 

31 36 23 32 

0.6 2.6 1.1 1.4 

22 23 15 23 

0.6 2.0 1.1 1.2 

21 21 14 20 

0.6 1.9 0.8 1.2 

26 25 17 25 

0.6 2.1 1.0 1.4 

Household income 

$20,000 or less.........................................$20,001–$35,000.....................................$35,001–$50,000.....................................$50,001–$75,000.....................................$75,001 or more ......................................

40,246 38,876 33,035 40,725 45,922 

41 56 65 70 78 

1.4 1.2 1.5 1.1 1.0 

20 27 31 33 38 

1.0 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 

8 

16 19 29 32 

0.9 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.2 

8 

13 18 24 32 

0.7 0.9 1.2 1.0 1.1 

11 16 23 29 40 

0.8 0.8 1.3 1.1 1.1 

42

† Not applicable.1 Questions about supervised training or mentoring were only asked of adults who were employed during the 12 months period prior to the interview.2 Professional or managerial occupations include executive and managerial occupations, engineers, natural scientists, social scientists, teachers, health diagnosing, registered nurses, writ

support occupations include technologists, marketing and sales occupations, administrative support, service occupations, miscellaneous occupations; trades occupations include agricuoccupations, precision production occupation, production working occupations, transportation and laborer occupations.

3 For the purpose of this report, marital status was coded as follows. Respondents who reported being married are coded as “Married.” Respondents living in households with another 

separated, divorced, widowed, or never married were asked if they were currently living with a partner. If the respondents reported that they were living with a partner, they are coderegardless of their current marital status (i.e., separated, divorced, widowed, and never married). Respondents not living with a partner or living in households with no other adults who repoare coded as “Separated/divorced/widowed.” Respondents not living with a partner or living in households with no other adults who reported never having been married are coded as “Never NOTE: s.e. is standard error. Percentage for supervised training/mentoring is based on adults who worked in the past 12 months. Other estimates are based on all adults. Because of rounding, percSOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Education and Lifelong Learning Survey of the National Household Education Surveys Program (N
Marital Status. Adults who were never married or unmarried and living with a partner were 

more likely than married adults to participate in work-related informal learning overall (70 and 69 percent

versus 63 percent), while adults who were separated, divorced or widowed were least likely to participate 

(49 percent). In addition, separated, divorced, and widowed adults were generally among the least likely 

to participate in each type of information education activity. The exceptions were supervised training or 

mentoring on the job, where no differences were detected between separated, divorced, and widowed 

adults and married adults, and reading professional journals or magazines, where no differences were

detected between never-married adults and those who were separated, divorced, or widowed. 

Household Income. Adults with higher household incomes (over $35,000) were also more likely

to participate in work-related informal learning activities overall. Generally, higher household income

was associated with participation in each type of informal learning activity.22

Summary 

The NHES:2001 findings confirm the assertions in the literature about the ubiquity of workrelated informal learning. Two-thirds of all adults reported that they had participated in some type of 

work-related informal learning in the previous 12 months. The patterns of association between adult

characteristics and participation in informal learning largely mirror those for formal educational activities 

in important ways. Notably, higher educational attainment and working in professional or managerial

occupations are associated with higher rates of participation in work-related informal learning. 

 

22 While, for the most part, higher income is associated with participation in each type of informal educational activity, there are cases in which

no differences were detected between some income categories for a particular type of activity. This is sometimes true of contiguous income

categories. For example, for participation in self-paced study using books and manuals, no difference was found between income categories 

$20,001 to $35,000 and $35,001 to $50,000.

43 
Summary and Discussion

This report has presented an overview of participation in adult education. Forty-six percent of 

adults participated in a formal adult education activity during a 12-month period from early 2000 to early 

2001. This rate is comparable to the 45 percent participation rate observed in 1999 (Kim and Creighton

2000). More adults participated in work-related courses (30 percent) than in any other type of formal

educational activity, and 21 percent participated in personal interest courses. A much smaller percentage

of adults participated in college and university degree programs on a part-time basis (4 percent), and few 

adults participated in English as a Second Language, basic skills education, vocational or technical

diploma or degree programs, or apprenticeship programs (1 percent each). 

Who Participates in Adult Education? 

If one statement can characterize the participation of adults in educational activities, it is the

following: Those adults who have education beyond high school, who are employed, who have

professional or managerial occupations, and who have higher household incomes are more likely to 

participate in educational activities than are other adults. This pattern of relationships is consistent with 

the literature on adult education participation. More than 35 years ago, Johnstone and Rivera’s (1965) 

profile of adult learners included adults who had at least a high school diploma or equivalent, were 

employed, and had a higher than average household income. More recent research has also documented

the association between prior educational attainment and participation in educational activities (Bureau of

Labor Statistics 1993, Frazis et al. 1998, Hight 1998, Kim and Creighton 2000; Creighton and Hudson

2002) and between employment or occupation and participation (Kim et al. 1995, Kim and Creighton 

2000; Creighton and Hudson 2002). The relationships of prior educational attainment, 

employment/occupation, and household income to adult education participation were found consistently

for participation overall, in college or university degree programs, in work-related courses, and in 

personal interest courses. 

In contrast to the consistent relationship of socioeconomic characteristics to participation overall

and in college or university degree programs on a part-time basis, work-related courses, and personal 

interest courses, demographic characteristics such as age, sex, and marital status varied in their 

relationships to participation in different types of adult education activities. For example, adults enrolled 

in college or university degree programs were more likely to be in the youngest age group (ages 16–30), 

but participation in work-related courses was less likely among the youngest (ages 16–30) and oldest 

(ages 66 and older) adults. Personal interest participation rates varied little by age group. 

44 
While women had higher rates of participation than did men overall (consistent with the 

observation of Merriam and Caffarella 1999), there was variability across adult education activities. No 

differences were found between men and women in participation in work-related courses, but women

were more likely to participate in college or university degree programs on a part-time basis and in 

personal interest courses. The difference in rates of part-time participation between males and female in

college and university degree programs was very small, however; thus, the higher overall participation for 

women generally reflects their greater participation in personal interest courses. 

Characteristics of Participation 

The selected features of participation examined in this analysis demonstrate the diversity of adult

education experiences. Adults who participated in college or university degree programs on a part-time

basis, in work-related courses, and in personal interest courses reported a wide range of hours of

instruction, costs associated with participation, instructional providers, and the use of automated

technology in instruction. To some extent, the variation in these features of participation reflects the 

structural aspects of the three types of adult education activities in which adults were most commonly

engaged. College or university degree programs generally involve significant commitments of time and

money. In contrast, work-related and personal interest courses vary considerably in duration and some

are brief. Some involve no cost to the individual participant, particularly for work-related courses for

which participants receive employer support, whereas others do involve some cost. Participants in all 

three of these types of adult education may take varying numbers of courses in a given 12-month period, 

also contributing to variability in the costs and hours reported. 

Adults participated in educational activities provided by a wide range of instructional providers. 

Participants in work-related courses most often reported taking courses from business or industry. 

Participants in personal interest courses reported a wide range of providers, of which the most common 

was a group of “other” providers that included community and religious organizations, libraries, and 

tutors or personal instructors. 

The role of automated technology in instruction also varied across types of adult education

activity. The use of computers for instruction was reported by about half of those who participated in

college or university degree programs on a part-time basis and half of those who participated in workrelated courses. This is consistent with the findings of Bassi and Van Buren (1998), who reported that

about half of employers reported using computers for training purposes. Television, video, and radio 

were also reported as instructional modes by about half of work-related participants. 

45 
Employer Support for Participation 

About two-thirds of employed adults who participated in any adult education activities received 

some form of employer support, including 40 percent of employed participants in college or university

degree programs and 82 percent of employed participants in work-related courses. Race/ethnicity, 

education, household income, and occupation were found to be important factors related to receipt of 

employer support. Specifically, White adults, those with higher educational attainment, those with higher

household incomes, and those in professional and managerial occupations were more likely to receive

employer support. This is consistent with the findings of previous researchers (Altonji and Speltzer 1991;

Bureau of Labor Statistics 1993; Frazis, et al. 1998; Lee, Clery, and Carroll 1999; Lynch and Black 

1998). In addition, adults working for larger employers (500 employees or more) were more likely to

receive support for their educational activities. 

Work-Related Informal Learning 

Adult education researchers have suggested that informal learning is a major source of knowledge 

acquisition (Bruce, Aring, and Brand 1998; Merriam and Caffarella 1999). Nearly two-thirds of adults 

reported in the AELL survey that they had taken part in informal learning related to work. Consistent

with the findings concerning participation in formal learning activities, prior educational attainment, 

employment, and occupational status were associated with participation in work-related informal learning

activities. Those with higher levels of education were more likely to report participating in some forms 

of informal learning, as were those in professional or managerial occupations. In addition, race/ethnicity, 

household income and marital status were also associated with participation in work-related informal

learning. White adults, those who were never married, adults who were unmarried and living with a

partner, and adults with higher household incomes were generally more likely to participate in workrelated informal learning activities. 

46 
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47 
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51 
Appendix: Survey Methodology and Data Reliability 

The 2001 National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES:2001) is a telephone survey

conducted by the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Data 

collection took place from January 2 through April 14 of 2001. The sample is nationally representative of

all civilian, noninstitutionalized persons in the 50 states and the District of Columbia. This sample was 

selected using random digit dial (RDD) methods, and the data were collected using computer-assisted 

telephone interviewing (CATI) technology. This section provides a brief description of the study

methodology; further details appear in Hagedorn et al. (2002). 

In the NHES:2001, a set of household screening items was administered to an adult member of 

the household. Household members were enumerated, the adult education participation status of each 

adult was collected, and the sample of adults was selected according to the sample design. The key

determinants of the sample size were the requirements to detect changes from previous estimates of

participation in adult education activities overall and participation by educational activity (using data 

from the AE-NHES:1995 and AE-NHES:1999). The requirements to estimate participation by

race/ethnicity and by prior educational attainment (i.e., less than high school or high school and higher)

were also considered in the design of the sampling approach; further details appear in Hagedorn et al 

(2002). The sample included both participants and nonparticipants in educational activities. 

In the AELL interview, information was collected about demographic characteristics, 

participation in a wide range of educational activities in the previous 12 months, and labor force 

participation. The only person who could respond to the AELL interview was the sampled adult 

him/herself. Multiple attempts were made to complete interviews with persons not available at the time 

of selection. Interviews were conducted in both English and Spanish. This report is based on the 10,873 

completed AELL interviews. 

Measuring Participation in Adult Education 

The measurement of adult education participation is, of course, dependent upon the specific 

definition of adult education used for the analysis, such as adult basic education, work-related educational 

activities, personal interest courses, or a broad range of activities. Beyond the definition of adult 

education participation, the ways in which questions are asked may lead to differences in the observed

responses. Respondents were asked about their participation in the following eight educational activities:

English as a second language, basic skills education or GED preparation classes, college or university 

degree programs, vocational or technical diploma programs, apprenticeship programs, work-related

52 
courses, personal interest courses, and work-related informal learning activities. In the AELL interview, 

respondents were asked about the many types of educational activities in the above listed order. Because 

respondents could not know the types of activities that would be addressed in later sections of the 

interview, they may have reported activities in the first section of the interview in which they appeared to 

fit even though the activity may have been more appropriately reported in a later section (this 

phenomenon is known as an order effect). In this report, activities are classified according to the way in

which they were reported. Alternative approach to the analyses of these data could include classifying 

educational activities based on whether respondents took them for work-related reasons or personal 

interest reasons or based on the type of provider (e.g., college or university, business, government, etc.). 

The calculation of adult education participation rates can also be influenced by study definitions. 

As noted in the introduction to this report, full-time attendance in college or vocational degree or diploma 

programs has not generally been considered by the field to be adult education. The overall participation 

rate of 46 percent presented in this report includes the estimated 92 million adults who participated in the 

educational activities described in the previous paragraph during the previous 12 months, but does not 

include those whose only participation was in a college or vocational degree or diploma program on a 

full-time basis. If these full-time college or vocational participants are included, the overall participation 

rate in formal adult education is 49 percent and includes an estimated 98 million adults. 

Data Reliability

Estimates produced using data from the NHES:2001 are subject to two types of error, sampling 

and nonsampling errors. Nonsampling errors are errors made in the collection and processing of data.

Sampling errors occur because the data are collected from a sample rather than the whole population. 

Nonsampling Errors

Nonsampling error is the term used to describe variations in the estimates that may be caused by 

population coverage limitations and data collection, processing, and reporting procedures. The sources of

nonsampling errors are typically problems like unit1

 and item nonresponse, the differences in respondents' 

interpretations of the meaning of the questions, response differences related to the particular time the

survey was conducted, and mistakes in data preparation. 

 

1

 In the AELL-NHES:2001, unit nonresponse is defined as the percent of sampled adults who do not complete the survey.

53 
In general, it is difficult to identify and estimate either the amount of nonsampling error or the 

bias caused by this error. This is particularly problematic in random digit dial (RDD) surveys because so 

little is known about the sampled telephone numbers with which contact has not been made. An 

important source of nonsampling error for a telephone survey is the failure to include persons who do not 

live in households with telephones. Ninety-five percent of all adults ages 16 and older live in households 

with telephones (U.S. Department of Commerce 1999). Estimation procedures were used to help reduce 

the bias in the estimates associated with excluding the 5 percent of adults who do not live in households 

with telephones. A second source of noncoverage error for the AELL-NHES:2001 related to estimates of

ESL participation. The AELL interviews were conducted in English and Spanish. Persons who did not 

speak either of these languages were not interviewed. As a result, the AELL-NHES:2001 likely 

underrepresents participation in ESL programs. 

Another potential source of nonsampling error is response bias. Response bias occurs when 

respondents systematically misreport information in a study (intentionally or unintentionally). There are 

many different forms of response bias. One of the best known is social desirability bias, which occurs 

when respondents give what they believe is the socially desirable response. For example, surveys that ask

about whether respondents voted in the most recent election typically obtain a higher estimate of the 

number of people who voted than do voting records (Presser 1990). Although response bias may affect

the accuracy of the results, it does not necessarily invalidate other results from a survey. If there are no

systematic differences among specific groups under study in their tendency to give socially desirable 

responses, then comparisons of the different groups will accurately reflect differences among the groups. 

Response Rates

In the NHES:2001, Screeners were completed with 48,385 households, with a Screener response 

rate of 69.2 percent. Of the 13,858 adults sampled for the AELL-NHES:2001, 77.2 percent or 10,873

adults completed the interview. Thus, the overall response rate for the AELL interview is 53.4 percent 

(the product of the Screener response rate and the AELL completion rate). 

A nonresponse bias analysis was undertaken to examine nonresponse and the potential bias 

associated with nonresponse in NHES:1999 (Nolin et al. 2000). Because the NHES:2001 and 

NHES:1999 survey administrations were very similar in terms of their target populations, contact

procedures, and salience, it is likely that any nonresponse bias present in NHES:2001 estimates would be

similar to nonresponse bias in estimates from NHES:1999. Thus the results of the NHES:1999

nonresponse bias study can be used to assess the potential for nonresponse bias in NHES:2001. 

54 
The nonresponse bias study involved an examination of response rates as a whole and for various

subgroups, an analysis to determine characteristics that were associated with Screener nonresponse, an

examination of the potential usefulness of household-level data from an external source in reducing 

nonresponse bias, and a comparison of estimates based on adjusted and unadjusted weights. 

The analysis of nonresponse bias showed no evidence of bias in estimates from the NHES:1999

Parent, Youth, and Adult Education Surveys. The statistical adjustments used in weighting may have

corrected at least partially for biases that might have existed due to differential nonresponse. Of course,

nonresponse bias may still be present in other variables that were not studied. In NHES:2001, the largest

component of nonresponse was nonresponse to the Screener. With the use of a CHAID analysis to create 

the nonresponse adjustment cells that were used to adjust for Screener nonresponse, there is evidence 

from the NHES:1999 nonresponse bias analysis study to suggest that there is little nonresponse bias 

attributable to Screener nonresponse. 

Item nonresponse (i.e., the failure to complete some items in an otherwise completed interview) 

was very low for most items in the AELL-NHES:2001. As shown in exhibit 1, the item response rates for 

most variables in this report are 98 percent or higher. As in many surveys, item response rates are lower

for questions concerning salary or household income. In addition, items concerning the third college

degree program (for example, CRCERT3, CRPROV3, CRPTFT3, CRCRSNU3, etc.) are relatively low.2

 

These items pertained to few respondents (only 8 cases) and a single nonresponse under these 

circumstances has a large effect on the item response rates. Items with missing data were imputed using a 

hot-deck procedure in which cells are formed that contain cases with similar characteristics and a donor

value is used to impute the missing value. (Additional information about hot-deck imputation can be 

found in Rao and Shao (1992)). The estimates included in this report are based on the imputed data. 

 

2

 In the AELL, information was collected on each college or university degree program in which the respondent participated. The maximum

number of programs reported was three (8 respondents). A record was created for each of these programs, with variables ending in 1 for the first 

program, ending in 2 for the second program, and ending in 3 for the third program. The variables with relatively lower response rates that are

noted here are all from the third degree programs reported by the respondents. 

55 
Exhibit 1. Item response rates for variables used in the analysis 

Variable Label Number

applicable 

Item

response rate

IBGRADE AA1-HIGHEST GRADE/YEAR SCHOOL COMPLETED 10,873 99.53 

IBGRAD1 AA1-ACTUAL GRADE 0-8 COMPLETED 608 97.20 

IBGRAD2 AA1-ACTUAL GRADE 9-11 COMPLETED 942 98.83 

IBVOCDIP AA1OV-RECEIVED VOC/TECH DIPLOMA 1,915 99.32 

IBDIPL AA2-HAS HS DIPLOMA/GED 4,709 99.87

IBDIPLYR AA3-HS DIPLOMA/GED IN LAST 12 MONTHS 6,000 99.90 

IBHSREQ AA4-COMPLETED HS REQUIREMENTS 9,377 99.45 

IBWORK12 AA6-WORK AT JOB IN PAST 12 MONTHS 10,873 99.97 

ESLANG AB1-TOOK ESL CLASSES 1,636 99.94

BSIMPROV AC1A-BASIC SKILLS CLASSES 2,058 99.85 

BSGED AC1B-GED PREPARATION CLASSES 2,058 99.76 

BSHSEQUV AC1C-OTHER HS EQUIVALENCY PROGRAM 2,058 99.90 

CRDEGREE AD1-COL OR UNIV DEGREE PROGRAM 10,873 99.99 

CRPOSTDG AD3-ENROLLED IN POST-DEGREE PROGRAM 3,377 99.64 

CRCERT1 AD7-GET/KEEP CERTIFICATE/LICENSE-1 1,188 99.24

CRCERT2 AD7-GET/KEEP CERTIFICATE/LICENSE-2 120 96.67

CRCERT3 AD7-GET/KEEP CERTIFICATE/LICENSE-3 8 87.50

CRPROVE1 AD14-INSTRUCTION PROVIDER WAS EMPLOYER-1 1,034 99.81 

CRPROVE2 AD14-INSTRUCTION PROVIDER WAS EMPLOYER-2 112 96.43 

CRPROVE3 AD14-INSTRUCTION PROVIDER WAS EMPLOYER-3 7 71.43 

CRPTFT1 AD17-ENROLLED PART-TIME/FULL-TIME/BOTH-1 1,188 99.33

CRPTFT2 AD17-ENROLLED PART-TIME/FULL-TIME/BOTH-2 120 88.33

CRPTFT3 AD17-ENROLLED PART-TIME/FULL-TIME/BOTH-3 8 75.00

CRCRSNU1 AD19-NUMBER OF COURSES TOOK IN PRGM-1 1,188 98.74 

CRCRSNU2 AD19-NUMBER OF COURSES TOOK IN PRGM-2 120 90.00 

CRCRSNU3 AD19-NUMBER OF COURSES TOOK IN PRGM-3 8 75.00 

CRCRDHR1 AD20-TOTAL CREDIT HRS ENROLLED-1 1,188 93.10 

CRCRDHR2 AD20-TOTAL CREDIT HRS ENROLLED-2 120 82.50 

CRCRDHR3 AD20-TOTAL CREDIT HRS ENROLLED-3 8 62.50 

CRINTV1 AD22A-INSTR BY TV/VIDEO/RADIO-1 1,166 99.83 

CRINTV2 AD22A-INSTR BY TV/VIDEO/RADIO-2 116 90.52 

CRINTV3 AD22A-INSTR BY TV/VIDEO/RADIO-3 8 75.00 

CRINCOM1 AD22B-INSTR BY COMPUTER-1 1,166 99.74 

CRINCOM2 AD22B-INSTR BY COMPUTER-2 116 90.52 

CRINCOM3 AD22B-INSTR BY COMPUTER-3 8 75.00 

CRINCON1 AD22C-INSTR BY COMPUTER CONFERENCING-1 1,166 99.74 

CRINCON2 AD22C-INSTR BY COMPUTER CONFERENCING-2 116 90.52 

CRINCON3 AD22C-INSTR BY COMPUTER CONFERENCING-3 8 75.00 

CRINWWW1 AD22D-INSTR BY INTERNET/WWW-1 1,166 99.74 

CRINWWW2 AD22D-INSTR BY INTERNET/WWW-2 116 90.52 

CRINWWW3 AD22D-INSTR BY INTERNET/WWW-3 8 75.00 

CRINOTH1 AD22E-INSTR BY OTHER TECHNOLOGY-1 1,166 100.00 

56 
Exhibit 1. Item response rates for variables used in the analysis (continued) 

Variable Label Number

applicable 

Item

response rate

 

CRINOTH2 AD22E-INSTR BY OTHER TECHNOLOGY-2 116 100.00 

CRINOTH3 AD22E-INSTR BY OTHER TECHNOLOGY-3 8 100.00 

CRTUITO1 AD25A-PERSONAL EXPENSE FOR TUITION/FEE-1 1,188 94.11 

CRTUITO2 AD25A-PERSONAL EXPENSE FOR TUITION/FEE-2 120 87.50 

CRTUITO3 AD25A-PERSONAL EXPENSE FOR TUITION/FEE-3 8 75.00 

CRMATLS1 AD25B-PERSONAL EXPENSE FOR BOOKS/MTLS-1 1,188 96.63 

CRMATLS2 AD25B-PERSONAL EXPENSE FOR BOOKS/MTLS-2 120 88.33 

CRMATLS3 AD25B-PERSONAL EXPENSE FOR BOOKS/MTLS-3 8 75.00 

CREMPRE1 AD28-EMPLOYER REQUIRED TO TAKE PRGM-1 874 99.77 

CREMPRE2 AD28-EMPLOYER REQUIRED TO TAKE PRGM-2 81 92.59 

CREMPRE3 AD28-EMPLOYER REQUIRED TO TAKE PRGM-3 7 71.43 

CREMPSU1 AD29-EMPLOYER SUGGESTED TO TAKE PRGM-1 805 99.63 

CREMPSU2 AD29-EMPLOYER SUGGESTED TO TAKE PRGM-2 76 92.11 

CREMPSU3 AD29-EMPLOYER SUGGESTED TO TAKE PRGM-3 7 71.43 

CRWRKPL1 AD30-TOOK PRGM AT WORKPLACE-1 874 99.77 

CRWRKPL2 AD30-TOOK PRGM AT WORKPLACE-2 81 92.59 

CRWRKPL3 AD30-TOOK PRGM AT WORKPLACE-3 7 71.43 

CRWRKHR1 AD31-TOOK PRGM DURING WORK HRS-1 874 99.66 

CRWRKHR2 AD31-TOOK PRGM DURING WORK HRS-2 81 92.59 

CRWRKHR3 AD31-TOOK PRGM DURING WORK HRS-3 7 71.43 

CREMPAI1 AD32-BEING PAID WHILE TAKING PRGM-1 874 99.54 

CREMPAI2 AD32-BEING PAID WHILE TAKING PRGM-2 81 92.59 

CREMPAI3 AD32-BEING PAID WHILE TAKING PRGM-3 7 71.43 

CREMPTU1 AD33A-EMPLOYER PAID TUITION/FEE-1 874 99.54

CREMPTU2 AD33A-EMPLOYER PAID TUITION/FEE-2 81 92.59

CREMPTU3 AD33A-EMPLOYER PAID TUITION/FEE-3 7 71.43

CREMPMA1 AD33B-EMPLOYER PAID BOOKS/MTLS-1 874 99.54 

CREMPMA2 AD33B-EMPLOYER PAID BOOKS/MTLS-2 81 92.59 

CREMPMA3 AD33B-EMPLOYER PAID BOOKS/MTLS-3 7 71.43 

CRVOCDIP AE1-VOCATIONAL OR TECHNICAL DIPLOMA PRGM 10,873 99.96 

VOCERT1 AE5-GET/KEEP CERTIFICATE/LICENSE-1 249 100.00

VOCERT2 AE5-GET/KEEP CERTIFICATE/LICENSE-2 11 100.00

VOPROVE1 AE12-INSTRUCTION PROVIDER WAS EMPLOYER-1 205 100.00 

VOPROVE2 AE12-INSTRUCTION PROVIDER WAS EMPLOYER-2 9 100.00 

VOPTFT1 AE15-ENROLLED PART-TIME/FULL-TIME/BOTH-1 249 96.39

VOPTFT2 AE15-ENROLLED PART-TIME/FULL-TIME/BOTH-2 11 100.00

VOCRSNU1 AE17-NUMBER OF COURSES TOOK IN PRGM-1 249 96.79 

VOCRSNU2 AE17-NUMBER OF COURSES TOOK IN PRGM-2 11 100.00 

VOINTV1 AE20A-INSTR BY TV/VIDEO/RADIO-1 244 100.00 

VOINTV2 AE20A-INSTR BY TV/VIDEO/RADIO-2 11 100.00 

VOINCOM1 AE20B-INSTR BY COMPUTER-1 244 99.59 

VOINCOM2 AE20B-INSTR BY COMPUTER-2 11 100.00 

57 
Exhibit 1. Item response rates for variables used in the analysis (continued) 

Variable Label Number

applicable 

Item

response rate

VOINCON1 AE20C-INSTR BY COMPUTER CONFERENCING-1 244 99.18 

VOINCON2 AE20C-INSTR BY COMPUTER CONFERENCING-2 11 100.00 

VOINWWW1 AE20D-INSTR BY INTERNET/WWW-1 244 99.59 

VOINWWW2 AE20D-INSTR BY INTERNET/WWW-2 11 90.91 

VOINOTH1 AE20E-INSTR BY OTHER TECHNOLOGY-1 244 100.00 

VOINOTH2 AE20E-INSTR BY OTHER TECHNOLOGY-2 11 100.00 

VOTUITO1 AE23A-PERSONAL EXPENSE FOR TUITION/FEE-1 249 95.58 

VOTUITO2 AE23A-PERSONAL EXPENSE FOR TUITION/FEE-2 11 100.00 

VOMATLS1 AE23B-PERSONAL EXPENSE FOR BKS/MTLS-1 249 94.78 

VOMATLS2 AE23B-PERSONAL EXPENSE FOR BKS/MTLS-2 11 100.00 

VOEMPRE1 AE26-EMPLOYER REQUIRED TO TAKE PRGM-1 173 99.42 

VOEMPRE2 AE26-EMPLOYER REQUIRED TO TAKE PRGM-2 7 100.00 

VOEMPSU1 AE27-EMPLOYER SUGGESTED TO TAKE PRGM-1 136 99.26 

VOEMPSU2 AE27-EMPLOYER SUGGESTED TO TAKE PRGM-2 4 100.00 

VOWRKPL1 AE28-TOOK PRGM AT WORKPLACE-1 173 97.69 

VOWRKPL2 AE28-TOOK PRGM AT WORKPLACE-2 7 100.00 

VOWRKHR1 AE29-TOOK PRGM DURING WORK HRS-1 173 98.84 

VOWRKHR2 AE29-TOOK PRGM DURING WORK HRS-2 7 100.00 

VOEMPAI1 AE30-BEING PAID WHILE TAKING PRGM-1 173 99.42 

VOEMPAI2 AE30-BEING PAID WHILE TAKING PRGM-2 7 100.00 

VOEMPTU1 AE31A-EMPLOYER PAID TUITION/FEE-1 173 99.42

VOEMPTU2 AE31A-EMPLOYER PAID TUITION/FEE-2 7 100.00

VOEMPMA1 AE31B-EMPLOYER PAID BOOKS/MTLS-1 173 99.42 

VOEMPMA2 AE31B-EMPLOYER PAID BOOKS/MTLS-2 7 100.00 

APPRENTI AF1-APPRENTICESHIP PROGRAM 10,873 99.89

WRRSSKI1 AH2A-MAINTAIN OR IMPROVE SKILLS/KNOWDG-1 3,764 99.68 

WRRSSKI2 AH2A-MAINTAIN OR IMPROVE SKILLS/KNOWDG-2 2,010 99.95 

WRRSSKI3 AH2A-MAINTAIN OR IMPROVE SKILLS/KNOWDG-3 1,125 99.64 

WRRSSKI4 AH2A-MAINTAIN OR IMPROVE SKILLS/KNOWDG-4 625 99.68 

WRNWSKI1 AH2B-LEARN NEW SKILLS OR METHODS-1 3,764 99.65 

WRNWSKI2 AH2B-LEARN NEW SKILLS OR METHODS-2 2,010 99.90 

WRNWSKI3 AH2B-LEARN NEW SKILLS OR METHODS-3 1,125 99.64 

WRNWSKI4 AH2B-LEARN NEW SKILLS OR METHODS-4 625 99.68 

WRRSRAI1 AH2C-GET A RAISE OR PROMOTION-1 3,764 99.73 

WRRSRAI2 AH2C-GET A RAISE OR PROMOTION-2 2,010 99.90 

WRRSRAI3 AH2C-GET A RAISE OR PROMOTION-3 1,125 99.64 

WRRSRAI4 AH2C-GET A RAISE OR PROMOTION-4 625 99.68 

WRRSNEW1 AH2D-GET A NEW JOB-1 3,764 99.73 

WRRSNEW2 AH2D-GET A NEW JOB-2 2,010 99.85 

WRRSNEW3 AH2D-GET A NEW JOB-3 1,125 99.73 

WRRSNEW4 AH2D-GET A NEW JOB-4 625 99.68 

WRRSCER1 AH2E-GET/KEEP CERTIFICATE/LICENSE-1 3,764 99.60

WRRSCER2 AH2E-GET/KEEP CERTIFICATE/LICENSE-2 2,010 99.75

58 
Exhibit 1. Item response rates for variables used in the analysis (continued) 

Variable Label Number

applicable 

Item

response rate

WRRSCER3 AH2E-GET/KEEP CERTIFICATE/LICENSE-3 1,125 99.73

WRRSCER4 AH2E-GET/KEEP CERTIFICATE/LICENSE-4 625 99.68

WRRSREQ1 AH2F-BECAUSE IT WAS REQUIRED-1 3,764 99.76 

WRRSREQ2 AH2F-BECAUSE IT WAS REQUIRED-2 2,010 99.85 

WRRSREQ3 AH2F-BECAUSE IT WAS REQUIRED-3 1,125 99.56 

WRRSREQ4 AH2F-BECAUSE IT WAS REQUIRED-4 625 99.52 

WRRSOTH1 AH2G-SOME OTHER REASON-1 3,764 99.79 

WRRSOTH2 AH2G-SOME OTHER REASON-2 2,010 99.90 

WRRSOTH3 AH2G-SOME OTHER REASON-3 1,125 99.73 

WRRSOTH4 AH2G-SOME OTHER REASON-4 625 99.68 

WRPRTYP1 AH3-TYPE OF INSTRUCTION PROVIDER-1 3,764 98.80 

WRPRTYP2 AH3-TYPE OF INSTRUCTION PROVIDER-2 2,010 99.15 

WRPRTYP3 AH3-TYPE OF INSTRUCTION PROVIDER-3 1,125 98.84 

WRPRTYP4 AH3-TYPE OF INSTRUCTION PROVIDER-4 625 99.20 

WRPROVE1 AH4-INSTRUCTION PROVIDER WAS EMPLOYER-1 3,312 99.76 

WRPROVE2 AH4-INSTRUCTION PROVIDER WAS EMPLOYER-2 1,799 99.89 

WRPROVE3 AH4-INSTRUCTION PROVIDER WAS EMPLOYER-3 1,018 99.61 

WRPROVE4 AH4-INSTRUCTION PROVIDER WAS EMPLOYER-4 565 99.29 

WRINTV1 AH8A-INSTR BY TV, VIDEO, OR RADIO-1 3,764 99.81 

WRINTV2 AH8A-INSTR BY TV, VIDEO, OR RADIO-2 2,010 99.95 

WRINTV3 AH8A-INSTR BY TV, VIDEO, OR RADIO-3 1,125 99.47 

WRINTV4 AH8A-INSTR BY TV, VIDEO, OR RADIO-4 625 99.36 

WRINCOM1 AH8B-INSTR BY COMPUTER-1 3,764 99.84 

WRINCOM2 AH8B-INSTR BY COMPUTER-2 2,010 99.95 

WRINCOM3 AH8B-INSTR BY COMPUTER-3 1,125 99.64 

WRINCOM4 AH8B-INSTR BY COMPUTER-4 625 99.36 

WRINCON1 AH8C-INSTR BY COMPUTER CONFERENCING-1 3,764 99.73 

WRINCON2 AH8C-INSTR BY COMPUTER CONFERENCING-2 2,010 99.85 

WRINCON3 AH8C-INSTR BY COMPUTER CONFERENCING-3 1,125 99.64 

WRINCON4 AH8C-INSTR BY COMPUTER CONFERENCING-4 625 99.52 

WRINWWW1 AH8D-INSTR BY INTERNET/WWW-1 3,764 99.81 

WRINWWW2 AH8D-INSTR BY INTERNET/WWW-2 2,010 99.90 

WRINWWW3 AH8D-INSTR BY INTERNET/WWW-3 1,125 99.56 

WRINWWW4 AH8D-INSTR BY INTERNET/WWW-4 625 99.52 

WRINOTH1 AH8E-INSTR BY OTHER TECHNOLOGY-1 3,764 99.95 

WRINOTH2 AH8E-INSTR BY OTHER TECHNOLOGY-2 2,010 99.95 

WRINOTH3 AH8E-INSTR BY OTHER TECHNOLOGY-3 1,125 100.00 

WRINOTH4 AH8E-INSTR BY OTHER TECHNOLOGY-4 625 100.00 

WRTUITO1 AH11A-PERSONAL EXPENSES FOR COURSES-1 3,764 98.83 

WRTUITO2 AH11A-PERSONAL EXPENSES FOR COURSES-2 2,010 99.05 

WRTUITO3 AH11A-PERSONAL EXPENSES FOR COURSES-3 1,125 99.11 

WRTUITO4 AH11A-PERSONAL EXPENSES FOR COURSES-4 625 98.88 

WRMATLS1 AH11B-PERSONAL EXPENSES FOR BOOKS/MTLS-1 3,764 98.65 

59 
Exhibit 1. Item response rates for variables used in the analysis (continued) 

Variable Label Number

applicable 

Item

response rate

WRMATLS2 AH11B-PERSONAL EXPENSES FOR BOOKS/MTLS-2 2,010 99.05 

WRMATLS3 AH11B-PERSONAL EXPENSES FOR BOOKS/MTLS-3 1,125 99.02 

WRMATLS4 AH11B-PERSONAL EXPENSES FOR BOOKS/MTLS-4 625 98.72 

WREMPRE1 AH14-EMPLOYER REQUIRED TO TAKE COURSE-1 3,201 99.53 

WREMPRE2 AH14-EMPLOYER REQUIRED TO TAKE COURSE-2 1,758 99.72 

WREMPRE3 AH14-EMPLOYER REQUIRED TO TAKE COURSE-3 996 99.50 

WREMPRE4 AH14-EMPLOYER REQUIRED TO TAKE COURSE-4 556 99.82 

WREMPSU1 AH15-EMPLOYER SUGGESTED TO TAKE COURSE-1 1,736 99.77 

WREMPSU2 AH15-EMPLOYER SUGGESTED TO TAKE COURSE-2 950 99.58 

WREMPSU3 AH15-EMPLOYER SUGGESTED TO TAKE COURSE-3 534 99.63 

WREMPSU4 AH15-EMPLOYER SUGGESTED TO TAKE COURSE-4 296 100.00 

WRWRKPL1 AH16-TOOK COURSE AT WORKPLACE-1 3,201 99.69 

WRWRKPL2 AH16-TOOK COURSE AT WORKPLACE-2 1,758 99.83 

WRWRKPL3 AH16-TOOK COURSE AT WORKPLACE-3 996 99.30 

WRWRKPL4 AH16-TOOK COURSE AT WORKPLACE-4 556 99.82 

WRWRKHR1 AH17-TOOK COURSE DURING WORK HRS-1 3,201 99.53 

WRWRKHR2 AH17-TOOK COURSE DURING WORK HRS-2 1,758 99.54 

WRWRKHR3 AH17-TOOK COURSE DURING WORK HRS-3 996 99.40 

WRWRKHR4 AH17-TOOK COURSE DURING WORK HRS-4 556 99.82 

WREMPAI1 AH18-BEING PAID WHILE TAKING COURSE-1 3,201 99.50 

WREMPAI2 AH18-BEING PAID WHILE TAKING COURSE-2 1,758 99.72 

WREMPAI3 AH18-BEING PAID WHILE TAKING COURSE-3 996 99.30 

WREMPAI4 AH18-BEING PAID WHILE TAKING COURSE-4 556 99.82 

WREMPTU1 AH19A-EMPLOYER PAID TUITION/FEE-1 3,201 98.25

WREMPTU2 AH19A-EMPLOYER PAID TUITION/FEE-2 1,758 98.86

WREMPTU3 AH19A-EMPLOYER PAID TUITION/FEE-3 996 98.29

WREMPTU4 AH19A-EMPLOYER PAID TUITION/FEE-4 556 98.38

WREMPMA1 AH19B-EMPLOYER PAID BOOKS/MTLS-1 3,201 98.06 

WREMPMA2 AH19B-EMPLOYER PAID BOOKS/MTLS-2 1,758 98.81 

WREMPMA3 AH19B-EMPLOYER PAID BOOKS/MTLS-3 996 98.29 

WREMPMA4 AH19B-EMPLOYER PAID BOOKS/MTLS-4 556 98.56 

WROREQ AH20A-REQUIRED BY EMPLOYER 315 99.68 

WROCOLL AH20B-TAUGHT BY COLLEGE/UNIVERSITY 353 99.15

WROPAY AH20C-EMPLOYER PAID ALL/PART OF COST 315 99.68 

WROTIME AH20D-EMPLOYER GAVE TIME OFF WITH PAY 315 100.00 

WROCERT AH20E-TO GET/KEEP CERTIFICATE/LICENSE 353 99.72 

WROTECH AH20F-TAUGHT BY USING TECHNOLOGY 353 99.72 

SAPRTYP1 AI2-TYPE OF INSTRUCTION PROVIDER-1 2,682 99.44 

SAPRTYP2 AI2-TYPE OF INSTRUCTION PROVIDER-2 870 99.66 

SAINTV1 AI7A-INSTR BY TV/VIDEO/RADIO-1 2,682 99.66

SAINTV2 AI7A-INSTR BY TV/VIDEO/RADIO-2 870 99.77

SAINCOM1 AI7B-INSTR BY COMPUTER-1 2,682 99.63

SAINCOM2 AI7B-INSTR BY COMPUTER-2 870 99.66

60 
Exhibit 1. Item response rates for variables used in the analysis (continued) 

Variable Label Number

applicable 

Item

response rate

SAINCON1 AI7C-INSTR BY COMPUTER CONFERENCING-1 2,682 99.40 

SAINCON2 AI7C-INSTR BY COMPUTER CONFERENCING-2 870 99.54 

SAINWWW1 AI7D-INSTR BY INTERNET/WWW-1 2,682 99.66

SAINWWW2 AI7D-INSTR BY INTERNET/WWW-2 870 99.43

SAINOTH1 AI7E-INSTR BY OTHER TECHNOLOGY-1 2,682 99.89 

SAINOTH2 AI7E-INSTR BY OTHER TECHNOLOGY-2 870 100.00 

SATUITO1 AI9A-PERSONAL EXPENSES FOR TUITION/FEE-1 2,682 97.46 

SATUITO2 AI9A-PERSONAL EXPENSES FOR TUITION/FEE-2 870 97.47 

SAMATLS1 AI9B-PERSONAL EXPENSES FOR BOOKS/MTLS-1 2,682 98.06 

SAMATLS2 AI9B-PERSONAL EXPENSES FOR BOOKS/MTLS-2 870 97.59 

SAINCBK1 AI10-TUITION/FEES INCLUDE BOOKS/MTLS-1 854 96.14 

SAINCBK2 AI10-TUITION/FEES INCLUDE BOOKS/MTLS-2 300 97.67 

ILMENTOR AJ1A-RECEIVED SUPERVISED TRAINING 7,879 99.77

ILSELF AJ1B-SELF-PACED STUDY-BOOKS/MANUALS 10,873 99.77

ILCOMP AJ1C-SELF-PACED STUDY-COMP SOFTWARE 10,873 99.82 

ILBBAG AJ1D-BROWN-BAG OR INFORMAL PRESENT 10,873 99.71 

ILCONF AJ1E-CONFERENCES OR CONVENTIONS 10,873 99.79 

ILOMAG AJ1F-READ PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS 10,873 99.82 

ILOTH AJ1G-OTHER LESS FORMAL LEARNING 10,873 99.57 

ILCERT AJ2-GET/KEEP CERTIFICATE/LICENSE 7,179 99.64

ADOBMM AK1-MONTH OF BIRTH 10,873 97.53 

ADOBYY AK1-YEAR OF BIRTH 10,873 97.48 

ARACE AK3-RACE 10,873 98.31

AOTHRACE AK4-OTHER RACE 1,013 97.63

AHISPANI AK5-HISPANIC ORIGIN 10,873 98.81

AMARSTAT AK6-CURRENT MARITAL STATUS 10,873 99.09

ALIVWITH AK6OV-LIVING WITH PARTNER 2,186 98.63

HINCOME AL17OV-TOTAL HH INCOME RANGE 2 10,873 78.26 

NUMPEEP AK20-EMPLOYER SIZE 7,879 95.38

EARNAMT AK21-AMOUNT OF EARNINGS 7,879 81.67

EARNUNT AK21-UNIT OF EARNINGS 7,879 81.57 

CONTREQ AK25-REQUIRED CONTINUING EDUCATION 10,873 97.29

SEX GENDER AT SCREENER 10,873 99.99 

WRCLSHR1 WORK-REL CRSE TOTAL HRS/YEAR-1 3,764 98.54 

WRCLSHR2 WORK-REL CRSE TOTAL HRS/YEAR-2 2,010 99.00 

WRCLSHR3 WORK-REL CRSE TOTAL HRS/YEAR-3 1,125 99.29 

WRCLSHR4 WORK-REL CRSE TOTAL HRS/YEAR-4 625 99.04 

SACLSHR1 PERSONAL INTEREST COURSE TOTAL HRS-1 2,682 96.09 

SACLSHR2 PERSONAL INTEREST COURSE TOTAL HRS-2 870 97.13 

FSOC OCCUPATION CODE (SOC) 7,879 98.30

61 
Sampling Errors 

The sample of telephone households selected for the NHES:2001 is just one of many possible 

samples that could have been selected. Therefore, estimates produced from the NHES:2001 sample may

differ from estimates that would have been produced from other samples. This type of variability is 

called sampling error because it arises from using a sample of households with telephones, rather than

having surveyed all households with telephones. 

The standard error is a measure of the variability due to sampling when estimating a statistic;

standard errors for estimates presented in this report were computed using a jackknife replication method. 

Standard errors can be used as a measure of the precision expected from a particular sample. The

probability that a sample estimate would differ from the population parameter obtained from a complete 

census count by less than 1 standard error is about 68 percent. The chance that the difference would be 

less than 1.65 standard errors is about 90 percent; and that the difference would be less than 1.96 standard 

errors, about 95 percent. 

Standard errors for all of the estimates are presented in the tables. These standard errors can be 

used to produce confidence intervals. For example, an estimated 46 percent of adults participated in some

type of formal adult education in the previous 12 months (not including full-time degree or diploma 

programs only), and this figure has an estimated standard error of 0.5. Therefore, the estimated 95 

percent confidence interval for this statistic is approximately 45 to 47 percent (46 ± 1.96 (0.5)). 

All of the estimates in this report are based on weighting the observations using the probabilities 

of selection of the respondents and other adjustments to partially account for nonresponse and coverage 

bias. Weights were developed to produce unbiased and consistent estimates of the national totals. In 

addition to properly weighting the responses, special procedures for estimating the statistical significance 

of the estimates were employed because the NHES:2001 data were collected using a complex sample

design. Complex sample designs result in data that violate some of the assumptions that are normally

used to assess the statistical significance of results from a simple random sample. Frequently, the

standard errors of the estimates from these surveys differ from what would be expected if the sample was 

a simple random sample and the observations were independent and identically distributed random 

variables. 

62 
Statistical Tests for Bivariate Analyses

The tests of significance used in this analysis are based on Student’s t statistics for the 

comparison of individual estimates and for bivariate relationships.3

 To test the differences between 

estimates, unbiased estimates of standard errors were used, derived by jackknife replication methods. To

test for a difference between two subgroups in the population proportion having a particular 

characteristic, say versus , the test statistic is computed as: P1 P2

[ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) 2

2

2

1

2 1

s.e. p s.e. p

p p T

+

− = , 

where is the estimated proportion of subgroup i (i = 1, 2) having the particular characteristic and 

 is the standard error of that estimate. 

pi

( ) pi s.e.

For the aforementioned comparison, the decision rule is to reject the null hypothesis (i.e., that 

there is no difference between the two groups in the population in terms of the proportion having the 

characteristic) if 

df

T t ;

2

> α , where 

df

t ;

2

α is the value such that the probability that a Student’s t random

variable with df degrees of freedom exceeds that value is α 2 . 

As the number of comparisons at the same significance level increases, it becomes more likely 

that at least one of the estimated differences will be significant merely by chance, that is, it will be

erroneously identified as different from zero. Even when there is no statistical difference between the

means or percentages being compared, there is a 5 percent chance of getting a significant F or t value 

from sampling error alone. As the number of comparisons increases, the chance of making this type of

error also increases. In order to reduce the likelihood of this type of error (a Type I error), when

comparing more than two subgroups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used in order to cap the overall Type I 

error rate at α . With the Bonferroni adjustment, the test statistic value is compared to the critical

value

df k

t ; 2

α , where k is the number of comparisons. All the differences cited in this report are significant

at the 0.05 level of significance after a Bonferroni adjustment. 

 

3

 For some bivariate analyses, e.g. testing the association of overall participation with age or income, bivariate logistic regression analyses were 

conducted in addition to the t-tests. See the discussion on multivariate analyses for more information on logistic regression.

63 
Multivariate Analyses

To determine the association between two variables, tests such as Student’s t can be used.

However, when examining the associations among more than two variables, multivariate statistical tests 

must be employed. Multivariate tests allow researchers to examine simultaneously the association of 

independent variables with the dependent variable. 

When the dependent variable is continuous, a common multiple regression technique is ordinary 

least squares (OLS) regression. However, when the dependent variable is dichotomous, a more 

appropriate technique is logistic regression. In logistic regression, the binary nature of the dependent 

variable requires a different interpretation of results than is the case with OLS regression. Specifically, 

the regression coefficients for the independent variables indicate the change in the natural log of the odds

(the “log odds”) of the presence of the characteristic (event) being analyzed. The odds of any event is 

defined as the probability of the event divided by the probability of the absence of the event: 

1 ( )

( )

P event

P event

−

Odds can be computed for any proportion. For example, in table 1, the percentage of adults with 

a continuing education requirement who participate in adult education, overall is .64. The odds of

participating in adult education for an adult with a continuing education requirement is computed as: 

.64/(1-.64) = 1.78 The odds of an adult without a continuing education requirement participating in

overall adult education is .40/([1-.40)] = .67. 

A comparison of odds is often made using an “odds ratio.” The odds ratio of participation by

continuing education requirement vs. no continuing education requirement is 1.78/.67 = 2.66. This means 

that the odds of participating in overall adult education are 2.66 times higher for those adults with a 

continuing education requirement than for those with no continuing education requirement. 

The results of logistic regression are often discussed in terms of the odds ratios. A logistic 

regression equation is often expressed as the natural log of the odds: 

X p X p P event

P event Log = β + β + + β − ] ... 1 ( )( ) [ 0 1 1

where the subscript p represents the number of independent variables. The equation can also be

equivalently expressed as the odds: 

64 
X p X p e

P event

P event β +β + +β = −

... 0 1 1

1 ( )

( )

In the analyses for this report, discussions focus on the direction of the associations between the 

independent and dependent variables, rather than the estimated odds ratio or log odds. Thus, in tables 2

and 5, the regression coefficients of the log odds are given. The interpretation of the direction of the 

association between the independent and dependent variables from logistic regression is similar to that for 

OLS regression. If a statistically significant logistic regression coefficient is greater than zero, the 

variable is associated with an increase of the odds of the event. If a statistically significant logistic 

regression coefficient is less than zero, the variable is associated with a decrease in the odds of the event. 

If a regression coefficient is not statistically significantly different than zero, there is no association with 

the odds of the event. 

Interpreting the regression coefficients for a categorical independent variable is always done in 

contrast to the reference category. For example, in table 2, there are four categories for race/ethnicity: 

White, Black, Hispanic and Other. White adults are the reference category for this variable. That is, the

regression coefficients for the three other categories are meaningful in comparison to White. Again, 

using the same example from table 2, the significant coefficient 0.28 for Hispanics indicates that 

Hispanics are more likely to participate in overall adult education than are White adults. 

Additional tests were performed to examine significant differences between categories in the 

regression analysis. For example, adults age 66 and older were compared to other age groups besides the 

reference group of age 41 to 50. These tests were conducted using the Wald F statistic produced by the

WesVar Complex Samples software. 

For more detail about logistic regression analysis, see Agresti (1990), Menard (1995), and 

Hosmer and Lemeshow (1989). For specific information about the use of replication methods to fit 

logistic regression analysis to complex sample survey data, see Mohadjer, Yansaneh, and Brick (1996). 

65