FAA-H-8083-3A
AIRPLANE FLYING

HANDBOOK

2004

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

Flight Standards Service

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PREFACE

The Airplane Flying Handbook is designed as a technical manual to introduce basic pilot skills and knowledge that

are essential for piloting airplanes. It provides information on transition to other airplanes and the operation of

various airplane systems. It is developed by the Flight Standards Service, Airman Testing Standards Branch, in

cooperation with various aviation educators and industry.

This handbook is developed to assist student pilots learning to fly airplanes. It is also beneficial to pilots who wish

to improve their flying proficiency and aeronautical knowledge, those pilots preparing for additional certificates or

ratings, and flight instructors engaged in the instruction of both student and certificated pilots. It introduces the future

pilot to the realm of flight and provides information and guidance in the performance of procedures and maneuvers

required for pilot certification. Topics such as navigation and communication, meteorology, use of flight information

publications, regulations, and aeronautical decision making are available in other Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA) publications.

This handbook conforms to pilot training and certification concepts established by the FAA. There are different ways

of teaching, as well as performing flight procedures and maneuvers, and many variations in the explanations of

aerodynamic theories and principles. This handbook adopts a selective method and concept of flying airplanes. The

discussion and explanations reflect the most commonly used practices and principles. Occasionally the word “must”

or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to

add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).

It is essential for persons using this handbook to also become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR

and the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). The AIM is available online at http://www.faa.gov/atpubs.

Performance standards for demonstrating competence required for pilot certification are prescribed in the appropriate airplane practical test standard. 

The current Flight Standards Service airman training and testing material and subject matter knowledge codes for all

airman certificates and ratings can be obtained from the Flight Standards Service Web site at http://av-info.faa.gov.

The FAA greatly acknowledges the valuable assistance provided by many individuals and organizations throughout

the aviation community whose expertise contributed to the preparation of this handbook.

This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8083-3, Airplane Flying Handbook, dated 1999. This handbook also supersedes

AC 61-9B, Pilot Transition Courses for Complex Single-Engine and Light Twin-Engine Airplanes, dated 1974; and

related portions of AC 61-10A, Private and Commercial Pilots Refresher Courses, dated 1972. This revision expands

all technical subject areas from the previous edition, FAA-H-8083-3. It also incorporates new areas of safety concerns and technical information not previously covered. The chapters covering transition to seaplanes and skiplanes

have been removed. They will be incorporated into a new handbook (under development), FAA-H-8083-23,

Seaplane, Skiplane and Float/Ski Equipped Helicopter Operations Handbook.

This handbook is available for download from the Flight Standards Service Web site at http://av-info.faa.gov. This

web site also provides information about availablity of printed copies.

This handbook is published by the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman

Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125. Comments regarding this handbook should be sent in e-mail form to AFS630comments@faa.gov.

AC 00-2, Advisory Circular Checklist, transmits the current status of FAA advisory circulars and

other flight information publications. This checklist is available via the Internet at

http://www.faa.gov/aba/html_policies/ac00_2.html.

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Chapter 1—Introduction to Flight Training

Purpose of Flight Training.............................1-1

Role of the FAA ............................................1-1

Role of the Pilot Examiner............................1-2

Role of the Flight Instructor..........................1-3

Sources of Flight Training.............................1-3

Practical Test Standards.................................1-4

Flight Safety Practices...................................1-4

Collision Avoidance..................................1-4

Runway Incursion Avoidance...................1-5

Stall Awareness.........................................1-6

Use of Checklists......................................1-6

Positive Transfer of Controls....................1-6

Chapter 2—Ground Operations

Visual Inspection ...........................................2-1

Inside the Cockpit.....................................2-2

Outer Wing Surfaces

and Tail Section .......................................2-4

Fuel and Oil..............................................2-5

Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes..............2-6

Engine and Propeller ................................2-6

Cockpit Management.....................................2-7

Ground Operations ........................................2-7

Engine Starting ..............................................2-7

Hand Propping...............................................2-8

Taxiing ...........................................................2-9

Before Takeoff Check..................................2-11

After Landing ..............................................2-11

Clear of Runway..........................................2-11

Parking.........................................................2-11

Engine Shutdown.........................................2-12

Postflight......................................................2-12

Securing and Servicing................................2-12

Chapter 3—Basic Flight Maneuvers

The Four Fundamentals.................................3-1

Effects and Use of the Controls ....................3-1

Feel of the Airplane.......................................3-2

Attitude Flying...............................................3-2

Integrated Flight Instruction..........................3-3

Straight-and-Level Flight ..............................3-4

Trim Control..................................................3-6

Level Turns....................................................3-7

Climbs and Climbing Turns ........................3-13

Normal Climb.........................................3-13

Best Rate of Climb .................................3-13

Best Angle of Climb...............................3-13

Descents and Descending Turns..................3-15

Partial Power Descent ............................3-16

Descent at Minimum

Safe Airspeed.........................................3-16

Glides......................................................3-16

Pitch and Power...........................................3-19

Chapter 4—Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins

Introduction ...................................................4-1

Slow Flight ....................................................4-1

Flight at Less than

Cruise Airspeeds......................................4-1

Flight at Minimum

Controllable Airspeed..............................4-1

Stalls ..............................................................4-3

Recognition of Stalls ................................4-3

Fundamentals of Stall Recovery ..............4-4

Use of Ailerons/Rudder

in Stall Recovery .....................................4-5

Stall Characteristics..................................4-6

Approaches to Stalls (Imminent Stalls) 

—Power-On or Power-Off ......................4-6

Full Stalls Power-Off................................4-7

Full Stalls Power-On ................................4-8

Secondary Stall.........................................4-9

Accelerated Stalls .....................................4-9

Cross-Control Stall .................................4-10

Elevator Trim Stall .................................4-11

Spins ............................................................4-12

Spin Procedures......................................4-13

Entry Phase.........................................4-13

Incipient Phase....................................4-13

Developed Phase ................................4-14

Recovery Phase ..................................4-14

Intentional Spins..........................................4-15

Weight and Balance Requirements.........4-16

Chapter 5—Takeoff and Departure Climbs

General...........................................................5-1

Terms and Definitions ...................................5-1

Prior to Takeoff..............................................5-2

Normal Takeoff..............................................5-2

Takeoff Roll..............................................5-2

Lift-Off .....................................................5-3

Initial Climb..............................................5-4

Crosswind Takeoff.........................................5-5

Takeoff Roll..............................................5-5

Lift-Off .....................................................5-6

Initial Climb..............................................5-6

Ground Effect on Takeoff..............................5-7

Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum

Performance Climb.......................................5-8

Takeoff Roll..............................................5-9

Lift-Off .....................................................5-9

Initial Climb..............................................5-9

Soft/Rough-Field Takeoff and Climb..........5-10

CONTENTS 

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Takeoff Roll............................................5-10

Lift-Off ...................................................5-10

Initial Climb............................................5-10

Rejected Takeoff/Engine Failure .................5-11

Noise Abatement..........................................5-11

Chapter 6—Ground Reference Maneuvers

Purpose and Scope.........................................6-1

Maneuvering By Reference

to Ground Objects ........................................6-1

Drift and Ground Track Control....................6-2

Rectangular Course .......................................6-4

S-Turns Across a Road ..................................6-6

Turns Around a Point ....................................6-7

Elementary Eights .........................................6-9

Eights Along a Road.................................6-9

Eights Across a Road..............................6-11

Eights Around Pylons .............................6-11

Eights-On-Pylons (Pylon Eights) ...........6-12

Chapter 7—Airport Traffic Patterns

Airport Traffic Patterns and Operations........7-1

Standard Airport Traffic Patterns ..................7-1

Chapter 8—Approaches and Landings

Normal Approach and Landing.....................8-1

Base Leg ...................................................8-1

Final Approach .........................................8-2

Use of Flaps..............................................8-3

Estimating Height and Movement............8-4

Roundout (Flare) ......................................8-5

Touchdown ...............................................8-6

After-Landing Roll ...................................8-7

Stabilized Approach Concept ...................8-7

Intentional Slips...........................................8-10

Go-Arounds (Rejected Landings)................8-11

Power ......................................................8-11

Attitude ...................................................8-12

Configuration..........................................8-12

Ground Effect ..............................................8-13

Crosswind Approach and Landing ..............8-13

Crosswind Final Approach .....................8-13

Crosswind Roundout (Flare) ..................8-15

Crosswind Touchdown ...........................8-15

Crosswind After-Landing Roll ...............8-15

Maximum Safe

Crosswind Velocities .............................8-16

Turbulent Air Approach and Landing .........8-17

Short-Field Approach and Landing.............8-17

Soft-Field Approach and Landing...............8-19

Power-Off Accuracy Approaches ................8-21

90° Power-Off Approach........................8-21

180° Power-Off Approach......................8-23

360° Power-Off Approach......................8-24

Emergency Approaches and

Landings (Simulated) .................................8-25

Faulty Approaches and Landings ................8-27

Low Final Approach...............................8-27

High Final Approach ..............................8-27

Slow Final Approach..............................8-28

Use of Power ..........................................8-28

High Roundout .......................................8-28

Late or Rapid Roundout .........................8-29

Floating During Roundout......................8-29

Ballooning During Roundout .................8-30

Bouncing During Touchdown ................8-30

Porpoising...............................................8-31

Wheelbarrowing .....................................8-32

Hard Landing..........................................8-32

Touchdown in a Drift or Crab ................8-32

Ground Loop ..........................................8-33

Wing Rising After Touchdown...............8-33

Hydroplaning...............................................8-34

Dynamic Hydroplaning ..........................8-34

Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning..............8-34

Viscous Hydroplaning ............................8-34

Chapter 9—Performance Maneuvers

Performance Maneuvers................................9-1

Steep Turns ...............................................9-1

Steep Spiral...............................................9-3

Chandelle..................................................9-4

Lazy Eight ................................................9-6

Chapter 10—Night Operations

Night Vision.................................................10-1

Night Illusions .............................................10-2

Pilot Equipment...........................................10-3

Airplane Equipment and Lighting...............10-3

Airport and Navigation Lighting Aids ........10-4

Preparation and Preflight.............................10-4

Starting, Taxiing, and Runup.......................10-5

Takeoff and Climb.......................................10-5

Orientation and Navigation .........................10-6

Approaches and Landings ...........................10-6

Night Emergencies ......................................10-8

Chapter 11—Transition to Complex

Airplanes

High Performance

and Complex Airplanes ..............................11-1

Wing Flaps...................................................11-1

Function of Flaps....................................11-1

Flap Effectiveness...................................11-2

Operational Procedures...........................11-2

Controllable-Pitch Propeller ........................11-3

Constant-Speed Propeller .......................11-4

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Takeoff, Climb, and Cruise ....................11-4

Blade Angle Control ...............................11-5

Governing Range....................................11-5

Constant-Speed Propeller Operation ......11-5

Turbocharging..............................................11-7

Ground Boosting vs.

Altitude Turbocharging..........................11-7

Operating Characteristics .......................11-8

Heat Management...................................11-8

Turbocharger Failure ..............................11-9

Overboost Condition...........................11-9

Low Manifold Pressure ......................11-9

Retractable Landing Gear............................11-9

Landing Gear Systems............................11-9

Controls and Position Indicators ..........11-10

Landing Gear Safety Devices...............11-10

Emergency Gear

Extension Systems...............................11-10

Operational Procedures.........................11-12

Preflight ............................................11-12

Takeoff and Climb ............................11-13

Approach and Landing .....................11-13

Transition Training ....................................11-14

Chapter 12—Transition to Multiengine

Airplanes

Multiengine Flight.......................................12-1

General.........................................................12-1

Terms and Definitions .................................12-1

Operation of Systems ..................................12-3

Propellers................................................12-3

Propeller Synchronization ......................12-5

Fuel Crossfeed........................................12-5

Combustion Heater.................................12-6

Flight Director / Autopilot......................12-6

Yaw Damper ...........................................12-6

Alternator / Generator ............................12-7

Nose Baggage Compartment..................12-7

Anti-Icing / Deicing................................12-7

Performance and Limitations ......................12-8

Weight and Balance...................................12-10

Ground Operation......................................12-12

Normal and Crosswind

Takeoff and Climb....................................12-12

Level Off and Cruise .................................12-14

Normal Approach and Landing.................12-14

Crosswind Approach and Landing ............12-16

Short-Field Takeoff and Climb..................12-16

Short-Field Approach

and Landing..............................................12-17

Go-Around.................................................12-17

Rejected Takeoff........................................12-18

Engine Failure After Lift-Off ....................12-18

Engine Failure During Flight ....................12-21

Engine Inoperative Approach

and Landing..............................................12-22

Engine Inoperative Flight Principles.........12-23

Slow Flight ................................................12-25

Stalls ..........................................................12-25

Power-Off Stalls

(Approach and Landing) .....................12-26

Power-On Stalls

(Takeoff and Departure) ......................12-26

Spin Awareness.....................................12-26

Engine Inoperative—Loss of

Directional Control Demonstration..........12-27

Multiengine Training Considerations........12-31

Chapter 13—Transition to Tailwheel

Airplanes

Tailwheel Airplanes .....................................13-1

Landing Gear...............................................13-1

Taxiing .........................................................13-1

Normal Takeoff Roll....................................13-2

Takeoff.........................................................13-3

Crosswind Takeoff.......................................13-3

Short-Field Takeoff......................................13-3

Soft-Field Takeoff........................................13-4

Touchdown ..................................................13-4

After-Landing Roll ......................................13-4

Crosswind Landing......................................13-5

Crosswind After-Landing Roll ....................13-5

Wheel Landing ............................................13-6

Short-Field Landing.....................................13-6

Soft-Field Landing.......................................13-6

Ground Loop ...............................................13-6

Chapter 14—Transition to Turbopropeller

Powered Airplanes

General.........................................................14-1

The Gas Turbine Engine..............................14-1

Turboprop Engines ......................................14-2

Turboprop Engine Types .............................14-3

Fixed Shaft..............................................14-3

Split-Shaft / Free Turbine Engine ..........14-5

Reverse Thrust and

Beta Range Operations...............................14-7

Turboprop Airplane

Electrical Systems ......................................14-8

Operational Considerations .......................14-10

Training Considerations ............................14-12

Chapter 15—Transition to Jet Powered

Airplanes

General.........................................................15-1

Jet Engine Basics.........................................15-1

Operating the Jet Engine .............................15-2

Jet Engine Ignition..................................15-3

Continuous Ignition................................15-3

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Fuel Heaters............................................15-3

Setting Power..........................................15-4

Thrust to Thrust Lever Relationship ......15-4

Variation of Thrust with RPM................15-4

Slow Acceleration of the Jet Engine ......15-4

Jet Engine Efficiency...................................15-5

Absence of Propeller Effect ........................15-5

Absence of Propeller Slipstream .................15-5

Absence of Propeller Drag ..........................15-6

Speed Margins .............................................15-6

Recovery from Overspeed Conditions ........15-8

Mach Buffet Boundaries..............................15-8

Low Speed Flight ......................................15-10

Stalls ..........................................................15-10

Drag Devices .............................................15-13

Thrust Reversers........................................15-14

Pilot Sensations in Jet Flying ....................15-15

Jet Airplane Takeoff and Climb.................15-16

V-Speeds...............................................15-16

Pre-Takeoff Procedures ........................15-16

Takeoff Roll..........................................15-17

Rotation and Lift-Off............................15-18

Initial Climb..........................................15-18

Jet Airplane Approach and Landing..........15-19

Landing Requirements..........................15-19

Landing Speeds ....................................15-19

Significant Differences.........................15-20

The Stabilized Approach ......................15-21

Approach Speed....................................15-21

Glidepath Control .................................15-22

The Flare...............................................15-22

Touchdown and Rollout .......................15-24

Chapter 16—Emergency Procedures

Emergency Situations..................................16-1

Emergency Landings ...................................16-1

Types of Emergency Landings ...............16-1

Psychological Hazards............................16-1

Basic Safety Concepts.................................16-2

General....................................................16-2

Attitude and Sink Rate Control..............16-3

Terrain Selection.....................................16-3

Airplane Configuration...........................16-3

Approach ................................................16-4

Terrain Types ...............................................16-4

Confined Areas .......................................16-4

Trees (Forest)..........................................16-4

Water (Ditching) and Snow....................16-4

Engine Failure After Takeoff

(Single-Engine)...........................................16-5

Emergency Descents ...................................16-6

In-Flight Fire ...............................................16-7

Engine Fire .............................................16-7

Electrical Fires........................................16-7

Cabin Fire ...............................................16-8

Flight Control Malfunction / Failure...........16-8

Total Flap Failure ...................................16-8

Asymmetric (Split) Flap.........................16-8

Loss of Elevator Control ........................16-9

Landing Gear Malfunction ..........................16-9

Systems Malfunctions ...............................16-10

Electrical System..................................16-10

Pitot-Static System ...............................16-11

Abnormal Engine

Instrument Indications ..............................16-11

Door Opening In Flight.............................16-12

Inadvertent VFR Flight Into IMC .............16-12

General..................................................16-12

Recognition...........................................16-14

Maintaining Airplane Control ..............16-14

Attitude Control....................................16-14

Turns.....................................................16-15

Climbs...................................................16-15

Descents................................................16-16

Combined Maneuvers...........................16-16

Transition to Visual Flight....................16-16

Glossary .......................................................G-1

Index ..............................................................I-1

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PURPOSE OF FLIGHT TRAINING

The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight

training, as outlined in this handbook, is the acquisition

and honing of basic airmanship skills. Airmanship

can be defined as:

• A sound acquaintance with the principles of

flight,

• The ability to operate an airplane with competence and precision both on the ground and in the

air, and

• The exercise of sound judgment that results in

optimal operational safety and efficiency.

Learning to fly an airplane has often been likened to

learning to drive an automobile. This analogy is

misleading. Since an airplane operates in a different

environment, three dimensional, it requires a type of

motor skill development that is more sensitive to this

situation such as:

• Coordination—The ability to use the hands and

feet together subconsciously and in the proper

relationship to produce desired results in the airplane.

• Timing—The application of muscular coordination at the proper instant to make flight, and all

maneuvers incident thereto, a constant smooth

process.

• Control touch—The ability to sense the action

of the airplane and its probable actions in the

immediate future, with regard to attitude and

speed variations, by the sensing and evaluation of

varying pressures and resistance of the control

surfaces transmitted through the cockpit flight

controls.

• Speed sense—The ability to sense instantly and

react to any reasonable variation of airspeed.

An airman becomes one with the airplane rather than

a machine operator. An accomplished airman

demonstrates the ability to assess a situation quickly

and accurately and deduce the correct procedure to

be followed under the circumstance; to analyze

accurately the probable results of a given set of circumstances or of a proposed procedure; to exercise

care and due regard for safety; to gauge accurately

the performance of the airplane; and to recognize

personal limitations and limitations of the airplane

and avoid approaching the critical points of each.

The development of airmanship skills requires effort

and dedication on the part of both the student pilot

and the flight instructor, beginning with the very first

training flight where proper habit formation begins

with the student being introduced to good operating

practices.

Every airplane has its own particular flight characteristics. The purpose of primary and intermediate flight

training, however, is not to learn how to fly a particular

make and model airplane. The underlying purpose of

flight training is to develop skills and safe habits that

are transferable to any airplane. Basic airmanship skills

serve as a firm foundation for this. The pilot who has

acquired necessary airmanship skills during training,

and demonstrates these skills by flying training-type

airplanes with precision and safe flying habits, will be

able to easily transition to more complex and higher

performance airplanes. It should also be remembered

that the goal of flight training is a safe and competent

pilot, and that passing required practical tests for pilot

certification is only incidental to this goal.

ROLE OF THE FAA

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is empowered by the U.S. Congress to promote aviation safety

by prescribing safety standards for civil aviation. This

is accomplished through the Code of Federal

Regulations (CFRs) formerly referred to as Federal

Aviation Regulations (FARs).

Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)

part 61 pertains to the certification of pilots, flight

instructors, and ground instructors. 14 CFR part 61 prescribes the eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, flight

proficiency, and training and testing requirements for

each type of pilot certificate issued.

14 CFR part 67 prescribes the medical standards and

certification procedures for issuing medical certificates

for airmen and for remaining eligible for a medical

certificate.

14 CFR part 91 contains general operating and flight

rules. The section is broad in scope and provides

general guidance in the areas of general flight rules,

visual flight rules (VFR), instrument flight rules

(IFR), aircraft maintenance, and preventive maintenance and alterations.

1-1

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Within the FAA, the Flight Standards Service sets the

aviation standards for airmen and aircraft operations in

the United States and for American airmen and aircraft

around the world. The FAA Flight Standards Service is

headquartered in Washington, D.C., and is broadly

organized into divisions based on work function (Air

Transportation, Aircraft Maintenance, Technical

Programs, a Regulatory Support Division based in

Oklahoma City, OK, and a General Aviation and

Commercial Division). Regional Flight Standards division managers, one at each of the FAA’s nine regional

offices, coordinate Flight Standards activities within

their respective regions.

The interface between the FAA Flight Standards

Service and the aviation community/general public

is the local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).

[Figure 1-1] The approximately 90 FSDOs are

strategically located across the United States, each

office having jurisdiction over a specific geographic

area. The individual FSDO is responsible for all air

activity occurring within its geographic boundaries.

In addition to accident investigation and the

enforcement of aviation regulations, the individual

FSDO is responsible for the certification and surveillance of air carriers, air operators, flight

schools/training centers, and airmen including pilots

and flight instructors.

Each FSDO is staffed by aviation safety inspectors

whose specialties include operations, maintenance,

and avionics. General aviation operations inspectors are highly qualified and experienced aviators.

Once accepted for the position, an inspector must

satisfactorily complete a course of indoctrination

training conducted at the FAA Academy, which

includes airman evaluation and pilot testing techniques and procedures. Thereafter, the inspector must

complete recurrent training on a regular basis. Among

other duties, the FSDO inspector is responsible for

administering FAA practical tests for pilot and flight

instructor certificates and associated ratings. All questions concerning pilot certification (and/or requests for

other aviation information or services) should be directed

to the FSDO having jurisdiction in the particular geographic area. FSDO telephone numbers are listed in the

blue pages of the telephone directory under United States

Government offices, Department of Transportation,

Federal Aviation Administration.

ROLE OF THE PILOT EXAMINER

Pilot and flight instructor certificates are issued by

the FAA upon satisfactory completion of required

knowledge and practical tests. The administration

of these tests is an FAA responsibility normally

carried out at the FSDO level by FSDO inspectors.

The FAA, however, being a U.S. government

agency, has limited resources and must prioritize

its responsibilities. The agency’s highest priority

is the surveillance of certificated air carriers, with

the certification of airmen (including pilots and

flight instructors) having a lower priority.

In order to satisfy the public need for pilot testing and

certification services, the FAA delegates certain of these

responsibilities, as the need arises, to private individuals who are not FAA employees. A designated pilot

examiner (DPE) is a private citizen who is designated

as a representative of the FAAAdministrator to perform

specific (but limited) pilot certification tasks on behalf

of the FAA, and may charge a reasonable fee for doing

so. Generally, a DPE’s authority is limited to accepting

applications and conducting practical tests leading to

the issuance of specific pilot certificates and/or ratings.

A DPE operates under the direct supervision of the

FSDO that holds the examiner’s designation file. A

FSDO inspector is assigned to monitor the DPE’s certification activities. Normally, the DPE is authorized to

conduct these activities only within the designating

FSDO’s jurisdictional area.

The FAA selects only highly qualified individuals to

be designated pilot examiners. These individuals must

have good industry reputations for professionalism,

high integrity, a demonstrated willingness to serve the

public, and adhere to FAA policies and procedures in

certification matters. A designated pilot examiner is

expected to administer practical tests with the same

degree of professionalism, using the same methods,

procedures, and standards as an FAA aviation safety

inspector. It should be remembered, however, that a

DPE is not an FAA aviation safety inspector. A DPE

cannot initiate enforcement action, investigate accidents, or perform surveillance activities on behalf of

the FAA. However, the majority of FAA practical tests

at the recreational, private, and commercial pilot level

Figure 1-1. FAA FSDO. are administered by FAA designated pilot examiners.

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ROLE OF THE FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR

The flight instructor is the cornerstone of aviation

safety. The FAA has adopted an operational training

concept that places the full responsibility for student

training on the authorized flight instructor. In this role,

the instructor assumes the total responsibility for training the student pilot in all the knowledge areas and

skills necessary to operate safely and competently as a

certificated pilot in the National Airspace System. This

training will include airmanship skills, pilot judgment

and decision making, and accepted good operating

practices.

An FAA certificated flight instructor has to meet

broad flying experience requirements, pass rigid

knowledge and practical tests, and demonstrate the

ability to apply recommended teaching techniques

before being certificated. In addition, the flight

instructor’s certificate must be renewed every 24

months by showing continued success in training

pilots, or by satisfactorily completing a flight instructor’s refresher course or a practical test designed to

upgrade aeronautical knowledge, pilot proficiency,

and teaching techniques.

A pilot training program is dependent on the quality of

the ground and flight instruction the student pilot

receives. A good flight instructor will have a thorough

understanding of the learning process, knowledge of

the fundamentals of teaching, and the ability to communicate effectively with the student pilot.

A good flight instructor will use a syllabus and insist

on correct techniques and procedures from the

beginning of training so that the student will develop

proper habit patterns. The syllabus should embody

the “building block” method of instruction, in which

the student progresses from the known to the

unknown. The course of instruction should be laid

out so that each new maneuver embodies the principles

involved in the performance of those previously

undertaken. Consequently, through each new subject

introduced, the student not only learns a new principle or technique, but broadens his/her application of

those previously learned and has his/her deficiencies

in the previous maneuvers emphasized and made

obvious.

The flying habits of the flight instructor, both during

flight instruction and as observed by students when

conducting other pilot operations, have a vital effect

on safety. Students consider their flight instructor to be

a paragon of flying proficiency whose flying habits

they, consciously or unconsciously, attempt to imitate.

For this reason, a good flight instructor will meticulously observe the safety practices taught the students.

Additionally, a good flight instructor will carefully

observe all regulations and recognized safety practices

during all flight operations.

Generally, the student pilot who enrolls in a pilot training

program is prepared to commit considerable time,

effort, and expense in pursuit of a pilot certificate. The

student may tend to judge the effectiveness of the flight

instructor, and the overall success of the pilot training

program, solely in terms of being able to pass the

requisite FAA practical test. A good flight instructor,

however, will be able to communicate to the student

that evaluation through practical tests is a mere sampling of pilot ability that is compressed into a short

period of time. The flight instructor’s role, however, is

to train the “total” pilot.

SOURCES OF FLIGHT TRAINING

The major sources of flight training in the United States

include FAA-approved pilot schools and training centers, non-certificated (14 CFR part 61) flying schools,

and independent flight instructors. FAA “approved”

schools are those flight schools certificated by the FAA

as pilot schools under 14 CFR part 141. [Figure 1-2]

Application for certification is voluntary, and the school

must meet stringent requirements for personnel, equipment, maintenance, and facilities. The school must

operate in accordance with an established curriculum,

which includes a training course outline (TCO)

Figure 1-2. FAA-approved pilot school certificate.

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1-4

approved by the FAA. The TCO must contain student

enrollment prerequisites, detailed description of each

lesson including standards and objectives, expected

accomplishments and standards for each stage of training, and a description of the checks and tests used to

measure a student’s accomplishments. FAA-approved

pilot school certificates must be renewed every 2 years.

Renewal is contingent upon proof of continued high

quality instruction and a minimum level of instructional

activity. Training at an FAA certificated pilot school is

structured. Because of this structured environment, the

CFRs allow graduates of these pilot schools to meet the

certification experience requirements of 14 CFR part

61 with less flight time. Many FAA certificated pilot

schools have designated pilot examiners (DPEs) on

their staff to administer FAA practical tests. Some

schools have been granted examining authority by the

FAA. A school with examining authority for a particular course or courses has the authority to recommend its

graduates for pilot certificates or ratings without further

testing by the FAA. A list of FAA certificated pilot

schools and their training courses can be found in

Advisory Circular (AC) 140-2, FAA Certificated Pilot

School Directory.

FAA-approved training centers are certificated under

14 CFR part 142. Training centers, like certificated

pilot schools, operate in a structured environment with

approved courses and curricula, and stringent standards

for personnel, equipment, facilities, operating procedures and record keeping. Training centers certificated

under 14 CFR part 142, however, specialize in the use

of flight simulation (flight simulators and flight training devices) in their training courses.

The overwhelming majority of flying schools in the

United States are not certificated by the FAA. These

schools operate under the provisions of 14 CFR part

61. Many of these non-certificated flying schools offer

excellent training, and meet or exceed the standards

required of FAA-approved pilot schools. Flight

instructors employed by non-certificated flying

schools, as well as independent flight instructors, must

meet the same basic 14 CFR part 61 flight instructor

requirements for certification and renewal as those

flight instructors employed by FAA certificated pilot

schools. In the end, any training program is dependent

upon the quality of the ground and flight instruction a

student pilot receives.

PRACTICAL TEST STANDARDS

Practical tests for FAA pilot certificates and associated

ratings are administered by FAA inspectors and designated pilot examiners in accordance with FAA-developed

practical test standards (PTS). [Figure 1-3] 14 CFR

part 61 specifies the areas of operation in which

knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by the

applicant. The CFRs provide the flexibility to permit

the FAA to publish practical test standards containing

the areas of operation and specific tasks in which

competence must be demonstrated. The FAA requires

that all practical tests be conducted in accordance with

the appropriate practical test standards and the policies

set forth in the Introduction section of the practical test

standard book.

It must be emphasized that the practical test standards

book is a testing document rather than a teaching document. An appropriately rated flight instructor is

responsible for training a pilot applicant to acceptable

standards in all subject matter areas, procedures, and

maneuvers included in the tasks within each area of

operation in the appropriate practical test standard.

The pilot applicant should be familiar with this book

and refer to the standards it contains during training.

However, the practical test standard book is not

intended to be used as a training syllabus. It contains

the standards to which maneuvers/procedures on FAA

practical tests must be performed and the FAA policies

governing the administration of practical tests.

Descriptions of tasks, and information on how to

perform maneuvers and procedures are contained in

reference and teaching documents such as this

handbook. A list of reference documents is contained

in the Introduction section of each practical test standard book.

Practical test standards may be downloaded from the

Regulatory Support Division’s, AFS-600, Web site at

http://afs600.faa.gov. Printed copies of practical test

standards can be purchased from the Superintendent

of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,

Washington, DC 20402. The official online bookstore

Web site for the U.S. Government Printing Office is

www.access.gpo.gov. 

FLIGHT SAFETY PRACTICES

In the interest of safety and good habit pattern formation, there are certain basic flight safety practices and

procedures that must be emphasized by the flight

instructor, and adhered to by both instructor and student,

beginning with the very first dual instruction flight.

These include, but are not limited to, collision

avoidance procedures including proper scanning

techniques and clearing procedures, runway incursion

avoidance, stall awareness, positive transfer of

controls, and cockpit workload management.

COLLISION AVOIDANCE

All pilots must be alert to the potential for midair

collision and near midair collisions. The general operating and flight rules in 14 CFR part 91 set forth the

concept of “See and Avoid.” This concept requires

that vigilance shall be maintained at all times, by

each person operating an aircraft regardless of

whether the operation is conducted under instrument

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flight rules (IFR) or visual flight rules (VFR). Pilots

should also keep in mind their responsibility for continuously maintaining a vigilant lookout regardless of

the type of aircraft being flown and the purpose of the

flight. Most midair collision accidents and reported

near midair collision incidents occur in good VFR

weather conditions and during the hours of daylight.

Most of these accident/incidents occur within 5 miles

of an airport and/or near navigation aids.

The “See and Avoid” concept relies on knowledge

of the limitations of the human eye, and the use of

proper visual scanning techniques to help compensate for these limitations. The importance of, and

the proper techniques for, visual scanning should

be taught to a student pilot at the very beginning of

flight training. The competent flight instructor

should be familiar with the visual scanning and

collision avoidance information contained in

Advisory Circular (AC) 90-48, Pilots’ Role in

Collision Avoidance, and the Aeronautical

Information Manual (AIM).

There are many different types of clearing procedures.

Most are centered around the use of clearing turns. The

essential idea of the clearing turn is to be certain that

the next maneuver is not going to proceed into another

airplane’s flightpath. Some pilot training programs

have hard and fast rules, such as requiring two 90°

turns in opposite directions before executing any

training maneuver. Other types of clearing procedures

may be developed by individual flight instructors.

Whatever the preferred method, the flight instructor

should teach the beginning student an effective clearing procedure and insist on its use. The student pilot

should execute the appropriate clearing procedure

before all turns and before executing any training

maneuver. Proper clearing procedures, combined

with proper visual scanning techniques, are the most

effective strategy for collision avoidance.

RUNWAY INCURSION AVOIDANCE

A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport

involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the

ground that creates a collision hazard or results in a

loss of separation with an aircraft taking off, landing,

or intending to land. The three major areas contributing to runway incursions are:

• Communications,

• Airport knowledge, and

• Cockpit procedures for maintaining orientation.

Taxi operations require constant vigilance by the entire

flight crew, not just the pilot taxiing the airplane. This

is especially true during flight training operations.

Both the student pilot and the flight instructor need to

be continually aware of the movement and location of

Figure 1-3. PTS books.

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other aircraft and ground vehicles on the airport

movement area. Many flight training activities are

conducted at non-tower controlled airports. The

absence of an operating airport control tower creates a

need for increased vigilance on the part of pilots operating at those airports.

Planning, clear communications, and enhanced

situational awareness during airport surface

operations will reduce the potential for surface incidents. Safe aircraft operations can be accomplished

and incidents eliminated if the pilot is properly trained

early on and, throughout his/her flying career,

accomplishes standard taxi operating procedures and

practices. This requires the development of the

formalized teaching of safe operating practices during

taxi operations. The flight instructor is the key to this

teaching. The flight instructor should instill in the

student an awareness of the potential for runway

incursion, and should emphasize the runway

incursion avoidance procedures contained in

Advisory Circular (AC) 91-73, Part 91 Pilot and

Flightcrew Procedures During Taxi Operations and

Part 135 Single-Pilot Operations.

STALL AWARENESS

14 CFR part 61 requires that a student pilot receive and

log flight training in stalls and stall recoveries prior to

solo flight. During this training, the flight instructor

should emphasize that the direct cause of every stall is

an excessive angle of attack. The student pilot should

fully understand that there are any number of flight

maneuvers which may produce an increase in the

wing’s angle of attack, but the stall does not occur until

the angle of attack becomes excessive. This “critical”

angle of attack varies from 16 to 20° depending on the

airplane design.

The flight instructor must emphasize that low speed is

not necessary to produce a stall. The wing can be

brought to an excessive angle of attack at any speed.

High pitch attitude is not an absolute indication of

proximity to a stall. Some airplanes are capable of vertical flight with a corresponding low angle of attack.

Most airplanes are quite capable of stalling at a level or

near level pitch attitude.

The key to stall awareness is the pilot’s ability to

visualize the wing’s angle of attack in any particular

circumstance, and thereby be able to estimate his/her

margin of safety above stall. This is a learned skill

that must be acquired early in flight training and

carried through the pilot’s entire flying career. The

pilot must understand and appreciate factors such as

airspeed, pitch attitude, load factor, relative wind,

power setting, and aircraft configuration in order to

develop a reasonably accurate mental picture of the

wing’s angle of attack at any particular time. It is

essential to flight safety that a pilot take into consideration this visualization of the wing’s angle of

attack prior to entering any flight maneuver. 

USE OF CHECKLISTS

Checklists have been the foundation of pilot standardization and cockpit safety for years. The checklist is an

aid to the memory and helps to ensure that critical

items necessary for the safe operation of aircraft are

not overlooked or forgotten. However, checklists are

of no value if the pilot is not committed to its use.

Without discipline and dedication to using the checklist at the appropriate times, the odds are on the side of

error. Pilots who fail to take the checklist seriously

become complacent and the only thing they can rely

on is memory.

The importance of consistent use of checklists cannot

be overstated in pilot training. A major objective in

primary flight training is to establish habit patterns that

will serve pilots well throughout their entire flying

career. The flight instructor must promote a positive

attitude toward the use of checklists, and the student

pilot must realize its importance. At a minimum, prepared checklists should be used for the following

phases of flight.

• Preflight Inspection.

• Before Engine Start.

• Engine Starting.

• Before Taxiing.

• Before Takeoff.

• After Takeoff.

• Cruise.

• Descent.

• Before Landing.

• After Landing.

• Engine Shutdown and Securing.

POSITIVE TRANSFER OF CONTROLS

During flight training, there must always be a clear

understanding between the student and flight instructor of who has control of the aircraft. Prior to any

dual training flight, a briefing should be conducted

that includes the procedure for the exchange of flight

controls. The following three-step process for the

exchange of flight controls is highly recommended.

When a flight instructor wishes the student to take

control of the aircraft, he/she should say to the student, “You have the flight controls.” The student

should acknowledge immediately by saying, “I have

the flight controls.” The flight instructor confirms by

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1-7

again saying, “You have the flight controls.” Part of

the procedure should be a visual check to ensure that

the other person actually has the flight controls. When

returning the controls to the flight instructor, the student should follow the same procedure the instructor

used when giving control to the student. The student

should stay on the controls until the instructor says:

“I have the flight controls.” There should never be

any doubt as to who is flying the airplane at any one

time. Numerous accidents have occurred due to a lack

of communication or misunderstanding as to who

actually had control of the aircraft, particularly

between students and flight instructors. Establishing

the above procedure during initial training will ensure

the formation of a very beneficial habit pattern.

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2-1

VISUAL INSPECTION

The accomplishment of a safe flight begins with a careful visual inspection of the airplane. The purpose of the

preflight visual inspection is twofold: to determine that

the airplane is legally airworthy, and that it is in condition for safe flight. The airworthiness of the airplane is

determined, in part, by the following certificates and

documents, which must be on board the airplane when

operated. [Figure 2-1]

Airworthiness certificate.

Registration certificate.

FCC radio station license, if required by the type

of operation.

Airplane operating limitations, which may be in

the form of an FAA-approved Airplane Flight

Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook

(AFM/POH), placards, instrument markings, or

any combination thereof.

Airplane logbooks are not required to be kept in the

airplane when it is operated. However, they should be

inspected prior to flight to show that the airplane has

had required tests and inspections. Maintenance

records for the airframe and engine are required to be

kept. There may also be additional propeller records.

At a minimum, there should be an annual inspection

within the preceding 12-calendar months. In addition,

the airplane may also be required to have a 100-hour

inspection in accordance with Title14 of the Code of

Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, section

91.409(b).

If a transponder is to be used, it is required to be

inspected within the preceding 24-calendar months. If

the airplane is operated under instrument flight rules

(IFR) in controlled airspace, the pitot-static system is

also required to be inspected within the preceding

24-calendar months.

The emergency locator transmitter (ELT) should also

be checked. The ELT is battery powered, and the

battery replacement or recharge date should not

be exceeded.

Airworthiness Directives (ADs) have varying

compliance intervals and are usually tracked in a

separate area of the appropriate airframe, engine, or

propeller record.

Figure 2-1. Aircraft documents and AFM/POH.

•

•

•

•

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2-2

The determination of whether the airplane is in a condition for safe flight is made by a preflight inspection

of the airplane and its components. [Figure 2-2] The

preflight inspection should be performed in accordance

with a printed checklist provided by the airplane manufacturer for the specific make and model airplane.

However, the following general areas are applicable to

all airplanes.

The preflight inspection of the airplane should begin

while approaching the airplane on the ramp. The pilot

should make note of the general appearance of the

airplane, looking for obvious discrepancies such as a

landing gear out of alignment, structural distortion,

skin damage, and dripping fuel or oil leaks. Upon

reaching the airplane, all tiedowns, control locks, and

chocks should be removed.

INSIDE THE COCKPIT

The inspection should start with the cabin door. If the

door is hard to open or close, or if the carpeting or

seats are wet from a recent rain, there is a good chance

that the door, fuselage, or both are misaligned. This

may be a sign of structural damage.

The windshield and side windows should be examined

for cracks and/or crazing. Crazing is the first stage of

delamination of the plastic. Crazing decreases

visibility, and a severely crazed window can result in

near zero visibility due to light refraction at certain

angles to the sun.

The pilot should check the seats, seat rails, and seat

belt attach points for wear, cracks, and serviceability.

The seat rail holes where the seat lock pins fit should

1

2

3

4

5

7 6

8

10 9

Figure 2-2. Preflight inspection.

Figure 2-3. Inside the cockpit.

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2-3

also be inspected. The holes should be round and not

oval. The pin and seat rail grips should also be checked

for wear and serviceability.

Inside the cockpit, three key items to be checked are:

(1) battery and ignition switches—off, (2) control

column locks—removed, (3) landing gear control—

down and locked. [Figure 2-3]

The fuel selectors should be checked for proper

operation in all positions—including the OFF position. Stiff selectors, or ones where the tank position is

hard to find, are unacceptable. The primer should also

be exercised. The pilot should feel resistance when

the primer is both pulled out and pushed in. The

primer should also lock securely. Faulty primers can

interfere with proper engine operation. [Figure 2-4]

The engine controls should also be manipulated by

slowly moving each through its full range to check

for binding or stiffness. 

The airspeed indicator should be properly marked, and

the indicator needle should read zero. If it does not, the

instrument may not be calibrated correctly. Similarly,

the vertical speed indicator (VSI) should also read zero

when the airplane is on the ground. If it does not, a

small screwdriver can be used to zero the instrument.

The VSI is the only flight instrument that a pilot has

the prerogative to adjust. All others must be adjusted

by an FAA certificated repairman or mechanic.

The magnetic compass is a required instrument for

both VFR and IFR flight. It must be securely mounted,

with a correction card in place. The instrument face

must be clear and the instrument case full of fluid. A

cloudy instrument face, bubbles in the fluid, or a

partially filled case renders the instrument unusable.

[Figure 2-5]

The gyro driven attitude indicator should be checked

before being powered. A white haze on the inside of

Figure 2-4. Fuel selector and primer.

Figure 2-5. Airspeed indicator, VSI, and magnetic compass.

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2-4

the glass face may be a sign that the seal has been

breached, allowing moisture and dirt to be sucked into

the instrument.

The altimeter should be checked against the ramp or

field elevation after setting in the barometric pressure.

If the variation between the known field elevation and

the altimeter indication is more than 75 feet, its

accuracy is questionable.

The pilot should turn on the battery master switch and

make note of the fuel quantity gauge indications for

comparison with an actual visual inspection of the fuel

tanks during the exterior inspection.

OUTER WING SURFACES AND TAIL

SECTION

The pilot should inspect for any signs of deterioration,

distortion, and loose or missing rivets or screws,

especially in the area where the outer skin attaches to

the airplane structure. [Figure 2-6] The pilot should

look along the wing spar rivet line—from the wingtip

to the fuselage—for skin distortion. Any ripples and/or

waves may be an indication of internal damage

or failure.

Loose or sheared aluminum rivets may be identified by

the presence of black oxide which forms rapidly when

the rivet works free in its hole. Pressure applied to the

skin adjacent to the rivet head will help verify the

loosened condition of the rivet.

When examining the outer wing surface, it should be

remembered that any damage, distortion, or

malformation of the wing leading edge renders the

airplane unairworthy. Serious dents in the leading

edge, and disrepair of items such as stall strips, and

deicer boots can cause the airplane to be

aerodynamically unsound. Also, special care should

be taken when examining the wingtips. Airplane

wingtips are usually fiberglass. They are easily

damaged and subject to cracking. The pilot should

look at stop drilled cracks for evidence of crack

progression, which can, under some circumstances,

lead to in-flight failure of the wingtip.

The pilot should remember that fuel stains anywhere

on the wing warrant further investigation—no matter

how old the stains appear to be. Fuel stains are a sign

of probable fuel leakage. On airplanes equipped with

integral fuel tanks, evidence of fuel leakage can be

found along rivet lines along the underside of

the wing. 

Figure 2-6. Wing and tail section inspection.

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FUEL AND OIL

Particular attention should be paid to the fuel quantity,

type and grade, and quality. [Figure 2-7] Many fuel

tanks are very sensitive to airplane attitude when

attempting to fuel for maximum capacity. Nosewheel

strut extension, both high as well as low, can

significantly alter the attitude, and therefore the fuel

capacity. The airplane attitude can also be affected

laterally by a ramp that slopes, leaving one wing

slightly higher than another. Always confirm the fuel

quantity indicated on the fuel gauges by visually

inspecting the level of each tank.

The type, grade, and color of fuel are critical to safe

operation. The only widely available aviation gasoline

(AVGAS) grade in the United States is low-lead

100-octane, or 100LL. AVGAS is dyed for easy

recognition of its grade and has a familiar gasoline

scent. Jet-A, or jet fuel, is a kerosene-based fuel for

turbine powered airplanes. It has disastrous

consequences when inadvertently introduced into

reciprocating airplane engines. The piston engine

operating on jet fuel may start, run, and power the

airplane, but will fail because the engine has been

destroyed from detonation.

Jet fuel has a distinctive kerosene scent and is oily to

the touch when rubbed between fingers. Jet fuel is

clear or straw colored, although it may appear dyed

when mixed in a tank containing AVGAS. When a few

drops of AVGAS are placed upon white paper, they

evaporate quickly and leave just a trace of dye. In

comparison, jet fuel is slower to evaporate and leaves

an oily smudge. Jet fuel refueling trucks and

dispensing equipment are marked with JET-A placards

in white letters on a black background. Prudent pilots

will supervise fueling to ensure that the correct tanks

are filled with the right quantity, type, and grade of

fuel. The pilot should always ensure that the fuel caps

have been securely replaced following each fueling.

Engines certificated for grades 80/87 or 91/96 AVGAS

will run satisfactorily on 100LL. The reverse is not

true. Fuel of a lower grade/octane, if found, should

never be substituted for a required higher grade.

Detonation will severely damage the engine in a very

short period of time.

Automotive gasoline is sometimes used as a substitute

fuel in certain airplanes. Its use is acceptable only

when the particular airplane has been issued a

supplemental type certificate (STC) to both the

airframe and engine allowing its use.

Checking for water and other sediment contamination

is a key preflight element. Water tends to accumulate

in fuel tanks from condensation, particularly in

partially filled tanks. Because water is heavier than

fuel, it tends to collect in the low points of the fuel

system. Water can also be introduced into the fuel

system from deteriorated gas cap seals exposed to rain,

or from the supplier’s storage tanks and delivery

vehicles. Sediment contamination can arise from dust

and dirt entering the tanks during refueling, or from

deteriorating rubber fuel tanks or tank sealant.

The best preventive measure is to minimize the

opportunity for water to condense in the tanks. If

possible, the fuel tanks should be completely filled

with the proper grade of fuel after each flight, or at

least filled after the last flight of the day. The more fuel

there is in the tanks, the less opportunity for

condensation to occur. Keeping fuel tanks filled is also

the best way to slow the aging of rubber fuel tanks and

tank sealant.

Sufficient fuel should be drained from the fuel strainer

quick drain and from each fuel tank sump to check for

fuel grade/color, water, dirt, and smell. If water is

present, it will usually be in bead-like droplets,

different in color (usually clear, sometimes muddy), in

the bottom of the sample. In extreme cases, do not

overlook the possibility that the entire sample,

particularly a small sample, is water. If water is found

in the first fuel sample, further samples should be taken

until no water appears. Significant and/or consistent

water or sediment contamination are grounds for

further investigation by qualified maintenance

personnel. Each fuel tank sump should be drained

during preflight and after refueling.

The fuel tank vent is an important part of a preflight

inspection. Unless outside air is able to enter the tank

as fuel is drawn out, the eventual result will be fuel

gauge malfunction and/or fuel starvation. During the

preflight inspection, the pilot should be alert for any

Figure 2-7. Aviation fuel types, grades, and colors.

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2-6

signs of vent tubing damage, as well as vent blockage.

A functional check of the fuel vent system can be done

simply by opening the fuel cap. If there is a rush of air

when the fuel tank cap is cracked, there could be a

serious problem with the vent system.

The oil level should be checked during each preflight

and rechecked with each refueling. Reciprocating

airplane engines can be expected to consume a small

amount of oil during normal operation. If the

consumption grows or suddenly changes, qualified

maintenance personnel should investigate. If line

service personnel add oil to the engine, the pilot should

ensure that the oil cap has been securely replaced.

LANDING GEAR,TIRES, AND BRAKES

Tires should be inspected for proper inflation, as well

as cuts, bruises, wear, bulges, imbedded foreign object,

and deterioration. As a general rule, tires with cord

showing, and those with cracked sidewalls are

considered unairworthy.

Brakes and brake systems should be checked for rust

and corrosion, loose nuts/bolts, alignment, brake pad

wear/cracks, signs of hydraulic fluid leakage, and

hydraulic line security/abrasion.

An examination of the nose gear should include the

shimmy damper, which is painted white, and the torque

link, which is painted red, for proper servicing and

general condition. All landing gear shock struts should

also be checked for proper inflation.

ENGINE AND PROPELLER

The pilot should make note of the condition of the

engine cowling. [Figure 2-8] If the cowling rivet heads

reveal aluminum oxide residue, and chipped paint

surrounding and radiating away from the cowling rivet

heads, it is a sign that the rivets have been rotating until

the holes have been elongated. If allowed to continue,

the cowling may eventually separate from the airplane

in flight.

Certain engine/propeller combinations require

installation of a prop spinner for proper engine

cooling. In these cases, the engine should not be

operated unless the spinner is present and properly

installed. The pilot should inspect the propeller

spinner and spinner mounting plate for security of

attachment, any signs of chafing of propeller blades,

and defects such as cracking. A cracked spinner is

unairworthy.

The propeller should be checked for nicks, cracks,

pitting, corrosion, and security. The propeller hub

should be checked for oil leaks, and the alternator/

generator drive belt should be checked for proper

tension and signs of wear.

When inspecting inside the cowling, the pilot should

look for signs of fuel dye which may indicate a fuel

leak. The pilot should check for oil leaks, deterioration

of oil lines, and to make certain that the oil cap, filter,

oil cooler and drain plug are secure. The exhaust

system should be checked for white stains caused by

exhaust leaks at the cylinder head or cracks in the

stacks. The heat muffs should also be checked for

general condition and signs of cracks or leaks.

The air filter should be checked for condition and

secure fit, as well as hydraulic lines for deterioration

and/or leaks. The pilot should also check for loose or

foreign objects inside the cowling such as bird nests,

shop rags, and/or tools. All visible wires and lines

should be checked for security and condition. And

lastly, when the cowling is closed, the cowling

fasteners should be checked for security.

Figure 2-8. Check the propeller and inside the cowling.

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COCKPIT MANAGEMENT

After entering the airplane, the pilot should first ensure

that all necessary equipment, documents, checklists,

and navigation charts appropriate for the flight are on

board. If a portable intercom, headsets, or a hand-held

global positioning system (GPS) is used, the pilot is

responsible for ensuring that the routing of wires and

cables does not interfere with the motion or the

operation of any control.

Regardless of what materials are to be used, they

should be neatly arranged and organized in a manner

that makes them readily available. The cockpit and

cabin should be checked for articles that might be

tossed about if turbulence is encountered. Loose items

should be properly secured. All pilots should form the

habit of good housekeeping.

The pilot must be able to see inside and outside

references. If the range of motion of an adjustable seat

is inadequate, cushions should be used to provide the

proper seating position.

When the pilot is comfortably seated, the safety belt

and shoulder harness (if installed) should be fastened

and adjusted to a comfortably snug fit. The shoulder

harness must be worn at least for the takeoff and

landing, unless the pilot cannot reach or operate the

controls with it fastened. The safety belt must be worn

at all times when the pilot is seated at the controls.

If the seats are adjustable, it is important to ensure that

the seat is locked in position. Accidents have occurred

as the result of seat movement during acceleration or

pitch attitude changes during takeoffs or landings.

When the seat suddenly moves too close or too far

away from the controls, the pilot may be unable to

maintain control of the airplane.

14 CFR part 91 requires the pilot to ensure that each

person on board is briefed on how to fasten and

unfasten his/her safety belt and, if installed, shoulder

harness. This should be accomplished before starting

the engine, along with a passenger briefing on the

proper use of safety equipment and exit information.

Airplane manufacturers have printed briefing cards

available, similar to those used by airlines, to

supplement the pilot’s briefing.

GROUND OPERATIONS

It is important that a pilot operates an airplane safely

on the ground. This includes being familiar with

standard hand signals that are used by ramp personnel.

[Figure 2-9]

ENGINE STARTING

The specific procedures for engine starting will not be

discussed here since there are as many different

methods as there are different engines, fuel systems,

and starting conditions. The before engine starting and

engine starting checklist procedures should be followed. There are, however, certain precautions that

apply to all airplanes.

Some pilots have started the engine with the tail of the

airplane pointed toward an open hangar door, parked

automobiles, or a group of bystanders. This is not only

discourteous, but may result in personal injury and

damage to the property of others. Propeller blast can

be surprisingly powerful.

When ready to start the engine, the pilot should look in

all directions to be sure that nothing is or will be in the

vicinity of the propeller. This includes nearby persons

and aircraft that could be struck by the propeller blast

or the debris it might pick up from the ground. The

anticollision light should be turned on prior to engine

start, even during daytime operations. At night, the

position (navigation) lights should also be on.

The pilot should always call “CLEAR” out of the side

window and wait for a response from persons who may

be nearby before activating the starter.

Figure 2-9. Standard hand signals.

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When activating the starter, one hand should be kept

on the throttle. This allows prompt response if the

engine falters during starting, and allows the pilot to

rapidly retard the throttle if revolutions per minute

(r.p.m.) are excessive after starting. A low r.p.m.

setting (800 to 1,000) is recommended immediately

following engine start. It is highly undesirable to allow

the r.p.m. to race immediately after start, as there will

be insufficient lubrication until the oil pressure rises.

In freezing temperatures, the engine will also be

exposed to potential mechanical distress until it warms

and normal internal operating clearances are assumed.

As soon as the engine is operating smoothly, the oil

pressure should be checked. If it does not rise to the

manufacturer’s specified value, the engine may not be

receiving proper lubrication and should be shut down

immediately to prevent serious damage.

Although quite rare, the starter motor may remain on

and engaged after the engine starts. This can be

detected by a continuous very high current draw on the

ammeter. Some airplanes also have a starter engaged

warning light specifically for this purpose. The engine

should be shut down immediately should this occur.

Starters are small electric motors designed to draw

large amounts of current for short periods of cranking.

Should the engine fail to start readily, avoid

continuous starter operation for periods longer than 30

seconds without a cool down period of at least 30

seconds to a minute (some AFM/POH specify even

longer). Their service life is drastically shortened from

high heat through overuse.

HAND PROPPING

Even though most airplanes are equipped with electric

starters, it is helpful if a pilot is familiar with the procedures and dangers involved in starting an engine by

turning the propeller by hand (hand propping). Due to

the associated hazards, this method of starting should

be used only when absolutely necessary and when

proper precautions have been taken.

An engine should not be hand propped unless two

people, both familiar with the airplane and hand

propping techniques, are available to perform the

procedure. The person pulling the propeller blades

through directs all activity and is in charge of the

procedure. The other person, thoroughly familiar

with the controls, must be seated in the airplane with

the brakes set. As an additional precaution, chocks

may be placed in front of the main wheels. If this is

not feasible, the airplane’s tail may be securely tied.

Never allow a person unfamiliar with the controls to

occupy the pilot’s seat when hand propping. The

procedure should never be attempted alone.

When hand propping is necessary, the ground surface

near the propeller should be stable and free of debris.

Unless a firm footing is available, consider relocating

the airplane. Loose gravel, wet grass, mud, oil, ice, or

snow might cause the person pulling the propeller

through to slip into the rotating blades as the engine

starts.

Both participants should discuss the procedure and

agree on voice commands and expected action. To

begin the procedure, the fuel system and engine

controls (tank selector, primer, pump, throttle, and

mixture) are set for a normal start. The ignition/

magneto switch should be checked to be sure that it is

OFF. Then the descending propeller blade should be

rotated so that it assumes a position slightly above the

horizontal. The person doing the hand propping should

face the descending blade squarely and stand slightly

less than one arm’s length from the blade. If a stance

too far away were assumed, it would be necessary to

lean forward in an unbalanced condition to reach the

blade. This may cause the person to fall forward into

the rotating blades when the engine starts.

The procedure and commands for hand propping are:

Person out front says, “GAS ON, SWITCH OFF,

THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES SET.”

Pilot seat occupant, after making sure the fuel is

ON, mixture is RICH, ignition/magneto switch is

OFF, throttle is CLOSED, and brakes SET, says,

“GAS ON, SWITCH OFF, THROTTLE

CLOSED, BRAKES SET.”

Person out front, after pulling the propeller

through to prime the engine says, “BRAKES

AND CONTACT.”

Pilot seat occupant checks the brakes SET and

turns the ignition switch ON, then says,

“BRAKES AND CONTACT.”

The propeller is swung by forcing the blade downward

rapidly, pushing with the palms of both hands. If the

blade is gripped tightly with the fingers, the person’s

body may be drawn into the propeller blades should

the engine misfire and rotate momentarily in the

opposite direction. As the blade is pushed down, the

person should step backward, away from the propeller.

If the engine does not start, the propeller should not be

repositioned for another attempt until it is certain the

ignition/magneto switch is turned OFF.

The words CONTACT (mags ON) and SWITCH OFF

(mags OFF) are used because they are significantly

different from each other. Under noisy conditions or

high winds, the words CONTACT and SWITCH OFF

•

•

•

•

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are less likely to be misunderstood than SWITCH ON

and SWITCH OFF.

When removing the wheel chocks after the engine

starts, it is essential that the pilot remember that the

propeller is almost invisible. Incredible as it may seem,

serious injuries and fatalities occur when people who

have just started an engine walk or reach into the

propeller arc to remove the chocks. Before the chocks

are removed, the throttle should be set to idle and the

chocks approached from the rear of the propeller.

Never approach the chocks from the front or the side.

The procedures for hand propping should always be in

accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations

and checklist. Special starting procedures are used

when the engine is already warm, very cold, or when

flooded or vapor locked. There will also be a different

starting procedure when an external power source

is used.

TAXIING

The following basic taxi information is applicable to

both nosewheel and tailwheel airplanes.

Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane

under its own power while on the ground. Since an

airplane is moved under its own power between the

parking area and the runway, the pilot must thoroughly

understand and be proficient in taxi procedures.

An awareness of other aircraft that are taking off,

landing, or taxiing, and consideration for the right-ofway of others is essential to safety. When taxiing, the

pilot’s eyes should be looking outside the airplane, to

the sides, as well as the front. The pilot must be aware

of the entire area around the airplane to ensure that the

airplane will clear all obstructions and other aircraft. If

at any time there is doubt about the clearance from an

object, the pilot should stop the airplane and have

someone check the clearance. It may be necessary to

have the airplane towed or physically moved by a

ground crew.

It is difficult to set any rule for a single, safe taxiing

speed. What is reasonable and prudent under some

conditions may be imprudent or hazardous under others. The primary requirements for safe taxiing are positive control, the ability to recognize potential hazards

in time to avoid them, and the ability to stop or turn

where and when desired, without undue reliance on the

brakes. Pilots should proceed at a cautious speed on

congested or busy ramps. Normally, the speed should

be at the rate where movement of the airplane is

dependent on the throttle. That is, slow enough so

when the throttle is closed, the airplane can be stopped

promptly. When yellow taxiway centerline stripes are

provided, they should be observed unless necessary to

clear airplanes or obstructions.

When taxiing, it is best to slow down before

attempting a turn. Sharp, high-speed turns place

undesirable side loads on the landing gear and may

result in an uncontrollable swerve or a ground loop.

This swerve is most likely to occur when turning from

a downwind heading toward an upwind heading. In

moderate to high-wind conditions, pilots will note the

airplane’s tendency to weathervane, or turn into the

wind when the airplane is proceeding crosswind.

When taxiing at appropriate speeds in no-wind

conditions, the aileron and elevator control surfaces

have little or no effect on directional control of the

airplane. The controls should not be considered

steering devices and should be held in a neutral

position. Their proper use while taxiing in windy

conditions will be discussed later. [Figure 2-10]

Steering is accomplished with rudder pedals and

brakes. To turn the airplane on the ground, the pilot

should apply rudder in the desired direction of turn and

use whatever power or brake that is necessary to

control the taxi speed. The rudder pedal should be held

in the direction of the turn until just short of the point

where the turn is to be stopped. Rudder pressure is then

released or opposite pressure is applied as needed.

More engine power may be required to start the

airplane moving forward, or to start a turn, than is

required to keep it moving in any given direction.

When using additional power, the throttle should

immediately be retarded once the airplane begins

moving, to prevent excessive acceleration.

When first beginning to taxi, the brakes should be

tested for proper operation as soon as the airplane is

put in motion. Applying power to start the airplane

Use Up Aileron

on LH Wing and

Neutral Elevator

Use Up Aileron

on RH Wing and

Neutral Elevator

Use Down Aileron

on LH Wing and

Down Elevator

Use Down Aileron

on RH Wing and

Down Elevator

Figure 2-10. Flight control positions during taxi.

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moving forward slowly, then retarding the throttle and

simultaneously applying pressure smoothly to both

brakes does this. If braking action is unsatisfactory, the

engine should be shut down immediately.

The presence of moderate to strong headwinds and/or

a strong propeller slipstream makes the use of the

elevator necessary to maintain control of the pitch

attitude while taxiing. This becomes apparent when

considering the lifting action that may be created on

the horizontal tail surfaces by either of those two

factors. The elevator control in nosewheel-type

airplanes should be held in the neutral position, while

in tailwheel-type airplanes it should be held in the aft

position to hold the tail down.

Downwind taxiing will usually require less engine

power after the initial ground roll is begun, since the

wind will be pushing the airplane forward. [Figure

2-11] To avoid overheating the brakes when taxiing

downwind, keep engine power to a minimum. Rather

than continuously riding the brakes to control speed, it

is better to apply brakes only occasionally. Other than

sharp turns at low speed, the throttle should always be

at idle before the brakes are applied. It is a common

student error to taxi with a power setting that requires

controlling taxi speed with the brakes. This is the

aeronautical equivalent of driving an automobile with

both the accelerator and brake pedals depressed. 

When taxiing with a quartering headwind, the wing on

the upwind side will tend to be lifted by the wind

unless the aileron control is held in that direction

(upwind aileron UP). [Figure 2-12] Moving the aileron

into the UP position reduces the effect of the wind

striking that wing, thus reducing the lifting action.

This control movement will also cause the downwind

aileron to be placed in the DOWN position, thus a

small amount of lift and drag on the downwind wing,

further reducing the tendency of the upwind wing

to rise.

When taxiing with a quartering tailwind, the elevator

should be held in the DOWN position, and the upwind

aileron, DOWN. [Figure 2-13] Since the wind is

striking the airplane from behind, these control

positions reduce the tendency of the wind to get under

the tail and the wing and to nose the airplane over.

The application of these crosswind taxi corrections

helps to minimize the weathervaning tendency and

ultimately results in making the airplane easier to

steer.

Normally, all turns should be started using the rudder

pedal to steer the nosewheel. To tighten the turn after

full pedal deflection is reached, the brake may be

applied as needed. When stopping the airplane, it is

advisable to always stop with the nosewheel straight

ahead to relieve any side load on the nosewheel and to

make it easier to start moving ahead.

During crosswind taxiing, even the nosewheel-type

airplane has some tendency to weathervane. However,

WHEN TAXIING DOWNWIND

Keep engine power

to a minimum.

Do not ride the brakes. 

Reduce power and use

brakes intermittently.

Figure 2-11. Downwind taxi.

Upwind Aileron Up

Downwind Aileron Down

Elevator Neutral

Figure 2-12. Quartering headwind.

Upwind Aileron Down

Downwind Aileron Up

Elevator Down

Figure 2-13. Quartering tailwind.

Figure 2-14. Surface area most affected by wind.

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the weathervaning tendency is less than in

tailwheel-type airplanes because the main wheels are

located farther aft, and the nosewheel’s ground friction

helps to resist the tendency. [Figure 2-14] The

nosewheel linkage from the rudder pedals provides

adequate steering control for safe and efficient ground

handling, and normally, only rudder pressure is

necessary to correct for a crosswind.

BEFORE TAKEOFF CHECK

The before takeoff check is the systematic procedure

for making a check of the engine, controls, systems,

instruments, and avionics prior to flight. Normally, it is

performed after taxiing to a position near the takeoff

end of the runway. Taxiing to that position usually

allows sufficient time for the engine to warm up to at

least minimum operating temperatures. This ensures

adequate lubrication and internal engine clearances

before being operated at high power settings. Many

engines require that the oil temperature reach a

minimum value as stated in the AFM/POH before high

power is applied.

Air-cooled engines generally are closely cowled and

equipped with pressure baffles that direct the flow of

air to the engine in sufficient quantities for cooling in

flight. On the ground, however, much less air is forced

through the cowling and around the baffling.

Prolonged ground operations may cause cylinder

overheating long before there is an indication of rising

oil temperature. Cowl flaps, if available, should be set

according to the AFM/POH.

Before beginning the before takeoff check, the airplane

should be positioned clear of other aircraft. There

should not be anything behind the airplane that might

be damaged by the prop blast. To minimize

overheating during engine runup, it is recommended

that the airplane be headed as nearly as possible into

the wind. After the airplane is properly positioned for

the runup, it should be allowed to roll forward slightly

so that the nosewheel or tailwheel will be aligned fore

and aft.

During the engine runup, the surface under the airplane

should be firm (a smooth, paved, or turf surface if

possible) and free of debris. Otherwise, the propeller

may pick up pebbles, dirt, mud, sand, or other loose

objects and hurl them backwards. This damages the

propeller and may damage the tail of the airplane.

Small chips in the leading edge of the propeller form

stress risers, or lines of concentrated high stress. These

are highly undesirable and may lead to cracks and

possible propeller blade failure.

While performing the engine runup, the pilot must

divide attention inside and outside the airplane. If the

parking brake slips, or if application of the toe brakes

is inadequate for the amount of power applied, the

airplane could move forward unnoticed if attention is

fixed inside the airplane.

Each airplane has different features and equipment,

and the before takeoff checklist provided by the

airplane manufacturer or operator should be used to

perform the runup.

AFTER LANDING

During the after-landing roll, the airplane should be

gradually slowed to normal taxi speed before turning

off the landing runway. Any significant degree of turn

at faster speeds could result in ground looping and

subsequent damage to the airplane.

To give full attention to controlling the airplane during

the landing roll, the after-landing check should be

performed only after the airplane is brought to a

complete stop clear of the active runway. There have

been many cases of the pilot mistakenly grasping the

wrong handle and retracting the landing gear, instead

of the flaps, due to improper division of attention while

the airplane was moving. However, this procedure may

be modified if the manufacturer recommends that

specific after-landing items be accomplished during

landing rollout. For example, when performing a

short-field landing, the manufacturer may recommend

retracting the flaps on rollout to improve braking. In

this situation, the pilot should make a positive

identification of the flap control and retract the flaps.

CLEAR OF RUNWAY

Because of different features and equipment in various

airplanes, the after-landing checklist provided by the

manufacturer should be used. Some of the items may

include:

• Flaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identify and retract

• Cowl flaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Open

• Propeller control . . . . . . . . . . . Full increase

• Trim tabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Set

PARKING

Unless parking in a designated, supervised area, the

pilot should select a location and heading which will

prevent the propeller or jet blast of other airplanes from

striking the airplane broadside. Whenever possible, the

airplane should be parked headed into the existing or

forecast wind. After stopping on the desired heading,

the airplane should be allowed to roll straight ahead

enough to straighten the nosewheel or tailwheel.

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ENGINE SHUTDOWN

Finally, the pilot should always use the procedures in

the manufacturer’s checklist for shutting down the

engine and securing the airplane. Some of the important items include:

Set the parking brakes ON.

Set throttle to IDLE or 1,000 r.p.m. If turbocharged, observe the manufacturer’s spool

down procedure.

Turn ignition switch OFF then ON at idle to

check for proper operation of switch in the OFF

position.

Set propeller control (if equipped) to FULL

INCREASE.

Turn electrical units and radios OFF.

Set mixture control to IDLE CUTOFF.

Turn ignition switch to OFF when engine stops.

Turn master electrical switch to OFF.

Install control lock.

POSTFLIGHT

A flight is never complete until the engine is shut down

and the airplane is secured. A pilot should consider this

an essential part of any flight.

SECURING AND SERVICING

After engine shutdown and deplaning passengers, the

pilot should accomplish a postflight inspection. This

includes checking the general condition of the aircraft.

For a departure, the oil should be checked and fuel

added if required. If the aircraft is going to be inactive,

it is a good operating practice to fill the tanks to the

top to prevent water condensation from forming.

When the flight is completed for the day, the aircraft

should be hangared or tied down and the flight

controls secured.

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

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THE FOUR FUNDAMENTALS

There are four fundamental basic flight maneuvers

upon which all flying tasks are based: straight-andlevel flight, turns, climbs, and descents. All 

controlled flight consists of either one, or a combination

or more than one, of these basic maneuvers. If a student

pilot is able to perform these maneuvers well, and the

student’s proficiency is based on accurate “feel” and

control analysis rather than mechanical movements, the

ability to perform any assigned maneuver will only be

a matter of obtaining a clear visual and mental conception of it. The flight instructor must impart a good

knowledge of these basic elements to the student, and

must combine them and plan their practice so that

perfect performance of each is instinctive without

conscious effort. The importance of this to the success

of flight training cannot be overemphasized. As the

student progresses to more complex maneuvers,

discounting any difficulties in visualizing the

maneuvers, most student difficulties will be caused by

a lack of training, practice, or understanding of the

principles of one or more of these fundamentals. 

EFFECTS AND USE OF THE CONTROLS

In explaining the functions of the controls, the instructor

should emphasize that the controls never change in the

results produced in relation to the pilot. The pilot should

always be considered the center of movement of the airplane, or the reference point from which the movements

of the airplane are judged and described. The following

will always be true, regardless of the airplane’s attitude

in relation to the Earth.

• When back pressure is applied to the elevator control, the airplane’s nose rises in relation to the pilot.

• When forward pressure is applied to the elevator

control, the airplane’s nose lowers in relation to the

pilot.

• When right pressure is applied to the aileron control, the airplane’s right wing lowers in relation to

the pilot.

• When left pressure is applied to the aileron control,

the airplane’s left wing lowers in relation to the

pilot.

• When pressure is applied to the right rudder pedal,

the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the right in

relation to the pilot.

• When pressure is applied to the left rudder pedal,

the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the left in

relation to the pilot.

The preceding explanations should prevent the

beginning pilot from thinking in terms of “up” or

“down” in respect to the Earth, which is only a relative

state to the pilot. It will also make understanding of the

functions of the controls much easier, particularly

when performing steep banked turns and the more

advanced maneuvers. Consequently, the pilot must be

able to properly determine the control application

required to place the airplane in any attitude or flight

condition that is desired.

The flight instructor should explain that the controls

will have a natural “live pressure” while in flight and

that they will remain in neutral position of their own

accord, if the airplane is trimmed properly.

With this in mind, the pilot should be cautioned

never to think of movement of the controls, but of

exerting a force on them against this live pressure or

resistance. Movement of the controls should not be

emphasized; it is the duration and amount of the

force exerted on them that effects the displacement

of the control surfaces and maneuvers the airplane.

The amount of force the airflow exerts on a control

surface is governed by the airspeed and the degree that

the surface is moved out of its neutral or streamlined

position. Since the airspeed will not be the same in all

maneuvers, the actual amount the control surfaces are

moved is of little importance; but it is important that

the pilot maneuver the airplane by applying sufficient

control pressure to obtain a desired result, regardless

of how far the control surfaces are actually moved.

The controls should be held lightly, with the fingers,

not grabbed and squeezed. Pressure should be exerted

on the control yoke with the fingers. A common error

in beginning pilots is a tendency to “choke the stick.”

This tendency should be avoided as it prevents the

development of “feel,” which is an important part of

aircraft control.

The pilot’s feet should rest comfortably against the

rudder pedals. Both heels should support the weight

of the feet on the cockpit floor with the ball of each

foot touching the individual rudder pedals. The legs

and feet should not be tense; they must be relaxed

just as when driving an automobile.

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When using the rudder pedals, pressure should be

applied smoothly and evenly by pressing with the ball

of one foot. Since the rudder pedals are interconnected,

and act in opposite directions, when pressure is applied

to one pedal, pressure on the other must be relaxed proportionately. When the rudder pedal must be moved

significantly, heavy pressure changes should be made

by applying the pressure with the ball of the foot while

the heels slide along the cockpit floor. Remember, the

ball of each foot must rest comfortably on the rudder

pedals so that even slight pressure changes can be felt.

In summary, during flight, it is the pressure the pilot

exerts on the control yoke and rudder pedals that

causes the airplane to move about its axes. When a

control surface is moved out of its streamlined position

(even slightly), the air flowing past it will exert a force

against it and will try to return it to its streamlined position. It is this force that the pilot feels as pressure on

the control yoke and the rudder pedals.

FEEL OF THE AIRPLANE

The ability to sense a flight condition, without relying

on cockpit instrumentation, is often called “feel of the

airplane,” but senses in addition to “feel” are involved.

Sounds inherent to flight are an important sense in

developing “feel.” The air that rushes past the modern light plane cockpit/cabin is often masked by

soundproofing, but it can still be heard. When the

level of sound increases, it indicates that airspeed is

increasing. Also, the powerplant emits distinctive

sound patterns in different conditions of flight. The

sound of the engine in cruise flight may be different

from that in a climb, and different again from that in

a dive. When power is used in fixed-pitch propeller

airplanes, the loss of r.p.m. is particularly noticeable. The amount of noise that can be heard will

depend on how much the slipstream masks it out.

But the relationship between slipstream noise and

powerplant noise aids the pilot in estimating not

only the present airspeed but the trend of the airspeed.

There are three sources of actual “feel” that are very

important to the pilot. One is the pilot’s own body as

it responds to forces of acceleration. The “G” loads

imposed on the airframe are also felt by the pilot.

Centripetal accelerations force the pilot down into the

seat or raise the pilot against the seat belt. Radial

accelerations, as they produce slips or skids of the airframe, shift the pilot from side to side in the seat.

These forces need not be strong, only perceptible by

the pilot to be useful. An accomplished pilot who has

excellent “feel” for the airplane will be able to detect

even the minutest change.

The response of the aileron and rudder controls to the

pilot’s touch is another element of “feel,” and is one

that provides direct information concerning airspeed.

As previously stated, control surfaces move in the

airstream and meet resistance proportional to the

speed of the airstream. When the airstream is fast, the

controls are stiff and hard to move. When the airstream

is slow, the controls move easily, but must be deflected

a greater distance. The pressure that must be exerted

on the controls to effect a desired result, and the lag

between their movement and the response of the airplane, becomes greater as airspeed decreases.

Another type of “feel” comes to the pilot through the

airframe. It consists mainly of vibration. An example

is the aerodynamic buffeting and shaking that precedes

a stall.

Kinesthesia, or the sensing of changes in direction or

speed of motion, is one of the most important senses a

pilot can develop. When properly developed, kinesthesia can warn the pilot of changes in speed and/or

the beginning of a settling or mushing of the airplane.

The senses that contribute to “feel” of the airplane are

inherent in every person. However, “feel” must be

developed. The flight instructor should direct the

beginning pilot to be attuned to these senses and teach

an awareness of their meaning as it relates to various

conditions of flight. To do this effectively, the flight

instructor must fully understand the difference

between perceiving something and merely noticing it.

It is a well established fact that the pilot who develops

a “feel” for the airplane early in flight training will

have little difficulty with advanced flight maneuvers.

ATTITUDE FLYING

In contact (VFR) flying, flying by attitude means visually establishing the airplane’s attitude with reference

to the natural horizon. [Figure 3-1] Attitude is the

angular difference measured between an airplane’s

axis and the line of the Earth’s horizon. Pitch attitude

is the angle formed by the longitudinal axis, and bank

attitude is the angle formed by the lateral axis.

Rotation about the airplane’s vertical axis (yaw) is

termed an attitude relative to the airplane’s flightpath,

but not relative to the natural horizon.

In attitude flying, airplane control is composed of four

components: pitch control, bank control, power control, and trim. 

• Pitch control is the control of the airplane about

the lateral axis by using the elevator to raise and

lower the nose in relation to the natural horizon.

• Bank control is control of the airplane about the longitudinal axis by use of the ailerons to attain a desired

bank angle in relation to the natural horizon.

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3-3

• Power control is used when the flight situation

indicates a need for a change in thrust.

• Trim is used to relieve all possible control pressures held after a desired attitude has been

attained.

The primary rule of attitude flying is:

ATTITUDE + POWER = PERFORMANCE

INTEGRATED FLIGHT INSTRUCTION

When introducing basic flight maneuvers to a beginning

pilot, it is recommended that the “Integrated” or

“Composite” method of flight instruction be used. This

means the use of outside references and flight instruments to establish and maintain desired flight attitudes

and airplane performance. [Figure 3-2] When beginning

pilots use this technique, they achieve a more precise

and competent overall piloting ability. Although this

method of airplane control may become second nature

with experience, the beginning pilot must make a determined effort to master the technique. The basic elements

of which are as follows.

• The airplane’s attitude is established and maintained by positioning the airplane in relation to the

natural horizon. At least 90 percent of the pilot’s

attention should be devoted to this end, along with

PITCH CONTROL

BANK CONTROL

Figure 3-1. Airplane attitude is based on relative positions of the nose and wings on the natural horizon.

No more than

10% of the pilot's 

attention should

be inside the

cockpit.

90% of the time, the pilot's attention should

be outside the cockpit.

Figure 3-2. Integrated or composite method of flight instruction.

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scanning for other airplanes. If, during a recheck of

the pitch and/or bank, either or both are found to be

other than desired, an immediate correction is made

to return the airplane to the proper attitude.

Continuous checks and immediate corrections will

allow little chance for the airplane to deviate from

the desired heading, altitude, and flightpath.

• The airplane’s attitude is confirmed by referring to

flight instruments, and its performance checked. If

airplane performance, as indicated by flight instruments, indicates a need for correction, a specific

amount of correction must be determined, then

applied with reference to the natural horizon. The airplane’s attitude and performance are then rechecked

by referring to flight instruments. The pilot then

maintains the corrected attitude by reference to the

natural horizon.

• The pilot should monitor the airplane’s performance by making numerous quick glances at the

flight instruments. No more than 10 percent of the

pilot’s attention should be inside the cockpit. The

pilot must develop the skill to instantly focus on

the appropriate flight instrument, and then immediately return to outside reference to control the

airplane’s attitude.

The pilot should become familiar with the relationship

between outside references to the natural horizon and

the corresponding indications on flight instruments

inside the cockpit. For example, a pitch attitude adjustment may require a movement of the pilot’s reference

point on the airplane of several inches in relation to the

natural horizon, but correspond to a small fraction of

an inch movement of the reference bar on the airplane’s attitude indicator. Similarly, a deviation from

desired bank, which is very obvious when referencing

the wingtip’s position relative to the natural horizon,

may be nearly imperceptible on the airplane’s attitude

indicator to the beginning pilot.

The use of integrated flight instruction does not, and is

not intended to prepare pilots for flight in instrument

weather conditions. The most common error made by the

beginning student is to make pitch or bank corrections

while still looking inside the cockpit. Control pressure is

applied, but the beginning pilot, not being familiar with

the intricacies of flight by references to instruments,

including such things as instrument lag and gyroscopic

precession, will invariably make excessive attitude corrections and end up “chasing the instruments.” Airplane

attitude by reference to the natural horizon, however, is

immediate in its indications, accurate, and presented

many times larger than any instrument could be. Also,

the beginning pilot must be made aware that anytime, for

whatever reason, airplane attitude by reference to the natural horizon cannot be established and/or maintained, the

situation should be considered a bona fide emergency.

STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT

It is impossible to emphasize too strongly the necessity for forming correct habits in flying straight and

level. All other flight maneuvers are in essence a

deviation from this fundamental flight maneuver.

Many flight instructors and students are prone to

believe that perfection in straight-and-level flight

will come of itself, but such is not the case. It is not

uncommon to find a pilot whose basic flying ability

consistently falls just short of minimum expected

standards, and upon analyzing the reasons for the

shortcomings to discover that the cause is the inability to fly straight and level properly.

Straight-and-level flight is flight in which a constant

heading and altitude are maintained. It is accomplished

by making immediate and measured corrections for deviations in direction and altitude from unintentional slight

turns, descents, and climbs. Level flight, at first, is a matter

of consciously fixing the relationship of the position of

some portion of the airplane, used as a reference point, with

the horizon. In establishing the reference points, the

instructor should place the airplane in the desired position

and aid the student in selecting reference points. The

instructor should be aware that no two pilots see this relationship exactly the same. The references will depend on

where the pilot is sitting, the pilot’s height (whether short

or tall), and the pilot’s manner of sitting. It is, therefore,

important that during the fixing of this relationship, the

pilot sit in a normal manner; otherwise the points will not

be the same when the normal position is resumed.

In learning to control the airplane in level flight, it is

important that the student be taught to maintain a light

grip on the flight controls, and that the control forces

desired be exerted lightly and just enough to produce

the desired result. The student should learn to associate the apparent movement of the references with the

forces which produce it. In this way, the student can

develop the ability to regulate the change desired in

the airplane’s attitude by the amount and direction of

forces applied to the controls without the necessity of

referring to instrument or outside references for each

minor correction.

The pitch attitude for level flight (constant altitude) is

usually obtained by selecting some portion of the airplane’s nose as a reference point, and then keeping

that point in a fixed position relative to the horizon.

[Figure 3-3] Using the principles of attitude flying,

that position should be cross-checked occasionally

against the altimeter to determine whether or not the

pitch attitude is correct. If altitude is being gained or

lost, the pitch attitude should be readjusted in relation to the horizon and then the altimeter rechecked

to determine if altitude is now being maintained. The

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application of forward or back-elevator pressure is

used to control this attitude.

The pitch information obtained from the attitude indicator also will show the position of the nose relative to

the horizon and will indicate whether elevator pressure

is necessary to change the pitch attitude to return to

level flight. However, the primary reference source is

the natural horizon.

In all normal maneuvers, the term “increase the pitch

attitude” implies raising the nose in relation to the horizon; the term “decreasing the pitch attitude” means

lowering the nose.

Straight flight (laterally level flight) is accomplished

by visually checking the relationship of the airplane’s

wingtips with the horizon. Both wingtips should be

equidistant above or below the horizon (depending on

whether the airplane is a high-wing or low-wing type),

and any necessary adjustments should be made with

the ailerons, noting the relationship of control pressure

and the airplane’s attitude. [Figure 3-4] The student

should understand that anytime the wings are banked,

even though very slightly, the airplane will turn. The

objective of straight-and-level flight is to detect small

deviations from laterally level flight as soon as they

occur, necessitating only small corrections. Reference

to the heading indicator should be made to note any

change in direction.

STRAIGHT AND LEVEL

Fixed

Reference Point

Figure 3-3. Nose reference for straight-and-level flight.

Figure 3-4. Wingtip reference for straight-and-level flight.

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Continually observing the wingtips has advantages

other than being the only positive check for leveling the

wings. It also helps divert the pilot’s attention from the

airplane’s nose, prevents a fixed stare, and automatically

expands the pilot’s area of vision by increasing the range

necessary for the pilot’s vision to cover. In practicing

straight-and-level-flight, the wingtips can be used not

only for establishing the airplane’s laterally level attitude or bank, but to a lesser degree, its pitch attitude.

This is noted only for assistance in learning straight-andlevel flight, and is not a recommended practice in normal operations.

The scope of a student’s vision is also very important,

for if it is obscured the student will tend to look out to

one side continually (usually the left) and consequently

lean that way. This not only gives the student a biased

angle from which to judge, but also causes the student

to exert unconscious pressure on the controls in that

direction, which results in dragging a wing.

With the wings approximately level, it is possible to

maintain straight flight by simply exerting the necessary forces on the rudder in the desired direction.

However, the instructor should point out that the

practice of using rudder alone is not correct and may

make precise control of the airplane difficult.

Straight–and-level flight requires almost no application of control pressures if the airplane is properly

trimmed and the air is smooth. For that reason, the

student must not form the habit of constantly moving

the controls unnecessarily. The student must learn to

recognize when corrections are necessary, and then to

make a measured response easily and naturally.

To obtain the proper conception of the forces

required on the rudder during straight-and-levelflight, the airplane must be held level. One of the

most common faults of beginning students is the

tendency to concentrate on the nose of the airplane

and attempting to hold the wings level by observing

the curvature of the nose cowling. With this method,

the reference line is very short and the deviation,

particularly if very slight, can go unnoticed. Also, a

very small deviation from level, by this short reference line, becomes considerable at the wingtips and

results in an appreciable dragging of one wing. This

attitude requires the use of additional rudder to

maintain straight flight, giving a false conception of

neutral control forces. The habit of dragging one

wing, and compensating with rudder pressure, if

allowed to develop is particularly hard to break, and

if not corrected will result in considerable difficulty

in mastering other flight maneuvers.

For all practical purposes, the airspeed will remain constant in straight-and-level flight with a constant power

setting. Practice of intentional airspeed changes, by

increasing or decreasing the power, will provide an

excellent means of developing proficiency in maintaining straight-and-level flight at various speeds.

Significant changes in airspeed will, of course, require

considerable changes in pitch attitude and pitch trim to

maintain altitude. Pronounced changes in pitch attitude

and trim will also be necessary as the flaps and landing

gear are operated.

Common errors in the performance of straight-andlevel flight are:

• Attempting to use improper reference points on

the airplane to establish attitude.

• Forgetting the location of preselected reference

points on subsequent flights.

• Attempting to establish or correct airplane attitude

using flight instruments rather than outside visual

reference.

• Attempting to maintain direction using only rudder control.

• Habitually flying with one wing low.

• “Chasing” the flight instruments rather than

adhering to the principles of attitude flying.

• Too tight a grip on the flight controls resulting in

overcontrol and lack of feel.

• Pushing or pulling on the flight controls rather

than exerting pressure against the airstream.

• Improper scanning and/or devoting insufficient

time to outside visual reference. (Head in the

cockpit.)

• Fixation on the nose (pitch attitude) reference

point.

• Unnecessary or inappropriate control inputs.

• Failure to make timely and measured control

inputs when deviations from straight-and-level

flight are detected.

• Inadequate attention to sensory inputs in developing feel for the airplane.

TRIM CONTROL

The airplane is designed so that the primary flight

controls (rudder, aileron, and elevator) are streamlined with the nonmovable airplane surfaces when

the airplane is cruising straight-and-level at normal

weight and loading. If the airplane is flying out of

that basic balanced condition, one or more of the

control surfaces is going to have to be held out of its

streamlined position by continuous control input.

The use of trim tabs relieves the pilot of this requirement. Proper trim technique is a very important and

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3-7

often overlooked basic flying skill. An improperly

trimmed airplane requires constant control pressures,

produces pilot tension and fatigue, distracts the pilot

from scanning, and contributes to abrupt and erratic

airplane attitude control.

Because of their relatively low power and speed, not

all light airplanes have a complete set of trim tabs

that are adjustable from the cockpit. In airplanes

where rudder, aileron, and elevator trim are available, a definite sequence of trim application should

be used. Elevator/stabilator should be trimmed first

to relieve the need for control pressure to maintain

constant airspeed/pitch attitude. Attempts to trim the

rudder at varying airspeed are impractical in propeller driven airplanes because of the change in the

torque correcting offset of the vertical fin. Once a

constant airspeed/pitch attitude has been established,

the pilot should hold the wings level with aileron

pressure while rudder pressure is trimmed out.

Aileron trim should then be adjusted to relieve any

lateral control yoke pressure.

A common trim control error is the tendency to

overcontrol the airplane with trim adjustments. To

avoid this the pilot must learn to establish and hold

the airplane in the desired attitude using the primary

flight controls. The proper attitude should be established with reference to the horizon and then verified by reference to performance indications on the

flight instruments. The pilot should then apply trim

in the above sequence to relieve whatever hand and

foot pressure had been required. The pilot must

avoid using the trim to establish or correct airplane

attitude. The airplane attitude must be established

and held first, then control pressures trimmed out

so that the airplane will maintain the desired attitude in “hands off” flight. Attempting to “fly the

airplane with the trim tabs” is a common fault in

basic flying technique even among experienced

pilots.

A properly trimmed airplane is an indication of good

piloting skills. Any control pressures the pilot feels

should be a result of deliberate pilot control input during a planned change in airplane attitude, not a result

of pressures being applied by the airplane because the

pilot is allowing it to assume control.

LEVEL TURNS

A turn is made by banking the wings in the direction of

the desired turn. A specific angle of bank is selected by

the pilot, control pressures applied to achieve the

desired bank angle, and appropriate control pressures

exerted to maintain the desired bank angle once it is

established. [Figure 3-5]

All four primary controls are used in close coordination when making turns. Their functions are as follows.

• The ailerons bank the wings and so determine the

rate of turn at any given airspeed.

• The elevator moves the nose of the airplane up or

down in relation to the pilot, and perpendicular to

the wings. Doing that, it both sets the pitch attitude

in the turn and “pulls” the nose of the airplane

around the turn.

• The throttle provides thrust which may be used for

airspeed to tighten the turn.

• The rudder offsets any yaw effects developed by

the other controls. The rudder does not turn the airplane.

For purposes of this discussion, turns are divided into

three classes: shallow turns, medium turns, and steep

turns.

• Shallow turns are those in which the bank (less

than approximately 20°) is so shallow that the

inherent lateral stability of the airplane is acting to

level the wings unless some aileron is applied to

maintain the bank.

• Medium turns are those resulting from a degree of

bank (approximately 20° to 45°) at which the airplane remains at a constant bank.

Figure 3-5. Level turn to the left.

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Steep turns are those resulting from a degree of

bank (45° or more) at which the “overbanking

tendency” of an airplane overcomes stability, and

the bank increases unless aileron is applied to

prevent it.

Changing the direction of the wing’s lift toward one

side or the other causes the airplane to be pulled in that

direction. [Figure 3-6] Applying coordinated aileron

and rudder to bank the airplane in the direction of the

desired turn does this.

When an airplane is flying straight and level, the total lift

is acting perpendicular to the wings and to the Earth. As

the airplane is banked into a turn, the lift then becomes

the resultant of two components. One, the vertical lift

component, continues to act perpendicular to the Earth

and opposes gravity. Second, the horizontal lift component (centripetal) acts parallel to the Earth’s surface and

opposes inertia (apparent centrifugal force). These two

lift components act at right angles to each other, causing

the resultant total lifting force to act perpendicular to the

banked wing of the airplane. It is the horizontal lift component that actually turns the airplane—not the rudder.

When applying aileron to bank the airplane, the lowered

aileron (on the rising wing) produces a greater drag than

the raised aileron (on the lowering wing). [Figure 3-7]

This increased aileron yaws the airplane toward the rising

wing, or opposite to the direction of turn. To counteract

this adverse yawing moment, rudder pressure must be

applied simultaneously with aileron in the desired

direction of turn. This action is required to produce a

coordinated turn.

After the bank has been established in a medium

banked turn, all pressure applied to the aileron may be

relaxed. The airplane will remain at the selected bank

with no further tendency to yaw since there is no

longer a deflection of the ailerons. As a result, pressure may also be relaxed on the rudder pedals, and the

rudder allowed to streamline itself with the direction

of the slipstream. Rudder pressure maintained after the

turn is established will cause the airplane to skid to the

outside of the turn. If a definite effort is made to center

the rudder rather than let it streamline itself to the turn,

it is probable that some opposite rudder pressure will

be exerted inadvertently. This will force the airplane to

yaw opposite its turning path, causing the airplane to

slip to the inside of the turn. The ball in the turn-andslip indicator will be displaced off-center whenever

the airplane is skidding or slipping sideways. [Figure

3-8] In proper coordinated flight, there is no skidding

or slipping. An essential basic airmanship skill is the

ability of the pilot to sense or “feel” any uncoordinated

condition (slip or skid) without referring to instrument

reference. During this stage of training, the flight

instructor should stress the development of this ability

and insist on its use to attain perfect coordination in all

subsequent training.

In all constant altitude, constant airspeed turns, it is

necessary to increase the angle of attack of the wing

when rolling into the turn by applying up elevator.

This is required because part of the vertical lift has

been diverted to horizontal lift. Thus, the total lift must

be increased to compensate for this loss.

To stop the turn, the wings are returned to level flight

by the coordinated use of the ailerons and rudder

applied in the opposite direction. To understand the

relationship between airspeed, bank, and radius of

turn, it should be noted that the rate of turn at any

given true airspeed depends on the horizontal lift component. The horizontal lift component varies in proportion to the amount of bank. Therefore, the rate of

turn at a given true airspeed increases as the angle of

bank is increased. On the other hand, when a turn is

made at a higher true airspeed at a given bank angle,

the inertia is greater and the horizontal lift component

required for the turn is greater, causing the turning rate

Figure 3-6. Change in lift causes airplane to turn.

More lift

Additional

induced drag

Rudder overcomes

adverse yaw to

coordinate the turn

Reduced lift

Figure 3-7. Forces during a turn.

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3-9

to become slower. [Figure 3-9 on next page] Therefore,

at a given angle of bank, a higher true airspeed will

make the radius of turn larger because the airplane will

be turning at a slower rate.

When changing from a shallow bank to a medium

bank, the airspeed of the wing on the outside of the turn

increases in relation to the inside wing as the radius of

turn decreases. The additional lift developed because

of this increase in speed of the wing balances the

inherent lateral stability of the airplane. At any given

airspeed, aileron pressure is not required to maintain

the bank. If the bank is allowed to increase from a

medium to a steep bank, the radius of turn decreases

further. The lift of the outside wing causes the bank to

steepen and opposite aileron is necessary to keep the

bank constant.

As the radius of the turn becomes smaller, a significant

difference develops between the speed of the inside

wing and the speed of the outside wing. The wing on

the outside of the turn travels a longer circuit than the

inside wing, yet both complete their respective circuits

in the same length of time. Therefore, the outside wing

travels faster than the inside wing, and as a result, it

develops more lift. This creates an overbanking

tendency that must be controlled by the use of the

ailerons. [Figure 3-10] Because the outboard wing is

developing more lift, it also has more induced drag.

This causes a slight slip during steep turns that must be

corrected by use of the rudder.

Sometimes during early training in steep turns, the

nose may be allowed to get excessively low resulting

in a significant loss in altitude. To recover, the pilot

should first reduce the angle of bank with coordinated

use of the rudder and aileron, then raise the nose of the

airplane to level flight with the elevator. If recovery

from an excessively nose-low steep bank condition is

attempted by use of the elevator only, it will cause a

steepening of the bank and could result in overstressing the airplane. Normally, small corrections for pitch

during steep turns are accomplished with the elevator,

and the bank is held constant with the ailerons.

To establish the desired angle of bank, the pilot should

use outside visual reference points, as well as the bank

indicator on the attitude indicator.

The best outside reference for establishing the degree of

bank is the angle formed by the raised wing of low-wing

airplanes (the lowered wing of high-wing airplanes) and

the horizon, or the angle made by the top of the engine

cowling and the horizon. [Figure 3-11 on page 3-11]

Since on most light airplanes the engine cowling is fairly

flat, its horizontal angle to the horizon will give some

indication of the approximate degree of bank. Also,

information obtained from the attitude indicator will

show the angle of the wing in relation to the horizon.

Information from the turn coordinator, however, will not.

SKID COORDINATED SLIP

 TURN

Pilot feels

sideways force

to outside of turn

Pilot feels

force straight

down into seat

Pilot feels

sideways force

to inside of turn

Ball to outside

of turn

Ball centered Ball to inside

of turn

Figure 3-8. Indications of a slip and skid.

OVERBANKING TENDENCY

Outer wing travels greater distance

 • Higher Speed

 • More Lift 

Inner wing travels shorter distance

 • Lower speed

 • Less lift

Figure 3-10. Overbanking tendency during a steep turn.

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3-10

CONSTANT AIRSPEED

10° Angle of Bank

20° Angle of Bank

30° Angle of Bank

When airspeed is 

held constant, a 

larger angle of bank 

will result in a 

smaller turn radius 

and a greater turn 

rate.

CONSTANT ANGLE OF BANK

When angle of bank 

is held constant, a 

slower airspeed will 

result in a smaller 

turn radius and 

greater turn rate.

80 kts

90 kts

100 kts

Figure 3-9. Angle of bank and airspeed regulate rate and radius of turn.

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3-11

The pilot’s posture while seated in the airplane is very

important, particularly during turns. It will affect the

interpretation of outside visual references. At the

beginning, the student may lean away from the turn in

an attempt to remain upright in relation to the ground

rather than ride with the airplane. This should be corrected immediately if the student is to properly learn to

use visual references. [Figure 3-12]

Parallax error is common among students and experienced pilots. This error is a characteristic of airplanes

that have side-by-side seats because the pilot is seated to

one side of the longitudinal axis about which the airplane

rolls. This makes the nose appear to rise when making a

left turn and to descend when making right turns. [Figure

3-13]

Beginning students should not use large aileron and

rudder applications because this produces a rapid roll

rate and allows little time for corrections before the

desired bank is reached. Slower (small control displacement) roll rates provide more time to make

necessary pitch and bank corrections. As soon as

the airplane rolls from the wings-level attitude, the

nose should also start to move along the horizon,

increasing its rate of travel proportionately as the

bank is increased.

The following variations provide excellent guides.

• If the nose starts to move before the bank starts,

rudder is being applied too soon.

• If the bank starts before the nose starts turning, or

the nose moves in the opposite direction, the rudder is being applied too late.

• If the nose moves up or down when entering a

bank, excessive or insufficient up elevator is being

applied.

As the desired angle of bank is established, aileron

and rudder pressures should be relaxed. This will

stop the bank from increasing because the aileron

and rudder control surfaces will be neutral in their

streamlined position. The up-elevator pressure

should not be relaxed, but should be held constant to

maintain a constant altitude. Throughout the turn, the

pilot should cross-check the airspeed indicator, and

if the airspeed has decreased more than 5 knots, additional power should be used. The cross-check should

also include outside references, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator (VSI), which can help determine

whether or not the pitch attitude is correct. If gaining

or losing altitude, the pitch attitude should be

adjusted in relation to the horizon, and then the

altimeter and VSI rechecked to determine if altitude

is being maintained.

Figure 3-11. Visual reference for angle of bank.

RIGHT WRONG

Figure 3-13. Parallax view.

Figure 3-12. Right and wrong posture while seated in the

airplane.

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3-12

During all turns, the ailerons, rudder, and elevator are

used to correct minor variations in pitch and bank just

as they are in straight-and-level flight.

The rollout from a turn is similar to the roll-in except

the flight controls are applied in the opposite direction.

Aileron and rudder are applied in the direction of the

rollout or toward the high wing. As the angle of bank

decreases, the elevator pressure should be relaxed as

necessary to maintain altitude.

Since the airplane will continue turning as long as there

is any bank, the rollout must be started before reaching

the desired heading. The amount of lead required to roll

out on the desired heading will depend on the degree of

bank used in the turn. Normally, the lead is one-half the

degrees of bank. For example, if the bank is 30°, lead the

rollout by 15°. As the wings become level, the control

pressures should be smoothly relaxed so that the controls

are neutralized as the airplane returns to straight-andlevel flight. As the rollout is being completed, attention

should be given to outside visual references, as well as

the attitude and heading indicators to determine that the

wings are being leveled and the turn stopped.

Instruction in level turns should begin with medium

turns, so that the student has an opportunity to grasp

the fundamentals of turning flight without having

to deal with overbanking tendency, or the inherent

stability of the airplane attempting to level the

wings. The instructor should not ask the student to

roll the airplane from bank to bank, but to change

its attitude from level to bank, bank to level, and so

on with a slight pause at the termination of each

phase. This pause allows the airplane to free itself

from the effects of any misuse of the controls and

assures a correct start for the next turn. During

these exercises, the idea of control forces, rather

than movement, should be emphasized by pointing

out the resistance of the controls to varying forces

applied to them. The beginning student should be

encouraged to use the rudder freely. Skidding in this

phase indicates positive control use, and may be

easily corrected later. The use of too little rudder, or

rudder use in the wrong direction at this stage of

training, on the other hand, indicates a lack of

proper conception of coordination.

In practicing turns, the action of the airplane’s nose

will show any error in coordination of the controls.

Often, during the entry or recovery from a bank, the

nose will describe a vertical arc above or below the

horizon, and then remain in proper position after the

bank is established. This is the result of lack of timing

and coordination of forces on the elevator and rudder

controls during the entry and recovery. It indicates that

the student has a knowledge of correct turns, but that

entry and recovery techniques are in error.

Because the elevator and ailerons are on one control,

and pressures on both are executed simultaneously, the

beginning pilot is often apt to continue pressure on one

of these unintentionally when force on the other only

is intended. This is particularly true in left-hand turns,

because the position of the hands makes correct

movements slightly awkward at first. This is sometimes responsible for the habit of climbing slightly in

right-hand turns and diving slightly in left-hand

turns. This results from many factors, including the

unequal rudder pressures required to the right and to

the left when turning, due to the torque effect.

The tendency to climb in right-hand turns and descend

in left-hand turns is also prevalent in airplanes having

side-by-side cockpit seating. In this case, it is due to

the pilot’s being seated to one side of the longitudinal

axis about which the airplane rolls. This makes the

nose appear to rise during a correctly executed left turn

and to descend during a correctly executed right turn.

An attempt to keep the nose on the same apparent level

will cause climbing in right turns and diving in left

turns.

Excellent coordination and timing of all the controls in

turning requires much practice. It is essential that this

coordination be developed, because it is the very basis

of this fundamental flight maneuver.

If the body is properly relaxed, it will act as a pendulum and may be swayed by any force acting on it.

During a skid, it will be swayed away from the turn,

and during a slip, toward the inside of the turn. The

same effects will be noted in tendencies to slide on the

seat. As the “feel” of flying develops, the properly

directed student will become highly sensitive to this

last tendency and will be able to detect the presence

of, or even the approach of, a slip or skid long before

any other indication is present.

Common errors in the performance of level turns are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area before beginning the turn.

• Attempting to execute the turn solely by instrument reference.

• Attempting to sit up straight, in relation to the

ground, during a turn, rather than riding with the

airplane.

• Insufficient feel for the airplane as evidenced by

the inability to detect slips/skids without reference

to flight instruments. 

• Attempting to maintain a constant bank angle by

referencing the “cant” of the airplane’s nose.

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3-13

• Fixating on the nose reference while excluding

wingtip reference.

• “Ground shyness”—making “flat turns” (skidding) while operating at low altitudes in a conscious or subconscious effort to avoid banking

close to the ground.

• Holding rudder in the turn.

• Gaining proficiency in turns in only one direction

(usually the left).

• Failure to coordinate the use of throttle with other

controls.

• Altitude gain/loss during the turn.

CLIMBS AND CLIMBING TURNS

When an airplane enters a climb, it changes its flightpath from level flight to an inclined plane or climb

attitude. In a climb, weight no longer acts in a direction perpendicular to the flightpath. It acts in a rearward direction. This causes an increase in total drag

requiring an increase in thrust (power) to balance the

forces. An airplane can only sustain a climb angle

when there is sufficient thrust to offset increased drag;

therefore, climb is limited by the thrust available.

Like other maneuvers, climbs should be performed

using outside visual references and flight instruments.

It is important that the pilot know the engine power

settings and pitch attitudes that will produce the following conditions of climb.

NORMAL CLIMB—Normal climb is performed at

an airspeed recommended by the airplane manufacturer. Normal climb speed is generally somewhat

higher than the airplane’s best rate of climb. The additional airspeed provides better engine cooling, easier

control, and better visibility over the nose. Normal

climb is sometimes referred to as “cruise climb.”

Complex or high performance airplanes may have a

specified cruise climb in addition to normal climb.

BEST RATE OF CLIMB—Best rate of climb (VY) is

performed at an airspeed where the most excess power

is available over that required for level flight. This

condition of climb will produce the most gain in altitude in the least amount of time (maximum rate of

climb in feet per minute). The best rate of climb made

at full allowable power is a maximum climb. It must

be fully understood that attempts to obtain more

climb performance than the airplane is capable of by

increasing pitch attitude will result in a decrease in

the rate of altitude gain.

BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB—Best angle of climb

(VX) is performed at an airspeed that will produce the

most altitude gain in a given distance. Best angle-ofclimb airspeed (VX) is considerably lower than best

rate of climb (VY), and is the airspeed where the most

excess thrust is available over that required for level

flight. The best angle of climb will result in a steeper

climb path, although the airplane will take longer to

reach the same altitude than it would at best rate of

climb. The best angle of climb, therefore, is used in

clearing obstacles after takeoff. [Figure 3-14]

It should be noted that, as altitude increases, the speed

for best angle of climb increases, and the speed for best

rate of climb decreases. The point at which these two

speeds meet is the absolute ceiling of the airplane.

[Figure 3-15 on next page]

A straight climb is entered by gently increasing pitch

attitude to a predetermined level using back-elevator

pressure, and simultaneously increasing engine power

to the climb power setting. Due to an increase in

downwash over the horizontal stabilizer as power is

applied, the airplane’s nose will tend to immediately

begin to rise of its own accord to an attitude higher than

Best angle-of-climb airspeed (Vx)

gives the greatest altitude gain in the 

shortest horizontal distance.

Best rate-of-climb airspeed (Vy)

gives the greatest altitude gain 

in the shortest time.

Figure 3-14. Best angle of climb vs. best rate of climb.

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that at which it would stabilize. The pilot must be prepared for this.

As a climb is started, the airspeed will gradually diminish. This reduction in airspeed is gradual because of

the initial momentum of the airplane. The thrust

required to maintain straight-and-level flight at a given

airspeed is not sufficient to maintain the same airspeed

in a climb. Climbing flight requires more power than

flying level because of the increased drag caused by

gravity acting rearward. Therefore, power must be

advanced to a higher power setting to offset the

increased drag.

The propeller effects at climb power are a primary factor. This is because airspeed is significantly slower

than at cruising speed, and the airplane’s angle of

attack is significantly greater. Under these conditions,

torque and asymmetrical loading of the propeller will

cause the airplane to roll and yaw to the left. To

counteract this, the right rudder must be used.

During the early practice of climbs and climbing turns,

this may make coordination of the controls seem awkward (left climbing turn holding right rudder), but after

a little practice this correction for propeller effects will

become instinctive.

Trim is also a very important consideration during a

climb. After the climb has been established, the airplane should be trimmed to relieve all pressures from

the flight controls. If changes are made in the pitch attitude, power, or airspeed, the airplane should be

retrimmed in order to relieve control pressures.

When performing a climb, the power should be

advanced to the climb power recommended by the

manufacturer. If the airplane is equipped with a controllable-pitch propeller, it will have not only an

engine tachometer, but also a manifold pressure gauge.

Normally, the flaps and landing gear (if retractable)

should be in the retracted position to reduce drag.

As the airplane gains altitude during a climb, the manifold pressure gauge (if equipped) will indicate a loss

in manifold pressure (power). This is because the same

volume of air going into the engine’s induction system

gradually decreases in density as altitude increases.

When the volume of air in the manifold decreases, it

causes a loss of power. This will occur at the rate of

approximately 1-inch of manifold pressure for each

1,000-foot gain in altitude. During prolonged climbs,

the throttle must be continually advanced, if constant

power is to be maintained.

To enter the climb, simultaneously advance the throttle

and apply back-elevator pressure to raise the nose of the

airplane to the proper position in relation to the horizon.

As power is increased, the airplane’s nose will rise due

to increased download on the stabilizer. This is caused

by increased slipstream. As the pitch attitude increases

and the airspeed decreases, progressively more right

rudder must be applied to compensate for propeller

effects and to hold a constant heading.

After the climb is established, back-elevator pressure

must be maintained to keep the pitch attitude constant.

As the airspeed decreases, the elevators will try to

return to their neutral or streamlined position, and the

airplane’s nose will tend to lower. Nose-up elevator

trim should be used to compensate for this so that the

pitch attitude can be maintained without holding backelevator pressure. Throughout the climb, since the

power is fixed at the climb power setting, the airspeed

is controlled by the use of elevator.

A cross-check of the airspeed indicator, attitude indicator, and the position of the airplane’s nose in relation

to the horizon will determine if the pitch attitude is

correct. At the same time, a constant heading should

be held with the wings level if a straight climb is being

performed, or a constant angle of bank and rate of turn

if a climbing turn is being performed. [Figure 3-16]

To return to straight-and-level flight from a climb, it is

necessary to initiate the level-off at approximately 10

percent of the rate of climb. For example, if the airplane

is climbing at 500 feet per minute (f.p.m.), leveling off

should start 50 feet below the desired altitude. The nose

must be lowered gradually because a loss of altitude

will result if the pitch attitude is changed to the level

flight position without allowing the airspeed to increase

proportionately.

Absolute Ceiling

Service Ceiling

Figure 3-15. Absolute ceiling.

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After the airplane is established in level flight at a

constant altitude, climb power should be retained

temporarily so that the airplane will accelerate to the

cruise airspeed more rapidly. When the speed reaches

the desired cruise speed, the throttle setting and the

propeller control (if equipped) should be set to the

cruise power setting and the airplane trimmed. After

allowing time for engine temperatures to stabilize,

adjust the mixture control as required.

In the performance of climbing turns, the following

factors should be considered.

• With a constant power setting, the same pitch attitude and airspeed cannot be maintained in a bank

as in a straight climb due to the increase in the total

lift required.

• The degree of bank should not be too steep. A

steep bank significantly decreases the rate of

climb. The bank should always remain constant. 

• It is necessary to maintain a constant airspeed and

constant rate of turn in both right and left turns.

The coordination of all flight controls is a primary

factor.

• At a constant power setting, the airplane will climb

at a slightly shallower climb angle because some

of the lift is being used to turn the airplane.

• Attention should be diverted from fixation on the

airplane’s nose and divided equally among inside

and outside references.

There are two ways to establish a climbing turn. Either

establish a straight climb and then turn, or enter the

climb and turn simultaneously. Climbing turns should

be used when climbing to the local practice area.

Climbing turns allow better visual scanning, and it is

easier for other pilots to see a turning aircraft.

In any turn, the loss of vertical lift and increased

induced drag, due to increased angle of attack,

becomes greater as the angle of bank is increased. So

shallow turns should be used to maintain an efficient

rate of climb.

All the factors that affect the airplane during level

(constant altitude) turns will affect it during climbing

turns or any other training maneuver. It will be noted

that because of the low airspeed, aileron drag (adverse

yaw) will have a more prominent effect than it did in

straight-and-level flight and more rudder pressure will

have to be blended with aileron pressure to keep the

airplane in coordinated flight during changes in bank

angle. Additional elevator back pressure and trim will

also have to be used to compensate for centrifugal

force, for the loss of vertical lift, and to keep pitch attitude constant.

During climbing turns, as in any turn, the loss of vertical lift and induced drag due to increased angle of

attack becomes greater as the angle of bank is

increased, so shallow turns should be used to maintain

an efficient rate of climb. If a medium or steep banked

turn is used, climb performance will be degraded.

Common errors in the performance of climbs and

climbing turns are:

• Attempting to establish climb pitch attitude by referencing the airspeed indicator, resulting in “chasing” the airspeed.

• Applying elevator pressure too aggressively,

resulting in an excessive climb angle.

• Applying elevator pressure too aggressively during level-off resulting in negative “G” forces. 

• Inadequate or inappropriate rudder pressure during climbing turns. 

• Allowing the airplane to yaw in straight climbs,

usually due to inadequate right rudder pressure.

• Fixation on the nose during straight climbs, resulting in climbing with one wing low.

• Failure to initiate a climbing turn properly with use

of rudder and elevators, resulting in little turn, but

rather a climb with one wing low.

• Improper coordination resulting in a slip which

counteracts the effect of the climb, resulting in little or no altitude gain.

• Inability to keep pitch and bank attitude constant

during climbing turns. 

• Attempting to exceed the airplane’s climb capability.

DESCENTS AND DESCENDING TURNS

When an airplane enters a descent, it changes its flightpath from level to an inclined plane. It is important that

Figure 3-16. Climb indications.

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the pilot know the power settings and pitch attitudes

that will produce the following conditions of descent.

PARTIAL POWER DESCENT—The normal

method of losing altitude is to descend with partial

power. This is often termed “cruise” or “enroute”

descent. The airspeed and power setting recommended

by the airplane manufacturer for prolonged descent

should be used. The target descent rate should be 400 –

500 f.p.m. The airspeed may vary from cruise airspeed

to that used on the downwind leg of the landing pattern. But the wide range of possible airspeeds should

not be interpreted to permit erratic pitch changes. The

desired airspeed, pitch attitude, and power combination should be preselected and kept constant.

DESCENT AT MINIMUM SAFE AIRSPEED—A

minimum safe airspeed descent is a nose-high, power

assisted descent condition principally used for clearing

obstacles during a landing approach to a short runway.

The airspeed used for this descent condition is recommended by the airplane manufacturer and normally is

no greater than 1.3 VSO. Some characteristics of the

minimum safe airspeed descent are a steeper than normal descent angle, and the excessive power that may

be required to produce acceleration at low airspeed

should “mushing” and/or an excessive rate of descent

be allowed to develop.

GLIDES—A glide is a basic maneuver in which the

airplane loses altitude in a controlled descent with little

or no engine power; forward motion is maintained by

gravity pulling the airplane along an inclined path and

the descent rate is controlled by the pilot balancing the

forces of gravity and lift.

Although glides are directly related to the practice of

power-off accuracy landings, they have a specific

operational purpose in normal landing approaches, and

forced landings after engine failure. Therefore, it is

necessary that they be performed more subconsciously

than other maneuvers because most of the time during

their execution, the pilot will be giving full attention to

details other than the mechanics of performing the

maneuver. Since glides are usually performed relatively close to the ground, accuracy of their execution

and the formation of proper technique and habits are of

special importance.

Because the application of controls is somewhat different in glides than in power-on descents, gliding

maneuvers require the perfection of a technique

somewhat different from that required for ordinary

power-on maneuvers. This control difference is

caused primarily by two factors—the absence of the

usual propeller slipstream, and the difference in the

relative effectiveness of the various control surfaces

at slow speeds.

The glide ratio of an airplane is the distance the airplane will, with power off, travel forward in relation to

the altitude it loses. For instance, if an airplane travels

10,000 feet forward while descending 1,000 feet, its

glide ratio is said to be 10 to 1.

The glide ratio is affected by all four fundamental

forces that act on an airplane (weight, lift, drag, and

thrust). If all factors affecting the airplane are constant,

the glide ratio will be constant. Although the effect of

wind will not be covered in this section, it is a very

prominent force acting on the gliding distance of the

airplane in relationship to its movement over the

ground. With a tailwind, the airplane will glide farther

because of the higher groundspeed. Conversely, with a

headwind the airplane will not glide as far because of

the slower groundspeed.

Variations in weight do not affect the glide angle provided the pilot uses the correct airspeed. Since it is the

lift over drag (L/D) ratio that determines the distance the

airplane can glide, weight will not affect the distance.

The glide ratio is based only on the relationship of the

aerodynamic forces acting on the airplane. The only

effect weight has is to vary the time the airplane will

glide. The heavier the airplane the higher the airspeed

must be to obtain the same glide ratio. For example, if

two airplanes having the same L/D ratio, but different

weights, start a glide from the same altitude, the heavier

airplane gliding at a higher airspeed will arrive at the

same touchdown point in a shorter time. Both airplanes

will cover the same distance, only the lighter airplane

will take a longer time.

Under various flight conditions, the drag factor may

change through the operation of the landing gear

and/or flaps. When the landing gear or the flaps are

extended, drag increases and the airspeed will

decrease unless the pitch attitude is lowered. As the

pitch is lowered, the glidepath steepens and reduces

the distance traveled. With the power off, a windmilling propeller also creates considerable drag,

thereby retarding the airplane’s forward movement.

Although the propeller thrust of the airplane is normally dependent on the power output of the engine,

the throttle is in the closed position during a glide so

the thrust is constant. Since power is not used during a

glide or power-off approach, the pitch attitude must be

adjusted as necessary to maintain a constant airspeed.

The best speed for the glide is one at which the airplane will travel the greatest forward distance for a

given loss of altitude in still air. This best glide speed

corresponds to an angle of attack resulting in the least

drag on the airplane and giving the best lift-to-drag

ratio (L/DMAX). [Figure 3-17]

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Any change in the gliding airspeed will result in a proportionate change in glide ratio. Any speed, other than

the best glide speed, results in more drag. Therefore, as

the glide airspeed is reduced or increased from the

optimum or best glide speed, the glide ratio is also

changed. When descending at a speed below the best

glide speed, induced drag increases. When descending

at a speed above best glide speed, parasite drag

increases. In either case, the rate of descent will

increase. [Figure 3-18]

This leads to a cardinal rule of airplane flying that a

student pilot must understand and appreciate: The pilot

must never attempt to “stretch” a glide by applying

back-elevator pressure and reducing the airspeed

below the airplane’s recommended best glide speed.

Attempts to stretch a glide will invariably result in an

increase in the rate and angle of descent and may precipitate an inadvertent stall.

To enter a glide, the pilot should close the throttle and

advance the propeller (if so equipped) to low pitch

(high r.p.m.). A constant altitude should be held with

back pressure on the elevator control until the airspeed

decreases to the recommended glide speed. Due to a

decrease in downwash over the horizontal stabilizer as

power is reduced, the airplane’s nose will tend to

immediately begin to lower of its own accord to an attitude lower than that at which it would stabilize. The

pilot must be prepared for this. To keep pitch attitude

constant after a power change, the pilot must counteract the immediate trim change. If the pitch attitude

is allowed to decrease during glide entry, excess

speed will be carried into the glide and retard the

attainment of the correct glide angle and airspeed.

Speed should be allowed to dissipate before the pitch

attitude is decreased. This point is particularly

important in so-called clean airplanes as they are

very slow to lose their speed and any slight deviation

of the nose downwards results in an immediate

increase in airspeed. Once the airspeed has dissipated to normal or best glide speed, the pitch attitude

should be allowed to decrease to maintain that speed.

This should be done with reference to the horizon.

When the speed has stabilized, the airplane should

be retrimmed for “hands off” flight.

When the approximate gliding pitch attitude is

established, the airspeed indicator should be

checked. If the airspeed is higher than the recommended speed, the pitch attitude is too low, and if

the airspeed is less than recommended, the pitch

attitude is too high; therefore, the pitch attitude

should be readjusted accordingly referencing the

horizon. After the adjustment has been made, the

airplane should be retrimmed so that it will maintain

this attitude without the need to hold pressure on the

elevator control. The principles of attitude flying

require that the proper flight attitude be established

using outside visual references first, then using the

flight instruments as a secondary check. It is a good

practice to always retrim the airplane after each

pitch adjustment.

A stabilized power-off descent at the best glide speed

is often referred to as a normal glide. The flight

instructor should demonstrate a normal glide, and

direct the student pilot to memorize the airplane’s

angle and speed by visually checking the airplane’s

attitude with reference to the horizon, and noting the

pitch of the sound made by the air passing over the

structure, the pressure on the controls, and the feel of

Increasing Lift-to-Drag Ratio

Increasing Angle of Attack

L/Dmax

Figure 3-17. L/DMAX.

Best Glide Speed

Too Fast

Too Slow

Figure 3-18. Best glide speed provides the greatest forward distance for a given loss of altitude.

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the airplane. Due to lack of experience, the beginning

student may be unable to recognize slight variations

of speed and angle of bank immediately by vision or

by the pressure required on the controls. Hearing will

probably be the indicator that will be the most easily

used at first. The instructor should, therefore, be certain that the student understands that an increase in

the pitch of sound denotes increasing speed, while a

decrease in pitch denotes less speed. When such an

indication is received, the student should consciously

apply the other two means of perception so as to

establish the proper relationship. The student pilot

must use all three elements consciously until they

become habits, and must be alert when attention is

diverted from the attitude of the airplane and be

responsive to any warning given by a variation in the

feel of the airplane or controls, or by a change in the

pitch of the sound.

After a good comprehension of the normal glide is

attained, the student pilot should be instructed in the differences in the results of normal and “abnormal” glides.

Abnormal glides being those conducted at speeds other

than the normal best glide speed. Pilots who do not

acquire an understanding and appreciation of these

differences will experience difficulties with accuracy

landings, which are comparatively simple if the

fundamentals of the glide are thoroughly understood.

Too fast a glide during the approach for landing

invariably results in floating over the ground for

varying distances, or even overshooting, while too

slow a glide causes undershooting, flat approaches,

and hard touchdowns. A pilot without the ability to

recognize a normal glide will not be able to judge

where the airplane will go, or can be made to go, in

an emergency. Whereas, in a normal glide, the flightpath may be sighted to the spot on the ground on

which the airplane will land. This cannot be done in

any abnormal glide.

GLIDING TURNS—The action of the control

system is somewhat different in a glide than with

power, making gliding maneuvers stand in a class by

themselves and require the perfection of a technique

different from that required for ordinary power

maneuvers. The control difference is caused mainly by

two factors—the absence of the usual slipstream, and

the difference or relative effectiveness of the various

control surfaces at various speeds and particularly at

reduced speed. The latter factor has its effect

exaggerated by the first, and makes the task of

coordination even more difficult for the inexperienced

pilot. These principles should be thoroughly explained

in order that the student may be alert to the necessary

differences in coordination.

After a feel for the airplane and control touch have

been developed, the necessary compensation will be

automatic; but while any mechanical tendency exists,

the student will have difficulty executing gliding turns,

particularly when making a practical application of

them in attempting accuracy landings.

Three elements in gliding turns which tend to force the

nose down and increase glide speed are:

• Decrease in effective lift due to the direction of

the lifting force being at an angle to the pull of

gravity.

• The use of the rudder acting as it does in the entry

to a power turn.

• The normal stability and inherent characteristics

of the airplane to nose down with the power off.

These three factors make it necessary to use more back

pressure on the elevator than is required for a straight

glide or a power turn and, therefore, have a greater

effect on the relationship of control coordination.

When recovery is being made from a gliding turn, the

force on the elevator control which was applied during

the turn must be decreased or the nose will come up

too high and considerable speed will be lost. This error

will require considerable attention and conscious control adjustment before the normal glide can again be

resumed.

In order to maintain the most efficient or normal glide

in a turn, more altitude must be sacrificed than in a

straight glide since this is the only way speed can be

maintained without power. Turning in a glide

decreases the performance of the airplane to an even

greater extent than a normal turn with power.

Still another factor is the difference in rudder action in

turns with and without power. In power turns it is

required that the desired recovery point be anticipated in

the use of controls and that considerably more pressure

than usual be exerted on the rudder. In the recovery from

a gliding turn, the same rudder action takes place but

without as much pressure being necessary. The actual

displacement of the rudder is approximately the same,

but it seems to be less in a glide because the resistance to

pressure is so much less due to the absence of the propeller slipstream. This often results in a much greater

application of rudder through a greater range than is realized, resulting in an abrupt stoppage of the turn when the

rudder is applied for recovery. This factor is particularly

important during landing practice since the student

almost invariably recovers from the last turn too soon

and may enter a cross-control condition trying to correct

the landing with the rudder alone. This results in landing

from a skid that is too easily mistaken for drift.

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There is another danger in excessive rudder use during

gliding turns. As the airplane skids, the bank will

increase. This often alarms the beginning pilot when it

occurs close to the ground, and the pilot may respond

by applying aileron pressure toward the outside of the

turn to stop the bank. At the same time, the rudder

forces the nose down and the pilot may apply back-elevator pressure to hold it up. If allowed to progress, this

situation may result in a fully developed cross-control

condition. A stall in this situation will almost certainly

result in a spin.

The level-off from a glide must be started before

reaching the desired altitude because of the airplane’s

downward inertia. The amount of lead depends on the

rate of descent and the pilot’s control technique. With

too little lead, there will be a tendency to descend

below the selected altitude. For example, assuming a

500-foot per minute rate of descent, the altitude must

be led by 100 – 150 feet to level off at an airspeed

higher than the glide speed. At the lead point, power

should be increased to the appropriate level flight

cruise setting so the desired airspeed will be attained

at the desired altitude. The nose tends to rise as both

airspeed and downwash on the tail section increase.

The pilot must be prepared for this and smoothly control the pitch attitude to attain level flight attitude so

that the level-off is completed at the desired altitude.

Particular attention should be paid to the action of the

airplane’s nose when recovering (and entering) gliding

turns. The nose must not be allowed to describe an arc

with relation to the horizon, and particularly it must

not be allowed to come up during recovery from turns,

which require a constant variation of the relative pressures on the different controls.

Common errors in the performance of descents and

descending turns are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Inadequate back-elevator control during glide

entry resulting in too steep a glide.

• Failure to slow the airplane to approximate glide

speed prior to lowering pitch attitude.

• Attempting to establish/maintain a normal glide

solely by reference to flight instruments.

• Inability to sense changes in airspeed through

sound and feel.

• Inability to stabilize the glide (chasing the airspeed

indicator).

• Attempting to “stretch” the glide by applying

back-elevator pressure.

• Skidding or slipping during gliding turns due to

inadequate appreciation of the difference in rudder

action as opposed to turns with power. 

• Failure to lower pitch attitude during gliding turn

entry resulting in a decrease in airspeed. 

• Excessive rudder pressure during recovery from

gliding turns. 

• Inadequate pitch control during recovery from

straight glides. 

• “Ground shyness”—resulting in cross-controlling

during gliding turns near the ground.

• Failure to maintain constant bank angle during

gliding turns.

PITCH AND POWER

No discussion of climbs and descents would be

complete without touching on the question of what

controls altitude and what controls airspeed. The

pilot must understand the effects of both power and

elevator control, working together, during different

conditions of flight. The closest one can come to a

formula for determining airspeed/altitude control

that is valid under all circumstances is a basic principle of attitude flying which states:

“At any pitch attitude, the amount of power used

will determine whether the airplane will climb,

descend, or remain level at that attitude.”

Through a wide range of nose-low attitudes, a descent

is the only possible condition of flight. The addition of

power at these attitudes will only result in a greater rate

of descent at a faster airspeed.

Through a range of attitudes from very slightly

nose-low to about 30° nose-up, a typical light airplane can be made to climb, descend, or maintain

altitude depending on the power used. In about the

lower third of this range, the airplane will descend

at idle power without stalling. As pitch attitude is

increased, however, engine power will be required

to prevent a stall. Even more power will be required

to maintain altitude, and even more for a climb. At a

pitch attitude approaching 30° nose-up, all available

power will provide only enough thrust to maintain

altitude. A slight increase in the steepness of climb

or a slight decrease in power will produce a descent.

From that point, the least inducement will result in a

stall.

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4-1

INTRODUCTION

The maintenance of lift and control of an airplane in

flight requires a certain minimum airspeed. This

critical airspeed depends on certain factors, such as

gross weight, load factors, and existing density altitude.

The minimum speed below which further controlled

flight is impossible is called the stalling speed. An

important feature of pilot training is the development

of the ability to estimate the margin of safety above the

stalling speed. Also, the ability to determine the

characteristic responses of any airplane at different

airspeeds is of great importance to the pilot. The

student pilot, therefore, must develop this awareness in

order to safely avoid stalls and to operate an airplane

correctly and safely at slow airspeeds.

SLOW FLIGHT

Slow flight could be thought of, by some, as a speed

that is less than cruise. In pilot training and testing,

however, slow flight is broken down into two distinct

elements: (1) the establishment, maintenance of, and

maneuvering of the airplane at airspeeds and in

configurations appropriate to takeoffs, climbs,

descents, landing approaches and go-arounds, and, (2)

maneuvering at the slowest airspeed at which the

airplane is capable of maintaining controlled flight

without indications of a stall—usually 3 to 5 knots

above stalling speed.

FLIGHT AT LESS THAN CRUISE AIRSPEEDS

Maneuvering during slow flight demonstrates the flight

characteristics and degree of controllability of an

airplane at less than cruise speeds. The ability to

determine the characteristic control responses at the

lower airspeeds appropriate to takeoffs, departures,

and landing approaches is a critical factor in

stall awareness.

As airspeed decreases, control effectiveness decreases

disproportionately. For instance, there may be a certain

loss of effectiveness when the airspeed is reduced from

30 to 20 m.p.h. above the stalling speed, but there will

normally be a much greater loss as the airspeed is

further reduced to 10 m.p.h. above stalling. The

objective of maneuvering during slow flight is to

develop the pilot’s sense of feel and ability to use the

controls correctly, and to improve proficiency in

performing maneuvers that require slow airspeeds.

Maneuvering during slow flight should be performed

using both instrument indications and outside visual

reference. Slow flight should be practiced from straight

glides, straight-and-level flight, and from medium

banked gliding and level flight turns. Slow flight at

approach speeds should include slowing the airplane

smoothly and promptly from cruising to approach

speeds without changes in altitude or heading, and

determining and using appropriate power and trim

settings. Slow flight at approach speed should also

include configuration changes, such as landing gear

and flaps, while maintaining heading and altitude.

FLIGHT AT MINIMUM CONTROLLABLE

AIRSPEED

This maneuver demonstrates the flight characteristics

and degree of controllability of the airplane at its

minimum flying speed. By definition, the term “flight

at minimum controllable airspeed” means a speed at

which any further increase in angle of attack or load

factor, or reduction in power will cause an immediate

stall. Instruction in flight at minimum controllable

airspeed should be introduced at reduced power

settings, with the airspeed sufficiently above the stall to

permit maneuvering, but close enough to the stall to

sense the characteristics of flight at very low

airspeed—which are sloppy controls, ragged response

to control inputs, and difficulty maintaining altitude.

Maneuvering at minimum controllable airspeed should

be performed using both instrument indications and

outside visual reference. It is important that pilots form

the habit of frequent reference to the flight instruments,

especially the airspeed indicator, while flying at very

low airspeeds. However, a “feel” for the airplane at

very low airspeeds must be developed to avoid

inadvertent stalls and to operate the airplane

with precision.

To begin the maneuver, the throttle is gradually

reduced from cruising position. While the airspeed is

decreasing, the position of the nose in relation to the

horizon should be noted and should be raised as

necessary to maintain altitude.

When the airspeed reaches the maximum allowable for

landing gear operation, the landing gear (if equipped

with retractable gear) should be extended and all gear

down checks performed. As the airspeed reaches the

maximum allowable for flap operation, full flaps

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should be lowered and the pitch attitude adjusted to

maintain altitude. [Figure 4-1] Additional power will

be required as the speed further decreases to maintain

the airspeed just above a stall. As the speed decreases

further, the pilot should note the feel of the flight

controls, especially the elevator. The pilot should also

note the sound of the airflow as it falls off in tone level.

As airspeed is reduced, the flight controls become less

effective and the normal nosedown tendency is

reduced. The elevators become less responsive and

coarse control movements become necessary to retain

control of the airplane. The slipstream effect produces

a strong yaw so the application of rudder is required to

maintain coordinated flight. The secondary effect of

applied rudder is to induce a roll, so aileron is required

to keep the wings level. This can result in flying with

crossed controls. 

During these changing flight conditions, it is important

to retrim the airplane as often as necessary to

compensate for changes in control pressures. If the

airplane has been trimmed for cruising speed, heavy

aft control pressure will be needed on the elevators,

making precise control impossible. If too much speed

is lost, or too little power is used, further back pressure

on the elevator control may result in a loss of altitude

or a stall. When the desired pitch attitude and

minimum control airspeed have been established, it is

important to continually cross-check the attitude

indicator, altimeter, and airspeed indicator, as well as

outside references to ensure that accurate control is

being maintained. 

The pilot should understand that when flying more

slowly than minimum drag speed (LD/MAX) the

airplane will exhibit a characteristic known as “speed

instability.” If the airplane is disturbed by even the

slightest turbulence, the airspeed will decrease. As

airspeed decreases, the total drag also increases

resulting in a further loss in airspeed. The total drag

continues to rise and the speed continues to fall. Unless

more power is applied and/or the nose is lowered,

the speed will continue to decay right down to the

stall. This is an extremely important factor in the

performance of slow flight. The pilot must understand

that, at speed less than minimum drag speed, the

airspeed is unstable and will continue to decay if

allowed to do so.

When the attitude, airspeed, and power have been

stabilized in straight flight, turns should be practiced

to determine the airplane’s controllability characteristics at this minimum speed. During the turns, power

and pitch attitude may need to be increased to

maintain the airspeed and altitude. The objective is to

acquaint the pilot with the lack of maneuverability at

minimum speeds, the danger of incipient stalls, and

the tendency of the airplane to stall as the bank is

increased. A stall may also occur as a result of abrupt

or rough control movements when flying at this

critical airspeed.

Abruptly raising the flaps while at minimum

controllable airspeed will result in lift suddenly

being lost, causing the airplane to lose altitude or

perhaps stall.

Once flight at minimum controllable airspeed is set up

properly for level flight, a descent or climb at

minimum controllable airspeed can be established by

adjusting the power as necessary to establish the

desired rate of descent or climb. The beginning pilot

should note the increased yawing tendency at minimum control airspeed at high power settings with flaps

fully extended. In some airplanes, an attempt to climb

at such a slow airspeed may result in a loss of altitude,

even with maximum power applied.

Common errors in the performance of slow flight are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Inadequate back-elevator pressure as power is

reduced, resulting in altitude loss.

• Excessive back-elevator pressure as power is

reduced, resulting in a climb, followed by a rapid

reduction in airspeed and “mushing.”

• Inadequate compensation for adverse yaw during

turns.

• Fixation on the airspeed indicator.

• Failure to anticipate changes in lift as flaps are

extended or retracted.

• Inadequate power management.

• Inability to adequately divide attention between

airplane control and orientation.

SLOW FLIGHT

Low airspeed

High angle of attack

High power setting

Maintain altitude

Figure 4-1. Slow flight—Low airspeed, high angle of attack,

high power, and constant altitude.

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4-3

STALLS

A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the

airplane’s wing is disrupted, and the lift degenerates

rapidly. This is caused when the wing exceeds its

critical angle of attack. This can occur at any airspeed,

in any attitude, with any power setting. [Figure 4-2]

The practice of stall recovery and the development of

awareness of stalls are of primary importance in pilot

training. The objectives in performing intentional stalls

are to familiarize the pilot with the conditions that

produce stalls, to assist in recognizing an approaching

stall, and to develop the habit of taking prompt

preventive or corrective action.

Intentional stalls should be performed at an altitude

that will provide adequate height above the ground for

recovery and return to normal level flight. Though it

depends on the degree to which a stall has progressed,

most stalls require some loss of altitude during

recovery. The longer it takes to recognize the

approaching stall, the more complete the stall is likely

to become, and the greater the loss of altitude to

be expected.

RECOGNITION OF STALLS

Pilots must recognize the flight conditions that are

conducive to stalls and know how to apply the

necessary corrective action. They should learn to

recognize an approaching stall by sight, sound, and

feel. The following cues may be useful in recognizing

the approaching stall.

• Vision is useful in detecting a stall condition by

noting the attitude of the airplane. This sense can

only be relied on when the stall is the result of an

unusual attitude of the airplane. Since the airplane

can also be stalled from a normal attitude, vision

in this instance would be of little help in detecting

the approaching stall.

• Hearing is also helpful in sensing a stall condition.

In the case of fixed-pitch propeller airplanes in a

power-on condition, a change in sound due to loss

of revolutions per minute (r.p.m.) is particularly

noticeable. The lessening of the noise made by the

air flowing along the airplane structure as airspeed

decreases is also quite noticeable, and when the

stall is almost complete, vibration and incident

noises often increase greatly.

• Kinesthesia, or the sensing of changes in direction

or speed of motion, is probably the most important

and the best indicator to the trained and

experienced pilot. If this sensitivity is properly

developed, it will warn of a decrease in speed

or the beginning of a settling or mushing of

the airplane.

• Feel is an important sense in recognizing the onset

of a stall. The feeling of control pressures is very

important. As speed is reduced, the resistance to

pressures on the controls becomes progressively

less. Pressures exerted on the controls tend to

become movements of the control surfaces. The

 -4 0 5 10 15 20

Angle of Attack in Degrees

Coefficient of Lift (CL) 2.0

1.5

1.0

.5

Figure 4-2. Critical angle of attack and stall.

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4-4

lag between these movements and the response of

the airplane becomes greater, until in a complete

stall all controls can be moved with almost no

resistance, and with little immediate effect on the

airplane. Just before the stall occurs, buffeting,

uncontrollable pitching, or vibrations may begin.

Several types of stall warning indicators have been

developed to warn pilots of an approaching stall. The

use of such indicators is valuable and desirable, but the

reason for practicing stalls is to learn to recognize stalls

without the benefit of warning devices.

FUNDAMENTALS OF STALL RECOVERY

During the practice of intentional stalls, the real

objective is not to learn how to stall an airplane, but to

learn how to recognize an approaching stall and take

prompt corrective action. [Figure 4-3] Though the

recovery actions must be taken in a coordinated

manner, they are broken down into three actions here

for explanation purposes.

First, at the indication of a stall, the pitch attitude and

angle of attack must be decreased positively and

immediately. Since the basic cause of a stall is always

an excessive angle of attack, the cause must first be

eliminated by releasing the back-elevator pressure that

was necessary to attain that angle of attack or by

moving the elevator control forward. This lowers the

nose and returns the wing to an effective angle of

attack. The amount of elevator control pressure or

movement used depends on the design of the airplane,

the severity of the stall, and the proximity of the

ground. In some airplanes, a moderate movement of

the elevator control—perhaps slightly forward of

neutral—is enough, while in others a forcible push to

the full forward position may be required. An

excessive negative load on the wings caused by

excessive forward movement of the elevator may

impede, rather than hasten, the stall recovery. The

object is to reduce the angle of attack but only enough

to allow the wing to regain lift.

Second, the maximum allowable power should be

applied to increase the airplane’s airspeed and assist in

reducing the wing’s angle of attack. The throttle

should be promptly, but smoothly, advanced to the

maximum allowable power. The flight instructor

Stall Recognition

• High angle of attack

• Airframe buffeting or shaking

• Warning horn or light

• Loss of lift

Stall Recovery

• Reduce angle of attack

• Add power

Figure 4-3. Stall recognition and recovery.

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should emphasize, however, that power is not essential

for a safe stall recovery if sufficient altitude is

available. Reducing the angle of attack is the only way

of recovering from a stall regardless of the amount of

power used.

Although stall recoveries should be practiced without,

as well as with the use of power, in most actual stalls

the application of more power, if available, is an

integral part of the stall recovery. Usually, the greater

the power applied, the less the loss of altitude.

Maximum allowable power applied at the instant of a

stall will usually not cause overspeeding of an engine

equipped with a fixed-pitch propeller, due to the heavy

air load imposed on the propeller at slow airspeeds.

However, it will be necessary to reduce the power as

airspeed is gained after the stall recovery so the

airspeed will not become excessive. When performing

intentional stalls, the tachometer indication should

never be allowed to exceed the red line (maximum

allowable r.p.m.) marked on the instrument.

Third, straight-and-level flight should be regained with

coordinated use of all controls.

Practice in both power-on and power-off stalls is

important because it simulates stall conditions that

could occur during normal flight maneuvers. For

example, the power-on stalls are practiced to show

what could happen if the airplane were climbing at an

excessively nose-high attitude immediately after

takeoff or during a climbing turn. The power-off

turning stalls are practiced to show what could happen

if the controls are improperly used during a turn from

the base leg to the final approach. The power-off

straight-ahead stall simulates the attitude and flight

characteristics of a particular airplane during the final

approach and landing.

Usually, the first few practices should include only

approaches to stalls, with recovery initiated as soon as

the first buffeting or partial loss of control is noted. In

this way, the pilot can become familiar with the

indications of an approaching stall without actually

stalling the airplane. Once the pilot becomes

comfortable with this procedure, the airplane should

be slowed in such a manner that it stalls in as near a

level pitch attitude as is possible. The student pilot

must not be allowed to form the impression that in all

circumstances, a high pitch attitude is necessary to

exceed the critical angle of attack, or that in all

circumstances, a level or near level pitch attitude is

indicative of a low angle of attack. Recovery should be

practiced first without the addition of power, by merely

relieving enough back-elevator pressure that the stall

is broken and the airplane assumes a normal glide

attitude. The instructor should also introduce the

student to a secondary stall at this point. Stall

recoveries should then be practiced with the addition

of power to determine how effective power will be in

executing a safe recovery and minimizing altitude loss.

Stall accidents usually result from an inadvertent stall

at a low altitude in which a recovery was not

accomplished prior to contact with the surface. As a

preventive measure, stalls should be practiced at an

altitude which will allow recovery no lower than 1,500

feet AGL. To recover with a minimum loss of altitude

requires a reduction in the angle of attack (lowering

the airplane’s pitch attitude), application of power, and

termination of the descent without entering another

(secondary) stall.

USE OF AILERONS/RUDDER IN STALL

RECOVERY

Different types of airplanes have different stall

characteristics. Most airplanes are designed so that the

wings will stall progressively outward from the wing

roots (where the wing attaches to the fuselage) to the

wingtips. This is the result of designing the wings in a

manner that the wingtips have less angle of incidence

than the wing roots. [Figure 4-4] Such a design feature

causes the wingtips to have a smaller angle of attack

than the wing roots during flight.

Figure 4-4. Wingtip washout.

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Exceeding the critical angle of attack causes a stall; the

wing roots of an airplane will exceed the critical angle

before the wingtips, and the wing roots will stall first.

The wings are designed in this manner so that aileron

control will be available at high angles of attack (slow

airspeed) and give the airplane more stable stalling

characteristics.

When the airplane is in a stalled condition, the

wingtips continue to provide some degree of lift, and

the ailerons still have some control effect. During

recovery from a stall, the return of lift begins at the tips

and progresses toward the roots. Thus, the ailerons can

be used to level the wings.

Using the ailerons requires finesse to avoid an

aggravated stall condition. For example, if the right

wing dropped during the stall and excessive aileron

control were applied to the left to raise the wing, the

aileron deflected downward (right wing) would

produce a greater angle of attack (and drag), and

possibly a more complete stall at the tip as the critical

angle of attack is exceeded. The increase in drag

created by the high angle of attack on that wing might

cause the airplane to yaw in that direction. This adverse

yaw could result in a spin unless directional control

was maintained by rudder, and/or the aileron control

sufficiently reduced.

Even though excessive aileron pressure may have been

applied, a spin will not occur if directional (yaw)

control is maintained by timely application of

coordinated rudder pressure. Therefore, it is important

that the rudder be used properly during both the entry

and the recovery from a stall. The primary use of the

rudder in stall recoveries is to counteract any tendency

of the airplane to yaw or slip. The correct recovery

technique would be to decrease the pitch attitude by

applying forward-elevator pressure to break the stall,

advancing the throttle to increase airspeed, and

simultaneously maintaining directional control with

coordinated use of the aileron and rudder.

STALL CHARACTERISTICS

Because of engineering design variations, the stall

characteristics for all airplanes cannot be specifically

described; however, the similarities found in small

general aviation training-type airplanes are noteworthy

enough to be considered. It will be noted that the

power-on and power-off stall warning indications will

be different. The power-off stall will have less

noticeable clues (buffeting, shaking) than the

power-on stall. In the power-off stall, the predominant

clue can be the elevator control position (full upelevator against the stops) and a high descent rate.

When performing the power-on stall, the buffeting will

likely be the predominant clue that provides a positive

indication of the stall. For the purpose of airplane

certification, the stall warning may be furnished either

through the inherent aerodynamic qualities of the

airplane, or by a stall warning device that will give a

clear distinguishable indication of the stall. Most

airplanes are equipped with a stall warning device.

The factors that affect the stalling characteristics of the

airplane are balance, bank, pitch attitude, coordination,

drag, and power. The pilot should learn the effect of the

stall characteristics of the airplane being flown and the

proper correction. It should be reemphasized that a stall

can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or at any

power setting, depending on the total number of factors

affecting the particular airplane.

A number of factors may be induced as the result of

other factors. For example, when the airplane is in a

nose-high turning attitude, the angle of bank has a

tendency to increase. This occurs because with the

airspeed decreasing, the airplane begins flying in a

smaller and smaller arc. Since the outer wing is

moving in a larger radius and traveling faster than the

inner wing, it has more lift and causes an overbanking

tendency. At the same time, because of the decreasing

airspeed and lift on both wings, the pitch attitude tends

to lower. In addition, since the airspeed is decreasing

while the power setting remains constant, the effect of

torque becomes more prominent, causing the airplane

to yaw.

During the practice of power-on turning stalls, to

compensate for these factors and to maintain a

constant flight attitude until the stall occurs, aileron

pressure must be continually adjusted to keep the bank

attitude constant. At the same time, back-elevator

pressure must be continually increased to maintain the

pitch attitude, as well as right rudder pressure

increased to keep the ball centered and to prevent

adverse yaw from changing the turn rate. If the bank is

allowed to become too steep, the vertical component

of lift decreases and makes it even more difficult to

maintain a constant pitch attitude.

Whenever practicing turning stalls, a constant pitch

and bank attitude should be maintained until the stall

occurs. Whatever control pressures are necessary

should be applied even though the controls appear to

be crossed (aileron pressure in one direction, rudder

pressure in the opposite direction). During the entry to

a power-on turning stall to the right, in particular, the

controls will be crossed to some extent. This is due to

right rudder pressure being used to overcome torque

and left aileron pressure being used to prevent the

bank from increasing.

APPROACHES TO STALLS (IMMINENT

STALLS)—POWER-ON OR POWER-OFF

An imminent stall is one in which the airplane is

approaching a stall but is not allowed to completely

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stall. This stall maneuver is primarily for practice in

retaining (or regaining) full control of the airplane

immediately upon recognizing that it is almost in a stall

or that a stall is likely to occur if timely preventive

action is not taken.

The practice of these stalls is of particular value in

developing the pilot’s sense of feel for executing

maneuvers in which maximum airplane performance

is required. These maneuvers require flight with the

airplane approaching a stall, and recovery initiated

before a stall occurs. As in all maneuvers that involve

significant changes in altitude or direction, the pilot

must ensure that the area is clear of other air traffic

before executing the maneuver.

These stalls may be entered and performed in the

attitudes and with the same configuration of the basic

full stalls or other maneuvers described in this chapter.

However, instead of allowing a complete stall, when

the first buffeting or decay of control effectiveness is

noted, the angle of attack must be reduced immediately

by releasing the back-elevator pressure and applying

whatever additional power is necessary. Since the

airplane will not be completely stalled, the pitch

attitude needs to be decreased only to a point where

minimum controllable airspeed is attained or until

adequate control effectiveness is regained.

The pilot must promptly recognize the indication of a

stall and take timely, positive control action to prevent

a full stall. Performance is unsatisfactory if a full stall

occurs, if an excessively low pitch attitude is attained,

or if the pilot fails to take timely action to avoid

excessive airspeed, excessive loss of altitude, or a spin.

FULL STALLS POWER-OFF

The practice of power-off stalls is usually performed

with normal landing approach conditions in simulation

of an accidental stall occurring during landing

approaches. Airplanes equipped with flaps and/or

retractable landing gear should be in the landing

configuration. Airspeed in excess of the normal

approach speed should not be carried into a stall entry

since it could result in an abnormally nose-high

attitude. Before executing these practice stalls, the

pilot must be sure the area is clear of other air traffic.

After extending the landing gear, applying carburetor

heat (if applicable), and retarding the throttle to idle

(or normal approach power), the airplane should be

held at a constant altitude in level flight until the

airspeed decelerates to that of a normal approach. The

airplane should then be smoothly nosed down into the

normal approach attitude to maintain that airspeed.

Wing flaps should be extended and pitch attitude

adjusted to maintain the airspeed.

When the approach attitude and airspeed have

stabilized, the airplane’s nose should be smoothly

raised to an attitude that will induce a stall. Directional

control should be maintained with the rudder, the

wings held level by use of the ailerons, and a constantpitch attitude maintained with the elevator until the

stall occurs. The stall will be recognized by clues, such

as full up-elevator, high descent rate, uncontrollable

nosedown pitching, and possible buffeting.

Recovering from the stall should be accomplished by

reducing the angle of attack, releasing back-elevator

pressure, and advancing the throttle to maximum

allowable power. Right rudder pressure is necessary to

overcome the engine torque effects as power is

advanced and the nose is being lowered. [Figure 4-5]

The nose should be lowered as necessary to regain

flying speed and returned to straight-and-level flight

Establish normal 

approach

Raise nose, 

maintain heading

When stall occurs, 

reduce angle of attack 

and add full power.

Raise flaps as 

recommended

As flying speed 

returns, stop descent 

and establish a climb

Climb at V , raise 

landing gear and 

remaining flaps, trim

Y

Level off at desired altitude,

set power and trim

Figure 4-5. Power-off stall and recovery.

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attitude. After establishing a positive rate of climb, the

flaps and landing gear are retracted, as necessary, and

when in level flight, the throttle should be returned to

cruise power setting. After recovery is complete, a climb

or go-around procedure should be initiated, as the situation dictates, to assure a minimum loss of altitude.

Recovery from power-off stalls should also be

practiced from shallow banked turns to simulate an

inadvertent stall during a turn from base leg to final

approach. During the practice of these stalls, care

should be taken that the turn continues at a uniform

rate until the complete stall occurs. If the power-off

turn is not properly coordinated while approaching the

stall, wallowing may result when the stall occurs. If the

airplane is in a slip, the outer wing may stall first and

whip downward abruptly. This does not affect the

recovery procedure in any way; the angle of attack

must be reduced, the heading maintained, and the

wings leveled by coordinated use of the controls. In

the practice of turning stalls, no attempt should be

made to stall the airplane on a predetermined heading.

However, to simulate a turn from base to final

approach, the stall normally should be made to occur

within a heading change of approximately 90°.

After the stall occurs, the recovery should be made

straight ahead with minimum loss of altitude, and

accomplished in accordance with the recovery

procedure discussed earlier.

Recoveries from power-off stalls should be

accomplished both with, and without, the addition of

power, and may be initiated either just after the stall

occurs, or after the nose has pitched down through the

level flight attitude.

FULL STALLS POWER-ON

Power-on stall recoveries are practiced from straight

climbs, and climbing turns with 15 to 20° banks, to

simulate an accidental stall occurring during takeoffs

and climbs. Airplanes equipped with flaps and/or

retractable landing gear should normally be in the

takeoff configuration; however, power-on stalls should

also be practiced with the airplane in a clean

configuration (flaps and/or gear retracted) as in

departure and normal climbs.

After establishing the takeoff or climb configuration,

the airplane should be slowed to the normal lift-off

speed while clearing the area for other air traffic.

When the desired speed is attained, the power should

be set at takeoff power for the takeoff stall or the

recommended climb power for the departure stall

while establishing a climb attitude. The purpose of

reducing the airspeed to lift-off airspeed before the

throttle is advanced to the recommended setting is to

avoid an excessively steep nose-up attitude for a long

period before the airplane stalls.

After the climb attitude is established, the nose is then

brought smoothly upward to an attitude obviously

impossible for the airplane to maintain and is held at

that attitude until the full stall occurs. In most

airplanes, after attaining the stalling attitude, the

elevator control must be moved progressively further

back as the airspeed decreases until, at the full stall, it

will have reached its limit and cannot be moved back

any farther.

Recovery from the stall should be accomplished by

immediately reducing the angle of attack by positively

As flying speed

returns, stop

descent and

establish 

a climb

Climb at V , raise 

landing gear and 

remaining flaps, trim

Y

Level off at desired

altitude, set power

 and trim

Slow to

lift-off speed,

maintain altitude

Set takeoff power,

raise nose

When stall occurs,

reduce angle of

attack and add

full power

Figure 4-6. Power-on stall.

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releasing back-elevator pressure and, in the case of a

departure stall, smoothly advancing the throttle to

maximum allowable power. In this case, since the

throttle is already at the climb power setting, the addition of power will be relatively slight. [Figure 4-6]

The nose should be lowered as necessary to regain

flying speed with the minimum loss of altitude and

then raised to climb attitude. Then, the airplane should

be returned to the normal straight-and-level flight attitude, and when in normal level flight, the throttle

should be returned to cruise power setting. The pilot

must recognize instantly when the stall has occurred

and take prompt action to prevent a prolonged stalled

condition.

SECONDARY STALL

This stall is called a secondary stall since it may occur

after a recovery from a preceding stall. It is caused by

attempting to hasten the completion of a stall recovery

before the airplane has regained sufficient flying

speed. [Figure 4-7] When this stall occurs, the

back-elevator pressure should again be released just as

in a normal stall recovery. When sufficient airspeed

has been regained, the airplane can then be returned to

straight-and-level flight.

This stall usually occurs when the pilot uses abrupt

control input to return to straight-and-level flight after

a stall or spin recovery. It also occurs when the pilot

fails to reduce the angle of attack sufficiently during

stall recovery by not lowering pitch attitude

sufficiently, or by attempting to break the stall by using

power only.

ACCELERATED STALLS

Though the stalls just discussed normally occur at a

specific airspeed, the pilot must thoroughly understand

that all stalls result solely from attempts to fly at

excessively high angles of attack. During flight, the

angle of attack of an airplane wing is determined by a

number of factors, the most important of which are the

airspeed, the gross weight of the airplane, and the load

factors imposed by maneuvering.

At the same gross weight, airplane configuration, and

power setting, a given airplane will consistently stall at

the same indicated airspeed if no acceleration is

involved. The airplane will, however, stall at a higher

indicated airspeed when excessive maneuvering loads

are imposed by steep turns, pull-ups, or other abrupt

changes in its flightpath. Stalls entered from such flight

situations are called “accelerated maneuver stalls,” a

term, which has no reference to the airspeeds involved.

Stalls which result from abrupt maneuvers tend to be

more rapid, or severe, than the unaccelerated stalls, and

because they occur at higher-than-normal airspeeds,

and/or may occur at lower than anticipated pitch

attitudes, they may be unexpected by an inexperienced

pilot. Failure to take immediate steps toward recovery

when an accelerated stall occurs may result

in a complete loss of flight control, notably,

power-on spins.

This stall should never be practiced with wing flaps in

the extended position due to the lower “G” load

limitations in that configuration.

Accelerated maneuver stalls should not be performed

in any airplane, which is prohibited from such

maneuvers by its type certification restrictions or

Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) and/or Pilot’s

Operating Handbook (POH). If they are permitted,

they should be performed with a bank of

approximately 45°, and in no case at a speed greater

Initial stall

Incomplete or improper

recovery

Secondary stall

Figure 4-7. Secondary stall.

Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:47 AM Page 4-9
4-10

than the airplane manufacturer’s recommended

airspeeds or the design maneuvering speed specified

for the airplane. The design maneuvering speed is the

maximum speed at which the airplane can be stalled or

full available aerodynamic control will not exceed the

airplane’s limit load factor. At or below this speed, the

airplane will usually stall before the limit load factor

can be exceeded. Those speeds must not be exceeded

because of the extremely high structural loads that are

imposed on the airplane, especially if there is

turbulence. In most cases, these stalls should be

performed at no more than 1.2 times the normal

stall speed.

The objective of demonstrating accelerated stalls is not

to develop competency in setting up the stall, but rather

to learn how they may occur and to develop the ability

to recognize such stalls immediately, and to take

prompt, effective recovery action. It is important that

recoveries are made at the first indication of a stall, or

immediately after the stall has fully developed; a

prolonged stall condition should never be allowed.

An airplane will stall during a coordinated steep turn

exactly as it does from straight flight, except that the

pitching and rolling actions tend to be more sudden. If

the airplane is slipping toward the inside of the turn at

the time the stall occurs, it tends to roll rapidly toward

the outside of the turn as the nose pitches down

because the outside wing stalls before the inside wing.

If the airplane is skidding toward the outside of the

turn, it will have a tendency to roll to the inside of the

turn because the inside wing stalls first. If the

coordination of the turn at the time of the stall is

accurate, the airplane’s nose will pitch away from the

pilot just as it does in a straight flight stall, since both

wings stall simultaneously.

An accelerated stall demonstration is entered by

establishing the desired flight attitude, then smoothly,

firmly, and progressively increasing the angle of attack

until a stall occurs. Because of the rapidly changing

flight attitude, sudden stall entry, and possible loss of

altitude, it is extremely vital that the area be clear of

other aircraft and the entry altitude be adequate for safe

recovery.

This demonstration stall, as in all stalls, is

accomplished by exerting excessive back-elevator

pressure. Most frequently it would occur during

improperly executed steep turns, stall and spin

recoveries, and pullouts from steep dives. The

objectives are to determine the stall characteristics of

the airplane and develop the ability to instinctively

recover at the onset of a stall at other-than-normal stall

speed or flight attitudes. An accelerated stall, although

usually demonstrated in steep turns, may actually be

encountered any time excessive back-elevator pressure

is applied and/or the angle of attack is increased

too rapidly.

From straight-and-level flight at maneuvering speed

or less, the airplane should be rolled into a steep level

flight turn and back-elevator pressure gradually

applied. After the turn and bank are established,

back-elevator pressure should be smoothly and

steadily increased. The resulting apparent centrifugal

force will push the pilot’s body down in the seat,

increase the wing loading, and decrease the airspeed.

After the airspeed reaches the design maneuvering

speed or within 20 knots above the unaccelerated stall

speed, back-elevator pressure should be firmly

increased until a definite stall occurs. These speed

restrictions must be observed to prevent exceeding the

load limit of the airplane.

When the airplane stalls, recovery should be made

promptly, by releasing sufficient back-elevator

pressure and increasing power to reduce the angle of

attack. If an uncoordinated turn is made, one wing may

tend to drop suddenly, causing the airplane to roll in

that direction. If this occurs, the excessive backelevator pressure must be released, power added, and

the airplane returned to straight-and-level flight with

coordinated control pressure.

The pilot should recognize when the stall is imminent

and take prompt action to prevent a completely stalled

condition. It is imperative that a prolonged stall,

excessive airspeed, excessive loss of altitude, or spin

be avoided.

CROSS-CONTROL STALL

The objective of a cross-control stall demonstration

maneuver is to show the effect of improper control

technique and to emphasize the importance of using

coordinated control pressures whenever making turns.

This type of stall occurs with the controls crossed—

aileron pressure applied in one direction and rudder

pressure in the opposite direction.

In addition, when excessive back-elevator pressure is

applied, a cross-control stall may result. This is a stall

that is most apt to occur during a poorly planned and

executed base-to-final approach turn, and often is the

result of overshooting the centerline of the runway

during that turn. Normally, the proper action to correct

for overshooting the runway is to increase the rate of

turn by using coordinated aileron and rudder. At the

relatively low altitude of a base-to-final approach turn,

improperly trained pilots may be apprehensive of

steepening the bank to increase the rate of turn, and

rather than steepening the bank, they hold the bank

constant and attempt to increase the rate of turn by

adding more rudder pressure in an effort to align it

with the runway.

Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:47 AM Page 4-10
4-11

The addition of inside rudder pressure will cause the

speed of the outer wing to increase, therefore, creating

greater lift on that wing. To keep that wing from rising

and to maintain a constant angle of bank, opposite

aileron pressure needs to be applied. The added inside

rudder pressure will also cause the nose to lower in

relation to the horizon. Consequently, additional

back-elevator pressure would be required to maintain a

constant-pitch attitude. The resulting condition is a

turn with rudder applied in one direction, aileron in the

opposite direction, and excessive back-elevator

pressure—a pronounced cross-control condition.

Since the airplane is in a skidding turn during the

cross-control condition, the wing on the outside of the

turn speeds up and produces more lift than the inside

wing; thus, the airplane starts to increase its bank. The

down aileron on the inside of the turn helps drag that

wing back, slowing it up and decreasing its lift, which

requires more aileron application. This further causes

the airplane to roll. The roll may be so fast that it is

possible the bank will be vertical or past vertical before

it can be stopped.

For the demonstration of the maneuver, it is important

that it be entered at a safe altitude because of the

possible extreme nosedown attitude and loss of

altitude that may result.

Before demonstrating this stall, the pilot should clear

the area for other air traffic while slowly retarding the

throttle. Then the landing gear (if retractable gear)

should be lowered, the throttle closed, and the altitude

maintained until the airspeed approaches the normal

glide speed. Because of the possibility of exceeding

the airplane’s limitations, flaps should not be extended.

While the gliding attitude and airspeed are being

established, the airplane should be retrimmed. When

the glide is stabilized, the airplane should be rolled into

a medium-banked turn to simulate a final approach

turn that would overshoot the centerline of the runway.

During the turn, excessive rudder pressure should be

applied in the direction of the turn but the bank held

constant by applying opposite aileron pressure. At the

same time, increased back-elevator pressure is

required to keep the nose from lowering.

All of these control pressures should be increased until

the airplane stalls. When the stall occurs, recovery is

made by releasing the control pressures and increasing

power as necessary to recover.

In a cross-control stall, the airplane often stalls with

little warning. The nose may pitch down, the inside

wing may suddenly drop, and the airplane may

continue to roll to an inverted position. This is usually

the beginning of a spin. It is obvious that close to the

ground is no place to allow this to happen.

Recovery must be made before the airplane enters an

abnormal attitude (vertical spiral or spin); it is a simple

matter to return to straight-and-level flight by

coordinated use of the controls. The pilot must be able

to recognize when this stall is imminent and must take

immediate action to prevent a completely stalled

condition. It is imperative that this type of stall not

occur during an actual approach to a landing, since

recovery may be impossible prior to ground contact

due to the low altitude.

The flight instructor should be aware that during traffic

pattern operations, any conditions that result in

overshooting the turn from base leg to final approach,

dramatically increases the possibility of an

unintentional accelerated stall while the airplane is in a

cross-control condition. 

ELEVATOR TRIM STALL

The elevator trim stall maneuver shows what can happen when full power is applied for a go-around and

positive control of the airplane is not maintained.

[Figure 4-8] Such a situation may occur during a

go-around procedure from a normal landing approach

Set up and trim for

final approach glide Apply full power to

simulate go-around.

Allow nose to rise

As stall approaches,

apply forward pressure

and establish normal

climb speed.

Trim to maintain

normal climb

Figure 4-8. Elevator trim stall.

Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:47 AM Page 4-11
4-12

or a simulated forced landing approach, or

immediately after a takeoff. The objective of the

demonstration is to show the importance of making

smooth power applications, overcoming strong trim

forces and maintaining positive control of the airplane

to hold safe flight attitudes, and using proper and

timely trim techniques.

At a safe altitude and after ensuring that the area is

clear of other air traffic, the pilot should slowly retard

the throttle and extend the landing gear (if retractable

gear). One-half to full flaps should be lowered, the

throttle closed, and altitude maintained until the

airspeed approaches the normal glide speed. When the

normal glide is established, the airplane should be

trimmed for the glide just as would be done during a

landing approach (nose-up trim).

During this simulated final approach glide, the throttle

is then advanced smoothly to maximum allowable

power as would be done in a go-around procedure. The

combined forces of thrust, torque, and back-elevator

trim will tend to make the nose rise sharply and turn to

the left.

When the throttle is fully advanced and the pitch

attitude increases above the normal climbing attitude

and it is apparent that a stall is approaching, adequate

forward pressure must be applied to return the airplane

to the normal climbing attitude. While holding the

airplane in this attitude, the trim should then be

adjusted to relieve the heavy control pressures and the

normal go-around and level-off procedures completed.

The pilot should recognize when a stall is approaching,

and take prompt action to prevent a completely stalled

condition. It is imperative that a stall not occur during

an actual go-around from a landing approach.

Common errors in the performance of intentional stalls

are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Inability to recognize an approaching stall

condition through feel for the airplane.

• Premature recovery.

• Over-reliance on the airspeed indicator while

excluding other cues.

• Inadequate scanning resulting in an unintentional

wing-low condition during entry.

• Excessive back-elevator pressure resulting in an

exaggerated nose-up attitude during entry.

• Inadequate rudder control.

• Inadvertent secondary stall during recovery.

• Failure to maintain a constant bank angle during

turning stalls.

• Excessive forward-elevator pressure during

recovery resulting in negative load on the wings.

• Excessive airspeed buildup during recovery.

• Failure to take timely action to prevent a full stall

during the conduct of imminent stalls.

SPINS

A spin may be defined as an aggravated stall that

results in what is termed “autorotation” wherein the

airplane follows a downward corkscrew path. As the

airplane rotates around a vertical axis, the rising wing

is less stalled than the descending wing creating a

rolling, yawing, and pitching motion. The airplane is

basically being forced downward by gravity, rolling,

yawing, and pitching in a spiral path. [Figure 4-9]

The autorotation results from an unequal angle of

attack on the airplane’s wings. The rising wing has a

decreasing angle of attack, where the relative lift

increases and the drag decreases. In effect, this wing is

less stalled. Meanwhile, the descending wing has an

Figure 4-9. Spin—an aggravated stall and autorotation.

Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:47 AM Page 4-12
4-13

increasing angle of attack, past the wing’s critical angle

of attack (stall) where the relative lift decreases and

drag increases.

A spin is caused when the airplane’s wing exceeds its

critical angle of attack (stall) with a sideslip or yaw

acting on the airplane at, or beyond, the actual stall.

During this uncoordinated maneuver, a pilot may not

be aware that a critical angle of attack has been

exceeded until the airplane yaws out of control toward

the lowering wing. If stall recovery is not initiated

immediately, the airplane may enter a spin.

If this stall occurs while the airplane is in a slipping or

skidding turn, this can result in a spin entry and

rotation in the direction that the rudder is being

applied, regardless of which wingtip is raised.

Many airplanes have to be forced to spin and require

considerable judgment and technique to get the spin

started. These same airplanes that have to be forced to

spin, may be accidentally put into a spin by

mishandling the controls in turns, stalls, and flight at

minimum controllable airspeeds. This fact is additional

evidence of the necessity for the practice of stalls until

the ability to recognize and recover from them

is developed.

Often a wing will drop at the beginning of a stall.

When this happens, the nose will attempt to move

(yaw) in the direction of the low wing. This is where

use of the rudder is important during a stall. The

correct amount of opposite rudder must be applied to

keep the nose from yawing toward the low wing. By

maintaining directional control and not allowing the

nose to yaw toward the low wing, before stall recovery

is initiated, a spin will be averted. If the nose is allowed

to yaw during the stall, the airplane will begin to slip in

the direction of the lowered wing, and will enter a spin.

An airplane must be stalled in order to enter a spin;

therefore, continued practice in stalls will help the pilot

develop a more instinctive and prompt reaction in

recognizing an approaching spin. It is essential to learn

to apply immediate corrective action any time it is

apparent that the airplane is nearing spin conditions. If

it is impossible to avoid a spin, the pilot should

immediately execute spin recovery procedures.

SPIN PROCEDURES

The flight instructor should demonstrate spins in those

airplanes that are approved for spins. Special spin

procedures or techniques required for a particular

airplane are not presented here. Before beginning any

spin operations, the following items should be

reviewed.

• The airplane’s AFM/POH limitations section,

placards, or type certification data, to determine if

the airplane is approved for spins.

• Weight and balance limitations.

• Recommended entry and recovery procedures.

• The requirements for parachutes. It would be

appropriate to review a current Title 14 of the

Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 for

the latest parachute requirements.

A thorough airplane preflight should be accomplished

with special emphasis on excess or loose items that

may affect the weight, center of gravity, and controllability of the airplane. Slack or loose control cables

(particularly rudder and elevator) could prevent full

anti-spin control deflections and delay or preclude

recovery in some airplanes.

Prior to beginning spin training, the flight area, above

and below the airplane, must be clear of other air

traffic. This may be accomplished while slowing the

airplane for the spin entry. All spin training should be

initiated at an altitude high enough for a completed

recovery at or above 1,500 feet AGL.

It may be appropriate to introduce spin training by first

practicing both power-on and power-off stalls, in a

clean configuration. This practice would be used to

familiarize the student with the airplane’s specific stall

and recovery characteristics. Care should be taken with

the handling of the power (throttle) in entries and

during spins. Carburetor heat should be applied

according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.

There are four phases of a spin: entry, incipient,

developed, and recovery. [Figure 4-10 on next page]

ENTRY PHASE

The entry phase is where the pilot provides the

necessary elements for the spin, either accidentally or

intentionally. The entry procedure for demonstrating a

spin is similar to a power-off stall. During the entry,

the power should be reduced slowly to idle, while

simultaneously raising the nose to a pitch attitude that

will ensure a stall. As the airplane approaches a stall,

smoothly apply full rudder in the direction of the

desired spin rotation while applying full back (up)

elevator to the limit of travel. Always maintain the

ailerons in the neutral position during the spin

procedure unless AFM/POH specifies otherwise.

INCIPIENT PHASE

The incipient phase is from the time the airplane stalls

and rotation starts until the spin has fully developed.

This change may take up to two turns for most airplanes.

Incipient spins that are not allowed to develop into a

steady-state spin are the most commonly used in the

introduction to spin training and recovery techniques. In

Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:47 AM Page 4-13
4-14

this phase, the aerodynamic and inertial forces have not

achieved a balance. As the incipient spin develops, the

indicated airspeed should be near or below stall airspeed, and the turn-and-slip indicator should indicate

the direction of the spin.

The incipient spin recovery procedure should be

commenced prior to the completion of 360° of

rotation. The pilot should apply full rudder opposite

the direction of rotation. If the pilot is not sure of the

direction of the spin, check the turn-and-slip indicator;

it will show a deflection in the direction of rotation.

DEVELOPED PHASE

The developed phase occurs when the airplane’s

angular rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed are

stabilized while in a flightpath that is nearly vertical.

This is where airplane aerodynamic forces and inertial

forces are in balance, and the attitude, angles, and selfsustaining motions about the vertical axis are constant

or repetitive. The spin is in equilibrium.

RECOVERY PHASE

The recovery phase occurs when the angle of attack of

the wings decreases below the critical angle of attack

and autorotation slows. Then the nose steepens and

rotation stops. This phase may last for a quarter turn to

several turns.

To recover, control inputs are initiated to disrupt the

spin equilibrium by stopping the rotation and stall. To

accomplish spin recovery, the manufacturer’s

Less Stalled

Stall

More Drag

Relative Wind Greater

Angle of

Attack

Chord Line

Relative Wind

Less

Angle of

Attack

Chord Line

INCIPIENT SPIN

• Lasts about 4 to 6 

seconds in light 

aircraft.

• Approximately 2 

turns.

FULLY 

DEVELOPED SPIN

• Airspeed, vertical 

speed, and rate of 

rotation are 

stabilized.

• Small, training 

aircraft lose 

approximately 500 

feet per each 3 

second turn.

RECOVERY

• Wings regain lift.

• Training aircraft 

usually recover in 

about 1/4 to 1/2 of 

a turn after antispin inputs are 

applied.

More Stalled

Figure 4-10. Spin entry and recovery.

Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:47 AM Page 4-14
4-15

recommended procedures should be followed. In the

absence of the manufacturer’s recommended spin

recovery procedures and techniques, the following

spin recovery procedures are recommended.

Step 1—REDUCE THE POWER (THROTTLE)

TO IDLE. Power aggravates the spin

characteristics. It usually results in a flatter spin

attitude and increased rotation rates.

Step 2—POSITION THE AILERONS TO

NEUTRAL. Ailerons may have an adverse effect

on spin recovery. Aileron control in the direction

of the spin may speed up the rate of rotation and

delay the recovery. Aileron control opposite the

direction of the spin may cause the down aileron

to move the wing deeper into the stall and

aggravate the situation. The best procedure is to

ensure that the ailerons are neutral.

Step 3—APPLY FULL OPPOSITE RUDDER

AGAINST THE ROTATION. Make sure that full

(against the stop) opposite rudder has been

applied.

Step 4—APPLY A POSITIVE AND BRISK,

STRAIGHT FORWARD MOVEMENT OF THE

ELEVATOR CONTROL FORWARD OF THE

NEUTRAL TO BREAK THE STALL. This

should be done immediately after full rudder

application. The forceful movement of the

elevator will decrease the excessive angle of attack

and break the stall. The controls should be held

firmly in this position. When the stall is “broken,”

the spinning will stop.

Step 5—AFTER SPIN ROTATION STOPS,

NEUTRALIZE THE RUDDER. If the rudder is

not neutralized at this time, the ensuing increased

airspeed acting upon a deflected rudder will cause

a yawing or skidding effect.

Slow and overly cautious control movements

during spin recovery must be avoided. In certain

cases it has been found that such movements result

in the airplane continuing to spin indefinitely, even

with anti-spin inputs. A brisk and positive

technique, on the other hand, results in a more

positive spin recovery.

Step 6—BEGIN APPLYING BACK-ELEVATOR

PRESSURE TO RAISE THE NOSE TO LEVEL

FLIGHT. Caution must be used not to apply

excessive back-elevator pressure after the rotation

stops. Excessive back-elevator pressure can cause

a secondary stall and result in another spin. Care

should be taken not to exceed the “G” load limits

and airspeed limitations during recovery. If the

flaps and/or retractable landing gear are extended

prior to the spin, they should be retracted as soon

as possible after spin entry.

It is important to remember that the above spin

recovery procedures and techniques are recommended

for use only in the absence of the manufacturer’s

procedures. Before any pilot attempts to begin spin

training, that pilot must be familiar with the procedures

provided by the manufacturer for spin recovery.

The most common problems in spin recovery include

pilot confusion as to the direction of spin rotation and

whether the maneuver is a spin versus spiral. If the

airspeed is increasing, the airplane is no longer in a

spin but in a spiral. In a spin, the airplane is stalled.

The indicated airspeed, therefore, should reflect

stall speed.

INTENTIONAL SPINS

The intentional spinning of an airplane, for which the

spin maneuver is not specifically approved, is NOT

authorized by this handbook or by the Code of Federal

Regulations. The official sources for determining if the

spin maneuver IS APPROVED or NOT APPROVED

for a specific airplane are:

• Type Certificate Data Sheets or the Aircraft

Specifications.

• The limitation section of the FAA-approved

AFM/POH. The limitation sections may provide

additional specific requirements for spin

authorization, such as limiting gross weight, CG

range, and amount of fuel.

• On a placard located in clear view of the pilot in

the airplane, NO ACROBATIC MANEUVERS

INCLUDING SPINS APPROVED. In airplanes

placarded against spins, there is no assurance that

recovery from a fully developed spin is possible.

There are occurrences involving airplanes wherein

spin restrictions are intentionally ignored by some

pilots. Despite the installation of placards prohibiting

intentional spins in these airplanes, a number of pilots,

and some flight instructors, attempt to justify the

maneuver, rationalizing that the spin restriction results

merely because of a “technicality” in the airworthiness

standards.

Some pilots reason that the airplane was spin tested

during its certification process and, therefore, no

problem should result from demonstrating or

practicing spins. However, those pilots overlook the

fact that a normal category airplane certification only

requires the airplane recover from a one-turn spin in

not more than one additional turn or 3 seconds,

Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:47 AM Page 4-15
4-16

whichever takes longer. This same test of controllability can also be used in certificating an airplane in the

Utility category (14 CFR section 23.221 (b)).

The point is that 360° of rotation (one-turn spin) does

not provide a stabilized spin. If the airplane’s

controllability has not been explored by the

engineering test pilot beyond the certification

requirements, prolonged spins (inadvertent or

intentional) in that airplane place an operating pilot in

an unexplored flight situation. Recovery may be

difficult or impossible.

In 14 CFR part 23, “Airworthiness Standards: Normal,

Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Category

Airplanes,” there are no requirements for investigation

of controllability in a true spinning condition for the

Normal category airplanes. The one-turn “margin of

safety” is essentially a check of the airplane’s controllability in a delayed recovery from a stall. Therefore,

in airplanes placarded against spins there is absolutely

no assurance whatever that recovery from a fully

developed spin is possible under any circumstances.

The pilot of an airplane placarded against intentional

spins should assume that the airplane may well become

uncontrollable in a spin.

WEIGHT AND BALANCE REQUIREMENTS

With each airplane that is approved for spinning, the

weight and balance requirements are important for

safe performance and recovery from the spin maneuver. Pilots must be aware that just minor weight or

balance changes can affect the airplane’s spin

recovery characteristics. Such changes can either

alter or enhance the spin maneuver and/or recovery

characteristics. For example, the addition of weight

in the aft baggage compartment, or additional fuel,

may still permit the airplane to be operated within

CG, but could seriously affect the spin and recovery

characteristics.

An airplane that may be difficult to spin intentionally

in the Utility Category (restricted aft CG and reduced

weight) could have less resistance to spin entry in the

Normal Category (less restricted aft CG and increased

weight). This situation is due to the airplane being able

to generate a higher angle of attack and load factor.

Furthermore, an airplane that is approved for spins in

the Utility Category, but loaded in the Normal

Category, may not recover from a spin that is allowed

to progress beyond the incipient phase.

Common errors in the performance of intentional

spins are:

• Failure to apply full rudder pressure in the desired

spin direction during spin entry.

• Failure to apply and maintain full up-elevator

pressure during spin entry, resulting in a spiral.

• Failure to achieve a fully stalled condition prior to

spin entry.

• Failure to apply full rudder against the spin during

recovery.

• Failure to apply sufficient forward-elevator

pressure during recovery.

• Failure to neutralize the rudder during recovery

after rotation stops, resulting in a possible

secondary spin.

• Slow and overly cautious control movements

during recovery.

• Excessive back-elevator pressure after rotation

stops, resulting in possible secondary stall.

• Insufficient back-elevator pressure during

recovery resulting in excessive airspeed.

Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:47 AM Page 4-16
GENERAL

This chapter discusses takeoffs and departure climbs in

tricycle landing gear (nosewheel-type) airplanes under

normal conditions, and under conditions which require

maximum performance. A thorough knowledge of

takeoff principles, both in theory and practice, will

often prove of extreme value throughout a pilot’s

career. It will often prevent an attempted takeoff that

would result in an accident, or during an emergency,

make possible a takeoff under critical conditions when

a pilot with a less well rounded knowledge and technique would fail.

The takeoff, though relatively simple, often presents

the most hazards of any part of a flight. The importance

of thorough knowledge and faultless technique and

judgment cannot be overemphasized.

It must be remembered that the manufacturer’s recommended procedures, including airplane configuration and

airspeeds, and other information relevant to takeoffs and

departure climbs in a specific make and model airplane are

contained in the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual

and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) for that

airplane. If any of the information in this chapter differs

from the airplane manufacturer’s recommendations as

contained in the AFM/POH, the airplane manufacturer’s

recommendations take precedence.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Although the takeoff and climb is one continuous

maneuver, it will be divided into three separate steps

for purposes of explanation: (1) the takeoff roll, (2) the

lift-off, and (3) the initial climb after becoming airborne. [Figure 5-1]

• Takeoff Roll (ground roll)—the portion of the

takeoff procedure during which the airplane is

accelerated from a standstill to an airspeed that

provides sufficient lift for it to become airborne.

• Lift-off (rotation)—the act of becoming airborne as a result of the wings lifting the airplane

off the ground or the pilot rotating the nose up,

increasing the angle of attack to start a climb.

• Initial Climb—begins when the airplane leaves

the ground and a pitch attitude has been established to climb away from the takeoff area.

Normally, it is considered complete when the

airplane has reached a safe maneuvering altitude,

or an en route climb has been established.

5-1

Figure 5-1.Takeoff and climb.

Takeoff

power

Takeoff pitch

attitude

Best climb speed

Safe maneuvering altitude

climb power

En Route

climb

Climb

(3)

Lift-off

(2)

Takeoff

roll

(1)

Ch 05.qxd 5/7/04 7:02 AM Page 5-1
5-2

PRIOR TO TAKEOFF

Before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area, the

pilot should ensure that the engine is operating properly and that all controls, including flaps and trim tabs,

are set in accordance with the before takeoff checklist.

In addition, the pilot must make certain that the

approach and takeoff paths are clear of other aircraft.

At uncontrolled airports, pilots should announce their

intentions on the common traffic advisory frequency

(CTAF) assigned to that airport. When operating from

an airport with an operating control tower, pilots must

contact the tower operator and receive a takeoff clearance before taxiing onto the active runway.

It is not recommended to take off immediately behind

another aircraft, particularly large, heavily loaded

transport airplanes, because of the wake turbulence

that is generated.

While taxiing onto the runway, the pilot can select

ground reference points that are aligned with the

runway direction as aids to maintaining directional

control during the takeoff. These may be runway

centerline markings, runway lighting, distant trees,

towers, buildings, or mountain peaks.

NORMAL TAKEOFF

A normal takeoff is one in which the airplane is headed

into the wind, or the wind is very light. Also, the takeoff surface is firm and of sufficient length to permit the

airplane to gradually accelerate to normal lift-off and

climb-out speed, and there are no obstructions along

the takeoff path.

There are two reasons for making a takeoff as nearly

into the wind as possible. First, the airplane’s speed

while on the ground is much less than if the takeoff

were made downwind, thus reducing wear and stress

on the landing gear. Second, a shorter ground roll and

therefore much less runway length is required to

develop the minimum lift necessary for takeoff and

climb. Since the airplane depends on airspeed in order

to fly, a headwind provides some of that airspeed, even

with the airplane motionless, from the wind flowing

over the wings.

TAKEOFF ROLL

After taxiing onto the runway, the airplane should be

carefully aligned with the intended takeoff direction,

and the nosewheel positioned straight, or centered.

After releasing the brakes, the throttle should be

advanced smoothly and continuously to takeoff power.

An abrupt application of power may cause the airplane

to yaw sharply to the left because of the torque effects

of the engine and propeller. This will be most apparent

in high horsepower engines. As the airplane starts to

roll forward, the pilot should assure both feet are on

the rudder pedals so that the toes or balls of the feet are

on the rudder portions, not on the brake portions.

Engine instruments should be monitored during the

takeoff roll for any malfunctions.

In nosewheel-type airplanes, pressures on the elevator

control are not necessary beyond those needed to

steady it. Applying unnecessary pressure will only

aggravate the takeoff and prevent the pilot from recognizing when elevator control pressure is actually

needed to establish the takeoff attitude.

As speed is gained, the elevator control will tend to

assume a neutral position if the airplane is correctly

trimmed. At the same time, directional control should

be maintained with smooth, prompt, positive rudder

corrections throughout the takeoff roll. The effects of

engine torque and P-factor at the initial speeds tend to

pull the nose to the left. The pilot must use whatever

rudder pressure and aileron needed to correct for these

effects or for existing wind conditions to keep the nose

of the airplane headed straight down the runway. The

use of brakes for steering purposes should be avoided,

since this will cause slower acceleration of the airplane’s speed, lengthen the takeoff distance, and

possibly result in severe swerving.

While the speed of the takeoff roll increases, more

and more pressure will be felt on the flight controls,

particularly the elevators and rudder. If the tail surfaces are affected by the propeller slipstream, they

become effective first. As the speed continues to

increase, all of the flight controls will gradually

become effective enough to maneuver the airplane

about its three axes. It is at this point, in the taxi to

flight transition, that the airplane is being flown more

than taxied. As this occurs, progressively smaller

rudder deflections are needed to maintain direction.

The feel of resistance to the movement of the controls and the airplane’s reaction to such movements

are the only real indicators of the degree of control

attained. This feel of resistance is not a measure of

the airplane’s speed, but rather of its controllability.

To determine the degree of controllability, the pilot

must be conscious of the reaction of the airplane to

the control pressures and immediately adjust the

pressures as needed to control the airplane. The pilot

must wait for the reaction of the airplane to the

applied control pressures and attempt to sense the

control resistance to pressure rather than attempt to

control the airplane by movement of the controls.

Balanced control surfaces increase the importance

of this point, because they materially reduce the

intensity of the resistance offered to pressures

exerted by the pilot.

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At this stage of training, beginning takeoff practice, a

student pilot will normally not have a full appreciation

of the variations of control pressures with the speed of

the airplane. The student, therefore, may tend to move

the controls through wide ranges seeking the pressures

that are familiar and expected, and as a consequence

over-control the airplane. The situation may be aggravated by the sluggish reaction of the airplane to these

movements. The flight instructor should take measures

to check these tendencies and stress the importance of

the development of feel. The student pilot should be

required to feel lightly for resistance and accomplish

the desired results by applying pressure against it. This

practice will enable the student pilot, as experience is

gained, to achieve a sense of the point when sufficient

speed has been acquired for the takeoff, instead of

merely guessing, fixating on the airspeed indicator, or

trying to force performance from the airplane.

LIFT-OFF

Since a good takeoff depends on the proper takeoff

attitude, it is important to know how this attitude

appears and how it is attained. The ideal takeoff attitude requires only minimum pitch adjustments

shortly after the airplane lifts off to attain the speed

for the best rate of climb (VY). [Figure 5-2] The pitch

attitude necessary for the airplane to accelerate to VY

speed should be demonstrated by the instructor and

memorized by the student. Initially, the student pilot

may have a tendency to hold excessive back-elevator

pressure just after lift-off, resulting in an abrupt pitchup. The flight instructor should be prepared for this.

Each type of airplane has a best pitch attitude for

normal lift-off; however, varying conditions may

make a difference in the required takeoff technique.

A rough field, a smooth field, a hard surface runway,

or a short or soft, muddy field, all call for a slightly

different technique, as will smooth air in contrast to

a strong, gusty wind. The different techniques for

those other-than-normal conditions are discussed

later in this chapter.

When all the flight controls become effective during

the takeoff roll in a nosewheel-type airplane, backelevator pressure should be gradually applied to

raise the nosewheel slightly off the runway, thus

establishing the takeoff or lift-off attitude. This is

often referred to as “rotating.” At this point, the

position of the nose in relation to the horizon should

be noted, then back-elevator pressure applied as

necessary to hold this attitude. The wings must be

kept level by applying aileron pressure as necessary.

The airplane is allowed to fly off the ground while in

the normal takeoff attitude. Forcing it into the air by

applying excessive back-elevator pressure would only

result in an excessively high pitch attitude and may

delay the takeoff. As discussed earlier, excessive and

rapid changes in pitch attitude result in proportionate

changes in the effects of torque, thus making the airplane more difficult to control.

Although the airplane can be forced into the air, this is

considered an unsafe practice and should be avoided

under normal circumstances. If the airplane is forced

to leave the ground by using too much back-elevator

pressure before adequate flying speed is attained, the

wing’s angle of attack may be excessive, causing the

airplane to settle back to the runway or even to stall.

On the other hand, if sufficient back-elevator pressure

is not held to maintain the correct takeoff attitude after

becoming airborne, or the nose is allowed to lower

excessively, the airplane may also settle back to the

runway. This would occur because the angle of attack

is decreased and lift diminished to the degree where it

will not support the airplane. It is important, then, to

hold the correct attitude constant after rotation or liftoff.

As the airplane leaves the ground, the pilot must

continue to be concerned with maintaining the

wings in a level attitude, as well as holding the

proper pitch attitude. Outside visual scan to

attain/maintain proper airplane pitch and bank attitude must be intensified at this critical point. The

flight controls have not yet become fully effective,

and the beginning pilot will often have a tendency

to fixate on the airplane’s pitch attitude and/or the

airspeed indicator and neglect the natural tendency

of the airplane to roll just after breaking ground.

During takeoffs in a strong, gusty wind, it is advisable

that an extra margin of speed be obtained before the

airplane is allowed to leave the ground. A takeoff at the

Figure 5-2. Initial roll and takeoff attitude. normal takeoff speed may result in a lack of positive

A. Initial roll

B. Takeoff attitude

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control, or a stall, when the airplane encounters a

sudden lull in strong, gusty wind, or other turbulent

air currents. In this case, the pilot should allow the

airplane to stay on the ground longer to attain more

speed; then make a smooth, positive rotation to leave

the ground.

INITIAL CLIMB

Upon lift-off, the airplane should be flying at approximately the pitch attitude that will allow it to accelerate

to VY. This is the speed at which the airplane will gain

the most altitude in the shortest period of time.

If the airplane has been properly trimmed, some backelevator pressure may be required to hold this attitude

until the proper climb speed is established. On the

other hand, relaxation of any back-elevator pressure

before this time may result in the airplane settling,

even to the extent that it contacts the runway.

The airplane will pick up speed rapidly after it

becomes airborne. Once a positive rate of climb is

established, the flaps and landing gear can be retracted

(if equipped).

It is recommended that takeoff power be maintained

until reaching an altitude of at least 500 feet above the

surrounding terrain or obstacles. The combination of

VY and takeoff power assures the maximum altitude

gained in a minimum amount of time. This gives the

pilot more altitude from which the airplane can be

safely maneuvered in case of an engine failure or other

emergency.

Since the power on the initial climb is fixed at the takeoff

power setting, the airspeed must be controlled by making

slight pitch adjustments using the elevators. However,

the pilot should not fixate on the airspeed indicator when

making these pitch changes, but should, instead, continue

to scan outside to adjust the airplane’s attitude in relation

to the horizon. In accordance with the principles of attitude flying, the pilot should first make the necessary

pitch change with reference to the natural horizon and

hold the new attitude momentarily, and then glance at the

airspeed indicator as a check to see if the new attitude is

correct. Due to inertia, the airplane will not accelerate or

decelerate immediately as the pitch is changed. It takes a

little time for the airspeed to change. If the pitch attitude

has been over or under corrected, the airspeed indicator

will show a speed that is more or less than that desired.

When this occurs, the cross-checking and appropriate

pitch-changing process must be repeated until the desired

climbing attitude is established.

When the correct pitch attitude has been attained, it

should be held constant while cross-checking it against

the horizon and other outside visual references. The

airspeed indicator should be used only as a check to

determine if the attitude is correct.

After the recommended climb airspeed has been established, and a safe maneuvering altitude has been

reached, the power should be adjusted to the recommended climb setting and the airplane trimmed to

relieve the control pressures. This will make it easier

to hold a constant attitude and airspeed.

During initial climb, it is important that the takeoff

path remain aligned with the runway to avoid drifting

into obstructions, or the path of another aircraft that

may be taking off from a parallel runway. Proper scanning techniques are essential to a safe takeoff and

climb, not only for maintaining attitude and direction,

but also for collision avoidance in the airport area.

When the student pilot nears the solo stage of flight

training, it should be explained that the airplane’s

takeoff performance will be much different when the

instructor is out of the airplane. Due to decreased

load, the airplane will become airborne sooner and

will climb more rapidly. The pitch attitude that the

student has learned to associate with initial climb

may also differ due to decreased weight, and the

flight controls may seem more sensitive. If the situation is unexpected, it may result in increased tension

that may remain until after the landing. Frequently,

the existence of this tension and the uncertainty that

develops due to the perception of an “abnormal”

takeoff results in poor performance on the subsequent landing.

Common errors in the performance of normal takeoffs

and departure climbs are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing into position on the active runway.

• Abrupt use of the throttle.

• Failure to check engine instruments for signs of

malfunction after applying takeoff power.

• Failure to anticipate the airplane’s left turning

tendency on initial acceleration.

• Overcorrecting for left turning tendency.

• Relying solely on the airspeed indicator rather

than developed feel for indications of speed and

airplane controllability during acceleration and

lift-off.

• Failure to attain proper lift-off attitude.

• Inadequate compensation for torque/P-factor

during initial climb resulting in a sideslip. 

• Over-control of elevators during initial climbout.

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• Limiting scan to areas directly ahead of the airplane (pitch attitude and direction), resulting in

allowing a wing (usually the left) to drop

immediately after lift-off.

• Failure to attain/maintain best rate-of-climb airspeed (VY).

• Failure to employ the principles of attitude flying

during climb-out, resulting in “chasing” the airspeed indicator.

CROSSWIND TAKEOFF

While it is usually preferable to take off directly into

the wind whenever possible or practical, there will

be many instances when circumstances or judgment

will indicate otherwise. Therefore, the pilot must be

familiar with the principles and techniques involved

in crosswind takeoffs, as well as those for normal

takeoffs. A crosswind will affect the airplane during

takeoff much as it does in taxiing. With this in mind,

it can be seen that the technique for crosswind

correction during takeoffs closely parallels the

crosswind correction techniques used in taxiing.

TAKEOFF ROLL

The technique used during the initial takeoff roll in a

crosswind is generally the same as used in a normal

takeoff, except that aileron control must be held INTO

the crosswind. This raises the aileron on the upwind

wing to impose a downward force on the wing to counteract the lifting force of the crosswind and prevents

the wing from rising.

As the airplane is taxied into takeoff position, it is essential that the windsock and other wind direction indicators

be checked so that the presence of a crosswind may be

recognized and anticipated. If a crosswind is indicated,

FULL aileron should be held into the wind as the takeoff

roll is started. This control position should be maintained

while the airplane is accelerating and until the ailerons

start becoming sufficiently effective for maneuvering the

airplane about its longitudinal axis.

With the aileron held into the wind, the takeoff path

must be held straight with the rudder. [Figure 5-3]

Normally, this will require applying downwind rudder

pressure, since on the ground the airplane will tend to

weathervane into the wind. When takeoff power is

applied, torque or P-factor that yaws the airplane to the

left may be sufficient to counteract the weathervaning

tendency caused by a crosswind from the right. On the

other hand, it may also aggravate the tendency to

Figure 5-3. Crosswind takeoff roll and initial climb.

WIND

Apply full aileron into wind

Rudder as needed for direction

Hold aileron into wind

Roll on upwind wheel

Rudder as needed

Hold aileron into wind

Bank into wind

Rudder as needed

Start roll

Takeoff roll

Lift-off

Initial climb

Wings level

 with a wind correction

angle

Ch 05.qxd 5/7/04 7:02 AM Page 5-5
5-6

swerve left when the wind is from the left. In any case,

whatever rudder pressure is required to keep the airplane rolling straight down the runway should be

applied.

As the forward speed of the airplane increases and the

crosswind becomes more of a relative headwind, the

mechanical holding of full aileron into the wind should

be reduced. It is when increasing pressure is being felt

on the aileron control that the ailerons are becoming

more effective. As the aileron’s effectiveness increases

and the crosswind component of the relative wind

becomes less effective, it will be necessary to gradually

reduce the aileron pressure. The crosswind component

effect does not completely vanish, so some aileron pressure will have to be maintained throughout the takeoff

roll to keep the crosswind from raising the upwind wing.

If the upwind wing rises, thus exposing more surface to

the crosswind, a “skipping” action may result. [Figure

5-4]

This is usually indicated by a series of very small

bounces, caused by the airplane attempting to fly

and then settling back onto the runway. During these

bounces, the crosswind also tends to move the airplane sideways, and these bounces will develop into

side-skipping. This side-skipping imposes severe

side stresses on the landing gear and could result in

structural failure.

It is important, during a crosswind takeoff roll, to hold

sufficient aileron into the wind not only to keep the

upwind wing from rising but to hold that wing down so

that the airplane will, immediately after lift-off, be

sideslipping into the wind enough to counteract drift.

LIFT-OFF

As the nosewheel is being raised off the runway, the

holding of aileron control into the wind may result in

the downwind wing rising and the downwind main

wheel lifting off the runway first, with the remainder

of the takeoff roll being made on that one main wheel.

This is acceptable and is preferable to side-skipping.

If a significant crosswind exists, the main wheels

should be held on the ground slightly longer than in a

normal takeoff so that a smooth but very definite liftoff can be made. This procedure will allow the airplane to leave the ground under more positive control

so that it will definitely remain airborne while the

proper amount of wind correction is being established.

More importantly, this procedure will avoid imposing

excessive side-loads on the landing gear and prevent

possible damage that would result from the airplane

settling back to the runway while drifting.

As both main wheels leave the runway and ground

friction no longer resists drifting, the airplane will be

slowly carried sideways with the wind unless adequate

drift correction is maintained by the pilot. Therefore, it

is important to establish and maintain the proper

amount of crosswind correction prior to lift-off by

applying aileron pressure toward the wind to keep the

upwind wing from rising and applying rudder pressure

as needed to prevent weathervaning.

INITIAL CLIMB

If proper crosswind correction is being applied, as soon

as the airplane is airborne, it will be sideslipping into the

wind sufficiently to counteract the drifting effect of the

wind. [Figure 5-5] This sideslipping should be continued

until the airplane has a positive rate of climb. At that time,

the airplane should be turned into the wind to establish

just enough wind correction angle to counteract the wind

and then the wings rolled level. Firm and aggressive use

of the rudders will be required to keep the airplane headed

straight down the runway. The climb with a wind correction angle should be continued to follow a ground track

aligned with the runway direction. However, because the

force of a crosswind may vary markedly within a few

hundred feet of the ground, frequent checks of actual

ground track should be made, and the wind correction

adjusted as necessary. The remainder of the climb technique is the same used for normal takeoffs and climbs.

Common errors in the performance of crosswind takeoffs are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing onto the active runway.

• Using less than full aileron pressure into the

wind initially on the takeoff roll.

• Mechanical use of aileron control rather than

sensing the need for varying aileron control

input through feel for the airplane.

No correction

WIND

WIND

Proper correction

Figure 5-4. Crosswind effect.

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• Premature lift-off resulting in side-skipping.

• Excessive aileron input in the latter stage of the

takeoff roll resulting in a steep bank into the wind

at lift-off.

• Inadequate drift correction after lift-off.

GROUND EFFECT ON TAKEOFF

Ground effect is a condition of improved performance encountered when the airplane is operating

very close to the ground. Ground effect can be

detected and measured up to an altitude equal to one

wingspan above the surface. [Figure 5-6] However,

ground effect is most significant when the airplane

(especially a low-wing airplane) is maintaining a

constant attitude at low airspeed at low altitude (for

example, during takeoff when the airplane lifts off

and accelerates to climb speed, and during the landing flare before touchdown).

When the wing is under the influence of ground effect,

there is a reduction in upwash, downwash, and wingtip

vortices. As a result of the reduced wingtip vortices,

induced drag is reduced. When the wing is at a height

equal to one-fourth the span, the reduction in induced

drag is about 25 percent, and when the wing is at a

height equal to one-tenth the span, the reduction in

induced drag is about 50 percent. At high speeds where

parasite drag dominates, induced drag is a small part of

the total drag. Consequently, the effects of ground effect

are of greater concern during takeoff and landing.

On takeoff, the takeoff roll, lift-off, and the beginning

of the initial climb are accomplished in the ground

effect area. The ground effect causes local increases in

static pressure, which cause the airspeed indicator and

altimeter to indicate slightly less than they should, and

usually results in the vertical speed indicator indicating a descent. As the airplane lifts off and climbs out of

the ground effect area, however, the following will

occur.

• The airplane will require an increase in angle of

attack to maintain the same lift coefficient.

• The airplane will experience an increase in

induced drag and thrust required.

• The airplane will experience a pitch-up tendency

and will require less elevator travel because of an

increase in downwash at the horizontal tail.

WIND

Figure 5-5. Crosswind climb flightpath.

Ground effect

decreases

induced drag

Airplane may

fly at lower 

indicated 

airspeed

Accelerate in

ground effect

to V or V X Y

Ground effect

decreases quickly

with height

Ground effect is

negligible when

height is equal

to wingspan

Ground

Effect

Area

Figure 5-6.Takeoff in ground effect area.

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• The airplane will experience a reduction in static

source pressure as it leaves the ground effect area

and a corresponding increase in indicated airspeed.

Due to the reduced drag in ground effect, the airplane

may seem to be able to take off below the recommended airspeed. However, as the airplane rises out of

ground effect with an insufficient airspeed, initial

climb performance may prove to be marginal because

of the increased drag. Under conditions of high-density altitude, high temperature, and/or maximum gross

weight, the airplane may be able to become airborne at

an insufficient airspeed, but unable to climb out of

ground effect. Consequently, the airplane may not be

able to clear obstructions, or may settle back on the

runway. The point to remember is that additional

power is required to compensate for increases in drag

that occur as an airplane leaves ground effect. But during an initial climb, the engine is already developing

maximum power. The only alternative is to lower pitch

attitude to gain additional airspeed, which will result in

inevitable altitude loss. Therefore, under marginal conditions, it is important that the airplane takes off at the

recommended speed that will provide adequate initial

climb performance.

Ground effect is important to normal flight operations.

If the runway is long enough, or if no obstacles exist,

ground effect can be used to an advantage by using the

reduced drag to improve initial acceleration.

Additionally, the procedure for takeoff from unsatisfactory surfaces is to take as much weight on the wings

as possible during the ground run, and to lift off with

the aid of ground effect before true flying speed is

attained. It is then necessary to reduce the angle of

attack to attain normal airspeed before attempting to

fly away from the ground effect area.

SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF AND 

MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE CLIMB

Takeoffs and climbs from fields where the takeoff area

is short or the available takeoff area is restricted by

obstructions require that the pilot operate the airplane

at the limit of its takeoff performance capabilities. To

depart from such an area safely, the pilot must exercise

positive and precise control of airplane attitude and

airspeed so that takeoff and climb performance results

in the shortest ground roll and the steepest angle of

climb. [Figure 5-7]

The achieved result should be consistent with the

performance section of the FAA-approved Airplane

Flight Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook

(AFM/POH). In all cases, the power setting, flap

setting, airspeed, and procedures prescribed by the

airplane’s manufacturer should be followed.

In order to accomplish a maximum performance takeoff safely, the pilot must have adequate knowledge in

the use and effectiveness of the best angle-of-climb

speed (VX) and the best rate-of-climb speed (VY) for

the specific make and model of airplane being flown.

The speed for VX is that which will result in the

greatest gain in altitude for a given distance over the

ground. It is usually slightly less than VY which provides the greatest gain in altitude per unit of time.

The specific speeds to be used for a given airplane

are stated in the FAA-approved AFM/POH. It should

be emphasized that in some airplanes, a deviation of

5 knots from the recommended speed will result in a

significant reduction in climb performance.

Therefore, precise control of airspeed has an important bearing on the successful execution as well as

the safety of the maneuver. 

Climb

at VY

Retract gear

and flaps

Climb

at VX

Rotate at

approximately VX

Figure 5-7. Short-field takeoff.

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TAKEOFF ROLL

Taking off from a short field requires the takeoff to be

started from the very beginning of the takeoff area. At

this point, the airplane is aligned with the intended

takeoff path. If the airplane manufacturer recommends

the use of flaps, they should be extended the proper

amount before starting the takeoff roll. This permits

the pilot to give full attention to the proper technique

and the airplane’s performance throughout the takeoff.

Some authorities prefer to hold the brakes until the

maximum obtainable engine r.p.m. is achieved before

allowing the airplane to begin its takeoff run. However,

it has not been established that this procedure will

result in a shorter takeoff run in all light single-engine

airplanes. Takeoff power should be applied smoothly

and continuously—without hesitation—to accelerate

the airplane as rapidly as possible. The airplane should

be allowed to roll with its full weight on the main

wheels and accelerated to the lift-off speed. As the

takeoff roll progresses, the airplane’s pitch attitude and

angle of attack should be adjusted to that which results

in the minimum amount of drag and the quickest acceleration. In nosewheel-type airplanes, this will involve

little use of the elevator control, since the airplane is

already in a low drag attitude.

LIFT-OFF

Approaching best angle-of-climb speed (VX), the airplane

should be smoothly and firmly lifted off, or rotated, by

applying back-elevator pressure to an attitude that will

result in the best angle-of-climb airspeed (VX). Since the

airplane will accelerate more rapidly after lift-off, additional back-elevator pressure becomes necessary to hold a

constant airspeed. After becoming airborne, a wings level

climb should be maintained at VX until obstacles have

been cleared or, if no obstacles are involved, until an altitude of at least 50 feet above the takeoff surface is attained.

Thereafter, the pitch attitude may be lowered slightly, and

the climb continued at best rate-of-climb speed (VY) until

reaching a safe maneuvering altitude. Remember that an

attempt to pull the airplane off the ground prematurely, or

to climb too steeply, may cause the airplane to settle back

to the runway or into the obstacles. Even if the airplane

remains airborne, the initial climb will remain flat and

climb performance/obstacle clearance ability seriously

degraded until best angle-of-climb airspeed (VX) is

achieved. [Figure 5-8]

The objective is to rotate to the appropriate pitch attitude at (or near) best angle-of-climb airspeed. It should

be remembered, however, that some airplanes will

have a natural tendency to lift off well before reaching

VX. In these airplanes, it may be necessary to allow the

airplane to lift off in ground effect and then reduce

pitch attitude to level until the airplane accelerates to

best angle-of-climb airspeed with the wheels just clear

of the runway surface. This method is preferable to

forcing the airplane to remain on the ground with forward-elevator pressure until best angle-of-climb speed

is attained. Holding the airplane on the ground unnecessarily puts excessive pressure on the nosewheel, may

result in “wheelbarrowing,” and will hinder both

acceleration and overall airplane performance.

INITIAL CLIMB

On short-field takeoffs, the landing gear and flaps

should remain in takeoff position until clear of obstacles (or as recommended by the manufacturer) and VY

has been established. It is generally unwise for the pilot

to be looking in the cockpit or reaching for landing

gear and flap controls until obstacle clearance is

assured. When the airplane is stabilized at VY, the gear

(if equipped) and then the flaps should be retracted. It

is usually advisable to raise the flaps in increments to

avoid sudden loss of lift and settling of the airplane.

Next, reduce the power to the normal climb setting or

as recommended by the airplane manufacturer.

Common errors in the performance of short-field takeoffs and maximum performance climbs are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Failure to utilize all available runway/takeoff

area.

• Failure to have the airplane properly trimmed

prior to takeoff.

• Premature lift-off resulting in high drag.

• Holding the airplane on the ground unnecessarily

with excessive forward-elevator pressure.

• Inadequate rotation resulting in excessive speed

after lift-off.

• Inability to attain/maintain best angle-of-climb

airspeed.

Premature rotation Airplane may lift off

at low airspeed

Airplane may settle

back to the ground

Flight below V

results in shallow

climb

X

Figure 5-8. Effect of premature lift-off.

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• Fixation on the airspeed indicator during initial

climb.

• Premature retraction of landing gear and/or wing

flaps.

SOFT/ROUGH-FIELD TAKEOFF 

AND CLIMB

Takeoffs and climbs from soft fields require the use of

operational techniques for getting the airplane airborne

as quickly as possible to eliminate the drag caused by

tall grass, soft sand, mud, and snow, and may or may

not require climbing over an obstacle. The technique

makes judicious use of ground effect and requires a

feel for the airplane and fine control touch. These same

techniques are also useful on a rough field where it is

advisable to get the airplane off the ground as soon as

possible to avoid damaging the landing gear.

Soft surfaces or long, wet grass usually reduces the airplane’s acceleration during the takeoff roll so much

that adequate takeoff speed might not be attained if

normal takeoff techniques were employed.

It should be emphasized that the correct takeoff

procedure for soft fields is quite different from

that appropriate for short fields with firm, smooth

surfaces. To minimize the hazards associated with

takeoffs from soft or rough fields, support of the

airplane’s weight must be transferred as rapidly

as possible from the wheels to the wings as the

takeoff roll proceeds. Establishing and maintaining a relatively high angle of attack or nose-high

pitch attitude as early as possible does this. Wing

flaps may be lowered prior to starting the takeoff

(if recommended by the manufacturer) to provide

additional lift and to transfer the airplane’s weight

from the wheels to the wings as early as possible.

Stopping on a soft surface, such as mud or snow, might

bog the airplane down; therefore, it should be kept in

continuous motion with sufficient power while lining

up for the takeoff roll.

TAKEOFF ROLL

As the airplane is aligned with the takeoff path, takeoff

power is applied smoothly and as rapidly as the powerplant will accept it without faltering. As the airplane

accelerates, enough back-elevator pressure should be

applied to establish a positive angle of attack and to

reduce the weight supported by the nosewheel.

When the airplane is held at a nose-high attitude

throughout the takeoff run, the wings will, as speed

increases and lift develops, progressively relieve the

wheels of more and more of the airplane’s weight,

thereby minimizing the drag caused by surface irregularities or adhesion. If this attitude is accurately maintained,

the airplane will virtually fly itself off the ground,

becoming airborne at airspeed slower than a safe climb

speed because of ground effect. [Figure 5-9]

LIFT-OFF

After becoming airborne, the nose should be lowered

very gently with the wheels clear of the surface to

allow the airplane to accelerate to VY, or VX if obstacles must be cleared. Extreme care must be exercised

immediately after the airplane becomes airborne and

while it accelerates, to avoid settling back onto the surface. An attempt to climb prematurely or too steeply

may cause the airplane to settle back to the surface as

a result of losing the benefit of ground effect. An

attempt to climb out of ground effect before sufficient

climb airspeed is attained may result in the airplane

being unable to climb further as the ground effect area

is transited, even with full power. Therefore, it is

essential that the airplane remain in ground effect until

at least VX is reached. This requires feel for the airplane, and a very fine control touch, in order to avoid

over-controlling the elevator as required control pressures change with airplane acceleration.

INITIAL CLIMB

After a positive rate of climb is established, and the airplane has accelerated to VY, retract the landing gear and

flaps, if equipped. If departing from an airstrip with wet

snow or slush on the takeoff surface, the gear should not

be retracted immediately. This allows for any wet snow

or slush to be air-dried. In the event an obstacle must be

cleared after a soft-field takeoff, the climb-out is performed at VX until the obstacle has been cleared. After

reaching this point, the pitch attitude is adjusted to VY

and the gear and flaps are retracted. The power may

then be reduced to the normal climb setting.

Accelerate Raise nosewheel Lift off

Level off in

ground effect

Accelerate

in ground effect

to VX or VY

Figure 5-9. Soft-field takeoff.

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5-11

Common errors in the performance of soft/rough field

takeoff and climbs are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Insufficient back-elevator pressure during initial

takeoff roll resulting in inadequate angle of

attack.

• Failure to cross-check engine instruments for

indications of proper operation after applying

power.

• Poor directional control.

• Climbing too steeply after lift-off.

• Abrupt and/or excessive elevator control while

attempting to level off and accelerate after liftoff.

• Allowing the airplane to “mush” or settle resulting in an inadvertent touchdown after lift-off.

• Attempting to climb out of ground effect area

before attaining sufficient climb speed.

• Failure to anticipate an increase in pitch attitude

as the airplane climbs out of ground effect.

REJECTED TAKEOFF/ENGINE FAILURE

Emergency or abnormal situations can occur during a

takeoff that will require a pilot to reject the takeoff

while still on the runway. Circumstances such as a

malfunctioning powerplant, inadequate acceleration,

runway incursion, or air traffic conflict may be reasons for a rejected takeoff.

Prior to takeoff, the pilot should have in mind a

point along the runway at which the airplane

should be airborne. If that point is reached and the

airplane is not airborne, immediate action should

be taken to discontinue the takeoff. Properly

planned and executed, chances are excellent the

airplane can be stopped on the remaining runway

without using extraordinary measures, such as

excessive braking that may result in loss of directional control, airplane damage, and/or personal

injury.

In the event a takeoff is rejected, the power should be

reduced to idle and maximum braking applied while

maintaining directional control. If it is necessary to

shut down the engine due to a fire, the mixture control

should be brought to the idle cutoff position and the

magnetos turned off. In all cases, the manufacturer’s

emergency procedure should be followed.

What characterizes all power loss or engine failure

occurrences after lift-off is urgency. In most instances,

the pilot has only a few seconds after an engine failure

to decide what course of action to take and to execute

it. Unless prepared in advance to make the proper decision, there is an excellent chance the pilot will make a

poor decision, or make no decision at all and allow

events to rule.

In the event of an engine failure on initial climb-out,

the pilot’s first responsibility is to maintain aircraft

control. At a climb pitch attitude without power, the

airplane will be at or near a stalling angle of attack.

At the same time, the pilot may still be holding right

rudder. It is essential the pilot immediately lower the

pitch attitude to prevent a stall and possible spin.

The pilot should establish a controlled glide toward

a plausible landing area (preferably straight ahead

on the remaining runway).

NOISE ABATEMENT

Aircraft noise problems have become a major concern at

many airports throughout the country. Many local communities have pressured airports into developing specific

operational procedures that will help limit aircraft noise

while operating over nearby areas. For years now, the

FAA, airport managers, aircraft operators, pilots, and special interest groups have been working together to minimize aircraft noise for nearby sensitive areas. As a result,

noise abatement procedures have been developed for

many of these airports that include standardized profiles

and procedures to achieve these lower noise goals.

Airports that have noise abatement procedures provide

information to pilots, operators, air carriers, air traffic

facilities, and other special groups that are applicable

to their airport. These procedures are available to the

aviation community by various means. Most of this

information comes from the Airport/Facility Directory,

local and regional publications, printed handouts, operator bulletin boards, safety briefings, and local air traffic facilities.

At airports that use noise abatement procedures,

reminder signs may be installed at the taxiway hold

positions for applicable runways. These are to remind

pilots to use and comply with noise abatement procedures on departure. Pilots who are not familiar with

these procedures should ask the tower or air traffic

facility for the recommended procedures. In any case,

pilots should be considerate of the surrounding community while operating their airplane to and from such

an airport. This includes operating as quietly, yet safely

as possible.

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Ch 05.qxd 5/7/04 7:02 AM Page 5-12
PURPOSE AND SCOPE

Ground reference maneuvers and their related factors

are used in developing a high degree of pilot skill.

Although most of these maneuvers are not performed

as such in normal everyday flying, the elements and

principles involved in each are applicable to performance of the customary pilot operations. They aid the

pilot in analyzing the effect of wind and other forces

acting on the airplane and in developing a fine control touch, coordination, and the division of attention

necessary for accurate and safe maneuvering of the

airplane.

All of the early part of the pilot’s training has been conducted at relatively high altitudes, and for the purpose

of developing technique, knowledge of maneuvers,

coordination, feel, and the handling of the airplane in

general. This training will have required that most of

the pilot’s attention be given to the actual handling of

the airplane, and the results of control pressures on the

action and attitude of the airplane.

If permitted to continue beyond the appropriate training

stage, however, the student pilot’s concentration of

attention will become a fixed habit, one that will seriously detract from the student’s ease and safety as a

pilot, and will be very difficult to eliminate. Therefore,

it is necessary, as soon as the pilot shows proficiency in

the fundamental maneuvers, that the pilot be introduced

to maneuvers requiring outside attention on a practical

application of these maneuvers and the knowledge

gained.

It should be stressed that, during ground reference

maneuvers, it is equally important that basic flying

technique previously learned be maintained. The

flight instructor should not allow any relaxation of the

student’s previous standard of technique simply

because a new factor is added. This requirement

should be maintained throughout the student’s

progress from maneuver to maneuver. Each new

maneuver should embody some advance and include

the principles of the preceding one in order that continuity be maintained. Each new factor introduced

should be merely a step-up of one already learned so

that orderly, consistent progress can be made.

MANEUVERING BY REFERENCE

TO GROUND OBJECTS

Ground track or ground reference maneuvers are performed at a relatively low altitude while applying wind

drift correction as needed to follow a predetermined

track or path over the ground. They are designed to

develop the ability to control the airplane, and to recognize and correct for the effect of wind while dividing

attention among other matters. This requires planning

ahead of the airplane, maintaining orientation in relation

to ground objects, flying appropriate headings to follow

a desired ground track, and being cognizant of other air

traffic in the immediate vicinity.

Ground reference maneuvers should be flown at an altitude of approximately 600 to 1,000 feet AGL. The

actual altitude will depend on the speed and type of airplane to a large extent, and the following factors should

be considered.

• The speed with relation to the ground should not

be so apparent that events happen too rapidly.

• The radius of the turn and the path of the airplane

over the ground should be easily noted and

changes planned and effected as circumstances

require.

• Drift should be easily discernable, but not tax the

student too much in making corrections.

• Objects on the ground should appear in their proportion and size.

• The altitude should be low enough to render any

gain or loss apparent to the student, but in no case

lower than 500 feet above the highest obstruction.

During these maneuvers, both the instructor and the

student should be alert for available forced-landing

fields. The area chosen should be away from communities, livestock, or groups of people to prevent possible

annoyance or hazards to others. Due to the altitudes at

which these maneuvers are performed, there is little

time available to search for a suitable field for landing

in the event the need arises.

6-1

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6-2

DRIFT AND GROUND 

TRACK CONTROL

Whenever any object is free from the ground, it is

affected by the medium with which it is surrounded.

This means that a free object will move in whatever

direction and speed that the medium moves.

For example, if a powerboat is crossing a river and

the river is still, the boat could head directly to a point

on the opposite shore and travel on a straight course

to that point without drifting. However, if the river

were flowing swiftly, the water current would have to

be considered. That is, as the boat progresses forward

with its own power, it must also move upstream at the

same rate the river is moving it downstream. This is

accomplished by angling the boat upstream sufficiently to counteract the downstream flow. If this is

done, the boat will follow the desired track across

the river from the departure point directly to the

intended destination point. Should the boat not be

headed sufficiently upstream, it would drift with the

current and run aground at some point downstream

on the opposite bank. [Figure 6-1]

As soon as an airplane becomes airborne, it is free of

ground friction. Its path is then affected by the air mass

in which it is flying; therefore, the airplane (like the

boat) will not always track along the ground in the

exact direction that it is headed. When flying with the

longitudinal axis of the airplane aligned with a road, it

may be noted that the airplane gets closer to or farther

from the road without any turn having been made. This

would indicate that the air mass is moving sideward in

relation to the airplane. Since the airplane is flying

within this moving body of air (wind), it moves or

drifts with the air in the same direction and speed, just

like the boat moved with the river current. [Figure 6-1]

When flying straight and level and following a

selected ground track, the preferred method of correcting for wind drift is to head the airplane (wind

correction angle) sufficiently into the wind to cause

the airplane to move forward into the wind at the

same rate the wind is moving it sideways.

Depending on the wind velocity, this may require a

large wind correction angle or one of only a few

degrees. When the drift has been neutralized, the

airplane will follow the desired ground track.

To understand the need for drift correction during

flight, consider a flight with a wind velocity of 30

knots from the left and 90° to the direction the airplane

is headed. After 1 hour, the body of air in which the

airplane is flying will have moved 30 nautical miles

(NM) to the right. Since the airplane is moving with

this body of air, it too will have drifted 30 NM to the

right. In relation to the air, the airplane moved forward, but in relation to the ground, it moved forward

as well as 30 NM to the right.

There are times when the pilot needs to correct for drift

while in a turn. [Figure 6-2] Throughout the turn the

wind will be acting on the airplane from constantly

changing angles. The relative wind angle and speed

CURRENT CURRENT

No Current - No Drift With a current the boat drifts

downstream unless corrected.

With proper correction, boat

stays on intended course.

No Wind - No Drift With any wind, the airplane drifts

downwind unless corrected.

With proper correction, airplane

stays on intended course.

WIND WIND

Figure 6-1. Wind drift.

Ch 06.qxd 5/7/04 7:35 AM Page 6-2
6-3

govern the time it takes for the airplane to progress

through any part of a turn. This is due to the constantly

changing groundspeed. When the airplane is headed

into the wind, the groundspeed is decreased; when

headed downwind, the groundspeed is increased.

Through the crosswind portion of a turn, the airplane

must be turned sufficiently into the wind to counteract

drift.

To follow a desired circular ground track, the wind correction angle must be varied in a timely manner

because of the varying groundspeed as the turn progresses. The faster the groundspeed, the faster the wind

correction angle must be established; the slower the

groundspeed, the slower the wind correction angle may

be established. It can be seen then that the steepest

bank and fastest rate of turn should be made on the

downwind portion of the turn and the shallowest bank

and slowest rate of turn on the upwind portion.

The principles and techniques of varying the angle of

bank to change the rate of turn and wind correction

angle for controlling wind drift during a turn are the

same for all ground track maneuvers involving

changes in direction of flight.

When there is no wind, it should be simple to fly along

a ground track with an arc of exactly 180° and a constant radius because the flightpath and ground track

would be identical. This can be demonstrated by

approaching a road at a 90° angle and, when directly

over the road, rolling into a medium-banked turn, then

maintaining the same angle of bank throughout the

180° of turn. [Figure 6-2]

To complete the turn, the rollout should be started at a

point where the wings will become level as the airplane

again reaches the road at a 90° angle and will be

directly over the road just as the turn is completed. This

would be possible only if there were absolutely no

wind and if the angle of bank and the rate of turn

remained constant throughout the entire maneuver.

If the turn were made with a constant angle of bank

and a wind blowing directly across the road, it would

result in a constant radius turn through the air.

However, the wind effects would cause the ground

track to be distorted from a constant radius turn or

semicircular path. The greater the wind velocity, the

greater would be the difference between the desired

ground track and the flightpath. To counteract this

drift, the flightpath can be controlled by the pilot in

such a manner as to neutralize the effect of the wind,

and cause the ground track to be a constant radius

semicircle.

The effects of wind during turns can be demonstrated

after selecting a road, railroad, or other ground reference that forms a straight line parallel to the wind. Fly

into the wind directly over and along the line and then

make a turn with a constant medium angle of bank for

360° of turn. [Figure 6-3] The airplane will return to a

point directly over the line but slightly downwind from

the starting point, the amount depending on the wind

velocity and the time required to complete the turn.

The path over the ground will be an elongated circle,

although in reference to the air it is a perfect circle.

Straight flight during the upwind segment after completion of the turn is necessary to bring the airplane

back to the starting position.

20 Knot Wind

Intended ground path

Actual ground path

No Wind

Figure 6-2. Effect of wind during a turn.

Figure 6-3. Effect of wind during turns.

No Wind

Start & Finish

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6-4

A similar 360° turn may be started at a specific point

over the reference line, with the airplane headed

directly downwind. In this demonstration, the effect of

wind during the constant banked turn will drift the airplane to a point where the line is reintercepted, but the

360° turn will be completed at a point downwind from

the starting point.

Another reference line which lies directly crosswind

may be selected and the same procedure repeated,

showing that if wind drift is not corrected the airplane

will, at the completion of the 360° turn, be headed in

the original direction but will have drifted away from

the line a distance dependent on the amount of wind.

From these demonstrations, it can be seen where and

why it is necessary to increase or decrease the angle of

bank and the rate of turn to achieve a desired track over

the ground. The principles and techniques involved can

be practiced and evaluated by the performance of the

ground track maneuvers discussed in this chapter.

RECTANGULAR COURSE

Normally, the first ground reference maneuver the pilot

is introduced to is the rectangular course. [Figure 6-4]

The rectangular course is a training maneuver in which

the ground track of the airplane is equidistant from all

sides of a selected rectangular area on the ground. The

maneuver simulates the conditions encountered in an

airport traffic pattern. While performing the maneuver, the altitude and airspeed should be held constant.

The maneuver assists the student pilot in perfecting:

• Practical application of the turn.

• The division of attention between the flightpath,

ground objects, and the handling of the airplane.

• The timing of the start of a turn so that the turn

will be fully established at a definite point over

the ground.

• The timing of the recovery from a turn so that a

definite ground track will be maintained.

• The establishing of a ground track and the determination of the appropriate “crab” angle.

Like those of other ground track maneuvers, one of the

objectives is to develop division of attention between

the flightpath and ground references, while controlling

the airplane and watching for other aircraft in the

Turn More Than

90° Rollout

with Wind Correction

 Established

Complete Turn

at Boundary

Turn Into

Wind

Start Turn at

Boundary

Start Turn

at Boundary

Complete Turn

at Boundary

Turn

Less Than 90°

Complete Turn

at Boundary

Start Turn

at Boundary

No Wind Correction

Enter

45° to Downwind

Exit

No Wind Correction

Turn Into

Wind

Turn Less Than

90° Rollout

With WIind Correction

 Established

Turn More

Than 90°

Start Turn at

Boundary

Complete Turn

at Boundary

Track With No 

Wind Correction

Track

With No

Wind Correction

DOWNWIND

UPWIND 

CROSSWIND 

BASE 

Figure 6-4. Rectangular course.

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6-5

vicinity. Another objective is to develop recognition of

drift toward or away from a line parallel to the intended

ground track. This will be helpful in recognizing drift

toward or from an airport runway during the various

legs of the airport traffic pattern.

For this maneuver, a square or rectangular field, or an

area bounded on four sides by section lines or roads

(the sides of which are approximately a mile in length),

should be selected well away from other air traffic. The

airplane should be flown parallel to and at a uniform

distance about one-fourth to one-half mile away from

the field boundaries, not above the boundaries. For

best results, the flightpath should be positioned outside

the field boundaries just far enough that they may be

easily observed from either pilot seat by looking out

the side of the airplane. If an attempt is made to fly

directly above the edges of the field, the pilot will have

no usable reference points to start and complete the

turns. The closer the track of the airplane is to the field

boundaries, the steeper the bank necessary at the turning points. Also, the pilot should be able to see the

edges of the selected field while seated in a normal

position and looking out the side of the airplane during

either a left-hand or right-hand course. The distance of

the ground track from the edges of the field should be

the same regardless of whether the course is flown to

the left or right. All turns should be started when the

airplane is abeam the corner of the field boundaries,

and the bank normally should not exceed 45°. These

should be the determining factors in establishing the

distance from the boundaries for performing the

maneuver.

Although the rectangular course may be entered from

any direction, this discussion assumes entry on a

downwind.

On the downwind leg, the wind is a tailwind and results

in an increased groundspeed. Consequently, the turn

onto the next leg is entered with a fairly fast rate of

roll-in with relatively steep bank. As the turn progresses, the bank angle is reduced gradually because

the tailwind component is diminishing, resulting in a

decreasing groundspeed.

During and after the turn onto this leg (the equivalent

of the base leg in a traffic pattern), the wind will tend

to drift the airplane away from the field boundary. To

compensate for the drift, the amount of turn will be

more than 90°.

The rollout from this turn must be such that as the

wings become level, the airplane is turned slightly

toward the field and into the wind to correct for drift.

The airplane should again be the same distance from

the field boundary and at the same altitude, as on other

legs. The base leg should be continued until the upwind

leg boundary is being approached. Once more the pilot

should anticipate drift and turning radius. Since drift

correction was held on the base leg, it is necessary to

turn less than 90° to align the airplane parallel to the

upwind leg boundary. This turn should be started with

a medium bank angle with a gradual reduction to a

shallow bank as the turn progresses. The rollout should

be timed to assure paralleling the boundary of the field

as the wings become level.

While the airplane is on the upwind leg, the next field

boundary should be observed as it is being approached,

to plan the turn onto the crosswind leg. Since the wind

is a headwind on this leg, it is reducing the airplane’s

groundspeed and during the turn onto the crosswind

leg will try to drift the airplane toward the field. For

this reason, the roll-in to the turn must be slow and the

bank relatively shallow to counteract this effect. As the

turn progresses, the headwind component decreases,

allowing the groundspeed to increase. Consequently,

the bank angle and rate of turn are increased gradually

to assure that upon completion of the turn the crosswind ground track will continue the same distance

from the edge of the field. Completion of the turn with

the wings level should be accomplished at a point

aligned with the upwind corner of the field.

Simultaneously, as the wings are rolled level, the

proper drift correction is established with the airplane

turned into the wind. This requires that the turn be less

than a 90° change in heading. If the turn has been made

properly, the field boundary will again appear to be

one-fourth to one-half mile away. While on the crosswind leg, the wind correction angle should be adjusted

as necessary to maintain a uniform distance from the

field boundary.

As the next field boundary is being approached, the

pilot should plan the turn onto the downwind leg. Since

a wind correction angle is being held into the wind and

away from the field while on the crosswind leg, this

next turn will require a turn of more than 90°. Since

the crosswind will become a tailwind, causing the

groundspeed to increase during this turn, the bank initially should be medium and progressively increased

as the turn proceeds. To complete the turn, the rollout

must be timed so that the wings become level at a point

aligned with the crosswind corner of the field just as

the longitudinal axis of the airplane again becomes

parallel to the field boundary. The distance from the

field boundary should be the same as from the other

sides of the field.

Usually, drift should not be encountered on the upwind

or the downwind leg, but it may be difficult to find a

situation where the wind is blowing exactly parallel to

the field boundaries. This would make it necessary to

use a slight wind correction angle on all the legs. It is

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important to anticipate the turns to correct for groundspeed, drift, and turning radius. When the wind is

behind the airplane, the turn must be faster and steeper;

when it is ahead of the airplane, the turn must be

slower and shallower. These same techniques apply

while flying in airport traffic patterns.

Common errors in the performance of rectangular

courses are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Failure to establish proper altitude prior to

entry. (Typically entering the maneuver while

descending.)

• Failure to establish appropriate wind correction

angle resulting in drift.

• Gaining or losing altitude.

• Poor coordination. (Typically skidding in turns

from a downwind heading and slipping in turns

from an upwind heading.)

• Abrupt control usage.

• Inability to adequately divide attention between

airplane control and maintaining ground track.

• Improper timing in beginning and recovering

from turns.

• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft.

S-TURNS ACROSS A ROAD

An S-turn across a road is a practice maneuver in

which the airplane’s ground track describes semicircles of equal radii on each side of a selected straight

line on the ground. [Figure 6-5] The straight line may

be a road, fence, railroad, or section line that lies perpendicular to the wind, and should be of sufficient

length for making a series of turns. A constant altitude

should be maintained throughout the maneuver.

S-turns across a road present one of the most elementary problems in the practical application of the turn

and in the correction for wind drift in turns. While the

application of this maneuver is considerably less

advanced in some respects than the rectangular course,

it is taught after the student has been introduced to that

maneuver in order that the student may have a knowledge of the correction for wind drift in straight flight

along a reference line before the student attempt to

correct for drift by playing a turn.

The objectives of S-turns across a road are to develop

the ability to compensate for drift during turns, orient

the flightpath with ground references, follow an

assigned ground track, arrive at specified points on

assigned headings, and divide the pilot’s attention. The

Steep

Bank

Shallow Bank

Shallow Bank

Steep

Bank

Moderate Bank

Moderate Bank

Wings Level

Entry

Figure 6-5. S-Turns.

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6-7

maneuver consists of crossing the road at a 90° angle

and immediately beginning a series of 180° turns of

uniform radius in opposite directions, re-crossing the

road at a 90° angle just as each 180° turn is completed.

To accomplish a constant radius ground track requires

a changing roll rate and angle of bank to establish the

wind correction angle. Both will increase or decrease

as groundspeed increases or decreases.

The bank must be steepest when beginning the turn on

the downwind side of the road and must be shallowed

gradually as the turn progresses from a downwind

heading to an upwind heading. On the upwind side, the

turn should be started with a relatively shallow bank

and then gradually steepened as the airplane turns from

an upwind heading to a downwind heading.

In this maneuver, the airplane should be rolled from

one bank directly into the opposite just as the reference

line on the ground is crossed.

Before starting the maneuver, a straight ground reference line or road that lies 90° to the direction of the

wind should be selected, then the area checked to

ensure that no obstructions or other aircraft are in the

immediate vicinity. The road should be approached

from the upwind side, at the selected altitude on a

downwind heading. When directly over the road, the

first turn should be started immediately. With the airplane headed downwind, the groundspeed is greatest

and the rate of departure from the road will be rapid;

so the roll into the steep bank must be fairly rapid to

attain the proper wind correction angle. This prevents

the airplane from flying too far from the road and

from establishing a ground track of excessive radius.

During the latter portion of the first 90° of turn when

the airplane’s heading is changing from a downwind

heading to a crosswind heading, the groundspeed

becomes less and the rate of departure from the road

decreases. The wind correction angle will be at the

maximum when the airplane is headed directly crosswind.

After turning 90°, the airplane’s heading becomes

more and more an upwind heading, the groundspeed

will decrease, and the rate of closure with the road

will become slower. If a constant steep bank were

maintained, the airplane would turn too quickly for

the slower rate of closure, and would be headed perpendicular to the road prematurely. Because of the

decreasing groundspeed and rate of closure while

approaching the upwind heading, it will be necessary

to gradually shallow the bank during the remaining

90° of the semicircle, so that the wind correction

angle is removed completely and the wings become

level as the 180° turn is completed at the moment the

road is reached.

At the instant the road is being crossed again, a turn in

the opposite direction should be started. Since the airplane is still flying into the headwind, the groundspeed

is relatively slow. Therefore, the turn will have to be

started with a shallow bank so as to avoid an excessive

rate of turn that would establish the maximum wind

correction angle too soon. The degree of bank should

be that which is necessary to attain the proper wind

correction angle so the ground track describes an arc

the same size as the one established on the downwind

side.

Since the airplane is turning from an upwind to a

downwind heading, the groundspeed will increase

and after turning 90°, the rate of closure with the road

will increase rapidly. Consequently, the angle of bank

and rate of turn must be progressively increased so

that the airplane will have turned 180° at the time it

reaches the road. Again, the rollout must be timed so

the airplane is in straight-and-level flight directly

over and perpendicular to the road.

Throughout the maneuver a constant altitude should

be maintained, and the bank should be changing

constantly to effect a true semicircular ground track.

Often there is a tendency to increase the bank too

rapidly during the initial part of the turn on the

upwind side, which will prevent the completion of

the 180° turn before re-crossing the road. This is

apparent when the turn is not completed in time for

the airplane to cross the road at a perpendicular

angle. To avoid this error, the pilot must visualize the

desired half circle ground track, and increase the

bank during the early part of this turn. During the latter part of the turn, when approaching the road, the

pilot must judge the closure rate properly and

increase the bank accordingly, so as to cross the road

perpendicular to it just as the rollout is completed.

Common errors in the performance of S-turns across a

road are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Poor coordination.

• Gaining or losing altitude.

• Inability to visualize the half circle ground track.

• Poor timing in beginning and recovering from

turns.

• Faulty correction for drift.

• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft.

TURNS AROUND A POINT

Turns around a point, as a training maneuver, is a

logical extension of the principles involved in the

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performance of S-turns across a road. Its purposes as

a training maneuver are:

• To further perfect turning technique.

• To perfect the ability to subconsciously control

the airplane while dividing attention between the

flightpath and ground references.

• To teach the student that the radius of a turn is a

distance which is affected by the degree of bank

used when turning with relation to a definite

object.

• To develop a keen perception of altitude.

• To perfect the ability to correct for wind drift

while in turns.

In turns around a point, the airplane is flown in two or

more complete circles of uniform radii or distance

from a prominent ground reference point using a maximum bank of approximately 45° while maintaining a

constant altitude.

The factors and principles of drift correction that are

involved in S-turns are also applicable in this maneuver. As in other ground track maneuvers, a constant

radius around a point will, if any wind exists, require a

constantly changing angle of bank and angles of wind

correction. The closer the airplane is to a direct downwind heading where the groundspeed is greatest, the

steeper the bank and the faster the rate of turn required

to establish the proper wind correction angle. The

more nearly it is to a direct upwind heading where the

groundspeed is least, the shallower the bank and the

slower the rate of turn required to establish the proper

wind correction angle. It follows, then, that throughout the maneuver the bank and rate of turn must be

gradually varied in proportion to the groundspeed.

The point selected for turns around a point should

be prominent, easily distinguished by the pilot, and

yet small enough to present precise reference.

[Figure 6-6] Isolated trees, crossroads, or other similar small landmarks are usually suitable.

To enter turns around a point, the airplane should be

flown on a downwind heading to one side of the

selected point at a distance equal to the desired radius

of turn. In a high-wing airplane, the distance from the

point must permit the pilot to see the point throughout

the maneuver even with the wing lowered in a bank. If

the radius is too large, the lowered wing will block the

pilot’s view of the point.

When any significant wind exists, it will be necessary to

roll into the initial bank at a rapid rate so that the steepSteepest

Bank

Shallowest

Bank

Steeper

Bank

Shallower

Bank

Upwind Half of Circle

Downwind Half of Circle

Figure 6-6.Turns around a point.

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est bank is attained abeam of the point when the airplane

is headed directly downwind. By entering the maneuver

while heading directly downwind, the steepest bank can

be attained immediately. Thus, if a maximum bank of

45° is desired, the initial bank will be 45° if the airplane

is at the correct distance from the point. Thereafter, the

bank is shallowed gradually until the point is reached

where the airplane is headed directly upwind. At this

point, the bank should be gradually steepened until the

steepest bank is again attained when heading downwind

at the initial point of entry.

Just as S-turns require that the airplane be turned into

the wind in addition to varying the bank, so do turns

around a point. During the downwind half of the circle,

the airplane’s nose is progressively turned toward the

inside of the circle; during the upwind half, the nose is

progressively turned toward the outside. The downwind

half of the turn around the point may be compared to the

downwind side of the S-turn across a road; the upwind

half of the turn around a point may be compared to the

upwind side of the S-turn across a road.

As the pilot becomes experienced in performing turns

around a point and has a good understanding of the

effects of wind drift and varying of the bank angle and

wind correction angle as required, entry into the

maneuver may be from any point. When entering the

maneuver at a point other than downwind, however,

the radius of the turn should be carefully selected, taking into account the wind velocity and groundspeed so

that an excessive bank is not required later on to maintain the proper ground track. The flight instructor

should place particular emphasis on the effect of an

incorrect initial bank. This emphasis should continue

in the performance of elementary eights.

Common errors in the performance of turns around a

point are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Failure to establish appropriate bank on entry.

• Failure to recognize wind drift.

• Excessive bank and/or inadequate wind correction angle on the downwind side of the circle

resulting in drift towards the reference point.

• Inadequate bank angle and/or excessive wind

correction angle on the upwind side of the circle

resulting in drift away from the reference point.

• Skidding turns when turning from downwind to

crosswind.

• Slipping turns when turning from upwind to

crosswind.

• Gaining or losing altitude.

• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft. 

• Inability to direct attention outside the airplane

while maintaining precise airplane control.

ELEMENTARY EIGHTS

An “eight” is a maneuver in which the airplane

describes a path over the ground more or less in the

shape of a figure “8”. In all eights except “lazy eights”

the path is horizontal as though following a marked

path over the ground. There are various types of eights,

progressing from the elementary types to very difficult

types in the advanced maneuvers. Each has its special

use in teaching the student to solve a particular

problem of turning with relation to the Earth, or an

object on the Earth’s surface. Each type, as they

advance in difficulty of accomplishment, further

perfects the student’s coordination technique and

requires a higher degree of subconscious flying ability. Of all the training maneuvers available to the

instructor, only eights require the progressively

higher degree of conscious attention to outside

objects. However, the real importance of eights is in

the requirement for the perfection and display of

subconscious flying.

Elementary eights, specifically eights along a road,

eights across a road, and eights around pylons, are

variations of turns around a point, which use two

points about which the airplane circles in either

direction. Elementary eights are designed for the following purposes.

• To perfect turning technique.

• To develop the ability to divide attention between

the actual handling of controls and an outside

objective.

• To perfect the knowledge of the effect of angle of

bank on radius of turn.

• To demonstrate how wind affects the path of the

airplane over the ground.

• To gain experience in the visualization of the

results of planning before the execution of the

maneuver. 

• To train the student to think and plan ahead of the

airplane.

EIGHTS ALONG A ROAD

An eight along a road is a maneuver in which the

ground track consists of two complete adjacent circles

of equal radii on each side of a straight road or other

reference line on the ground. The ground track resembles a figure 8. [Figure 6-7 on next page]

Like the other ground reference maneuvers, its

objective is to develop division of attention while

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compensating for drift, maintaining orientation with

ground references, and maintaining a constant

altitude.

Although eights along a road may be performed with

the wind blowing parallel to the road or directly across

the road, for simplification purposes, only the latter situation is explained since the principles involved in

either case are common.

A reference line or road which is perpendicular to the

wind should be selected and the airplane flown parallel

to and directly above the road. Since the wind is blowing across the flightpath, the airplane will require some

wind correction angle to stay directly above the road

during the initial straight and level portion. Before

starting the maneuver, the area should be checked to

ensure clearance of obstructions and avoidance of

other aircraft.

Usually, the first turn should be made toward a downwind heading starting with a medium bank. Since the

airplane will be turning more and more directly downwind, the groundspeed will be gradually increasing and

the rate of departing the road will tend to become

faster. Thus, the bank and rate of turn is increased to

establish a wind correction angle to keep the airplane

from exceeding the desired distance from the road

when 180° of change in direction is completed. The

steepest bank is attained when the airplane is headed

directly downwind.

As the airplane completes 180° of change in direction,

it will be flying parallel to and using a wind correction

angle toward the road with the wind acting directly

perpendicular to the ground track. At this point, the

pilot should visualize the remaining 180° of ground

track required to return to the same place over the road

from which the maneuver started.

While the turn is continued toward an upwind heading,

the wind will tend to keep the airplane from reaching

the road, with a decrease in groundspeed and rate of

closure. The rate of turn and wind correction angle are

decreased proportionately so that the road will be

reached just as the 360° turn is completed. To accomplish this, the bank is decreased so that when headed

directly upwind, it will be at the shallowest angle. In

the last 90° of the turn, the bank may be varied to correct any previous errors in judging the returning rate

and closure rate. The rollout should be timed so that

the airplane will be straight and level over the starting

point, with enough drift correction to hold it over the

road.

After momentarily flying straight and level along the

road, the airplane is then rolled into a medium bank

turn in the opposite direction to begin the circle on the

upwind side of the road. The wind will still be decreasing the groundspeed and trying to drift the airplane

back toward the road; therefore, the bank must be

decreased slowly during the first 90° change in direction in order to reach the desired distance from the

road and attain the proper wind correction angle when

180° change in direction has been completed.

As the remaining 180° of turn continues, the wind

becomes more of a tailwind and increases the airplane’s groundspeed. This causes the rate of closure

to become faster; consequently, the angle of bank

and rate of turn must be increased further to attain

sufficient wind correction angle to keep the airplane

from approaching the road too rapidly. The bank will

be at its steepest angle when the airplane is headed

directly downwind.

In the last 90° of the turn, the rate of turn should be

reduced to bring the airplane over the starting point on

the road. The rollout must be timed so the airplane will

be straight and level, turned into the wind, and flying

parallel to and over the road.

The measure of a student’s progress in the performance

of eights along a road is the smoothness and accuracy of

the change in bank used to counteract drift. The sooner

the drift is detected and correction applied, the smaller

will be the required changes. The more quickly the

student can anticipate the corrections needed, the

less obvious the changes will be and the more attention

can be diverted to the maintenance of altitude and operation of the airplane.

Errors in coordination must be eliminated and a constant altitude maintained. Flying technique must not

be allowed to suffer from the fact that the student’s

attention is diverted. This technique should improve as

the student becomes able to divide attention between

the operation of the airplane controls and following a

designated flightpath.

Shallower

Bank

Shallowest

Bank Steep

Bank

Shallowest

Bank

Steeper

Bank

Steepest

Bank

Figure 6-7. Eights along a road.

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6-11

EIGHTS ACROSS A ROAD

This maneuver is a variation of eights along a road and

involves the same principles and techniques. The primary difference is that at the completion of each loop

of the figure eight, the airplane should cross an intersection of roads or a specific point on a straight road.

[Figure 6-8]

The loops should be across the road and the wind

should be perpendicular to the road. Each time the road

is crossed, the crossing angle should be the same and

the wings of the airplane should be level. The eights

also may be performed by rolling from one bank

immediately to the other, directly over the road.

EIGHTS AROUND PYLONS

This training maneuver is an application of the same

principles and techniques of correcting for wind drift

as used in turns around a point and the same objectives

as other ground track maneuvers. In this case, two

points or pylons on the ground are used as references,

and turns around each pylon are made in opposite

directions to follow a ground track in the form of a

figure 8. [Figure 6-9]

 Steeper

Bank

 Shallower

Bank

Shallowest

Bank

 Steeper

Bank

 Shallowest

Bank

 Shallower

Bank

Steepest

Bank

Steepest

Bank

Figure 6-8. Eights across a road.

 Steeper

Bank

 Shallower

Bank

Shallowest

Bank

 Steeper

Bank

 Shallowest

Bank

 Shallower

Bank

Steepest

Bank

Steepest

Bank

Figure 6-9. Eights around pylons.

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The pattern involves flying downwind between the

pylons and upwind outside of the pylons. It may

include a short period of straight-and-level flight while

proceeding diagonally from one pylon to the other.

The pylons selected should be on a line 90° to the

direction of the wind and should be in an area away

from communities, livestock, or groups of people, to

avoid possible annoyance or hazards to others. The

area selected should be clear of hazardous obstructions

and other air traffic. Throughout the maneuver a constant altitude of at least 500 feet above the ground

should be maintained.

The eight should be started with the airplane on a

downwind heading when passing between the pylons.

The distance between the pylons and the wind velocity

will determine the initial angle of bank required to

maintain a constant radius from the pylons during each

turn. The steepest banks will be necessary just after

each turn entry and just before the rollout from each

turn where the airplane is headed downwind and the

groundspeed is greatest; the shallowest banks will be

when the airplane is headed directly upwind and the

groundspeed is least.

The rate of bank change will depend on the wind

velocity, the same as it does in S-turns and turns

around a point, and the bank will be changing continuously during the turns. The adjustment of the bank

angle should be gradual from the steepest bank to the

shallowest bank as the airplane progressively heads

into the wind, followed by a gradual increase until the

steepest bank is again reached just prior to rollout. If

the airplane is to proceed diagonally from one turn to

the other, the rollout from each turn must be completed

on the proper heading with sufficient wind correction

angle to ensure that after brief straight-and-level flight,

the airplane will arrive at the point where a turn of the

same radius can be made around the other pylon. The

straight-and-level flight segments must be tangent to

both circular patterns.

Common errors in the performance of elementary

eights are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Poor choice of ground reference points.

• Improper maneuver entry considering wind

direction and ground reference points.

• Incorrect initial bank.

• Poor coordination during turns.

• Gaining or losing altitude.

• Loss of orientation.

• Abrupt rather than smooth changes in bank angle

to counteract wind drift in turns.

• Failure to anticipate needed drift correction.

• Failure to apply needed drift correction in a

timely manner.

• Failure to roll out of turns on proper heading.

• Inability to divide attention between reference

points on the ground, airplane control, and scanning for other aircraft.

EIGHTS-ON-PYLONS (PYLON EIGHTS)

The pylon eight is the most advanced and most difficult of the low altitude flight training maneuvers.

Because of the various techniques involved, the pylon

eight is unsurpassed for teaching, developing, and testing subconscious control of the airplane.

As the pylon eight is essentially an advanced

maneuver in which the pilot’s attention is directed

at maintaining a pivotal position on a selected pylon,

with a minimum of attention within the cockpit, it

should not be introduced until the instructor is assured

that the student has a complete grasp of the fundamentals.

Thus, the prerequisites are the ability to make a coordinated turn without gain or loss of altitude, excellent feel of

the airplane, stall recognition, relaxation with low altitude

maneuvering, and an absence of the error of over

concentration.

Like eights around pylons, this training maneuver also

involves flying the airplane in circular paths, alternately left and right, in the form of a figure 8 around

two selected points or pylons on the ground. Unlike

eights around pylons, however, no attempt is made to

maintain a uniform distance from the pylon. In eightson-pylons, the distance from the pylons varies if there

is any wind. Instead, the airplane is flown at such a

precise altitude and airspeed that a line parallel to the

airplane’s lateral axis, and extending from the pilot’s

eye, appears to pivot on each of the pylons. [Figure 6-

10] Also, unlike eights around pylons, in the performance of eights-on-pylons the degree of bank increases

as the distance from the pylon decreases.

The altitude that is appropriate for the airplane being

flown is called the pivotal altitude and is governed by

the groundspeed. While not truly a ground track

maneuver as were the preceding maneuvers, the objective is similar—to develop the ability to maneuver the

airplane accurately while dividing one’s attention

between the flightpath and the selected points on the

ground.

In explaining the performance of eights-on-pylons, the

term “wingtip” is frequently considered as being synonymous with the proper reference line, or pivot

point on the airplane. This interpretation is not

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always correct. High-wing, low-wing, sweptwing, and

tapered wing airplanes, as well as those with tandem or

side-by-side seating, will all present different angles from

the pilot’s eye to the wingtip. [Figure 6-11] Therefore, in

the correct performance of eights-on-pylons, as in other

maneuvers requiring a lateral reference, the pilot should

use a sighting reference line that, from eye level, parallels

the lateral axis of the airplane.

 Closest to

the Pylon

Lowest

Groundspeed

Lowest Pivotal

Altitude

 High Groundspeed

High Pivotal Altitude

Entry

Figure 6-10. Eights-on-pylons.

Figure 6-11. Line of sight.

Lateral Axis

Line of Sight

Lateral Axis

Line of Sight

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6-14

The sighting point or line, while not necessarily on the

wingtip itself, may be positioned in relation to the

wingtip (ahead, behind, above, or below), but even

then it will differ for each pilot, and from each seat in

the airplane. This is especially true in tandem (fore and

aft) seat airplanes. In side-by-side type airplanes, there

will be very little variation in the sighting lines for different persons if those persons are seated so that the

eyes of each are at approximately the same level.

An explanation of the pivotal altitude is also essential.

There is a specific altitude at which, when the airplane

turns at a given groundspeed, a projection of the sighting reference line to the selected point on the ground

will appear to pivot on that point. Since different airplanes fly at different airspeeds, the groundspeed will

be different. Therefore, each airplane will have its own

pivotal altitude. [Figure 6-12] The pivotal altitude does

not vary with the angle of bank being used unless the

bank is steep enough to affect the groundspeed. A rule

of thumb for estimating pivotal altitude in calm wind is

to square the true airspeed and divide by 15 for miles

per hour (m.p.h.) or 11.3 for knots.

Distance from the pylon affects the angle of bank.

At any altitude above that pivotal altitude, the projected reference line will appear to move rearward

in a circular path in relation to the pylon.

Conversely, when the airplane is below the pivotal

altitude, the projected reference line will appear to

move forward in a circular path. [Figure 6-13]

To demonstrate this, the airplane is flown at normal

cruising speed, and at an altitude estimated to be below

the proper pivotal altitude, and then placed in a

medium-banked turn. It will be seen that the projected

reference line of sight appears to move forward along

the ground (pylon moves back) as the airplane turns.

A climb is then made to an altitude well above the pivotal altitude, and when the airplane is again at normal

cruising speed, it is placed in a medium-banked turn.

At this higher altitude, the projected reference line of

sight now appears to move backward across the

ground (pylon moves forward) in a direction opposite

that of flight.

After the high altitude extreme has been demonstrated,

the power is reduced, and a descent at cruising speed

begun in a continuing medium bank around the pylon.

The apparent backward travel of the projected reference line with respect to the pylon will slow down as

altitude is lost, stop for an instant, then start to reverse

itself, and would move forward if the descent were

allowed to continue below the pivotal altitude.

The altitude at which the line of sight apparently

ceased to move across the ground was the pivotal

altitude. If the airplane descended below the pivotal

altitude, power should be added to maintain airspeed

while altitude is regained to the point at which the

projected reference line moves neither backward nor

forward but actually pivots on the pylon. In this way

the pilot can determine the pivotal altitude of the airplane.

The pivotal altitude is critical and will change with

variations in groundspeed. Since the headings

throughout the turns continually vary from directly

downwind to directly upwind, the groundspeed will

constantly change. This will result in the proper pivotal altitude varying slightly throughout the eight.

Therefore, adjustment is made for this by climbing or

descending, as necessary, to hold the reference line or

point on the pylons. This change in altitude will be

dependent on how much the wind affects the groundspeed.

The instructor should emphasize that the elevators are

the primary control for holding the pylons. Even a very

slight variation in altitude effects a double correction,

since in losing altitude, speed is gained, and even a

slight climb reduces the airspeed. This variation in altitude, although important in holding the pylon, in most

cases will be so slight as to be barely perceptible on a

sensitive altimeter.

Before beginning the maneuver, the pilot should select

two points on the ground along a line which lies 90° to

the direction of the wind. The area in which the

maneuver is to be performed should be checked for

obstructions and any other air traffic, and it should be

located where a disturbance to groups of people, livestock, or communities will not result.

The selection of proper pylons is of importance to

good eights-on-pylons. They should be sufficiently

prominent to be readily seen by the pilot when completing the turn around one pylon and heading for the

next, and should be adequately spaced to provide time

AIRSPEED

KNOTS MPH 

APPROXIMATE

PIVOTAL 

ALTITUDE

87

91

96

100

104

109

113

100

105

110

115

120

125

130

670

735

810

885

960

1050

1130

Figure 6-12. Speed vs. pivotal altitude.

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for planning the turns and yet not cause unnecessary

straight-and-level flight between the pylons. The

selected pylons should also be at the same elevation,

since differences of over a very few feet will necessitate climbing or descending between each turn.

For uniformity, the eight is usually begun by flying

diagonally crosswind between the pylons to a point

downwind from the first pylon so that the first turn

can be made into the wind. As the airplane

approaches a position where the pylon appears to be

just ahead of the wingtip, the turn should be started

by lowering the upwind wing to place the pilot’s line

of sight reference on the pylon. As the turn is continued, the line of sight reference can be held on the

pylon by gradually increasing the bank. The reference

line should appear to pivot on the pylon. As the airplane heads into the wind, the groundspeed

decreases; consequently, the pivotal altitude is lower

and the airplane must descend to hold the reference

line on the pylon. As the turn progresses on the

upwind side of the pylon, the wind becomes more of

a crosswind. Since a constant distance from the pylon

is not required on this maneuver, no correction to

counteract drifting should be applied during the turns.

If the reference line appears to move ahead of the

pylon, the pilot should increase altitude. If the reference line appears to move behind the pylon, the pilot

should decrease altitude. Varying rudder pressure to

yaw the airplane and force the wing and reference

line forward or backward to the pylon is a dangerous

technique and must not be attempted.

As the airplane turns toward a downwind heading,

the rollout from the turn should be started to allow

the airplane to proceed diagonally to a point on the

downwind side of the second pylon. The rollout

must be completed in the proper wind correction

angle to correct for wind drift, so that the airplane

will arrive at a point downwind from the second

pylon the same distance it was from the first pylon

at the beginning of the maneuver.

Upon reaching that point, a turn is started in the opposite

direction by lowering the upwind wing to again place

the pilot’s line of sight reference on the pylon. The turn

Too High

Pivotal Altitude

Too Low

Figure 6-13. Effect of different altitudes on pivotal altitude.

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6-16

is then continued just as in the turn around the first

pylon but in the opposite direction.

With prompt correction, and a very fine control

touch, it should be possible to hold the projection of

the reference line directly on the pylon even in a stiff

wind. Corrections for temporary variations, such as

those caused by gusts or inattention, may be made by

shallowing the bank to fly relatively straight to bring

forward a lagging wing, or by steepening the bank

temporarily to turn back a wing which has crept

ahead. With practice, these corrections will become

so slight as to be barely noticeable. These variations

are apparent from the movement of the wingtips long

before they are discernable on the altimeter.

Pylon eights are performed at bank angles ranging

from shallow to steep. [Figure 6-14] The student

should understand that the bank chosen will not alter

the pivotal altitude. As proficiency is gained, the

instructor should increase the complexity of the

maneuver by directing the student to enter at a distance

from the pylon that will result in a specific bank angle

at the steepest point in the pylon turn.

The most common error in attempting to hold a pylon

is incorrect use of the rudder. When the projection of

the reference line moves forward with respect to the

pylon, many pilots will tend to press the inside rudder

to yaw the wing backward. When the reference line

moves behind the pylon, they will press the outside

rudder to yaw the wing forward. The rudder is to be

used only as a coordination control.

Other common errors in the performance of eights-onpylons (pylon eights) are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Skidding or slipping in turns (whether trying to

hold the pylon with rudder or not).

• Excessive gain or loss of altitude.

• Over concentration on the pylon and failure to

observe traffic.

• Poor choice of pylons.

• Not entering the pylon turns into the wind.

• Failure to assume a heading when flying

between pylons that will compensate sufficiently

for drift.

• Failure to time the bank so that the turn entry is

completed with the pylon in position.

• Abrupt control usage.

• Inability to select pivotal altitude.

Pylon

Pivotal

Altitude

60 ̊  ̊  ̊

Figure 6-14. Bank angle vs. pivotal altitude.

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AIRPORT TRAFFIC

PATTERNS AND OPERATIONS

Just as roads and streets are needed in order to utilize

automobiles, airports or airstrips are needed to utilize

airplanes. Every flight begins and ends at an airport or

other suitable landing field. For that reason, it is

essential that the pilot learn the traffic rules, traffic

procedures, and traffic pattern layouts that may be in

use at various airports.

When an automobile is driven on congested city streets,

it can be brought to a stop to give way to conflicting traffic; however, an airplane can only be slowed down.

Consequently, specific traffic patterns and traffic control

procedures have been established at designated airports.

The traffic patterns provide specific routes for takeoffs,

departures, arrivals, and landings. The exact nature of

each airport traffic pattern is dependent on the runway in

use, wind conditions, obstructions, and other factors.

Control towers and radar facilities provide a means of

adjusting the flow of arriving and departing aircraft,

and render assistance to pilots in busy terminal areas.

Airport lighting and runway marking systems are used

frequently to alert pilots to abnormal conditions and

hazards, so arrivals and departures can be made safely.

Airports vary in complexity from small grass or sod

strips to major terminals having many paved runways

and taxiways. Regardless of the type of airport, the

pilot must know and abide by the rules and general

operating procedures applicable to the airport being

used. These rules and procedures are based not only on

logic or common sense, but also on courtesy, and their

objective is to keep air traffic moving with maximum

safety and efficiency. The use of any traffic pattern,

service, or procedure does not alter the responsibility

of pilots to see and avoid other aircraft.

STANDARD AIRPORT

TRAFFIC PATTERNS

To assure that air traffic flows into and out of an airport

in an orderly manner, an airport traffic pattern is established appropriate to the local conditions, including the

direction and placement of the pattern, the altitude to

be flown, and the procedures for entering and leaving

the pattern. Unless the airport displays approved visual

markings indicating that turns should be made to the

right, the pilot should make all turns in the pattern to

the left.

When operating at an airport with an operating control

tower, the pilot receives, by radio, a clearance to

approach or depart, as well as pertinent information

about the traffic pattern. If there is not a control tower,

it is the pilot’s responsibility to determine the direction

of the traffic pattern, to comply with the appropriate

traffic rules, and to display common courtesy toward

other pilots operating in the area.

The pilot is not expected to have extensive knowledge

of all traffic patterns at all airports, but if the pilot is

familiar with the basic rectangular pattern, it will be

easy to make proper approaches and departures from

most airports, regardless of whether they have control

towers. At airports with operating control towers, the

tower operator may instruct pilots to enter the traffic

pattern at any point or to make a straight-in approach

without flying the usual rectangular pattern. Many

other deviations are possible if the tower operator and

the pilot work together in an effort to keep traffic

moving smoothly. Jets or heavy airplanes will

frequently be flying wider and/or higher patterns than

lighter airplanes, and in many cases will make a

straight-in approach for landing.

Compliance with the basic rectangular traffic pattern

reduces the possibility of conflicts at airports without

an operating control tower. It is imperative that the pilot

form the habit of exercising constant vigilance in the

vicinity of airports even though the air traffic appears

to be light.

The standard rectangular traffic pattern is illustrated in

figure 7-1 (on next page). The traffic pattern altitude is

usually 1,000 feet above the elevation of the airport surface. The use of a common altitude at a given airport is the

key factor in minimizing the risk of collisions at airports

without operating control towers.

It is recommended that while operating in the traffic

pattern at an airport without an operating control

tower the pilot maintain an airspeed that conforms

with the limits established by Title 14 of the Code of

Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 for such an airport: no more than 200 knots (230 miles per hour

(m.p.h.)). In any case, the speed should be adjusted,

7-1

Ch 07.qxd 5/7/04 7:54 AM Page 7-1
7-2

Figure 7-1.Traffic patterns.

LEFT-HAND 

TRAFFIC PATTERN

Entry

Crosswind

Departure

Final

Base

Downwind

RIGHT-HAND 

TRAFFIC PATTERN

Crosswind

Final

Base

Downwind

Entry

Departure

Ch 07.qxd 5/7/04 7:54 AM Page 7-2
7-3

when practicable, so that it is compatible with the

speed of other airplanes in the pattern.

When entering the traffic pattern at an airport without

an operating control tower, inbound pilots are expected

to observe other aircraft already in the pattern and to

conform to the traffic pattern in use. If other aircraft

are not in the pattern, then traffic indicators on the

ground and wind indicators must be checked to determine which runway and traffic pattern direction should

be used. [Figure 7-2] Many airports have L-shaped

traffic pattern indicators displayed with a segmented

circle adjacent to the runway. The short member of the

L shows the direction in which the traffic pattern turns

should be made when using the runway parallel to the

long member. These indicators should be checked

while at a distance well away from any pattern that

might be in use, or while at a safe height well above

generally used pattern altitudes. When the proper traffic pattern direction has been determined, the pilot

should then proceed to a point well clear of the pattern

before descending to the pattern altitude. 

When approaching an airport for landing, the traffic pattern should be entered at a 45° angle to the downwind

leg, headed toward a point abeam of the midpoint of the

runway to be used for landing. Arriving airplanes should

be at the proper traffic pattern altitude before entering

the pattern, and should stay clear of the traffic flow until

established on the entry leg. Entries into traffic patterns

while descending create specific collision hazards and

should always be avoided.

The entry leg should be of sufficient length to provide

a clear view of the entire traffic pattern, and to allow

the pilot adequate time for planning the intended path

in the pattern and the landing approach.

The downwind leg is a course flown parallel to the

landing runway, but in a direction opposite to the

intended landing direction. This leg should be

approximately 1/2 to 1 mile out from the landing runway, and at the specified traffic pattern altitude.

During this leg, the before landing check should be

completed and the landing gear extended if

retractable. Pattern altitude should be maintained

until abeam the approach end of the landing runway.

At this point, power should be reduced and a descent

begun. The downwind leg continues past a point

abeam the approach end of the runway to a point

approximately 45° from the approach end of the runway, and a medium bank turn is made onto the base

leg.

The base leg is the transitional part of the traffic pattern between the downwind leg and the final approach

leg. Depending on the wind condition, it is established

at a sufficient distance from the approach end of the

landing runway to permit a gradual descent to the

intended touchdown point. The ground track of the airplane while on the base leg should be perpendicular to

the extended centerline of the landing runway,

although the longitudinal axis of the airplane may not

be aligned with the ground track when it is necessary

to turn into the wind to counteract drift. While on the

base leg, the pilot must ensure, before turning onto the

final approach, that there is no danger of colliding with

another aircraft that may be already on the final

approach.

The final approach leg is a descending flightpath starting from the completion of the base-to-final turn and

extending to the point of touchdown. This is probably

the most important leg of the entire pattern, because

here the pilot’s judgment and procedures must be the

sharpest to accurately control the airspeed and descent

angle while approaching the intended touchdown

point.

As stipulated in 14 CFR part 91, aircraft while on

final approach to land or while landing, have the

right-of-way over other aircraft in flight or operating

on the surface. When two or more aircraft are

approaching an airport for the purpose of landing, the

aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way.

Pilots should not take advantage of this rule to cut in

front of another aircraft that is on final approach to

land, or to overtake that aircraft.

The upwind leg is a course flown parallel to the landing runway, but in the same direction to the intended

landing direction. The upwind leg continues past a

point abeam of the departure end of the runway to

where a medium bank 90° turn is made onto the

crosswind leg.

The upwind leg is also the transitional part of the traffic pattern when on the final approach and a go-around

Figure 7-2.Traffic pattern indicators. is initiated and climb attitude is established. When a

Windsock

Segmented Circle

Traffic Pattern Indicator

(indicates location of base leg)

Ch 07.qxd 5/7/04 7:54 AM Page 7-3
7-4

safe altitude is attained, the pilot should commence a

shallow bank turn to the upwind side of the airport.

This will allow better visibility of the runway for

departing aircraft.

The departure leg of the rectangular pattern is a

straight course aligned with, and leading from, the

takeoff runway. This leg begins at the point the airplane leaves the ground and continues until the 90°

turn onto the crosswind leg is started.

On the departure leg after takeoff, the pilot should continue climbing straight ahead, and, if remaining in the

traffic pattern, commence a turn to the crosswind leg

beyond the departure end of the runway within 300 feet

of pattern altitude. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out or exit with a 45° turn (to the left

when in a left-hand traffic pattern; to the right when in

a right-hand traffic pattern) beyond the departure end

of the runway after reaching pattern altitude.

The crosswind leg is the part of the rectangular pattern

that is horizontally perpendicular to the extended centerline of the takeoff runway and is entered by making

approximately a 90° turn from the upwind leg. On the

crosswind leg, the airplane proceeds to the downwind

leg position.

Since in most cases the takeoff is made into the wind,

the wind will now be approximately perpendicular to

the airplane’s flightpath. As a result, the airplane will

have to be turned or headed slightly into the wind

while on the crosswind leg to maintain a ground track

that is perpendicular to the runway centerline extension.

Additional information on airport operations can be

found in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).

Ch 07.qxd 5/7/04 7:54 AM Page 7-4
NORMAL APPROACH AND LANDING

A normal approach and landing involves the use of

procedures for what is considered a normal situation;

that is, when engine power is available, the wind is

light or the final approach is made directly into the

wind, the final approach path has no obstacles, and the

landing surface is firm and of ample length to

gradually bring the airplane to a stop. The selected

landing point should be beyond the runway’s approach

threshold but within the first one-third portion of

the runway.

The factors involved and the procedures described for

the normal approach and landing also have applications

to the other-than-normal approaches and landings

which are discussed later in this chapter. This being the

case, the principles of normal operations are explained

first and must be understood before proceeding to the

more complex operations. So that the pilot may better

understand the factors that will influence judgment and

procedures, that last part of the approach pattern and

the actual landing will be divided into five phases: the

base leg, the final approach, the roundout, the

touchdown, and the after-landing roll.

It must be remembered that the manufacturer’s

recommended procedures, including airplane

configuration and airspeeds, and other information

relevant to approaches and landings in a specific make

and model airplane are contained in the FAA-approved

Airplane Flight Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating

Handbook (AFM/POH) for that airplane. If any of the

information in this chapter differs from the airplane

manufacturer’s recommendations as contained in

the AFM/POH, the airplane manufacturer’s

recommendations take precedence.

BASE LEG

The placement of the base leg is one of the more

important judgments made by the pilot in any landing

approach. [Figure 8-1] The pilot must accurately judge

the altitude and distance from which a gradual descent

will result in landing at the desired spot. The distance

will depend on the altitude of the base leg, the effect of

wind, and the amount of wing flaps used. When there is

a strong wind on final approach or the flaps will be

used to produce a steep angle of descent, the base leg

must be positioned closer to the approach end of the

runway than would be required with a light wind or no

Figure 8-1. Base leg and final approach.

8-1

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-1
flaps. Normally, the landing gear should be extended

and the before landing check completed prior

to reaching the base leg.

After turning onto the base leg, the pilot should start

the descent with reduced power and airspeed of

approximately 1.4 VSO. (VSO—the stalling speed

with power off, landing gears and flaps down.) For

example, if VSO is 60 knots, the speed should be 1.4

times 60, or 84 knots. Landing flaps may be partially

lowered, if desired, at this time. Full flaps are not

recommended until the final approach is established.

Drift correction should be established and

maintained to follow a ground track perpendicular

to the extension of the centerline of the runway on

which the landing is to be made. Since the final

approach and landing will normally be made into

the wind, there will be somewhat of a crosswind

during the base leg. This requires that the airplane be

angled sufficiently into the wind to prevent drifting

farther away from the intended landing spot.

The base leg should be continued to the point where a

medium to shallow-banked turn will align the

airplane’s path directly with the centerline of the

landing runway. This descending turn should be

completed at a safe altitude that will be dependent

upon the height of the terrain and any obstructions

along the ground track. The turn to the final approach

should also be sufficiently above the airport elevation

to permit a final approach long enough for the pilot to

accurately estimate the resultant point of touchdown,

while maintaining the proper approach airspeed. This

will require careful planning as to the starting point

and the radius of the turn. Normally, it is recommended

that the angle of bank not exceed a medium bank

because the steeper the angle of bank, the higher the

airspeed at which the airplane stalls. Since the base-tofinal turn is made at a relatively low altitude, it is

important that a stall not occur at this point. If an

extremely steep bank is needed to prevent

overshooting the proper final approach path, it is

advisable to discontinue the approach, go around, and

plan to start the turn earlier on the next approach rather

than risk a hazardous situation.

FINAL APPROACH

After the base-to-final approach turn is completed, the

longitudinal axis of the airplane should be aligned with

the centerline of the runway or landing surface, so that

drift (if any) will be recognized immediately. On a

normal approach, with no wind drift, the longitudinal

axis should be kept aligned with the runway centerline

throughout the approach and landing. (The proper way

to correct for a crosswind will be explained under the

section, Crosswind Approach and Landing. For now,

only an approach and landing where the wind is

straight down the runway will be discussed.)

After aligning the airplane with the runway centerline,

the final flap setting should be completed and the pitch

attitude adjusted as required for the desired rate of

descent. Slight adjustments in pitch and power may

be necessary to maintain the descent attitude and the

desired approach airspeed. In the absence of the

manufacturer’s recommended airspeed, a speed

equal to 1.3 VSO should be used. If VSO is 60 knots,

the speed should be 78 knots. When the pitch

attitude and airspeed have been stabilized, the

airplane should be retrimmed to relieve the

pressures being held on the controls.

The descent angle should be controlled throughout the

approach so that the airplane will land in the center

of the first third of the runway. The descent angle is

affected by all four fundamental forces that act on an

airplane (lift, drag, thrust, and weight). If all the

forces are constant, the descent angle will be constant

in a no-wind condition. The pilot can control these

forces by adjusting the airspeed, attitude, power, and

drag (flaps or forward slip). The wind also plays a

prominent part in the gliding distance over the

ground [Figure 8-2]; naturally, the pilot does not have

control over the wind but may correct for its effect

on the airplane’s descent by appropriate pitch and

power adjustments.

Increased Airspeed Flightpath

Normal Best Glide Speed

Flightpath

Figure 8-2. Effect of headwind on final approach.

8-2

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8-3

Considering the factors that affect the descent angle on

the final approach, for all practical purposes at a given

pitch attitude there is only one power setting for one

airspeed, one flap setting, and one wind condition.

A change in any one of these variables will require

an appropriate coordinated change in the other controllable variables. For example, if the pitch attitude

is raised too high without an increase of power, the

airplane will settle very rapidly and touch down

short of the desired spot. For this reason, the pilot

should never try to stretch a glide by applying backelevator pressure alone to reach the desired landing

spot. This will shorten the gliding distance if power is

not added simultaneously. The proper angle of descent

and airspeed should be maintained by coordinating

pitch attitude changes and power changes.

The objective of a good final approach is to descend at

an angle and airspeed that will permit the airplane to

reach the desired touchdown point at an airspeed

which will result in minimum floating just before

touchdown; in essence, a semi-stalled condition. To

accomplish this, it is essential that both the descent

angle and the airspeed be accurately controlled. Since

on a normal approach the power setting is not fixed as

in a power-off approach, the power and pitch attitude

should be adjusted simultaneously as necessary, to

control the airspeed, and the descent angle, or to attain

the desired altitudes along the approach path. By lowering the nose and reducing power to keep approach

airspeed constant, a descent at a higher rate can be

made to correct for being too high in the approach.

This is one reason for performing approaches with partial power; if the approach is too high, merely lower

the nose and reduce the power. When the approach is

too low, add power and raise the nose.

USE OF FLAPS

The lift/drag factors may also be varied by the pilot to

adjust the descent through the use of landing flaps.

[Figures 8-3 and 8-4] Flap extension during landings

provides several advantages by:

• Producing greater lift and permitting lower

landing speed.

• Producing greater drag, permitting a steep

descent angle without airspeed increase.

• Reducing the length of the landing roll.

Flap extension has a definite effect on the airplane’s

pitch behavior. The increased camber from flap deflection produces lift primarily on the rear portion of the

wing. This produces a nosedown pitching moment;

however, the change in tail loads from the downwash

deflected by the flaps over the horizontal tail has a

significant influence on the pitching moment.

Consequently, pitch behavior depends on the design

features of the particular airplane.

Flap deflection of up to 15° primarily produces lift with

minimal drag. The airplane has a tendency to balloon

No Flaps

Half Flaps

Full Flaps

With: Constant Airspeed

Constant Power

Flatter Descent Angle

Steeper Descent Angle

With: Constant Airspeed

Constant Power

No Flaps Half Flaps Full Flaps

Figure 8-3. Effect of flaps on the landing point.

Figure 8-4. Effect of flaps on the approach angle.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-3
up with initial flap deflection because of the lift

increase. The nosedown pitching moment, however,

tends to offset the balloon. Flap deflection beyond 15°

produces a large increase in drag. Also, deflection

beyond 15° produces a significant noseup pitching

moment in high-wing airplanes because the resulting

downwash increases the airflow over the horizontal tail.

The time of flap extension and the degree of deflection

are related. Large flap deflections at one single point in

the landing pattern produce large lift changes that

require significant pitch and power changes in order to

maintain airspeed and descent angle. Consequently, the

deflection of flaps at certain positions in the landing

pattern has definite advantages. Incremental deflection

of flaps on downwind, base leg, and final approach

allow smaller adjustment of pitch and power compared

to extension of full flaps all at one time.

When the flaps are lowered, the airspeed will decrease

unless the power is increased or the pitch attitude

lowered. On final approach, therefore, the pilot must

estimate where the airplane will land through

discerning judgment of the descent angle. If it appears

that the airplane is going to overshoot the desired

landing spot, more flaps may be used if not fully

extended or the power reduced further, and the pitch

attitude lowered. This will result in a steeper approach.

If the desired landing spot is being undershot and a

shallower approach is needed, both power and pitch

attitude should be increased to readjust the descent

angle. Never retract the flaps to correct for undershooting since that will suddenly decrease the lift and cause

the airplane to sink even more rapidly.

The airplane must be retrimmed on the final approach

to compensate for the change in aerodynamic forces.

With the reduced power and with a slower airspeed,

the airflow produces less lift on the wings and less

downward force on the horizontal stabilizer, resulting

in a significant nosedown tendency. The elevator must

then be trimmed more noseup.

It will be found that the roundout, touchdown, and

landing roll are much easier to accomplish when they

are preceded by a proper final approach with precise

control of airspeed, attitude, power, and drag resulting

in a stabilized descent angle.

ESTIMATING HEIGHT AND MOVEMENT

During the approach, roundout, and touchdown, vision

is of prime importance. To provide a wide scope of

vision and to foster good judgment of height and

movement, the pilot’s head should assume a natural,

straight-ahead position. The pilot’s visual focus should

not be fixed on any one side or any one spot ahead of

the airplane, but should be changing slowly from a

point just over the airplane’s nose to the desired

touchdown zone and back again, while maintaining a

deliberate awareness of distance from either side of

the runway within the pilot’s peripheral field of vision.

Accurate estimation of distance is, besides being a

matter of practice, dependent upon how clearly objects

are seen; it requires that the vision be focused properly

in order that the important objects stand out as clearly

as possible.

Speed blurs objects at close range. For example,

most everyone has noted this in an automobile

moving at high speed. Nearby objects seem to merge

together in a blur, while objects farther away stand

out clearly. The driver subconsciously focuses the

eyes sufficiently far ahead of the automobile to see

objects distinctly.

The distance at which the pilot’s vision is focused

should be proportionate to the speed at which the

airplane is traveling over the ground. Thus, as speed is

reduced during the roundout, the distance ahead of the

airplane at which it is possible to focus should be

brought closer accordingly.

If the pilot attempts to focus on a reference that is too

close or looks directly down, the reference will

become blurred, [Figure 8-5] and the reaction will be

either too abrupt or too late. In this case, the pilot’s

tendency will be to overcontrol, round out high, and

make full-stall, drop-in landings. When the pilot

focuses too far ahead, accuracy in judging the

closeness of the ground is lost and the consequent

reaction will be too slow since there will not appear to

be a necessity for action. This will result in the

airplane flying into the ground nose first. The change

of visual focus from a long distance to a short distance

requires a definite time interval and even though the

time is brief, the airplane’s speed during this interval is

such that the airplane travels an appreciable distance,

both forward and downward toward the ground.

Figure 8-5. Focusing too close blurs vision.

If the focus is changed gradually, being brought progressively closer as speed is reduced, the time interval

8-4

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8-5

and the pilot’s reaction will be reduced, and the whole

landing process smoothed out.

ROUNDOUT (FLARE)

The roundout is a slow, smooth transition from a normal approach attitude to a landing attitude, gradually

rounding out the flightpath to one that is parallel with,

and within a very few inches above, the runway. When

the airplane, in a normal descent, approaches within

what appears to be 10 to 20 feet above the ground, the

roundout or flare should be started, and once started

should be a continuous process until the airplane

touches down on the ground.

As the airplane reaches a height above the ground

where a timely change can be made into the proper

landing attitude, back-elevator pressure should be

gradually applied to slowly increase the pitch attitude

and angle of attack. [Figure 8-6] This will cause the

airplane’s nose to gradually rise toward the desired

landing attitude. The angle of attack should be

increased at a rate that will allow the airplane to continue settling slowly as forward speed decreases.

When the angle of attack is increased, the lift is momentarily increased, which decreases the rate of descent.

Since power normally is reduced to idle during the

roundout, the airspeed will also gradually decrease.

This will cause lift to decrease again, and it must be

controlled by raising the nose and further increasing the

angle of attack. During the roundout, the airspeed is

being decreased to touchdown speed while the lift is

being controlled so the airplane will settle gently onto

the landing surface. The roundout should be executed

at a rate that the proper landing attitude and the proper

touchdown airspeed are attained simultaneously just as

the wheels contact the landing surface.

The rate at which the roundout is executed depends on

the airplane’s height above the ground, the rate of

descent, and the pitch attitude. A roundout started

excessively high must be executed more slowly than

one from a lower height to allow the airplane to

descend to the ground while the proper landing attitude

is being established. The rate of rounding out must also

be proportionate to the rate of closure with the ground.

When the airplane appears to be descending very

slowly, the increase in pitch attitude must be made at a

correspondingly slow rate.

Visual cues are important in flaring at the proper altitude and maintaining the wheels a few inches above

the runway until eventual touchdown. Flare cues are

primarily dependent on the angle at which the pilot’s

central vision intersects the ground (or runway) ahead

and slightly to the side. Proper depth perception is a

factor in a successful flare, but the visual cues used

most are those related to changes in runway or terrain

perspective and to changes in the size of familiar

objects near the landing area such as fences, bushes,

trees, hangars, and even sod or runway texture. The

pilot should direct central vision at a shallow downward angle of from 10° to 15° toward the runway as

the roundout/flare is initiated. [Figure 8-7]

Maintaining the same viewing angle causes the point

Increase

Angle of

Attack

Increase

Angle of

Attack Increase

Angle of

Attack

78 Knots

70 Knots

65 Knots

60 Knots

10° to 15°

Figure 8-7.To obtain necessary visual cues, the pilot should look toward the runway at a shallow angle.

Figure 8-6. Changing angle of attack during roundout.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-5
of visual interception with the runway to move

progressively rearward toward the pilot as the airplane

loses altitude. This is an important visual cue in

assessing the rate of altitude loss. Conversely, forward

movement of the visual interception point will indicate

an increase in altitude, and would mean that the pitch

angle was increased too rapidly, resulting in an over

flare. Location of the visual interception point in

conjunction with assessment of flow velocity of nearby

off-runway terrain, as well as the similarity of

appearance of height above the runway ahead of the

airplane (in comparison to the way it looked when the

airplane was taxied prior to takeoff) is also used to

judge when the wheels are just a few inches above

the runway.

The pitch attitude of the airplane in a full-flap approach

is considerably lower than in a no-flap approach. To

attain the proper landing attitude before touching

down, the nose must travel through a greater pitch

change when flaps are fully extended. Since the roundout is usually started at approximately the same height

above the ground regardless of the degree of flaps

used, the pitch attitude must be increased at a faster

rate when full flaps are used; however, the roundout

should still be executed at a rate proportionate to the

airplane’s downward motion.

Once the actual process of rounding out is started, the

elevator control should not be pushed forward. If too

much back-elevator pressure has been exerted, this

pressure should be either slightly relaxed or held

constant, depending on the degree of the error. In some

cases, it may be necessary to advance the throttle

slightly to prevent an excessive rate of sink, or a stall, all

of which would result in a hard, drop-in type landing.

It is recommended that the student pilot form the habit

of keeping one hand on the throttle throughout the

approach and landing, should a sudden and unexpected

hazardous situation require an immediate application

of power.

TOUCHDOWN

The touchdown is the gentle settling of the airplane

onto the landing surface. The roundout and touchdown

should be made with the engine idling, and the airplane

at minimum controllable airspeed, so that the airplane

will touch down on the main gear at approximately

stalling speed. As the airplane settles, the proper

landing attitude is attained by application of whatever

back-elevator pressure is necessary.

Some pilots may try to force or fly the airplane onto

the ground without establishing the proper landing

attitude. The airplane should never be flown on

the runway with excessive speed. It is paradoxical that

the way to make an ideal landing is to try to hold the

airplane’s wheels a few inches off the ground as

long as possible with the elevators. In most cases,

when the wheels are within 2 or 3 feet off the

ground, the airplane will still be settling too fast for

a gentle touchdown; therefore, this descent must be

retarded by further back-elevator pressure. Since

the airplane is already close to its stalling speed and

is settling, this added back-elevator pressure will

only slow up the settling instead of stopping it. At

the same time, it will result in the airplane touching

the ground in the proper landing attitude, and the

main wheels touching down first so that little or no

weight is on the nosewheel. [Figure 8-8]

After the main wheels make initial contact with the

ground, back-elevator pressure should be held to

maintain a positive angle of attack for aerodynamic

braking, and to hold the nosewheel off the ground until

the airplane decelerates. As the airplane’s momentum

decreases, back-elevator pressure may be gradually

relaxed to allow the nosewheel to gently settle onto the

runway. This will permit steering with the nosewheel.

At the same time, it will cause a low angle of attack

and negative lift on the wings to prevent floating or

skipping, and will allow the full weight of the airplane

to rest on the wheels for better braking action.

Near-Zero Rate of Descent

15 Feet

2 to 3 Feet 1 Foot

Figure 8-8. A well executed roundout results in attaining the proper landing attitude.

8-6

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8-7

It is extremely important that the touchdown occur

with the airplane’s longitudinal axis exactly parallel to

the direction in which the airplane is moving along the

runway. Failure to accomplish this imposes severe side

loads on the landing gear. To avoid these side stresses,

the pilot should not allow the airplane to touch down

while turned into the wind or drifting.

AFTER-LANDING ROLL

The landing process must never be considered complete until the airplane decelerates to the normal taxi

speed during the landing roll or has been brought to a

complete stop when clear of the landing area. Many

accidents have occurred as a result of pilots abandoning their vigilance and positive control after getting the

airplane on the ground.

The pilot must be alert for directional control difficulties immediately upon and after touchdown due to the

ground friction on the wheels. The friction creates a pivot

point on which a moment arm can act. Loss of directional

control may lead to an aggravated, uncontrolled, tight

turn on the ground, or a ground loop. The combination

of centrifugal force acting on the center of gravity (CG)

and ground friction of the main wheels resisting it during

the ground loop may cause the airplane to tip or lean

enough for the outside wingtip to contact the ground.

This may even impose a sideward force, which could

collapse the landing gear.

The rudder serves the same purpose on the ground as it

does in the air—it controls the yawing of the airplane.

The effectiveness of the rudder is dependent on the airflow, which depends on the speed of the airplane. As

the speed decreases and the nosewheel has been lowered to the ground, the steerable nose provides more

positive directional control.

The brakes of an airplane serve the same primary

purpose as the brakes of an automobile—to reduce

speed on the ground. In airplanes, they may also be

used as an aid in directional control when more positive control is required than could be obtained with

rudder or nosewheel steering alone.

To use brakes, on an airplane equipped with toe brakes,

the pilot should slide the toes or feet up from the rudder pedals to the brake pedals. If rudder pressure is

being held at the time braking action is needed, that

pressure should not be released as the feet or toes are

being slid up to the brake pedals, because control may

be lost before brakes can be applied.

Putting maximum weight on the wheels after touchdown is an important factor in obtaining optimum

braking performance. During the early part of rollout,

some lift may continue to be generated by the wing.

After touchdown, the nosewheel should be lowered to

the runway to maintain directional control. During

deceleration, the nose may be pitched down by braking

and the weight transferred to the nosewheel from the

main wheels. This does not aid in braking action, so

back pressure should be applied to the controls without

lifting the nosewheel off the runway. This will enable

the pilot to maintain directional control while keeping

weight on the main wheels. 

Careful application of the brakes can be initiated after

the nosewheel is on the ground and directional control

is established. Maximum brake effectiveness is just

short of the point where skidding occurs. If the brakes

are applied so hard that skidding takes place, braking

becomes ineffective. Skidding can be stopped by releasing the brake pressure. Also, braking effectiveness is not

enhanced by alternately applying and reapplying brake

pressure. The brakes should be applied firmly and

smoothly as necessary.

During the ground roll, the airplane’s direction of

movement can be changed by carefully applying pressure on one brake or uneven pressures on each brake in

the desired direction. Caution must be exercised when

applying brakes to avoid overcontrolling.

The ailerons serve the same purpose on the ground as

they do in the air—they change the lift and drag components of the wings. During the after-landing roll,

they should be used to keep the wings level in much

the same way they were used in flight. If a wing starts

to rise, aileron control should be applied toward that

wing to lower it. The amount required will depend on

speed because as the forward speed of the airplane

decreases, the ailerons will become less effective.

Procedures for using ailerons in crosswind conditions

are explained further in this chapter, in the Crosswind

Approach and Landing section.

After the airplane is on the ground, back-elevator pressure may be gradually relaxed to place normal weight on

the nosewheel to aid in better steering. If available

runway permits, the speed of the airplane should be

allowed to dissipate in a normal manner. Once the

airplane has slowed sufficiently and has turned on to

the taxiway and stopped, the pilot should retract the

flaps and clean up the airplane. Many accidents have

occurred as a result of the pilot unintentionally operating

the landing gear control and retracting the gear instead

of the flap control when the airplane was still

rolling. The habit of positively identifying both of these

controls, before actuating them, should be formed from

the very beginning of flight training and continued in all

future flying activities.

STABILIZED APPROACH CONCEPT

A stabilized approach is one in which the pilot establishes and maintains a constant angle glidepath

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-7
8-8

towards a predetermined point on the landing runway.

It is based on the pilot’s judgment of certain visual

clues, and depends on the maintenance of a constant

final descent airspeed and configuration.

An airplane descending on final approach at a constant

rate and airspeed will be traveling in a straight line

toward a spot on the ground ahead. This spot will not

be the spot on which the airplane will touch down,

because some float will inevitably occur during the

roundout (flare). [Figure 8-9] Neither will it be the spot

toward which the airplane’s nose is pointed, because

the airplane is flying at a fairly high angle of attack,

and the component of lift exerted parallel to the Earth’s

surface by the wings tends to carry the airplane forward horizontally.

The point toward which the airplane is progressing is

termed the “aiming point.” [Figure 8-9] It is the point

on the ground at which, if the airplane maintains a

constant glidepath, and was not flared for landing, it

would strike the ground. To a pilot moving straight

ahead toward an object, it appears to be stationary. It

does not “move.” This is how the aiming point can be

distinguished—it does not move. However, objects in

front of and beyond the aiming point do appear to move

as the distance is closed, and they appear to move in

opposite directions. During instruction in landings, one

of the most important skills a student pilot must acquire

is how to use visual cues to accurately determine the

true aiming point from any distance out on final

approach. From this, the pilot will not only be able to

determine if the glidepath will result in an undershoot

or overshoot, but, taking into account float during

roundout, the pilot will be able to predict the touchdown point to within a very few feet.

For a constant angle glidepath, the distance between

the horizon and the aiming point will remain constant.

If a final approach descent has been established but the

distance between the perceived aiming point and the

horizon appears to increase (aiming point moving

down away from the horizon), then the true aiming

point, and subsequent touchdown point, is farther

down the runway. If the distance between the perceived aiming point and the horizon decreases (aiming

point moving up toward the horizon), the true aiming

point is closer than perceived.

When the airplane is established on final approach, the

shape of the runway image also presents clues as to

what must be done to maintain a stabilized approach

to a safe landing.

A runway, obviously, is normally shaped in the form

of an elongated rectangle. When viewed from the

air during the approach, the phenomenon known as

perspective causes the runway to assume the shape of

a trapezoid with the far end looking narrower than the

approach end, and the edge lines converging ahead.

If the airplane continues down the glidepath at a

constant angle (stabilized), the image the pilot sees

will still be trapezoidal but of proportionately larger

dimensions. In other words, during a stabilized

approach the runway shape does not change. [Figure

8-10]

If the approach becomes shallower, however, the

runway will appear to shorten and become wider.

Conversely, if the approach is steepened, the runway will appear to become longer and narrower.

[Figure 8-11]

The objective of a stabilized approach is to select an

appropriate touchdown point on the runway, and

adjust the glidepath so that the true aiming point and

the desired touchdown point basically coincide.

Immediately after rolling out on final approach, the

pilot should adjust the pitch attitude and power so that

the airplane is descending directly toward the aiming

point at the appropriate airspeed. The airplane should

Distance Traveled in Flare

Touchdown

Aiming Point (Descent Angle Intersects Ground)

Figure 8-9. Stabilized approach.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-8
be in the landing configuration, and trimmed for

“hands off” flight. With the approach set up in this

manner, the pilot will be free to devote full attention

toward outside references. The pilot should not stare at

any one place, but rather scan from one point to

another, such as from the aiming point to the horizon,

to the trees and bushes along the runway, to an area

well short of the runway, and back to the aiming point.

In this way, the pilot will be more apt to perceive a

deviation from the desired glidepath, and whether or

not the airplane is proceeding directly toward the

aiming point.

If the pilot perceives any indication that the aiming

point on the runway is not where desired, an adjustment

must be made to the glidepath. This in turn will move

the aiming point. For instance, if the pilot perceives that

the aiming point is short of the desired touchdown

point and will result in an undershoot, an increase in

pitch attitude and engine power is warranted. A constant

airspeed must be maintained. The pitch and power

change, therefore, must be made smoothly and

simultaneously. This will result in a shallowing of

the glidepath with the resultant aiming point moving

towards the desired touchdown point. Conversely,

if the pilot perceives that the aiming point is farther

down the runway than the desired touchdown point

and will result in an overshoot, the glidepath should be

steepened by a simultaneous decrease in pitch attitude

and power. Once again, the airspeed must be held constant. It is essential that deviations from the desired

glidepath be detected early, so that only slight and

infrequent adjustments to glidepath are required.

3°Approach Angle

4000' x 100' Runway

1600' From Threshold

105' Altitude

Same Runway, Same Approach Angle

800' From Threshold

52' Altitude

Same Runway, Same Approach Angle

400' From Threshold

26' Altitude

Figure 8-10. Runway shape during stabilized approach.

Too High

Proper Descent Angle

Too Low

Figure 8-11. Change in runway shape if approach becomes

narrow or steep.

8-9

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8-10

The closer the airplane gets to the runway, the larger

(and possibly more frequent) the required corrections

become, resulting in an unstabilized approach.

Common errors in the performance of normal

approaches and landings are:

• Inadequate wind drift correction on the base leg.

• Overshooting or undershooting the turn onto

final approach resulting in too steep or too shallow a turn onto final approach.

• Flat or skidding turns from base leg to final

approach as a result of overshooting/inadequate

wind drift correction.

• Poor coordination during turn from base to final

approach.

• Failure to complete the landing checklist in a

timely manner.

• Unstabilized approach.

• Failure to adequately compensate for flap extension.

• Poor trim technique on final approach.

• Attempting to maintain altitude or reach the runway using elevator alone. 

• Focusing too close to the airplane resulting in a

too high roundout.

• Focusing too far from the airplane resulting in a

too low roundout.

• Touching down prior to attaining proper landing

attitude.

• Failure to hold sufficient back-elevator pressure

after touchdown.

• Excessive braking after touchdown.

INTENTIONAL SLIPS

A slip occurs when the bank angle of an airplane is too

steep for the existing rate of turn. Unintentional slips

are most often the result of uncoordinated

rudder/aileron application. Intentional slips, however,

are used to dissipate altitude without increasing airspeed, and/or to adjust airplane ground track during a

crosswind. Intentional slips are especially useful in

forced landings, and in situations where obstacles must

be cleared during approaches to confined areas. A slip

can also be used as an emergency means of rapidly

reducing airspeed in situations where wing flaps are

inoperative or not installed.

A slip is a combination of forward movement and

sideward (with respect to the longitudinal axis of the

airplane) movement, the lateral axis being inclined

and the sideward movement being toward the low

end of this axis (low wing). An airplane in a slip is in

fact flying sideways. This results in a change in the

direction the relative wind strikes the airplane. Slips

are characterized by a marked increase in drag and

corresponding decrease in airplane climb, cruise, and

glide performance. It is the increase in drag, however, that makes it possible for an airplane in a slip to

descend rapidly without an increase in airspeed.

Most airplanes exhibit the characteristic of positive

static directional stability and, therefore, have a natural tendency to compensate for slipping. An intentional

slip, therefore, requires deliberate cross-controlling

ailerons and rudder throughout the maneuver.

A “sideslip” is entered by lowering a wing and applying

just enough opposite rudder to prevent a turn. In a

sideslip, the airplane’s longitudinal axis remains parallel to the original flightpath, but the airplane no

longer flies straight ahead. Instead the horizontal

component of wing lift forces the airplane also to

move somewhat sideways toward the low wing.

[Figure 8-12] The amount of slip, and therefore the

rate of sideward movement, is determined by the bank

angle. The steeper the bank—the greater the degree of

slip. As bank angle is increased, however, additional

opposite rudder is required to prevent turning.

A “forward slip” is one in which the airplane’s

direction of motion continues the same as before the

slip was begun. Assuming the airplane is originally

in straight flight, the wing on the side toward which

Direction of Movement

Relative Wind

Sideslip

Figure 8-12. Sideslip.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-10
8-11

the slip is to be made should be lowered by use of the

ailerons. Simultaneously, the airplane’s nose must be

yawed in the opposite direction by applying opposite

rudder so that the airplane’s longitudinal axis is at an

angle to its original flightpath. [Figure 8-13] The

degree to which the nose is yawed in the opposite

direction from the bank should be such that the

original ground track is maintained. In a forward slip,

the amount of slip, and therefore the sink rate, is

determined by the bank angle. The steeper the bank—

the steeper the descent.

In most light airplanes, the steepness of a slip is

limited by the amount of rudder travel available. In

both sideslips and forward slips, the point may be

reached where full rudder is required to maintain

heading even though the ailerons are capable of further

steepening the bank angle. This is the practical slip

limit, because any additional bank would cause the

airplane to turn even though full opposite rudder is

being applied. If there is a need to descend more

rapidly even though the practical slip limit has been

reached, lowering the nose will not only increase the

sink rate but will also increase airspeed. The increase

in airspeed increases rudder effectiveness permitting

a steeper slip. Conversely, when the nose is raised,

rudder effectiveness decreases and the bank angle must

be reduced.

Discontinuing a slip is accomplished by leveling the

wings and simultaneously releasing the rudder

pressure while readjusting the pitch attitude to the

normal glide attitude. If the pressure on the rudder is

released abruptly, the nose will swing too quickly into

line and the airplane will tend to acquire excess speed.

Because of the location of the pitot tube and static

vents, airspeed indicators in some airplanes may have

considerable error when the airplane is in a slip. The

pilot must be aware of this possibility and recognize a

properly performed slip by the attitude of the airplane,

the sound of the airflow, and the feel of the flight

controls. Unlike skids, however, if an airplane in a slip

is made to stall, it displays very little of the yawing

tendency that causes a skidding stall to develop into a

spin. The airplane in a slip may do little more than tend

to roll into a wings level attitude. In fact, in some

airplanes stall characteristics may even be improved.

GO-AROUNDS 

(REJECTED LANDINGS)

Whenever landing conditions are not satisfactory, a

go-around is warranted. There are many factors that

can contribute to unsatisfactory landing conditions.

Situations such as air traffic control requirements,

unexpected appearance of hazards on the runway,

overtaking another airplane, wind shear,

wake turbulence, mechanical failure and/or an

unstabilized approach are all examples of reasons to

discontinue a landing approach and make another

approach under more favorable conditions. The

assumption that an aborted landing is invariably the

consequence of a poor approach, which in turn is due

to insufficient experience or skill, is a fallacy. The

go-around is not strictly an emergency procedure. It

is a normal maneuver that may at times be used in an

emergency situation. Like any other normal maneuver,

the go-around must be practiced and perfected. The flight

instructor should emphasize early on, and the student

pilot should be made to understand, that the go-around

maneuver is an alternative to any approach

and/or landing.

Although the need to discontinue a landing may arise

at any point in the landing process, the most critical

go-around will be one started when very close to the

ground. Therefore, the earlier a condition that warrants a

go-around is recognized, the safer the go-around/rejected

landing will be. The go-around maneuver is not

inherently dangerous in itself. It becomes dangerous

only when delayed unduly or executed improperly.

Delay in initiating the go-around normally stems from

two sources: (1) landing expectancy, or set—the

anticipatory belief that conditions are not as

threatening as they are and that the approach will

surely be terminated with a safe landing, and (2)

pride—the mistaken belief that the act of going around

is an admission of failure—failure to execute the

approach properly. The improper execution of the goaround maneuver stems from a lack of familiarity with

the three cardinal principles of the procedure: power,

attitude, and configuration.

POWER

Power is the pilot’s first concern. The instant the

pilot decides to go around, full or maximum allowable takeoff power must be applied smoothly and

without hesitation, and held until flying speed and

controllability are restored. Applying only partial

power in a go-around is never appropriate. The pilot

Direction of Movement

Relative Wind

Forward Slip

Figure 8-13. Forward slip.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-11
must be aware of the degree of inertia that must be

overcome, before an airplane that is settling towards

the ground can regain sufficient airspeed to become

fully controllable and capable of turning safely or

climbing. The application of power should be smooth

as well as positive. Abrupt movements of the throttle

in some airplanes will cause the engine to falter.

Carburetor heat should be turned off for maximum

power.

ATTITUDE

Attitude is always critical when close to the ground,

and when power is added, a deliberate effort on the part

of the pilot will be required to keep the nose from

pitching up prematurely. The airplane executing a goaround must be maintained in an attitude that permits a

buildup of airspeed well beyond the stall point before

any effort is made to gain altitude, or to execute a turn.

Raising the nose too early may produce a stall from

which the airplane could not be recovered if the

go-around is performed at a low altitude. 

A concern for quickly regaining altitude during a goaround produces a natural tendency to pull the nose up.

The pilot executing a go-around must accept the fact

that an airplane will not climb until it can fly, and it

will not fly below stall speed. In some circumstances,

it may be desirable to lower the nose briefly to gain

airspeed. As soon as the appropriate climb airspeed and

pitch attitude are attained, the pilot should “rough

trim” the airplane to relieve any adverse control pressures. Later, more precise trim adjustments can be

made when flight conditions have stabilized.

CONFIGURATION

In cleaning up the airplane during the go-around, the

pilot should be concerned first with flaps and secondly

with the landing gear (if retractable). When the decision is made to perform a go-around, takeoff power

should be applied immediately and the pitch attitude

changed so as to slow or stop the descent. After the

descent has been stopped, the landing flaps may be

partially retracted or placed in the takeoff position as

recommended by the manufacturer. Caution must be

used, however, in retracting the flaps. Depending on

the airplane’s altitude and airspeed, it may be wise to

retract the flaps intermittently in small increments to

allow time for the airplane to accelerate progressively

as they are being raised. A sudden and complete retraction of the flaps could cause a loss of lift resulting in

the airplane settling into the ground. [Figure 8-14]

Unless otherwise specified in the AFM/POH, it is generally recommended that the flaps be retracted (at least

partially) before retracting the landing gear—for two

reasons. First, on most airplanes full flaps produce

more drag than the landing gear; and second, in case

the airplane should inadvertently touch down as the

go-around is initiated, it is most desirable to have the

landing gear in the down-and-locked position. After a

positive rate of climb is established, the landing gear

can be retracted.

When takeoff power is applied, it will usually be necessary to hold considerable pressure on the controls to

maintain straight flight and a safe climb attitude. Since

the airplane has been trimmed for the approach (a low

power and low airspeed condition), application of

maximum allowable power will require considerable

control pressure to maintain a climb pitch attitude. The

addition of power will tend to raise the airplane’s nose

suddenly and veer to the left. Forward elevator pressure

must be anticipated and applied to hold the nose in a

safe climb attitude. Right rudder pressure must be

increased to counteract torque and P-factor, and to keep

the nose straight. The airplane must be held in the proper

flight attitude regardless of the amount of control

pressure that is required. Trim should be used to

relieve adverse control pressures and assist the pilot in

maintaining a proper pitch attitude. On airplanes that

produce high control pressures when using maximum

power on go-arounds, pilots should use caution when

reaching for the flap handle. Airplane control may

become critical during this high workload phase.

Retract Remaining

Flaps Positive Rate

of Climb, Retract

Gear, Climb

at VY

500'

Cruise Climb

Timely Decision to

Make Go-Around Apply Max Power

Adjust Pitch Attitude

Allow Airspeed to Increase

Assume Climb Atttude

Flaps to

Intermediate

Figure 8-14. Go-around procedure.

8-12

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8-13

The landing gear should be retracted only after the initial or rough trim has been accomplished and when it is

certain the airplane will remain airborne. During the

initial part of an extremely low go-around, the airplane

may settle onto the runway and bounce. This situation

is not particularly dangerous if the airplane is kept

straight and a constant, safe pitch attitude is maintained. The airplane will be approaching safe flying

speed rapidly and the advanced power will cushion any

secondary touchdown.

If the pitch attitude is increased excessively in an effort

to keep the airplane from contacting the runway, it may

cause the airplane to stall. This would be especially

likely if no trim correction is made and the flaps

remain fully extended. The pilot should not attempt to

retract the landing gear until after a rough trim is

accomplished and a positive rate of climb is established.

GROUND EFFECT

Ground effect is a factor in every landing and every

takeoff in fixed-wing airplanes. Ground effect can also

be an important factor in go-arounds. If the go-around

is made close to the ground, the airplane may be in the

ground effect area. Pilots are often lulled into a sense

of false security by the apparent “cushion of air” under

the wings that initially assists in the transition from an

approach descent to a climb. This “cushion of air,”

however, is imaginary. The apparent increase in airplane performance is, in fact, due to a reduction in

induced drag in the ground effect area. It is “borrowed”

performance that must be repaid when the airplane

climbs out of the ground effect area. The pilot must

factor in ground effect when initiating a go-around

close to the ground. An attempt to climb prematurely

may result in the airplane not being able to climb, or

even maintain altitude at full power.

Common errors in the performance of go-arounds

(rejected landings) are:

• Failure to recognize a condition that warrants a

rejected landing.

• Indecision.

• Delay in initiating a go-round.

• Failure to apply maximum allowable power in a

timely manner.

• Abrupt power application.

• Improper pitch attitude.

• Failure to configure the airplane appropriately.

• Attempting to climb out of ground effect prematurely.

• Failure to adequately compensate for torque/Pfactor.

CROSSWIND 

APPROACH AND LANDING

Many runways or landing areas are such that landings

must be made while the wind is blowing across rather

than parallel to the landing direction. All pilots should

be prepared to cope with these situations when they

arise. The same basic principles and factors involved

in a normal approach and landing apply to a crosswind

approach and landing; therefore, only the additional

procedures required for correcting for wind drift are

discussed here.

Crosswind landings are a little more difficult to perform than crosswind takeoffs, mainly due to different

problems involved in maintaining accurate control of

the airplane while its speed is decreasing rather than

increasing as on takeoff.

There are two usual methods of accomplishing a crosswind approach and landing—the crab method and the

wing-low (sideslip) method. Although the crab method

may be easier for the pilot to maintain during final

approach, it requires a high degree of judgment and

timing in removing the crab immediately prior to

touchdown. The wing-low method is recommended in

most cases, although a combination of both methods

may be used.

CROSSWIND FINAL APPROACH

The crab method is executed by establishing a heading

(crab) toward the wind with the wings level so that the

airplane’s ground track remains aligned with the centerline of the runway. [Figure 8-15] This crab angle is

maintained until just prior to touchdown, when the

longitudinal axis of the airplane must be aligned with

the runway to avoid sideward contact of the wheels

with the runway. If a long final approach is being

flown, the pilot may use the crab method until just

before the roundout is started and then smoothly

change to the wing-low method for the remainder of

the landing.

Figure 8-15. Crabbed approach.

The wing-low (sideslip) method will compensate for a

crosswind from any angle, but more important, it

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-13
enables the pilot to simultaneously keep the airplane’s

ground track and longitudinal axis aligned with the

runway centerline throughout the final approach,

roundout, touchdown, and after-landing roll. This

prevents the airplane from touching down in a sideward motion and imposing damaging side loads on

the landing gear.

To use the wing-low method, the pilot aligns the airplane’s heading with the centerline of the runway,

notes the rate and direction of drift, and then promptly

applies drift correction by lowering the upwind wing.

[Figure 8-16] The amount the wing must be lowered

depends on the rate of drift. When the wing is lowered,

the airplane will tend to turn in that direction. It is then

necessary to simultaneously apply sufficient opposite

rudder pressure to prevent the turn and keep the airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned with the runway. In

other words, the drift is controlled with aileron, and

the heading with rudder. The airplane will now be

sideslipping into the wind just enough that both the

resultant flightpath and the ground track are aligned

with the runway. If the crosswind diminishes, this

crosswind correction is reduced accordingly, or the

airplane will begin slipping away from the desired

approach path. [Figure 8-17]

To correct for strong crosswind, the slip into the wind

is increased by lowering the upwind wing a considerable amount. As a consequence, this will result in a

greater tendency of the airplane to turn. Since turning

is not desired, considerable opposite rudder must be

applied to keep the airplane’s longitudinal axis aligned

with the runway. In some airplanes, there may not be

sufficient rudder travel available to compensate for the

strong turning tendency caused by the steep bank. If

the required bank is such that full opposite rudder will

not prevent a turn, the wind is too strong to safely land

the airplane on that particular runway with those wind

conditions. Since the airplane’s capability will be

exceeded, it is imperative that the landing be made on Figure 8-16. Sideslip approach.

Figure 8-17. Crosswind approach and landing.

8-14

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-14
8-15

a more favorable runway either at that airport or at an

alternate airport.

Flaps can and should be used during most approaches

since they tend to have a stabilizing effect on the airplane. The degree to which flaps should be extended

will vary with the airplane’s handling characteristics,

as well as the wind velocity.

CROSSWIND ROUNDOUT (FLARE)

Generally, the roundout can be made like a normal

landing approach, but the application of a crosswind

correction is continued as necessary to prevent

drifting.

Since the airspeed decreases as the roundout progresses, the flight controls gradually become less

effective. As a result, the crosswind correction being

held will become inadequate. When using the winglow method, it is necessary to gradually increase the

deflection of the rudder and ailerons to maintain the

proper amount of drift correction.

Do not level the wings; keep the upwind wing down

throughout the roundout. If the wings are leveled, the

airplane will begin drifting and the touchdown will

occur while drifting. Remember, the primary objective

is to land the airplane without subjecting it to any side

loads that result from touching down while drifting.

CROSSWIND TOUCHDOWN

If the crab method of drift correction has been used

throughout the final approach and roundout, the crab

must be removed the instant before touchdown by

applying rudder to align the airplane’s longitudinal

axis with its direction of movement. This requires

timely and accurate action. Failure to accomplish this

will result in severe side loads being imposed on the

landing gear.

If the wing-low method is used, the crosswind correction (aileron into the wind and opposite rudder)

should be maintained throughout the roundout, and

the touchdown made on the upwind main wheel.

During gusty or high wind conditions, prompt adjustments must be made in the crosswind correction to

assure that the airplane does not drift as the airplane

touches down.

As the forward momentum decreases after initial

contact, the weight of the airplane will cause the

downwind main wheel to gradually settle onto the

runway.

In those airplanes having nosewheel steering interconnected with the rudder, the nosewheel may not be

aligned with the runway as the wheels touch down

because opposite rudder is being held in the crosswind

correction. To prevent swerving in the direction the

nosewheel is offset, the corrective rudder pressure

must be promptly relaxed just as the nosewheel

touches down.

CROSSWIND AFTER-LANDING ROLL

Particularly during the after-landing roll, special

attention must be given to maintaining directional

control by the use of rudder or nosewheel steering,

while keeping the upwind wing from rising by the use

of aileron.

When an airplane is airborne, it moves with the air

mass in which it is flying regardless of the airplane’s

heading and speed. When an airplane is on the ground,

it is unable to move with the air mass (crosswind)

because of the resistance created by ground friction on

the wheels.

Characteristically, an airplane has a greater profile or

side area, behind the main landing gear than forward

of it does. With the main wheels acting as a pivot point

and the greater surface area exposed to the crosswind

behind that pivot point, the airplane will tend to turn or

weathervane into the wind.

Wind acting on an airplane during crosswind landings

is the result of two factors. One is the natural wind,

which acts in the direction the air mass is traveling, while

the other is induced by the movement of the airplane and

acts parallel to the direction of movement. Consequently,

a crosswind has a headwind component acting along

the airplane’s ground track and a crosswind component

acting 90° to its track. The resultant or relative wind is

somewhere between the two components. As the

airplane’s forward speed decreases during the afterlanding roll, the headwind component decreases and the

relative wind has more of a crosswind component. The

greater the crosswind component, the more difficult it is

to prevent weathervaning.

Retaining control on the ground is a critical part of the

after-landing roll, because of the weathervaning effect

of the wind on the airplane. Additionally, tire side load

from runway contact while drifting frequently generates roll-overs in tricycle geared airplanes. The basic

factors involved are cornering angle and side load.

Cornering angle is the angular difference between the

heading of a tire and its path. Whenever a load bearing

tire’s path and heading diverge, a side load is created.

It is accompanied by tire distortion. Although side load

differs in varying tires and air pressures, it is completely

independent of speed, and through a considerable

range, is directional proportional to the cornering angle

and the weight supported by the tire. As little as 10° of

cornering angle will create a side load equal to half the

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-15
supported weight; after 20° the side load does not

increase with increasing cornering angle. For each

high-wing, tricycle geared airplane, there is a cornering angle at which roll-over is inevitable. The roll-over

axis being the line linking the nose and main wheels.

At lesser angles, the roll-over may be avoided by use

of ailerons, rudder, or steerable nosewheel but not

brakes.

While the airplane is decelerating during the afterlanding roll, more and more aileron is applied to keep

the upwind wing from rising. Since the airplane is

slowing down, there is less airflow around the ailerons

and they become less effective. At the same time, the

relative wind is becoming more of a crosswind and

exerting a greater lifting force on the upwind wing.

When the airplane is coming to a stop, the aileron control must be held fully toward the wind.

MAXIMUM SAFE CROSSWIND VELOCITIES

Takeoffs and landings in certain crosswind conditions

are inadvisable or even dangerous. [Figure 8-18] If the

crosswind is great enough to warrant an extreme drift

correction, a hazardous landing condition may result.

Therefore, the takeoff and landing capabilities with

respect to the reported surface wind conditions and the

available landing directions must be considered.

Figure 8-18. Crosswind chart.

Before an airplane is type certificated by the Federal

Aviation Administration (FAA), it must be flight tested

to meet certain requirements. Among these is the

demonstration of being satisfactorily controllable with

no exceptional degree of skill or alertness on the part

of the pilot in 90° crosswinds up to a velocity equal to

0.2 VSO. This means a windspeed of two-tenths of the

airplane’s stalling speed with power off and landing

gear/flaps down. Regulations require that the demonstrated crosswind velocity be included on a placard in

airplanes certificated after May 3, 1962.

The headwind component and the crosswind component

for a given situation can be determined by reference

to a crosswind component chart. [Figure 8-19] It is

imperative that pilots determine the maximum

crosswind component of each airplane they fly, and

avoid operations in wind conditions that exceed the

capability of the airplane.

Figure 8-19. Crosswind component chart.

Common errors in the performance of crosswind

approaches and landings are:

• Attempting to land in crosswinds that exceed the

airplane’s maximum demonstrated crosswind

component.

• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on the

turn from base leg to final approach, resulting in

undershooting or overshooting.

• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on final

approach.

• Unstabilized approach.

• Failure to compensate for increased drag during

sideslip resulting in excessive sink rate and/or

too low an airspeed.

• Touchdown while drifting.

60

50

40

30

20

10

 0

Wind Velocity – MPH

20 40 60 80 100

Wind Angle – Degrees

Direct

Crosswind

8-16

60

50

40

30

20

10

 0

Headwind Component

10 20 30 40 50 60

Crosswind Component

10° 0° 20°

30°

40°

50°

60°

70°

80°

90°

WIND VELOCITY

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-16
• Excessive airspeed on touchdown.

• Failure to apply appropriate flight control inputs

during rollout.

• Failure to maintain direction control on rollout.

• Excessive braking.

TURBULENT AIR 

APPROACH AND LANDING

Power-on approaches at an airspeed slightly above the

normal approach speed should be used for landing in

turbulent air. This provides for more positive control

of the airplane when strong horizontal wind gusts, or

up and down drafts, are experienced. Like other

power-on approaches (when the pilot can vary the

amount of power), a coordinated combination of both

pitch and power adjustments is usually required. As in

most other landing approaches, the proper approach

attitude and airspeed require a minimum roundout and

should result in little or no floating during the landing.

To maintain good control, the approach in turbulent air

with gusty crosswind may require the use of partial

wing flaps. With less than full flaps, the airplane will

be in a higher pitch attitude. Thus, it will require less

of a pitch change to establish the landing attitude, and

the touchdown will be at a higher airspeed to ensure

more positive control. The speed should not be so

excessive that the airplane will float past the desired

landing area.

One procedure is to use the normal approach speed

plus one-half of the wind gust factors. If the normal

speed is 70 knots, and the wind gusts increase 15 knots,

airspeed of 77 knots is appropriate. In any case, the airspeed and the amount of flaps should be as the airplane

manufacturer recommends.

An adequate amount of power should be used to maintain the proper airspeed and descent path throughout

the approach, and the throttle retarded to idling position

only after the main wheels contact the landing surface.

Care must be exercised in closing the throttle before the

pilot is ready for touchdown. In this situation, the sudden

or premature closing of the throttle may cause a sudden

increase in the descent rate that could result in a hard

landing.

Landings from power approaches in turbulence should

be such that the touchdown is made with the airplane

in approximately level flight attitude. The pitch attitude

at touchdown should be only enough to prevent the

nosewheel from contacting the surface before the main

wheels have touched the surface. After touchdown, the

pilot should avoid the tendency to apply forward pressure on the yoke as this may result in wheelbarrowing

and possible loss of control. The airplane should be

allowed to decelerate normally, assisted by careful use

of wheel brakes. Heavy braking should be avoided until

the wings are devoid of lift and the airplane’s full

weight is resting on the landing gear.

SHORT-FIELD APPROACH 

AND LANDING

Short-field approaches and landings require the use of

procedures for approaches and landings at fields with a

relatively short landing area or where an approach is

made over obstacles that limit the available landing area.

[Figures 8-20 and 8-21] As in short-field takeoffs, it is

one of the most critical of the maximum performance

operations. It requires that the pilot fly the airplane at

one of its crucial performance capabilities while close to

the ground in order to safely land within confined areas.

This low-speed type of power-on approach is closely

related to the performance of flight at minimum

controllable airspeeds.

8-17

Effective Runway

Length

Obstacle Clearance

Figure 8-20. Landing over an obstacle.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-17
To land within a short-field or a confined area, the pilot

must have precise, positive control of the rate of

descent and airspeed to produce an approach that will

clear any obstacles, result in little or no floating during

the roundout, and permit the airplane to be stopped in

the shortest possible distance.

The procedures for landing in a short-field or for landing approaches over obstacles, as recommended in the

AFM/POH, should be used. A stabilized approach is

essential. [Figures 8-22 and 8-23] These procedures

generally involve the use of full flaps, and the final

approach started from an altitude of at least 500 feet

higher than the touchdown area. A wider than normal

pattern should be used so that the airplane can be

properly configured and trimmed. In the absence of

the manufacturer’s recommended approach speed, a

speed of not more than 1.3 VSO should be used. For

example, in an airplane that stalls at 60 knots with

power off, and flaps and landing gear extended, the

approach speed should not be higher than 78 knots. In

gusty air, no more than one-half the gust factor should

be added. An excessive amount of airspeed could result

in a touchdown too far from the runway threshold or

an after-landing roll that exceeds the available landing

area.

After the landing gear and full flaps have been

extended, the pilot should simultaneously adjust the

power and the pitch attitude to establish and maintain

the proper descent angle and airspeed. A coordinated

combination of both pitch and power adjustments is

required. When this is done properly, very little change

in the airplane’s pitch attitude and power setting is

necessary to make corrections in the angle of descent

and airspeed.

The short-field approach and landing is in reality an

accuracy approach to a spot landing. The procedures

previously outlined in the section on the stabilized

approach concept should be used. If it appears that

the obstacle clearance is excessive and touchdown

will occur well beyond the desired spot, leaving

insufficient room to stop, power may be reduced

while lowering the pitch attitude to steepen the

descent path and increase the rate of descent. If it

appears that the descent angle will not ensure safe

clearance of obstacles, power should be increased

while simultaneously raising the pitch attitude to

shallow the descent path and decrease the rate of

descent. Care must be taken to avoid an excessively

low airspeed. If the speed is allowed to become too

slow, an increase in pitch and application of full power

Non-Obstacle Clearance Effective Runway Length

Figure 8-21. Landing on a short-field.

Figure 8-22. Stabilized approach.

8-18

Stabilized

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-18
may only result in a further rate of descent. This occurs

when the angle of attack is so great and creating so

much drag that the maximum available power is

insufficient to overcome it. This is generally referred

to as operating in the region of reversed command

or operating on the back side of the power curve.

Because the final approach over obstacles is made at a

relatively steep approach angle and close to the airplane’s stalling speed, the initiation of the roundout or

flare must be judged accurately to avoid flying into the

ground, or stalling prematurely and sinking rapidly. A

lack of floating during the flare, with sufficient control

to touch down properly, is one verification that the

approach speed was correct.

Touchdown should occur at the minimum controllable

airspeed with the airplane in approximately the pitch

attitude that will result in a power-off stall when the

throttle is closed. Care must be exercised to avoid closing the throttle too rapidly before the pilot is ready for

touchdown, as closing the throttle may result in an

immediate increase in the rate of descent and a hard

landing.

Upon touchdown, the airplane should be held in this

positive pitch attitude as long as the elevators remain

effective. This will provide aerodynamic braking to

assist in deceleration.

Immediately upon touchdown, and closing the throttle,

appropriate braking should be applied to minimize the

after-landing roll. The airplane should be stopped

within the shortest possible distance consistent with

safety and controllability. If the proper approach speed

has been maintained, resulting in minimum float

during the roundout, and the touchdown made at

minimum control speed, minimum braking will be

required.

Common errors in the performance of short-field

approaches and landings are:

• Failure to allow enough room on final to set up

the approach, necessitating an overly steep

approach and high sink rate.

• Unstabilized approach.

• Undue delay in initiating glidepath corrections.

• Too low an airspeed on final resulting in inability

to flare properly and landing hard.

• Too high an airspeed resulting in floating on

roundout.

• Prematurely reducing power to idle on roundout

resulting in hard landing.

• Touchdown with excessive airspeed.

• Excessive and/or unnecessary braking after

touchdown.

• Failure to maintain directional control.

SOFT-FIELD APPROACH 

AND LANDING

Landing on fields that are rough or have soft surfaces,

such as snow, sand, mud, or tall grass requires unique

procedures. When landing on such surfaces, the

objective is to touch down as smoothly as possible,

and at the slowest possible landing speed. The pilot

must control the airplane in a manner that the wings

support the weight of the airplane as long as practical, to minimize drag and stresses imposed on the

landing gear by the rough or soft surface.

The approach for the soft-field landing is similar to the

normal approach used for operating into long, firm

landing areas. The major difference between the two is

Figure 8-23. Unstabilized approach.

Unstabilized

8-19

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-19
that, during the soft-field landing, the airplane is held

1 to 2 feet off the surface in ground effect as long as

possible. This permits a more gradual dissipation of

forward speed to allow the wheels to touch down gently at minimum speed. This technique minimizes the

nose-over forces that suddenly affect the airplane at

the moment of touchdown. Power can be used

throughout the level-off and touchdown to ensure

touchdown at the slowest possible airspeed, and the

airplane should be flown onto the ground with the

weight fully supported by the wings. [Figure 8-24]

The use of flaps during soft-field landings will aid in

touching down at minimum speed and is recommended

whenever practical. In low-wing airplanes, the flaps

may suffer damage from mud, stones, or slush thrown

up by the wheels. If flaps are used, it is generally inadvisable to retract them during the after-landing roll

because the need for flap retraction is usually less

important than the need for total concentration on

maintaining full control of the airplane.

The final approach airspeed used for short-field landings is equally appropriate to soft-field landings. The

use of higher approach speeds may result in excessive

float in ground effect, and floating makes a smooth,

controlled touchdown even more difficult. There is,

however, no reason for a steep angle of descent unless

obstacles are present in the approach path.

Touchdown on a soft or rough field should be made at

the lowest possible airspeed with the airplane in a

nose-high pitch attitude. In nosewheel-type airplanes,

after the main wheels touch the surface, the pilot

should hold sufficient back-elevator pressure to keep

the nosewheel off the surface. Using back-elevator

pressure and engine power, the pilot can control the

rate at which the weight of the airplane is transferred

from the wings to the wheels.

Field conditions may warrant that the pilot maintain a

flight condition in which the main wheels are just

touching the surface but the weight of the airplane is

still being supported by the wings, until a suitable taxi

surface is reached. At any time during this transition

phase, before the weight of the airplane is being supported by the wheels, and before the nosewheel is on

the surface, the pilot should be able to apply full

power and perform a safe takeoff (obstacle clearance

and field length permitting) should the pilot elect to

abandon the landing. Once committed to a landing,

the pilot should gently lower the nosewheel to the

surface. A slight addition of power usually will aid in

easing the nosewheel down.

The use of brakes on a soft field is not needed and

should be avoided as this may tend to impose a heavy

load on the nose gear due to premature or hard contact

with the landing surface, causing the nosewheel to dig

in. The soft or rough surface itself will provide sufficient reduction in the airplane’s forward speed. Often it

will be found that upon landing on a very soft field, the

pilot will need to increase power to keep the airplane

moving and from becoming stuck in the soft surface.

Common errors in the performance of soft-field

approaches and landings are:

• Excessive descent rate on final approach.

• Excessive airspeed on final approach.

• Unstabilized approach.

• Roundout too high above the runway surface.

• Poor power management during roundout and

touchdown.

• Hard touchdown.

• Inadequate control of the airplane weight transfer from wings to wheels after touchdown.

• Allowing the nosewheel to “fall” to the runway

after touchdown rather than controlling its

descent.

Figure 8-24. Soft/rough field approach and landing.

8-20

Ground Effect

Transition

Area

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-20
8-21

POWER-OFF ACCURACY

APPROACHES

Power-off accuracy approaches are approaches and

landings made by gliding with the engine idling,

through a specific pattern to a touchdown beyond and

within 200 feet of a designated line or mark on the runway. The objective is to instill in the pilot the judgment

and procedures necessary for accurately flying the airplane, without power, to a safe landing.

The ability to estimate the distance an airplane will glide

to a landing is the real basis of all power-off accuracy

approaches and landings. This will largely determine the

amount of maneuvering that may be done from a given

altitude. In addition to the ability to estimate distance, it

requires the ability to maintain the proper glide while

maneuvering the airplane.

With experience and practice, altitudes up to approximately 1,000 feet can be estimated with fair accuracy,

while above this level the accuracy in judgment of height

above the ground decreases, since all features tend to

merge. The best aid in perfecting the ability to judge

height above this altitude is through the indications of the

altimeter and associating them with the general

appearance of the Earth.

The judgment of altitude in feet, hundreds of feet, or

thousands of feet is not as important as the ability to

estimate gliding angle and its resultant distance. The

pilot who knows the normal glide angle of the airplane

can estimate with reasonable accuracy, the approximate

spot along a given ground path at which the airplane

will land, regardless of altitude. The pilot, who also has

the ability to accurately estimate altitude, can judge

how much maneuvering is possible during the glide,

which is important to the choice of landing areas in an

actual emergency.

The objective of a good final approach is to descend at

an angle that will permit the airplane to reach the

desired landing area, and at an airspeed that will result

in minimum floating just before touchdown. To

accomplish this, it is essential that both the descent

angle and the airspeed be accurately controlled.

Unlike a normal approach when the power setting is

variable, on a power-off approach the power is fixed at

the idle setting. Pitch attitude is adjusted to control the

airspeed. This will also change the glide or descent

angle. By lowering the nose to keep the approach airspeed

constant, the descent angle will steepen. If the airspeed is

too high, raise the nose, and when the airspeed is too low,

lower the nose. If the pitch attitude is raised too high, the

airplane will settle rapidly due to a slow airspeed and

insufficient lift. For this reason, never try to stretch a glide

to reach the desired landing spot.

Uniform approach patterns such as the 90°, 180°, or

360° power-off approaches are described further in this

chapter. Practice in these approaches provides the pilot

with a basis on which to develop judgment in gliding

distance and in planning an approach.

The basic procedure in these approaches involves closing the throttle at a given altitude, and gliding to a key

position. This position, like the pattern itself, must not

be allowed to become the primary objective; it is

merely a convenient point in the air from which the

pilot can judge whether the glide will safely terminate

at the desired spot. The selected key position should be

one that is appropriate for the available altitude and the

wind condition. From the key position, the pilot must

constantly evaluate the situation.

It must be emphasized that, although accurate spot

touchdowns are important, safe and properly executed

approaches and landings are vital. The pilot must never

sacrifice a good approach or landing just to land on the

desired spot.

90° POWER-OFF APPROACH

The 90° power-off approach is made from a base leg and

requires only a 90° turn onto the final approach. The

approach path may be varied by positioning the base leg

closer to or farther out from the approach end of the runway according to wind conditions. [Figure 8-25]

The glide from the key position on the base leg through

the 90° turn to the final approach is the final part of all

accuracy landing maneuvers.

The 90° power-off approach usually begins from a

rectangular pattern at approximately 1,000 feet above

the ground or at normal traffic pattern altitude. The

airplane should be flown onto a downwind leg at the

same distance from the landing surface as in a normal

traffic pattern. The before landing checklist should be

completed on the downwind leg, including extension

of the landing gear if the airplane is equipped with

retractable gear.

After a medium-banked turn onto the base leg is completed, the throttle should be retarded slightly and the

airspeed allowed to decrease to the normal base-leg

speed. [Figure 8-26] On the base leg, the airspeed,

wind drift correction, and altitude should be maintained

while proceeding to the 45° key position. At this

position, the intended landing spot will appear to be

on a 45° angle from the airplane’s nose.

The pilot can determine the strength and direction of

the wind from the amount of crab necessary to hold the

desired ground track on the base leg. This will help in

planning the turn onto the final approach and in lowering the correct amount of flaps.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-21
At the 45° key position, the throttle should be closed

completely, the propeller control (if equipped)

advanced to the full increase r.p.m. position, and altitude maintained until the airspeed decreases to the

manufacturer’s recommended glide speed. In the

absence of a recommended speed, use 1.4 VSO. When

this airspeed is attained, the nose should be lowered to

maintain the gliding speed and the controls retrimmed.

The base-to-final turn should be planned and accomplished so that upon rolling out of the turn the airplane

will be aligned with the runway centerline. When on

final approach, the wing flaps are lowered and the

pitch attitude adjusted, as necessary, to establish the

proper descent angle and airspeed (1.3 VSO), then the

controls retrimmed. Slight adjustments in pitch attitude

or flaps setting may be necessary to control the glide

Light Wind

Medium Wind

Strong Wind

Figure 8-25. Plan the base leg for wind conditions.

Figure 8-26. 90° power-off approach.

8-22

45°

Power Reduced

Base Leg Speed

Close Throttle

Established 1.4 V

Base Key

Position

Lower Partial Flaps

Maintain 1.4 V

Lower Full Flaps

(As Needed)

Establish 1.3 V

S0

S0

S0

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-22
8-23

angle and airspeed. However, NEVER TRY TO

STRETCH THE GLIDE OR RETRACT THE FLAPS

to reach the desired landing spot. The final approach

may be made with or without the use of slips.

After the final approach glide has been established, full

attention is then given to making a good, safe landing

rather than concentrating on the selected landing spot.

The base-leg position and the flap setting already

determined the probability of landing on the spot. In

any event, it is better to execute a good landing 200

feet from the spot than to make a poor landing precisely on the spot.

180° POWER-OFF APPROACH

The 180° power-off approach is executed by gliding

with the power off from a given point on a downwind

leg to a preselected landing spot. [Figure 8-27] It is an

extension of the principles involved in the 90° poweroff approach just described. Its objective is to further

develop judgment in estimating distances and glide

ratios, in that the airplane is flown without power from

a higher altitude and through a 90° turn to reach the

base-leg position at a proper altitude for executing the

90° approach.

The 180° power-off approach requires more planning

and judgment than the 90° power-off approach. In the

execution of 180° power-off approaches, the airplane

is flown on a downwind heading parallel to the landing

runway. The altitude from which this type of approach

should be started will vary with the type of airplane,

but it should usually not exceed 1,000 feet above the

ground, except with large airplanes. Greater accuracy

in judgment and maneuvering is required at higher

altitudes.

When abreast of or opposite the desired landing spot,

the throttle should be closed and altitude maintained

while decelerating to the manufacturer’s recommended

glide speed, or 1.4 VSO. The point at which the throttle

is closed is the downwind key position.

The turn from the downwind leg to the base leg should

be a uniform turn with a medium or slightly steeper

bank. The degree of bank and amount of this initial

turn will depend upon the glide angle of the airplane

and the velocity of the wind. Again, the base leg should

be positioned as needed for the altitude, or wind condition. Position the base leg to conserve or dissipate

altitude so as to reach the desired landing spot.

The turn onto the base leg should be made at an altitude high enough and close enough to permit the

airplane to glide to what would normally be the

base key position in a 90° power-off approach.

Although the key position is important, it must not be

overemphasized nor considered as a fixed point on

the ground. Many inexperienced pilots may gain a

conception of it as a particular landmark, such as a

tree, crossroad, or other visual reference, to be

reached at a certain altitude. This will result in a

mechanical conception and leave the pilot at a total

Figure 8-27. 180° power-off approach.

Medium or

Steeper Bank

Lower Partial Flaps

Maintain 1.4 Vs0

Lower Full Flaps

(as Needed)

Establish 1.3 Vs0

Key Position

Close Throttle

Normal Glide Speed

90°

Downwind Leg

Key Position

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-23
8-24

loss any time such objects are not present. Both altitude and geographical location should be varied as

much as is practical to eliminate any such conception.

After reaching the base key position, the approach and

landing are the same as in the 90° power-off approach.

360° POWER-OFF APPROACH

The 360° power-off approach is one in which the airplane glides through a 360° change of direction to

the preselected landing spot. The entire pattern is

designed to be circular, but the turn may be shallowed,

steepened, or discontinued at any point to adjust the

accuracy of the flightpath.

The 360° approach is started from a position over the

approach end of the landing runway or slightly to the

side of it, with the airplane headed in the proposed

landing direction and the landing gear and flaps

retracted. [Figure 8-28]

It is usually initiated from approximately 2,000 feet or

more above the ground—where the wind may vary significantly from that at lower altitudes. This must be

taken into account when maneuvering the airplane to a

point from which a 90° or 180° power-off approach

can be completed.

After the throttle is closed over the intended point of

landing, the proper glide speed should immediately be

established, and a medium-banked turn made in the

desired direction so as to arrive at the downwind key

position opposite the intended landing spot. At or just

beyond the downwind key position, the landing gear

may be extended if the airplane is equipped with

retractable gear. The altitude at the downwind key

position should be approximately 1,000 to 1,200 feet

above the ground.

After reaching that point, the turn should be continued

to arrive at a base-leg key position, at an altitude of

about 800 feet above the terrain. Flaps may be used at

this position, as necessary, but full flaps should not be

used until established on the final approach.

The angle of bank can be varied as needed throughout

the pattern to correct for wind conditions and to align

the airplane with the final approach. The turn-to-final

should be completed at a minimum altitude of 300 feet

above the terrain.

Common errors in the performance of power-off accuracy approaches are:

• Downwind leg too far from the runway/landing

area.

• Overextension of downwind leg resulting from

tailwind.

• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on base

leg.

• Skidding turns in an effort to increase gliding

distance.

Figure 8-28. 360° power-off approach.

Normal Glide Speed

Normal Glide

Speed

Lower Partial Flaps

Maintain 1.4 Vs0

Lower Flaps

as Needed

Establish 1.3 Vs0

Key Position

Key Position

Close Throttle, 

Retract Flaps

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-24
• Failure to lower landing gear in retractable gear

airplanes.

• Attempting to “stretch” the glide during undershoot.

• Premature flap extension/landing gear extension.

• Use of throttle to increase the glide instead of

merely clearing the engine.

• Forcing the airplane onto the runway in order to

avoid overshooting the designated landing spot.

EMERGENCY APPROACHES AND

LANDINGS (SIMULATED)

From time to time on dual flights, the instructor should

give simulated emergency landings by retarding the

throttle and calling “simulated emergency landing.”

The objective of these simulated emergency landings

is to develop the pilot’s accuracy, judgment, planning,

procedures, and confidence when little or no power is

available.

A simulated emergency landing may be given with the

airplane in any configuration. When the instructor calls

“simulated emergency landing,” the pilot should

immediately establish a glide attitude and ensure that

the flaps and landing gear are in the proper configuration for the existing situation. When the proper glide

speed is attained, the nose should then be lowered and

the airplane trimmed to maintain that speed.

A constant gliding speed should be maintained because

variations of gliding speed nullify all attempts at accuracy in judgment of gliding distance and the landing

spot. The many variables, such as altitude, obstruction,

wind direction, landing direction, landing surface and

gradient, and landing distance requirements of the

airplane will determine the pattern and approach procedures to use.

Utilizing any combination of normal gliding maneuvers,

from wings level to spirals, the pilot should eventually

arrive at the normal key position at a normal traffic pattern altitude for the selected landing area. From this

point on, the approach will be as nearly as possible a

normal power-off approach. [Figure 8-29]

With the greater choice of fields afforded by higher

altitudes, the inexperienced pilot may be inclined to

delay making a decision, and with considerable altitude in which to maneuver, errors in maneuvering and

estimation of glide distance may develop.

All pilots should learn to determine the wind direction

and estimate its speed from the windsock at the airport,

smoke from factories or houses, dust, brush fires, and

windmills.

Once a field has been selected, the student pilot should

always be required to indicate it to the instructor.

Normally, the student should be required to plan and

fly a pattern for landing on the field first elected until

the instructor terminates the simulated emergency

Figure 8-29. Remain over intended landing area.

Retract Flaps

Base Key Point

Lower Flaps

Spiral Over

Landing Field

8-25

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-25
landing. This will give the instructor an opportunity to

explain and correct any errors; it will also give the student an opportunity to see the results of the errors.

However, if the student realizes during the approach

that a poor field has been selected—one that would

obviously result in disaster if a landing were to be

made—and there is a more advantageous field within

gliding distance, a change to the better field should be

permitted. The hazards involved in these last-minute

decisions, such as excessive maneuvering at very low

altitudes, should be thoroughly explained by the

instructor.

Slipping the airplane, using flaps, varying the position

of the base leg, and varying the turn onto final

approach should be stressed as ways of correcting for

misjudgment of altitude and glide angle.

Eagerness to get down is one of the most common

faults of inexperienced pilots during simulated emergency landings. In giving way to this, they forget about

speed and arrive at the edge of the field with too much

speed to permit a safe landing. Too much speed may be

just as dangerous as too little; it results in excessive

floating and overshooting the desired landing spot. It

should be impressed on the students that they cannot

dive at a field and expect to land on it.

During all simulated emergency landings, the engine

should be kept warm and cleared. During a simulated

emergency landing, either the instructor or the student

should have complete control of the throttle. There

should be no doubt as to who has control since many

near accidents have occurred from such misunderstandings.

Every simulated emergency landing approach should

be terminated as soon as it can be determined whether

a safe landing could have been made. In no case

should it be continued to a point where it creates an

undue hazard or an annoyance to persons or property

on the ground.

In addition to flying the airplane from the point of

simulated engine failure to where a reasonable safe

landing could be made, the student should also be

taught certain emergency cockpit procedures. The

habit of performing these cockpit procedures should

be developed to such an extent that, when an engine

failure actually occurs, the student will check the critical items that would be necessary to get the engine

operating again while selecting a field and planning

an approach. Combining the two operations—

accomplishing emergency procedures and planning

Figure 8-30. Sample emergency checklist.

8-26

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-26
and flying the approach—will be difficult for the student during the early training in emergency landings.

There are definite steps and procedures to be followed

in a simulated emergency landing. Although they may

differ somewhat from the procedures used in an actual

emergency, they should be learned thoroughly by the

student, and each step called out to the instructor. The

use of a checklist is strongly recommended. Most

airplane manufacturers provide a checklist of the

appropriate items. [Figure 8-30]

Critical items to be checked should include the position of the fuel tank selector, the quantity of fuel in the

tank selected, the fuel pressure gauge to see if the electric fuel pump is needed, the position of the mixture

control, the position of the magneto switch, and the use

of carburetor heat. Many actual emergency landings

have been made and later found to be the result of the

fuel selector valve being positioned to an empty tank

while the other tank had plenty of fuel. It may be wise

to change the position of the fuel selector valve even

though the fuel gauge indicates fuel in all tanks

because fuel gauges can be inaccurate. Many actual

emergency landings could have been prevented if

the pilots had developed the habit of checking these

critical items during flight training to the extent that

it carried over into later flying.

Instruction in emergency procedures should not be limited to simulated emergency landings caused by power

failures. Other emergencies associated with the operation

of the airplane should be explained, demonstrated, and

practiced if practicable. Among these emergencies are

such occurrences as fire in flight, electrical or hydraulic

system malfunctions, unexpected severe weather

conditions, engine overheating, imminent fuel

exhaustion, and the emergency operation of airplane

systems and equipment.

FAULTY APPROACHES 

AND LANDINGS

LOW FINAL APPROACH

When the base leg is too low, insufficient power is used,

landing flaps are extended prematurely, or the velocity of

the wind is misjudged, sufficient altitude may be lost,

which will cause the airplane to be well below the proper

final approach path. In such a situation, the pilot would

have to apply considerable power to fly the airplane (at

an excessively low altitude) up to the runway threshold.

When it is realized the runway will not be reached

unless appropriate action is taken, power must be

applied immediately to maintain the airspeed while the

pitch attitude is raised to increase lift and stop the

descent. When the proper approach path has been

intercepted, the correct approach attitude should be

reestablished and the power reduced and a stabilized

approach maintained. [Figure 8-31] DO NOT increase

the pitch attitude without increasing the power, since

the airplane will decelerate rapidly and may approach

the critical angle of attack and stall. DO NOT retract

the flaps; this will suddenly decrease lift and cause the

airplane to sink more rapidly. If there is any doubt

about the approach being safely completed, it is advisable to EXECUTE AN IMMEDIATE GO-AROUND.

HIGH FINAL APPROACH

When the final approach is too high, lower the flaps as

required. Further reduction in power may be necessary,

while lowering the nose simultaneously to maintain

approach airspeed and steepen the approach path.

[Figure 8-32] When the proper approach path has been

intercepted, adjust the power as required to maintain a

Figure 8-31. Right and wrong methods of correction for low final approach.

8-27

Normal Approach Path

Add Power 

Nose Up

Hold Altitude

Wrong (Dragging it in with 

High Power / High Pitch Altitude)

Intercept Normal Glidepath

Resume Normal Approach

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-27
stabilized approach. When steepening the approach

path, however, care must be taken that the descent does

not result in an excessively high sink rate. If a high sink

rate is continued close to the surface, it may be difficult

to slow to a proper rate prior to ground contact. Any

sink rate in excess of 800 - 1,000 feet per minute is considered excessive. A go-around should be initiated if

the sink rate becomes excessive.

SLOW FINAL APPROACH

When the airplane is flown at a slower-than-normal

airspeed on the final approach, the pilot’s judgment of

the rate of sink (descent) and the height of roundout

will be difficult. During an excessively slow approach,

the wing is operating near the critical angle of attack

and, depending on the pitch attitude changes and control usage, the airplane may stall or sink rapidly, contacting the ground with a hard impact.

Whenever a slow-speed approach is noted, the pilot

should apply power to accelerate the airplane and

increase the lift to reduce the sink rate and to prevent

a stall. This should be done while still at a high

enough altitude to reestablish the correct approach

airspeed and attitude. If too slow and too low, it is

best to EXECUTE A GO-AROUND.

USE OF POWER

Power can be used effectively during the approach and

roundout to compensate for errors in judgment. Power

can be added to accelerate the airplane to increase lift

without increasing the angle of attack; thus, the descent

can be slowed to an acceptable rate. If the proper

landing attitude has been attained and the airplane is

only slightly high, the landing attitude should be

held constant and sufficient power applied to help

ease the airplane onto the ground. After the airplane

has touched down, it will be necessary to close the

throttle so the additional thrust and lift will be

removed and the airplane will stay on the ground.

HIGH ROUNDOUT

Sometimes when the airplane appears to temporarily

stop moving downward, the roundout has been made

too rapidly and the airplane is flying level, too high

above the runway. Continuing the roundout would

further reduce the airspeed, resulting in an increase

in angle of attack to the critical angle. This would

result in the airplane stalling and dropping hard onto

the runway. To prevent this, the pitch attitude should

be held constant until the airplane decelerates enough

to again start descending. Then the roundout can be

continued to establish the proper landing attitude.

This procedure should only be used when there is

adequate airspeed. It may be necessary to add a slight

amount of power to keep the airspeed from decreasing

excessively and to avoid losing lift too rapidly.

Although back-elevator pressure may be relaxed

slightly, the nose should not be lowered any perceptible amount to make the airplane descend when fairly

close to the runway unless some power is added

momentarily. The momentary decrease in lift that

would result from lowering the nose and decreasing

the angle of attack may be so great that the airplane

might contact the ground with the nosewheel first,

which could collapse.

When the proper landing attitude is attained, the airplane is approaching a stall because the airspeed is

decreasing and the critical angle of attack is being

approached, even though the pitch attitude is no longer

being increased. [Figure 8-33]

It is recommended that a GO-AROUND be executed

any time it appears the nose must be lowered significantly or that the landing is in any other way uncertain.

Figure 8-32. Change in glidepath and increase in descent rate for high final approach.

No Flaps

Full Flaps

Steeper Descent Angle 

Increased Rate of Descent

8-28

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-28
8-29

LATE OR RAPID ROUNDOUT

Starting the roundout too late or pulling the elevator

control back too rapidly to prevent the airplane from

touching down prematurely can impose a heavy load

factor on the wing and cause an accelerated stall.

Suddenly increasing the angle of attack and stalling the

airplane during a roundout is a dangerous situation

since it may cause the airplane to land extremely hard

on the main landing gear, and then bounce back into

the air. As the airplane contacts the ground, the tail will

be forced down very rapidly by the back-elevator pressure and by inertia acting downward on the tail.

Recovery from this situation requires prompt and

positive application of power prior to occurrence of

the stall. This may be followed by a normal landing if

sufficient runway is available—otherwise the pilot

should EXECUTE A GO-AROUND immediately.

If the roundout is late, the nosewheel may strike the

runway first, causing the nose to bounce upward. No

attempt should be made to force the airplane back onto

the ground; a GO-AROUND should be executed

immediately.

FLOATING DURING ROUNDOUT

If the airspeed on final approach is excessive, it will

usually result in the airplane floating. [Figure 8-34]

Before touchdown can be made, the airplane may be

well past the desired landing point and the available

runway may be insufficient. When diving an airplane

on final approach to land at the proper point, there will

be an appreciable increase in airspeed. The proper

touchdown attitude cannot be established without producing an excessive angle of attack and lift. This will

cause the airplane to gain altitude or balloon.

Any time the airplane floats, judgment of speed,

height, and rate of sink must be especially acute. The

pilot must smoothly and gradually adjust the pitch attitude as the airplane decelerates to touchdown speed

and starts to settle, so the proper landing attitude is

attained at the moment of touchdown. The slightest

Figure 8-33. Rounding out too high.

Figure 8-34. Floating during roundout.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-29
error in judgment and timing will result in either ballooning or bouncing.

The recovery from floating will depend on the amount

of floating and the effect of any crosswind, as well as

the amount of runway remaining. Since prolonged

floating utilizes considerable runway length, it should

be avoided especially on short runways or in strong

crosswinds. If a landing cannot be made on the first

third of the runway, or the airplane drifts sideways, the

pilot should EXECUTE A GO-AROUND.

BALLOONING DURING ROUNDOUT

If the pilot misjudges the rate of sink during a landing

and thinks the airplane is descending faster than it

should, there is a tendency to increase the pitch attitude and angle of attack too rapidly. This not only

stops the descent, but actually starts the airplane

climbing. This climbing during the roundout is

known as ballooning. [Figure 8-35] Ballooning can

be dangerous because the height above the ground is

increasing and the airplane may be rapidly

approaching a stalled condition. The altitude gained

in each instance will depend on the airspeed or the

speed with which the pitch attitude is increased.

When ballooning is slight, a constant landing attitude

should be held and the airplane allowed to gradually

decelerate and settle onto the runway. Depending on

the severity of ballooning, the use of throttle may be

helpful in cushioning the landing. By adding power,

thrust can be increased to keep the airspeed from

decelerating too rapidly and the wings from suddenly

losing lift, but throttle must be closed immediately

after touchdown. Remember that torque will be created as power is applied; therefore, it will be necessary

to use rudder pressure to keep the airplane straight as it

settles onto the runway.

When ballooning is excessive, it is best to EXECUTE

A GO-AROUND IMMEDIATELY; DO NOT

ATTEMPT TO SALVAGE THE LANDING. Power

must be applied before the airplane enters a stalled

condition.

The pilot must be extremely cautious of ballooning

when there is a crosswind present because the crosswind correction may be inadvertently released or it

may become inadequate. Because of the lower airspeed

after ballooning, the crosswind affects the airplane

more. Consequently, the wing will have to be lowered

even further to compensate for the increased drift. It

is imperative that the pilot makes certain that the

appropriate wing is down and that directional control

is maintained with opposite rudder. If there is any

doubt, or the airplane starts to drift, EXECUTE A

GO-AROUND.

BOUNCING DURING TOUCHDOWN

When the airplane contacts the ground with a sharp

impact as the result of an improper attitude or an

excessive rate of sink, it tends to bounce back into the

air. Though the airplane’s tires and shock struts

provide some springing action, the airplane does not

bounce like a rubber ball. Instead, it rebounds into

the air because the wing’s angle of attack was

abruptly increased, producing a sudden addition of

lift. [Figure 8-36]

The abrupt change in angle of attack is the result of

inertia instantly forcing the airplane’s tail downward

when the main wheels contact the ground sharply. The

severity of the bounce depends on the airspeed at the

moment of contact and the degree to which the angle

of attack or pitch attitude was increased.

Since a bounce occurs when the airplane makes contact with the ground before the proper touchdown

Figure 8-35. Ballooning during roundout.

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Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-30
8-31

attitude is attained, it is almost invariably accompanied by the application of excessive back-elevator

pressure. This is usually the result of the pilot realizing

too late that the airplane is not in the proper attitude

and attempting to establish it just as the second touchdown occurs.

The corrective action for a bounce is the same as for

ballooning and similarly depends on its severity. When

it is very slight and there is no extreme change in the

airplane’s pitch attitude, a follow-up landing may be

executed by applying sufficient power to cushion the

subsequent touchdown, and smoothly adjusting the

pitch to the proper touchdown attitude.

In the event a very slight bounce is encountered while

landing with a crosswind, crosswind correction must

be maintained while the next touchdown is made.

Remember that since the subsequent touchdown will

be made at a slower airspeed, the upwind wing will

have to be lowered even further to compensate for

drift.

Extreme caution and alertness must be exercised any

time a bounce occurs, but particularly when there is a

crosswind. Inexperienced pilots will almost invariably

release the crosswind correction. When one main

wheel of the airplane strikes the runway, the other

wheel will touch down immediately afterwards, and

the wings will become level. Then, with no crosswind

correction as the airplane bounces, the wind will cause

the airplane to roll with the wind, thus exposing even

more surface to the crosswind and drifting the airplane

more rapidly.

When a bounce is severe, the safest procedure is to

EXECUTE A GO-AROUND IMMEDIATELY. No

attempt to salvage the landing should be made. Full

power should be applied while simultaneously maintaining directional control, and lowering the nose to a

safe climb attitude. The go-around procedure should

be continued even though the airplane may descend

and another bounce may be encountered. It would be

extremely foolish to attempt a landing from a bad

bounce since airspeed diminishes very rapidly in the

nose-high attitude, and a stall may occur before a

subsequent touchdown could be made.

PORPOISING

In a bounced landing that is improperly recovered,

the airplane comes in nose first setting off a series of

motions that imitate the jumps and dives of a porpoise—

hence the name. [Figure 8-37] The problem is improper

airplane attitude at touchdown, sometimes caused by

inattention, not knowing where the ground is, mistrimming or forcing the airplane onto the runway.

Ground effect decreases elevator control effectiveness

and increases the effort required to raise the nose. Not

enough elevator or stabilator trim can result in a noselow contact with the runway and a porpoise develops.

Porpoising can also be caused by improper airspeed

control. Usually, if an approach is too fast, the airplane

floats and the pilot tries to force it on the runway when

the airplane still wants to fly. A gust of wind, a bump in

the runway, or even a slight tug on the control wheel

will send the airplane aloft again.

The corrective action for a porpoise is the same as for

a bounce and similarly depends on its severity. When

it is very slight and there is no extreme change in the

airplane’s pitch attitude, a follow-up landing may be

executed by applying sufficient power to cushion the

subsequent touchdown, and smoothly adjusting the

pitch to the proper touchdown attitude.

Small Angle

of Attack

Decreasing Angle

of Attack

Rapid Increase in

Angle of Attack

Normal Angle

of Attack

Figure 8-36. Bouncing during touchdown.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-31
When a porpoise is severe, the safest procedure is to

EXECUTE A GO-AROUND IMMEDIATELY. In a

severe porpoise, the airplane’s pitch oscillations can

become progressively worse, until the airplane strikes

the runway nose first with sufficient force to collapse

the nose gear. Pilot attempts to correct a severe porpoise with flight control and power inputs will most

likely be untimely and out of sequence with the oscillations, and only make the situation worse. No attempt

to salvage the landing should be made. Full power

should be applied while simultaneously maintaining

directional control, and lowering the nose to a safe

climb attitude.

WHEELBARROWING

When a pilot permits the airplane weight to become

concentrated about the nosewheel during the takeoff or

landing roll, a condition known as wheelbarrowing will

occur. Wheelbarrowing may cause loss of directional

control during the landing roll because braking action is

ineffective, and the airplane tends to swerve or pivot on

the nosewheel, particularly in crosswind conditions.

One of the most common causes of wheelbarrowing

during the landing roll is a simultaneous touchdown

of the main and nosewheel, with excessive speed,

followed by application of forward pressure on the

elevator control. Usually, the situation can be corrected by smoothly applying back-elevator pressure.

However, if wheelbarrowing is encountered and

runway and other conditions permit, it may be advisable

to promptly initiate a go-around. Wheelbarrowing will

not occur if the pilot achieves and maintains the correct

landing attitude, touches down at the proper speed, and

gently lowers the nosewheel while losing speed on

rollout. If the pilot decides to stay on the ground rather

than attempt a go-around or if directional control is

lost, the throttle should be closed and the pitch attitude smoothly but firmly rotated to the proper landing

attitude. Raise the flaps to reduce lift and to increase

the load on the main wheels for better braking action.

HARD LANDING

When the airplane contacts the ground during landings,

its vertical speed is instantly reduced to zero. Unless

provisions are made to slow this vertical speed and

cushion the impact of touchdown, the force of contact

with the ground may be so great it could cause

structural damage to the airplane.

The purpose of pneumatic tires, shock absorbing landing

gears, and other devices is to cushion the impact and to

increase the time in which the airplane’s vertical descent

is stopped. The importance of this cushion may be

understood from the computation that a 6-inch free fall

on landing is roughly equal, to a 340-foot-per-minute

descent. Within a fraction of a second, the airplane must

be slowed from this rate of vertical descent to zero,

without damage.

During this time, the landing gear together with some

aid from the lift of the wings must supply whatever

force is needed to counteract the force of the airplane’s

inertia and weight. The lift decreases rapidly as the

airplane’s forward speed is decreased, and the force

on the landing gear increases by the impact of

touchdown. When the descent stops, the lift will be

practically zero, leaving the landing gear alone to

carry both the airplane’s weight and inertia force.

The load imposed at the instant of touchdown may

easily be three or four times the actual weight of the

airplane depending on the severity of contact.

TOUCHDOWN IN A DRIFT OR CRAB

At times the pilot may correct for wind drift by crabbing

on the final approach. If the roundout and touchdown are

made while the airplane is drifting or in a crab, it will

contact the ground while moving sideways. This will

impose extreme side loads on the landing gear, and if

severe enough, may cause structural failure.

The most effective method to prevent drift in primary

training airplanes is the wing-low method. This technique keeps the longitudinal axis of the airplane

aligned with both the runway and the direction of

motion throughout the approach and touchdown.

There are three factors that will cause the longitudinal

axis and the direction of motion to be misaligned

during touchdown: drifting, crabbing, or a combination of both.

Decreasing Angle

of Attack

Decreasing Angle

of Attack

Rapid Increase in

Angle of Attack

Rapid Increase in

Angle of Attack

Normal Angle

of Attack

Normal Angle

of Attack

Figure 8-37. Porpoising.

8-32

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-32
8-33

If the pilot has not taken adequate corrective action to

avoid drift during a crosswind landing, the main

wheels’ tire tread offers resistance to the airplane’s

sideward movement in respect to the ground.

Consequently, any sidewise velocity of the airplane is

abruptly decelerated, with the result that the inertia

force is as shown in figure 8-38. This creates a moment

around the main wheel when it contacts the ground,

tending to overturn or tip the airplane. If the windward

wingtip is raised by the action of this moment, all the

weight and shock of landing will be borne by one main

wheel. This could cause structural damage.

Figure 8-38. Drifting during touchdown.

Not only are the same factors present that are attempting to raise a wing, but the crosswind is also acting on

the fuselage surface behind the main wheels, tending

to yaw (weathervane) the airplane into the wind. This

often results in a ground loop.

GROUND LOOP

A ground loop is an uncontrolled turn during ground

operation that may occur while taxiing or taking off,

but especially during the after-landing roll. Drift or

weathervaning does not always cause a ground loop,

although these things may cause the initial swerve.

Careless use of the rudder, an uneven ground surface,

or a soft spot that retards one main wheel of the airplane may also cause a swerve. In any case, the initial

swerve tends to make the airplane ground loop,

whether it is a tailwheel-type or nosewheel-type.

[Figure 8-39]

Nosewheel-type airplanes are somewhat less prone to

ground loop than tailwheel-type airplanes. Since the

center of gravity (CG) is located forward of the main

landing gear on these airplanes, any time a swerve

develops, centrifugal force acting on the CG will tend

to stop the swerving action.

If the airplane touches down while drifting or in a crab,

the pilot should apply aileron toward the high wing and

stop the swerve with the rudder. Brakes should be used

to correct for turns or swerves only when the rudder is

inadequate. The pilot must exercise caution when

applying corrective brake action because it is very easy

to overcontrol and aggravate the situation.

If brakes are used, sufficient brake should be applied

on the low-wing wheel (outside of the turn) to stop the

swerve. When the wings are approximately level, the

new direction must be maintained until the airplane has

slowed to taxi speed or has stopped.

In nosewheel airplanes, a ground loop is almost always

a result of wheelbarrowing. The pilot must be aware that

even though the nosewheel-type airplane is less prone

than the tailwheel-type airplane, virtually every type of

airplane, including large multiengine airplanes, can be

made to ground loop when sufficiently mishandled.

WING RISING AFTER TOUCHDOWN

When landing in a crosswind, there may be instances

when a wing will rise during the after-landing roll. This

may occur whether or not there is a loss of directional

Wind Force

Center of

Gravity

Force Resisting

Side Motion

Inertia Force

Weight

Airplane Tips

and Swerves

CG Continues Moving in

Same Direction of Drift

Touchdown

Roundout

Roundout

Figure 8-39. Start of a ground loop.

Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-33
8-34

control, depending on the amount of crosswind and the

degree of corrective action.

Any time an airplane is rolling on the ground in a

crosswind condition, the upwind wing is receiving a

greater force from the wind than the downwind wing.

This causes a lift differential. Also, as the upwind wing

rises, there is an increase in the angle of attack, which

increases lift on the upwind wing, rolling the airplane

downwind.

When the effects of these two factors are great enough,

the upwind wing may rise even though directional

control is maintained. If no correction is applied, it is

possible that the upwind wing will rise sufficiently to

cause the downwind wing to strike the ground.

In the event a wing starts to rise during the landing roll,

the pilot should immediately apply more aileron pressure toward the high wing and continue to maintain

direction. The sooner the aileron control is applied,

the more effective it will be. The further a wing is

allowed to rise before taking corrective action, the

more airplane surface is exposed to the force of the

crosswind. This diminishes the effectiveness of the

aileron.

HYDROPLANING

Hydroplaning is a condition that can exist when an

airplane is landed on a runway surface contaminated

with standing water, slush, and/or wet snow.

Hydroplaning can have serious adverse effects on

ground controllability and braking efficiency. The

three basic types of hydroplaning are dynamic

hydroplaning, reverted rubber hydroplaning, and viscous hydroplaning. Any one of the three can render

an airplane partially or totally uncontrollable anytime

during the landing roll.

DYNAMIC HYDROPLANING

Dynamic hydroplaning is a relatively high-speed

phenomenon that occurs when there is a film of water

on the runway that is at least one-tenth inch deep. As the

speed of the airplane and the depth of the water increase,

the water layer builds up an increasing resistance to

displacement, resulting in the formation of a wedge of

water beneath the tire. At some speed, termed the

hydroplaning speed (VP), the water pressure equals the

weight of the airplane and the tire is lifted off the runway

surface. In this condition, the tires no longer contribute to

directional control and braking action is nil.

Dynamic hydroplaning is related to tire inflation

pressure. Data obtained during hydroplaning tests have

shown the minimum dynamic hydroplaning speed (VP)

of a tire to be 8.6 times the square root of the tire

pressure in pounds per square inch (PSI). For an

airplane with a main tire pressure of 24 pounds,

the calculated hydroplaning speed would be

approximately 42 knots. It is important to note that the

calculated speed referred to above is for the start of

dynamic hydroplaning. Once hydroplaning has

started, it may persist to a significantly slower speed

depending on the type being experienced. 

REVERTED RUBBER HYDROPLANING

Reverted rubber (steam) hydroplaning occurs during

heavy braking that results in a prolonged locked-wheel

skid. Only a thin film of water on the runway is

required to facilitate this type of hydroplaning. 

The tire skidding generates enough heat to cause the

rubber in contact with the runway to revert to its

original uncured state. The reverted rubber acts as a

seal between the tire and the runway, and delays

water exit from the tire footprint area. The water

heats and is converted to steam which supports the

tire off the runway.

Reverted rubber hydroplaning frequently follows an

encounter with dynamic hydroplaning, during which

time the pilot may have the brakes locked in an attempt

to slow the airplane. Eventually the airplane slows

enough to where the tires make contact with the

runway surface and the airplane begins to skid. The

remedy for this type of hydroplane is for the pilot to

release the brakes and allow the wheels to spin up

and apply moderate braking. Reverted rubber

hydroplaning is insidious in that the pilot may not

know when it begins, and it can persist to very slow

groundspeeds (20 knots or less).

VISCOUS HYDROPLANING

Viscous hydroplaning is due to the viscous properties

of water. A thin film of fluid no more than one

thousandth of an inch in depth is all that is needed. The

tire cannot penetrate the fluid and the tire rolls on top

of the film. This can occur at a much lower speed than

dynamic hydroplane, but requires a smooth or smooth

acting surface such as asphalt or a touchdown area

coated with the accumulated rubber of past landings.

Such a surface can have the same friction coefficient

as wet ice.

When confronted with the possibility of hydroplaning,

it is best to land on a grooved runway (if available).

Touchdown speed should be as slow as possible

consistent with safety. After the nosewheel is

lowered to the runway, moderate braking should be

applied. If deceleration is not detected and

hydroplaning is suspected, the nose should be raised

and aerodynamic drag utilized to decelerate to a

point where the brakes do become effective.

Proper braking technique is essential. The brakes

should be applied firmly until reaching a point just

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8-35

short of a skid. At the first sign of a skid, the pilot

should release brake pressure and allow the wheels to

spin up. Directional control should be maintained as

far as possible with the rudder. Remember that in a

crosswind, if hydroplaning should occur, the

crosswind will cause the airplane to simultaneously

weathervane into the wind as well as slide downwind.

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Ch 08.qxd 5/7/04 8:08 AM Page 8-36
9-1

PERFORMANCE MANEUVERS

Performance maneuvers are used to develop a high

degree of pilot skill. They aid the pilot in analyzing the

forces acting on the airplane and in developing a fine

control touch, coordination, timing, and division of

attention for precise maneuvering of the airplane.

Performance maneuvers are termed “advanced”

maneuvers because the degree of skill required for

proper execution is normally not acquired until a pilot

has obtained a sense of orientation and control feel in

“normal” maneuvers. An important benefit of

performance maneuvers is the sharpening of

fundamental skills to the degree that the pilot can cope

with unusual or unforeseen circumstances occasionally

encountered in normal flight.

Advanced maneuvers are variations and/or

combinations of the basic maneuvers previously

learned. They embody the same principles and

techniques as the basic maneuvers, but require a higher

degree of skill for proper execution. The student,

therefore, who demonstrates a lack of progress in the

performance of advanced maneuvers, is more than

likely deficient in one or more of the basic maneuvers.

The flight instructor should consider breaking the

advanced maneuver down into its component basic

maneuvers in an attempt to identify and correct

the deficiency before continuing with the

advanced maneuver.

STEEP TURNS

The objective of the maneuver is to develop the

smoothness, coordination, orientation, division of

attention, and control techniques necessary for the

execution of maximum performance turns when the

airplane is near its performance limits. Smoothness of

control use, coordination, and accuracy of execution

are the important features of this maneuver.

The steep turn maneuver consists of a turn in either

direction, using a bank angle between 45 to 60°. This

will cause an overbanking tendency during which

maximum turning performance is attained and

relatively high load factors are imposed. Because of the

high load factors imposed, these turns should be

performed at an airspeed that does not exceed the

airplane’s design maneuvering speed (VA). The

principles of an ordinary steep turn apply, but as a

practice maneuver the steep turns should be continued

until 360° or 720° of turn have been completed.

[Figure 9-1]

Figure 9-1. Steep turns.

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9-2

An airplane’s maximum turning performance is its

fastest rate of turn and its shortest radius of turn, which

change with both airspeed and angle of bank. Each

airplane’s turning performance is limited by the

amount of power its engine is developing, its

limit load factor (structural strength), and its

aerodynamic characteristics.

The limiting load factor determines the maximum

bank, which can be maintained without stalling or

exceeding the airplane’s structural limitations. In most

small planes, the maximum bank has been found to be

approximately 50° to 60°.

The pilot should realize the tremendous additional load

that is imposed on an airplane as the bank is increased

beyond 45°. During a coordinated turn with a 70°

bank, a load factor of approximately 3 Gs is placed on

the airplane’s structure. Most general aviation type

airplanes are stressed for approximately 3.8 Gs.

Regardless of the airspeed or the type of airplanes

involved, a given angle of bank in a turn, during which

altitude is maintained, will always produce the same

load factor. Pilots must be aware that an additional load

factor increases the stalling speed at a significant

rate—stalling speed increases with the square root of

the load factor. For example, a light plane that stalls at

60 knots in level flight will stall at nearly 85 knots in a

60° bank. The pilot’s understanding and observance of

this fact is an indispensable safety precaution for the

performance of all maneuvers requiring turns.

Before starting the steep turn, the pilot should ensure

that the area is clear of other air traffic since the rate of

turn will be quite rapid. After establishing the

manufacturer’s recommended entry speed or the

design maneuvering speed, the airplane should be

smoothly rolled into a selected bank angle between 45

to 60°. As the turn is being established, back-elevator

pressure should be smoothly increased to increase the

angle of attack. This provides the additional wing lift

required to compensate for the increasing load factor.

After the selected bank angle has been reached, the

pilot will find that considerable force is required on the

elevator control to hold the airplane in level flight—to

maintain altitude. Because of this increase in the force

applied to the elevators, the load factor increases

rapidly as the bank is increased. Additional

back-elevator pressure increases the angle of attack,

which results in an increase in drag. Consequently,

power must be added to maintain the entry altitude

and airspeed.

Eventually, as the bank approaches the airplane’s

maximum angle, the maximum performance or

structural limit is being reached. If this limit is

exceeded, the airplane will be subjected to excessive

structural loads, and will lose altitude, or stall. The

limit load factor must not be exceeded, to prevent

structural damage.

During the turn, the pilot should not stare at any one

object. To maintain altitude, as well as orientation,

requires an awareness of the relative position of the

nose, the horizon, the wings, and the amount of bank.

The pilot who references the aircraft’s turn by

watching only the nose will have difficulty holding

altitude constant; on the other hand, the pilot who

watches the nose, the horizon, and the wings can

usually hold altitude within a few feet. If the altitude

begins to increase, or decrease, relaxing or increasing

the back-elevator pressure will be required as

appropriate. This may also require a power adjustment

to maintain the selected airspeed. A small increase or

decrease of 1 to 3° of bank angle may be used to

control small altitude deviations. All bank angle

changes should be done with coordinated use of

aileron and rudder.

The rollout from the turn should be timed so that the

wings reach level flight when the airplane is exactly

on the heading from which the maneuver was started.

While the recovery is being made, back-elevator

pressure is gradually released and power reduced, as

necessary, to maintain the altitude and airspeed.

Common errors in the performance of steep turns are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Excessive pitch change during entry or recovery.

• Attempts to start recovery prematurely.

• Failure to stop the turn on a precise heading.

• Excessive rudder during recovery, resulting in

skidding.

• Inadequate power management.

• Inadequate airspeed control.

• Poor coordination.

• Gaining altitude in right turns and/or losing

altitude in left turns.

• Failure to maintain constant bank angle.

• Disorientation.

• Attempting to perform the maneuver

by instrument reference rather than visual

reference.

• Failure to scan for other traffic during the

maneuver.

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9-3

STEEP SPIRAL

The objective of this maneuver is to improve pilot

techniques for airspeed control, wind drift control,

planning, orientation, and division of attention. The

steep spiral is not only a valuable flight training

maneuver, but it has practical application in providing

a procedure for dissipating altitude while remaining

over a selected spot in preparation for landing,

especially for emergency forced landings.

A steep spiral is a constant gliding turn, during which a

constant radius around a point on the ground is

maintained similar to the maneuver, turns around a

point. The radius should be such that the steepest bank

will not exceed 60°. Sufficient altitude must be

obtained before starting this maneuver so that the

spiral may be continued through a series of at least

three 360° turns. [Figure 9-2] The maneuver should

not be continued below 1,000 feet above the surface

unless performing an emergency landing in

conjunction with the spiral.

Operating the engine at idle speed for a prolonged

period during the glide may result in excessive engine

cooling or spark plug fouling. The engine should be

cleared periodically by briefly advancing the throttle

to normal cruise power, while adjusting the pitch

attitude to maintain a constant airspeed. Preferably,

this should be done while headed into the wind to

minimize any variation in groundspeed and radius

of turn.

After the throttle is closed and gliding speed is

established, a gliding spiral should be started and a turn

of constant radius maintained around the selected spot

on the ground. This will require correction for wind

drift by steepening the bank on downwind headings

and shallowing the bank on upwind headings, just as in

the maneuver, turns around a point. During the

descending spiral, the pilot must judge the direction

and speed of the wind at different altitudes and make

appropriate changes in the angle of bank to maintain a

uniform radius.

A constant airspeed should also be maintained

throughout the maneuver. Failure to hold the airspeed

constant will cause the radius of turn and necessary

angle of bank to vary excessively. On the downwind

side of the maneuver, the steeper the bank angle, the

lower the pitch attitude must be to maintain a given

airspeed. Conversely, on the upwind side, as the bank

angle becomes shallower, the pitch attitude must be

raised to maintain the proper airspeed. This is

necessary because the airspeed tends to change as the

bank is changed from shallow to steep to shallow.

During practice of the maneuver, the pilot should

execute three turns and roll out toward a definite object

or on a specific heading. During the rollout,

smoothness is essential, and the use of controls must

be so coordinated that no increase or decrease of speed

results when the straight glide is resumed.

Figure 9-2. Steep spiral.

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9-4

Common errors in the performance of steep spirals are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Failure to maintain constant airspeed.

• Poor coordination, resulting in skidding and/or

slipping.

• Inadequate wind drift correction.

• Failure to coordinate the controls so that no

increase/decrease in speed results when straight

glide is resumed.

• Failure to scan for other traffic.

• Failure to maintain orientation.

CHANDELLE

The objective of this maneuver is to develop the pilot’s

coordination, orientation, planning, and accuracy of

control during maximum performance flight.

A chandelle is a maximum performance climbing turn

beginning from approximately straight-and-level

flight, and ending at the completion of a precise 180°

of turn in a wings-level, nose-high attitude at the

minimum controllable airspeed. [Figure 9-3] The

maneuver demands that the maximum flight

performance of the airplane be obtained; the airplane

should gain the most altitude possible for a given

degree of bank and power setting without stalling.

Since numerous atmospheric variables beyond control

of the pilot will affect the specific amount of altitude

gained, the quality of the performance of the

maneuver is not judged solely on the altitude gain, but

by the pilot’s overall proficiency as it pertains to climb

performance for the power/bank combination used,

and to the elements of piloting skill demonstrated.

Prior to starting a chandelle, the flaps and gear (if

retractable) should be in the UP position, power set to

cruise condition, and the airspace behind and above

clear of other air traffic. The maneuver should be

entered from straight-and-level flight (or a shallow

dive) and at a speed no greater than the maximum

entry speed recommended by the manufacturer—in

most cases not above the airplane’s design

maneuvering speed (VA).

After the appropriate airspeed and power setting have

been established, the chandelle is started by smoothly

entering a coordinated turn with an angle of bank

appropriate for the airplane being flown. Normally,

this angle of bank should not exceed approximately

30°. After the appropriate bank is established, a

climbing turn should be started by smoothly applying

back-elevator pressure to increase the pitch attitude at

a constant rate and to attain the highest pitch attitude

as 90° of turn is completed. As the climb is initiated in

airplanes with fixed-pitch propellers, full throttle may

be applied, but is applied gradually so that the

maximum allowable r.p.m. is not exceeded. In

airplanes with constant-speed propellers, power may

be left at the normal cruise setting.

Figure 9-3. Chandelle.

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9-5

Once the bank has been established, the angle of bank

should remain constant until 90° of turn is completed.

Although the degree of bank is fixed during this

climbing turn, it may appear to increase and, in fact,

actually will tend to increase if allowed to do so as the

maneuver continues.

When the turn has progressed 90° from the original

heading, the pilot should begin rolling out of the bank

at a constant rate while maintaining a constant-pitch

attitude. Since the angle of bank will be decreasing

during the rollout, the vertical component of lift will

increase slightly. For this reason, it may be necessary

to release a slight amount of back-elevator pressure in

order to keep the nose of the airplane from rising

higher.

As the wings are being leveled at the completion of

180° of turn, the pitch attitude should be noted by

checking the outside references and the attitude

indicator. This pitch attitude should be held

momentarily while the airplane is at the minimum

controllable airspeed. Then the pitch attitude may be

gently reduced to return to straight-and-level

cruise flight.

Since the airspeed is constantly decreasing throughout

the maneuver, the effects of engine torque become

more and more prominent. Therefore, right-rudder

pressure is gradually increased to control yaw and

maintain a constant rate of turn and to keep the airplane

in coordinated flight. The pilot should maintain

coordinated flight by the feel of pressures being

applied on the controls and by the ball instrument of

the turn-and-slip indicator. If coordinated flight is

being maintained, the ball will remain in the center of

the race.

To roll out of a left chandelle, the left aileron must be

lowered to raise the left wing. This creates more drag

than the aileron on the right wing, resulting in a

tendency for the airplane to yaw to the left. With the

low airspeed at this point, torque effect tries to make

the airplane yaw to the left even more. Thus, there are

two forces pulling the airplane’s nose to the left—

aileron drag and torque. To maintain coordinated

flight, considerable right-rudder pressure is required

during the rollout to overcome the effects of aileron

drag and torque.

In a chandelle to the right, when control pressure is

applied to begin the rollout, the aileron on the right

wing is lowered. This creates more drag on that wing

and tends to make the airplane yaw to the right. At the

same time, the effect of torque at the lower airspeed is

causing the airplane’s nose to yaw to the left. Thus,

aileron drag pulling the nose to the right and torque

pulling to the left, tend to neutralize each other. If

excessive left-rudder pressure is applied, the rollout

will be uncoordinated.

The rollout to the left can usually be accomplished

with very little left rudder, since the effects of aileron

drag and torque tend to neutralize each other.

Releasing some right rudder, which has been applied

to correct for torque, will normally give the same effect

as applying left-rudder pressure. When the wings

become level and the ailerons are neutralized, the

aileron drag disappears. Because of the low airspeed

and high power, the effects of torque become the more

prominent force and must continue to be controlled

with rudder pressure.

A rollout to the left is accomplished mainly by

applying aileron pressure. During the rollout,

right-rudder pressure should be gradually released, and

left rudder applied only as necessary to maintain

coordination. Even when the wings are level and

aileron pressure is released, right-rudder pressure must

be held to counteract torque and hold the nose straight.

Common errors in the performance of chandelles are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Too shallow an initial bank, resulting in a stall.

• Too steep an initial bank, resulting in failure to

gain maximum performance.

• Allowing the actual bank to increase after establishing initial bank angle.

• Failure to start the recovery at the 90° point in

the turn.

• Allowing the pitch attitude to increase as the

bank is rolled out during the second 90° of turn.

• Removing all of the bank before the 180° point

is reached.

• Nose low on recovery, resulting in too much

airspeed.

• Control roughness.

• Poor coordination (slipping or skidding).

• Stalling at any point during the maneuver.

• Execution of a steep turn instead of a climbing

maneuver.

• Failure to scan for other aircraft.

• Attempting to perform the maneuver by

instrument reference rather than visual reference.

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9-6

LAZY EIGHT

The lazy eight is a maneuver designed to develop

perfect coordination of controls through a wide range

of airspeeds and altitudes so that certain accuracy

points are reached with planned attitude and airspeed.

In its execution, the dive, climb, and turn are all

combined, and the combinations are varied and applied

throughout the performance range of the airplane. It is

the only standard flight training maneuver during

which at no time do the forces on the controls

remain constant. 

The lazy eight as a training maneuver has great value

since constantly varying forces and attitudes are

required. These forces must be constantly coordinated,

due not only to the changing combinations of banks,

dives, and climbs, but also to the constantly varying

airspeed. The maneuver helps develop subconscious

feel, planning, orientation, coordination, and speed

sense. It is not possible to do a lazy eight mechanically,

because the control pressures required for perfect

coordination are never exactly the same.

This maneuver derives its name from the manner in

which the extended longitudinal axis of the airplane is

made to trace a flight pattern in the form of a figure 8

lying on its side (a lazy 8). [Figure 9-4]

A lazy eight consists of two 180° turns, in opposite

directions, while making a climb and a descent in a

symmetrical pattern during each of the turns. At no

time throughout the lazy eight is the airplane flown

straight and level; instead, it is rolled directly from one

bank to the other with the wings level only at the

moment the turn is reversed at the completion of each

180° change in heading.

As an aid to making symmetrical loops of the 8 during

each turn, prominent reference points should be

selected on the horizon. The reference points selected

should be 45°, 90°, and 135° from the direction in

which the maneuver is begun.

Prior to performing a lazy eight, the airspace behind

and above should be clear of other air traffic. The

maneuver should be entered from straight-and-level

flight at normal cruise power and at the airspeed

recommended by the manufacturer or at the airplane’s

design maneuvering speed.

The maneuver is started from level flight with a

gradual climbing turn in the direction of the 45°

reference point. The climbing turn should be planned

and controlled so that the maximum pitch-up attitude

is reached at the 45° point. The rate of rolling into the

bank must be such as to prevent the rate of turn from

becoming too rapid. As the pitch attitude is raised, the

airspeed decreases, causing the rate of turn to increase.

Since the bank also is being increased, it too causes

the rate of turn to increase. Unless the maneuver is

begun with a slow rate of roll, the combination of

increasing pitch and increasing bank will cause the

rate of turn to be so rapid that the 45° reference point

will be reached before the highest pitch attitude

is attained.

At the 45° point, the pitch attitude should be at

maximum and the angle of bank continuing to

Figure 9-4. Lazy eight.

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9-7

increase. Also, at the 45° point, the pitch attitude

should start to decrease slowly toward the horizon and

the 90° reference point. Since the airspeed is still

decreasing, right-rudder pressure will have to be

applied to counteract torque.

As the airplane’s nose is being lowered toward the 90°

reference point, the bank should continue to increase.

Due to the decreasing airspeed, a slight amount of

opposite aileron pressure may be required to prevent

the bank from becoming too steep. When the airplane

completes 90° of the turn, the bank should be at the

maximum angle (approximately 30°), the airspeed

should be at its minimum (5 to 10 knots above stall

speed), and the airplane pitch attitude should be

passing through level flight. It is at this time that an

imaginary line, extending from the pilot’s eye and

parallel to the longitudinal axis of the airplane, passes

through the 90° reference point.

Lazy eights normally should be performed with no

more than approximately a 30° bank. Steeper banks

may be used, but control touch and technique must be

developed to a much higher degree than when the

maneuver is performed with a shallower bank.

The pilot should not hesitate at this point but should

continue to fly the airplane into a descending turn so

that the airplane’s nose describes the same size loop

below the horizon as it did above. As the pilot’s

reference line passes through the 90° point, the bank

should be decreased gradually, and the airplane’s nose

allowed to continue lowering. When the airplane has

turned 135°, the nose should be in its lowest pitch

attitude. The airspeed will be increasing during this

descending turn, so it will be necessary to gradually

relax rudder and aileron pressure and to

simultaneously raise the nose and roll the wings level.

As this is being accomplished, the pilot should note the

amount of turn remaining and adjust the rate of rollout

and pitch change so that the wings become level and

the original airspeed is attained in level flight just as

the 180° point is reached. Upon returning to the

starting altitude and the 180° point, a climbing turn

should be started immediately in the opposite direction

toward the selected reference points to complete the

second half of the eight in the same manner as the first

half. [Figure 9-5]

Due to the decreasing airspeed, considerable rightrudder pressure is gradually applied to counteract

torque at the top of the eight in both the right and left

turns. The pressure will be greatest at the point of

lowest airspeed.

More right-rudder pressure will be needed during the

climbing turn to the right than in the turn to the left

because more torque correction is needed to prevent

yaw from decreasing the rate of turn. In the left

climbing turn, the torque will tend to contribute to the

90° POINT

1. BANK APPROX 30°

2. MINIMUM SPEED

3. MAXIMUM ALTITUDE

4. LEVEL PITCH ATTITUDE

135° POINT

1. MAX. PITCH-DOWN

2. BANK 15°(APPROX.)

45° POINT

1. MAX. PITCH-UP

 ATTITUDE

2. BANK 15°

 (APPROX.)

ENTRY:

1. LEVEL FLIGHT

2. MANEUVERING OR CRUISE 

 SPEED WHICHEVER IS LESS

 OR MANUFACTURER'S 

 RECOMMENDED SPEED.

180° POINT 

1. LEVEL FLIGHT

2. ENTRY AIRSPEED

3. ALTITUDE SAME AS

 ENTRY ALTITUDE 

Figure 9-5. Lazy eight.

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9-8

turn; consequently, less rudder pressure is needed. It

will be noted that the controls are slightly crossed in

the right climbing turn because of the need for left

aileron pressure to prevent overbanking and right

rudder to overcome torque.

The correct power setting for the lazy eight is that

which will maintain the altitude for the maximum and

minimum airspeeds used during the climbs and

descents of the eight. Obviously, if excess power were

used, the airplane would have gained altitude when the

maneuver is completed; if insufficient power were

used, altitude would have been lost.

Common errors in the performance of lazy eights are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Using the nose, or top of engine cowl, instead of

the true longitudinal axis, resulting in

unsymmetrical loops.

• Watching the airplane instead of the

reference points.

• Inadequate planning, resulting in the peaks of the

loops both above and below the horizon not

coming in the proper place.

• Control roughness, usually caused by attempts

to counteract poor planning.

• Persistent gain or loss of altitude with the

completion of each eight.

• Attempting to perform the maneuver

rhythmically, resulting in poor pattern

symmetry.

• Allowing the airplane to “fall” out of the tops of

the loops rather than flying the airplane through

the maneuver.

• Slipping and/or skidding.

• Failure to scan for other traffic.

Ch 09.qxd 5/7/04 8:14 AM Page 9-8
NIGHT VISION

Generally, most pilots are poorly informed about night

vision. Human eyes never function as effectively at

night as the eyes of animals with nocturnal habits, but

if humans learn how to use their eyes correctly and

know their limitations, night vision can be improved

significantly. There are several reasons for training to

use the eyes correctly.

One reason is the mind and eyes act as a team for a person to see well; both team members must be used

effectively. The construction of the eyes is such that to

see at night they are used differently than during the

day. Therefore, it is important to understand the eye’s

construction and how the eye is affected by darkness.

Innumerable light-sensitive nerves, called “cones” and

“rods,” are located at the back of the eye or retina, a

layer upon which all images are focused. These nerves

connect to the cells of the optic nerve, which transmits

messages directly to the brain. The cones are located in

the center of the retina, and the rods are concentrated

in a ring around the cones. [Figure 10-1]

The function of the cones is to detect color, details, and

faraway objects. The rods function when something is

seen out of the corner of the eye or peripheral vision.

They detect objects, particularly those that are moving,

but do not give detail or color—only shades of gray.

Both the cones and the rods are used for vision during

daylight.

Although there is not a clear-cut division of function,

the rods make night vision possible. The rods and

cones function in daylight and in moonlight, but in the

absence of normal light, the process of night vision is

placed almost entirely on the rods.

The fact that the rods are distributed in a band around

the cones and do not lie directly behind the pupils

makes off-center viewing (looking to one side of an

object) important during night flight. During daylight,

an object can be seen best by looking directly at it, but

at night a scanning procedure to permit off-center

viewing of the object is more effective. Therefore, the

pilot should consciously practice this scanning procedure to improve night vision.

The eye’s adaptation to darkness is another important

aspect of night vision. When a dark room is entered, it

is difficult to see anything until the eyes become

adjusted to the darkness. Most everyone has experienced this after entering a darkened movie theater. In

this process, the pupils of the eyes first enlarge to

receive as much of the available light as possible. After

approximately 5 to 10 minutes, the cones become

adjusted to the dim light and the eyes become 100

Cones for:

• Color

• Detail

• Day

Rods for:

• Gray

• Peripheral

• Day & Night

Area of Best

Day Vision

Area of Best

Night Vision

Area of Best

Night Vision

Figure 10-1. Rods and cones.

10-1

Ch 10.qxd 7/13/04 11:10 AM Page 10-1
times more sensitive to the light than they were before

the dark room was entered. Much more time, about 30

minutes, is needed for the rods to become adjusted to

darkness, but when they do adjust, they are about

100,000 times more sensitive to light than they were in

the lighted area. After the adaptation process is complete, much more can be seen, especially if the eyes are

used correctly.

After the eyes have adapted to the dark, the entire

process is reversed when entering a lighted room. The

eyes are first dazzled by the brightness, but become

completely adjusted in a very few seconds, thereby losing their adaptation to the dark. Now, if the dark room

is reentered, the eyes again go through the long process

of adapting to the darkness.

The pilot before and during night flight must consider

the adaptation process of the eyes. First, the eyes

should be allowed to adapt to the low level of light

and then they should be kept adapted. After the eyes

have become adapted to the darkness, the pilot should

avoid exposing them to any bright white light that

will cause temporary blindness and could result in

serious consequences.

Temporary blindness, caused by an unusually bright

light, may result in illusions or after images until the

eyes recover from the brightness. The brain creates

these illusions reported by the eyes. This results in

misjudging or incorrectly identifying objects, such as

mistaking slanted clouds for the horizon or populated

areas for a landing field. Vertigo is experienced as a

feeling of dizziness and imbalance that can create or

increase illusions. The illusions seem very real and

pilots at every level of experience and skill can be

affected. Recognizing that the brain and eyes can play

tricks in this manner is the best protection for flying at

night.

Good eyesight depends upon physical condition.

Fatigue, colds, vitamin deficiency, alcohol, stimulants,

smoking, or medication can seriously impair vision.

Keeping these facts in mind and taking adequate precautions should safeguard night vision.

In addition to the principles previously discussed, the

following items will aid in increasing night vision

effectiveness.

• Adapt the eyes to darkness prior to flight and

keep them adapted. About 30 minutes is needed

to adjust the eyes to maximum efficiency after

exposure to a bright light.

• If oxygen is available, use it during night flying.

Keep in mind that a significant deterioration in

night vision can occur at cabin altitudes as low as

5,000 feet.

• Close one eye when exposed to bright light to

help avoid the blinding effect.

• Do not wear sunglasses after sunset.

• Move the eyes more slowly than in daylight.

• Blink the eyes if they become blurred.

• Concentrate on seeing objects.

• Force the eyes to view off center.

• Maintain good physical condition.

• Avoid smoking, drinking, and using drugs that

may be harmful.

NIGHT ILLUSIONS

In addition to night vision limitations, pilots should be

aware that night illusions could cause confusion and

concerns during night flying. The following discussion covers some of the common situations that cause

illusions associated with night flying.

On a clear night, distant stationary lights can be mistaken for stars or other aircraft. Even the northern

lights can confuse a pilot and indicate a false horizon.

Certain geometrical patterns of ground lights, such as

a freeway, runway, approach, or even lights on a moving train can cause confusion. Dark nights tend to

eliminate reference to a visual horizon. As a result,

pilots need to rely less on outside references at night

and more on flight and navigation instruments.

Visual autokinesis can occur when a pilot stares at a

single light source for several seconds on a dark night.

The result is that the light will appear to be moving.

The autokinesis effect will not occur if the pilot

expands the visual field. It is a good procedure not to

become fixed on one source of light.

Distractions and problems can result from a flickering

light in the cockpit, anticollision light, strobe lights,

or other aircraft lights and can cause flicker vertigo. If

continuous, the possible physical reactions can be

nausea, dizziness, grogginess, unconsciousness,

headaches, or confusion. The pilot should try to eliminate any light source causing blinking or flickering

problems in the cockpit.

A black-hole approach occurs when the landing is

made from over water or non-lighted terrain where the

runway lights are the only source of light. Without

peripheral visual cues to help, pilots will have trouble

orientating themselves relative to Earth. The runway

can seem out of position (downsloping or upsloping)

and in the worse case, results in landing short of the

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Ch 10.qxd 7/13/04 11:10 AM Page 10-2
runway. If an electronic glide slope or visual approach

slope indicator (VASI) is available, it should be used.

If navigation aids (NAVAIDs) are unavailable, careful

attention should be given to using the flight instruments to assist in maintaining orientation and a normal

approach. If at any time the pilot is unsure of his or her

position or attitude, a go-around should be executed.

Bright runway and approach lighting systems, especially where few lights illuminate the surrounding

terrain, may create the illusion of less distance to the

runway. In this situation, the tendency is to fly a

higher approach. Also, when flying over terrain with

only a few lights, it will make the runway recede or

appear farther away. With this situation, the tendency

is common to fly a lower-than-normal approach. If

the runway has a city in the distance on higher terrain, the tendency will be to fly a lower-than-normal

approach. A good review of the airfield layout and

boundaries before initiating any approach will help

the pilot maintain a safe approach angle.

Illusions created by runway lights result in a variety of

problems. Bright lights or bold colors advance the runway, making it appear closer.

Night landings are further complicated by the difficulty

of judging distance and the possibility of confusing

approach and runway lights. For example, when a double row of approach lights joins the boundary lights of

the runway, there can be confusion where the approach

lights terminate and runway lights begin. Under certain

conditions, approach lights can make the aircraft seem

higher in a turn to final, than when its wings are level.

PILOT EQUIPMENT

Before beginning a night flight, carefully consider

personal equipment that should be readily available

during the flight. At least one reliable flashlight is

recommended as standard equipment on all night

flights. Remember to place a spare set of batteries in

the flight kit. A D-cell size flashlight with a bulb

switching mechanism that can be used to select white

or red light is preferable. The white light is used while

performing the preflight visual inspection of the airplane,

and the red light is used when performing cockpit operations. Since the red light is nonglaring, it will not impair

night vision. Some pilots prefer two flashlights, one

with a white light for preflight, and the other a penlight type with a red light. The latter can be suspended

by a string from around the neck to ensure the light is

always readily available. One word of caution; if a red

light is used for reading an aeronautical chart, the red

features of the chart will not show up.

Aeronautical charts are essential for night cross-country flight and, if the intended course is near the edge of

the chart, the adjacent chart should also be available.

The lights of cities and towns can be seen at surprising

distances at night, and if this adjacent chart is not available to identify those landmarks, confusion could

result. Regardless of the equipment used, organization

of the cockpit eases the burden on the pilot and

enhances safety.

AIRPLANE EQUIPMENT 

AND LIGHTING

Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)

part 91 specifies the basic minimum airplane equipment required for night flight. This equipment includes

only basic instruments, lights, electrical energy source,

and spare fuses.

The standard instruments required for instrument

flight under 14 CFR part 91 are a valuable asset for

aircraft control at night. An anticollision light system,

including a flashing or rotating beacon and position

lights, is required airplane equipment. Airplane position lights are arranged similar to those of boats and

ships. A red light is positioned on the left wingtip, a

green light on the right wingtip, and a white light on

the tail. [Figure 10-2]

Figure 10-2. Position lights.

This arrangement provides a means by which pilots

can determine the general direction of movement of

other airplanes in flight. If both a red and green light of

another aircraft were observed, the airplane would be

flying toward the pilot, and could be on a collision

course.

Landing lights are not only useful for taxi, takeoffs,

and landings, but also provide a means by which airplanes can be seen at night by other pilots. The Federal

Aviation Administration (FAA) has initiated a voluntary pilot safety program called “Operation Lights

ON.” The “lights on” idea is to enhance the “see and

be seen” concept of averting collisions both in the air

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and on the ground, and to reduce the potential for bird

strikes. Pilots are encouraged to turn on their landing

lights when operating within 10 miles of an airport.

This is for both day and night, or in conditions of

reduced visibility. This should also be done in areas

where flocks of birds may be expected.

Although turning on aircraft lights supports the see and

be seen concept, pilots should not become complacent

about keeping a sharp lookout for other aircraft. Most

aircraft lights blend in with the stars or the lights of the

cities at night and go unnoticed unless a conscious

effort is made to distinguish them from other lights.

AIRPORT AND NAVIGATION 

LIGHTING AIDS

The lighting systems used for airports, runways,

obstructions, and other visual aids at night are other

important aspects of night flying.

Lighted airports located away from congested areas

can be identified readily at night by the lights outlining

the runways. Airports located near or within large

cities are often difficult to identify in the maze of

lights. It is important not to only know the exact location of an airport relative to the city, but also to be able

to identify these airports by the characteristics of their

lighting pattern.

Aeronautical lights are designed and installed in a variety of colors and configurations, each having its own

purpose. Although some lights are used only during

low ceiling and visibility conditions, this discussion

includes only the lights that are fundamental to visual

flight rules (VFR) night operation.

It is recommended that prior to a night flight, and

particularly a cross-country night flight, the pilot check

the availability and status of lighting systems at the

destination airport. This information can be found on

aeronautical charts and in the Airport/Facility

Directory. The status of each facility can be determined by reviewing pertinent Notices to Airmen

(NOTAMs).

A rotating beacon is used to indicate the location of

most airports. The beacon rotates at a constant speed,

thus producing what appears to be a series of light

flashes at regular intervals. These flashes may be one

or two different colors that are used to identify various

types of landing areas. For example:

• Lighted civilian land airports—alternating white

and green.

• Lighted civilian water airports—alternating

white and yellow.

• Lighted military airports—alternating white and

green, but are differentiated from civil airports

by dual peaked (two quick) white flashes, then

green.

Beacons producing red flashes indicate obstructions or

areas considered hazardous to aerial navigation.

Steady burning red lights are used to mark obstructions on or near airports and sometimes to supplement

flashing lights on en route obstructions. High intensity

flashing white lights are used to mark some supporting

structures of overhead transmission lines that stretch

across rivers, chasms, and gorges. These high intensity

lights are also used to identify tall structures, such as

chimneys and towers.

As a result of the technological advancements in

aviation, runway lighting systems have become

quite sophisticated to accommodate takeoffs and

landings in various weather conditions. However,

the pilot whose flying is limited to VFR only needs

to be concerned with the following basic lighting of

runways and taxiways.

The basic runway lighting system consists of two

straight parallel lines of runway-edge lights defining the lateral limits of the runway. These lights are

aviation white, although aviation yellow may be

substituted for a distance of 2,000 feet from the far

end of the runway to indicate a caution zone. At

some airports, the intensity of the runway-edge

lights can be adjusted to satisfy the individual needs

of the pilot. The length limits of the runway are

defined by straight lines of lights across the runway

ends. At some airports, the runway threshold lights

are aviation green, and the runway end lights are

aviation red.

At many airports, the taxiways are also lighted. A taxiway-edge lighting system consists of blue lights that

outline the usable limits of taxi paths.

PREPARATION AND PREFLIGHT

Night flying requires that pilots be aware of, and operate within, their abilities and limitations. Although

careful planning of any flight is essential, night flying

demands more attention to the details of preflight

preparation and planning.

Preparation for a night flight should include a thorough

review of the available weather reports and forecasts

with particular attention given to temperature/dewpoint

spread. A narrow temperature/dewpoint spread may

indicate the possibility of ground fog. Emphasis

should also be placed on wind direction and speed,

since its effect on the airplane cannot be as easily

detected at night as during the day.

On night cross-country flights, appropriate aeronautical charts should be selected, including the

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Ch 10.qxd 7/13/04 11:10 AM Page 10-4
appropriate adjacent charts. Course lines should be

drawn in black to be more distinguishable.

Prominently lighted checkpoints along the prepared

course should be noted. Rotating beacons at airports,

lighted obstructions, lights of cities or towns, and

lights from major highway traffic all provide excellent

visual checkpoints. The use of radio navigation aids

and communication facilities add significantly to the

safety and efficiency of night flying.

All personal equipment should be checked prior to

flight to ensure proper functioning. It is very disconcerting to find, at the time of need, that a flashlight, for

example, does not work.

All airplane lights should be turned ON momentarily

and checked for operation. Position lights can be

checked for loose connections by tapping the light fixture. If the lights blink while being tapped, further

investigation to determine the cause should be made

prior to flight.

The parking ramp should be examined prior to entering the airplane. During the day, it is quite easy to see

stepladders, chuckholes, wheel chocks, and other

obstructions, but at night it is more difficult. A check

of the area can prevent taxiing mishaps.

STARTING,TAXIING, AND RUNUP

After the pilot is seated in the cockpit and prior to starting the engine, all items and materials to be used on the

flight should be arranged in such a manner that they

will be readily available and convenient to use.

Extra caution should be taken at night to assure the

propeller area is clear. Turning the rotating beacon ON,

or flashing the airplane position lights will serve to

alert persons nearby to remain clear of the propeller.

To avoid excessive drain of electrical current from the

battery, it is recommended that unnecessary electrical

equipment be turned OFF until after the engine has

been started.

After starting and before taxiing, the taxi or landing

light should be turned ON. Continuous use of the landing light with r.p.m. power settings normally used for

taxiing may place an excessive drain on the airplane’s

electrical system. Also, overheating of the landing light

could become a problem because of inadequate airflow

to carry the heat away. Landing lights should be used

as necessary while taxiing. When using landing lights,

consideration should be given to not blinding other

pilots. Taxi slowly, particularly in congested areas. If

taxi lines are painted on the ramp or taxiway, these

lines should be followed to ensure a proper path along

the route.

The before takeoff and runup should be performed

using the checklist. During the day, forward movement

of the airplane can be detected easily. At night, the

airplane could creep forward without being noticed

unless the pilot is alert for this possibility. Hold or

lock the brakes during the runup and be alert for any

forward movement.

TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

Night flying is very different from day flying and

demands more attention of the pilot. The most noticeable difference is the limited availability of outside

visual references. Therefore, flight instruments should

be used to a greater degree in controlling the airplane.

This is particularly true on night takeoffs and climbs.

The cockpit lights should be adjusted to a minimum

brightness that will allow the pilot to read the instruments and switches and yet not hinder the pilot’s outside vision. This will also eliminate light reflections on

the windshield and windows.

After ensuring that the final approach and runway are

clear of other air traffic, or when cleared for takeoff by

the tower, the landing lights and taxi lights should be

turned ON and the airplane lined up with the centerline

of the runway. If the runway does not have centerline

lighting, use the painted centerline and the runwayedge lights. After the airplane is aligned, the heading

indicator should be noted or set to correspond to the

known runway direction. To begin the takeoff, the

brakes should be released and the throttle smoothly

advanced to maximum allowable power. As the airplane accelerates, it should be kept moving straight

ahead between and parallel to the runway-edge lights.

The procedure for night takeoffs is the same as for normal daytime takeoffs except that many of the runway

visual cues are not available. Therefore, the flight

instruments should be checked frequently during the

takeoff to ensure the proper pitch attitude, heading, and

airspeed are being attained. As the airspeed reaches the

normal lift-off speed, the pitch attitude should be

adjusted to that which will establish a normal climb.

This should be accomplished by referring to both outside visual references, such as lights, and to the flight

instruments. [Figure 10-3]

Figure 10-3. Establish a positive climb.

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10-6

After becoming airborne, the darkness of night often

makes it difficult to note whether the airplane is getting closer to or farther from the surface. To ensure the

airplane continues in a positive climb, be sure a climb

is indicated on the attitude indicator, vertical speed

indicator (VSI), and altimeter. It is also important to

ensure the airspeed is at best climb speed.

Necessary pitch and bank adjustments should be made

by referencing the attitude and heading indicators. It is

recommended that turns not be made until reaching a

safe maneuvering altitude.

Although the use of the landing lights provides help

during the takeoff, they become ineffective after the

airplane has climbed to an altitude where the light

beam no longer extends to the surface. The light can

cause distortion when it is reflected by haze, smoke, or

fog that might exist in the climb. Therefore, when the

landing light is used for the takeoff, it may be turned

off after the climb is well established provided other

traffic in the area does not require its use for collision

avoidance.

ORIENTATION AND NAVIGATION

Generally, at night it is difficult to see clouds and

restrictions to visibility, particularly on dark nights or

under overcast. The pilot flying under VFR must exercise caution to avoid flying into clouds or a layer of

fog. Usually, the first indication of flying into restricted

visibility conditions is the gradual disappearance of

lights on the ground. If the lights begin to take on an

appearance of being surrounded by a halo or glow, the

pilot should use caution in attempting further flight in

that same direction. Such a halo or glow around lights

on the ground is indicative of ground fog. Remember

that if a descent must be made through fog, smoke, or

haze in order to land, the horizontal visibility is considerably less when looking through the restriction than it

is when looking straight down through it from above.

Under no circumstances should a VFR night-flight be

made during poor or marginal weather conditions

unless both the pilot and aircraft are certificated and

equipped for flight under instrument flight rules (IFR).

The pilot should practice and acquire competency in

straight-and-level flight, climbs and descents, level

turns, climbing and descending turns, and steep turns.

Recovery from unusual attitudes should also be practiced, but only on dual flights with a flight instructor.

The pilot should also practice these maneuvers with all

the cockpit lights turned OFF. This blackout training is

necessary if the pilot experiences an electrical or

instrument light failure. Training should also include

using the navigation equipment and local NAVAIDs.

In spite of fewer references or checkpoints, night crosscountry flights do not present particular problems if

preplanning is adequate, and the pilot continues to

monitor position, time estimates, and fuel consumed.

NAVAIDs, if available, should be used to assist in

monitoring en route progress.

Crossing large bodies of water at night in singleengine airplanes could be potentially hazardous, not

only from the standpoint of landing (ditching) in the

water, but also because with little or no lighting the

horizon blends with the water, in which case, depth

perception and orientation become difficult. During

poor visibility conditions over water, the horizon will

become obscure, and may result in a loss of orientation. Even on clear nights, the stars may be reflected

on the water surface, which could appear as a continuous array of lights, thus making the horizon difficult

to identify.

Lighted runways, buildings, or other objects may

cause illusions to the pilot when seen from different

altitudes. At an altitude of 2,000 feet, a group of lights

on an object may be seen individually, while at 5,000

feet or higher, the same lights could appear to be one

solid light mass. These illusions may become quite

acute with altitude changes and if not overcome could

present problems in respect to approaches to lighted

runways.

APPROACHES AND LANDINGS

When approaching the airport to enter the traffic pattern and land, it is important that the runway lights

and other airport lighting be identified as early as

possible. If the airport layout is unfamiliar to the

pilot, sighting of the runway may be difficult until

very close-in due to the maze of lights observed in

the area. [Figure 10-4] The pilot should fly toward

the rotating beacon until the lights outlining the runway are distinguishable. To fly a traffic pattern of

proper size and direction, the runway threshold and

runway-edge lights must be positively identified.

Once the airport lights are seen, these lights should

be kept in sight throughout the approach.

Figure 10-4. Use light patterns for orientation.

Ch 10.qxd 7/13/04 11:10 AM Page 10-6
Distance may be deceptive

at night due to limited

lighting conditions. A lack

of intervening references

on the ground and the

inability of the pilot to compare the size and location of

different ground objects

cause this. This also applies

to the estimation of altitude

and speed. Consequently,

more dependence must be

placed on flight instruments,

particularly the altimeter and

the airspeed indicator.

When entering the traffic

pattern, allow for plenty of

time to complete the

before landing checklist. If

the heading indicator contains a heading bug, setting it

to the runway heading will be an excellent reference

for the pattern legs.

Every effort should be made to maintain the recommended airspeeds and execute the approach and

landing in the same manner as during the day. A low,

shallow approach is definitely inappropriate during

a night operation. The altimeter and VSI should be

constantly cross-checked against the airplane’s position

along the base leg and final approach. A visual

approach slope indicator (VASI) is an indispensable aid

in establishing and maintaining a proper glidepath.

[Figure 10-5]

After turning onto the final approach and aligning the

airplane midway between the two rows of runway-edge

lights, the pilot should note and correct for any wind

drift. Throughout the final approach, pitch and power

should be used to maintain a stabilized approach. Flaps

should be used the same as in a normal approach.

Usually, halfway through the final approach, the landing light should be turned on. Earlier use of the landing

light may be necessary because of “Operation Lights

ON” or for local traffic considerations. The landing

light is sometimes ineffective since the light beam will

usually not reach the ground from higher altitudes. The

light may even be reflected back into the pilot’s eyes

by any existing haze, smoke, or fog. This disadvantage

is overshadowed by the safety considerations provided

by using the “Operation Lights ON” procedure around

other traffic.

The roundout and touchdown should be made in the

same manner as in day landings. At night, the judgment of height, speed, and sink rate is impaired by the

scarcity of observable objects in the landing area. The

inexperienced pilot may have a tendency to round out

too high until attaining familiarity with the proper

height for the correct roundout. To aid in determining

the proper roundout point, continue a constant

approach descent until the landing lights reflect on the

runway and tire marks on the runway can be seen

clearly. At this point the roundout should be started

smoothly and the throttle gradually reduced to idle

as the airplane is touching down. [Figure 10-6]

During landings without the use of landing lights, the

roundout may be started when the runway lights at the

If both light bars are white,

you are too high. 

If you see red over red, you 

are below the glidepath.

Above Glidepath Below Glidepath On Glidepath

If the far bar is red and the 

near bar is white, you are on 

the glidepath. The memory 

aid "red over white, you're all 

right," is helpful in recalling 

the correct sequence of lights.

Figure 10-5. VASI.

Figure 10-6. Roundout when tire marks are visible.

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10-8

far end of the runway first appear to be rising higher

than the nose of the airplane. This demands a smooth

and very timely roundout, and requires that the pilot

feel for the runway surface using power and pitch

changes, as necessary, for the airplane to settle slowly

to the runway. Blackout landings should always be

included in night pilot training as an emergency

procedure.

NIGHT EMERGENCIES

Perhaps the pilot’s greatest concern about flying a singleengine airplane at night is the possibility of a complete

engine failure and the subsequent emergency landing.

This is a legitimate concern, even though continuing

flight into adverse weather and poor pilot judgment

account for most serious accidents.

If the engine fails at night, several important procedures

and considerations to keep in mind are:

• Maintain positive control of the airplane and

establish the best glide configuration and airspeed.

Turn the airplane towards an airport or away from

congested areas.

• Check to determine the cause of the engine

malfunction, such as the position of fuel selectors, magneto switch, or primer. If possible, the

cause of the malfunction should be corrected

immediately and the engine restarted.

• Announce the emergency situation to Air Traffic

Control (ATC) or UNICOM. If already in radio

contact with a facility, do not change frequencies, unless instructed to change.

• If the condition of the nearby terrain is known,

turn towards an unlighted portion of the area.

Plan an emergency approach to an unlighted

portion.

• Consider an emergency landing area close to

public access if possible. This may facilitate

rescue or help, if needed.

• Maintain orientation with the wind to avoid a

downwind landing.

• Complete the before landing checklist, and

check the landing lights for operation at altitude

and turn ON in sufficient time to illuminate the

terrain or obstacles along the flightpath. The

landing should be completed in the normal landing attitude at the slowest possible airspeed. If

the landing lights are unusable and outside visual

references are not available, the airplane should

be held in level-landing attitude until the ground

is contacted.

• After landing, turn off all switches and evacuate

the airplane as quickly as possible.

Ch 10.qxd 7/13/04 11:10 AM Page 10-8
11-1

HIGH PERFORMANCE AND COMPLEX

AIRPLANES

Transition to a complex airplane, or a high performance

airplane, can be demanding for most pilots without previous experience. Increased performance and increased

complexity both require additional planning, judgment,

and piloting skills. Transition to these types of

airplanes, therefore, should be accomplished in a

systematic manner through a structured course of

training administered by a qualified flight instructor.

A complex airplane is defined as an airplane equipped

with a retractable landing gear, wing flaps, and a

controllable-pitch propeller. For a seaplane to be

considered complex, it is required to have wing flaps and

a controllable-pitch propeller. A high performance

airplane is defined as an airplane with an engine of more

than 200 horsepower.

WING FLAPS

Airplanes can be designed to fly fast or slow. High

speed requires thin, moderately cambered airfoils with

a small wing area, whereas the high lift needed for low

speeds is obtained with thicker highly cambered

airfoils with a larger wing area. [Figure 11-1] Many

attempts have been made to compromise this

conflicting requirement of high cruise and slow

landing speeds.

Since an airfoil cannot have two different cambers at

the same time, one of two things must be done. Either

the airfoil can be a compromise, or a cruise airfoil can

be combined with a device for increasing the camber of

the airfoil for low-speed flight. One method for varying

an airfoil’s camber is the addition of trailing edge flaps.

Engineers call these devices a high-lift system.

FUNCTION OF FLAPS

Flaps work primarily by changing the camber of the

airfoil since deflection adds aft camber. Flap deflection

does not increase the critical (stall) angle of attack, and

in some cases flap deflection actually decreases the

critical angle of attack. 

Deflection of trailing edge control surfaces, such as the

aileron, alters both lift and drag. With aileron

deflection, there is asymmetrical lift (rolling moment)

and drag (adverse yaw). Wing flaps differ in that

deflection acts symmetrically on the airplane. There is

no roll or yaw effect, and pitch changes depend on the

airplane design.

Straight

Elliptical

Tapered

Sweptback

Delta

Figure 11-1. Airfoil types.

Ch 11.qxd 5/7/04 8:50 AM Page 11-1
11-2

Pitch behavior depends on flap type, wing position,

and horizontal tail location. The increased camber

from flap deflection produces lift primarily on the rear

portion of the wing. This produces a nosedown

pitching moment; however, the change in tail load

from the downwash deflected by the flaps over the

horizontal tail has a significant influence on the

pitching moment. Consequently, pitch behavior

depends on the design features of the particular airplane.

Flap deflection of up to 15° primarily produces lift

with minimal drag. The tendency to balloon up with

initial flap deflection is because of lift increase, but the

nosedown pitching moment tends to offset the balloon.

Deflection beyond 15° produces a large increase in

drag. Drag from flap deflection is parasite drag, and

as such is proportional to the square of the speed. Also,

deflection beyond 15° produces a significant noseup

pitching moment in most high-wing airplanes because

the resulting downwash increases the airflow over the

horizontal tail.

FLAP EFFECTIVENESS

Flap effectiveness depends on a number of factors, but

the most noticeable are size and type. For the purpose

of this chapter, trailing edge flaps are classified as four

basic types: plain (hinge), split, slotted, and Fowler.

[Figure 11-2]

The plain or hinge flap is a hinged section of the wing.

The structure and function are comparable to the other

control surfaces—ailerons, rudder, and elevator. The

split flap is more complex. It is the lower or underside

portion of the wing; deflection of the flap leaves the

trailing edge of the wing undisturbed. It is, however,

more effective than the hinge flap because of greater

lift and less pitching moment, but there is more drag.

Split flaps are more useful for landing, but the partially

deflected hinge flaps have the advantage in takeoff.

The split flap has significant drag at small deflections,

whereas the hinge flap does not because airflow

remains “attached” to the flap.

The slotted flap has a gap between the wing and the

leading edge of the flap. The slot allows high

pressure airflow on the wing undersurface to energize

the lower pressure over the top, thereby delaying flow

separation. The slotted flap has greater lift than the

hinge flap but less than the split flap; but, because of

a higher lift-drag ratio, it gives better takeoff and

climb performance. Small deflections of the slotted

flap give a higher drag than the hinge flap but less

than the split. This allows the slotted flap to be used

for takeoff.

The Fowler flap deflects down and aft to increase the

wing area. This flap can be multi-slotted making it the

most complex of the trailing edge systems. This

system does, however, give the maximum lift

coefficient. Drag characteristics at small deflections

are much like the slotted flap. Because of structural

complexity and difficulty in sealing the slots, Fowler

flaps are most commonly used on larger airplanes.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

It would be impossible to discuss all the many airplane

design and flap combinations. This emphasizes the

importance of the FAA-approved Airplane Flight

Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook

(AFM/POH) for a given airplane. However, while

some AFM/POHs are specific as to operational use of

flaps, many are lacking. Hence, flap operation makes

pilot judgment of critical importance. In addition, flap

operation is used for landings and takeoffs, during

which the airplane is in close proximity to the ground

where the margin for error is small.

Since the recommendations given in the AFM/POH are

based on the airplane and the flap design combination,

Plain Flap

Split Flap

Slotted Flap

Fowler Flap

Figure 11-2. Four basic types of flaps.

Ch 11.qxd 5/7/04 8:50 AM Page 11-2
11-3

the pilot must relate the manufacturer’s recommendation to aerodynamic effects of flaps. This requires that

the pilot have a basic background knowledge of flap

aerodynamics and geometry. With this information, the

pilot must make a decision as to the degree of flap

deflection and time of deflection based on runway and

approach conditions relative to the wind conditions.

The time of flap extension and degree of deflection are

related. Large flap deflections at one single point in the

landing pattern produce large lift changes that require

significant pitch and power changes in order to

maintain airspeed and glide slope. Incremental

deflection of flaps on downwind, base, and final

approach allow smaller adjustment of pitch and power

compared to extension of full flaps all at one time. This

procedure facilitates a more stabilized approach.

A soft- or short-field landing requires minimal speed at

touchdown. The flap deflection that results in minimal

groundspeed, therefore, should be used. If obstacle

clearance is a factor, the flap deflection that results in

the steepest angle of approach should be used. It

should be noted, however, that the flap setting that

gives the minimal speed at touchdown does not

necessarily give the steepest angle of approach;

however, maximum flap extension gives the steepest

angle of approach and minimum speed at touchdown.

Maximum flap extension, particularly beyond 30 to

35°, results in a large amount of drag. This requires

higher power settings than used with partial flaps.

Because of the steep approach angle combined with

power to offset drag, the flare with full flaps becomes

critical. The drag produces a high sink rate that must

be controlled with power, yet failure to reduce power

at a rate so that the power is idle at touchdown allows

the airplane to float down the runway. A reduction in

power too early results in a hard landing.

Crosswind component is another factor to be

considered in the degree of flap extension. The

deflected flap presents a surface area for the wind to

act on. In a crosswind, the “flapped” wing on the

upwind side is more affected than the downwind

wing. This is, however, eliminated to a slight extent

in the crabbed approach since the airplane is more

nearly aligned with the wind. When using a wing low

approach, however, the lowered wing partially

blankets the upwind flap, but the dihedral of the wing

combined with the flap and wind make lateral control

more difficult. Lateral control becomes more difficult

as flap extension reaches maximum and the

crosswind becomes perpendicular to the runway.

Crosswind effects on the “flapped” wing become more

pronounced as the airplane comes closer to the ground.

The wing, flap, and ground form a “container” that is

filled with air by the crosswind. With the wind striking

the deflected flap and fuselage side and with the flap

located behind the main gear, the upwind wing will

tend to rise and the airplane will tend to turn into the

wind. Proper control position, therefore, is essential

for maintaining runway alignment. Also, it may

be necessary to retract the flaps upon positive

ground contact.

The go-around is another factor to consider when

making a decision about degree of flap deflection

and about where in the landing pattern to extend

flaps. Because of the nosedown pitching moment

produced with flap extension, trim is used to offset

this pitching moment. Application of full power in

the go-around increases the airflow over the

“flapped” wing. This produces additional lift

causing the nose to pitch up. The pitch-up tendency

does not diminish completely with flap retraction

because of the trim setting. Expedient retraction of

flaps is desirable to eliminate drag, thereby allowing

rapid increase in airspeed; however, flap retraction

also decreases lift so that the airplane sinks rapidly.

The degree of flap deflection combined with design

configuration of the horizontal tail relative to the

wing requires that the pilot carefully monitor pitch

and airspeed, carefully control flap retraction to

minimize altitude loss, and properly use the rudder

for coordination. Considering these factors, the pilot

should extend the same degree of deflection at the

same point in the landing pattern. This requires that a

consistent traffic pattern be used. Therefore, the pilot

can have a preplanned go-around sequence based on

the airplane’s position in the landing pattern.

There is no single formula to determine the degree of

flap deflection to be used on landing, because a

landing involves variables that are dependent on each

other. The AFM/POH for the particular airplane will

contain the manufacturer’s recommendations for

some landing situations. On the other hand,

AFM/POH information on flap usage for takeoff is

more precise. The manufacturer’s requirements are

based on the climb performance produced by a given

flap design. Under no circumstances should a flap

setting given in the AFM/POH be exceeded

for takeoff.

CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLER

Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for best efficiency

at one speed of rotation and forward speed. This type

of propeller will provide suitable performance in

a narrow range of airspeeds; however, efficiency

would suffer considerably outside this range. To

provide high propeller efficiency through a wide

range of operation, the propeller blade angle

must be controllable. The most convenient

Ch 11.qxd 5/7/04 8:50 AM Page 11-3
11-4

way of controlling the propeller blade angle is by

means of a constant-speed governing system. 

CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLER

The constant-speed propeller keeps the blade angle

adjusted for maximum efficiency for most conditions

of flight. When an engine is running at constant

speed, the torque (power) exerted by the engine at the

propeller shaft must equal the opposing load provided

by the resistance of the air. The r.p.m. is controlled by

regulating the torque absorbed by the propeller—in

other words by increasing or decreasing the

resistance offered by the air to the propeller. In the

case of a fixed-pitch propeller, the torque absorbed

by the propeller is a function of speed, or r.p.m. If the

power output of the engine is changed, the engine will

accelerate or decelerate until an r.p.m. is reached at

which the power delivered is equal to the power

absorbed. In the case of a constant-speed propeller,

the power absorbed is independent of the r.p.m., for

by varying the pitch of the blades, the air resistance

and hence the torque or load, can be changed without

reference to propeller speed. This is accomplished

with a constant-speed propeller by means of a

governor. The governor, in most cases, is geared to

the engine crankshaft and thus is sensitive to changes

in engine r.p.m.

The pilot controls the engine r.p.m. indirectly by means

of a propeller control in the cockpit, which is

connected to the governor. For maximum takeoff

power, the propeller control is moved all the way

forward to the low pitch/high r.p.m. position, and the

throttle is moved forward to the maximum allowable

manifold pressure position. To reduce power for climb

or cruise, manifold pressure is reduced to the desired

value with the throttle, and the engine r.p.m. is reduced

by moving the propeller control back toward the high

pitch/low r.p.m. position until the desired r.p.m. is

observed on the tachometer. Pulling back on the

propeller control causes the propeller blades to move

to a higher angle. Increasing the propeller blade angle

(of attack) results in an increase in the resistance of the

air. This puts a load on the engine so it slows down. In

other words, the resistance of the air at the higher blade

angle is greater than the torque, or power, delivered to

the propeller by the engine, so it slows down to a point

where the two forces are in balance. 

When an airplane is nosed up into a climb from level

flight, the engine will tend to slow down. Since the

governor is sensitive to small changes in engine r.p.m.,

it will decrease the blade angle just enough to keep the

engine speed from falling off. If the airplane is nosed

down into a dive, the governor will increase the blade

angle enough to prevent the engine from overspeeding.

This allows the engine to maintain a constant r.p.m.,

and thus maintain the power output. Changes in

airspeed and power can be obtained by changing

r.p.m. at a constant manifold pressure; by changing

the manifold pressure at a constant r.p.m.; or by

changing both r.p.m. and manifold pressure. Thus

the constant-speed propeller makes it possible to

obtain an infinite number of power settings. 

TAKEOFF, CLIMB, AND CRUISE

During takeoff, when the forward motion of the

airplane is at low speeds and when maximum power

and thrust are required, the constant-speed propeller

sets up a low propeller blade angle (pitch). The low

blade angle keeps the angle of attack, with respect to

the relative wind, small and efficient at the low speed.

[Figure 11-3]

At the same time, it allows the propeller to “slice it

thin” and handle a smaller mass of air per revolution.

This light load allows the engine to turn at maximum

r.p.m. and develop maximum power. Although the

mass of air per revolution is small, the number of

revolutions per minute is high. Thrust is maximum at

the beginning of the takeoff and then decreases as the

airplane gains speed and the airplane drag increases.

Due to the high slipstream velocity during takeoff,

the effective lift of the wing behind the propeller(s)

is increased.

As the airspeed increases after lift-off, the load on the

engine is lightened because of the small blade angle.

The governor senses this and increases the blade angle

slightly. Again, the higher blade angle, with the higher

speeds, keeps the angle of attack with respect to the

relative wind small and efficient. 

Angle of 

 Attack

Chord

Line

Plane of

Propeller

Rotation 

Angle of 

Attack

Chord Line

(Blade Face)

STATIONARY FORWARD MOTION

Plane of 

Propeller

Rotation 

Forward 

Airspeed

Relative

Wind

Relative

Wind

Figure 11-3. Propeller blade angle.

Ch 11.qxd 5/7/04 8:50 AM Page 11-4
11-5

For climb after takeoff, the power output of the engine

is reduced to climb power by decreasing the manifold

pressure and lowering r.p.m. by increasing the blade

angle. At the higher (climb) airspeed and the higher

blade angle, the propeller is handling a greater mass of

air per second at a lower slipstream velocity. This

reduction in power is offset by the increase in propeller

efficiency. The angle of attack is again kept small by

the increase in the blade angle with an increase

in airspeed. 

At cruising altitude, when the airplane is in level flight,

less power is required to produce a higher airspeed

than is used in climb. Consequently, engine power is

again reduced by lowering the manifold pressure and

increasing the blade angle (to decrease r.p.m.). The

higher airspeed and higher blade angle enable the

propeller to handle a still greater mass of air per

second at still smaller slipstream velocity. At normal

cruising speeds, propeller efficiency is at, or near

maximum efficiency. Due to the increase in blade

angle and airspeed, the angle of attack is still small

and efficient.

BLADE ANGLE CONTROL

Once the pilot selects the r.p.m. settings for the

propeller, the propeller governor automatically adjusts

the blade angle to maintain the selected r.p.m. It does

this by using oil pressure. Generally, the oil pressure

used for pitch change comes directly from the engine

lubricating system. When a governor is employed,

engine oil is used and the oil pressure is usually

boosted by a pump, which is integrated with the

governor. The higher pressure provides a quicker blade

angle change. The r.p.m. at which the propeller is to

operate is adjusted in the governor head. The pilot

changes this setting by changing the position of the

governor rack through the cockpit propeller control.

On some constant-speed propellers, changes in pitch

are obtained by the use of an inherent centrifugal

twisting moment of the blades that tends to flatten the

blades toward low pitch, and oil pressure applied to a

hydraulic piston connected to the propeller blades

which moves them toward high pitch. Another type of

constant-speed propeller uses counterweights attached

to the blade shanks in the hub. Governor oil pressure

and the blade twisting moment move the blades toward

the low pitch position, and centrifugal force acting on

the counterweights moves them (and the blades)

toward the high pitch position. In the first case above,

governor oil pressure moves the blades towards high

pitch, and in the second case, governor oil pressure and

the blade twisting moment move the blades toward low

pitch. A loss of governor oil pressure, therefore, will

affect each differently. 

GOVERNING RANGE

The blade angle range for constant-speed propellers

varies from about 11 1/2 to 40°. The higher the speed

of the airplane, the greater the blade angle range.

[Figure 11-4]

The range of possible blade angles is termed the

propeller’s governing range. The governing range is

defined by the limits of the propeller blade’s travel

between high and low blade angle pitch stops. As long

as the propeller blade angle is within the governing

range and not against either pitch stop, a constant

engine r.p.m. will be maintained. However, once the

propeller blade reaches its pitch-stop limit, the engine

r.p.m. will increase or decrease with changes in

airspeed and propeller load similar to a fixed-pitch

propeller. For example, once a specific r.p.m. is

selected, if the airspeed decreases enough, the

propeller blades will reduce pitch, in an attempt to

maintain the selected r.p.m., until they contact their

low pitch stops. From that point, any further

reduction in airspeed will cause the engine r.p.m.

to decrease. Conversely, if the airspeed increases,

the propeller blade angle will increase until the

high pitch stop is reached. The engine r.p.m. will

then begin to increase.

CONSTANT-SPEED

PROPELLER OPERATION

The engine is started with the propeller control in the

low pitch/high r.p.m. position. This position reduces

the load or drag of the propeller and the result is easier

starting and warm-up of the engine. During warm-up,

the propeller blade changing mechanism should be

operated slowly and smoothly through a full cycle.

This is done by moving the propeller control (with the

Fixed Gear

Retractable

Turbo Retractable

Turbine Retractable

Transport Retractable

Aircraft Type Design Speed

(m.p.h.)

Blade Angle

Range

Pitch

Low High

160

180

225/240

250/300

325

111/

2°

15°

20°

30°

40°

101/

2°

11°

14°

10°

10/15°

22°

26°

34°

40°

50/55°

Figure 11-4. Blade angle range (values are approximate).

Ch 11.qxd 5/7/04 8:50 AM Page 11-5
11-6

manifold pressure set to produce about 1,600 r.p.m.)

to the high pitch/low r.p.m. position, allowing the

r.p.m. to stabilize, and then moving the propeller

control back to the low pitch takeoff position. This

should be done for two reasons: to determine

whether the system is operating correctly, and to

circulate fresh warm oil through the propeller

governor system. It should be remembered that the

oil has been trapped in the propeller cylinder since

the last time the engine was shut down. There is a

certain amount of leakage from the propeller

cylinder, and the oil tends to congeal, especially if

the outside air temperature is low. Consequently, if

the propeller isn’t exercised before takeoff, there is

a possibility that the engine may overspeed

on takeoff. 

An airplane equipped with a constant-speed propeller

has better takeoff performance than a similarly powered

airplane equipped with a fixed-pitch propeller. This is

because with a constant-speed propeller, an airplane can

develop its maximum rated horsepower (red line on the

tachometer) while motionless. An airplane with a fixedpitch propeller, on the other hand, must accelerate down

the runway to increase airspeed and aerodynamically

unload the propeller so that r.p.m. and horsepower can

steadily build up to their maximum. With a constantspeed propeller, the tachometer reading should come up

to within 40 r.p.m. of the red line as soon as full power is

applied, and should remain there for the entire takeoff.

Excessive manifold pressure raises the cylinder

compression pressure, resulting in high stresses within

the engine. Excessive pressure also produces high

engine temperatures. A combination of high manifold

pressure and low r.p.m. can induce damaging

detonation. In order to avoid these situations, the

following sequence should be followed when making

power changes.

• When increasing power, increase the r.p.m. first,

and then the manifold pressure.

• When decreasing power, decrease the manifold

pressure first, and then decrease the r.p.m.

It is a fallacy that (in non-turbocharged engines) the

manifold pressure in inches of mercury (inches Hg)

should never exceed r.p.m. in hundreds for cruise

power settings. The cruise power charts in the

AFM/POH should be consulted when selecting cruise

power settings. Whatever the combinations of r.p.m.

and manifold pressure listed in these charts—they have

been flight tested and approved by the airframe and

powerplant engineers for the respective airframe and

engine manufacturer. Therefore, if there are power

settings such as 2,100 r.p.m. and 24 inches manifold

pressure in the power chart, they are approved for use.

With a constant-speed propeller, a power descent can

be made without overspeeding the engine. The system

compensates for the increased airspeed of the descent

by increasing the propeller blade angles. If the descent

is too rapid, or is being made from a high altitude, the

maximum blade angle limit of the blades is not

sufficient to hold the r.p.m. constant. When this

occurs, the r.p.m. is responsive to any change

in throttle setting.

Some pilots consider it advisable to set the propeller

control for maximum r.p.m. during the approach to

have full horsepower available in case of emergency.

If the governor is set for this higher r.p.m. early in the

approach when the blades have not yet reached their

minimum angle stops, the r.p.m. may increase to

unsafe limits. However, if the propeller control is not

readjusted for the takeoff r.p.m. until the approach is

almost completed, the blades will be against, or very

near their minimum angle stops and there will be little

if any change in r.p.m. In case of emergency, both

throttle and propeller controls should be moved to

takeoff positions.

Many pilots prefer to feel the airplane respond

immediately when they give short bursts of the

throttle during approach. By making the approach

under a little power and having the propeller control

set at or near cruising r.p.m., this result can

be obtained.

Although the governor responds quickly to any change

in throttle setting, a sudden and large increase in the

throttle setting will cause a momentary overspeeding

of the engine until the blades become adjusted to

absorb the increased power. If an emergency

demanding full power should arise during approach,

the sudden advancing of the throttle will cause

momentary overspeeding of the engine beyond the

r.p.m. for which the governor is adjusted. This

temporary increase in engine speed acts as an

emergency power reserve.

Some important points to remember concerning

constant-speed propeller operation are:

• The red line on the tachometer not only indicates

maximum allowable r.p.m.; it also indicates

the r.p.m. required to obtain the engine’s

rated horsepower.

• A momentary propeller overspeed may occur

when the throttle is advanced rapidly for takeoff.

This is usually not serious if the rated r.p.m. is

not exceeded by 10 percent for more than

3 seconds.

• The green arc on the tachometer indicates the

normal operating range. When developing

Ch 11.qxd 5/7/04 8:50 AM Page 11-6
11-7

power in this range, the engine drives the propeller. Below the green arc, however, it is usually

the windmilling propeller that powers the

engine. Prolonged operation below the green arc

can be detrimental to the engine.

• On takeoffs from low elevation airports, the

manifold pressure in inches of mercury may

exceed the r.p.m. This is normal in most cases.

The pilot should consult the AFM/POH

for limitations.

• All power changes should be made smoothly

and slowly to avoid overboosting and/or

overspeeding.

TURBOCHARGING

The turbocharged engine allows the pilot to maintain

sufficient cruise power at high altitudes where there is

less drag, which means faster true airspeeds and

increased range with fuel economy. At the same time,

the powerplant has flexibility and can be flown at a low

altitude without the increased fuel consumption of a

turbine engine. When attached to the standard

powerplant, the turbocharger does not take any

horsepower from the powerplant to operate; it is

relatively simple mechanically, and some models can

pressurize the cabin as well.

The turbocharger is an exhaust-driven device, which

raises the pressure and density of the induction air

delivered to the engine. It consists of two separate

components: a compressor and a turbine connected by

a common shaft. The compressor supplies pressurized

air to the engine for high altitude operation. The

compressor and its housing are between the ambient

air intake and the induction air manifold. The turbine

and its housing are part of the exhaust system and

utilize the flow of exhaust gases to drive the

compressor. [Figure 11-5]

The turbine has the capability of producing manifold

pressure in excess of the maximum allowable for the

particular engine. In order not to exceed the maximum

allowable manifold pressure, a bypass or waste gate is

used so that some of the exhaust will be diverted

overboard before it passes through the turbine.

The position of the waste gate regulates the output of

the turbine and therefore, the compressed air available

to the engine. When the waste gate is closed, all of the

exhaust gases pass through and drive the turbine. As

the waste gate opens, some of the exhaust gases are

routed around the turbine, through the exhaust bypass

and overboard through the exhaust pipe.

The waste gate actuator is a spring-loaded piston,

operated by engine oil pressure. The actuator, which

adjusts the waste gate position, is connected to the

waste gate by a mechanical linkage.

The control center of the turbocharger system is

the pressure controller. This device simplifies

turbocharging to one control: the throttle. Once the

pilot has set the desired manifold pressure, virtually no

throttle adjustment is required with changes in altitude.

The controller senses compressor discharge

requirements for various altitudes and controls the oil

pressure to the waste gate actuator which adjusts the

waste gate accordingly. Thus the turbocharger

maintains only the manifold pressure called for by the

throttle setting. 

GROUND BOOSTING VS. ALTITUDE

TURBOCHARGING

Altitude turbocharging (sometimes called “normalizing”) is accomplished by using a turbocharger that

will maintain maximum allowable sea level manifold

pressure (normally 29 – 30 inches Hg) up to a certain

altitude. This altitude is specified by the airplane

manufacturer and is referred to as the airplane’s

critical altitude. Above the critical altitude,

EXHAUST GAS

DISCHARGE

WASTE GATE

This controls the amount of exhaust through the turbine. 

Waste gate position is actuated by engine oil pressure.

TURBOCHARGER

The turbocharger incorporates a 

turbine, which is driven by exhaust 

gases, and a compressor that 

pressurizes the incoming air.

THROTTLE BODY

This regulates airflow 

to the engine.

INTAKE MANIFOLD

Pressurized air from the 

turbocharger is supplied to 

the cylinders.

EXHAUST MANIFOLD

Exhaust gas is ducted through 

the exhaust manifold and is 

used to turn the turbine which 

drives the compressor.

AIR INTAKE

Intake air is ducted to 

the turbocharger where 

it is compressed.

Figure 11-5.Turbocharging system.

Ch 11.qxd 5/7/04 8:50 AM Page 11-7
11-8

the manifold pressure decreases as additional altitude

is gained. Ground boosting, on the other hand, is an

application of turbocharging where more than the

standard 29 inches of manifold pressure is used in

flight. In various airplanes using ground boosting,

takeoff manifold pressures may go as high as 45

inches of mercury.

Although a sea level power setting and maximum

r.p.m. can be maintained up to the critical altitude,

this does not mean that the engine is developing sea

level power. Engine power is not determined just by

manifold pressure and r.p.m. Induction air

temperature is also a factor. Turbocharged induction

air is heated by compression. This temperature rise

decreases induction air density which causes a

power loss. Maintaining the equivalent horsepower

output will require a somewhat higher manifold

pressure at a given altitude than if the induction air

were not compressed by turbocharging. If, on the

other hand, the system incorporates an automatic

density controller which, instead of maintaining a

constant manifold pressure, automatically positions

the waste gate so as to maintain constant air density

to the engine, a near constant horsepower output

will result.

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS

First and foremost, all movements of the power

controls on turbocharged engines should be slow and

gentle. Aggressive and/or abrupt throttle movements

increase the possibility of overboosting. The pilot

should carefully monitor engine indications when

making power changes.

When the waste gate is open, the turbocharged engine

will react the same as a normally aspirated engine

when the r.p.m. is varied. That is, when the r.p.m. is

increased, the manifold pressure will decrease slightly.

When the engine r.p.m. is decreased, the manifold

pressure will increase slightly. However, when the

waste gate is closed, manifold pressure variation with

engine r.p.m. is just the opposite of the normally

aspirated engine. An increase in engine r.p.m. will

result in an increase in manifold pressure, and a

decrease in engine r.p.m. will result in a decrease in

manifold pressure. 

Above the critical altitude, where the waste gate

is closed, any change in airspeed will result in a

corresponding change in manifold pressure. This is

true because the increase in ram air pressure with an

increase in airspeed is magnified by the compressor

resulting in an increase in manifold pressure. The

increase in manifold pressure creates a higher mass

flow through the engine, causing higher turbine speeds

and thus further increasing manifold pressure.

When running at high altitudes, aviation gasoline may

tend to vaporize prior to reaching the cylinder. If this

occurs in the portion of the fuel system between the

fuel tank and the engine-driven fuel pump, an

auxiliary positive pressure pump may be needed in the

tank. Since engine-driven pumps pull fuel, they are

easily vapor locked. A boost pump provides positive

pressure—pushes the fuel—reducing the tendency to

vaporize.

HEAT MANAGEMENT

Turbocharged engines must be thoughtfully and

carefully operated, with continuous monitoring of

pressures and temperatures. There are two temperatures that are especially important—turbine inlet

temperature (TIT) or in some installations exhaust gas

temperature (EGT), and cylinder head temperature.

TIT or EGT limits are set to protect the elements in the

hot section of the turbocharger, while cylinder head

temperature limits protect the engine’s internal parts.

Due to the heat of compression of the induction air, a

turbocharged engine runs at higher operating

temperatures than a non-turbocharged engine. Because

turbocharged engines operate at high altitudes, their

environment is less efficient for cooling. At altitude

the air is less dense and therefore, cools less

efficiently. Also, the less dense air causes the

compressor to work harder. Compressor turbine

speeds can reach 80,000 – 100,000 r.p.m., adding

to the overall engine operating temperatures.

Turbocharged engines are also operated at higher

power settings a greater portion of the time. 

High heat is detrimental to piston engine operation. Its

cumulative effects can lead to piston, ring, and

cylinder head failure, and place thermal stress on other

operating components. Excessive cylinder head

temperature can lead to detonation, which in turn can

cause catastrophic engine failure. Turbocharged

engines are especially heat sensitive. The key to

turbocharger operation, therefore, is effective heat

management.

The pilot monitors the condition of a turbocharged

engine with manifold pressure gauge, tachometer,

exhaust gas temperature/turbine inlet temperature

gauge, and cylinder head temperature. The pilot

manages the “heat system” with the throttle, propeller

r.p.m., mixture, and cowl flaps. At any given cruise

power, the mixture is the most influential control over

the exhaust gas/turbine inlet temperature. The throttle

regulates total fuel flow, but the mixture governs the

fuel to air ratio. The mixture, therefore, controls

temperature.

Exceeding temperature limits in an after takeoff climb

is usually not a problem since a full rich mixture cools

Ch 11.qxd 5/7/04 8:50 AM Page 11-8
11-9

with excess fuel. At cruise, however, the pilot normally

reduces power to 75 percent or less and simultaneously

adjusts the mixture. Under cruise conditions,

temperature limits should be monitored most closely

because it’s there that the temperatures are most likely

to reach the maximum, even though the engine is

producing less power. Overheating in an enroute

climb, however, may require fully open cowl flaps and

a higher airspeed.

Since turbocharged engines operate hotter at altitude

than do normally aspirated engines, they are more

prone to damage from cooling stress. Gradual

reductions in power, and careful monitoring of

temperatures are essential in the descent phase. The

pilot may find it helpful to lower the landing gear to

give the engine something to work against while power

is reduced and provide time for a slow cool down. It

may also be necessary to lean the mixture slightly to

eliminate roughness at the lower power settings.

TURBOCHARGER FAILURE

Because of the high temperatures and pressures

produced in the turbine exhaust systems, any

malfunction of the turbocharger must be treated with

extreme caution. In all cases of turbocharger operation,

the manufacturer’s recommended procedures should

be followed. This is especially so in the case of

turbocharger malfunction. However, in those instances

where the manufacturer’s procedures do not

adequately describe the actions to be taken in the event

of a turbocharger failure, the following procedures

should be used.

OVERBOOST CONDITION

If an excessive rise in manifold pressure occurs during

normal advancement of the throttle (possibly owing to

faulty operation of the waste gate):

• Immediately retard the throttle smoothly to limit

the manifold pressure below the maximum for

the r.p.m. and mixture setting.

• Operate the engine in such a manner as to avoid a

further overboost condition.

LOW MANIFOLD PRESSURE

Although this condition may be caused by a minor

fault, it is quite possible that a serious exhaust leak has

occurred creating a potentially hazardous situation:

• Shut down the engine in accordance with the

recommended engine failure procedures, unless

a greater emergency exists that warrants continued engine operation.

• If continuing to operate the engine, use the lowest power setting demanded by the situation and

land as soon as practicable.

It is very important to ensure that corrective

maintenance is undertaken following any

turbocharger malfunction.

RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR

The primary benefits of being able to retract the

landing gear are increased climb performance and

higher cruise airspeeds due to the resulting decrease in

drag. Retractable landing gear systems may be

operated either hydraulically or electrically, or may

employ a combination of the two systems. Warning

indicators are provided in the cockpit to show the pilot

when the wheels are down and locked and when they

are up and locked or if they are in intermediate

positions. Systems for emergency operation are also

provided. The complexity of the retractable landing

gear system requires that specific operating procedures

be adhered to and that certain operating limitations not

be exceeded.

LANDING GEAR SYSTEMS

An electrical landing gear retraction system utilizes an

electrically driven motor for gear operation. The

system is basically an electrically driven jack for

raising and lowering the gear. When a switch in the

cockpit is moved to the UP position, the electric motor

operates. Through a system of shafts, gears, adapters,

an actuator screw, and a torque tube, a force is

transmitted to the drag strut linkages. Thus, the gear

retracts and locks. Struts are also activated that open

and close the gear doors. If the switch is moved to the

DOWN position, the motor reverses and the gear

moves down and locks. Once activated the gear motor

will continue to operate until an up or down limit

switch on the motor’s gearbox is tripped.

A hydraulic landing gear retraction system utilizes

pressurized hydraulic fluid to actuate linkages to raise

and lower the gear. When a switch in the cockpit is

moved to the UP position, hydraulic fluid is directed

into the gear up line. The fluid flows through

sequenced valves and downlocks to the gear

actuating cylinders. A similar process occurs during

gear extension. The pump which pressurizes the fluid

in the system can be either engine driven or

electrically powered. If an electrically powered pump

is used to pressurize the fluid, the system is referred

to as an electrohydraulic system. The system also

incorporates a hydraulic reservoir to contain excess

fluid, and to provide a means of determining system

fluid level.

Regardless of its power source, the hydraulic pump is

designed to operate within a specific range. When a

sensor detects excessive pressure, a relief valve within

the pump opens, and hydraulic pressure is routed back

to the reservoir. Another type of relief valve prevents

excessive pressure that may result from thermal expansion. Hydraulic pressure is also regulated by limit

Ch 11.qxd 5/7/04 8:50 AM Page 11-9
11-10

switches. Each gear has two limit switches—one

dedicated to extension and one dedicated to retraction.

These switches de-energize the hydraulic pump after

the landing gear has completed its gear cycle. In the

event of limit switch failure, a backup pressure relief

valve activates to relieve excess system pressure.

CONTROLS AND POSITION INDICATORS

Landing gear position is controlled by a switch in the

cockpit. In most airplanes, the gear switch is shaped

like a wheel in order to facilitate positive identification

and to differentiate it from other cockpit controls.

[Figure 11-6]

Landing gear position indicators vary with different

make and model airplanes. The most common types of

landing gear position indicators utilize a group of

lights. One type consists of a group of three green

lights, which illuminate when the landing gear is down

and locked. [Figure 11-6] Another type consists of one

green light to indicate when the landing gear is down

and an amber light to indicate when the gear is up. Still

other systems incorporate a red or amber light to

indicate when the gear is in transit or unsafe for

landing. [Figure 11-7] The lights are usually of the

“press to test” type, and the bulbs are interchangeable.

[Figure 11-6]

Other types of landing gear position indicators consist

of tab-type indicators with markings “UP” to indicate

the gear is up and locked, a display of red and white

diagonal stripes to show when the gear is unlocked, or

a silhouette of each gear to indicate when it locks in

the DOWN position.

LANDING GEAR SAFETY DEVICES

Most airplanes with a retractable landing gear have a

gear warning horn that will sound when the airplane is

configured for landing and the landing gear is not

down and locked. Normally, the horn is linked to the

throttle or flap position, and/or the airspeed indicator

so that when the airplane is below a certain airspeed,

configuration, or power setting with the gear retracted,

the warning horn will sound.

Accidental retraction of a landing gear may be

prevented by such devices as mechanical downlocks,

safety switches, and ground locks. Mechanical

downlocks are built-in components of a gear retraction

system and are operated automatically by the gear

retraction system. To prevent accidental operation of

the downlocks, and inadvertent landing gear retraction

while the airplane is on the ground, electrically

operated safety switches are installed.

A landing gear safety switch, sometimes referred to as

a squat switch, is usually mounted in a bracket on one

of the main gear shock struts. [Figure 11-8] When the

strut is compressed by the weight of the airplane, the

switch opens the electrical circuit to the motor or

mechanism that powers retraction. In this way, if the

landing gear switch in the cockpit is placed in the

RETRACT position when weight is on the gear, the

gear will remain extended, and the warning horn may

sound as an alert to the unsafe condition. Once the

weight is off the gear, however, such as on takeoff, the

safety switch will release and the gear will retract.

Many airplanes are equipped with additional safety

devices to prevent collapse of the gear when the

airplane is on the ground. These devices are called

ground locks. One common type is a pin installed in

aligned holes drilled in two or more units of the

landing gear support structure. Another type is a

spring-loaded clip designed to fit around and hold two

or more units of the support structure together. All

types of ground locks usually have red streamers

permanently attached to them to readily indicate

whether or not they are installed.

EMERGENCY GEAR EXTENSION SYSTEMS

The emergency extension system lowers the landing

gear if the main power system fails. Some airplanes

Figure 11-6. Typical landing gear switches and position

indicators.

Figure 11-7. Typical landing gear switches and position

indicators.

Ch 11.qxd 5/7/04 8:50 AM Page 11-10
11-11

have an emergency release handle in the cockpit,

which is connected through a mechanical linkage to

the gear uplocks. When the handle is operated, it

releases the uplocks and allows the gears to free fall, or

extend under their own weight. [Figure 11-9]

Safety Switch

Landing Gear

Selector Valve

Lock Release

Solenoid

Lock-Pin

28V DC

Bus Bar

Figure 11-8. Landing gear safety switch.

Hand Pump Compressed Gas

Hand Crank

Figure 11-9.Typical emergency gear extension systems.

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11-12

should then turn on the battery master switch and

ensure that the landing gear position indicators show

that the gear is down and locked. 

External inspection of the landing gear should

consist of checking individual system components.

[Figure 11-10] The landing gear, wheel well, and

adjacent areas should be clean and free of mud and

debris. Dirty switches and valves may cause false

safe light indications or interrupt the extension cycle

before the landing gear is completely down and

locked. The wheel wells should be clear of any

obstructions, as foreign objects may damage the gear

or interfere with its operation. Bent gear doors may

Figure 11-10. Retractable landing gear inspection

checkpoints.

On other airplanes, release of the uplock is

accomplished using compressed gas, which is directed

to uplock release cylinders.

In some airplanes, design configurations make

emergency extension of the landing gear by gravity

and air loads alone impossible or impractical. In these

airplanes, provisions are included for forceful gear

extension in an emergency. Some installations are

designed so that either hydraulic fluid or compressed

gas provides the necessary pressure, while others use a

manual system such as a hand crank for emergency

gear extension. [Figure 11-9] Hydraulic pressure for

emergency operation of the landing gear may be

provided by an auxiliary hand pump, an accumulator,

or an electrically powered hydraulic pump depending

on the design of the airplane.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

PREFLIGHT

Because of their complexity, retractable landing gears

demand a close inspection prior to every flight. The

inspection should begin inside the cockpit. The pilot

should first make certain that the landing gear selector

switch is in the GEAR DOWN position. The pilot

Ch 11.qxd 5/7/04 8:50 AM Page 11-12
11-13

be an indication of possible problems with normal

gear operation.

Shock struts should be properly inflated and the

pistons clean. Main gear and nose gear uplock and

downlock mechanisms should be checked for general

condition. Power sources and retracting mechanisms

should be checked for general condition, obvious

defects, and security of attachment. Hydraulic lines

should be checked for signs of chafing, and leakage

at attach points. Warning system micro switches

(squat switches) should be checked for cleanliness

and security of attachment. Actuating cylinders,

sprockets, universals, drive gears, linkages and any

other accessible components should be checked for

condition and obvious defects. The airplane structure

to which the landing gear is attached should be

checked for distortion, cracks, and general condition.

All bolts and rivets should be intact and secure.

TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

Normally, the landing gear should be retracted after

lift-off when the airplane has reached an altitude

where, in the event of an engine failure or other

emergency requiring an aborted takeoff, the airplane

could no longer be landed on the runway. This procedure, however, may not apply to all situations. Landing

gear retraction should be preplanned, taking into

account the length of the runway, climb gradient,

obstacle clearance requirements, the characteristics of

the terrain beyond the departure end of the runway, and

the climb characteristics of the particular airplane. For

example, in some situations it may be preferable, in the

event of an engine failure, to make an off airport forced

landing with the gear extended in order to take

advantage of the energy absorbing qualities of terrain

(see Chapter 16). In which case, a delay in retracting

the landing gear after takeoff from a short runway may

be warranted. In other situations, obstacles in the climb

path may warrant a timely gear retraction after takeoff.

Also, in some airplanes the initial climb pitch attitude

is such that any view of the runway remaining is

blocked, making an assessment of the feasibility of

touching down on the remaining runway difficult.

Premature landing gear retraction should be avoided.

The landing gear should not be retracted until a

positive rate of climb is indicated on the flight

instruments. If the airplane has not attained a positive

rate of climb, there is always the chance it may settle

back onto the runway with the gear retracted. This is

especially so in cases of premature lift-off. The pilot

should also remember that leaning forward to reach the

landing gear selector may result in inadvertent forward

pressure on the yoke, which will cause the airplane to

descend.

As the landing gear retracts, airspeed will increase and

the airplane’s pitch attitude may change. The gear may

take several seconds to retract. Gear retraction and

locking (and gear extension and locking) is

accompanied by sound and feel that are unique to the

specific make and model airplane. The pilot should

become familiar with the sounds and feel of normal

gear retraction so that any abnormal gear operation can

be readily discernable. Abnormal landing gear

retraction is most often a clear sign that the gear

extension cycle will also be abnormal.

APPROACH AND LANDING 

The operating loads placed on the landing gear at

higher airspeeds may cause structural damage due to

the forces of the airstream. Limiting speeds, therefore,

are established for gear operation to protect the gear

components from becoming overstressed during flight.

These speeds are not found on the airspeed indicator.

They are published in the AFM/POH for the particular

airplane and are usually listed on placards in the

cockpit. [Figure 11-11] The maximum landing

extended speed (VLE ) is the maximum speed at which

the airplane can be flown with the landing gear

extended. The maximum landing gear operating speed

(VLO) is the maximum speed at which the landing gear

may be operated through its cycle.

The landing gear is extended by placing the gear

selector switch in the GEAR DOWN position. As the

landing gear extends, the airspeed will decrease and

the pitch attitude may increase. During the several

seconds it takes for the gear to extend, the pilot

should be attentive to any abnormal sounds or feel.

The pilot should confirm that the landing gear has

extended and locked by the normal sound and feel of

the system operation as well as by the gear position

indicators in the cockpit. Unless the landing gear has

been previously extended to aid in a descent to traffic

pattern altitude, the landing gear should be extended

by the time the airplane reaches a point on the downwind leg that is opposite the point of intended

landing. The pilot should establish a standard

procedure consisting of a specific position on the

downwind leg at which to lower the landing gear.

Strict adherence to this procedure will aid the pilot in

avoiding unintentional gear up landings.

Figure 11-11. Placarded gear speeds in the cockpit.

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11-14

Operation of an airplane equipped with a retractable

landing gear requires the deliberate, careful, and

continued use of an appropriate checklist. When on

the downwind leg, the pilot should make it a habit to

complete the landing gear checklist for that airplane.

This accomplishes two purposes. It ensures that

action has been taken to lower the gear, and it

increases the pilot’s awareness so that the gear down

indicators can be rechecked prior to landing.

Unless good operating practices dictate otherwise, the

landing roll should be completed and the airplane

clear of the runway before any levers or switches are

operated. This will accomplish the following: The

landing gear strut safety switches will be actuated,

deactivating the landing gear retract system. After

rollout and clearing the runway, the pilot will be able

to focus attention on the after landing checklist and to

identify the proper controls.

Pilots transitioning to retractable gear airplanes should

be aware that the most common pilot operational

factors involved in retractable gear airplane accidents

are:

• Neglected to extend landing gear.

• Inadvertently retracted landing gear.

• Activated gear, but failed to check gear position.

• Misused emergency gear system.

• Retracted gear prematurely on takeoff.

• Extended gear too late. 

In order to minimize the chances of a landing gear

related mishap, the pilot should:

• Use an appropriate checklist. (A condensed

checklist mounted in view of the pilot as a

reminder for its use and easy reference can be

especially helpful.)

• Be familiar with, and periodically review, the

landing gear emergency extension procedures for

the particular airplane.

• Be familiar with the landing gear warning horn

and warning light systems for the particular

airplane. Use the horn system to cross-check the

warning light system when an unsafe condition

is noted.

• Review the procedure for replacing light bulbs

in the landing gear warning light displays for the

particular airplane, so that you can properly

replace a bulb to determine if the bulb(s) in the

display is good. Check to see if spare bulbs are

available in the airplane spare bulb supply as part

of the preflight inspection.

• Be familiar with and aware of the sounds and

feel of a properly operating landing gear system.

TRANSITION TRAINING

Transition to a complex airplane or a high

performance airplane should be accomplished through

a structured course of training administered by a

competent and qualified flight instructor. The training

should be accomplished in accordance with a ground

and flight training syllabus. [Figure 11-12] 

This sample syllabus for transition training is to be

considered flexible. The arrangement of the subject

matter may be changed and the emphasis may be

shifted to fit the qualifications of the transitioning

pilot, the airplane involved, and the circumstances of

the training situation, provided the prescribed

proficiency standards are achieved. These standards

are contained in the practical test standards

appropriate for the certificate that the transitioning

pilot holds or is working towards.

The training times indicated in the syllabus are based

on the capabilities of a pilot who is currently active

and fully meets the present requirements for the

issuance of at least a private pilot certificate. The time

periods may be reduced for pilots with higher

qualifications or increased for pilots who do not meet

the current certification requirements or who have had

little recent flight experience.

Ch 11.qxd 5/7/04 8:50 AM Page 11-14
11-15

1. Operations sections of

 flight manual

2. Line inspection

3. Cockpit familiarization

1. Flight training maneuvers

2. Takeoffs, landings and

 go-arounds

1. Aircraft loading, limitations

 and servicing

2. Instruments, radio and 

 special equipment

3. Aircraft systems

1. Emergency operations

2. Control by reference to

 instruments

3. Use of radio and autopilot

As assigned by flight instructor

1. Performance section of

 flight manual

2. Cruise control

3. Review

1. Short and soft-field

 takeoffs and landings

2. Maximum performance

 operations

As assigned by flight instructor

Ground Instruction Flight Instruction Directed Practice*

1 Hour—CHECKOUT

1 Hour 1 Hour

1 Hour 1 Hour 1 Hour

1 Hour 1 Hour 1 Hour

* The directed practice indicated may be conducted solo or with a safety pilot at the discretion of the instructor.

Figure 11-12.Transition training syllabus.

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11-16

Ch 11.qxd 5/7/04 8:50 AM Page 11-16
MULTIENGINE FLIGHT

This chapter is devoted to the factors associated with

the operation of small multiengine airplanes. For the

purpose of this handbook, a “small” multiengine airplane is a reciprocating or turbopropeller-powered

airplane with a maximum certificated takeoff weight

of 12,500 pounds or less. This discussion assumes a

conventional design with two engines—one mounted

on each wing. Reciprocating engines are assumed

unless otherwise noted. The term “light-twin,”

although not formally defined in the regulations, is

used herein as a small multiengine airplane with a

maximum certificated takeoff weight of 6,000 pounds

or less.

There are several unique characteristics of multiengine

airplanes that make them worthy of a separate class rating. Knowledge of these factors and proficient flight

skills are a key to safe flight in these airplanes. This

chapter deals extensively with the numerous aspects of

one engine inoperative (OEI) flight. However, pilots

are strongly cautioned not to place undue emphasis

on mastery of OEI flight as the sole key to flying

multiengine airplanes safely. The inoperative engine

information that follows is extensive only because

this chapter emphasizes the differences between flying

multiengine airplanes as contrasted to single-engine

airplanes.

The modern, well-equipped multiengine airplane can

be remarkably capable under many circumstances. But,

as with single-engine airplanes, it must be flown prudently by a current and competent pilot to achieve the

highest possible level of safety.

This chapter contains information and guidance on the

performance of certain maneuvers and procedures in

small multiengine airplanes for the purposes of flight

training and pilot certification testing. The final

authority on the operation of a particular make and

model airplane, however, is the airplane manufacturer.

Both the flight instructor and the student should be

aware that if any of the guidance in this handbook conflicts with the airplane manufacturer’s recommended

procedures and guidance as contained in the FAAapproved Airplane Flight Manual and/or Pilot’s

Operating Handbook (AFM/POH), it is the airplane

manufacturer’s guidance and procedures that take

precedence.

GENERAL

The basic difference between operating a multiengine

airplane and a single-engine airplane is the potential

problem involving an engine failure. The penalties for

loss of an engine are twofold: performance and control.

The most obvious problem is the loss of 50 percent

of power, which reduces climb performance 80 to 90

percent, sometimes even more. The other is the control problem caused by the remaining thrust, which

is now asymmetrical. Attention to both these factors

is crucial to safe OEI flight. The performance and

systems redundancy of a multiengine airplane is a

safety advantage only to a trained and proficient

pilot.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Pilots of single-engine airplanes are already familiar

with many performance “V” speeds and their definitions. Twin-engine airplanes have several additional

V speeds unique to OEI operation. These speeds are

differentiated by the notation “SE”, for single engine.

A review of some key V speeds and several new V

speeds unique to twin-engine airplanes follows.

• VR – Rotation speed. The speed at which back

pressure is applied to rotate the airplane to a takeoff attitude.

• VLOF – Lift-off speed. The speed at which the

airplane leaves the surface. (Note: some manufacturers reference takeoff performance data to

VR, others to VLOF.)

• VX – Best angle of climb speed. The speed at

which the airplane will gain the greatest altitude

for a given distance of forward travel.

• VXSE – Best angle-of-climb speed with one

engine inoperative.

• VY – Best rate of climb speed. The speed at

which the airplane will gain the most altitude for

a given unit of time.

• VYSE – Best rate-of-climb speed with one engine

inoperative. Marked with a blue radial line on

most airspeed indicators. Above the single-engine

absolute ceiling, VYSE yields the minimum rate of

sink.

• VSSE – Safe, intentional one-engine-inoperative

speed. Originally known as safe single-engine

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Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-1
speed. Now formally defined in Title 14 of the

Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 23,

Airworthiness Standards, and required to be

established and published in the AFM/POH. It is

the minimum speed to intentionally render the

critical engine inoperative.

• VMC – Minimum control speed with the critical

engine inoperative. Marked with a red radial line

on most airspeed indicators. The minimum speed

at which directional control can be maintained

under a very specific set of circumstances outlined

in 14 CFR part 23, Airworthiness Standards.

Under the small airplane certification regulations

currently in effect, the flight test pilot must be able

to (1) stop the turn that results when the critical

engine is suddenly made inoperative within 20°

of the original heading, using maximum rudder

deflection and a maximum of 5° bank, and (2)

thereafter, maintain straight flight with not

more than a 5° bank. There is no requirement in

this determination that the airplane be capable

of climbing at this airspeed. VMC only

addresses directional control. Further discussion of VMC as determined during airplane certification and demonstrated in pilot training

follows in minimum control airspeed (VMC)

demonstration. [Figure 12-1]

Figure 12-1. Airspeed indicator markings for a multiengine

airplane.

Unless otherwise noted, when V speeds are given in

the AFM/POH, they apply to sea level, standard day

conditions at maximum takeoff weight. Performance

speeds vary with aircraft weight, configuration, and

atmospheric conditions. The speeds may be stated in

statute miles per hour (m.p.h.) or knots (kts), and they

may be given as calibrated airspeeds (CAS) or indicated airspeeds (IAS). As a general rule, the newer

AFM/POHs show V speeds in knots indicated airspeed

(KIAS). Some V speeds are also stated in knots calibrated airspeed (KCAS) to meet certain regulatory

requirements. Whenever available, pilots should operate the airplane from published indicated airspeeds.

With regard to climb performance, the multiengine

airplane, particularly in the takeoff or landing configuration, may be considered to be a single-engine

airplane with its powerplant divided into two units.

There is nothing in 14 CFR part 23 that requires a

multiengine airplane to maintain altitude while in

the takeoff or landing configuration with one engine

inoperative. In fact, many twins are not required to

do this in any configuration, even at sea level.

The current 14 CFR part 23 single-engine climb

performance requirements for reciprocating enginepowered multiengine airplanes are as follows.

• More than 6,000 pounds maximum weight

and/or VSO more than 61 knots: the singleengine rate of climb in feet per minute (f.p.m.) at

5,000 feet MSL must be equal to at least .027

VSO

2. For airplanes type certificated February 4,

1991, or thereafter, the climb requirement is

expressed in terms of a climb gradient, 1.5 percent. The climb gradient is not a direct equivalent of the .027 VSO

2 formula. Do not confuse the

date of type certification with the airplane’s

model year. The type certification basis of many

multiengine airplanes dates back to CAR 3 (the

Civil Aviation Regulations, forerunner of today’s

Code of Federal Regulations).

• 6,000 pounds or less maximum weight and VSO

61 knots or less: the single-engine rate of climb

at 5,000 feet MSL must simply be determined.

The rate of climb could be a negative number.

There is no requirement for a single-engine

positive rate of climb at 5,000 feet or any other

altitude. For light-twins type certificated

February 4, 1991, or thereafter, the singleengine climb gradient (positive or negative) is

simply determined.

Rate of climb is the altitude gain per unit of time, while

climb gradient is the actual measure of altitude gained

per 100 feet of horizontal travel, expressed as a percentage. An altitude gain of 1.5 feet per 100 feet of

travel (or 15 feet per 1,000, or 150 feet per 10,000) is a

climb gradient of 1.5 percent.

There is a dramatic performance loss associated with

the loss of an engine, particularly just after takeoff.

Any airplane’s climb performance is a function of

thrust horsepower which is in excess of that required

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Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-2
for level flight. In a hypothetical twin with each engine

producing 200 thrust horsepower, assume that the total

level-flight thrust horsepower required is 175. In this

situation, the airplane would ordinarily have a reserve

of 225 thrust horsepower available for climb. Loss of

one engine would leave only 25 (200 minus 175) thrust

horsepower available for climb, a drastic reduction.

Sea level rate-of-climb performance losses of at least

80 to 90 percent, even under ideal circumstances, are

typical for multiengine airplanes in OEI flight.

OPERATION OF SYSTEMS

This section will deal with systems that are generally

found on multiengine airplanes. Multiengine airplanes

share many features with complex single-engine airplanes. There are certain systems and features covered

here, however, that are generally unique to airplanes

with two or more engines.

PROPELLERS

The propellers of the multiengine airplane may outwardly appear to be identical in operation to the

constant-speed propellers of many single-engine

airplanes, but this is not the case. The propellers of

multiengine airplanes are featherable, to minimize

drag in the event of an engine failure. Depending

upon single-engine performance, this feature often

permits continued flight to a suitable airport following

an engine failure. To feather a propeller is to stop

engine rotation with the propeller blades streamlined

with the airplane’s relative wind, thus to minimize

drag. [Figure 12-2]

Feathering is necessary because of the change in parasite drag with propeller blade angle. [Figure 12-3]

When the propeller blade angle is in the feathered

position, the change in parasite drag is at a minimum

and, in the case of a typical multiengine airplane, the

added parasite drag from a single feathered propeller

is a relatively small contribution to the airplane total

drag.

At the smaller blade angles near the flat pitch position,

the drag added by the propeller is very large. At these

small blade angles, the propeller windmilling at high

r.p.m. can create such a tremendous amount of drag that

the airplane may be uncontrollable. The propeller windmilling at high speed in the low range of blade angles

can produce an increase in parasite drag which may be

as great as the parasite drag of the basic airplane.

As a review, the constant-speed propellers on almost

all single-engine airplanes are of the non-feathering,

oil-pressure-to-increase-pitch design. In this design,

increased oil pressure from the propeller governor

drives the blade angle towards high pitch, low r.p.m.

In contrast, the constant-speed propellers installed

on most multiengine airplanes are full feathering,

counterweighted, oil-pressure-to-decrease-pitch

designs. In this design, increased oil pressure from the

propeller governor drives the blade angle towards low

pitch, high r.p.m.—away from the feather blade angle.

In effect, the only thing that keeps these propellers

from feathering is a constant supply of high pressure

engine oil. This is a necessity to enable propeller feathering in the event of a loss of oil pressure or a propeller

governor failure.

Full

Feathered

90°

High

Pitch

Low

Pitch

Figure 12-2. Feathered propeller.

Change in

Equivalent

Parasite

Drag

Propeller Blade Angle

0 15 30 45 60 90

PROPELLER DRAG CONTRIBUTION

Windmilling

Propeller

Stationary

Propeller Feathered

Position

Flat Blade Position

Figure 12-3. Propeller drag contribution.

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Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-3
The aerodynamic forces alone acting upon a windmilling propeller tend to drive the blades to low pitch,

high r.p.m. Counterweights attached to the shank of

each blade tend to drive the blades to high pitch, low

r.p.m. Inertia, or apparent force called centrifugal force

acting through the counterweights is generally slightly

greater than the aerodynamic forces. Oil pressure from

the propeller governor is used to counteract the counterweights and drives the blade angles to low pitch,

high r.p.m. A reduction in oil pressure causes the r.p.m.

to be reduced from the influence of the counterweights.

[Figure 12-4]

To feather the propeller, the propeller control is

brought fully aft. All oil pressure is dumped from the

governor, and the counterweights drive the propeller

blades towards feather. As centrifugal force acting on

the counterweights decays from decreasing r.p.m.,

additional forces are needed to completely feather the

blades. This additional force comes from either a

spring or high pressure air stored in the propeller

dome, which forces the blades into the feathered position. The entire process may take up to 10 seconds.

Feathering a propeller only alters blade angle and stops

engine rotation. To completely secure the engine, the

pilot must still turn off the fuel (mixture, electric boost

pump, and fuel selector), ignition, alternator/generator,

and close the cowl flaps. If the airplane is pressurized,

there may also be an air bleed to close for the failed

engine. Some airplanes are equipped with firewall

shutoff valves that secure several of these systems

with a single switch.

Completely securing a failed engine may not be necessary or even desirable depending upon the failure

mode, altitude, and time available. The position of the

fuel controls, ignition, and alternator/generator

switches of the failed engine has no effect on aircraft

performance. There is always the distinct possibility

of manipulating the incorrect switch under conditions

of haste or pressure.

To unfeather a propeller, the engine must be rotated

so that oil pressure can be generated to move the

propeller blades from the feathered position. The

ignition is turned on prior to engine rotation with the

throttle at low idle and the mixture rich. With the

propeller control in a high r.p.m. position, the starter

is engaged. The engine will begin to windmill, start,

and run as oil pressure moves the blades out of

feather. As the engine starts, the propeller r.p.m.

should be immediately reduced until the engine has

had several minutes to warm up; the pilot should

monitor cylinder head and oil temperatures.

Should the r.p.m. obtained with the starter be insufficient to unfeather the propeller, an increase in airspeed

Counterweight

Action

Aerodynamic Force

Hydraulic Force

High-pressure oil enters the cylinder through the center of 

the propeller shaft and piston rod. The propeller control 

regulates the flow of high-pressure oil from a governor.

A hydraulic piston in the hub of the propeller is connected 

to each blade by a piston rod. This rod is attached to forks 

that slide over the pitch-change pin mounted in the root of 

each blade.

The oil pressure moves the piston toward the front of the 

cylinder, moving the piston rod and forks forward.

The forks push the pitch-change pin of each blade 

toward the front of the hub, causing the blades to twist 

toward the low-pitch position.

A nitrogen pressure charge or mechanical spring in 

the front of the hub opposes the oil pressure, and 

causes the propeller to move toward high-pitch.

Counterweights also cause the blades to move toward 

the high-pitch and feather positions. The counterweights counteract the aerodynamic twisting force that 

tries to move the blades toward a low-pitch angle.

Nitrogen Pressure or Spring

Force, and Counterweight Action

Figure 12-4. Pitch change forces.

12-4

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-4
from a shallow dive will usually help. In any event, the

AFM/POH procedures should be followed for the

exact unfeathering procedure. Both feathering and

starting a feathered reciprocating engine on the ground

are strongly discouraged by manufacturers due to the

excessive stress and vibrations generated.

As just described, a loss of oil pressure from the propeller governor allows the counterweights, spring

and/or dome charge to drive the blades to feather.

Logically then, the propeller blades should feather

every time an engine is shut down as oil pressure falls

to zero. Yet, this does not occur. Preventing this is a

small pin in the pitch changing mechanism of the

propeller hub that will not allow the propeller blades

to feather once r.p.m. drops below approximately

800. The pin senses a lack of centrifugal force from

propeller rotation and falls into place, preventing the

blades from feathering. Therefore, if a propeller is to

be feathered, it must be done before engine r.p.m.

decays below approximately 800. On one popular

model of turboprop engine, the propeller blades do,

in fact, feather with each shutdown. This propeller is

not equipped with such centrifugally-operated pins,

due to a unique engine design.

An unfeathering accumulator is an optional device that

permits starting a feathered engine in flight without the

use of the electric starter. An accumulator is any device

that stores a reserve of high pressure. On multiengine

airplanes, the unfeathering accumulator stores a small

reserve of engine oil under pressure from compressed

air or nitrogen. To start a feathered engine in flight,

the pilot moves the propeller control out of the

feather position to release the accumulator pressure.

The oil flows under pressure to the propeller hub and

drives the blades toward the high r.p.m., low pitch

position, whereupon the propeller will usually begin

to windmill. (On some airplanes, an assist from the

electric starter may be necessary to initiate rotation

and completely unfeather the propeller.) If fuel and

ignition are present, the engine will start and run.

For airplanes used in training, this saves much electric starter and battery wear. High oil pressure from

the propeller governor recharges the accumulator

just moments after engine rotation begins.

PROPELLER SYNCHRONIZATION

Many multiengine airplanes have a propeller synchronizer (prop sync) installed to eliminate the annoying

“drumming” or “beat” of propellers whose r.p.m. are

close, but not precisely the same. To use prop sync, the

propeller r.p.m. are coarsely matched by the pilot and

the system is engaged. The prop sync adjusts the r.p.m.

of the “slave” engine to precisely match the r.p.m. of

the “master” engine, and then maintains that relationship. The prop sync should be disengaged when the

pilot selects a new propeller r.p.m., then re-engaged

after the new r.p.m. is set. The prop sync should always

be off for takeoff, landing, and single-engine operation. The AFM/POH should be consulted for system

description and limitations.

A variation on the propeller synchronizer is the propeller synchrophaser. Prop sychrophase acts much

like a synchronizer to precisely match r.p.m., but the

synchrophaser goes one step further. It not only

matches r.p.m. but actually compares and adjusts the

positions of the individual blades of the propellers in

their arcs. There can be significant propeller noise and

vibration reductions with a propeller synchrophaser.

From the pilot’s perspective, operation of a propeller

synchronizer and a propeller syncrophaser are very

similar. A synchrophaser is also commonly referred to

as prop sync, although that is not entirely correct

nomenclature from a technical standpoint.

As a pilot aid to manually synchronizing the

propellers, some twins have a small gauge mounted

in or by the tachometer(s) with a propeller symbol

on a disk that spins. The pilot manually fine tunes

the engine r.p.m. so as to stop disk rotation, thereby

synchronizing the propellers. This is a useful backup

to synchronizing engine r.p.m. using the audible

propeller beat. This gauge is also found installed

with most propeller synchronizer and synchrophase

systems. Some synchrophase systems use a knob for

the pilot to control the phase angle.

FUEL CROSSFEED

Fuel crossfeed systems are also unique to multiengine

airplanes. Using crossfeed, an engine can draw fuel

from a fuel tank located in the opposite wing.

On most multiengine airplanes, operation in the crossfeed mode is an emergency procedure used to extend

airplane range and endurance in OEI flight. There are

a few models that permit crossfeed as a normal, fuel

balancing technique in normal operation, but these are

not common. The AFM/POH will describe crossfeed

limitations and procedures, which vary significantly

among multiengine airplanes.

Checking crossfeed operation on the ground with a

quick repositioning of the fuel selectors does nothing

more than ensure freedom of motion of the handle. To

actually check crossfeed operation, a complete, functional crossfeed system check should be accomplished.

To do this, each engine should be operated from its

crossfeed position during the runup. The engines

should be checked individually, and allowed to run at

moderate power (1,500 r.p.m. minimum) for at least 1

minute to ensure that fuel flow can be established from

the crossfeed source. Upon completion of the check,

each engine should be operated for at least 1 minute at

moderate power from the main (takeoff) fuel tanks to

reconfirm fuel flow prior to takeoff.

12-5

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12-6

This suggested check is not required prior to every

flight. Infrequently used, however, crossfeed lines are

ideal places for water and debris to accumulate unless

they are used from time to time and drained using their

external drains during preflight. Crossfeed is ordinarily not used for completing single-engine flights when

an alternate airport is readily at hand, and it is never

used during takeoff or landings.

COMBUSTION HEATER

Combustion heaters are common on multiengine

airplanes. A combustion heater is best described as

a small furnace that burns gasoline to produce

heated air for occupant comfort and windshield

defogging. Most are thermostatically operated, and

have a separate hour meter to record time in service

for maintenance purposes. Automatic overtemperature

protection is provided by a thermal switch mounted on

the unit, which cannot be accessed in flight. This

requires the pilot or mechanic to actually visually

inspect the unit for possible heat damage in order to

reset the switch.

When finished with the combustion heater, a cool

down period is required. Most heaters require that outside air be permitted to circulate through the unit for at

least 15 seconds in flight, or that the ventilation fan be

operated for at least 2 minutes on the ground. Failure

to provide an adequate cool down will usually trip the

thermal switch and render the heater inoperative until

the switch is reset.

FLIGHT DIRECTOR/AUTOPILOT

Flight director/autopilot (FD/AP) systems are common

on the better-equipped multiengine airplanes. The

system integrates pitch, roll, heading, altitude, and

radio navigation signals in a computer. The outputs,

called computed commands, are displayed on a flight

command indicator, or FCI. The FCI replaces the

conventional attitude indicator on the instrument

panel. The FCI is occasionally referred to as a flight

director indicator (FDI), or as an attitude director

indicator (ADI). The entire flight director/autopilot

system is sometimes called an integrated flight control system (IFCS) by some manufacturers. Others

may use the term “automatic flight control system

(AFCS).”

The FD/AP system may be employed at three different

levels.

• Off (raw data).

• Flight director (computed commands).

• Autopilot.

With the system off, the FCI operates as an ordinary

attitude indicator. On most FCIs, the command bars

are biased out of view when the flight director is off.

The pilot maneuvers the airplane as though the system

were not installed.

To maneuver the airplane using the flight director, the

pilot enters the desired modes of operation (heading,

altitude, nav intercept, and tracking) on the FD/AP

mode controller. The computed flight commands are

then displayed to the pilot through either a single-cue

or dual-cue system in the FCI. On a single-cue system,

the commands are indicated by “V” bars. On a

dual-cue system, the commands are displayed on

two separate command bars, one for pitch and one

for roll. To maneuver the airplane using computed

commands, the pilot “flies” the symbolic airplane

of the FCI to match the steering cues presented.

On most systems, to engage the autopilot the flight

director must first be operating. At any time thereafter,

the pilot may engage the autopilot through the mode

controller. The autopilot then maneuvers the airplane

to satisfy the computed commands of the flight

director.

Like any computer, the FD/AP system will only do

what it is told. The pilot must ensure that it has been

properly programmed for the particular phase of flight

desired. The armed and/or engaged modes are usually

displayed on the mode controller or separate annunciator lights. When the airplane is being hand-flown, if

the flight director is not being used at any particular

moment, it should be off so that the command bars are

pulled from view.

Prior to system engagement, all FD/AP computer and

trim checks should be accomplished. Many newer

systems cannot be engaged without the completion of

a self-test. The pilot must also be very familiar with

various methods of disengagement, both normal and

emergency. System details, including approvals and

limitations, can be found in the supplements section

of the AFM/POH. Additionally, many avionics manufacturers can provide informative pilot operating

guides upon request.

YAW DAMPER

The yaw damper is a servo that moves the rudder in

response to inputs from a gyroscope or accelerometer

that detects yaw rate. The yaw damper minimizes

motion about the vertical axis caused by turbulence.

(Yaw dampers on sweptwing airplanes provide

another, more vital function of damping dutch roll

characteristics.) Occupants will feel a smoother ride,

particularly if seated in the rear of the airplane, when

the yaw damper is engaged. The yaw damper should

be off for takeoff and landing. There may be additional

restrictions against its use during single-engine operation. Most yaw dampers can be engaged independently

of the autopilot.

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-6
12-7

ALTERNATOR/GENERATOR

Alternator or generator paralleling circuitry matches

the output of each engine’s alternator/generator so that

the electrical system load is shared equally between

them. In the event of an alternator/generator failure,

the inoperative unit can be isolated and the entire

electrical system powered from the remaining one.

Depending upon the electrical capacity of the alternator/generator, the pilot may need to reduce the

electrical load (referred to as load shedding) when

operating on a single unit. The AFM/POH will contain

system description and limitations.

NOSE BAGGAGE COMPARTMENT

Nose baggage compartments are common on multiengine

airplanes (and are even found on a few single-engine

airplanes). There is nothing strange or exotic about a

nose baggage compartment, and the usual guidance

concerning observation of load limits applies. They

are mentioned here in that pilots occasionally neglect

to secure the latches properly, and therein lies the

danger. When improperly secured, the door will open

and the contents may be drawn out, usually into the

propeller arc, and usually just after takeoff. Even when

the nose baggage compartment is empty, airplanes

have been lost when the pilot became distracted by the

open door. Security of the nose baggage compartment

latches and locks is a vital preflight item.

Most airplanes will continue to fly with a nose baggage door open. There may be some buffeting from

the disturbed airflow and there will be an increase in

noise. Pilots should never become so preoccupied

with an open door (of any kind) that they fail to fly

the airplane.

Inspection of the compartment interior is also an

important preflight item. More than one pilot has been

surprised to find a supposedly empty compartment

packed to capacity or loaded with ballast. The tow

bars, engine inlet covers, windshield sun screens, oil

containers, spare chocks, and miscellaneous small

hand tools that find their way into baggage compartments should be secured to prevent damage from

shifting in flight.

ANTI-ICING/DEICING

Anti-icing/deicing equipment is frequently installed on

multiengine airplanes and consists of a combination of

different systems. These may be classified as either

anti-icing or deicing, depending upon function. The

presence of anti-icing and deicing equipment, even

though it may appear elaborate and complete, does not

necessarily mean that the airplane is approved for

flight in icing conditions. The AFM/POH, placards,

and even the manufacturer should be consulted for

specific determination of approvals and limitations.

Anti-icing equipment is provided to prevent ice from

forming on certain protected surfaces. Anti-icing

equipment includes heated pitot tubes, heated or nonicing static ports and fuel vents, propeller blades with

electrothermal boots or alcohol slingers, windshields

with alcohol spray or electrical resistance heating,

windshield defoggers, and heated stall warning lift

detectors. On many turboprop engines, the “lip”

surrounding the air intake is heated either electrically

or with bleed air. In the absence of AFM/POH guidance

to the contrary, anti-icing equipment is actuated prior to

flight into known or suspected icing conditions.

Deicing equipment is generally limited to pneumatic

boots on wing and tail leading edges. Deicing equipment is installed to remove ice that has already formed

on protected surfaces. Upon pilot actuation, the boots

inflate with air from the pneumatic pumps to break off

accumulated ice. After a few seconds of inflation, they

are deflated back to their normal position with the

assistance of a vacuum. The pilot monitors the buildup

of ice and cycles the boots as directed in the

AFM/POH. An ice light on the left engine nacelle

allows the pilot to monitor wing ice accumulation at

night.

Other airframe equipment necessary for flight in icing

conditions includes an alternate induction air source

and an alternate static system source. Ice tolerant

antennas will also be installed.

In the event of impact ice accumulating over normal

engine air induction sources, carburetor heat (carbureted engines) or alternate air (fuel injected engines)

should be selected. Ice buildup on normal induction

sources can be detected by a loss of engine r.p.m. with

fixed-pitch propellers and a loss of manifold pressure

with constant-speed propellers. On some fuel injected

engines, an alternate air source is automatically

activated with blockage of the normal air source.

An alternate static system provides an alternate source

of static air for the pitot-static system in the unlikely

event that the primary static source becomes blocked.

In non-pressurized airplanes, most alternate static

sources are plumbed to the cabin. On pressurized airplanes, they are usually plumbed to a non-pressurized

baggage compartment. The pilot must activate the

alternate static source by opening a valve or a fitting in

the cockpit. Upon activation, the airspeed indicator,

altimeter, and the vertical speed indicator (VSI) will be

affected and will read somewhat in error. A correction

table is frequently provided in the AFM/POH.

Anti-icing/deicing equipment only eliminates ice from

the protected surfaces. Significant ice accumulations

may form on unprotected areas, even with proper use

of anti-ice and deice systems. Flight at high angles of

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-7
12-8

attack or even normal climb speeds will permit significant ice accumulations on lower wing surfaces, which

are unprotected. Many AFM/POHs mandate minimum

speeds to be maintained in icing conditions. Degradation

of all flight characteristics and large performance losses

can be expected with ice accumulations. Pilots should

not rely upon the stall warning devices for adequate stall

warning with ice accumulations.

Ice will accumulate unevenly on the airplane. It will

add weight and drag (primarily drag), and decrease

thrust and lift. Even wing shape affects ice accumulation; thin airfoil sections are more prone to ice

accumulation than thick, highly-cambered sections.

For this reason certain surfaces, such as the horizontal

stabilizer, are more prone to icing than the wing. With

ice accumulations, landing approaches should be made

with a minimum wing flap setting (flap extension

increases the angle of attack of the horizontal stabilizer)

and with an added margin of airspeed. Sudden and large

configuration and airspeed changes should be avoided.

Unless otherwise recommended in the AFM/POH, the

autopilot should not be used in icing conditions.

Continuous use of the autopilot will mask trim and

handling changes that will occur with ice accumulation. Without this control feedback, the pilot may not

be aware of ice accumulation building to hazardous

levels. The autopilot will suddenly disconnect when it

reaches design limits and the pilot may find the airplane

has assumed unsatisfactory handling characteristics.

The installation of anti-ice/deice equipment on airplanes without AFM/POH approval for flight into icing

conditions is to facilitate escape when such conditions

are inadvertently encountered. Even with AFM/POH

approval, the prudent pilot will avoid icing conditions

to the maximum extent practicable, and avoid extended

flight in any icing conditions. No multiengine airplane

is approved for flight into severe icing conditions, and

none are intended for indefinite flight in continuous

icing conditions.

PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS

Discussion of performance and limitations requires the

definition of several terms.

• Accelerate-stop distance is the runway length

required to accelerate to a specified speed (either

VR or VLOF, as specified by the manufacturer),

experience an engine failure, and bring the airplane to a complete stop.

• Accelerate-go distance is the horizontal distance required to continue the takeoff and climb

to 50 feet, assuming an engine failure at VR or

VLOF, as specified by the manufacturer.

• Climb gradient is a slope most frequently

expressed in terms of altitude gain per 100 feet

of horizontal distance, whereupon it is stated as

a percentage. A 1.5 percent climb gradient is an

altitude gain of one and one-half feet per 100 feet

of horizontal travel. Climb gradient may also be

expressed as a function of altitude gain per nautical mile, or as a ratio of the horizontal distance

to the vertical distance (50:1, for example).

Unlike rate of climb, climb gradient is affected

by wind. Climb gradient is improved with a

headwind component, and reduced with a tailwind component. [Figure 12-5]

• The all-engine service ceiling of multiengine

airplanes is the highest altitude at which the airplane can maintain a steady rate of climb of 100

f.p.m. with both engines operating. The airplane

has reached its absolute ceiling when climb is

no longer possible. 

• The single-engine service ceiling is reached

when the multiengine airplane can no longer

maintain a 50 f.p.m. rate of climb with one engine

inoperative, and its single-engine absolute ceiling when climb is no longer possible.

The takeoff in a multiengine airplane should be

planned in sufficient detail so that the appropriate

action is taken in the event of an engine failure. The

pilot should be thoroughly familiar with the airplane’s

performance capabilities and limitations in order to

make an informed takeoff decision as part of the preflight planning. That decision should be reviewed as

the last item of the “before takeoff” checklist.

In the event of an engine failure shortly after takeoff,

the decision is basically one of continuing flight or

landing, even off-airport. If single-engine climb

performance is adequate for continued flight, and

the airplane has been promptly and correctly configured, the climb after takeoff may be continued. If

single-engine climb performance is such that climb

is unlikely or impossible, a landing will have to be

made in the most suitable area. To be avoided above

all is attempting to continue flight when it is not

within the airplane’s performance capability to do

so. [Figure 12-6]

Takeoff planning factors include weight and balance,

airplane performance (both single and multiengine),

runway length, slope and contamination, terrain and

obstacles in the area, weather conditions, and pilot

proficiency. Most multiengine airplanes have

AFM/POH performance charts and the pilot should

be highly proficient in their use. Prior to takeoff, the

multiengine pilot should ensure that the weight and

balance limitations have been observed, the runway

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-8
length is adequate, the normal flightpath will clear obstacles and terrain, and that a definitive course of action has

been planned in the event of an engine failure.

The regulations do not specifically require that the

runway length be equal to or greater than the accelerate-stop distance. Most AFM/POHs publish

accelerate-stop distances only as an advisory. It

becomes a limitation only when published in the

limitations section of the AFM/POH. Experienced

multiengine pilots, however, recognize the safety

margin of runway lengths in excess of the bare minimum required for normal takeoff. They will insist

on runway lengths of at least accelerate-stop distance as a matter of safety and good operating

practice.

50 ft Brake VR / VLOF

Release

Accelerate-Stop Distance

Accelerate-Go Distance

500 ft

Brake VLOF

Release

5,000 ft

10:1 or 10 Percent Climb Gradient

Figure 12-5. Accelerate-stop distance, accelerate-go distance, and climb gradient.

Figure 12-6. Area of decision.

12-9

VXSE

VYSE

Gear Up and Loss of One Engine

Best Rate of Climb

Best Angle of Climb

Decision Area

VR / VLOF

Brake

Release

ENGINE FAILURE AFTER LIFT-OFF

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-9
The multiengine pilot must keep in mind that the

accelerate-go distance, as long as it is, has only

brought the airplane, under ideal circumstances, to a

point a mere 50 feet above the takeoff elevation. To

achieve even this meager climb, the pilot had to instantaneously recognize and react to an unanticipated

engine failure, retract the landing gear, identify and

feather the correct engine, all the while maintaining

precise airspeed control and bank angle as the airspeed

is nursed to VYSE. Assuming flawless airmanship thus

far, the airplane has now arrived at a point little more

than one wingspan above the terrain, assuming it was

absolutely level and without obstructions.

With (for the purpose of illustration) a net 150 f.p.m.

rate of climb at a 90-knot VYSE, it will take approximately 3 minutes to climb an additional 450 feet to reach

500 feet AGL. In doing so, the airplane will have

traveled an additional 5 nautical miles beyond the

original accelerate-go distance, with a climb gradient

of about 1.6 percent. A turn of any consequence, such

as to return to the airport, will seriously degrade the

already marginal climb performance.

Not all multiengine airplanes have published accelerate-go distances in their AFM/POH, and fewer still

publish climb gradients. When such information is

published, the figures will have been determined under

ideal flight testing conditions. It is unlikely that this

performance will be duplicated in service conditions.

The point of the foregoing is to illustrate the marginal

climb performance of a multiengine airplane that

suffers an engine failure shortly after takeoff, even

under ideal conditions. The prudent multiengine

pilot should pick a point in the takeoff and climb

sequence in advance. If an engine fails before this point,

the takeoff should be rejected, even if airborne, for a

landing on whatever runway or surface lies essentially

ahead. If an engine fails after this point, the pilot should

promptly execute the appropriate engine failure procedure and continue the climb, assuming the performance

capability exists. As a general recommendation, if the

landing gear has not been selected up, the takeoff

should be rejected, even if airborne.

As a practical matter for planning purposes, the option

of continuing the takeoff probably does not exist unless

the published single-engine rate-of-climb performance

is at least 100 to 200 f.p.m. Thermal turbulence, wind

gusts, engine and propeller wear, or poor technique in

airspeed, bank angle, and rudder control can easily

negate even a 200 f.p.m. rate of climb.

WEIGHT AND BALANCE

The weight and balance concept is no different than

that of a single-engine airplane. The actual execution,

however, is almost invariably more complex due to a

number of new loading areas, including nose and aft

baggage compartments, nacelle lockers, main fuel

tanks, aux fuel tanks, nacelle fuel tanks, and numerous

seating options in a variety of interior configurations.

The flexibility in loading offered by the multiengine

airplane places a responsibility on the pilot to address

weight and balance prior to each flight.

The terms “empty weight, licensed empty weight,

standard empty weight, and basic empty weight” as

they appear on the manufacturer’s original weight and

balance documents are sometimes confused by pilots.

In 1975, the General Aviation Manufacturers

Association (GAMA) adopted a standardized format

for AFM/POHs. It was implemented by most

manufacturers in model year 1976. Airplanes whose

manufacturers conform to the GAMA standards utilize

the following terminology for weight and balance:

Standard empty weight

+ Optional equipment

= Basic empty weight

Standard empty weight is the weight of the standard

airplane, full hydraulic fluid, unusable fuel, and full

oil. Optional equipment includes the weight of all

equipment installed beyond standard. Basic empty

weight is the standard empty weight plus optional

equipment. Note that basic empty weight includes no

usable fuel, but full oil.

Airplanes manufactured prior to the GAMA format

generally utilize the following terminology for weight

and balance, although the exact terms may vary somewhat:

Empty weight

+ Unusable fuel

= Standard empty weight

Standard empty weight

+ Optional equipment

= Licensed empty weight

Empty weight is the weight of the standard airplane,

full hydraulic fluid and undrainable oil. Unusable fuel

is the fuel remaining in the airplane not available to

the engines. Standard empty weight is the empty

weight plus unusable fuel. When optional equipment

is added to the standard empty weight, the result is

licensed empty weight. Licensed empty weight,

therefore, includes the standard airplane, optional

equipment, full hydraulic fluid, unusable fuel, and

undrainable oil.

The major difference between the two formats

(GAMA and the old) is that basic empty weight

includes full oil, and licensed empty weight does not.

12-10

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-10
Oil must always be added to any weight and balance

utilizing a licensed empty weight.

When the airplane is placed in service, amended

weight and balance documents are prepared by appropriately rated maintenance personnel to reflect changes

in installed equipment. The old weight and balance

documents are customarily marked “superseded” and

retained in the AFM/POH. Maintenance personnel are

under no regulatory obligation to utilize the GAMA

terminology, so weight and balance documents

subsequent to the original may use a variety of

terms. Pilots should use care to determine whether

or not oil has to be added to the weight and balance

calculations or if it is already included in the figures

provided.

The multiengine airplane is where most pilots

encounter the term “zero fuel weight” for the first time.

Not all multiengine airplanes have a zero fuel weight

limitation published in their AFM/POH, but many do.

Zero fuel weight is simply the maximum allowable

weight of the airplane and payload, assuming there is

no usable fuel on board. The actual airplane is not

devoid of fuel at the time of loading, of course. This is

merely a calculation that assumes it was. If a zero fuel

weight limitation is published, then all weight in

excess of that figure must consist of usable fuel. The

purpose of a zero fuel weight is to limit load forces on

the wing spars with heavy fuselage loads.

Assume a hypothetical multiengine airplane with the

following weights and capacities:

Basic empty weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,200 lb.

Zero fuel weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,400 lb.

Maximum takeoff weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,200 lb.

Maximum usable fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180 gal.

1. Calculate the useful load:

Maximum takeoff weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,200 lb.

Basic empty weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-3,200 lb.

Useful load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2,000 lb.

The useful load is the maximum combination of usable

fuel, passengers, baggage, and cargo that the airplane

is capable of carrying.

2. Calculate the payload:

Zero fuel weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,400 lb.

Basic empty weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -3,200 lb.

Payload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,200 lb.

The payload is the maximum combination of passengers, baggage, and cargo that the airplane is capable

of carrying. A zero fuel weight, if published, is the

limiting weight.

3. Calculate the fuel capacity at maximum payload

(1,200 lb.):

Maximum takeoff weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,200 lb.

Zero fuel weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-4,400 lb.

Fuel allowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800 lb.

Assuming maximum payload, the only weight permitted in excess of the zero fuel weight must consist of

usable fuel. In this case, 133.3 gallons.

4. Calculate the payload at maximum fuel capacity

(180 gal.):

Basic empty weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,200 lb.

Maximum usable fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+1,080 lb.

Weight with max. fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,280 lb.

Maximum takeoff weight . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,200 lb.

Weight with max. fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-4,280 lb.

Payload allowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .920 lb.

Assuming maximum fuel, the payload is the difference

between the weight of the fueled airplane and the maximum takeoff weight.

Some multiengine airplanes have a ramp weight,

which is in excess of the maximum takeoff weight. The

ramp weight is an allowance for fuel that would be

burned during taxi and runup, permitting a takeoff at

full maximum takeoff weight. The airplane must

weigh no more than maximum takeoff weight at the

beginning of the takeoff roll.

A maximum landing weight is a limitation against

landing at a weight in excess of the published value.

This requires preflight planning of fuel burn to ensure

that the airplane weight upon arrival at destination will

be at or below the maximum landing weight. In the

event of an emergency requiring an immediate landing, the pilot should recognize that the structural

margins designed into the airplane are not fully

available when over landing weight. An overweight

landing inspection may be advisable—the service

manual or manufacturer should be consulted.

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Although the foregoing problems only dealt with

weight, the balance portion of weight and balance

is equally vital. The flight characteristics of the

multiengine airplane will vary significantly with

shifts of the center of gravity (CG) within the

approved envelope.

At forward CGs, the airplane will be more stable, with

a slightly higher stalling speed, a slightly slower

cruising speed, and favorable stall characteristics.

At aft CGs, the airplane will be less stable, with a

slightly lower stalling speed, a slightly faster cruising

speed, and less desirable stall characteristics. Forward

CG limits are usually determined in certification by

elevator/stabilator authority in the landing roundout. Aft CG limits are determined by the minimum

acceptable longitudinal stability. It is contrary to the

airplane’s operating limitations and the Code of

Federal Regulations (CFR) to exceed any weight

and balance parameter.

Some multiengine airplanes may require ballast to

remain within CG limits under certain loading conditions. Several models require ballast in the aft baggage

compartment with only a student and instructor on

board to avoid exceeding the forward CG limit.

When passengers are seated in the aft-most seats of

some models, ballast or baggage may be required in

the nose baggage compartment to avoid exceeding

the aft CG limit. The pilot must direct the seating of

passengers and placement of baggage and cargo to

achieve a center of gravity within the approved

envelope. Most multiengine airplanes have general

loading recommendations in the weight and balance

section of the AFM/POH. When ballast is added, it

must be securely tied down and it must not exceed

the maximum allowable floor loading.

Some airplanes make use of a special weight and

balance plotter. It consists of several movable parts

that can be adjusted over a plotting board on which

the CG envelope is printed. The reverse side of the

typical plotter contains general loading recommendations for the particular airplane. A pencil line plot

can be made directly on the CG envelope imprinted

on the working side of the plotting board. This plot

can easily be erased and recalculated anew for each

flight. This plotter is to be used only for the make

and model airplane for which it was designed.

GROUND OPERATION

Good habits learned with single-engine airplanes are

directly applicable to multiengine airplanes for preflight and engine start. Upon placing the airplane in

motion to taxi, the new multiengine pilot will notice

several differences, however. The most obvious is

the increased wingspan and the need for even

greater vigilance while taxiing in close quarters.

Ground handling may seem somewhat ponderous

and the multiengine airplane will not be as nimble

as the typical two- or four-place single-engine airplane.

As always, use care not to ride the brakes by keeping

engine power to a minimum. One ground handling

advantage of the multiengine airplane over singleengine airplanes is the differential power capability.

Turning with an assist from differential power minimizes both the need for brakes during turns and the

turning radius.

The pilot should be aware, however, that making a

sharp turn assisted by brakes and differential power

can cause the airplane to pivot about a stationary

inboard wheel and landing gear. This is abuse for

which the airplane was not designed and should be

guarded against.

Unless otherwise directed by the AFM/POH, all

ground operations should be conducted with the cowl

flaps fully open. The use of strobe lights is normally

deferred until taxiing onto the active runway.

NORMAL AND CROSSWIND 

TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

With the “before takeoff” checklist complete and

air traffic control (ATC) clearance received, the airplane should be taxied into position on the runway

centerline. If departing from an airport without an

operating control tower, a careful check for

approaching aircraft should be made along with a

radio advisory on the appropriate frequency. Sharp

turns onto the runway combined with a rolling

takeoff are not a good operating practice and may

be prohibited by the AFM/POH due to the possibility

of “unporting” a fuel tank pickup. (The takeoff itself

may be prohibited by the AFM/POH under any circumstances below certain fuel levels.) The flight controls

should be positioned for a crosswind, if present.

Exterior lights such as landing and taxi lights, and

wingtip strobes should be illuminated immediately

prior to initiating the takeoff roll, day or night. If

holding in takeoff position for any length of time,

particularly at night, the pilot should activate all

exterior lights upon taxiing into position.

Takeoff power should be set as recommended in the

AFM/POH. With normally aspirated (non-turbocharged) engines, this will be full throttle. Full

throttle is also used in most turbocharged engines.

There are some turbocharged engines, however,

that require the pilot to set a specific power setting,

usually just below red line manifold pressure. This

yields takeoff power with less than full throttle travel.

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Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-12
Turbocharged engines often require special consideration. Throttle motion with turbocharged engines

should be exceptionally smooth and deliberate. It is

acceptable, and may even be desirable, to hold the

airplane in position with brakes as the throttles are

advanced. Brake release customarily occurs after significant boost from the turbocharger is established. This

prevents wasting runway with slow, partial throttle

acceleration as the engine power is increased. If runway

length or obstacle clearance is critical, full power should

be set before brake release, as specified in the performance charts.

As takeoff power is established, initial attention should

be divided between tracking the runway centerline and

monitoring the engine gauges. Many novice multiengine pilots tend to fixate on the airspeed indicator

just as soon as the airplane begins its takeoff roll.

Instead, the pilot should confirm that both engines

are developing full-rated manifold pressure and

r.p.m., and that the fuel flows, fuel pressures, exhaust

gas temperatures (EGTs), and oil pressures are matched

in their normal ranges. A directed and purposeful scan

of the engine gauges can be accomplished well before

the airplane approaches rotation speed. If a crosswind is

present, the aileron displacement in the direction of the

crosswind may be reduced as the airplane accelerates.

The elevator/stabilator control should be held neutral

throughout.

Full rated takeoff power should be used for every takeoff. Partial power takeoffs are not recommended.

There is no evidence to suggest that the life of modern

reciprocating engines is prolonged by partial power

takeoffs. Paradoxically, excessive heat and engine

wear can occur with partial power as the fuel metering

system will fail to deliver the slightly over-rich

mixture vital for engine cooling during takeoff.

There are several key airspeeds to be noted during the

takeoff and climb sequence in any twin. The first speed

to consider is VMC. If an engine fails below VMC while

the airplane is on the ground, the takeoff must be

rejected. Directional control can only be maintained by

promptly closing both throttles and using rudder and

brakes as required. If an engine fails below VMC while

airborne, directional control is not possible with the

remaining engine producing takeoff power. On takeoffs, therefore, the airplane should never be airborne

before the airspeed reaches and exceeds VMC. Pilots

should use the manufacturer’s recommended rotation

speed (VR) or lift-off speed (VLOF). If no such speeds

are published, a minimum of VMC plus 5 knots should

be used for VR.

The rotation to a takeoff pitch attitude is done

smoothly. With a crosswind, the pilot should ensure

that the landing gear does not momentarily touch the

runway after the airplane has lifted off, as a side drift

will be present. The rotation may be accomplished

more positively and/or at a higher speed under these

conditions. However, the pilot should keep in mind

that the AFM/POH performance figures for acceleratestop distance, takeoff ground roll, and distance to clear

an obstacle were calculated at the recommended VR

and/or VLOF speed.

After lift-off, the next consideration is to gain altitude as rapidly as possible. After leaving the ground,

altitude gain is more important than achieving an

excess of airspeed. Experience has shown that

excessive speed cannot be effectively converted into

altitude in the event of an engine failure. Altitude

gives the pilot time to think and react. Therefore, the

airplane should be allowed to accelerate in a shallow

climb to attain VY, the best all-engine rate-of-climb

speed. VY should then be maintained until a safe

single-engine maneuvering altitude, considering

terrain and obstructions, is achieved.

To assist the pilot in takeoff and initial climb profile,

some AFM/POHs give a “50-foot” or “50-foot barrier”

speed to use as a target during rotation, lift-off, and

acceleration to VY.

Landing gear retraction should normally occur after a

positive rate of climb is established. Some

AFM/POHs direct the pilot to apply the wheel brakes

momentarily after lift-off to stop wheel rotation prior

to landing gear retraction. If flaps were extended for

takeoff, they should be retracted as recommended in

the AFM/POH.

Once a safe single-engine maneuvering altitude has

been reached, typically a minimum of 400-500 feet

AGL, the transition to an enroute climb speed should

be made. This speed is higher than VY and is usually

maintained to cruising altitude. Enroute climb speed

gives better visibility, increased engine cooling, and a

higher groundspeed. Takeoff power can be reduced, if

desired, as the transition to enroute climb speed is

made.

Some airplanes have a climb power setting published

in the AFM/POH as a recommendation (or sometimes

as a limitation), which should then be set for enroute

climb. If there is no climb power setting published, it is

customary, but not a requirement, to reduce manifold

pressure and r.p.m. somewhat for enroute climb. The

propellers are usually synchronized after the first

power reduction and the yaw damper, if installed,

engaged. The AFM/POH may also recommend leaning

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12-14

the mixtures during climb. The “climb” checklist

should be accomplished as traffic and work load allow.

[Figure 12-7]

LEVEL OFF AND CRUISE

Upon leveling off at cruising altitude, the pilot should

allow the airplane to accelerate at climb power until

cruising airspeed is achieved, then cruise power and

r.p.m. should be set. To extract the maximum cruise

performance from any airplane, the power setting

tables provided by the manufacturer should be closely

followed. If the cylinder head and oil temperatures are

within their normal ranges, the cowl flaps may be

closed. When the engine temperatures have stabilized,

the mixtures may be leaned per AFM/POH recommendations. The remainder of the “cruise” checklist should

be completed by this point.

Fuel management in multiengine airplanes is often

more complex than in single-engine airplanes.

Depending upon system design, the pilot may need to

select between main tanks and auxiliary tanks, or

even employ fuel transfer from one tank to another.

In complex fuel systems, limitations are often found

restricting the use of some tanks to level flight only,

or requiring a reserve of fuel in the main tanks for

descent and landing. Electric fuel pump operation can

vary widely among different models also, particularly

during tank switching or fuel transfer. Some fuel

pumps are to be on for takeoff and landing; others are

to be off. There is simply no substitute for thorough

systems and AFM/POH knowledge when operating

complex aircraft.

NORMAL APPROACH AND LANDING

Given the higher cruising speed (and frequently, altitude) of multiengine airplanes over most single-engine

airplanes, the descent must be planned in advance. A

hurried, last minute descent with power at or near idle

is inefficient and can cause excessive engine cooling.

It may also lead to passenger discomfort, particularly

if the airplane is unpressurized. As a rule of thumb, if

terrain and passenger conditions permit, a maximum

of a 500 f.p.m. rate of descent should be planned.

Pressurized airplanes can plan for higher descent rates,

if desired.

In a descent, some airplanes require a minimum EGT,

or may have a minimum power setting or cylinder

head temperature to observe. In any case, combinations of very low manifold pressure and high

r.p.m. settings are strongly discouraged by engine

manufacturers. If higher descent rates are necessary,

the pilot should consider extending partial flaps or

lowering the landing gear before retarding the power

excessively. The “descent” checklist should be initiated

upon leaving cruising altitude and completed before

arrival in the terminal area. Upon arrival in the terminal

area, pilots are encouraged to turn on their landing

and recognition lights when operating below

10,000 feet, day or night, and especially when

operating within 10 miles of any airport or in conditions

of reduced visibility.

Figure 12-7.Takeoff and climb profile.

Lift-off

Published VR or VLOF

if not Published,

VMC + 5 Knots

Positive Rate - Gear Up 

Climb at VY

500 ft

1. Accelerate to Cruise Climb

2. Set Climb Power

3. Climb Checklist

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-14
The traffic pattern and approach are typically flown at

somewhat higher indicated airspeeds in a multiengine

airplane contrasted to most single-engine airplanes.

The pilot may allow for this through an early start on

the “before landing” checklist. This provides time for

proper planning, spacing, and thinking well ahead of

the airplane. Many multiengine airplanes have partial

flap extension speeds above VFE, and partial flaps can

be deployed prior to traffic pattern entry. Normally, the

landing gear should be selected and confirmed down

when abeam the intended point of landing as the downwind leg is flown. [Figure 12-8]

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) recommends a stabilized approach concept. To the greatest

extent practical, on final approach and within 500 feet

AGL, the airplane should be on speed, in trim, configured for landing, tracking the extended centerline

of the runway, and established in a constant angle of

descent towards an aim point in the touchdown

zone. Absent unusual flight conditions, only minor

corrections will be required to maintain this approach

to the roundout and touchdown.

The final approach should be made with power and

at a speed recommended by the manufacturer; if a recommended speed is not furnished, the speed should be

no slower than the single-engine best rate-of-climb

speed (VYSE) until short final with the landing assured,

but in no case less than critical engine-out minimum

control speed (VMC). Some multiengine pilots prefer

to delay full flap extension to short final with the landing assured. This is an acceptable technique with appropriate experience and familiarity with the airplane.

In the roundout for landing, residual power is gradually reduced to idle. With the higher wing loading of

multiengine airplanes and with the drag from two

windmilling propellers, there will be minimal float.

Full stall landings are generally undesirable in twins. The

airplane should be held off as with a high performance

single-engine model, allowing touchdown of the main

wheels prior to a full stall.

Under favorable wind and runway conditions, the

nosewheel can be held off for best aerodynamic braking. Even as the nosewheel is gently lowered to the

runway centerline, continued elevator back pressure

will greatly assist the wheel brakes in stopping the

airplane.

If runway length is critical, or with a strong crosswind,

or if the surface is contaminated with water, ice or

snow, it is undesirable to rely solely on aerodynamic

braking after touchdown. The full weight of the airplane should be placed on the wheels as soon as

practicable. The wheel brakes will be more effective

than aerodynamic braking alone in decelerating the

airplane.

Once on the ground, elevator back pressure should be

used to place additional weight on the main wheels and

to add additional drag. When necessary, wing flap

retraction will also add additional weight to the wheels

and improve braking effectivity. Flap retraction during

the landing rollout is discouraged, however, unless

there is a clear, operational need. It should not be

accomplished as routine with each landing.

Some multiengine airplanes, particularly those of the

cabin class variety, can be flown through the roundout

and touchdown with a small amount of power. This is

an acceptable technique to prevent high sink rates and

to cushion the touchdown. The pilot should keep in

mind, however, that the primary purpose in landing is

to get the airplane down and stopped. This technique

should only be attempted when there is a generous

Approaching Traffic Pattern

1. Descent Checklist

2. Reduce to Traffic Pattern Airspeed and Altitude

Downwind

1. Flaps - Approach Position

2. Gear Down

3. Before Landing Checklist

Base Leg

1. Gear-Check Down

2. Check for Conflicting

 Traffic

Final

1. Gear-Check Down

2. Flaps-Landing Position

Airspeed- 1.3 Vs0 or

Manufacturers Recommended

Figure 12-8. Normal two-engine approach and landing.

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12-16

margin of runway length. As propeller blast flows

directly over the wings, lift as well as thrust is produced.

The pilot should taxi clear of the runway as soon as

speed and safety permit, and then accomplish the “after

landing” checklist. Ordinarily, no attempt should be

made to retract the wing flaps or perform other checklist duties until the airplane has been brought to a halt

when clear of the active runway. Exceptions to this

would be the rare operational needs discussed above,

to relieve the weight from the wings and place it on the

wheels. In these cases, AFM/POH guidance should be

followed. The pilot should not indiscriminately reach

out for any switch or control on landing rollout. An

inadvertent landing gear retraction while meaning to

retract the wing flaps may result.

CROSSWIND APPROACH 

AND LANDING

The multiengine airplane is often easier to land in a

crosswind than a single-engine airplane due to its

higher approach and landing speed. In any event, the

principles are no different between singles and twins.

Prior to touchdown, the longitudinal axis must be

aligned with the runway centerline to avoid landing

gear side loads.

The two primary methods, crab and wing-low, are

typically used in conjunction with each other. As

soon as the airplane rolls out onto final approach, the

crab angle to track the extended runway centerline is

established. This is coordinated flight with adjustments to heading to compensate for wind drift either

left or right. Prior to touchdown, the transition to a

sideslip is made with the upwind wing lowered and

opposite rudder applied to prevent a turn. The airplane

touches down on the landing gear of the upwind wing

first, followed by that of the downwind wing, and

then the nose gear. Follow-through with the flight

controls involves an increasing application of aileron

into the wind until full control deflection is reached.

The point at which the transition from the crab to the

sideslip is made is dependent upon pilot familiarity

with the airplane and experience. With high skill and

experience levels, the transition can be made during

the roundout just before touchdown. With lesser skill

and experience levels, the transition is made at

increasing distances from the runway. Some multiengine airplanes (as some single-engine airplanes)

have AFM/POH limitations against slips in excess of

a certain time period; 30 seconds, for example. This is

to prevent engine power loss from fuel starvation as

the fuel in the tank of the lowered wing flows towards

the wingtip, away from the fuel pickup point. This

time limit must be observed if the wing-low method

is utilized.

Some multiengine pilots prefer to use differential

power to assist in crosswind landings. The asymmetrical thrust produces a yawing moment little

different from that produced by the rudder. When

the upwind wing is lowered, power on the upwind

engine is increased to prevent the airplane from

turning. This alternate technique is completely

acceptable, but most pilots feel they can react to

changing wind conditions quicker with rudder and

aileron than throttle movement. This is especially

true with turbocharged engines where the throttle

response may lag momentarily. The differential

power technique should be practiced with an

instructor familiar with it before being attempted

alone.

SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

The short-field takeoff and climb differs from the

normal takeoff and climb in the airspeeds and initial

climb profile. Some AFM/POHs give separate

short-field takeoff procedures and performance

charts that recommend specific flap settings and airspeeds. Other AFM/POHs do not provide separate

short-field procedures. In the absence of such specific

procedures, the airplane should be operated only as

recommended in the AFM/POH. No operations should

be conducted contrary to the recommendations in the

AFM/POH.

On short-field takeoffs in general, just after rotation

and lift-off, the airplane should be allowed to accelerate to VX, making the initial climb over obstacles at

VX and transitioning to VY as obstacles are cleared.

[Figure 12-9]

Figure 12-9. Short-field takeoff and climb.

VX

VY

50 ft

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12-17

When partial flaps are recommended for short-field

takeoffs, many light-twins have a strong tendency to

become airborne prior to VMC plus 5 knots. Attempting

to prevent premature lift-off with forward elevator

pressure results in wheelbarrowing. To prevent this,

allow the airplane to become airborne, but only a few

inches above the runway. The pilot should be prepared

to promptly abort the takeoff and land in the event of

engine failure on takeoff with landing gear and flaps

extended at airspeeds below VX.

Engine failure on takeoff, particularly with obstructions, is compounded by the low airspeeds and steep

climb attitudes utilized in short-field takeoffs. VX and

VXSE are often perilously close to VMC, leaving scant

margin for error in the event of engine failure as VXSE

is assumed. If flaps were used for takeoff, the engine

failure situation becomes even more critical due to the

additional drag incurred. If VX is less than 5 knots

higher than VMC, give strong consideration to reducing

useful load or using another runway in order to

increase the takeoff margins so that a short-field

technique will not be required.

SHORT-FIELD APPROACH 

AND LANDING

The primary elements of a short-field approach and

landing do not differ significantly from a normal

approach and landing. Many manufacturers do not

publish short-field landing techniques or performance

charts in the AFM/POH. In the absence of specific

short-field approach and landing procedures, the

airplane should be operated as recommended in the

AFM/POH. No operations should be conducted

contrary to the AFM/POH recommendations.

The emphasis in a short-field approach is on configuration (full flaps), a stabilized approach with a constant

angle of descent, and precise airspeed control. As part

of a short-field approach and landing procedure,

some AFM/POHs recommend a slightly slower than

normal approach airspeed. If no such slower speed is

published, use the AFM/POH-recommended normal

approach speed.

Full flaps are used to provide the steepest approach

angle. If obstacles are present, the approach should be

planned so that no drastic power reductions are

required after they are cleared. The power should be

smoothly reduced to idle in the roundout prior to

touchdown. Pilots should keep in mind that the propeller blast blows over the wings, providing some lift

in addition to thrust. Significantly reducing power just

after obstacle clearance usually results in a sudden,

high sink rate that may lead to a hard landing.

After the short-field touchdown, maximum stopping

effort is achieved by retracting the wing flaps, adding

back pressure to the elevator/stabilator, and applying

heavy braking. However, if the runway length permits,

the wing flaps should be left in the extended position

until the airplane has been stopped clear of the runway.

There is always a significant risk of retracting the landing gear instead of the wing flaps when flap retraction

is attempted on the landing rollout.

Landing conditions that involve either a short-field,

high-winds or strong crosswinds are just about the only

situations where flap retraction on the landing rollout

should be considered. When there is an operational

need to retract the flaps just after touchdown, it must

be done deliberately, with the flap handle positively

identified before it is moved.

GO-AROUND

When the decision to go around is made, the throttles

should be advanced to takeoff power. With adequate

airspeed, the airplane should be placed in a climb pitch

attitude. These actions, which are accomplished

simultaneously, will arrest the sink rate and place the

airplane in the proper attitude for transition to a

climb. The initial target airspeed will be VY, or VX if

obstructions are present. With sufficient airspeed, the

flaps should be retracted from full to an intermediate

position and the landing gear retracted when there is

a positive rate of climb and no chance of runway

contact. The remaining flaps should then be

retracted. [Figure 12-10]

Figure 12-10. Go-around procedure.

Retract Remaining

Flaps Positive Rate

of Climb, Retract

Gear, Climb

at VY

500'

Cruise Climb

Timely Decision to

Make Go-Around Apply Max Power

Adjust Pitch Attitude

to Arrest Sink Rate

Flaps to

Intermediate

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-17
12-18

If the go-around was initiated due to conflicting traffic

on the ground or aloft, the pilot should maneuver to the

side, so as to keep the conflicting traffic in sight. This

may involve a shallow bank turn to offset and then parallel the runway/landing area.

If the airplane was in trim for the landing approach

when the go-around was commenced, it will soon require

a great deal of forward elevator/stabilator pressure as the

airplane accelerates away in a climb. The pilot should

apply appropriate forward pressure to maintain the

desired pitch attitude. Trim should be commenced immediately. The “balked landing” checklist should be

reviewed as work load permits.

Flaps should be retracted before the landing gear for

two reasons. First, on most airplanes, full flaps produce

more drag than the extended landing gear. Secondly,

the airplane will tend to settle somewhat with flap

retraction, and the landing gear should be down in the

event of an inadvertent, momentary touchdown.

Many multiengine airplanes have a landing gear retraction speed significantly less than the extension speed.

Care should be exercised during the go-around not to

exceed the retraction speed. If the pilot desires to

return for a landing, it is essential to re-accomplish the

entire “before landing” checklist. An interruption to a

pilot’s habit patterns, such as a go-around, is a classic

scenario for a subsequent gear up landing.

The preceding discussion of go-arounds assumes that

the maneuver was initiated from normal approach

speeds or faster. If the go-around was initiated from a

low airspeed, the initial pitch up to a climb attitude must

be tempered with the necessity of maintaining adequate

flying speed throughout the maneuver. Examples of

where this applies include go-arounds initiated from the

landing roundout or recovery from a bad bounce as well

as a go-around initiated due to an inadvertent approach

to a stall. The first priority is always to maintain control

and obtain adequate flying speed. A few moments of

level or near level flight may be required as the airplane

accelerates up to climb speed.

REJECTED TAKEOFF

A takeoff can be rejected for the same reasons a takeoff

in a single-engine airplane would be rejected. Once the

decision to reject a takeoff is made, the pilot should

promptly close both throttles and maintain directional

control with the rudder, nosewheel steering, and

brakes. Aggressive use of rudder, nosewheel steering,

and brakes may be required to keep the airplane on

the runway. Particularly, if an engine failure is not

immediately recognized and accompanied by

prompt closure of both throttles. However, the primary objective is not necessarily to stop the airplane

in the shortest distance, but to maintain control of

the airplane as it decelerates. In some situations, it

may be preferable to continue into the overrun area

under control, rather than risk directional control loss,

landing gear collapse, or tire/brake failure in an

attempt to stop the airplane in the shortest possible

distance. 

ENGINE FAILURE AFTER LIFT-OFF

A takeoff or go-around is the most critical time to suffer an engine failure. The airplane will be slow, close

to the ground, and may even have landing gear and

flaps extended. Altitude and time will be minimal.

Until feathered, the propeller of the failed engine will

be windmilling, producing a great deal of drag and

yawing tendency. Airplane climb performance will be

marginal or even non-existent, and obstructions may

lie ahead. Add the element of surprise and the need for

a plan of action before every takeoff is obvious.

With loss of an engine, it is paramount to maintain

airplane control and comply with the manufacturer’s

recommended emergency procedures. Complete failure of one engine shortly after takeoff can be broadly

categorized into one of three following scenarios.

1. Landing gear down. [Figure 12-11] If the

engine failure occurs prior to selecting the landing gear to the UP position, close both throttles

and land on the remaining runway or overrun.

Depending upon how quickly the pilot reacts to

the sudden yaw, the airplane may run off the

side of the runway by the time action is taken.

There are really no other practical options. As

discussed earlier, the chances of maintaining

directional control while retracting the flaps (if

extended), landing gear, feathering the propeller,

and accelerating are minimal. On some airplanes

with a single-engine-driven hydraulic pump,

failure of that engine means the only way to

raise the landing gear is to allow the engine to

windmill or to use a hand pump. This is not a

viable alternative during takeoff.

2. Landing gear control selected up, singleengine climb performance inadequate.

[Figure 12-12] When operating near or above

the single-engine ceiling and an engine failure is

experienced shortly after lift-off, a landing must

be accomplished on whatever essentially lies

ahead. There is also the option of continuing

ahead, in a descent at VYSE with the remaining

engine producing power, as long as the pilot

is not tempted to remain airborne beyond the

airplane’s performance capability. Remaining

airborne, bleeding off airspeed in a futile

attempt to maintain altitude is almost invariably

fatal. Landing under control is paramount. The

greatest hazard in a single-engine takeoff is

attempting to fly when it is not within the perCh 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-18
12-19

formance capability of the airplane to do so. An

accident is inevitable.

Analysis of engine failures on takeoff reveals a very

high success rate of off-airport engine inoperative

landings when the airplane is landed under control.

Analysis also reveals a very high fatality rate in stallspin accidents when the pilot attempts flight beyond

the performance capability of the airplane.

As mentioned previously, if the airplane’s landing gear

retraction mechanism is dependent upon hydraulic

pressure from a certain engine-driven pump, failure

of that engine can mean a loss of hundreds of feet of

altitude as the pilot either windmills the engine to

provide hydraulic pressure to raise the gear or raises

it manually with a backup pump.

3. Landing gear control selected up, singleengine climb performance adequate. [Figure

12-13] If the single-engine rate of climb is

adequate, the procedures for continued flight

should be followed. There are four areas of

concern: control, configuration, climb, and

checklist.

• CONTROL— The first consideration following

engine failure during takeoff is control of the airplane. Upon detecting an engine failure, aileron

should be used to bank the airplane and rudder

pressure applied, aggressively if necessary, to

counteract the yaw and roll from asymmetrical

thrust. The control forces, particularly on the

rudder, may be high. The pitch attitude for VYSE

will have to be lowered from that of VY.

Figure 12-11. Engine failure on takeoff, landing gear down.

If Engine Failure Occurs at

or Before Lift-off, Abort the

Takeoff.

If Failure of Engine Occurs After Lift-off:

1. Maintain Directional Control

2. Close Both Throttles

Figure 12-12. Engine failure on takeoff, inadequate climb performance.

Liftoff

Engine Failure

Descend at VYSE

Land Under Control

On or Off Runway

Over Run Area

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:54 AM Page 12-19
At least 5° of bank should be used, if necessary,

to stop the yaw and maintain directional control.

This initial bank input is held only momentarily,

just long enough to establish or ensure directional control. Climb performance suffers when

bank angles exceed approximately 2 or 3°, but

obtaining and maintaining VYSE and directional

control are paramount. Trim should be adjusted

to lower the control forces.

• CONFIGURATION—The memory items from

the “engine failure after takeoff” checklist

[Figure 12-14] should be promptly executed to

configure the airplane for climb. The specific

procedures to follow will be found in the

AFM/POH and checklist for the particular airplane. Most will direct the pilot to assume VYSE,

set takeoff power, retract the flaps and landing

gear, identify, verify, and feather the failed

engine. (On some airplanes, the landing gear is

to be retracted before the flaps.)

The “identify” step is for the pilot to initially

identify the failed engine. Confirmation on the

engine gauges may or may not be possible,

depending upon the failure mode. Identification

should be primarily through the control inputs

required to maintain straight flight, not the

engine gauges. The “verify” step directs the pilot

to retard the throttle of the engine thought to have

failed. No change in performance when the suspected throttle is retarded is verification that the

correct engine has been identified as failed. The

corresponding propeller control should be

brought fully aft to feather the engine.

• CLIMB—As soon as directional control is established and the airplane configured for climb, the

bank angle should be reduced to that producing

best climb performance. Without specific

guidance for zero sideslip, a bank of 2° and

one-third to one-half ball deflection on the

slip/skid indicator is suggested. VYSE is maintained with pitch control. As turning flight

reduces climb performance, climb should be

made straight ahead, or with shallow turns to

avoid obstacles, to an altitude of at least 400

feet AGL before attempting a return to

the airport.

Obstruction Clearance

Altitude or Above

At 500' or Obstruction Clearance Altitude:

7. Engine Failure Checklist

 Circle and Land

3. Drag - Reduce - Gear, Flaps

4. Identify - Inoperative Engine

5. Verify - Inoperative Engine

6. Feather - Inoperative Engine

If Failure of Engine Occurs After Liftoff:

1. Maintain Directional Control - VYSE, 

 Heading, Bank into Operating Engine

2. Power - Increase or Set for Takeoff

Figure 12-13. Landing gear up—adequate climb performance.

Figure 12-14.Typical “engine failure after takeoff” emergency

checklist.

12-20

 ENGINE FAILURE AFTER TAKEOFF

Airspeed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maintain VYSE

Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RICH

Propellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .HIGH RPM

Throttles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FULL POWER

Flaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UP

Landing Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UP

Identify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Determine failed

engine

Verify Close throttle of

failed engine

Propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FEATHER

Trim Tabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ADJUST

Failed Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECURE

As soon as practical . . . . . . . . . . LAND

Bold - faced items require immediate action and 

are to be accomplished from memory.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:55 AM Page 12-20
12-21

• CHECKLIST—Having accomplished the

memory items from the “engine failure after

takeoff” checklist, the printed copy should be

reviewed as time permits. The “securing failed

engine” checklist [Figure 12-15] should then be

accomplished. Unless the pilot suspects an

engine fire, the remaining items should be

accomplished deliberately and without undue

haste. Airplane control should never be sacrificed

to execute the remaining checklists. The priority

items have already been accomplished from

memory.

Figure 12-15. Typical “securing failed engine” emergency

checklist.

Other than closing the cowl flap of the failed engine,

none of these items, if left undone, adversely affects

airplane climb performance. There is a distinct possibility

of actuating an incorrect switch or control if the procedure is rushed. The pilot should concentrate on flying

the airplane and extracting maximum performance. If

ATC facilities are available, an emergency should be

declared.

The memory items in the “engine failure after takeoff”

checklist may be redundant with the airplane’s existing

configuration. For example, in the third takeoff scenario,

the gear and flaps were assumed to already be retracted,

yet the memory items included gear and flaps. This is

not an oversight. The purpose of the memory items is

to either initiate the appropriate action or to confirm

that a condition exists. Action on each item may not

be required in all cases. The memory items also

apply to more than one circumstance. In an engine

failure from a go-around, for example, the landing

gear and flaps would likely be extended when the

failure occurred.

The three preceding takeoff scenarios all include the

landing gear as a key element in the decision to land or

continue. With the landing gear selector in the DOWN

position, for example, continued takeoff and climb is

not recommended. This situation, however, is not justification to retract the landing gear the moment the

airplane lifts off the surface on takeoff as a normal

procedure. The landing gear should remain selected

down as long as there is usable runway or overrun

available to land on. The use of wing flaps for takeoff

virtually eliminates the likelihood of a single-engine

climb until the flaps are retracted.

There are two time-tested memory aids the pilot may

find useful in dealing with engine-out scenarios. The

first, “Dead foot–dead engine” is used to assist in identifying the failed engine. Depending on the failure

mode, the pilot won’t be able to consistently identify

the failed engine in a timely manner from the engine

gauges. In maintaining directional control, however,

rudder pressure will be exerted on the side (left or right)

of the airplane with the operating engine. Thus, the

“dead foot” is on the same side as the “dead engine.”

Variations on this saying include “Idle foot–idle

engine” and “Working foot–working engine.”

The second memory aid has to do with climb performance. The phrase “Raise the dead” is a reminder that

the best climb performance is obtained with a very

shallow bank, about 2° toward the operating engine.

Therefore, the inoperative, or “dead” engine should be

“raised” with a very slight bank.

Not all engine power losses are complete failures.

Sometimes the failure mode is such that partial power

may be available. If there is a performance loss when

the throttle of the affected engine is retarded, the pilot

should consider allowing it to run until altitude and airspeed permit safe single-engine flight, if this can be

done without compromising safety. Attempts to save a

malfunctioning engine can lead to a loss of the entire

airplane.

ENGINE FAILURE DURING FLIGHT

Engine failures well above the ground are handled

differently than those occurring at lower speeds and

altitudes. Cruise airspeed allows better airplane control, and altitude may permit time for a possible

diagnosis and remedy of the failure. Maintaining

airplane control, however, is still paramount.

Airplanes have been lost at altitude due to apparent

fixation on the engine problem to the detriment of

flying the airplane.

Not all engine failures or malfunctions are catastrophic

in nature (catastrophic meaning a major mechanical

failure that damages the engine and precludes further

engine operation). Many cases of power loss are

related to fuel starvation, where restoration of power

may be made with the selection of another tank. An

orderly inventory of gauges and switches may reveal

the problem. Carburetor heat or alternate air can be

selected. The affected engine may run smoothly on just

one magneto or at a lower power setting. Altering the

 SECURING FAILED ENGINE

Mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IDLE CUT OFF

Magnetos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFF

Alternator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFF

Cowl Flap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CLOSE

Boost Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OFF

Fuel Selector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFF

Prop Sync . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OFF

Electrical Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reduce

Crossfeed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consider

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:55 AM Page 12-21
12-22

mixture may help. If fuel vapor formation is suspected,

fuel boost pump operation may be used to eliminate

flow and pressure fluctuations.

Although it is a natural desire among pilots to save an

ailing engine with a precautionary shutdown, the

engine should be left running if there is any doubt as to

needing it for further safe flight. Catastrophic failure

accompanied by heavy vibration, smoke, blistering

paint, or large trails of oil, on the other hand, indicate

a critical situation. The affected engine should be

feathered and the “securing failed engine” checklist

completed. The pilot should divert to the nearest suitable airport and declare an emergency with ATC for

priority handling.

Fuel crossfeed is a method of getting fuel from a tank

on one side of the airplane to an operating engine on

the other. Crossfeed is used for extended single-engine

operation. If a suitable airport is close at hand, there is

no need to consider crossfeed. If prolonged flight on a

single-engine is inevitable due to airport non-availability, then crossfeed allows use of fuel that would

otherwise be unavailable to the operating engine. It

also permits the pilot to balance the fuel consumption

to avoid an out-of-balance wing heaviness.

AFM/POH procedures for crossfeed vary widely.

Thorough fuel system knowledge is essential if crossfeed is to be conducted. Fuel selector positions and fuel

boost pump usage for crossfeed differ greatly among

multiengine airplanes. Prior to landing, crossfeed

should be terminated and the operating engine returned

to its main tank fuel supply.

If the airplane is above its single-engine absolute

ceiling at the time of engine failure, it will slowly

lose altitude. The pilot should maintain VYSE to minimize the rate of altitude loss. This “drift down” rate

will be greatest immediately following the failure

and will decrease as the single-engine ceiling is

approached. Due to performance variations caused

by engine and propeller wear, turbulence, and pilot

technique, the airplane may not maintain altitude

even at its published single-engine ceiling. Any further

rate of sink, however, would likely be modest.

An engine failure in a descent or other low power

setting can be deceiving. The dramatic yaw and performance loss will be absent. At very low power

settings, the pilot may not even be aware of a failure.

If a failure is suspected, the pilot should advance both

engine mixtures, propellers, and throttles significantly,

to the takeoff settings if necessary, to correctly identify

the failed engine. The power on the operative engine

can always be reduced later.

ENGINE INOPERATIVE APPROACH

AND LANDING

The approach and landing with one engine inoperative

is essentially the same as a two-engine approach and

landing. The traffic pattern should be flown at similar

altitudes, airspeeds, and key positions as a two-engine

approach. The differences will be the reduced power

available and the fact that the remaining thrust is

asymmetrical. A higher-than-normal power setting

will be necessary on the operative engine.

With adequate airspeed and performance, the landing

gear can still be extended on the downwind leg. In

which case it should be confirmed DOWN no later

than abeam the intended point of landing. Performance

permitting, initial extension of wing flaps (10°, typically) and a descent from pattern altitude can also be

initiated on the downwind leg. The airspeed should be

no slower than VYSE. The direction of the traffic pattern, and therefore the turns, is of no consequence as

far as airplane controllability and performance are

concerned. It is perfectly acceptable to make turns

toward the failed engine.

On the base leg, if performance is adequate, the flaps

may be extended to an intermediate setting (25°, typically). If the performance is inadequate, as measured

by a decay in airspeed or high sink rate, delay further

flap extension until closer to the runway. VYSE is still

the minimum airspeed to maintain.

On final approach, a normal, 3° glidepath to a landing

is desirable. VASI or other vertical path lighting aids

should be utilized if available. Slightly steeper

approaches may be acceptable. However, a long, flat,

low approach should be avoided. Large, sudden power

applications or reductions should also be avoided.

Maintain VYSE until the landing is assured, then slow

to 1.3 VSO or the AFM/POH recommended speed. The

final flap setting may be delayed until the landing is

assured, or the airplane may be landed with partial

flaps.

The airplane should remain in trim throughout. The

pilot must be prepared, however, for a rudder trim

change as the power of the operating engine is reduced

to idle in the roundout just prior to touchdown. With

drag from only one windmilling propeller, the airplane

will tend to float more than on a two-engine approach.

Precise airspeed control therefore is essential, especially

when landing on a short, wet and/or slippery surface.

Some pilots favor resetting the rudder trim to neutral

on final and compensating for yaw by holding rudder

pressure for the remainder of the approach. This eliminates the rudder trim change close to the ground as

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:55 AM Page 12-22
the throttle is closed during the roundout for landing.

This technique eliminates the need for groping for the

rudder trim and manipulating it to neutral during final

approach, which many pilots find to be highly distracting. AFM/POH recommendations or personal

preference should be used.

Single-engine go-arounds must be avoided. As a practical matter in single-engine approaches, once the airplane is on final approach with landing gear and flaps

extended, it is committed to land. If not on the intended

runway, then on another runway, a taxiway, or grassy

infield. The light-twin does not have the performance

to climb on one engine with landing gear and flaps

extended. Considerable altitude will be lost while

maintaining VYSE and retracting landing gear and

flaps. Losses of 500 feet or more are not unusual. If the

landing gear has been lowered with an alternate means

of extension, retraction may not be possible, virtually

negating any climb capability.

ENGINE INOPERATIVE 

FLIGHT PRINCIPLES

Best single-engine climb performance is obtained at

VYSE with maximum available power and minimum

drag. After the flaps and landing gear have been

retracted and the propeller of the failed engine feathered, a key element in best climb performance is

minimizing sideslip.

With a single-engine airplane or a multiengine airplane

with both engines operative, sideslip is eliminated

when the ball of the turn and bank instrument is centered. This is a condition of zero sideslip, and the

airplane is presenting its smallest possible profile to

the relative wind. As a result, drag is at its minimum.

Pilots know this as coordinated flight.

In a multiengine airplane with an inoperative engine,

the centered ball is no longer the indicator of zero

sideslip due to asymmetrical thrust. In fact, there is no

instrument at all that will directly tell the pilot the

flight conditions for zero sideslip. In the absence of a

yaw string, minimizing sideslip is a matter of placing

the airplane at a predetermined bank angle and ball

position. The AFM/POH performance charts for single-engine flight were determined at zero sideslip. If

this performance is even to be approximated, the zero

sideslip technique must be utilized.

There are two different control inputs that can be used

to counteract the asymmetrical thrust of a failed

engine: (1) yaw from the rudder, and (2) the horizontal

component of lift that results from bank with the

ailerons. Used individually, neither is correct. Used

together in the proper combination, zero sideslip and

best climb performance are achieved.

Three different scenarios of airplane control inputs are

presented below. Neither of the first two is correct.

They are presented to illustrate the reasons for the zero

sideslip approach to best climb performance.

1. Engine inoperative flight with wings level and

ball centered requires large rudder input towards

the operative engine. [Figure 12-16] The result is

a moderate sideslip towards the inoperative

engine. Climb performance will be reduced by

the moderate sideslip. With wings level, VMC will

be significantly higher than published as there is

no horizontal component of lift available to help

the rudder combat asymmetrical thrust.

Figure 12-16. Wings level engine-out flight.

Rudder Force

Yaw

String

Fin Effect

Due to Sideslip

Slipstream

Wings level, ball centered, airplane slips toward dead engine.

Results: high drag, large control surface deflections required,

and rudder and fin in opposition due to sideslip.

12-23

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:55 AM Page 12-23
2. Engine inoperative flight using ailerons alone

requires an 8 - 10° bank angle towards the operative engine. [Figure 12-17] This assumes no

rudder input. The ball will be displaced well

towards the operative engine. The result is a

large sideslip towards the operative engine.

Climb performance will be greatly reduced by

the large sideslip.

3. Rudder and ailerons used together in the proper

combination will result in a bank of approximately 2° towards the operative engine. The

ball will be displaced approximately one-third

to one-half towards the operative engine. The

result is zero sideslip and maximum climb performance. [Figure 12-18] Any attitude other

than zero sideslip increases drag, decreasing

performance. VMC under these circumstances

will be higher than published, as less than the

5° bank certification limit is employed.

The precise condition of zero sideslip (bank angle and

ball position) varies slightly from model to model, and

with available power and airspeed. If the airplane is

not equipped with counter-rotating propellers, it will

also vary slightly with the engine failed due to P-factor.

The foregoing zero sideslip recommendations apply to

Yaw

String

Excess bank toward operating engine, no rudder input.

Result: large sideslip toward operating engine and greatly

reduced climb performance.

12-24

Rudder Force

Yaw

String

Bank toward operating engine, no sideslip. Results: much

lower drag and smaller control surface deflections.

Figure 12-17. Excessive bank engine-out flight. Figure 12-18. Zero sideslip engine-out flight.

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:55 AM Page 12-24
12-25

reciprocating engine multiengine airplanes flown at

VYSE with the inoperative engine feathered. The zero

sideslip ball position for straight flight is also the zero

sideslip position for turning flight.

When bank angle is plotted against climb performance

for a hypothetical twin, zero sideslip results in the best

(however marginal) climb performance or the least rate

of descent. Zero bank (all rudder to counteract yaw)

degrades climb performance as a result of moderate

sideslip. Using bank angle alone (no rudder) severely

degrades climb performance as a result of a large

sideslip. 

The actual bank angle for zero sideslip varies among

airplanes from one and one-half to two and one-half

degrees. The position of the ball varies from one-third

to one-half of a ball width from instrument center.

For any multiengine airplane, zero sideslip can be confirmed through the use of a yaw string. A yaw string is

a piece of string or yarn approximately 18 to 36 inches

in length, taped to the base of the windshield, or to the

nose near the windshield, along the airplane centerline.

In two-engine coordinated flight, the relative wind will

cause the string to align itself with the longitudinal axis

of the airplane, and it will position itself straight up the

center of the windshield. This is zero sideslip.

Experimentation with slips and skids will vividly display

the location of the relative wind. Adequate altitude and

flying speed must be maintained while accomplishing

these maneuvers.

With an engine set to zero thrust (or feathered) and the

airplane slowed to VYSE, a climb with maximum power

on the remaining engine will reveal the precise bank

angle and ball deflection required for zero sideslip and

best climb performance. Zero sideslip will again be

indicated by the yaw string when it aligns itself vertically on the windshield. There will be very minor

changes from this attitude depending upon the

engine failed (with noncounter-rotating propellers),

power available, airspeed and weight; but without

more sensitive testing equipment, these changes are

difficult to detect. The only significant difference

would be the pitch attitude required to maintain VYSE

under different density altitude, power available, and

weight conditions.

If a yaw string is attached to the airplane at the time

of a VMC demonstration, it will be noted that VMC

occurs under conditions of sideslip. VMC was not

determined under conditions of zero sideslip during

aircraft certification and zero sideslip is not part of a

VMC demonstration for pilot certification.

To review, there are two different sets of bank angles

used in one-engine-inoperative flight.

• To maintain directional control of a multiengine

airplane suffering an engine failure at low speeds

(such as climb), momentarily bank at least 5°,

and a maximum of 10° towards the operative

engine as the pitch attitude for VYSE is set. This

maneuver should be instinctive to the proficient

multiengine pilot and take only 1 to 2 seconds to

attain. It is held just long enough to assure directional control as the pitch attitude for VYSE is

assumed.

• To obtain the best climb performance, the airplane must be flown at VYSE and zero sideslip,

with the failed engine feathered and maximum

available power from the operating engine. Zero

sideslip is approximately 2° of bank toward the

operating engine and a one-third to one-half ball

deflection, also toward the operating engine. The

precise bank angle and ball position will vary

somewhat with make and model and power

available. If above the airplane’s single-engine

ceiling, this attitude and configuration will result

in the minimum rate of sink.

In OEI flight at low altitudes and airspeeds such as the

initial climb after takeoff, pilots must operate the airplane

so as to guard against the three major accident factors:

(1) loss of directional control, (2) loss of performance,

and (3) loss of flying speed. All have equal potential to

be lethal. Loss of flying speed will not be a factor,

however, when the airplane is operated with due regard

for directional control and performance.

SLOW FLIGHT

There is nothing unusual about maneuvering during

slow flight in a multiengine airplane. Slow flight may

be conducted in straight-and-level flight, turns, in the

clean configuration, landing configuration, or at any

other combination of landing gear and flaps. Pilots

should closely monitor cylinder head and oil temperatures during slow flight. Some high performance

multiengine airplanes tend to heat up fairly quickly

under some conditions of slow flight, particularly in

the landing configuration.

Simulated engine failures should not be conducted during slow flight. The airplane will be well below VSSE

and very close to VMC. Stability, stall warning or stall

avoidance devices should not be disabled while

maneuvering during slow flight.

STALLS

Stall characteristics vary among multiengine airplanes

just as they do with single-engine airplanes, and

therefore, it is important to be familiar with them. The

application of power upon stall recovery, however,

has a significantly greater effect during stalls in a

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:55 AM Page 12-25
12-26

twin than a single-engine airplane. In the twin, an

application of power blows large masses of air from

the propellers directly over the wings, producing a

significant amount of lift in addition to the expected

thrust. The multiengine airplane, particularly at light

operating weights, typically has a higher thrust-toweight ratio, making it quicker to accelerate out of a

stalled condition.

In general, stall recognition and recovery training in

twins is performed similar to any high performance

single-engine airplane. However, for twins, all stall

maneuvers should be planned so as to be completed at

least 3,000 feet AGL.

Single-engine stalls or stalls with significantly more

power on one engine than the other should not be

attempted due to the likelihood of a departure from

controlled flight and possible spin entry. Similarly,

simulated engine failures should not be performed during stall entry and recovery.

POWER-OFF STALLS 

(APPROACH AND LANDING)

Power-off stalls are practiced to simulate typical

approach and landing scenarios. To initiate a power-off

stall maneuver, the area surrounding the airplane

should first be cleared for possible traffic. The airplane

should then be slowed and configured for an approach

and landing. A stabilized descent should be established

(approximately 500 f.p.m.) and trim adjusted. The pilot

should then transition smoothly from the stabilized

descent attitude, to a pitch attitude that will induce a

stall. Power is reduced further during this phase, and

trimming should cease at speeds slower than takeoff.

When the airplane reaches a stalled condition, the

recovery is accomplished by simultaneously reducing

the angle of attack with coordinated use of the flight

controls and smoothly applying takeoff or specified

power. The flap setting should be reduced from full to

approach, or as recommended by the manufacturer.

Then with a positive rate of climb, the landing gear is

selected up. The remaining flaps are then retracted as a

climb has commenced. This recovery process should

be completed with a minimum loss of altitude, appropriate to the aircraft characteristics.

The airplane should be accelerated to VX (if simulated

obstacles are present) or VY during recovery and climb.

Considerable forward elevator/stabilator pressure will

be required after the stall recovery as the airplane accelerates to VX or VY. Appropriate trim input should be

anticipated.

Power-off stalls may be performed with wings level, or

from shallow and medium banked turns. When recovering from a stall performed from turning flight, the

angle of attack should be reduced prior to leveling the

wings. Flight control inputs should be coordinated.

It is usually not advisable to execute full stalls in

multiengine airplanes because of their relatively high

wing loading. Stall training should be limited to

approaches to stalls and when a stall condition occurs.

Recoveries should be initiated at the onset, or decay of

control effectiveness, or when the first physical

indication of the stall occurs.

POWER-ON STALLS 

(TAKEOFF AND DEPARTURE)

Power-on stalls are practiced to simulate typical

takeoff scenarios. To initiate a power-on stall

maneuver, the area surrounding the airplane should

always be cleared to look for potential traffic. The

airplane is slowed to the manufacturer’s recommended

lift-off speed. The airplane should be configured in the

takeoff configuration. Trim should be adjusted for this

speed. Engine power is then increased to that recommended in the AFM/POH for the practice of power-on

stalls. In the absence of a recommended setting, use

approximately 65 percent of maximum available

power while placing the airplane in a pitch attitude that

will induce a stall. Other specified (reduced) power

settings may be used to simulate performance at higher

gross weights and density altitudes.

When the airplane reaches a stalled condition, the

recovery is made by simultaneously lowering the

angle of attack with coordinated use of the flight

controls and applying power as appropriate.

However, if simulating limited power available for

high gross weight and density altitude situations, the

power during the recovery should be limited to that

specified. The recovery should be completed with a

minimum loss of altitude, appropriate to aircraft characteristics.

The landing gear should be retracted when a positive

rate of climb is attained, and flaps retracted, if flaps

were set for takeoff. The target airspeed on recovery is

VX if (simulated) obstructions are present, or VY. The

pilot should anticipate the need for nosedown trim as

the airplane accelerates to VX or VY after recovery.

Power-on stalls may be performed from straight flight

or from shallow and medium banked turns. When

recovering from a power-on stall performed from turning flight, the angle of attack should be reduced prior

to leveling the wings, and the flight control inputs

should be coordinated.

SPIN AWARENESS

No multiengine airplane is approved for spins, and

their spin recovery characteristics are generally very

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:55 AM Page 12-26
12-27

poor. It is therefore necessary to practice spin avoidance and maintain a high awareness of situations that

can result in an inadvertent spin.

In order to spin any airplane, it must first be stalled. At

the stall, a yawing moment must be introduced. In a

multiengine airplane, the yawing moment may be

generated by rudder input or asymmetrical thrust. It

follows, then, that spin awareness be at its greatest

during VMC demonstrations, stall practice, slow

flight, or any condition of high asymmetrical thrust,

particularly at low speed/high angle of attack. Singleengine stalls are not part of any multiengine training

curriculum.

A situation that may inadvertently degrade into a spin

entry is a simulated engine failure introduced at an

inappropriately low speed. No engine failure should

ever be introduced below safe, intentional one-engineinoperative speed (VSSE). If no VSSE is published, use

VYSE. The “necessity” of simulating engine failures

at low airspeeds is erroneous. Other than training

situations, the multiengine airplane is only operated

below VSSE for mere seconds just after lift-off or

during the last few dozen feet of altitude in preparation

for landing.

For spin avoidance when practicing engine failures,

the flight instructor should pay strict attention to the

maintenance of proper airspeed and bank angle as the

student executes the appropriate procedure. The

instructor should also be particularly alert during stall

and slow flight practice. Forward center-of-gravity

positions result in favorable stall and spin avoidance

characteristics, but do not eliminate the hazard.

When performing a VMC demonstration, the instructor

should also be alert for any sign of an impending stall.

The student may be highly focused on the directional

control aspect of the maneuver to the extent that

impending stall indications go unnoticed. If a VMC

demonstration cannot be accomplished under existing

conditions of density altitude, it may, for training purposes, be done utilizing the rudder blocking technique

described in the following section.

As very few twins have ever been spin-tested (none

are required to), the recommended spin recovery

techniques are based only on the best information

available. The departure from controlled flight may

be quite abrupt and possibly disorienting. The direction of an upright spin can be confirmed from the turn

needle or the symbolic airplane of the turn coordinator,

if necessary. Do not rely on the ball position or other

instruments.

If a spin is entered, most manufacturers recommend

immediately retarding both throttles to idle, applying

full rudder opposite the direction of rotation, and

applying full forward elevator/stabilator pressure (with

ailerons neutral). These actions should be taken as near

simultaneously as possible. The controls should then

be held in that position. Recovery, if possible, will take

considerable altitude. The longer the delay from entry

until taking corrective action, the less likely that recovery will be successful.

ENGINE INOPERATIVE—LOSS OF

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL 

DEMONSTRATION

An engine inoperative—loss of directional control

demonstration, often referred to as a “VMC demonstration,” is a required task on the practical test for a

multiengine class rating. A thorough knowledge of

the factors that affect VMC, as well as its definition,

is essential for multiengine pilots, and as such an

essential part of that required task. VMC is a speed

established by the manufacturer, published in the

AFM/POH, and marked on most airspeed indicators

with a red radial line. The multiengine pilot must

understand that VMC is not a fixed airspeed under all

conditions. VMC is a fixed airspeed only for the very

specific set of circumstances under which it was

determined during aircraft certification. [Figure 12-19]

In reality, VMC varies with a variety of factors as

outlined below. The VMC noted in practice and

demonstration, or in actual single-engine operation,

could be less or even greater than the published

value, depending upon conditions and technique.

In aircraft certification, VMC is the sea level calibrated

airspeed at which, when the critical engine is suddenly

made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of

the airplane with that engine still inoperative and then

maintain straight flight at the same speed with an angle

of bank of not more than 5°.

The foregoing refers to the determination of VMC under

“dynamic” conditions. This technique is only used by

highly experienced flight test pilots during aircraft certification. It is never to be attempted outside of these

circumstances.

In aircraft certification, there is also a determination of

VMC under “static,” or steady-state conditions. If there

is a difference between the dynamic and static speeds,

the higher of the two is published as VMC. The static

determination is simply the ability to maintain straight

flight at VMC with a bank angle of not more than 5°. This

more closely resembles the VMC demonstration required

in the practical test for a multiengine class rating.

The AFM/POH-published VMC is determined with the

“critical” engine inoperative. The critical engine is the

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:55 AM Page 12-27
12-28

engine whose failure has the most adverse effect on

directional control. On twins with each engine rotating

in conventional, clockwise rotation as viewed from the

pilot’s seat, the critical engine will be the left engine.

Multiengine airplanes are subject to P-factor just as

single-engine airplanes are. The descending propeller

blade of each engine will produce greater thrust than

the ascending blade when the airplane is operated

under power and at positive angles of attack. The

descending propeller blade of the right engine is also

a greater distance from the center of gravity, and

therefore has a longer moment arm than the descending propeller blade of the left engine. As a result,

failure of the left engine will result in the most

asymmetrical thrust (adverse yaw) as the right

engine will be providing the remaining thrust.

[Figure 12-19]

Many twins are designed with a counter-rotating right

engine. With this design, the degree of asymmetrical

thrust is the same with either engine inoperative. No

engine is more critical than the other, and a VMC

demonstration may be performed with either engine

windmilling.

In aircraft certification, dynamic VMC is determined

under the following conditions.

• Maximum available takeoff power. VMC

increases as power is increased on the operating

engine. With normally aspirated engines, VMC is

highest at takeoff power and sea level, and

decreases with altitude. With turbocharged

engines, takeoff power, and therefore VMC,

remains constant with increases in altitude up to

the engine’s critical altitude (the altitude where

the engine can no longer maintain 100 percent

power). Above the critical altitude, VMC

decreases just as it would with a normally aspirated engine, whose critical altitude is sea level.

VMC tests are conducted at a variety of altitudes.

The results of those tests are then extrapolated to

a single, sea level value.

• Windmilling propeller. VMC increases with

increased drag on the inoperative engine. VMC is

highest, therefore, when the critical engine propeller is windmilling at the low pitch, high

r.p.m. blade angle. VMC is determined with the

critical engine propeller windmilling in the

takeoff position, unless the engine is equipped

with an autofeather system.

• Most unfavorable weight and center-of-gravity

position. VMC increases as the center of gravity

is moved aft. The moment arm of the rudder is

reduced, and therefore its effectivity is reduced,

as the center of gravity is moved aft. At the same

time, the moment arm of the propeller blade is

increased, aggravating asymmetrical thrust.

Invariably, the aft-most CG limit is the most

unfavorable CG position. Currently, 14 CFR

part 23 calls for VMC to be determined at the

most unfavorable weight. For twins certificated under CAR 3 or early 14 CFR part 23,

the weight at which VMC was determined was

not specified. VMC increases as weight is

reduced. [Figure 12-20]

• Landing gear retracted. VMC increases when

the landing gear is retracted. Extended landing

gear aids directional stability, which tends to

decrease VMC.

Figure 12-19. Forces created during single-engine operation.

C L C L

D2 D1

Arm Arm

Inoperative

Engine

Inoperative

Engine

Operative

Engine

Operative

Engine

(Critical Engine)

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:55 AM Page 12-28
12-29

• Wing flaps in the takeoff position. For most

twins, this will be 0° of flaps.

• Cowl flaps in the takeoff position.

• Airplane trimmed for takeoff.

• Airplane airborne and the ground effect negligible.

• Maximum of 5° angle of bank. VMC is highly

sensitive to bank angle. To prevent claims of

an unrealistically low VMC speed in aircraft

certification, the manufacturer is permitted to

use a maximum of a 5° bank angle toward the

operative engine. The horizontal component of

lift generated by the bank assists the rudder in

counteracting the asymmetrical thrust of the

operative engine. The bank angle works in the

manufacturer’s favor in lowering VMC.

VMC is reduced significantly with increases in bank

angle. Conversely, VMC increases significantly with

decreases in bank angle. Tests have shown that VMC

may increase more than 3 knots for each degree of

bank angle less than 5°. Loss of directional control

may be experienced at speeds almost 20 knots above

published VMC when the wings are held level.

The 5° bank angle maximum is a regulatory limit

imposed upon manufacturers in aircraft certification.

The 5° bank does not inherently establish zero sideslip

or best single-engine climb performance. Zero sideslip,

and therefore best single-engine climb performance,

occurs at bank angles significantly less than 5°. The

determination of VMC in certification is solely concerned with the minimum speed for directional control

under a very specific set of circumstances, and has

nothing to do with climb performance, nor is it the

optimum airplane attitude or configuration for climb

performance.

During dynamic VMC determination in aircraft certification, cuts of the critical engine using the mixture

control are performed by flight test pilots while

gradually reducing the speed with each attempt. VMC

is the minimum speed at which directional control

could be maintained within 20° of the original entry

heading when a cut of the critical engine was made.

During such tests, the climb angle with both engines

operating was high, and the pitch attitude following

the engine cut had to be quickly lowered to regain

the initial speed. Pilots should never attempt to

demonstrate VMC with an engine cut from high

power, and never intentionally fail an engine at

speeds less than VSSE.

The actual demonstration of VMC and recovery in flight

training more closely resembles static VMC determination in aircraft certification. For a demonstration,

the pilot should select an altitude that will allow

completion of the maneuver at least 3,000 feet AGL.

The following description assumes a twin with

noncounter-rotating engines, where the left engine

is critical.

With the landing gear retracted and the flaps set to the

takeoff position, the airplane should be slowed to

approximately 10 knots above VSSE or VYSE

(whichever is higher) and trimmed for takeoff. For the

remainder of the maneuver, the trim setting should not

be altered. An entry heading should be selected and

high r.p.m. set on both propeller controls. Power on the

left engine should be throttled back to idle as the right

engine power is advanced to the takeoff setting. The

landing gear warning horn will sound as long as a

Figure 12-20. Effect of CG location on yaw.

A

B

Inoperative

Engine

Operative

Engine

B x R = A x T

Inoperative

Engine

Operative

Engine

A

R

B

R

T T

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:55 AM Page 12-29
12-30

throttle is retarded. The pilots should continue to carefully listen, however, for the stall warning horn, if so

equipped, or watch for the stall warning light. The left

yawing and rolling moment of the asymmetrical thrust

is counteracted primarily with right rudder. A bank

angle of 5° (a right bank, in this case) should also be

established.

While maintaining entry heading, the pitch attitude is

slowly increased to decelerate at a rate of 1 knot per

second (no faster). As the airplane slows and control

effectivity decays, the increasing yawing tendency

should be counteracted with additional rudder pressure. Aileron displacement will also increase in order

to maintain 5° of bank. An airspeed is soon reached

where full right rudder travel and a 5° right bank can

no longer counteract the asymmetrical thrust, and the

airplane will begin to yaw uncontrollably to the left.

The moment the pilot first recognizes the uncontrollable yaw, or experiences any symptom associated

with a stall, the operating engine throttle should be

sufficiently retarded to stop the yaw as the pitch

attitude is decreased. Recovery is made with a minimum

loss of altitude to straight flight on the entry heading at

VSSE or VYSE, before setting symmetrical power. The

recovery should not be attempted by increasing power

on the windmilling engine alone.

To keep the foregoing description simple, there were

several important background details that were not

covered. The rudder pressure during the demonstration

can be quite high. In certification, 150 pounds of force

is permitted before the limiting factor becomes rudder

pressure, not rudder travel. Most twins will run out of

rudder travel long before 150 pounds of pressure is

required. Still, it will seem considerable.

Maintaining altitude is not a criterion in accomplishing this maneuver. This is a demonstration of

controllability, not performance. Many airplanes will

lose (or gain) altitude during the demonstration. Begin

the maneuver at an altitude sufficient to allow completion

by 3,000 feet AGL.

As discussed earlier, with normally aspirated engines,

VMC decreases with altitude. Stalling speed (VS),

however, remains the same. Except for a few models,

published VMC is almost always higher than VS. At

sea level, there is usually a margin of several knots

between VMC and VS, but the margin decreases with

altitude, and at some altitude, VMC and VS are the

same. [Figure 12-21]

Should a stall occur while the airplane is under asymmetrical power, particularly high asymmetrical power,

a spin entry is likely. The yawing moment induced

from asymmetrical thrust is little different from that

induced by full rudder in an intentional spin in the

appropriate model of single-engine airplane. In this

case, however, the airplane will depart controlled

flight in the direction of the idle engine, not in the

direction of the applied rudder. Twins are not required

to demonstrate recoveries from spins, and their spin

recovery characteristics are generally very poor.

Where VS is encountered at or before VMC, the departure from controlled flight may be quite sudden, with

strong yawing and rolling tendencies to the inverted

position, and a spin entry. Therefore, during a VMC

demonstration, if there are any symptoms of an

impending stall such as a stall warning light or horn,

airframe or elevator buffet, or rapid decay in control

effectiveness, the maneuver should be terminated

immediately, the angle of attack reduced as the throttle

is retarded, and the airplane returned to the entry

airspeed. It should be noted that if the pilots are

wearing headsets, the sound of a stall warning horn

will tend to be masked.

The VMC demonstration only shows the earliest onset

of a loss of directional control. It is not a loss of control of the airplane when performed in accordance with

the foregoing procedures. A stalled condition should

never be allowed to develop. Stalls should never be

performed with asymmetrical thrust and the VMC

demonstration should never be allowed to degrade into

a single-engine stall. A VMC demonstration that is

allowed to degrade into a single-engine stall with high

asymmetrical thrust is very likely to result in a loss of

control of the airplane.

An actual demonstration of VMC may not be possible

under certain conditions of density altitude, or with

airplanes whose VMC is equal to or less than VS. Under

those circumstances, as a training technique, a demonstration of VMC may be safely conducted by artificially

limiting rudder travel to simulate maximum available

rudder. Limiting rudder travel should be accomplished

at a speed well above VS (approximately 20 knots). Density Altitude

Indicated Airspeed

Stall

Occurs

First

Yaw

Occurs 

First

Recovery

May Be

Difficult

Altitude Where

VMC = Stall Speed

Engine-Out

Power-On

Stall Speed (VS)

VMC

Figure 12-21. Graph depicting relationship of VMC to VS.

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:55 AM Page 12-30
The rudder limiting technique avoids the hazards of

spinning as a result of stalling with high asymmetrical

power, yet is effective in demonstrating the loss of

directional control.

The VMC demonstration should never be performed

from a high pitch attitude with both engines operating

and then reducing power on one engine. The preceding

discussion should also give ample warning as to why

engine failures are never to be performed at low airspeeds. An unfortunate number of airplanes and pilots

have been lost from unwarranted simulated engine

failures at low airspeeds that degenerated into loss of

control of the airplane. VSSE is the minimum airspeed

at which any engine failure should be simulated.

MULTIENGINE TRAINING 

CONSIDERATIONS

Flight training in a multiengine airplane can be safely

accomplished if both the instructor and the student are

cognizant of the following factors.

• No flight should ever begin without a thorough

preflight briefing of the objectives, maneuvers,

expected student actions, and completion standards.

• A clear understanding must be reached as to how

simulated emergencies will be introduced, and

what action the student is expected to take.

The introduction, practice, and testing of emergency

procedures has always been a sensitive subject.

Surprising a multiengine student with an emergency

without a thorough briefing beforehand has no place

in flight training. Effective training must be carefully

balanced with safety considerations. Simulated engine

failures, for example, can very quickly become actual

emergencies or lead to loss of the airplane when

approached carelessly. Pulling circuit breakers can

lead to a subsequent gear up landing. Stall-spin accidents in training for emergencies rival the number of

stall-spin accidents from actual emergencies. 

All normal, abnormal, and emergency procedures can

and should be introduced and practiced in the airplane

as it sits on the ground, power off. In this respect, the

airplane is used as a cockpit procedures trainer (CPT),

ground trainer, or simulator. The value of this training

should never be underestimated. The engines do not

have to be operating for real learning to occur. Upon

completion of a training session, care should be taken

to return items such as switches, valves, trim, fuel selectors, and circuit breakers to their normal positions.

Pilots who do not use a checklist effectively will be at

a significant disadvantage in multiengine airplanes.

Use of the checklist is essential to safe operation of

airplanes and no flight should be conducted without

one. The manufacturer’s checklist or an aftermarket

checklist for the specific make, model, and model year

should be used. If there is a procedural discrepancy

between the checklist and AFM/POH, then the

AFM/POH always takes precedence.

Certain immediate action items (such as the response

to an engine failure in a critical phase of flight) should

be committed to memory. After they are accomplished,

and as work load permits, the pilot should verify the

action taken with a printed checklist.

Simulated engine failures during the takeoff ground

roll should be accomplished with the mixture control.

The simulated failure should be introduced at a speed

no greater than 50 percent of VMC. If the student does

not react promptly by retarding both throttles, the

instructor can always pull the other mixture.

The FAA recommends that all in-flight simulated

engine failures below 3,000 feet AGL be introduced

with a smooth reduction of the throttle. Thus, the

engine is kept running and is available for instant use,

if necessary. Throttle reduction should be smooth

rather than abrupt to avoid abusing the engine and possibly causing damage. All inflight engine failures must

be conducted at VSSE or above.

If the engines are equipped with dynamic crankshaft

counterweights, it is essential to make throttle reductions

for simulated failures smoothly. Other areas leading to

dynamic counterweight damage include high r.p.m. and

low manifold pressure combinations, overboosting, and

propeller feathering. Severe damage or repetitive abuse

to counterweights will eventually lead to engine failure.

Dynamic counterweights are found on larger, more

complex engines—instructors should check with

maintenance personnel or the engine manufacturer to

determine if their engines are so equipped.

When an instructor simulates an engine failure, the

student should respond with the appropriate memory

items and retard the propeller control towards the

FEATHER position. Assuming zero thrust will be set,

the instructor should promptly move the propeller

control forward and set the appropriate manifold

pressure and r.p.m. It is vital that the student be kept

informed of the instructor’s intentions. At this point

the instructor may state words to the effect, “I have the

right engine; you have the left. I have set zero thrust

and the right engine is simulated feathered.” There

should never be any ambiguity as to who is operating

what systems or controls.

Following a simulated engine failure, the instructor

should continue to care for the “failed” engine just as

the student cares for the operative engine. If zero thrust

12-31

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:55 AM Page 12-31
12-32

is set to simulate a feathered propeller, the cowl flap

should be closed and the mixture leaned. An occasional

clearing of the engine is also desirable. If possible,

avoid high power applications immediately following

a prolonged cool-down at a zero-thrust power setting.

The flight instructor must impress on the student multiengine pilot the critical importance of feathering the

propeller in a timely manner should an actual engine

failure situation be encountered. Awindmilling propeller,

in many cases, has given the improperly trained

multiengine pilot the mistaken perception that the

failed engine is still developing useful thrust, resulting

in a psychological reluctance to feather, as feathering

results in the cessation of propeller rotation. The flight

instructor should spend ample time demonstrating

the difference in the performance capabilities of the

airplane with a simulated feathered propeller (zero

thrust) as opposed to a windmilling propeller.

All actual propeller feathering should be performed at

altitudes and positions where safe landings on established airports could be readily accomplished.

Feathering and restart should be planned so as to be

completed no lower than 3,000 feet AGL. At certain

elevations and with many popular multiengine training

airplanes, this may be above the single-engine service

ceiling, and level flight will not be possible. 

Repeated feathering and unfeathering is hard on the

engine and airframe, and should be done only as

absolutely necessary to ensure adequate training. The

FAA’s practical test standards for a multiengine class

rating requires the feathering and unfeathering of one

propeller during flight in airplanes in which it is safe to

do so.

While much of this chapter has been devoted to the

unique flight characteristics of the multiengine airplane with one engine inoperative, the modern,

well-maintained reciprocating engine is remarkably

reliable. Simulated engine failures at extremely low

altitudes (such as immediately after lift-off) and/or

below VSSE are undesirable in view of the non-existent

safety margins involved. The high risk of simulating

an engine failure below 200 feet AGL does not warrant

practicing such maneuvers.

For training in maneuvers that would be hazardous in

flight, or for initial and recurrent qualification in an

advanced multiengine airplane, a simulator training

center or manufacturer’s training course should be

given consideration. Comprehensive training manuals

and classroom instruction are available along with system training aids, audio/visuals, and flight training

devices and simulators. Training under a wide variety

of environmental and aircraft conditions is available

through simulation. Emergency procedures that would

be either dangerous or impossible to accomplish in an

airplane can be done safely and effectively in a flight

training device or simulator. The flight training device

or simulator need not necessarily duplicate the specific make and model of airplane to be useful. Highly

effective instruction can be obtained in training

devices for other makes and models as well as generic

training devices.

The majority of multiengine training is conducted in

four to six-place airplanes at weights significantly less

than maximum. Single-engine performance, particularly at low density altitudes, may be deceptively good.

To experience the performance expected at higher

weights, altitudes, and temperatures, the instructor

should occasionally artificially limit the amount of

manifold pressure available on the operative engine.

Airport operations above the single-engine ceiling can

also be simulated in this manner. Loading the airplane

with passengers to practice emergencies at maximum

takeoff weight is not appropriate.

The use of the touch-and-go landing and takeoff in

flight training has always been somewhat controversial.

The value of the learning experience must be weighed

against the hazards of reconfiguring the airplane for

takeoff in an extremely limited time as well as the loss

of the follow-through ordinarily experienced in a full

stop landing. Touch and goes are not recommended

during initial aircraft familiarization in multiengine

airplanes.

If touch and goes are to be performed at all, the student

and instructor responsibilities need to be carefully

briefed prior to each flight. Following touchdown, the

student will ordinarily maintain directional control

while keeping the left hand on the yoke and the right

hand on the throttles. The instructor resets the flaps

and trim and announces when the airplane has been

reconfigured. The multiengine airplane needs considerably more runway to perform a touch and go than a

single-engine airplane. A full stop-taxi back landing is

preferable during initial familiarization. Solo touch

and goes in twins are strongly discouraged.

Ch 12.qxd 5/7/04 9:55 AM Page 12-32
13-1

TAILWHEEL AIRPLANES

Tailwheel airplanes are often referred to as 

conventional gear airplanes. Due to their design and

structure, tailwheel airplanes exhibit operational and

handling characteristics that are different from those of

tricycle gear airplanes. Tailwheel airplanes are not 

necessarily more difficult to takeoff, land, and/or taxi

than tricycle gear airplanes; in fact under certain 

conditions, they may even handle with less difficulty.

This chapter will focus on the operational differences

that occur during ground operations, takeoffs, and 

landings.

LANDING GEAR

The main landing gear forms the principal support of

the airplane on the ground. The tailwheel also supports

the airplane, but steering and directional control are its

primary functions. With the tailwheel-type airplane, the

two main struts are attached to the airplane slightly

ahead of the airplane’s center of gravity (CG).

The rudder pedals are the primary directional controls

while taxiing. Steering with the pedals may be 

accomplished through the forces of airflow or propeller

slipstream acting on the rudder surface, or through a

mechanical linkage to the steerable tailwheel. Initially,

the pilot should taxi with the heels of the feet resting on

the cockpit floor and the balls of the feet on the bottom

of the rudder pedals. The feet should be slid up onto the

brake pedals only when it is necessary to depress the

brakes. This permits the simultaneous application of

rudder and brake whenever needed. Some models of

tailwheel airplanes are equipped with heel brakes rather

than toe brakes. In either configuration the brakes are

used primarily to stop the airplane at a desired point, to

slow the airplane, or as an aid in making a sharp 

controlled turn. Whenever used, they must be applied

smoothly, evenly, and cautiously at all times.

TAXIING

When beginning to taxi, the brakes should be tested

immediately for proper operation. This is done by first

applying power to start the airplane moving slowly 

forward, then retarding the throttle and simultaneously

applying pressure smoothly to both brakes. If braking

action is unsatisfactory, the engine should be shut down

immediately.

To turn the airplane on the ground, the pilot should

apply rudder in the desired direction of turn and use

whatever power or brake that is necessary to control

the taxi speed. The rudder should be held in the 

direction of the turn until just short of the point where

the turn is to be stopped, then the rudder pressure

released or slight opposite pressure applied as needed.

While taxiing, the pilot will have to anticipate the

movements of the airplane and adjust rudder pressure

accordingly. Since the airplane will continue to turn

slightly even as the rudder pressure is being released,

the stopping of the turn must be anticipated and the 

rudder pedals neutralized before the desired heading is

reached. In some cases, it may be necessary to apply

opposite rudder to stop the turn, depending on the taxi

speed.

The presence of moderate to strong headwinds and/or a

strong propeller slipstream makes the use of the 

elevator necessary to maintain control of the pitch 

attitude while taxiing. This becomes apparent when

considering the lifting action that may be created on

the horizontal tail surfaces by either of those two 

factors. The elevator control should be held in the aft

position (stick or yoke back) to hold the tail down.

When taxiing in a quartering headwind, the wing on

the upwind side will usually tend to be lifted by the

wind unless the aileron control is held in that direction

(upwind aileron UP). Moving the aileron into the UP

position reduces the effect of wind striking that wing,

thus reducing the lifting action. This control movement

will also cause the opposite aileron to be placed in the

DOWN position, thus creating drag and possibly some

lift on the downwind wing, further reducing the 

tendency of the upwind wing to rise.

When taxiing with a quartering tailwind, the elevator

should be held in the full DOWN position (stick or

yoke full forward), and the upwind aileron down. Since

the wind is striking the airplane from behind, these

control positions reduce the tendency of the wind to get

under the tail and the wing possibly causing the 

airplane to nose over. The application of these 

crosswind taxi corrections also helps to minimize the

weathervaning tendency and ultimately results in

increased controllability.

Ch 13.qxd 5/7/04 10:04 AM Page 13-1
13-2

An airplane with a tailwheel has a tendency to 

weathervane or turn into the wind while it is being 

taxied. The tendency of the airplane to weathervane is

greatest while taxiing directly crosswind; 

consequently, directional control is somewhat difficult.

Without brakes, it is almost impossible to keep the 

airplane from turning into any wind of considerable

velocity since the airplane’s rudder control capability

may be inadequate to counteract the crosswind. In 

taxiing downwind, the tendency to weathervane is

increased, due to the tailwind decreasing the 

effectiveness of the flight controls. This requires a

more positive use of the rudder and the brakes, 

particularly if the wind velocity is above that of a light

breeze.

Unless the field is soft, or very rough, it is best when

taxiing downwind to hold the elevator control in the

forward position. Even on soft fields, the elevator

should be raised only as much as is absolutely 

necessary to maintain a safe margin of control in case

there is a tendency of the airplane to nose over.

On most tailwheel-type airplanes, directional control

while taxiing is facilitated by the use of a steerable 

tailwheel, which operates along with the rudder. The

tailwheel steering mechanism remains engaged when

the tailwheel is operated through an arc of about 16 to

18° each side of neutral and then automatically

becomes full swiveling when turned to a greater angle.

On some models the tailwheel may also be locked in

place. The airplane may be pivoted within its own

length, if desired, yet is fully steerable for slight turns

while taxiing forward. While taxiing, the steerable 

tailwheel should be used for making normal turns and

the pilot’s feet kept off the brake pedals to avoid 

unnecessary wear on the brakes.

Since a tailwheel-type airplane rests on the tailwheel

as well as the main landing wheels, it assumes a 

nose-high attitude when on the ground. In most cases

this places the engine cowling high enough to restrict

the pilot’s vision of the area directly ahead of the 

airplane. Consequently, objects directly ahead of the

airplane are difficult, if not impossible, to see. To

observe and avoid colliding with any objects or 

hazardous surface conditions, the pilot should 

alternately turn the nose from one side to the 

other—that is zigzag, or make a series of short S-turns

while taxiing forward. This should be done slowly,

smoothly, positively, and cautiously.

NORMAL TAKEOFF ROLL

After taxiing onto the runway, the airplane should be

carefully aligned with the intended takeoff direction,

and the tailwheel positioned straight, or centered. In

airplanes equipped with a locking device, the tailwheel

should be locked in the centered position. After 

releasing the brakes, the throttle should be smoothly

and continuously advanced to takeoff power. As the

airplane starts to roll forward, the pilot should slide

both feet down on the rudder pedals so that the toes or

balls of the feet are on the rudder portions, not on the

brake portions.

An abrupt application of power may cause the airplane

to yaw sharply to the left because of the torque effects

of the engine and propeller. Also, precession will be

particularly noticeable during takeoff in a tailwheeltype airplane if the tail is rapidly raised from a three

point to a level flight attitude. The abrupt change of

attitude tilts the horizontal axis of the propeller, and

the resulting precession produces a forward force on

the right side (90° ahead in the direction of rotation),

yawing the airplane’s nose to the left. The amount of

force created by this precession is directly related to

the rate the propeller axis is tilted when the tail is

raised. With this in mind, the throttle should always be

advanced smoothly and continuously to prevent any

sudden swerving.

Smooth, gradual advancement of the throttle is very

important in tailwheel-type airplanes, since 

peculiarities in their takeoff characteristics are 

accentuated in proportion to how rapidly the takeoff

power is applied.

As speed is gained, the elevator control will tend to

assume a neutral position if the airplane is correctly

trimmed. At the same time, directional control should

be maintained with smooth, prompt, positive rudder

corrections throughout the takeoff roll. The effects of

torque and P-factor at the initial speeds tend to pull the

nose to the left. The pilot must use what rudder 

pressure is needed to correct for these effects or for

existing wind conditions to keep the nose of the 

airplane headed straight down the runway. The use of

brakes for steering purposes should be avoided, since

they will cause slower acceleration of the airplane’s

speed, lengthen the takeoff distance, and possibly

result in severe swerving.

When the elevator trim is set for takeoff, on 

application of maximum allowable power, the airplane

will (when sufficient speed has been attained) 

normally assume the correct takeoff pitch attitude on

its own—the tail will rise slightly. This attitude can

then be maintained by applying slight back-elevator

pressure. If the elevator control is pushed forward 

during the takeoff roll to prematurely raise the tail, its

effectiveness will rapidly build up as the speed

increases, making it necessary to apply back-elevator

pressure to lower the tail to the proper takeoff attitude.

This erratic change in attitude will delay the takeoff

and lead to directional control problems. Rudder 

pressure must be used promptly and smoothly to 

Ch 13.qxd 5/7/04 10:04 AM Page 13-2
13-3

counteract yawing forces so that the airplane continues

straight down the runway.

While the speed of the takeoff roll increases, more and

more pressure will be felt on the flight controls, 

particularly the elevators and rudder. Since the tail 

surfaces receive the full effect of the propeller 

slipstream, they become effective first. As the speed

continues to increase, all of the flight controls will

gradually become effective enough to maneuver the

airplane about its three axes. It is at this point, in the

taxi to flight transition, that the airplane is being flown

more than taxied. As this occurs, progressively smaller

rudder deflections are needed to maintain direction.

TAKEOFF

Since a good takeoff depends on the proper takeoff

attitude, it is important to know how this attitude

appears and how it is attained. The ideal takeoff 

attitude requires only minimum pitch adjustments

shortly after the airplane lifts off to attain the speed for

the best rate of climb.

The tail should first be allowed to rise off the ground

slightly to permit the airplane to accelerate more 

rapidly. At this point, the position of the nose in 

relation to the horizon should be noted, then elevator

pressure applied as necessary to hold this attitude. The

wings are kept level by applying aileron pressure as

necessary. 

The airplane may be allowed to fly off the ground

while in normal takeoff attitude. Forcing it into the air

by applying excessive back-elevator pressure would

result in an excessively high pitch attitude and may

delay the takeoff. As discussed earlier, excessive and

rapid changes in pitch attitude result in proportionate

changes in the effects of torque, making the airplane

more difficult to control.

Although the airplane can be forced into the air, this is

considered an unsafe practice and should be avoided

under normal circumstances. If the airplane is forced

to leave the ground by using too much back-elevator

pressure before adequate flying speed is attained, the

wing’s angle of attack may be excessive, causing the

airplane to settle back to the runway or even to stall.

On the other hand, if sufficient back-elevator pressure

is not held to maintain the correct takeoff attitude after

becoming airborne, or the nose is allowed to lower

excessively, the airplane may also settle back to the

runway. This occurs because the angle of attack is

decreased and lift is diminished to the degree where it

will not support the airplane. It is important to hold the

attitude constant after rotation or lift-off.

As the airplane leaves the ground, the pilot must 

continue to maintain straight flight, as well as holding

the proper pitch attitude. During takeoffs in strong,

gusty wind, it is advisable that an extra margin of speed

be obtained before the airplane is allowed to leave the

ground. A takeoff at the normal takeoff speed may

result in a lack of positive control, or a stall, when the

airplane encounters a sudden lull in strong, gusty wind,

or other turbulent air currents. In this case, the pilot

should hold the airplane on the ground longer to attain

more speed, then make a smooth, positive rotation to

leave the ground.

CROSSWIND TAKEOFF

It is important to establish and maintain the proper

amount of crosswind correction prior to lift-off; that is,

apply aileron pressure toward the wind to keep the

upwind wing from rising and apply rudder pressure as

needed to prevent weathervaning.

As the tailwheel is raised off the runway, the holding

of aileron control into the wind may result in the 

downwind wing rising and the downwind main wheel

lifting off the runway first, with the remainder of the

takeoff roll being made on one main wheel. This is

acceptable and is preferable to side-skipping.

If a significant crosswind exists, the main wheels

should be held on the ground slightly longer than in a

normal takeoff so that a smooth but definite lift-off can

be made. This procedure will allow the airplane to

leave the ground under more positive control so that it

will definitely remain airborne while the proper

amount of drift correction is being established. More

importantly, it will avoid imposing excessive side

loads on the landing gear and prevent possible damage

that would result from the airplane settling back to the

runway while drifting.

As both main wheels leave the runway, and ground

friction no longer resists drifting, the airplane will be

slowly carried sideways with the wind until adequate

drift correction is maintained. 

SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF

Wing flaps should be lowered prior to takeoff if 

recommended by the manufacturer. Takeoff power

should be applied smoothly and continuously, (there

should be no hesitation) to accelerate the airplane as

rapidly as possible. As the takeoff roll progresses, the

airplane’s pitch attitude and angle of attack should be

adjusted to that which results in the minimum amount

of drag and the quickest acceleration. The tail should

be allowed to rise off the ground slightly, then held in

this tail-low flight attitude until the proper lift-off or

rotation airspeed is attained. For the steepest climb-out

and best obstacle clearance, the airplane should be

allowed to roll with its full weight on the main wheels

and accelerated to the lift-off speed. 

Ch 13.qxd 5/7/04 10:04 AM Page 13-3
13-4

SOFT-FIELD TAKEOFF

Wing flaps may be lowered prior to starting the takeoff

(if recommended by the manufacturer) to provide 

additional lift and transfer the airplane’s weight from

the wheels to the wings as early as possible. The 

airplane should be taxied onto the takeoff surface 

without stopping on a soft surface. Stopping on a soft

surface, such as mud or snow, might bog the 

airplane down. The airplane should be kept in

continuous motion with sufficient power while lining

up for the takeoff roll.

As the airplane is aligned with the proposed takeoff

path, takeoff power is applied smoothly and as rapidly

as the powerplant will accept it without faltering. The

tail should be kept low to maintain the inherent 

positive angle of attack and to avoid any tendency of

the airplane to nose over as a result of soft spots, tall

grass, or deep snow.

When the airplane is held at a nose-high attitude

throughout the takeoff run, the wings will, as speed

increases and lift develops, progressively relieve the

wheels of more and more of the airplane’s weight,

thereby minimizing the drag caused by surface 

irregularities or adhesion. If this attitude is accurately

maintained, the airplane will virtually fly itself off the

ground. The airplane should be allowed to accelerate

to climb speed in ground effect.

TOUCHDOWN

The touchdown is the gentle settling of the airplane

onto the landing surface. The roundout and touchdown

should be made with the engine idling, and the airplane

at minimum controllable airspeed, so that the airplane

will touch down at approximately stalling speed. As

the airplane settles, the proper landing attitude must be

attained by applying whatever back-elevator pressure

is necessary. The roundout and touchdown should be

timed so that the wheels of the main landing gear and

tailwheel touch down simultaneously (three-point

landing). This requires proper timing, technique, and

judgment of distance and altitude. [Figure 13-1]

When the wheels make contact with the ground, the

elevator control should be carefully eased fully back

to hold the tail down and to keep the tailwheel on the

ground. This provides more positive directional 

control of the airplane equipped with a steerable 

tailwheel, and prevents any tendency for the airplane

to nose over. If the tailwheel is not on the ground, 

easing back on the elevator control may cause the 

airplane to become airborne again because the change

in attitude will increase the angle of attack and 

produce enough lift for the airplane to fly.

It is extremely important that the touchdown occur

with the airplane’s longitudinal axis exactly parallel to

the direction the airplane is moving along the runway.

Failure to accomplish this not only imposes severe

side loads on the landing gear, but imparts 

groundlooping (swerving) tendencies. To avoid these

side stresses or a ground loop, the pilot must never

allow the airplane to touch down while in a crab or

while drifting.

AFTER-LANDING ROLL

The landing process must never be considered 

complete until the airplane decelerates to the normal

taxi speed during the landing roll or has been brought

to a complete stop when clear of the landing area. The

pilot must be alert for directional control difficulties

immediately upon and after touchdown due to the

ground friction on the wheels. The friction creates a

pivot point on which a moment arm can act. This is

because the CG is behind the main wheels. 

[Figure 13-2] 

Any difference between the direction the airplane is

traveling and the direction it is headed will produce a

moment about the pivot point of the wheels, and the

airplane will tend to swerve. Loss of directional 

control may lead to an aggravated, uncontrolled, tight

turn on the ground, or a ground loop. The combination

of inertia acting on the CG and ground friction of the

main wheels resisting it during the ground loop may

cause the airplane to tip or lean enough for the outside

Main Gear and Tailwheel

Touch Down Simultaneously

Hold Elevator

Full Up

Normal

Glide

Start Roundout

to Landing Attitude

Figure 13-1.Tailwheel touchdown.

Ch 13.qxd 5/7/04 10:04 AM Page 13-4
13-5

wingtip to contact the ground, and may even impose a

sideward force that could collapse the landing gear.

The airplane can ground loop late in the after-landing

roll because rudder effectiveness decreases with the

decreasing flow of air along the rudder surface as the

airplane slows. As the airplane speed decreases and the

tailwheel has been lowered to the ground, the steerable

tailwheel provides more positive directional control.

To use the brakes, the pilot should slide the toes or feet

up from the rudder pedals to the brake pedals (or apply

heel pressure in airplanes equipped with heel brakes).

If rudder pressure is being held at the time braking

action is needed, that pressure should not be released

as the feet or toes are being slid up to the brake pedals,

because control may be lost before brakes can be

applied. During the ground roll, the airplane’s 

direction of movement may be changed by carefully

applying pressure on one brake or uneven pressures on

each brake in the desired direction. Caution must be

exercised, when applying brakes to avoid 

overcontrolling.

If a wing starts to rise, aileron control should be

applied toward that wing to lower it. The amount

required will depend on speed because as the forward

speed of the airplane decreases, the ailerons will

become less effective. 

The elevator control should be held back as far as 

possible and as firmly as possible, until the airplane

stops. This provides more positive control with 

tailwheel steering, tends to shorten the after-landing

roll, and prevents bouncing and skipping. 

If available runway permits, the speed of the airplane

should be allowed to dissipate in a normal manner by

the friction and drag of the wheels on the ground.

Brakes may be used if needed to help slow the airplane.

After the airplane has been slowed sufficiently and has

been turned onto a taxiway or clear of the landing area,

it should be brought to a complete stop. Only after this

is done should the pilot retract the flaps and perform

other checklist items.

CROSSWIND LANDING

If the crab method of drift correction has been used

throughout the final approach and roundout, the crab

must be removed before touchdown by applying 

rudder to align the airplane’s longitudinal axis with its

direction of movement. This requires timely and 

accurate action. Failure to accomplish this results in

severe side loads being imposed on the landing gear

and imparts ground looping tendencies.

If the wing-low method is used, the crosswind 

correction (aileron into the wind and opposite rudder)

should be maintained throughout the roundout, and the

touchdown made on the upwind main wheel.

During gusty or high-wind conditions, prompt 

adjustments must be made in the crosswind correction

to assure that the airplane does not drift as it touches

down.

As the forward speed decreases after initial contact,

the weight of the airplane will cause the downwind

main wheel to gradually settle onto the runway.

An adequate amount of power should be used to 

maintain the proper airspeed throughout the approach,

and the throttle should be retarded to idling position

after the main wheels contact the landing surface. Care

must be exercised in closing the throttle before the

pilot is ready for touchdown, because the sudden or

premature closing of the throttle may cause a sudden

increase in the descent rate that could result in a hard

landing.

CROSSWIND AFTER-LANDING ROLL

Particularly during the after-landing roll, special 

attention must be given to maintaining directional 

control by the use of rudder and tailwheel steering,

while keeping the upwind wing from rising by the use

of aileron. Characteristically, an airplane has a greater

profile, or side area, behind the main landing gear than

forward of it. [Figure 13-3] With the main wheels 

acting as a pivot point and the greater surface area

exposed to the crosswind behind that pivot point, the

airplane will tend to turn or weathervane into the wind.

This weathervaning tendency is more prevalent in the

tailwheel-type because the airplane’s surface area

behind the main landing gear is greater than in 

nosewheel-type airplanes.

Point of

Wheel Pivoting

C.G.

Figure 13-2. Effect of CG on directional control.

Ch 13.qxd 5/7/04 10:04 AM Page 13-5
13-6

Pilots should be familiar with the crosswind component

of each airplane they fly, and avoid operations in

wind conditions that exceed the capability of the 

airplane, as well as their own limitations.

While the airplane is decelerating during the 

after-landing roll, more aileron must be applied to keep

the upwind wing from rising. Since the airplane is

slowing down, there is less airflow around the ailerons

and they become less effective. At the same time, the

relative wind is becoming more of a crosswind and

exerting a greater lifting force on the upwind wing.

Consequently, when the airplane is coming to a stop,

the aileron control must be held fully toward the wind.

WHEEL LANDING

Landings from power approaches in turbulence or in

crosswinds should be such that the touchdown is made

with the airplane in approximately level flight attitude.

The touchdown should be made smoothly on the main

wheels, with the tailwheel held clear of the runway.

This is called a “wheel landing” and requires careful

timing and control usage to prevent bouncing. These

wheel landings can be best accomplished by holding

the airplane in level flight attitude until the main

wheels touch, then immediately but smoothly 

retarding the throttle, and holding sufficient forward

elevator pressure to hold the main wheels on the

ground. The airplane should never be forced onto the

ground by excessive forward pressure.

If the touchdown is made at too high a rate of descent

as the main wheels strike the landing surface, the tail is

forced down by its own weight. In turn, when the tail is

forced down, the wing’s angle of attack increases

resulting in a sudden increase in lift and the airplane

may become airborne again. Then as the airplane’s

speed continues to decrease, the tail may again lower

onto the runway. If the tail is allowed to settle too

quickly, the airplane may again become airborne. This

process, often called “porpoising,” usually intensifies

even though the pilot tries to stop it. The best 

corrective action is to execute a go-around procedure.

SHORT-FIELD LANDING

Upon touchdown, the airplane should be firmly held in

a three-point attitude. This will provide aerodynamic

braking by the wings. Immediately upon touchdown,

and closing the throttle, the brakes should be applied

evenly and firmly to minimize the after-landing roll.

The airplane should be stopped within the shortest

possible distance consistent with safety.

SOFT-FIELD LANDING

The tailwheel should touch down simultaneously with

or just before the main wheels, and should then be held

down by maintaining firm back-elevator pressure

throughout the landing roll. This will minimize any

tendency for the airplane to nose over and will provide

aerodynamic braking. The use of brakes on a soft field

is not needed because the soft or rough surface itself

will provide sufficient reduction in the airplane’s 

forward speed. Often it will be found that upon 

landing on a very soft field, the pilot will need to

increase power to keep the airplane moving and from

becoming stuck in the soft surface.

GROUND LOOP

A ground loop is an uncontrolled turn during ground

operation that may occur while taxiing or taking off,

but especially during the after-landing roll. It is not

always caused by drift or weathervaning, although

these things may cause the initial swerve. Careless use

of the rudder, an uneven ground surface, or a soft spot

that retards one main wheel of the airplane may also

cause a swerve. In any case, the initial swerve tends to

cause the airplane to ground loop.

Due to the characteristics of an airplane equipped with

a tailwheel, the forces that cause a ground loop

increase as the swerve increases. The initial swerve

develops inertia and this, acting at the CG (which is

located behind the main wheels), swerves the airplane

even more. If allowed to develop, the force produced

may become great enough to tip the airplane until one

wing strikes the ground.

If the airplane touches down while drifting or in a crab,

the pilot should apply aileron toward the high wing

and stop the swerve with the rudder. Brakes should be

used to correct for turns or swerves only when the 

rudder is inadequate. The pilot must exercise caution

when applying corrective brake action because it is

very easy to overcontrol and aggravate the situation. If

brakes are used, sufficient brake should be applied on

the low-wing wheel (outside of the turn) to stop the

swerve. When the wings are approximately level, the

new direction must be maintained until the airplane

has slowed to taxi speed or has stopped.

Figure 13-3. Weathervaning tendency.

Profile

Behind Pivot Point

N

W

S

E

Ch 13.qxd 5/7/04 10:04 AM Page 13-6
14-1

GENERAL

The turbopropeller-powered airplane flies and handles

just like any other airplane of comparable size and

weight. The aerodynamics are the same. The major

differences between flying a turboprop and other

non-turbine-powered airplanes are found in the powerplant and systems. The powerplant is different and

requires operating procedures that are unique to gas

turbine engines. But so, too, are other systems such as

the electrical system, hydraulics, environmental, flight

control, rain and ice protection, and avionics. The

turbopropeller-powered airplane also has the advantage

of being equipped with a constant speed, full feathering

and reversing propeller—something normally not

found on piston-powered airplanes.

THE GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Both piston (reciprocating) engines and gas turbine

engines are internal combustion engines. They have a

similar cycle of operation that consists of induction,

compression, combustion, expansion, and exhaust. In a

piston engine, each of these events is a separate distinct

occurrence in each cylinder. Also, in a piston engine an

ignition event must occur during each cycle, in each

cylinder. Unlike reciprocating engines, in gas turbine

engines these phases of power occur simultaneously

and continuously instead of one cycle at a time.

Additionally, ignition occurs during the starting cycle

and is continuous thereafter. 

The basic gas turbine engine contains four sections:

intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust.

[Figure 14-1]

To start the engine, the compressor section is rotated by

an electrical starter on small engines or an air driven

starter on large engines. As compressor r.p.m.

accelerates, air is brought in through the inlet duct,

compressed to a high pressure, and delivered to the

combustion section (combustion chambers). Fuel is

then injected by a fuel controller through spray

nozzles and ignited by igniter plugs. (Not all of the

compressed air is used to support combustion. Some of

the compressed air bypasses the burner section and circulates within the engine to provide internal cooling.) The

fuel/air mixture in the combustion chamber is then burned

in a continuous combustion process and produces a very

high temperature, typically around 4,000°F, which heats

INTAKE COMPRESSION COMBUSTION EXHAUST

Air Inlet Compression Combustion Chambers Turbine Exhaust 

Cold Section Hot Section

Figure 14-1. Basic components of a gas turbine engine.

Ch 14.qxd 5/7/04 10:08 AM Page 14-1
14-2

the entire air mass to 1,600 – 2,400°F. The mixture of

hot air and gases expands and is directed to the turbine

blades forcing the turbine section to rotate, which in

turn drives the compressor by means of a direct shaft.

After powering the turbine section, the high velocity

excess exhaust exits the tail pipe or exhaust section.

Once the turbine section is powered by gases from the

burner section, the starter is disengaged, and the

igniters are turned off. Combustion continues until the

engine is shut down by turning off the fuel supply. 

High-pressure exhaust gases can be used to provide

jet thrust as in a turbojet engine. Or, the gases

can be directed through an additional turbine to drive a

propeller through reduction gearing, as in a

turbopropeller (turboprop) engine.

TURBOPROP ENGINES

The turbojet engine excels the reciprocating engine in

top speed and altitude performance. On the other hand,

the turbojet engine has limited takeoff and initial climb

performance, as compared to that of a reciprocating

engine. In the matter of takeoff and initial climb

performance, the reciprocating engine is superior to

the turbojet engine. Turbojet engines are most efficient

at high speeds and high altitudes, while propellers are

most efficient at slow and medium speeds (less than

400 m.p.h.). Propellers also improve takeoff and climb

performance. The development of the turboprop

engine was an attempt to combine in one engine the

best characteristics of both the turbojet, and propeller

driven reciprocating engine.

The turboprop engine offers several advantages over

other types of engines such as:

• Light weight.

• Mechanical reliability due to relatively few

moving parts.

• Simplicity of operation.

• Minimum vibration.

• High power per unit of weight.

• Use of propeller for takeoff and landing.

Turboprop engines are most efficient at speeds

between 250 and 400 m.p.h. and altitudes between

18,000 and 30,000 feet. They also perform well at the

slow speeds required for takeoff and landing, and are

fuel efficient. The minimum specific fuel consumption

of the turboprop engine is normally available in the

altitude range of 25,000 feet up to the tropopause.

The power output of a piston engine is measured in

horsepower and is determined primarily by r.p.m. and

manifold pressure. The power of a turboprop engine,

however, is measured in shaft horsepower (shp). Shaft

horsepower is determined by the r.p.m. and the torque

(twisting moment) applied to the propeller shaft. Since

turboprop engines are gas turbine engines, some jet

thrust is produced by exhaust leaving the engine. This

thrust is added to the shaft horsepower to determine

the total engine power, or equivalent shaft horsepower

(eshp). Jet thrust usually accounts for less than

10 percent of the total engine power.

Although the turboprop engine is more complicated

and heavier than a turbojet engine of equivalent size

and power, it will deliver more thrust at low subsonic

airspeeds. However, the advantages decrease as flight

speed increases. In normal cruising speed ranges, the

propulsive efficiency (output divided by input) of a

turboprop decreases as speed increases.

The propeller of a typical turboprop engine is

responsible for roughly 90 percent of the total thrust

under sea level conditions on a standard day. The

excellent performance of a turboprop during takeoff

and climb is the result of the ability of the propeller to

accelerate a large mass of air while the airplane is

moving at a relatively low ground and flight speed.

“Turboprop,” however, should not be confused with

“turbosupercharged” or similar terminology. All

turbine engines have a similarity to normally aspirated

(non-supercharged) reciprocating engines in that

maximum available power decreases almost as a direct

function of increased altitude.

Although power will decrease as the airplane climbs

to higher altitudes, engine efficiency in terms of

specific fuel consumption (expressed as pounds of fuel

consumed per horsepower per hour) will be increased.

Decreased specific fuel consumption plus the

increased true airspeed at higher altitudes is a definite

advantage of a turboprop engine.

All turbine engines, turboprop or turbojet, are defined

by limiting temperatures, rotational speeds, and (in the

case of turboprops) torque. Depending on the

installation, the primary parameter for power setting

might be temperature, torque, fuel flow or r.p.m.

(either propeller r.p.m., gas generator (compressor)

r.p.m. or both). In cold weather conditions, torque

limits can be exceeded while temperature limits are

still within acceptable range. While in hot weather

conditions, temperature limits may be exceeded

without exceeding torque limits. In any weather, the

maximum power setting of a turbine engine is usually

obtained with the throttles positioned somewhat aft of

the full forward position. The transitioning pilot must

understand the importance of knowing and observing

limits on turbine engines. An overtemp or overtorque

condition that lasts for more than a very few seconds

can literally destroy internal engine components. 

Ch 14.qxd 5/7/04 10:08 AM Page 14-2
14-3

TURBOPROP ENGINE TYPES

FIXED SHAFT

One type of turboprop engine is the fixed shaft

constant speed type such as the Garrett TPE331.

[Figure 14-2] In this type engine, ambient air is

directed to the compressor section through the engine

inlet. An acceleration/diffusion process in the twostage compressor increases air pressure and directs it

rearward to a combustor. The combustor is made up of

a combustion chamber, a transition liner, and a turbine

plenum. Atomized fuel is added to the air in the

combustion chamber. Air also surrounds the

combustion chamber to provide for cooling and

insulation of the combustor.

The gas mixture is initially ignited by high-energy

igniter plugs, and the expanding combustion gases

flow to the turbine. The energy of the hot, high

velocity gases is converted to torque on the main shaft

by the turbine rotors. The reduction gear converts the

high r.p.m.—low torque of the main shaft to low

r.p.m.—high torque to drive the accessories and the

propeller. The spent gases leaving the turbine are

directed to the atmosphere by the exhaust pipe.

Only about 10 percent of the air which passes through

the engine is actually used in the combustion process.

Up to approximately 20 percent of the compressed air

may be bled off for the purpose of heating, cooling,

cabin pressurization, and pneumatic systems. Over

half the engine power is devoted to driving the

compressor, and it is the compressor which can

potentially produce very high drag in the case of a

failed, windmilling engine. 

In the fixed shaft constant-speed engine, the engine

r.p.m. may be varied within a narrow range of 96

percent to 100 percent. During ground operation, the

r.p.m. may be reduced to 70 percent. In flight, the

engine operates at a constant speed, which is

maintained by the governing section of the propeller.

Power changes are made by increasing fuel flow and

propeller blade angle rather than engine speed. An

increase in fuel flow causes an increase in temperature

and a corresponding increase in energy available to the

turbine. The turbine absorbs more energy and

transmits it to the propeller in the form of torque. The

increased torque forces the propeller blade angle to be

increased to maintain the constant speed. Turbine

temperature is a very important factor to be considered

in power production. It is directly related to fuel flow

and thus to the power produced. It must be limited

because of strength and durability of the material in the

combustion and turbine section. The control system

schedules fuel flow to produce specific temperatures

and to limit those temperatures so that the temperature

tolerances of the combustion and turbine sections are

not exceeded. The engine is designed to operate for its

entire life at 100 percent. All of its components, such

as compressors and turbines, are most efficient when

operated at or near the r.p.m. design point.

Planetary

Reduction Gears

Air

Inlet

First-Stage

Centrifugal

Compressor

Second-Stage

Centrifugal

Compressor

Reverse-Flow

Annular Combustion

Chamber

Three-Stage

Axial Turbine

Fuel

Nozzle

Igniter

Exhaust

Outlet

Figure 14-2. Fixed shaft turboprop engine.

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14-4

Powerplant (engine and propeller) control is achieved

by means of a power lever and a condition lever for

each engine. [Figure 14-3] There is no mixture control

and/or r.p.m. lever as found on piston engine airplanes.

On the fixed shaft constant-speed turboprop engine,

the power lever is advanced or retarded to increase or

decrease forward thrust. The power lever is also used

to provide reverse thrust. The condition lever sets the

desired engine r.p.m. within a narrow range between

that appropriate for ground operations and flight.

Powerplant instrumentation in a fixed shaft turboprop

engine typically consists of the following basic

indicator. [Figure 14-4]

• Torque or horsepower.

• ITT – interturbine temperature.

• Fuel flow. 

• RPM.

Torque developed by the turbine section is measured

by a torque sensor. The torque is then reflected on a

cockpit horsepower gauge calibrated in horsepower

times 100. Interturbine temperature (ITT) is a

measurement of the combustion gas temperature

between the first and second stages of the turbine

section. The gauge is calibrated in degrees Celsius.

Propeller r.p.m. is reflected on a cockpit tachometer as

a percentage of maximum r.p.m. Normally, a vernier

indicator on the gauge dial indicates r.p.m. in 1 percent

graduations as well. The fuel flow indicator indicates

fuel flow rate in pounds per hour.

Propeller feathering in a fixed shaft constant-speed

turboprop engine is normally accomplished with the

condition lever. An engine failure in this type engine,

however, will result in a serious drag condition due to

the large power requirements of the compressor being

absorbed by the propeller. This could create a serious

airplane control problem in twin-engine airplanes

unless the failure is recognized immediately and the

Power Levers

Condition Levers

Figure 14-3. Powerplant controls—fixed shaft turboprop engine.

Figure 14-4. Powerplant instrumentation—fixed shaft

turboprop engine.

Ch 14.qxd 5/7/04 10:09 AM Page 14-4
14-5

affected propeller feathered. For this reason, the fixed

shaft turboprop engine is equipped with negative

torque sensing (NTS).

Negative torque sensing is a condition wherein

propeller torque drives the engine and the propeller is

automatically driven to high pitch to reduce drag. The

function of the negative torque sensing system is to

limit the torque the engine can extract from the

propeller during windmilling and thereby prevent large

drag forces on the airplane. The NTS system causes a

movement of the propeller blades automatically

toward their feathered position should the engine

suddenly lose power while in flight. The NTS system

is an emergency backup system in the event of sudden

engine failure. It is not a substitution for the feathering

device controlled by the condition lever.

SPLIT SHAFT/ FREE TURBINE ENGINE

In a free power-turbine engine, such as the Pratt &

Whitney PT-6 engine, the propeller is driven by a

separate turbine through reduction gearing. The

propeller is not on the same shaft as the basic engine

turbine and compressor. [Figure 14-5] Unlike the fixed

shaft engine, in the split shaft engine the propeller can

be feathered in flight or on the ground with the basic

engine still running. The free power-turbine design

allows the pilot to select a desired propeller governing

r.p.m., regardless of basic engine r.p.m.

A typical free power-turbine engine has two

independent counter-rotating turbines. One turbine

drives the compressor, while the other drives

the propeller through a reduction gearbox. The

compressor in the basic engine consists of three axial

flow compressor stages combined with a single centrifugal compressor stage. The axial and centrifugal

stages are assembled on the same shaft, and operate as

a single unit.

Inlet air enters the engine via a circular plenum near

the rear of the engine, and flows forward through the

successive compressor stages. The flow is directed

outward by the centrifugal compressor stage through

radial diffusers before entering the combustion

chamber, where the flow direction is actually reversed.

The gases produced by combustion are once again

reversed to expand forward through each turbine stage.

After leaving the turbines, the gases are collected in a

peripheral exhaust scroll, and are discharged to the

atmosphere through two exhaust ports near the front of

the engine. 

A pneumatic fuel control system schedules fuel flow to

maintain the power set by the gas generator power

lever. Except in the beta range, propeller speed within

the governing range remains constant at any selected

propeller control lever position through the action of a

propeller governor.

The accessory drive at the aft end of the engine

provides power to drive fuel pumps, fuel control, oil

pumps, a starter/generator, and a tachometer

transmitter. At this point, the speed of the drive (N1) is

the true speed of the compressor side of the engine,

approximately 37,500 r.p.m.

Reduction

Gearbox

Propeller

Drive Shaft Free (Power)

Turbine Compressor

Turbine

(Gas Producer)

Three Stage

Axial Flow

Compressor

Exhaust Outlet

Air Inlet

Centrifugal

Compressor

Igniter

Fuel Nozzle

Igniter

Fuel Nozzle

Accessory

Gearbox

Figure 14-5. Split shaft/free turbine engine.

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14-6

Powerplant (engine and propeller) operation is

achieved by three sets of controls for each engine: the

power lever, propeller lever, and condition lever.

[Figure 14-6] The power lever serves to control engine

power in the range from idle through takeoff power.

Forward or aft motion of the power lever increases or

decreases gas generator r.p.m. (N1) and thereby

increases or decreases engine power. The propeller

lever is operated conventionally and controls the

constant-speed propellers through the primary

governor. The propeller r.p.m. range is normally from

1,500 to 1,900. The condition lever controls the flow

of fuel to the engine. Like the mixture lever in a

piston-powered airplane, the condition lever is located

at the far right of the power quadrant. But the condition lever on a turboprop engine is really just an on/off

valve for delivering fuel. There are HIGH IDLE and

LOW IDLE positions for ground operations, but condition levers have no metering function. Leaning is not

required in turbine engines; this function is performed

automatically by a dedicated fuel control unit.

Engine instruments in a split shaft/free turbine engine

typically consist of the following basic indicators.

[Figure 14-7] 

• ITT (interstage turbine temperature) indicator.

• Torquemeter.

• Propeller tachometer.

• N1 (gas generator) tachometer.

• Fuel flow indicator.

• Oil temperature/pressure indicator.

Figure 14-6. Powerplant controls—split shaft/free turbine

engine.

Figure 14-7. Engine instruments—split shaft/free turbine

engine.

Ch 14.qxd 5/7/04 10:09 AM Page 14-6
14-7

The ITT indicator gives an instantaneous reading of

engine gas temperature between the compressor

turbine and the power turbines. The torquemeter

responds to power lever movement and gives an

indication, in foot-pounds (ft/lb), of the torque being

applied to the propeller. Because in the free turbine

engine, the propeller is not attached physically to the

shaft of the gas turbine engine, two tachometers are

justified—one for the propeller and one for the gas

generator. The propeller tachometer is read directly in

revolutions per minute. The N1 or gas generator is read

in percent of r.p.m. In the Pratt & Whitney PT-6

engine, it is based on a figure of 37,000 r.p.m. at 100

percent. Maximum continuous gas generator is limited

to 38,100 r.p.m. or 101.5 percent N1. 

The ITT indicator and torquemeter are used to set

takeoff power. Climb and cruise power are established

with the torquemeter and propeller tachometer while

observing ITT limits. Gas generator (N1) operation is

monitored by the gas generator tachometer. Proper

observation and interpretation of these instruments

provide an indication of engine performance

and condition.

REVERSE THRUST AND BETA RANGE

OPERATIONS

The thrust that a propeller provides is a function of the

angle of attack at which the air strikes the blades, and

the speed at which this occurs. The angle of attack

varies with the pitch angle of the propeller.

So called “flat pitch” is the blade position offering

minimum resistance to rotation and no net thrust for

moving the airplane. Forward pitch produces forward

thrust—higher pitch angles being required at higher

airplane speeds. 

The “feathered” position is the highest pitch angle

obtainable. [Figure 14-8] The feathered position

produces no forward thrust. The propeller is generally

placed in feather only in case of in-flight engine failure

to minimize drag and prevent the air from using the

propeller as a turbine. 

In the “reverse” pitch position, the engine/propeller

turns in the same direction as in the normal (forward)

pitch position, but the propeller blade angle is

positioned to the other side of flat pitch. [Figure 14-8]

In reverse pitch, air is pushed away from the airplane

rather than being drawn over it. Reverse pitch results

in braking action, rather than forward thrust of the airplane. It is used for backing away from obstacles when

taxiing, controlling taxi speed, or to aid in bringing the

airplane to a stop during the landing roll. Reverse pitch

does not mean reverse rotation of the engine. The

engine delivers power just the same, no matter which

side of flat pitch the propeller blades are positioned. 

With a turboprop engine, in order to obtain enough

power for flight, the power lever is placed somewhere

between flight idle (in some engines referred to as

“high idle”) and maximum. The power lever directs

signals to a fuel control unit to manually select fuel.

The propeller governor selects the propeller pitch

needed to keep the propeller/engine on speed. This is

referred to as the propeller governing or “alpha” mode

of operation. When positioned aft of flight idle, however, the power lever directly controls propeller blade

angle. This is known as the “beta” range of operation. 

The beta range of operation consists of power lever

positions from flight idle to maximum reverse.

Power Prop Condition

Reverse

Beta

Idle

Feather Normal

"Forward" Pitch

Feather

"Maximum Forward

Pitch"

Flat Pitch

Reverse Pitch

Fuel

Cut

Off

Reverse

Fuel

Cut

Off

Reverse Feather

Fuel

Cut

Off

Feather

Fuel

Cut

Off

Low

Idle

Flt

Idle

Low

Idle

Flt

Idle

Low

Idle

Flt

Idle

Low

Idle

Flt

Idle

Pull

Up

Figure 14-8. Propeller pitch angle characteristics.

Ch 14.qxd 5/7/04 10:09 AM Page 14-7
14-8

Beginning at power lever positions just aft of flight

idle, propeller blade pitch angles become progressively

flatter with aft movement of the power lever until they

go beyond maximum flat pitch and into negative pitch,

resulting in reverse thrust. While in a fixed shaft/

constant-speed engine, the engine speed remains

largely unchanged as the propeller blade angles

achieve their negative values. On the split shaft PT-6

engine, as the negative 5° position is reached, further

aft movement of the power lever will also result in a

progressive increase in engine (N1) r.p.m. until a

maximum value of about negative 11° of blade angle

and 85 percent N1 are achieved. 

Operating in the beta range and/or with reverse thrust

requires specific techniques and procedures depending

on the particular airplane make and model. There are

also specific engine parameters and limitations for

operations within this area that must be adhered to. It

is essential that a pilot transitioning to turboprop

airplanes become knowledgeable and proficient in

these areas, which are unique to turbine-enginepowered airplanes.

TURBOPROP AIRPLANE ELECTRICAL

SYSTEMS

The typical turboprop airplane electrical system is a

28-volt direct current (DC) system, which receives

power from one or more batteries and a starter/

generator for each engine. The batteries may either be

of the lead-acid type commonly used on pistonpowered airplanes, or they may be of the

nickel-cadmium (NiCad) type. The NiCad battery

differs from the lead-acid type in that its output

remains at relatively high power levels for longer

periods of time. When the NiCad battery is depleted,

however, its voltage drops off very suddenly. When

this occurs, its ability to turn the compressor for engine

start is greatly diminished and the possibility of engine

damage due to a hot start increases. Therefore, it is

essential to check the battery’s condition before every

engine start. Compared to lead-acid batteries, highperformance NiCad batteries can be recharged very

quickly. But the faster the battery is recharged, the

more heat it produces. Therefore, NiCad battery

equipped airplanes are fitted with battery overheat

annunciator lights signifying maximum safe and

critical temperature thresholds.

The DC generators used in turboprop airplanes double

as starter motors and are called “starter/generators.”

The starter/generator uses electrical power to produce

mechanical torque to start the engine and then uses the

engine’s mechanical torque to produce electrical power

after the engine is running. Some of the DC power

produced is changed to 28 volt 400 cycle alternating

current (AC) power for certain avionic, lighting,

and indicator synchronization functions. This is

accomplished by an electrical component called an

inverter. 

The distribution of DC and AC power throughout the

system is accomplished through the use of power distribution buses. These “buses” as they are called are

actually common terminals from which individual

electrical circuits get their power. [Figure 14-9]

Buses are usually named for what they power (avionics bus, for example), or for where they get their power

(right generator bus, battery bus). The distribution of

DC and AC power is often divided into functional

groups (buses) that give priority to certain equipment

5 GEAR WARN

5 TRIM INDICATOR

3 TRIM ELEVATOR

5 TRIM AILERON

5 STALL WARNING

5 ACFT ANN-1

5 L TURN & BANK

5 TEMP OVRD

5 HP EMER L & R

5 FUEL QUANTITY

5 L ENGINE GAUGE

5 R ENGINE GAUGE

5 MISC ELEC

5 LDG LT MOTOR

5 BLEED L

3 WSHLD L

3 LIGHTS AUX

5 FUEL FLOW

POWER DISTRIBUTION BUS

Figure 14-9.Typical individual power distribution bus.

Ch 14.qxd 5/7/04 10:09 AM Page 14-8
14-9

during normal and emergency operations. Main buses

serve most of the airplane’s electrical equipment.

Essential buses feed power to equipment having top

priority. [Figure 14-10]

Multiengine turboprop airplanes normally have

several power sources—a battery and at least one

generator per engine. The electrical systems are

usually designed so that any bus can be energized by

any of the power sources. For example, a typical

system might have a right and left generator buses

powered normally by the right and left engine-driven

generators. These buses will be connected by a

normally open switch, which isolates them from each

other. If one generator fails, power will be lost to its

bus, but power can be restored to that bus by closing a

bus tie switch. Closing this switch connects the buses

and allows the operating generator to power both.

Power distribution buses are protected from short

circuits and other malfunctions by a type of fuse called

a current limiter. In the case of excessive current

supplied by any power source, the current limiter will

open the circuit and thereby isolate that power source

and allow the affected bus to become separated from

the system. The other buses will continue to operate

normally. Individual electrical components are

connected to the buses through circuit breakers. A

circuit breaker is a device which opens an electrical

circuit when an excess amount of current flows.

PRIMARY

INVERTER

SECONDARY

INVERTER

LEFT

MAIN

BUS

RIGHT

MAIN

BUS

LEFT

ESSENTIAL

BUS

RIGHT

ESSENTIAL

BUS

AMPS

0

100

200

300

400 DC

VOLTS

0

28

35

AMPS

0

100

200

300

400

REGULATOR REGULATOR

LEFT

GENERATOR

BUS

BATTERY

CHARGING

BUS

RIGHT

GENERATOR

BUS

LEFT

GENERATOR/

STARTER

LEFT

GENERATOR/

STARTER

G.P.U.

LEFT

BATTERY

RIGHT

BATTERY

OVER

VOLTAGE

CUTOUT

Current Limiter

Circuit Breaker

Bus

Figure 14-10. Simplified schematic of turboprop airplane electrical system.

Ch 14.qxd 5/7/04 10:09 AM Page 14-9
14-10

OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

As previously stated, a turboprop airplane flies just like

any other piston engine airplane of comparable size

and weight. It is in the operation of the engines and

airplane systems that makes the turboprop airplane

different from its piston engine counterpart. Pilot

errors in engine and/or systems operation are the most

common cause of aircraft damage or mishap. The time

of maximum vulnerability to pilot error in any gas

turbine engine is during the engine start sequence. 

Turbine engines are extremely heat sensitive. They

cannot tolerate an overtemperature condition for more

than a very few seconds without serious damage being

done. Engine temperatures get hotter during starting

than at any other time. Thus, turbine engines have

minimum rotational speeds for introducing fuel into

the combustion chambers during startup. Hypervigilant temperature and acceleration monitoring on

the part of the pilot remain crucial until the engine is

running at a stable speed. Successful engine starting

depends on assuring the correct minimum battery

voltage before initiating start, or employing a ground

power unit (GPU) of adequate output. 

After fuel is introduced to the combustion chamber

during the start sequence, “light-off” and its associated

heat rise occur very quickly. Engine temperatures may

approach the maximum in a matter of 2 or 3 seconds

before the engine stabilizes and temperatures fall into

the normal operating range. During this time, the pilot

must watch for any tendency of the temperatures to

exceed limitations and be prepared to cut off fuel to

the engine. 

An engine tendency to exceed maximum starting

temperature limits is termed a hot start. The temperature rise may be preceded by unusually high initial fuel

flow, which may be the first indication the pilot has

that the engine start is not proceeding normally.

Serious engine damage will occur if the hot start is

allowed to continue.

A condition where the engine is accelerating more

slowly than normal is termed a hung start or false

start. During a hung start/false start, the engine may

1. Before Takeoff

 Checks – Completed

2. Lineup Checks – Completed

 Heading Bug – Runway Heading

 Command Bars – 10 Degrees Up

3. Power – Set

 850 ITT / 650 HP

 Max: 923 ITT / 717.5 HP

7. Ign Ovrd – Off

6. Gear Up

8. After T/O

 Checklist

 Yaw Damp

 – On

9. Climb Power – Set

 850 ITT / 650 HP

 98 – 99% RPM

11. Climb Speed – Set

 Climb Checks –

 Completed

10. Prop Sync – On

These are merely typical procedures. The 

pilot maintains his or her prerogative to 

modify configuration and airspeeds as 

required by existing conditions, as long as 

compliance with the FAA approved Airplane 

Flight Manual is assured.

NOTE:

5. Rotate at 96 – 100 KIAS

4. Annunciators – Check

 Engine Inst. – Check

PRESSURE

ALTITUDE

FT

Sea Level

CLIMB

SPEED

KIAS

139

139

134

128

123

118

113

112

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

31,000

12. Cruise Checks – Completed

Figure 14-11. Example—typical turboprop airplane takeoff and departure profile.

Ch 14.qxd 5/7/04 10:09 AM Page 14-10
14-11

stabilize at an engine r.p.m. that is not high enough for

the engine to continue to run without help from the

starter. This is usually the result of low battery power

or the starter not turning the engine fast enough for it

to start properly. 

Takeoffs in turboprop airplanes are not made by

automatically pushing the power lever full forward to

the stops. Depending on conditions, takeoff power may

be limited by either torque or by engine temperature.

Normally, the power lever position on takeoff will be

somewhat aft of full forward.

Takeoff and departure in a turboprop airplane

(especially a twin-engine cabin-class airplane) should

be accomplished in accordance with a standard takeoff

and departure “profile” developed for the particular

make and model. [Figure 14-11] The takeoff and

departure profile should be in accordance with the

airplane manufacturer’s recommended procedures as

outlined in the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual

and/or the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH).

The increased complexity of turboprop airplanes

makes the standardization of procedures a necessity

for safe and efficient operation. The transitioning pilot

should review the profile procedures before each

takeoff to form a mental picture of the takeoff and

departure process. 

For any given high horsepower operation, the pilot can

expect that the engine temperature will climb as

altitude increases at a constant power. On a warm or

hot day, maximum temperature limits may be reached

at a rather low altitude, making it impossible to

maintain high horsepower to higher altitudes. Also, the

engine’s compressor section has to work harder with

decreased air density. Power capability is reduced by

high-density altitude and power use may have to be

modulated to keep engine temperature within limits.

In a turboprop airplane, the pilot can close the

throttles(s) at any time without concern for cooling the

engine too rapidly. Consequently, rapid descents with

the propellers in low pitch can be dramatically steep.

Like takeoffs and departures, approach and landing

should be accomplished in accordance with a standard

approach and landing profile. [Figure 14-12] 

A stabilized approach is an essential part of the

approach and landing process. In a stabilized approach,

the airplane, depending on design and type, is placed

in a stabilized descent on a glidepath ranging from 2.5

to 3.5°. The speed is stabilized at some reference from

the AFM/POH—usually 1.25 to 1.30 times the stall

speed in approach configuration. The descent rate is

stabilized from 500 feet per minute to 700 feet per

minute until the landing flare.

2. Arrival 160 KIAS

 250 HP Level Flt –

 Clean Config.

3. Begin Before

 Landing Checklist

7. Final

 120 KIAS

 Flaps – As Desired

6. Base

 Before Landing Checklist

 120 – 130 KIAS

8. Short Final

 110 KIAS

 Gear – Recheck

 Down

9. Threshold

 96 – 100 KIAS

11. After Landing Checklist

10. Landing

 Cond. Levers – Keep Full Fwd.

 Power – Beta/Reverse

These are merely typical procedures. The 

pilot maintains his or her prerogative to 

modify configuration and airspeeds as 

required by existing conditions, as long as 

compliance with the FAA approved Airplane 

Flight Manual is assured.

NOTE:

5. 130 – 140 KIAS

4. Midfield Downwind

 140 – 160 KIAS

 250 HP

 Gear – Down

 Flaps – Half

1. Leaving Cruise Altitude

 Descent/Approach

 Checklist

Figure 14-12. Example—typical turboprop airplane arrival and landing profile.

Ch 14.qxd 5/7/04 10:09 AM Page 14-11
14-12

Landing some turboprop airplanes (as well as some

piston twins) can result in a hard, premature

touchdown if the engines are idled too soon. This is

because large propellers spinning rapidly in low pitch

create considerable drag. In such airplanes, it may be

preferable to maintain power throughout the landing

flare and touchdown. Once firmly on the ground,

propeller beta range operation will dramatically reduce

the need for braking in comparison to piston airplanes

of similar weights.

TRAINING CONSIDERATIONS

The medium and high altitudes at which turboprop

airplanes are flown provide an entirely different

environment in terms of regulatory requirements,

airspace structure, physiological requirements, and

even meteorology. The pilot transitioning to turboprop

airplanes, particularly those who are not familiar with

operations in the high/medium altitude environment,

should approach turboprop transition training with this

in mind. Thorough ground training should cover all

aspects of high/medium altitude flight, including the

flight environment, weather, flight planning and

navigation, physiological aspects of high-altitude

flight, oxygen and pressurization system operation,

and high-altitude emergencies.

Flight training should prepare the pilot to demonstrate

a comprehensive knowledge of airplane performance,

systems, emergency procedures, and operating

limitations, along with a high degree of proficiency in

performing all flight maneuvers and in-flight

emergency procedures. 

The training outline below covers the minimum

information needed by pilots to operate safely at high

altitudes.

a. Ground Training

(1) The High-Altitude Flight Environment

(a) Airspace

(b) Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations

(14 CFR) section 91.211, requirements for

use of supplemental oxygen

(2) Weather

(a) The atmosphere

(b) Winds and clear air turbulence

(c) Icing

(3) Flight Planning and Navigation

(a) Flight planning

(b) Weather charts

(c) Navigation

(d) Navaids

(4) Physiological Training

(a) Respiration

(b) Hypoxia

(c) Effects of prolonged oxygen use

(d) Decompression sickness

(e) Vision

(f) Altitude chamber (optional)

(5) High-Altitude Systems and Components

(a) Oxygen and oxygen equipment

(b) Pressurization systems

(c) High-altitude components

(6) Aerodynamics and Performance Factors

(a) Acceleration

(b) G-forces

(c) MACH Tuck and MACH Critical (turbojet

airplanes)

(7) Emergencies

(a) Decompression

(b) Donning of oxygen masks

(c) Failure of oxygen mask, or complete loss of

oxygen supply/system

(d) In-flight fire

(e) Flight into severe turbulence or thunderstorms

b. Flight Training

(1) Preflight Briefing

(2) Preflight Planning

(a) Weather briefing and considerations

(b) Course plotting

(c) Airplane Flight Manual

(d) Flight plan

(3) Preflight Inspection

(a) Functional test of oxygen system, including

the verification of supply and pressure, regulator operation, oxygen flow, mask fit, and

cockpit and air traffic control (ATC)

communication using mask microphones

(4) Engine Start Procedures, Runup, Takeoff, and

Initial Climb

(5) Climb to High Altitude and Normal Cruise

Operations While Operating Above 25,000

Feet MSL

(6) Emergencies

(a) Simulated rapid decompression, including

the immediate donning of oxygen masks

(b) Emergency descent

(7) Planned Descents

(8) Shutdown Procedures

(9) Postflight Discussion

Ch 14.qxd 5/7/04 10:09 AM Page 14-12
15-1

GENERAL

This chapter contains an overview of jet powered

airplane operations. It is not meant to replace any

portion of a formal jet airplane qualification course.

Rather, the information contained in this chapter is

meant to be a useful preparation for and a supplement

to formal and structured jet airplane qualification

training. The intent of this chapter is to provide

information on the major differences a pilot will

encounter when transitioning to jet powered airplanes.

In order to achieve this in a logical manner, the major

differences between jet powered airplanes and piston

powered airplanes have been approached by

addressing two distinct areas: differences in

technology, or how the airplane itself differs; and

differences in pilot technique, or how the pilot deals

with the technological differences through the

application of different techniques. If any of the

information in this chapter conflicts with information

contained in the FAA-approved Airplane Flight

Manual for a particular airplane, the Airplane Flight

Manual takes precedence.

JET ENGINE BASICS

A jet engine is a gas turbine engine. A jet engine

develops thrust by accelerating a relatively small mass

of air to very high velocity, as opposed to a propeller,

which develops thrust by accelerating a much larger

mass of air to a much slower velocity.

As stated in Chapter 14, both piston and gas turbine

engines are internal combustion engines and have a

similar basic cycle of operation; that is, induction,

compression, combustion, expansion, and exhaust. Air

is taken in and compressed, and fuel is injected and

burned. The hot gases then expand and supply a

surplus of power over that required for compression,

and are finally exhausted. In both piston and jet

engines, the efficiency of the cycle is improved by

increasing the volume of air taken in and the

compression ratio.

Part of the expansion of the burned gases takes place in

the turbine section of the jet engine providing the

necessary power to drive the compressor, while the

remainder of the expansion takes place in the nozzle of

the tail pipe in order to accelerate the gas to a high

velocity jet thereby producing thrust. [Figure 15-1]

In theory, the jet engine is simpler and more directly

converts thermal energy (the burning and expansion of

gases) into mechanical energy (thrust). The piston or

reciprocating engine, with all of its moving parts, must

convert the thermal energy into mechanical energy and

then finally into thrust by rotating a propeller.

One of the advantages of the jet engine over the piston

engine is the jet engine’s capability of producing much

greater amounts of thrust horsepower at the high

altitudes and high speeds. In fact, turbojet engine

efficiency increases with altitude and speed.

Direction of Flight

Air

Enters

Inlet

Duct Exhaust

Combustion

Drive Shaft

Six-Stage Compressor

TURBOJET ENGINE

Two-Stage

Turbine

Figure 15-1. Basic turbojet engine.

Ch 15.qxd 5/7/04 10:22 AM Page 15-1
15-2

Although the propeller driven airplane is not nearly as

efficient as the jet, particularly at the higher altitudes

and cruising speeds required in modern aviation, one

of the few advantages the propeller driven airplane has

over the jet is that maximum thrust is available almost

at the start of the takeoff roll. Initial thrust output of the

jet engine on takeoff is relatively lower and does not

reach peak efficiency until the higher speeds. The fanjet or turbofan engine was developed to help compensate for this problem and is, in effect, a compromise

between the pure jet engine (turbojet) and the propeller

engine.

Like other gas turbine engines, the heart of the turbofan engine is the gas generator—the part of the engine

that produces the hot, high-velocity gases. Similar to

turboprops, turbofans have a low pressure turbine section that uses most of the energy produced by the gas

generator. The low pressure turbine is mounted on a

concentric shaft that passes through the hollow shaft of

the gas generator, connecting it to a ducted fan at the

front of the engine. [Figure 15-2]

Air enters the engine, passes through the fan, and splits

into two separate paths. Some of it flows around—

bypasses—the engine core, hence its name, bypass

air. The air drawn into the engine for the gas generator

is the core airflow. The amount of air that bypasses

the core compared to the amount drawn into the gas

generator determines a turbofan’s bypass ratio.

Turbofans efficiently convert fuel into thrust because

they produce low pressure energy spread over a large

fan disk area. While a turbojet engine uses all of the

gas generator’s output to produce thrust in the form of

a high-velocity exhaust gas jet, cool, low-velocity

bypass air produces between 30 percent and 70 percent of the thrust produced by a turbofan engine.

The fan-jet concept increases the total thrust of the jet

engine, particularly at the lower speeds and altitudes.

Although efficiency at the higher altitudes is lost (turbofan engines are subject to a large lapse in thrust with

increasing altitude), the turbofan engine increases

acceleration, decreases the takeoff roll, improves initial climb performance, and often has the effect of

decreasing specific fuel consumption.

OPERATING THE JET ENGINE

In a jet engine, thrust is determined by the amount of

fuel injected into the combustion chamber. The power

controls on most turbojet and turbofan powered airplanes consist of just one thrust lever for each engine,

because most engine control functions are automatic.

The thrust lever is linked to a fuel control and/or electronic engine computer that meters fuel flow based

upon r.p.m., internal temperatures, ambient conditions,

and other factors. [Figure 15-3]

In a jet engine, each major rotating section usually has

a separate gauge devoted to monitoring its speed of

rotation. Depending on the make and model, a jet

engine may have an N1 gauge that monitors the low

pressure compressor section and/or fan speed in

turbofan engines. The gas generator section may be

monitored by an N2 gauge, while triple spool engines

may have an N3 gauge as well. Each engine section

rotates at many thousands of r.p.m. Their gauges

therefore are calibrated in percent of r.p.m. rather than

actual r.p.m., for ease of display and interpretation.

[Figure 15-4]

Direction of Flight

Inlet

Air

Exhaust

Combustion

Combustion

Fan Air

Fan Air

Figure 15-2.Turbofan engine.

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15-3

The temperature of turbine gases must be closely

monitored by the pilot. As in any gas turbine engine,

exceeding temperature limits, even for a very few

seconds, may result in serious heat damage to turbine

blades and other components. Depending on the make

and model, gas temperatures can be measured at a

number of different locations within the engine. The

associated engine gauges therefore have different

names according to their location. For instance:

• Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)—the temperature of the exhaust gases as they enter the tail

pipe, after passing through the turbine.

• Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT)—the temperature of the gases from the combustion section of

the engine as they enter the first stage of the turbine. TIT is the highest temperature inside a gas

turbine engine and is one of the limiting factors

of the amount of power the engine can produce.

TIT, however, is difficult to measure. EGT

therefore, which relates to TIT, is normally the

parameter measured.

• Interstage Turbine Temperature (ITT)—the

temperature of the gases between the high

pressure and low pressure turbine wheels.

• Turbine Outlet Temperature (TOT)—like EGT,

turbine outlet temperature is taken aft of the

turbine wheel(s).

JET ENGINE IGNITION

Most jet engine ignition systems consist of two igniter

plugs, which are used during the ground or air starting

of the engine. Once the start is completed, this ignition

either automatically goes off or is turned off, and from

this point on, the combustion in the engine is a

continuous process.

CONTINUOUS IGNITION

An engine is sensitive to the flow characteristics of the

air that enters the intake of the engine nacelle. So long

as the flow of air is substantially normal, the engine

will continue to run smoothly. However, particularly

with rear mounted engines that are sometimes in a

position to be affected by disturbed airflow from the

wings, there are some abnormal flight situations that

could cause a compressor stall or flameout of the

engine. These abnormal flight conditions would usually be associated with abrupt pitch changes such as

might be encountered in severe turbulence or a stall.

In order to avoid the possibility of engine flameout

from the above conditions, or from other conditions

that might cause ingestion problems such as heavy

rain, ice, or possible bird strike, most jet engines are

equipped with a continuous ignition system. This system can be turned on and used continuously whenever

the need arises. In many jets, as an added precaution,

this system is normally used during takeoffs and landings. Many jets are also equipped with an automatic

ignition system that operates both igniters whenever

the airplane stall warning or stick shaker is activated.

FUEL HEATERS

Because of the high altitudes and extremely cold outside air temperatures in which the jet flies, it is possible to supercool the jet fuel to the point that the small

Figure 15-3. Jet engine power controls.

Figure 15-4. Jet engine r.p.m. gauges.

Ch 15.qxd 5/7/04 10:22 AM Page 15-3
15-4

particles of water suspended in the fuel can turn to ice

crystals and clog the fuel filters leading to the engine.

For this reason, jet engines are normally equipped with

fuel heaters. The fuel heater may be of the automatic

type which constantly maintains the fuel temperature

above freezing, or they may be manually controlled by

the pilot from the cockpit.

SETTING POWER

On some jet airplanes, thrust is indicated by an engine

pressure ratio (EPR) gauge. Engine pressure ratio can

be thought of as being equivalent to the manifold

pressure on the piston engine. Engine pressure ratio is

the difference between turbine discharge pressure and

engine inlet pressure. It is an indication of what the

engine has done with the raw air scooped in. For

instance, an EPR setting of 2.24 means that the

discharge pressure relative to the inlet pressure is

2.24 : 1. On these airplanes, the EPR gauge is the

primary reference used to establish power settings.

[Figure 15-5]

Fan speed (N1) is the primary indication of thrust on

most turbofan engines. Fuel flow provides a secondary

thrust indication, and cross-checking for proper fuel

flow can help in spotting a faulty N1 gauge. Turbofans

also have a gas generator turbine tachometer (N2).

They are used mainly for engine starting and some

system functions.

In setting power, it is usually the primary power

reference (EPR or N1) that is most critical, and will be

the gauge that will first limit the forward movement of

the thrust levers. However, there are occasions where

the limits of either r.p.m. or temperature can be

exceeded. The rule is: movement of the thrust levers

must be stopped and power set at whichever the limits

of EPR, r.p.m., or temperature is reached first.

THRUST TO THRUST LEVER

RELATIONSHIP

In a piston engine propeller driven airplane, thrust is

proportional to r.p.m., manifold pressure, and propeller

blade angle, with manifold pressure being the most

dominant factor. At a constant r.p.m., thrust is

proportional to throttle lever position. In a jet engine,

however, thrust is quite disproportional to thrust lever

position. This is an important difference that the pilot

transitioning into jet powered airplanes must become

accustomed to.

On a jet engine, thrust is proportional to r.p.m. (mass

flow) and temperature (fuel/air ratio). These are

matched and a further variation of thrust results from

the compressor efficiency at varying r.p.m. The jet

engine is most efficient at high r.p.m., where the

engine is designed to be operated most of the time. As

r.p.m. increases, mass flow, temperature, and efficiency also increase. Therefore, much more thrust is

produced per increment of throttle movement near the

top of the range than near the bottom.

One thing that will seem different to the piston pilot

transitioning into jet powered airplanes is the rather

large amount of thrust lever movement between the

flight idle position and full power as compared to the

small amount of movement of the throttle in the piston

engine. For instance, an inch of throttle movement on

a piston may be worth 400 horsepower wherever the

throttle may be. On a jet, an inch of thrust lever

movement at a low r.p.m. may be worth only 200

pounds of thrust, but at a high r.p.m. that same inch of

movement might amount to closer to 2,000 pounds of

thrust. Because of this, in a situation where

significantly more thrust is needed and the jet engine

is at low r.p.m., it will not do much good to merely

“inch the thrust lever forward.” Substantial thrust lever

movement is in order. This is not to say that rough or

abrupt thrust lever action is standard operating

procedure. If the power setting is already high, it may

take only a small amount of movement. However,

there are two characteristics of the jet engine that work

against the normal habits of the piston engine pilot.

One is the variation of thrust with r.p.m., and the other

is the relatively slow acceleration of the jet engine.

VARIATION OF THRUST WITH RPM

Whereas piston engines normally operate in the range

of 40 percent to 70 percent of available r.p.m., jets

operate most efficiently in the 85 percent to 100

percent range, with a flight idle r.p.m. of 50 percent to

60 percent. The range from 90 percent to 100 percent

in jets may produce as much thrust as the total

available at 70 percent. [Figure 15-6]

SLOW ACCELERATION OF THE JET

ENGINE

In a propeller driven airplane, the constant speed

propeller keeps the engine turning at a constant r.p.m.

within the governing range, and power is changed by

varying the manifold pressure. Acceleration of the

Figure 15-5. EPR gauge.

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15-5

piston from idle to full power is relatively rapid,

somewhere on the order of 3 to 4 seconds. The

acceleration on the different jet engines can vary

considerably, but it is usually much slower.

Efficiency in a jet engine is highest at high r.p.m.

where the compressor is working closest to its

optimum conditions. At low r.p.m. the operating cycle

is generally inefficient. If the engine is operating at

normal approach r.p.m. and there is a sudden

requirement for increased thrust, the jet engine will

respond immediately and full thrust can be achieved in

about 2 seconds. However, at a low r.p.m., sudden full

power application will tend to overfuel the engine

resulting in possible compressor surge, excessive

turbine temperatures, compressor stall and/or

flameout. To prevent this, various limiters such as

compressor bleed valves are contained in the system

and serve to restrict the engine until it is at an r.p.m. at

which it can respond to a rapid acceleration demand

without distress. This critical r.p.m. is most noticeable

when the engine is at idle r.p.m. and the thrust lever is

rapidly advanced to a high power position. Engine

acceleration is initially very slow, but changes to

very fast after about 78 percent r.p.m. is reached.

[Figure 15-7]

Even though engine acceleration is nearly

instantaneous after about 78 percent r.p.m., total time

to accelerate from idle r.p.m. to full power may take as

much as 8 seconds. For this reason, most jets are

operated at a relatively high r.p.m. during the final

approach to landing or at any other time that

immediate power may be needed.

JET ENGINE EFFICIENCY

Maximum operating altitudes for general aviation

turbojet airplanes now reach 51,000 feet. The

efficiency of the jet engine at high altitudes is the primary reason for operating in the high altitude environment. The specific fuel consumption of jet engines

decreases as the outside air temperature decreases for

constant engine r.p.m. and true airspeed (TAS). Thus,

by flying at a high altitude, the pilot is able to operate

at flight levels where fuel economy is best and with the

most advantageous cruise speed. For efficiency, jet airplanes are typically operated at high altitudes where

cruise is usually very close to r.p.m or exhaust gas temperature limits. At high altitudes, little excess thrust

may be available for maneuvering. Therefore, it is

often impossible for the jet airplane to climb and turn

simultaneously, and all maneuvering must be accomplished within the limits of available thrust and without sacrificing stability and controllability.

ABSENCE OF PROPELLER EFFECT

The absence of a propeller has a significant effect on

the operation of jet powered airplanes that the transitioning pilot must become accustomed to. The effect is

due to the absence of lift from the propeller slipstream,

and the absence of propeller drag.

ABSENCE OF PROPELLER

SLIPSTREAM

A propeller produces thrust by accelerating a large

mass of air rearwards, and (especially with wing

mounted engines) this air passes over a comparatively

large percentage of the wing area. On a propeller

driven airplane, the lift that the wing develops is the

sum of the lift generated by the wing area not in the

wake of the propeller (as a result of airplane speed) and

the lift generated by the wing area influenced by the

propeller slipstream. By increasing or decreasing the

speed of the slipstream air, therefore, it is possible to

increase or decrease the total lift on the wing without

changing airspeed.

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent Maximum Thrust

Percent Maximum R.P.M.

VARIATION OF THRUST WITH R.P.M.

(Constant Altitude & Velocity)

Figure 15-6. Variation of thrust with r.p.m.

8

6

4

2

60% 100%

Time to Achieve Full Thrust (sec.)

R.P.M.

78%

Figure 15-7.Typical Jet engine acceleration times.

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15-6

For example, a propeller driven airplane that is allowed

to become too low and too slow on an approach is very

responsive to a quick blast of power to salvage the

situation. In addition to increasing lift at a constant

airspeed, stalling speed is reduced with power on. A jet

engine, on the other hand, also produces thrust by

accelerating a mass of air rearward, but this air does

not pass over the wings. There is therefore no lift bonus

at increased power at constant airspeed, and no

significant lowering of power-on stall speed.

In not having propellers, the jet powered airplane is

minus two assets.

• It is not possible to produce increased lift

instantly by simply increasing power.

• It is not possible to lower stall speed by simply

increasing power. The 10-knot margin (roughly

the difference between power-off and power-on

stall speed on a propeller driven airplane for a

given configuration) is lost.

Add the poor acceleration response of the jet engine

and it becomes apparent that there are three ways in

which the jet pilot is worse off than the propeller pilot.

For these reasons, there is a marked difference between

the approach qualities of a piston engine airplane and a

jet. In a piston engine airplane, there is some room for

error. Speed is not too critical and a burst of power will

salvage an increasing sink rate. In a jet, however, there

is little room for error.

If an increasing sink rate develops in a jet, the pilot

must remember two points in the proper sequence.

1. Increased lift can be gained only by accelerating

airflow over the wings, and this can be

accomplished only by accelerating the entire

airplane.

2. The airplane can be accelerated, assuming

altitude loss cannot be afforded, only by a rapid

increase in thrust, and here, the slow acceleration

of the jet engine (possibly up to 8 seconds)

becomes a factor.

Salvaging an increasing sink rate on an approach in a

jet can be a very difficult maneuver. The lack of ability

to produce instant lift in the jet, along with the slow

acceleration of the engine, necessitates a “stabilized

approach” to a landing where full landing

configuration, constant airspeed, controlled rate of

descent, and relatively high power settings are

maintained until over the threshold of the runway. This

allows for almost immediate response from the engine

in making minor changes in the approach speed or rate

of descent and makes it possible to initiate an

immediate go-around or missed approach if necessary.

ABSENCE OF PROPELLER DRAG

When the throttles are closed on a piston powered

airplane, the propellers create a vast amount of drag,

and airspeed is immediately decreased or altitude lost.

The effect of reducing power to idle on the jet engine,

however, produces no such drag effect. In fact, at an

idle power setting, the jet engine still produces

forward thrust. The main advantage is that the jet pilot

is no longer faced with a potential drag penalty of a

runaway propeller, or a reversed propeller. A

disadvantage, however, is the “free wheeling” effect

forward thrust at idle has on the jet. While this

occasionally can be used to advantage (such as in a

long descent), it is a handicap when it is necessary to

lose speed quickly, such as when entering a terminal

area or when in a landing flare. The lack of propeller

drag, along with the aerodynamically clean airframe

of the jet, are new to most pilots, and slowing the

airplane down is one of the initial problems

encountered by pilots transitioning into jets.

SPEED MARGINS

The typical piston powered airplane had to deal with

two maximum operating speeds.

• VNO—Maximum structural cruising speed,

represented on the airspeed indicator by the

upper limit of the green arc. It is, however,

permissible to exceed VNO and operate in the

caution range (yellow arc) in certain flight

conditions.

• VNE—Never-exceed speed, represented by a red

line on the airspeed indicator.

These speed margins in the piston airplanes were

never of much concern during normal operations

because the high drag factors and relatively low cruise

power settings kept speeds well below these maximum

limits.

Maximum speeds in jet airplanes are expressed

differently, and always define the maximum operating

speed of the airplane which is comparable to the VNE

of the piston airplane. These maximum speeds in a jet

airplane are referred to as:

• VMO—Maximum operating speed expressed in

terms of knots.

• MMO—Maximum operating speed expressed in

terms of a decimal of Mach speed (speed of

sound).

To observe both limits VMO and MMO, the pilot of a jet

airplane needs both an airspeed indicator and a

Machmeter, each with appropriate red lines. In some

general aviation jet airplanes, these are combined into

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15-7

a single instrument that contains a pair of concentric

indicators, one for the indicated airspeed and the other

for indicated Mach number. Each is provided with an

appropriate red line. [Figure 15-8]

A more sophisticated indicator is used on most

jetliners. It looks much like a conventional airspeed

indicator but has a “barber pole” that automatically

moves so as to display the applicable speed limit at all

times. 

Because of the higher available thrust and very low

drag design, the jet airplane can very easily exceed its

speed margin even in cruising flight, and in fact in

some airplanes in a shallow climb. The handling

qualities in a jet can change drastically when the

maximum operating speeds are exceeded.

High speed airplanes designed for subsonic flight are

limited to some Mach number below the speed of

sound to avoid the formation of shock waves that begin

to develop as the airplane nears Mach 1.0. These shock

waves (and the adverse effects associated with them)

can occur when the airplane speed is substantially

below Mach 1.0. The Mach speed at which some

portion of the airflow over the wing first equals Mach

1.0 is termed the critical Mach number (MACHCRIT).

This is also the speed at which a shock wave first

appears on the airplane.

There is no particular problem associated with the

acceleration of the airflow up to the point where Mach

1.0 is encountered; however, a shock wave is formed at

the point where the airflow suddenly returns to

subsonic flow. This shock wave becomes more severe

and moves aft on the wing as speed of the wing is

increased, and eventually flow separation occurs

behind the well-developed shock wave. [Figure 15-9]

If allowed to progress well beyond the MMO for the

airplane, this separation of air behind the shock wave

can result in severe buffeting and possible loss of

control or “upset.”

Because of the changing center of lift of the wing

resulting from the movement of the shock wave, the

pilot will experience pitch change tendencies as the

airplane moves through the transonic speeds up to and

exceeding MMO. [Figure 15-10]

For example, as the graph in figure 15-10 illustrates,

initially as speed is increased up to Mach .72 the wing

develops an increasing amount of lift requiring a nosedown force or trim to maintain level flight. With

increased speed and the aft movement of the shock

wave, the wing’s center of pressure also moves aft

causing the start of a nosedown tendency or “tuck.” By

Mach .83 the nosedown forces are well developed to a

point where a total of 70 pounds of back pressure are

required to hold the nose up. If allowed to progress

unchecked, Mach tuck may eventually occur.

Although Mach tuck develops gradually, if it is

Figure 15-8. Jet airspeed indicator.

M=.72 (Critical Mach Number) 

M=.77

Supersonic

Flow

M=.82

Normal Shock Wave

Subsonic

Possible 

Separation

Supersonic

Flow

Normal Shock

Normal Shock

Separation

Maximum Local Velocity

Is Less Than Sonic

Figure 15-9.Transonic flow patterns.

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

10

20

0

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Stick Force in Pounds

Mach Number

Pull

Push

Figure 15-10. Example of Stick Forces vs. Mach Number in a

typical jet airplane.

Ch 15.qxd 5/7/04 10:22 AM Page 15-7
15-8

allowed to progress significantly, the center of

pressure can move so far rearward that there is no

longer enough elevator authority available to

counteract it, and the airplane could enter a steep,

sometimes unrecoverable dive.

An alert pilot would have observed the high airspeed

indications, experienced the onset of buffeting, and

responded to aural warning devices long before

encountering the extreme stick forces shown.

However, in the event that corrective action is not

taken and the nose allowed to drop, increasing airspeed

even further, the situation could rapidly become

dangerous. As the Mach speed increases beyond the

airplane’s MMO, the effects of flow separation and

turbulence behind the shock wave become more

severe. Eventually, the most powerful forces causing

Mach tuck are a result of the buffeting and lack of

effective downwash on the horizontal stabilizer

because of the disturbed airflow over the wing. This is

the primary reason for the development of the T-tail

configuration on some jet airplanes, which places the

horizontal stabilizer as far as practical from the

turbulence of the wings. Also, because of the critical

aspects of high-altitude/high-Mach flight, most jet

airplanes capable of operating in the Mach speed

ranges are designed with some form of trim and

autopilot Mach compensating device (stick puller) to

alert the pilot to inadvertent excursions beyond its

certificated MMO.

RECOVERY FROM OVERSPEED

CONDITIONS

The simplest remedy for an overspeed condition is to

ensure that the situation never occurs in the first place.

For this reason, the pilot must be aware of all the

conditions that could lead to exceeding the airplane’s

maximum operating speeds. Good attitude instrument

flying skills and good power control are essential.

The pilot should be aware of the symptoms that will be

experienced in the particular airplane as the VMO or

MMO is being approached. These may include:

• Nosedown tendency and need for back pressure

or trim.

• Mild buffeting as airflow separation begins to

occur after critical Mach speed.

• Actuation of an aural warning device/stick puller

at or just slightly beyond VMO or MMO.

The pilot’s response to an overspeed condition should

be to immediately slow the airplane by reducing the

power to flight idle. It will also help to smoothly and

easily raise the pitch attitude to help dissipate speed (in

fact this is done automatically through the stick puller

device when the high speed warning system is

activated). The use of speed brakes can also aid in

slowing the airplane. If, however, the nosedown stick

forces have progressed to the extent that they are

excessive, some speed brakes will tend to further

aggravate the nosedown tendency. Under most

conditions, this additional pitch down force is easily

controllable, and since speed brakes can normally be

used at any speed, they are a very real asset. A final

option would be to extend the landing gear. This will

create enormous drag and possibly some noseup pitch,

but there is usually little risk of damage to the gear

itself. The pilot transitioning into jet airplanes must be

familiar with the manufacturers’ recommended procedures for dealing with overspeed conditions contained

in the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual for the

particular make and model airplane.

MACH BUFFET BOUNDARIES

Thus far, only the Mach buffet that results from

excessive speed has been addressed. The transitioning

pilot, however, should be aware that Mach buffet is a

function of the speed of the airflow over the wing—

not necessarily the airspeed of the airplane. Anytime

that too great a lift demand is made on the wing,

whether from too fast an airspeed or from too high an

angle of attack near the MMO, the “high speed buffet”

will occur. However, there are also occasions when the

buffet can be experienced at much slower speeds

known as “low speed Mach buffet.”

The most likely situations that could cause the low

speed buffet would be when an airplane is flown at too

slow a speed for its weight and altitude causing a high

angle of attack. This very high angle of attack would

have the same effect of increasing airflow over the

upper surface of the wing to the point that all of the

same effects of the shock waves and buffet would

occur as in the high speed buffet situation.

The angle of attack of the wing has the greatest effect

on inducing the Mach buffet at either the high or low

speed boundaries for the airplane. The conditions that

increase the angle of attack, hence the speed of the

airflow over the wing and chances of Mach buffet are:

• High altitudes—The higher the airplane flies,

the thinner the air and the greater the angle of

attack required to produce the lift needed to

maintain level flight.

• Heavy weights—The heavier the airplane, the

greater the lift required of the wing, and all other

things being equal, the greater the angle of

attack.

• “G” loading—An increase in the “G” loading of

the wing results in the same situation as

increasing the weight of the airplane. It makes

Ch 15.qxd 5/7/04 10:22 AM Page 15-8
15-9

no difference whether the increase in “G” forces

is caused by a turn, rough control usage, or turbulence. The effect of increasing the wing’s

angle of attack is the same.

An airplane’s indicated airspeed decreases in relation

to true airspeed as altitude increases. As the indicated

airspeed decreases with altitude, it progressively

merges with the low speed buffet boundary where prestall buffet occurs for the airplane at a load factor of

1.0 G. The point where the high speed Mach indicated

airspeed and low speed buffet boundary indicated airspeed merge is the airplane’s absolute or aerodynamic

ceiling. Once an airplane has reached its aerodynamic

ceiling, which is higher than the altitude stipulated in

the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual, the airplane can neither be made to go faster without activating the design stick puller at Mach limit nor can it be

made to go slower without activating the stick shaker

or stick pusher. This critical area of the airplane’s

flight envelope is known as “coffin corner.”

Mach buffet occurs as a result of supersonic airflow on

the wing. Stall buffet occurs at angles of attack that

produce airflow disturbances (burbling) over the upper

surface of the wing which decreases lift. As density

altitude increases, the angle of attack that is required to

produce an airflow disturbance over the top of the wing

is reduced until the density altitude is reached where

Mach buffet and stall buffet converge (coffin corner).

When this phenomenon is encountered, serious consequences may result causing loss of airplane control.

Increasing either gross weight or load factor (G factor)

will increase the low speed buffet and decrease Mach

buffet speeds. A typical jet airplane flying at 51,000

feet altitude at 1.0 G may encounter Mach buffet

slightly above the airplane’s MMO (.82 Mach) and low

speed buffet at .60 Mach. However, only 1.4 G (an

increase of only 0.4 G) may bring on buffet at the optimum speed of .73 Mach and any change in airspeed,

bank angle, or gust loading may reduce this straightand-level flight 1.4 G protection to no protection at all.

Consequently, a maximum cruising flight altitude must

be selected which will allow sufficient buffet margin

for necessary maneuvering and for gust conditions

likely to be encountered. Therefore, it is important for

pilots to be familiar with the use of charts showing

cruise maneuver and buffet limits. [Figure 15-11]

The transitioning pilot must bear in mind that the

maneuverability of the jet airplane is particularly critical, especially at the high altitudes. Some jet airplanes

have a very narrow span between the high and low

speed buffets. One airspeed that the pilot should have

firmly fixed in memory is the manufacturer’s recommended gust penetration speed for the particular make

and model airplane. This speed is normally the speed

that would give the greatest margin between the high

and low speed buffets, and may be considerably higher

1 2 3 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8

Load Factor – G Indicated Mach Number

Sea Level

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

Pressure Altitude – 25,000 Ft.

30,000

35,000

40,000

45,000

MMO

19,000 Lbs.

11,000

18,000

17,000

16,000

15,000

14,000

13,000

12,000

A

C B

D

Figure 15-11. Mach buffet boundary chart.

Ch 15.qxd 5/7/04 10:22 AM Page 15-9
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than design maneuvering speed (VA). This means that,

unlike piston airplanes, there are times when a jet

airplane should be flown in excess of VA during

encounters with turbulence. Pilots operating airplanes

at high speeds must be adequately trained to operate

them safely. This training cannot be complete until

pilots are thoroughly educated in the critical aspects of

the aerodynamic factors pertinent to Mach flight at

high altitudes.

LOW SPEED FLIGHT

The jet airplane wing, designed primarily for high

speed flight, has relatively poor low speed

characteristics. As opposed to the normal piston

powered airplane, the jet wing has less area, a lower

aspect ratio (long chord/short span), and thin airfoil

shape—all of which amount to less lift. The sweptwing

is additionally penalized at low speeds because the

effective lift, which is perpendicular to the leading

edge, is always less than the airspeed of the airplane

itself. In other words, the airflow on the sweptwing has

the effect of persuading the wing into believing that it

is flying slower than it actually is, but the wing consequently suffers a loss of lift for a given airspeed at a

given angle of attack.

The first real consequence of poor lift at low speeds is

a high stall speed. The second consequence of poor lift

at low speeds is the manner in which lift and drag vary

with speed in the lower ranges. As a jet airplane is

slowed toward its minimum drag speed (VMD or

L/DMAX), total drag increases at a much greater rate

than lift, resulting in a sinking flightpath. If the pilot

attempts to increase lift by increasing pitch attitude,

airspeed will be further reduced resulting in a further

increase in drag and sink rate as the airplane slides up

the back side of the power curve. The sink rate can be

arrested in one of two ways:

• Pitch attitude can be substantially reduced to

reduce the angle of attack and allow the airplane

to accelerate to a speed above VMD, where steady

flight conditions can be reestablished. This

procedure, however, will invariably result in a

substantial loss of altitude.

• Thrust can be increased to accelerate the airplane

to a speed above VMD to reestablish steady flight

conditions. It should be remembered that the

amount of thrust required will be quite large. The

amount of thrust must be sufficient to accelerate

the airplane and regain altitude lost. Also, if the

airplane has slid a long way up the back side of

the power required (drag) curve, drag will be

very high and a very large amount of thrust will

be required.

In a typical piston engine airplane, VMD in the clean

configuration is normally at a speed of about 1.3 VS.

[Figure 15-12] Flight below VMD on a piston engine

airplane is well identified and predictable. In contrast,

in a jet airplane flight in the area of VMD (typically 1.5

– 1.6 VS) does not normally produce any noticeable

changes in flying qualities other than a lack of speed

stability—a condition where a decrease in speed leads

to an increase in drag which leads to a further decrease

in speed and hence a speed divergence. A pilot who is

not cognizant of a developing speed divergence may

find a serious sink rate developing at a constant power

setting, and a pitch attitude that appears to be normal.

The fact that drag increases more rapidly than lift,

causing a sinking flightpath, is one of the most

important aspects of jet airplane flying qualities.

STALLS

The stalling characteristics of the sweptwing jet

airplane can vary considerably from those of the

Minimum

Power

Required

L/DMAX

Figure 15-12.Thrust and power required curves.

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normal straight wing airplane. The greatest difference

that will be noticeable to the pilot is the lift developed

vs. angle of attack. An increase in angle of attack of the

straight wing produces a substantial and constantly

increasing lift vector up to its maximum coefficient of

lift, and soon thereafter flow separation (stall) occurs

with a rapid deterioration of lift.

By contrast, the sweptwing produces a much more

gradual buildup of lift with no well defined maximum

coefficient and has the ability to fly well beyond this

maximum buildup even though lift is lost. The drag

curves (which are not depicted in figure 15-13) are

approximately the reverse of the lift curves shown, in

that a rapid increase in drag component may be

expected with an increase in the angle of attack of a

sweptwing airplane.

The differences in the stall characteristics between a

conventional straight wing/low tailplane (non T-tail)

airplane and a sweptwing T-tail airplane center around

two main areas.

• The basic pitching tendency of the airplane at

the stall.

• Tail effectiveness in stall recovery.

On a conventional straight wing/low tailplane airplane,

the weight of the airplane acts downwards forward of

the lift acting upwards, producing a need for a

balancing force acting downwards from the tailplane.

As speed is reduced by gentle up elevator deflection,

the static stability of the airplane causes a nosedown

tendency. This is countered by further up elevator to

keep the nose coming up and the speed decreasing. As

the pitch attitude increases, the low set tail is immersed

in the wing wake, which is slightly turbulent, low

energy air. The accompanying aerodynamic buffeting

serves as a warning of impending stall. The reduced

effectiveness of the tail prevents the pilot from forcing

the airplane into a deeper stall. [Figure 15-14] The

conventional straight wing airplane conforms to the

familiar nosedown pitching tendency at the stall and

gives the entire airplane a fairly pronounced nosedown

pitch. At the moment of stall, the wing wake passes

more or less straight rearward and passes above the

tail. The tail is now immersed in high energy air where

it experiences a sharp increase in positive angle of

attack causing upward lift. This lift then assists the

nosedown pitch and decrease in wing angle of attack

essential to stall recovery.

In a sweptwing jet with a T-tail and rear fuselage

mounted engines, the two qualities that are different

from its straight wing low tailplane counterpart are the

pitching tendency of the airplane as the stall develops

and the loss of tail effectiveness at the stall. The

handling qualities down to the stall are much the same

as the straight wing airplane except that the high, T-tail

remains clear of the wing wake and provides little or

no warning in the form of a pre-stall buffet. Also, the

tail is fully effective during the speed reduction

towards the stall, and remains effective even after the

wing has begun to stall. This enables the pilot to drive

the wing into a deeper stall at a much greater angle

of attack.

At the stall, two distinct things happen. After the stall,

the sweptwing T-tail airplane tends to pitch up rather

than down, and the T-tail is immersed in the wing

wake, which is low energy turbulent air. This greatly

reduces tail effectiveness and the airplane’s ability to

counter the noseup pitch. Also, the disturbed,

relatively slow air behind the wing may sweep across

the tail at such a large angle that the tail itself stalls. If

this occurs, the pilot loses all pitch control and will be

unable to lower the nose. The pitch up just after the

stall is worsened by large reduction in lift and a large

increase in drag, which causes a rapidly increasing

Lift Coefficient

Angle of Attack

Straight

Wing

Sweptwing

Figure 15-13. Stall vs. angle of attack—sweptwing vs. straight

wing.

Figure 15-14. Stall progression—typical straight wing

airplane.

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descent path, thus compounding the rate of increase of

the wing’s angle of attack. [Figure 15-15]

The pitch up tendency after the stall is a characteristic

of a swept and/or tapered wings. With these types of

wings, there is a tendency for the wing to develop a

strong spanwise airflow towards the wingtip when the

wing is at high angles of attack. This leads to a

tendency for separation of airflow, and the subsequent

stall, to occur at the wingtips first. [Figure 15-16] The

tip first stall, results in a shift of the center of lift of the

wing in a forward direction relative to the center of

gravity of the airplane, causing the nose to pitch up.

Another disadvantage of a tip first stall is that it can

involve the ailerons and erode roll control.

As previously stated, when flying at a speed in the area

of VMD, an increase in angle of attack causes drag to

increase faster than lift and the airplane begins to sink.

It is essential to understand that this increasing sinking

tendency, at a constant pitch attitude, results in a rapid

increase in angle of attack as the flightpath becomes

deflected downwards. [Figure 15-17] Furthermore,

once the stall has developed and a large amount of lift

has been lost, the airplane will begin to sink rapidly

and this will be accompanied by a corresponding rapid

increase in angle of attack. This is the beginning of

what is termed a deep stall.

As an airplane enters a deep stall, increasing drag

reduces forward speed to well below normal stall

speed. The sink rate may increase to many thousands

of feet per minute. The airplane eventually stabilizes

in a vertical descent. The angle of attack may approach

Pre-Stall

Stall

Figure 15-15. Stall progression sweptwing airplane.

Spanwise Flow of Boundary

Layer Develops at High CL

Initial Flow Separation

at or Near Tip

Area of Tip

Stall Enlarges

Stall Area Progresses

Inboard

Figure 15-16. Sweptwing stall characteristics.

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90° and the indicated airspeed may be reduced to zero.

At a 90° angle of attack, none of the airplane’s control

surfaces are effective. It must be emphasized that this

situation can occur without an excessively nose-high

pitch attitude. On some airplanes, it can occur at an

apparently normal pitch attitude, and it is this quality

that can mislead the pilot because it appears similar to

the beginning of a normal stall recovery.

Deep stalls are virtually unrecoverable. Fortunately,

they are easily avoided as long as published limitations

are observed. On those airplanes susceptible to deep

stalls (not all swept and/or tapered wing airplanes are),

sophisticated stall warning systems such as stick

shakers and stick pushers are standard equipment. A

stick pusher, as its name implies, acts to automatically

reduce the airplane’s angle of attack before the airplane

reaches a fully stalled condition.

Unless the Airplane Flight Manual procedures

stipulate otherwise, a fully stalled condition in a jet

airplane is to be avoided. Pilots undergoing training in

jet airplanes are taught to recover at the first sign of an

impending stall. Normally, this is indicated by aural

stall warning devices and/or activation of the airplane’s

stick shaker. Stick shakers normally activate around

107 percent of the actual stall speed. At such slow

speeds, very high sink rates can develop if the

airplane’s pitch attitude is decreased below the

horizon, as is normal recovery procedure in most

piston powered straight wing, light airplanes.

Therefore, at the lower altitudes where plenty of

engine thrust is available, the recovery technique in

many sweptwing jets involves applying full available

power, rolling the wings level, and holding a slightly

positive pitch attitude. The amount of pitch attitude

should be sufficient enough to maintain altitude or

begin a slight climb.

At high altitudes, where there may be little excess

thrust available to effect a recovery using power alone,

it may be necessary to lower the nose below the

horizon in order to accelerate away from an impending

stall. This procedure may require several thousand feet

or more of altitude loss to effect a recovery. Stall

recovery techniques may vary considerably from

airplane to airplane. The stall recovery procedures for

a particular make and model airplane, as

recommended by the manufacturer, are contained in

the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual for

that airplane.

DRAG DEVICES

To the pilot transitioning into jet airplanes, going faster

is seldom a problem. It is getting the airplane to slow

down that seems to cause the most difficulty. This is

because of the extremely clean aerodynamic design

and fast momentum of the jet airplane, and also

because the jet lacks the propeller drag effects that the

pilot has been accustomed to. Additionally, even with

the power reduced to flight idle, the jet engine still

produces thrust, and deceleration of the jet airplane is a

slow process. Jet airplanes have a glide performance

that is double that of piston powered airplanes, and jet

pilots often cannot comply with an air traffic control

request to go down and slow down at the same time.

Therefore, jet airplanes are equipped with drag devices

such as spoilers and speed brakes.

The primary purpose of spoilers is to spoil lift. The

most common type of spoiler consists of one or more

rectangular plates that lie flush with the upper surface

of each wing. They are installed approximately

parallel to the lateral axis of the airplane and are hinged

along the leading edges. When deployed, spoilers

deflect up against the relative wind, which interferes

with the flow of air about the wing. [Figure 15-18] This

both spoils lift and increases drag. Spoilers are usually

installed forward of the flaps but not in front of the

ailerons so as not to interfere with roll control.

Initial Stall

Deep Stall

Pre-Stall

Relative Wind

Relative Wind

Relative Wind

Pitch Attitude

Flightpath Angle to the Horizontal

Angle of Attack

Figure 15-17. Deep stall progression.

Figure 15-18. Spoilers.

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Deploying spoilers results in a substantial sink rate

with little decay in airspeed. Some airplanes will

exhibit a noseup pitch tendency when the spoilers are

deployed, which the pilot must anticipate.

When spoilers are deployed on landing, most of the

wing’s lift is destroyed. This action transfers the

airplane’s weight to the landing gear so that the wheel

brakes are more effective. Another beneficial effect of

deploying spoilers on landing is that they create

considerable drag, adding to the overall aerodynamic

braking. The real value of spoilers on landing, however, is creating the best circumstances for using

wheel brakes.

The primary purpose of speed brakes is to produce

drag. Speed brakes are found in many sizes, shapes,

and locations on different airplanes, but they all have

the same purpose—to assist in rapid deceleration. The

speed brake consists of a hydraulically operated board

that when deployed extends into the airstream.

Deploying speed brakes results in a rapid decrease in

airspeed. Typically, speed brakes can be deployed at

any time during flight in order to help control airspeed,

but they are most often used only when a rapid deceleration must be accomplished to slow down to landing

gear and flap speeds. There is usually a certain amount

of noise and buffeting associated with the use of speed

brakes, along with an obvious penalty in fuel consumption. Procedures for the use of spoilers and/or

speed brakes in various situations are contained in the

FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual for the particular airplane.

THRUST REVERSERS

Jet airplanes have high kinetic energy during the

landing roll because of weight and speed. This energy

is difficult to dissipate because a jet airplane has low

drag with the nosewheel on the ground and the engines

continue to produce forward thrust with the power

levers at idle. While wheel brakes normally can cope,

there is an obvious need for another speed retarding

method. This need is satisfied by the drag provided by

reverse thrust.

A thrust reverser is a device fitted in the engine

exhaust system which effectively reverses the flow of

the exhaust gases. The flow does not reverse through

180°; however, the final path of the exhaust gases is

about 45° from straight ahead. This, together with the

losses in the reverse flow paths, results in a net efficiency of about 50 percent. It will produce even less if

the engine r.p.m. is less than maximum in reverse.

Normally, a jet engine will have one of two types of

thrust reversers, either a target reverser or a cascade

reverser. [Figure 15-19] Target reversers are simple

clamshell doors that swivel from the stowed position at

the engine tailpipe to block all of the outflow and

redirect some component of the thrust forward.

Cascade reversers are more complex. They are

normally found on turbofan engines and are often

designed to reverse only the fan air portion. Blocking

doors in the shroud obstructs forward fan thrust and

redirects it through cascade vanes for some reverse

component. Cascades are generally less effective than

target reversers, particularly those that reverse only

fan air, because they do not affect the engine core,

which will continue to produce forward thrust.

On most installations, reverse thrust is obtained with

the thrust lever at idle, by pulling up the reverse lever

to a detent. Doing so positions the reversing

mechanisms for operation but leaves the engine at idle

r.p.m. Further upward and backward movement of the

reverse lever increases engine power. Reverse is

cancelled by closing the reverse lever to the idle

reverse position, then dropping it fully back to the

forward idle position. This last movement operates the

reverser back to the forward thrust position.

Reverse thrust is much more effective at high airplane

speed than at low airplane speeds, for two reasons:

first, the net amount of reverse thrust increases with

speed; second, the power produced is higher at higher

speeds because of the increased rate of doing work. In

other words, the kinetic energy of the airplane is being

destroyed at a higher rate at the higher speeds. To get

maximum efficiency from reverse thrust, therefore, it

should be used as soon as is prudent after touchdown.

When considering the proper time to apply reverse

thrust after touchdown, the pilot should remember that

TARGET OR CLAMSHELL REVERSER

CASCADE REVERSER

Figure 15-19.Thrust reversers.

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some airplanes tend to pitch noseup when reverse is

selected on landing and this effect, particularly when

combined with the noseup pitch effect from the

spoilers, can cause the airplane to leave the ground

again momentarily. On these types, the airplane must

be firmly on the ground with the nosewheel down,

before reverse is selected. Other types of airplanes

have no change in pitch, and reverse idle may be

selected after the main gear is down and before the

nosewheel is down. Specific procedures for reverse

thrust operation for a particular airplane/engine

combination are contained in the FAA-approved

Airplane Flight Manual for that airplane.

There is a significant difference between reverse pitch

on a propeller and reverse thrust on a jet. Idle reverse

on a propeller produces about 60 percent of the reverse

thrust available at full power reverse and is therefore

very effective at this setting when full reverse is not

needed. On a jet engine, however, selecting idle

reverse produces very little actual reverse thrust. In a

jet airplane, the pilot must not only select reverse as

soon as reasonable, but then must open up to full power

reverse as soon as possible. Within Airplane Flight

Manual limitations, full power reverse should be held

until the pilot is certain the landing roll will be

contained within the distance available.

Inadvertent deployment of thrust reversers is a very

serious emergency situation. Therefore, thrust reverser

systems are designed with this prospect in mind. The

systems normally contain several lock systems: one to

keep reversers from operating in the air, another to

prevent operation with the thrust levers out of the idle

detent, and/or an “auto-stow” circuit to command

reverser stowage any time unwanted motion is

detected. It is essential that pilots understand not only

the normal procedures and limitations of thrust

reverser use, but also the procedures for coping with

uncommanded reverse. Those emergencies demand

immediate and accurate response.

PILOT SENSATIONS IN JET FLYING

There are usually three general sensations that the pilot

transitioning into jets will immediately become aware

of. These are: inertial response differences, increased

control sensitivity, and a much increased tempo

of flight.

The varying of power settings from flight idle to full

takeoff power has a much slower effect on the change

of airspeed in the jet airplane. This is commonly called

lead and lag, and is as much a result of the extremely

clean aerodynamic design of the airplane as it is the

slower response of the engine.

The lack of propeller effect is also responsible for the

lower drag increment at the reduced power settings and

results in other changes that the pilot will have to

become accustomed to. These include the lack of

effective slipstream over the lifting surfaces and

control surfaces, and lack of propeller torque effect.

The aft mounted engines will cause a different reaction

to power application and may result in a slightly nosedown pitching tendency with the application of power.

On the other hand, power reduction will not cause the

nose of the airplane to drop to the same extent the pilot

is used to in a propeller airplane. Although neither of

these characteristics are radical enough to cause

transitioning pilots much of a problem, they must be

compensated for.

Power settings required to attain a given performance

are almost impossible to memorize in the jets, and the

pilot who feels the necessity for having an array of

power settings for all occasions will initially feel at a

loss. The only way to answer the question of “how

much power is needed?” is by saying, “whatever is

required to get the job done.” The primary reason that

power settings vary so much is because of the great

changes in weight as fuel is consumed during the

flight. Therefore, the pilot will have to learn to use

power as needed to achieve the desired performance.

In time the pilot will find that the only reference to

power instruments will be that required to keep from

exceeding limits of maximum power settings or to

synchronize r.p.m.

Proper power management is one of the initial problem

areas encountered by the pilot transitioning into jet

airplanes. Although smooth power applications are still

the rule, the pilot will be aware that a greater physical

movement of the power levers is required as compared

to throttle movement in the piston engines. The pilot

will also have to learn to anticipate and lead the power

changes more than in the past and must keep in mind

that the last 30 percent of engine r.p.m. represents the

majority of the engine thrust, and below that the

application of power has very little effect. In slowing

the airplane, power reduction must be made sooner

because there is no longer any propeller drag and the

pilot should anticipate the need for drag devices.

Control sensitivity will differ between various

airplanes, but in all cases, the pilot will find that they

are more sensitive to any change in control

displacement, particularly pitch control, than are the

conventional propeller airplanes. Because of the higher

speeds flown, the control surfaces are more effective

and a variation of just a few degrees in pitch attitude in

a jet can result in over twice the rate of altitude change

that would be experienced in a slower airplane. The

sensitive pitch control in jet airplanes is one of the first

flight differences that the pilot will notice. Invariably

the pilot will have a tendency to over-control pitch

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during initial training flights. The importance of

accurate and smooth control cannot be overemphasized, however, and it is one of the first techniques the

transitioning pilot must master.

The pilot of a sweptwing jet airplane will soon become

adjusted to the fact that it is necessary and normal to

fly at higher angles of attack. It is not unusual to have

about 5° of noseup pitch on an approach to a landing.

During an approach to a stall at constant altitude, the

noseup angle may be as high as 15° to 20°. The higher

deck angles (pitch angle relative to the ground) on

takeoff, which may be as high as 15°, will also take

some getting used to, although this is not the actual

angle of attack relative to the airflow over the wing.

The greater variation of pitch attitudes flown in a jet

airplane are a result of the greater thrust available and

the flight characteristics of the low aspect ratio and

sweptwing. Flight at the higher pitch attitudes requires

a greater reliance on the flight instruments for airplane

control since there is not much in the way of a useful

horizon or other outside reference to be seen. Because

of the high rates of climb and descent, high airspeeds,

high altitudes and variety of attitudes flown, the jet

airplane can only be precisely flown by applying

proficient instrument flight techniques. Proficiency in

attitude instrument flying, therefore, is essential to

successful transition to jet airplane flying.

Most jet airplanes are equipped with a thumb operated

pitch trim button on the control wheel which the pilot

must become familiar with as soon as possible. The jet

airplane will differ regarding pitch tendencies with the

lowering of flaps, landing gear, and drag devices. With

experience, the jet airplane pilot will learn to anticipate

the amount of pitch change required for a particular

operation. The usual method of operating the trim

button is to apply several small, intermittent

applications of trim in the direction desired rather than

holding the trim button for longer periods of time

which can lead to over-controlling.

JET AIRPLANE TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

All FAA certificated jet airplanes are certificated under

Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)

part 25, which contains the airworthiness standards for

transport category airplanes. The FAA certificated jet

airplane is a highly sophisticated machine with proven

levels of performance and guaranteed safety margins.

The jet airplane’s performance and safety margins can

only be realized, however, if the airplane is operated in

strict compliance with the procedures and limitations

contained in the FAA-approved Airplane Flight

Manual for the particular airplane.

The following information is generic in nature and,

since most civilian jet airplanes require a minimum

flight crew of two pilots, assumes a two pilot crew. If

any of the following information conflicts with FAAapproved Airplane Flight Manual procedures for a

particular airplane, the Airplane Flight Manual

procedures take precedence. Also, if any of the

following procedures differ from the FAA-approved

procedures developed for use by a specific air operator

and/or for use in an FAA-approved training center or

pilot school curriculum, the FAA-approved

procedures for that operator and/or training

center/pilot school take precedence.

V-SPEEDS

The following are speeds that will affect the jet

airplane’s takeoff performance. The jet airplane pilot

must be thoroughly familiar with each of these speeds

and how they are used in the planning of the takeoff.

• VS—Stall speed.

• V1—Critical engine failure speed or decision

speed. Engine failure below this speed should

result in an aborted takeoff; above this speed the

takeoff run should be continued.

• VR—Speed at which the rotation of the airplane

is initiated to takeoff attitude. This speed cannot

be less than V1 or less than 1.05 x VMCA

(minimum control speed in the air). On a

single-engine takeoff, it must also allow for the

acceleration to V2 at the 35-foot height at the end

of the runway.

• VLO—The speed at which the airplane first

becomes airborne. This is an engineering term

used when the airplane is certificated and must

meet certain requirements. If it is not listed in the

Airplane Flight Manual, it is within

requirements and does not have to be taken into

consideration by the pilot.

• V2—The takeoff safety speed which must be

attained at the 35-foot height at the end of the

required runway distance. This is essentially the

best single-engine angle of climb speed for the

airplane and should be held until clearing

obstacles after takeoff, or at least 400 feet above

the ground.

PRE-TAKEOFF PROCEDURES

Takeoff data, including V1/VR and V2 speeds, takeoff

power settings, and required field length should be

computed prior to each takeoff and recorded on a

takeoff data card. These data will be based on airplane

weight, runway length available, runway gradient,

field temperature, field barometric pressure, wind,

icing conditions, and runway condition. Both pilots

should separately compute the takeoff data and

cross-check in the cockpit with the takeoff data card.

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A captain’s briefing is an essential part of cockpit

resource management (CRM) procedures and should

be accomplished just prior to takeoff. [Figure 15-20]

The captain’s briefing is an opportunity to review crew

coordination procedures for takeoff, which is always

the most critical portion of a flight. 

The takeoff and climb-out should be accomplished in

accordance with a standard takeoff and departure

profile developed for the particular make and model

airplane. [Figure 15-21]

TAKEOFF ROLL

The entire runway length should be available for

takeoff, especially if the pre-calculated takeoff

performance shows the airplane to be limited by

runway length or obstacles. After taxing into position

at the end of the runway, the airplane should be aligned

in the center of the runway allowing equal distance on

either side. The brakes should be held while the thrust

levers are brought to a power setting beyond the bleed

valve range (normally the vertical position) and the

engines allowed to stabilized. The engine instruments

should be checked for proper operation before the

brakes are released or the power increased further. This

procedure assures symmetrical thrust during the

takeoff roll and aids in preventing overshooting the

desired takeoff thrust setting. The brakes should then

be released and, during the start of the takeoff roll, the

thrust levers smoothly advanced to the pre-computed

takeoff power setting. All final takeoff thrust

adjustments should be made prior to reaching 60 knots.

The final engine power adjustments are normally made

by the pilot not flying. Once the thrust levers are set for

takeoff power, they should not be readjusted after 60

knots. Retarding a thrust lever would only be

necessary in case an engine exceeds any limitation

such as ITT, fan, or turbine r.p.m.

CAPTAIN'S BRIEFING

I will advance the thrust levers.

Follow me through on the thrust levers.

Monitor all instruments and warning lights on the takeoff 

roll and call out any discrepancies or malfunctions 

observed prior to V1, and I will abort the takeoff. Stand by 

to arm thrust reversers on my command.

Give me a visual and oral signal for the following:

• 80 knots, and I will disengage nosewheel 

steering.

• V1, and I will move my hand from thrust to yoke.

• VR, and I will rotate.

In the event of engine failure at or after V1, I will continue 

the takeoff roll to VR, rotate and establish V2 climb speed.

I will identify the inoperative engine, and we will both 

verify. I will accomplish the shutdown, or have you do it on 

my command.

I will expect you to stand by on the appropriate 

emergency checklist.

I will give you a visual and oral signal for gear retraction 

and for power settings after the takeoff.

Our VFR emergency procedure is to.............................

Our IFR emergency procedure is to..............................

Figure 15-20. Sample captain’s briefing.

• Set Takeoff Thrust Prior

 to 60 Knots

• 70 Knots Check

• V1/VR

• Rotate Smoothly

 to 10° Nose Up

• Positive Rate

 of Climb

• Gear Up

• V2 + 10 Knots

 Minimum

Altitude Selected to Flap Retraction

(400 Ft. FAA Minimum)

(or Obstacle Clearance Altitude)

Close-In Turn

Maintain:

• Flaps T.O. & Appr.

 • V2 + 20 Knots

Minimum

• Maximum

 Bank 30°

Straight Climbout:

• V2 + 10 Knots

• Retract Flaps

• Set Climb Thrust

• Complete After-Takeoff

 Climb Checklist

Rollout:

• V2 + 20 Minimum

• Set Climb Thrust

• Accelerate

• Retract Flaps

• Complete After-Takeoff Climb Checklist

NORMAL TAKEOFF

Figure 15-21.Takeoff and departure profile.

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15-18

If sufficient runway length is available, a “rolling”

takeoff may be made without stopping at the end of the

runway. Using this procedure, as the airplane rolls onto

the runway, the thrust levers should be smoothly

advanced to the vertical position and the engines

allowed to stabilize, and then proceed as in the static

takeoff outlined above. Rolling takeoffs can also be

made from the end of the runway by advancing the

thrust levers from idle as the brakes are released.

During the takeoff roll, the pilot flying should

concentrate on directional control of the airplane. This

is made somewhat easier because there is no torqueproduced yawing in a jet as there is in a propeller

driven airplane. The airplane must be maintained

exactly on centerline with the wings level. This will

automatically aid the pilot when contending with an

engine failure. If a crosswind exists, the wings should

be kept level by displacing the control wheel into the

crosswind. During the takeoff roll, the primary

responsibility of the pilot not flying is to closely

monitor the aircraft systems and to call out the proper

V speeds as directed in the captain’s briefing.

Slight forward pressure should be held on the control

column to keep the nosewheel rolling firmly on the

runway. If nosewheel steering is being utilized, the

pilot flying should monitor the nosewheel steering to

about 80 knots (or VMCG for the particular airplane)

while the pilot not flying applies the forward pressure.

After reaching VMCG, the pilot flying should bring

his/her left hand up to the control wheel. The pilot’s

other hand should be on the thrust levers until at least

V1 speed is attained. Although the pilot not flying

maintains a check on the engine instruments

throughout the takeoff roll, the pilot flying (pilot in

command) makes the decision to continue or reject a

takeoff for any reason. A decision to reject a takeoff

will require immediate retarding of thrust levers.

The pilot not flying should call out V1. After passing

V1 speed on the takeoff roll, it is no longer mandatory

for the pilot flying to keep a hand on the thrust levers.

The point for abort has passed, and both hands may be

placed on the control wheel. As the airspeed

approaches VR, the control column should be moved to

a neutral position. As the pre-computed VR speed is

attained, the pilot not flying should make the

appropriate callout and the pilot flying should

smoothly rotate the airplane to the appropriate takeoff

pitch attitude.

ROTATION AND LIFT-OFF

Rotation and lift-off in a jet airplane should be considered a maneuver unto itself. It requires planning, precision, and a fine control touch. The objective is to

initiate the rotation to takeoff pitch attitude exactly at

VR so that the airplane will accelerate through VLOF

and attain V2 speed at 35 feet at the end of the runway.

Rotation to the proper takeoff attitude too soon may

extend the takeoff roll or cause an early lift-off, which

will result in a lower rate of climb, and the predicted

flightpath will not be followed. A late rotation, on the

other hand, will result in a longer takeoff roll,

exceeding V2 speed, and a takeoff and climb path

below the predicted path.

Each airplane has its own specific takeoff pitch

attitude which remains constant regardless of weight.

The takeoff pitch attitude in a jet airplane is normally

between 10° and 15° nose up. The rotation to takeoff

pitch attitude should be made smoothly but

deliberately, and at a constant rate. Depending on the

particular airplane, the pilot should plan on a rate of

pitch attitude increase of approximately 2.5° to 3° per

second.

In training it is common for the pilot to overshoot VR

and then overshoot V2 because the pilot not flying will

call for rotation at, or just past VR. The reaction of the

pilot flying is to visually verify VR and then rotate. The

airplane then leaves the ground at or above V2. The

excess airspeed may be of little concern on a normal

takeoff, but a delayed rotation can be critical when

runway length or obstacle clearance is limited. It

should be remembered that on some airplanes, the

all-engine takeoff can be more limiting than the engine

out takeoff in terms of obstacle clearance in the initial

part of the climb-out. This is because of the rapidly

increasing airspeed causing the achieved flightpath to

fall below the engine out scheduled flightpath unless

care is taken to fly the correct speeds. The

transitioning pilot should remember that rotation at the

right speed and rate to the right attitude will get the

airplane off the ground at the right speed and within

the right distance.

INITIAL CLIMB

Once the proper pitch attitude is attained, it must be

maintained. The initial climb after lift-off is done at

this constant pitch attitude. Takeoff power is

maintained and the airspeed allowed to accelerate.

Landing gear retraction should be accomplished after

a positive rate of climb has been established and

confirmed. Remember that in some airplanes gear

retraction may temporarily increase the airplane drag

while landing gear doors open. Premature gear

retraction may cause the airplane to settle back

towards the runway surface. Remember also that

because of ground effect, the vertical speed indicator

and the altimeter may not show a positive climb until

the airplane is 35 to 50 feet above the runway.

The climb pitch attitude should continue to be held and

the airplane allowed to accelerate to flap retraction

speed. However, the flaps should not be retracted until

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15-19

obstruction clearance altitude or 400 feet AGL has

been passed. Ground effect and landing gear drag

reduction results in rapid acceleration during this phase

of the takeoff and climb. Airspeed, altitude, climb rate,

attitude, and heading must be monitored carefully.

When the airplane settles down to a steady climb,

longitudinal stick forces can be trimmed out. If a turn

must be made during this phase of flight, no more than

15° to 20° of bank should be used. Because of spiral

instability, and because at this point an accurate trim

state on rudder and ailerons has not yet been achieved,

the bank angle should be carefully monitored throughout the turn. If a power reduction must be made, pitch

attitude should be reduced simultaneously and the

airplane monitored carefully so as to preclude entry

into an inadvertent descent. When the airplane has

attained a steady climb at the appropriate en route

climb speed, it can be trimmed about all axes and the

autopilot engaged.

JET AIRPLANE APPROACH AND

LANDING

LANDING REQUIREMENTS

The FAA landing field length requirements for jet

airplanes are specified in 14 CFR part 25. It defines the

minimum field length (and therefore minimum

margins) that can be scheduled. The regulation

describes the landing profile as the distance required

from a point 50 feet above the runway threshold,

through the flare to touchdown, and then stopping

using the maximum stopping capability on a dry

runway surface. The actual demonstrated distance is

increased by 67 percent and published in the FAAapproved Airplane Flight Manual as the FAR dry

runway landing distance. [Figure 15-22] For wet

runways, the FAR dry runway distance is increased by

an additional 15 percent. Thus the minimum dry

runway field length will be 1.67 times the actual

minimum air and ground distance needed and the wet

runway minimum landing field length will be 1.92

times the minimum dry air and ground distance

needed.

Certified landing field length requirements are

computed for the stop made with speed brakes

deployed and maximum wheel braking. Reverse thrust

is not used in establishing the certified FAR landing

distances. However, reversers should definitely be

used in service.

LANDING SPEEDS

As in the takeoff planning, there are certain speeds that

must be taken into consideration during any landing in

a jet airplane. The speeds are as follows. 

• VSO—Stall speed in the landing configuration.

• VREF—1.3 times the stall speed in the landing

configuration.

• Approach climb—The speed which guarantees

adequate performance in a go-around situation

with an inoperative engine. The airplane’s weight

must be limited so that a twin-engine airplane

will have a 2.1 percent climb gradient capability.

(The approach climb gradient requirements for 3

and 4 engine airplanes are 2.4 percent and 2.7

percent respectively.) These criteria are based on

an airplane configured with approach flaps, landing gear up, and takeoff thrust available from the

operative engine(s).

• Landing climb—The speed which guarantees

adequate performance in arresting the descent

and making a go-around from the final stages of

landing with the airplane in the full landing configuration and maximum takeoff power available

on all engines.

The appropriate speeds should be pre-computed prior

to every landing, and posted where they are visible to

both pilots. The VREF speed, or threshold speed, is used

VREF = 1.3 VS

50 Ft. TD

Actual Distance 60% 40%

FAR (Dry) Runway Field Length Required

1.67 x Actual Distance

FAR (Wet) Runway Field Length Required

1.15 x FAR (Dry)

or

1.92 x Actual Distance

15%

Figure 15-22. FAR landing field length required.

Ch 15.qxd 5/7/04 10:22 AM Page 15-19
15-20

as a reference speed throughout the traffic pattern. For

example:

Downwind leg—VREF plus 20 knots.

Base leg—VREF plus 10 knots.

Final approach—VREF plus 5 knots.

50 feet over threshold—VREF.

The approach and landing sequence in a jet airplane

should be accomplished in accordance with an

approach and landing profile developed for the particular airplane. [Figure 15-23]

SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES

A safe approach in any type of airplane culminates in a

particular position, speed, and height over the runway

threshold. That final flight condition is the target

window at which the entire approach aims. Propeller

powered airplanes are able to approach that target from

wider angles, greater speed differentials, and a larger

variety of glidepath angles. Jet airplanes are not as

responsive to power and course corrections, so the

final approach must be more stable, more deliberate,

more constant, in order to reach the window accurately. 

The transitioning pilot must understand that, in spite

of their impressive performance capabilities, there are

six ways in which a jet airplane is worse than a piston

engine airplane in making an approach and in

correcting errors on the approach.

• The absence of the propeller slipstream in

producing immediate extra lift at constant

airspeed. There is no such thing as salvaging a

misjudged glidepath with a sudden burst of

immediately available power. Added lift can

only be achieved by accelerating the airframe.

Not only must the pilot wait for added power but

even when the engines do respond, added lift

will only be available when the airframe has

responded with speed.

• The absence of the propeller slipstream in

significantly lowering the power-on stall speed.

There is virtually no difference between poweron and power-off stall speed. It is not possible in

a jet airplane to jam the thrust levers forward to

avoid a stall.

• Poor acceleration response in a jet engine from

low r.p.m. This characteristic requires that the

approach be flown in a high drag/high power

1. Reset Bug to VREF

2. Review Airport Characteristics

3. Complete Descent and Begin

 Before Landing Checklist

Abeam Runway Midpoint

• Flaps T/O Approach

• VREF + 20 Minimum

1500' Above

Field Elevation 

• Complete Before

 Landing Checklist

• Maximum Bank 30°

• Clear Final Approach Rollout

• Reduce Speed to VREF

• Altitude Callouts

• Stabilized in Slot

DO NOT MAKE FLAT

APPROACH

Touchdown

• Extend Speed

 Brake

• Apply Brakes

• Thrust reverser or

 Drag Chute as

 Required

Fly VREF

Abeam Touchdown Point

• Gear Down

Turning Base

• Flaps Land

• Initially Set Fuel Flow to 400 Lb./Engine

• Start Descent

• VREF + 10 Minimum on Base

APPROACH PREPARATIONS

Figure 15-23.Typical approach and landing profile.

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15-21

configuration so that sufficient power will be

available quickly if needed.

• The increased momentum of the jet airplane

making sudden changes in the flightpath

impossible. Jet airplanes are consistently heavier

than comparable sized propeller airplanes. The

jet airplane, therefore, will require more indicated airspeed during the final approach due to a

wing design that is optimized for higher speeds.

These two factors combine to produce higher

momentum for the jet airplane. Since force is

required to overcome momentum for speed

changes or course corrections, the jet will be far

less responsive than the propeller airplane and

require careful planning and stable conditions

throughout the approach.

• The lack of good speed stability being an

inducement to a low speed condition. The drag

curve for many jet airplanes is much flatter than

for propeller airplanes, so speed changes do not

produce nearly as much drag change. Further, jet

thrust remains nearly constant with small speed

changes. The result is far less speed stability.

When the speed does increase or decrease, there

is little tendency for the jet airplane to re-acquire

the original speed. The pilot, therefore, must

remain alert to the necessity of making speed

adjustments, and then make them aggressively in

order to remain on speed.

• Drag increasing faster than lift producing a high

sink rate at low speeds. Jet airplane wings

typically have a large increase in drag in the

approach configuration. When a sink rate does

develop, the only immediate remedy is to

increase pitch attitude (angle of attack). Because

drag increases faster than lift, that pitch change

will rapidly contribute to an even greater sink

rate unless a significant amount of power is

aggressively applied.

These flying characteristics of jet airplanes make a

stabilized approach an absolute necessity.

THE STABILIZED APPROACH

The performance charts and the limitations contained

in the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual are

predicated on momentum values that result from

programmed speeds and weights. Runway length

limitations assume an exact 50-foot threshold height at

an exact speed of 1.3 times VSO. That “window” is

critical and is a prime reason for the stabilized

approach. Performance figures also assume that once

through the target threshold window, the airplane will

touch down in a target touchdown zone approximately

1,000 feet down the runway, after which maximum

stopping capability will be used. 

There are five basic elements to the stabilized

approach.

• The airplane should be in the landing

configuration early in the approach. The landing

gear should be down, landing flaps selected, trim

set, and fuel balanced. Ensuring that these tasks

are completed will help keep the number of

variables to a minimum during the final

approach.

• The airplane should be on profile before

descending below 1,000 feet. Configuration,

trim, speed, and glidepath should be at or near

the optimum parameters early in the approach to

avoid distractions and conflicts as the airplane

nears the threshold window. An optimum

glidepath angle of 2.5° to 3° should be

established and maintained.

• Indicated airspeed should be within 10 knots of

the target airspeed. There are strong relationships

between trim, speed, and power in most jet

airplanes and it is important to stabilize the speed

in order to minimize those other variables.

• The optimum descent rate should be 500 to 700

feet per minute. The descent rate should not be

allowed to exceed 1,000 feet per minute at any

time during the approach.

• The engine speed should be at an r.p.m. that

allows best response when and if a rapid power

increase is needed.

Every approach should be evaluated at 500 feet. In a

typical jet airplane, this is approximately 1 minute

from touchdown. If the approach is not stabilized at

that height, a go-around should be initiated. (See

figure 15-24 on the next page.)

APPROACH SPEED

On final approach, the airspeed is controlled with

power. Any speed diversion from VREF on final

approach must be detected immediately and corrected.

With experience the pilot will be able to detect the very

first tendency of an increasing or decreasing airspeed

trend, which normally can be corrected with a small

adjustment in thrust. The pilot must be attentive to poor

speed stability leading to a low speed condition with

its attendant risk of high drag increasing the sink rate.

Remember that with an increasing sink rate an apparently normal pitch attitude is no guarantee of a normal

angle of attack value. If an increasing sink rate is

detected, it must be countered by increasing the angle

Ch 15.qxd 5/7/04 10:22 AM Page 15-21
15-22

of attack and simultaneously increasing thrust to

counter the extra drag. The degree of correction

required will depend on how much the sink rate needs

to be reduced. For small amounts, smooth and gentle,

almost anticipatory corrections will be sufficient. For

large sink rates, drastic corrective measures may be

required that, even if successful, would destabilize

the approach.

A common error in the performance of approaches in

jet airplanes is excess approach speed. Excess

approach speed carried through the threshold window

and onto the runway will increase the minimum

stopping distance required by 20 – 30 feet per knot of

excess speed for a dry runway and 40 – 50 feet for a

wet runway. Worse yet, the excess speed will increase

the chances of an extended flare, which will increase

the distance to touchdown by approximately 250 feet

for each excess knot in speed.

Proper speed control on final approach is of primary

importance. The pilot must anticipate the need for

speed adjustment so that only small adjustments are

required. It is essential that the airplane arrive at the

approach threshold window exactly on speed.

GLIDEPATH CONTROL

On final approach, at a constant airspeed, the glidepath

angle and rate of descent is controlled with pitch

attitude and elevator. The optimum glidepath angle is

2.5° to 3° whether or not an electronic glidepath

reference is being used. On visual approaches, pilots

may have a tendency to make flat approaches. A flat

approach, however, will increase landing distance and

should be avoided. For example, an approach angle of

2° instead of a recommended 3° will add 500 feet to

landing distance.

A more common error is excessive height over the

threshold. This could be the result of an unstable

approach, or a stable but high approach. It also may

occur during an instrument approach where the missed

approach point is close to or at the runway threshold.

Regardless of the cause, excessive height over the

threshold will most likely result in a touchdown

beyond the normal aiming point. An extra 50 feet of

height over the threshold will add approximately 1,000

feet to the landing distance. It is essential that the

airplane arrive at the approach threshold window

exactly on altitude (50 feet above the runway).

THE FLARE

The flare reduces the approach rate of descent to a

more acceptable rate for touchdown. Unlike light

airplanes, a jet airplane should be flown onto the

runway rather than “held off” the surface as speed

dissipates. A jet airplane is aerodynamically clean

even in the landing configuration, and its engines still

produce residual thrust at idle r.p.m. Holding it off

during the flare in a attempt to make a smooth landing

will greatly increase landing distance. A firm landing

is normal and desirable. A firm landing does not mean

a hard landing, but rather a deliberate or positive

landing.

For most airports, the airplane will pass over the end

of the runway with the landing gear 30 – 45 feet above

the surface, depending on the landing flap setting and

the location of the touchdown zone. It will take 5 – 7

seconds from the time the airplane passes the end of

Figure 15-24. Stabilized approach.

Stop Rollout Touchdown

1,000'

Threshold

Window

50' VREF

500'

Window

Check for

Stabilized

Approach

Stabilized Approach

on Course on Speed

2.5° - 3° Glidepath

500 - 700 FPM

Descent

1,000'

Window

Flare

Ch 15.qxd 5/7/04 10:22 AM Page 15-22
15-23

the runway until touchdown. The flare is initiated by

increasing the pitch attitude just enough to reduce the

sink rate to 100 – 200 feet per minute when the landing

gear is approximately 15 feet above the runway

surface. In most jet airplanes, this will require a pitch

attitude increase of only 1° to 3°. The thrust is

smoothly reduced to idle as the flare progresses.

The normal speed bleed off during the time between

passing the end of the runway and touchdown is 5

knots. Most of the decrease occurs during the flare

when thrust is reduced. If the flare is extended (held

off) while an additional speed is bled off, hundreds or

even thousands of feet of runway may be used up.

[Figure 15-25] The extended flare will also result in

additional pitch attitude which may lead to a tail strike.

It is, therefore, essential to fly the airplane onto the

runway at the target touchdown point, even if the

speed is excessive. A deliberate touchdown should be

planned and practiced on every flight. A positive

touchdown will help prevent an extended flare.

Pilots must learn the flare characteristics of each model

of airplane they fly. The visual reference cues observed

from each cockpit are different because window

geometry and visibility are different. The geometric

relationship between the pilot’s eye and the landing

gear will be different for each make and model. It is

essential that the flare maneuver be initiated at the

proper height—not too high and not too low.

Beginning the flare too high or reducing the thrust too

early may result in the airplane floating beyond the

target touchdown point or may include a rapid pitch up

as the pilot attempts to prevent a high sink rate

touchdown. This can lead to a tail strike. The flare that

is initiated too late may result in a hard touchdown.

Proper thrust management through the flare is also

important. In many jet airplanes, the engines produce a

noticeable effect on pitch trim when the thrust setting

is changed. A rapid change in the thrust setting requires

a quick elevator response. If the thrust levers are

moved to idle too quickly during the flare, the pilot

must make rapid changes in pitch control. If the thrust

levers are moved more slowly, the elevator input can

be more easily coordinated.

Touchdown

On Target

Extended

Flare

10 Knots Deceleration

on Ground (Maximum Braking)

10 Knots Deceleration

in Flare

200 Ft. (Dry Runway)

500 Ft. (Wet Runway)

2,000 Ft. (Air)

Figure 15-25. Extended flare.

Ch 15.qxd 5/7/04 10:22 AM Page 15-23
15-24

TOUCHDOWN AND ROLLOUT

A proper approach and flare positions the airplane to

touch down in the touchdown target zone, which is

usually about 1,000 feet beyond the runway threshold.

Once the main wheels have contacted the runway, the

pilot must maintain directional control and initiate the

stopping process. The stop must be made on the

runway that remains in front of the airplane. The

runway distance available to stop is longest if the

touchdown was on target. The energy to be dissipated

is least if there is no excess speed. The stop that begins

with a touchdown that is on the numbers will be the

easiest stop to make for any set of conditions.

At the point of touchdown, the airplane represents a

very large mass that is moving at a relatively high

speed. The large total energy must be dissipated by the

brakes, the aerodynamic drag, and the thrust reversers.

The nosewheel should be flown onto the ground

immediately after touchdown because a jet airplane

decelerates poorly when held in a nose-high attitude.

Placing the nosewheel tire(s) on the ground will assist

in maintaining directional control. Also, lowering the

nose gear decreases the wing angle of attack,

decreasing the lift, placing more load onto the tires,

thereby increasing tire-to-ground friction. Landing

distance charts for jet airplanes assume that the

nosewheel is lowered onto the runway within 4

seconds of touchdown.

There are only three forces available for stopping the

airplane. They are wheel braking, reverse thrust, and

aerodynamic braking. Of the three, the brakes are most

effective and therefore the most important stopping

force for most landings. When the runway is very

slippery, reverse thrust and drag may be the dominant

forces. Both reverse thrust and aerodynamic drag are

most effective at high speeds. Neither is affected by

runway surface condition. Brakes, on the other hand,

are most effective at low speed. The landing rollout

distance will depend on the touchdown speed and what

forces are applied and when they are applied. The pilot

controls the what and when factors, but the maximum

braking force may be limited by tire-to-ground

friction.

The pilot should begin braking as soon after

touchdown and wheel spin-up as possible, and to

smoothly continue the braking until stopped or a safe

taxi speed is reached. However, caution should be used

if the airplane is not equipped with a functioning

anti-skid system. In such a case, heavy braking can

cause the wheels to lock and the tires to skid.

Both directional control and braking utilize tire ground

friction. They share the maximum friction force the

tires can provide. Increasing either will subtract from

the other. Understanding tire ground friction, how

runway contamination affects it, and how to use the

friction available to maximum advantage is important

to a jet pilot.

Spoilers should be deployed immediately after

touchdown because they are most effective at high

speed. Timely deployment of spoilers will increase

drag by 50 to 60 percent, but more importantly, they

spoil much of the lift the wing is creating, thereby

causing more of the weight of the airplane to be loaded

onto the wheels. The spoilers increase wheel loading

by as much as 200 percent in the landing flap

configuration. This increases the tire ground friction

force making the maximum tire braking and cornering

forces available.

Like spoilers, thrust reversers are most effective at

high speeds and should be deployed quickly after

touchdown. However, the pilot should not command

significant reverse thrust until the nosewheel is on the

ground. Otherwise, the reversers might deploy

asymmetrically resulting in an uncontrollable yaw

towards the side on which the most reverse thrust is

being developed, in which case the pilot will need

whatever nosewheel steering is available to maintain

directional control.

Ch 15.qxd 5/7/04 10:22 AM Page 15-24
16-1

EMERGENCY SITUATIONS

This chapter contains information on dealing with

non-normal and emergency situations that may occur in

flight. The key to successful management of an

emergency situation, and/or preventing a non-normal

situation from progressing into a true emergency, is

a thorough familiarity with, and adherence to, the

procedures developed by the airplane manufacturer and

contained in the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual

and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH). The

following guidelines are generic and are not meant to

replace the airplane manufacturer’s recommended

procedures. Rather, they are meant to enhance the

pilot’s general knowledge in the area of non-normal and

emergency operations. If any of the guidance in this

chapter conflicts in any way with the manufacturer’s

recommended procedures for a particular make and

model airplane, the manufacturer’s recommended

procedures take precedence.

EMERGENCY LANDINGS

This section contains information on emergency landing techniques in small fixed-wing airplanes. The

guidelines that are presented apply to the more adverse

terrain conditions for which no practical training is

possible. The objective is to instill in the pilot the

knowledge that almost any terrain can be considered

“suitable” for a survivable crash landing if the pilot

knows how to use the airplane structure for self-protection

and the protection of passengers.

TYPES OF EMERGENCY LANDINGS

The different types of emergency landings are defined

as follows.

• Forced landing. An immediate landing, on or off

an airport, necessitated by the inability to continue further flight. A typical example of which is

an airplane forced down by engine failure.

• Precautionary landing. A premeditated landing,

on or off an airport, when further flight is possible but inadvisable. Examples of conditions that

may call for a precautionary landing include

deteriorating weather, being lost, fuel shortage,

and gradually developing engine trouble.

• Ditching. A forced or precautionary landing on

water. 

A precautionary landing, generally, is less hazardous

than a forced landing because the pilot has more time

for terrain selection and the planning of the approach.

In addition, the pilot can use power to compensate for

errors in judgment or technique. The pilot should be

aware that too many situations calling for a precautionary landing are allowed to develop into immediate

forced landings, when the pilot uses wishful thinking

instead of reason, especially when dealing with a

self-inflicted predicament. The non-instrument rated

pilot trapped by weather, or the pilot facing imminent

fuel exhaustion who does not give any thought to the

feasibility of a precautionary landing accepts an

extremely hazardous alternative.

PSYCHOLOGICAL HAZARDS

There are several factors that may interfere with a

pilot’s ability to act promptly and properly when faced

with an emergency.

• Reluctance to accept the emergency situation.

A pilot who allows the mind to become paralyzed

at the thought that the airplane will be on the

ground, in a very short time, regardless of the

pilot’s actions or hopes, is severely handicapped

in the handling of the emergency. An unconscious

desire to delay the dreaded moment may lead to

such errors as: failure to lower the nose to maintain flying speed, delay in the selection of the

most suitable landing area within reach, and

indecision in general. Desperate attempts to

correct whatever went wrong, at the expense of

airplane control, fall into the same category.

• Desire to save the airplane. The pilot who has

been conditioned during training to expect to find

a relatively safe landing area, whenever the flight

instructor closed the throttle for a simulated

forced landing, may ignore all basic rules of

airmanship to avoid a touchdown in terrain where

airplane damage is unavoidable. Typical consequences are: making a 180° turn back to the

runway when available altitude is insufficient;

stretching the glide without regard for minimum

control speed in order to reach a more appealing

field; accepting an approach and touchdown

situation that leaves no margin for error. The

desire to save the airplane, regardless of the risks

involved, may be influenced by two other factors:

the pilot’s financial stake in the airplane and the

Ch 16.qxd 5/7/04 10:30 AM Page 16-1
16-2

certainty that an undamaged airplane implies no

bodily harm. There are times, however, when a

pilot should be more interested in sacrificing the

airplane so that the occupants can safely walk

away from it.

• Undue concern about getting hurt. Fear is a

vital part of the self-preservation mechanism.

However, when fear leads to panic, we invite that

which we want most to avoid. The survival

records favor pilots who maintain their composure and know how to apply the general concepts

and procedures that have been developed through

the years. The success of an emergency landing is

as much a matter of the mind as of skills. 

BASIC SAFETY CONCEPTS

GENERAL

A pilot who is faced with an emergency landing in terrain that makes extensive airplane damage inevitable

should keep in mind that the avoidance of crash

injuries is largely a matter of: (1) keeping vital

structure (cockpit/cabin area) relatively intact by using

dispensable structure (such as wings, landing gear, and

fuselage bottom) to absorb the violence of the stopping

process before it affects the occupants, (2) avoiding

forceful bodily contact with interior structure.

The advantage of sacrificing dispensable structure is

demonstrated daily on the highways. A head-on car

impact against a tree at 20 miles per hour (m.p.h.) is

less hazardous for a properly restrained driver than a

similar impact against the driver’s door. Accident

experience shows that the extent of crushable structure

between the occupants and the principal point of

impact on the airplane has a direct bearing on the

severity of the transmitted crash forces and, therefore,

on survivability.

Avoiding forcible contact with interior structure is a

matter of seat and body security. Unless the occupant

decelerates at the same rate as the surrounding

structure, no benefit will be realized from its relative

intactness. The occupant will be brought to a stop violently in the form of a secondary collision.

Dispensable airplane structure is not the only available

energy absorbing medium in an emergency situation.

Vegetation, trees, and even manmade structures may

be used for this purpose. Cultivated fields with dense

crops, such as mature corn and grain, are almost as

effective in bringing an airplane to a stop with

repairable damage as an emergency arresting device

on a runway. [Figure 16-1] Brush and small trees

provide considerable cushioning and braking effect

without destroying the airplane. When dealing with

natural and manmade obstacles with greater strength

than the dispensable airplane structure, the pilot must

plan the touchdown in such a manner that only nonessential structure is “used up” in the principal

slowing down process.

The overall severity of a deceleration process is

governed by speed (groundspeed) and stopping

distance. The most critical of these is speed; doubling

the groundspeed means quadrupling the total destructive energy, and vice versa. Even a small change in

groundspeed at touchdown—be it as a result of wind

or pilot technique—will affect the outcome of a

controlled crash. It is important that the actual

touchdown during an emergency landing be made at

the lowest possible controllable airspeed, using all

available aerodynamic devices.

Most pilots will instinctively—and correctly—look

for the largest available flat and open field for an emergency landing. Actually, very little stopping distance

is required if the speed can be dissipated uniformly;

that is, if the deceleration forces can be spread evenly

over the available distance. This concept is designed

into the arresting gear of aircraft carriers that provides

a nearly constant stopping force from the moment of

hookup.

The typical light airplane is designed to provide

protection in crash landings that expose the occupants

to nine times the acceleration of gravity (9 G) in a

forward direction. Assuming a uniform 9 G deceleration, at 50 m.p.h. the required stopping distance is

about 9.4 feet. While at 100 m.p.h. the stopping distance is about 37.6 feet—about four times as great.

[Figure 16-2] Although these figures are based on an

ideal deceleration process, it is interesting to note what

can be accomplished in an effectively used short stopping distance. Understanding the need for a firm

but uniform deceleration process in very poor terrain

enables the pilot to select touchdown conditions that

will spread the breakup of dispensable structure over a

short distance, thereby reducing the peak deceleration

of the cockpit/cabin area.

Figure 16-1. Using vegetation to absorb energy.

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ATTITUDE AND SINK RATE CONTROL

The most critical and often the most inexcusable error

that can be made in the planning and execution of an

emergency landing, even in ideal terrain, is the loss of

initiative over the airplane’s attitude and sink rate at

touchdown. When the touchdown is made on flat, open

terrain, an excessive nose-low pitch attitude brings the

risk of “sticking” the nose in the ground. Steep bank

angles just before touchdown should also be avoided,

as they increase the stalling speed and the likelihood of

a wingtip strike.

Since the airplane’s vertical component of velocity will

be immediately reduced to zero upon ground contact, it

must be kept well under control. A flat touchdown at a

high sink rate (well in excess of 500 feet per minute

(f.p.m.)) on a hard surface can be injurious without

destroying the cockpit/cabin structure, especially during

gear up landings in low-wing airplanes. A rigid bottom

construction of these airplanes may preclude adequate

cushioning by structural deformation. Similar impact

conditions may cause structural collapse of the overhead

structure in high-wing airplanes. On soft terrain, an

excessive sink rate may cause digging in of the lower

nose structure and severe forward deceleration. 

TERRAIN SELECTION

A pilot’s choice of emergency landing sites is governed

by:

• The route selected during preflight planning.

• The height above the ground when the emergency

occurs.

• Excess airspeed (excess airspeed can be converted into distance and/or altitude).

The only time the pilot has a very limited choice is during the low and slow portion of the takeoff. However,

even under these conditions, the ability to change the

impact heading only a few degrees may ensure a

survivable crash.

If beyond gliding distance of a suitable open area, the

pilot should judge the available terrain for its energy

absorbing capability. If the emergency starts at a

considerable height above the ground, the pilot should

be more concerned about first selecting the desired

general area than a specific spot. Terrain appearances

from altitude can be very misleading and considerable

altitude may be lost before the best spot can be

pinpointed. For this reason, the pilot should not

hesitate to discard the original plan for one that is obviously better. However, as a general rule, the pilot

should not change his or her mind more than once; a

well-executed crash landing in poor terrain can be less

hazardous than an uncontrolled touchdown on an

established field.

AIRPLANE CONFIGURATION

Since flaps improve maneuverability at slow speed,

and lower the stalling speed, their use during final

approach is recommended when time and circumstances permit. However, the associated increase in

drag and decrease in gliding distance call for caution in

the timing and the extent of their application;

premature use of flap, and dissipation of altitude,

may jeopardize an otherwise sound plan. 

A hard and fast rule concerning the position of a

retractable landing gear at touchdown cannot be given.

In rugged terrain and trees, or during impacts at high

sink rate, an extended gear would definitely have a

protective effect on the cockpit/cabin area. However,

this advantage has to be weighed against the possible

side effects of a collapsing gear, such as a ruptured fuel

tank. As always, the manufacturer’s recommendations

as outlined in the AFM/POH should be followed.

When a normal touchdown is assured, and ample stopping distance is available, a gear up landing on level, but

soft terrain, or across a plowed field, may result in less

airplane damage than a gear down landing. [Figure 16-3]

9g Deceleration

37.6 ft.

50 m.p.h. 100 m.p.h.

9.4 ft.

Figure 16-2. Stopping distance vs. groundspeed.

Figure 16-3. Intentional gear up landing.

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16-4

Deactivation of the airplane’s electrical system before

touchdown reduces the likelihood of a post-crash fire.

However, the battery master switch should not be

turned off until the pilot no longer has any need for

electrical power to operate vital airplane systems.

Positive airplane control during the final part of the

approach has priority over all other considerations,

including airplane configuration and cockpit checks.

The pilot should attempt to exploit the power available

from an irregularly running engine; however, it is generally better to switch the engine and fuel off just

before touchdown. This not only ensures the pilot’s

initiative over the situation, but a cooled down engine

reduces the fire hazard considerably. 

APPROACH

When the pilot has time to maneuver, the planning of

the approach should be governed by three factors.

• Wind direction and velocity.

• Dimensions and slope of the chosen field.

• Obstacles in the final approach path.

These three factors are seldom compatible. When compromises have to be made, the pilot should aim for a

wind/obstacle/terrain combination that permits a final

approach with some margin for error in judgment or

technique. A pilot who overestimates the gliding range

may be tempted to stretch the glide across obstacles in

the approach path. For this reason, it is sometimes

better to plan the approach over an unobstructed area,

regardless of wind direction. Experience shows that a

collision with obstacles at the end of a ground roll, or

slide, is much less hazardous than striking an obstacle

at flying speed before the touchdown point is reached.

TERRAIN TYPES

Since an emergency landing on suitable terrain resembles a situation in which the pilot should be familiar

through training, only the more unusual situation will

be discussed.

CONFINED AREAS

The natural preference to set the airplane down on the

ground should not lead to the selection of an open spot

between trees or obstacles where the ground cannot be

reached without making a steep descent.

Once the intended touchdown point is reached, and the

remaining open and unobstructed space is very limited, it may be better to force the airplane down on the

ground than to delay touchdown until it stalls (settles).

An airplane decelerates faster after it is on the ground

than while airborne. Thought may also be given to the

desirability of ground-looping or retracting the landing

gear in certain conditions.

A river or creek can be an inviting alternative in otherwise rugged terrain. The pilot should ensure that the

water or creek bed can be reached without snagging

the wings. The same concept applies to road landings

with one additional reason for caution; manmade

obstacles on either side of a road may not be visible

until the final portion of the approach.

When planning the approach across a road, it should

be remembered that most highways, and even rural

dirt roads, are paralleled by power or telephone lines.

Only a sharp lookout for the supporting structures, or

poles, may provide timely warning.

TREES (FOREST)

Although a tree landing is not an attractive prospect,

the following general guidelines will help to make the

experience survivable.

• Use the normal landing configuration (full flaps,

gear down).

• Keep the groundspeed low by heading into the

wind.

• Make contact at minimum indicated airspeed, but

not below stall speed, and “hang” the airplane in

the tree branches in a nose-high landing attitude.

Involving the underside of the fuselage and both

wings in the initial tree contact provides a more

even and positive cushioning effect, while preventing penetration of the windshield. [Figure

16-4]

• Avoid direct contact of the fuselage with heavy

tree trunks.

• Low, closely spaced trees with wide, dense

crowns (branches) close to the ground are much

better than tall trees with thin tops; the latter

allow too much free fall height. (A free fall from

75 feet results in an impact speed of about 40

knots, or about 4,000 f.p.m.)

• Ideally, initial tree contact should be symmetrical; that is, both wings should meet equal

resistance in the tree branches. This distribution

of the load helps to maintain proper airplane

attitude. It may also preclude the loss of one

wing, which invariably leads to a more rapid and

less predictable descent to the ground.

• If heavy tree trunk contact is unavoidable once

the airplane is on the ground, it is best to involve

both wings simultaneously by directing the airplane between two properly spaced trees. Do not

attempt this maneuver, however, while still

airborne.

WATER (DITCHING) AND SNOW

A well-executed water landing normally involves less

deceleration violence than a poor tree landing or a

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16-5

touchdown on extremely rough terrain. Also an

airplane that is ditched at minimum speed and in a normal landing attitude will not immediately sink upon

touchdown. Intact wings and fuel tanks (especially

when empty) provide floatation for at least several

minutes even if the cockpit may be just below the

water line in a high-wing airplane.

Loss of depth perception may occur when landing on a

wide expanse of smooth water, with the risk of flying

into the water or stalling in from excessive altitude. To

avoid this hazard, the airplane should be “dragged in”

when possible. Use no more than intermediate flaps on

low-wing airplanes. The water resistance of fully

extended flaps may result in asymmetrical flap failure

and slowing of the airplane. Keep a retractable gear up

unless the AFM/POH advises otherwise.

A landing in snow should be executed like a ditching,

in the same configuration and with the same regard for

loss of depth perception (white out) in reduced visibility and on wide open terrain. 

ENGINE FAILURE AFTER TAKEOFF

(SINGLE-ENGINE)

The altitude available is, in many ways, the controlling

factor in the successful accomplishment of an emergency landing. If an actual engine failure should occur

immediately after takeoff and before a safe maneuvering

altitude is attained, it is usually inadvisable to attempt

to turn back to the field from where the takeoff was

made. Instead, it is safer to immediately establish the

proper glide attitude, and select a field directly ahead

or slightly to either side of the takeoff path.

The decision to continue straight ahead is often

difficult to make unless the problems involved in

attempting to turn back are seriously considered. In the

first place, the takeoff was in all probability made into

the wind. To get back to the takeoff field, a downwind

turn must be made. This increases the groundspeed and

rushes the pilot even more in the performance of

procedures and in planning the landing approach.

Secondly, the airplane will be losing considerable

altitude during the turn and might still be in a bank

when the ground is contacted, resulting in the airplane

cartwheeling (which would be a catastrophe for the

occupants, as well as the airplane). After turning downwind, the apparent increase in groundspeed could

mislead the pilot into attempting to prematurely slow

down the airplane and cause it to stall. On the other

hand, continuing straight ahead or making a slight turn

allows the pilot more time to establish a safe landing

attitude, and the landing can be made as slowly as

possible, but more importantly, the airplane can be

landed while under control.

Concerning the subject of turning back to the runway

following an engine failure on takeoff, the pilot should

determine the minimum altitude an attempt of such a

maneuver should be made in a particular airplane.

Experimentation at a safe altitude should give the pilot

an approximation of height lost in a descending 180°

turn at idle power. By adding a safety factor of about

25 percent, the pilot should arrive at a practical decision height. The ability to make a 180° turn does not

necessarily mean that the departure runway can be

reached in a power-off glide; this depends on the wind,

the distance traveled during the climb, the height

reached, and the glide distance of the airplane without

power. The pilot should also remember that a turn back

to the departure runway may in fact require more than

a 180° change in direction.

Consider the following example of an airplane which

has taken off and climbed to an altitude of 300 feet

AGL when the engine fails. [Figure 16-5 on next

page]. After a typical 4 second reaction time, the pilot

elects to turn back to the runway. Using a standard rate

(3° change in direction per second) turn, it will take 1

minute to turn 180°. At a glide speed of 65 knots, the

radius of the turn is 2,100 feet, so at the completion of

the turn, the airplane will be 4,200 feet to one side of

the runway. The pilot must turn another 45° to head the

airplane toward the runway. By this time the total

change in direction is 225° equating to 75 seconds plus

the 4 second reaction time. If the airplane in a poweroff glide descends at approximately 1,000 f.p.m., it

Figure 16-4.Tree landing.

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16-6

will have descended 1,316, feet placing it 1,016 feet

below the runway.

EMERGENCY DESCENTS

An emergency descent is a maneuver for descending

as rapidly as possible to a lower altitude or to the

ground for an emergency landing. [Figure 16-6] The

need for this maneuver may result from an uncontrollable fire, a sudden loss of cabin pressurization, or any

other situation demanding an immediate and rapid

descent. The objective is to descend the airplane as

soon and as rapidly as possible, within the structural

limitations of the airplane. Simulated emergency

descents should be made in a turn to check for other air

traffic below and to look around for a possible

emergency landing area. A radio call announcing

descent intentions may be appropriate to alert other

aircraft in the area. When initiating the descent, a bank

of approximately 30 to 45° should be established to

maintain positive load factors (“G” forces) on the

airplane.

Emergency descent training should be performed as

recommended by the manufacturer, including the configuration and airspeeds. Except when prohibited by

the manufacturer, the power should be reduced to idle,

and the propeller control (if equipped) should be

placed in the low pitch (or high revolutions per minute

(r.p.m.)) position. This will allow the propeller to act

as an aerodynamic brake to help prevent an excessive

airspeed buildup during the descent. The landing gear

and flaps should be extended as recommended by the

manufacturer. This will provide maximum drag so that

the descent can be made as rapidly as possible, without excessive airspeed. The pilot should not allow the

airplane’s airspeed to pass the never-exceed speed

(VNE), the maximum landing gear extended speed

(VLE), or the maximum flap extended speed (VFE), as

applicable. In the case of an engine fire, a high

airspeed descent could blow out the fire. However, the

weakening of the airplane structure is a major concern

and descent at low airspeed would place less stress on

the airplane. If the descent is conducted in turbulent

conditions, the pilot must also comply with the design

maneuvering speed (VA) limitations. The descent

should be made at the maximum allowable airspeed

consistent with the procedure used. This will provide

increased drag and therefore the loss of altitude as

quickly as possible. The recovery from an emergency

descent should be initiated at a high enough altitude to

ensure a safe recovery back to level flight or a

precautionary landing.

When the descent is established and stabilized during

training and practice, the descent should be terminated.

Figure 16-5. Turning back to the runway after engine failure.

4,480 Ft.

180°

225°

300 Ft. AGL

1,016 Ft.

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16-7

In airplanes with piston engines, prolonged practice of

emergency descents should be avoided to prevent

excessive cooling of the engine cylinders.

IN-FLIGHT FIRE

A fire in flight demands immediate and decisive action.

The pilot therefore must be familiar with the procedures

outlined to meet this emergency contained in the

AFM/POH for the particular airplane. For the purposes

of this handbook, in-flight fires are classified as: inflight engine fires, electrical fires, and cabin fires.

ENGINE FIRE

An in-flight engine compartment fire is usually caused

by a failure that allows a flammable substance such as

fuel, oil or hydraulic fluid to come in contact with a hot

surface. This may be caused by a mechanical failure of

the engine itself, an engine-driven accessory, a

defective induction or exhaust system, or a broken

line. Engine compartment fires may also result from

maintenance errors, such as improperly installed/fastened lines and/or fittings resulting in leaks.

Engine compartment fires can be indicated by smoke

and/or flames coming from the engine cowling area.

They can also be indicated by discoloration, bubbling,

and/or melting of the engine cowling skin in cases

where flames and/or smoke is not visible to the pilot.

By the time a pilot becomes aware of an in-flight

engine compartment fire, it usually is well developed.

Unless the airplane manufacturer directs otherwise in

the AFM/POH, the first step on discovering a fire

should be to shut off the fuel supply to the engine by

placing the mixture control in the idle cut off position

and the fuel selector shutoff valve to the OFF position.

The ignition switch should be left ON in order to use

up the fuel that remains in the fuel lines and components between the fuel selector/shutoff valve and

the engine. This procedure may starve the engine

compartment of fuel and cause the fire to die naturally.

If the flames are snuffed out, no attempt should be

made to restart the engine.

If the engine compartment fire is oil-fed, as evidenced

by thick black smoke, as opposed to a fuel-fed fire

which produces bright orange flames, the pilot should

consider stopping the propeller rotation by feathering

or other means, such as (with constant-speed propellers) placing the pitch control lever to the minimum

r.p.m. position and raising the nose to reduce airspeed

until the propeller stops rotating. This procedure will

stop an engine-driven oil (or hydraulic) pump from

continuing to pump the flammable fluid which is

feeding the fire.

Some light airplane emergency checklists direct the

pilot to shut off the electrical master switch. However,

the pilot should consider that unless the fire is electrical

in nature, or a crash landing is imminent, deactivating

the electrical system prevents the use of panel radios

for transmitting distress messages and will also cause

air traffic control (ATC) to lose transponder returns.

Pilots of powerless single-engine airplanes are left

with no choice but to make a forced landing. Pilots of

twin-engine airplanes may elect to continue the flight

to the nearest airport. However, consideration must be

given to the possibility that a wing could be seriously

impaired and lead to structural failure. Even a brief but

intense fire could cause dangerous structural damage.

In some cases, the fire could continue to burn under

the wing (or engine cowling in the case of a singleengine airplane) out of view of the pilot. Engine

compartment fires which appear to have been

extinguished have been known to rekindle with

changes in airflow pattern and airspeed.

The pilot must be familiar with the airplane’s emergency descent procedures. The pilot must bear in mind

that: 

• The airplane may be severely structurally damaged to the point that its ability to remain under

control could be lost at any moment.

• The airplane may still be on fire and susceptible

to explosion.

• The airplane is expendable and the only thing that

matters is the safety of those on board.

ELECTRICAL FIRES

The initial indication of an electrical fire is usually the

distinct odor of burning insulation. Once an electrical

fire is detected, the pilot should attempt to identify the

faulty circuit by checking circuit breakers, instruments,

avionics, and lights. If the faulty circuit cannot be readily detected and isolated, and flight conditions permit,

the battery master switch and alternator/generator

switches should be turned off to remove the possible

source of the fire. However, any materials which have

been ignited may continue to burn.

Figure 16-6. Emergency descent.

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If electrical power is absolutely essential for the flight,

an attempt may be made to identify and isolate the

faulty circuit by:

1. Turning the electrical master switch OFF.

2. Turning all individual electrical switches OFF.

3. Turning the master switch back ON.

4. Selecting electrical switches that were ON before

the fire indication one at a time, permitting a short

time lapse after each switch is turned on to check

for signs of odor, smoke, or sparks.

This procedure, however, has the effect of recreating

the original problem. The most prudent course of

action is to land as soon as possible.

CABIN FIRE

Cabin fires generally result from one of three sources:

(1) careless smoking on the part of the pilot and/or

passengers; (2) electrical system malfunctions; (3)

heating system malfunctions. A fire in the cabin presents the pilot with two immediate demands: attacking

the fire, and getting the airplane safely on the ground

as quickly as possible. A fire or smoke in the cabin

should be controlled by identifying and shutting down

the faulty system. In many cases, smoke may be

removed from the cabin by opening the cabin air vents.

This should be done only after the fire extinguisher (if

available) is used. Then the cabin air control can be

opened to purge the cabin of both smoke and fumes. If

smoke increases in intensity when the cabin air vents

are opened, they should be immediately closed. This

indicates a possible fire in the heating system, nose

compartment baggage area (if so equipped), or that the

increase in airflow is feeding the fire.

On pressurized airplanes, the pressurization air system

will remove smoke from the cabin; however, if the

smoke is intense, it may be necessary to either depressurize at altitude, if oxygen is available for all

occupants, or execute an emergency descent.

In unpressurized single-engine and light twin-engine

airplanes, the pilot can attempt to expel the smoke

from the cabin by opening the foul weather windows.

These windows should be closed immediately if the

fire becomes more intense. If the smoke is severe, the

passengers and crew should use oxygen masks if available, and the pilot should initiate an immediate

descent. The pilot should also be aware that on some

airplanes, lowering the landing gear and/or wing flaps

can aggravate a cabin smoke problem. 

FLIGHT CONTROL

MALFUNCTION/FAILURE

TOTAL FLAP FAILURE

The inability to extend the wing flaps will necessitate

a no-flap approach and landing. In light airplanes a noflap approach and landing is not particularly difficult

or dangerous. However, there are certain factors which

must be considered in the execution of this maneuver. 

A no-flap landing requires substantially more runway

than normal. The increase in required landing distance

could be as much as 50 percent.

When flying in the traffic pattern with the wing flaps

retracted, the airplane must be flown in a relatively

nose-high attitude to maintain altitude, as compared to

flight with flaps extended. Losing altitude can be more

of a problem without the benefit of the drag normally

provided by flaps. A wider, longer traffic pattern may

be required in order to avoid the necessity of diving to

lose altitude and consequently building up excessive

airspeed.

On final approach, a nose-high attitude can make it

difficult to see the runway. This situation, if not anticipated, can result in serious errors in judgment of

height and distance. Approaching the runway in a

relatively nose-high attitude can also cause the

perception that the airplane is close to a stall. This may

cause the pilot to lower the nose abruptly and risk

touching down on the nosewheel.

With the flaps retracted and the power reduced for

landing, the airplane is slightly less stable in the pitch

and roll axes. Without flaps, the airplane will tend to

float considerably during roundout. The pilot should

avoid the temptation to force the airplane onto the runway at an excessively high speed. Neither should the

pilot flare excessively, because without flaps this

might cause the tail to strike the runway.

ASYMMETRIC (SPLIT) FLAP

An asymmetric “split” flap situation is one in which

one flap deploys or retracts while the other remains in

position. The problem is indicated by a pronounced

roll toward the wing with the least flap deflection

when wing flaps are extended/retracted. 

The roll encountered in a split flap situation is countered with opposite aileron. The yaw caused by the

additional drag created by the extended flap will

require substantial opposite rudder, resulting in a

cross-control condition. Almost full aileron may be

required to maintain a wings-level attitude, especially

at the reduced airspeed necessary for approach and

landing. The pilot therefore should not attempt to land

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with a crosswind from the side of the deployed flap,

because the additional roll control required to counteract the crosswind may not be available.

The pilot must be aware of the difference in stall

speeds between one wing and the other in a split flap

situation. The wing with the retracted flap will stall

considerably earlier than the wing with the deployed

flap. This type of asymmetrical stall will result in an

uncontrollable roll in the direction of the stalled (clean)

wing. If altitude permits, a spin will result.

The approach to landing with a split flap condition

should be flown at a higher than normal airspeed. The

pilot should not risk an asymmetric stall and subsequent loss of control by flaring excessively. Rather, the

airplane should be flown onto the runway so that the

touchdown occurs at an airspeed consistent with a safe

margin above flaps-up stall speed. 

LOSS OF ELEVATOR CONTROL

In many airplanes, the elevator is controlled by two

cables: a “down” cable and an “up” cable. Normally,

a break or disconnect in only one of these cables will

not result in a total loss of elevator control. In most

airplanes, a failed cable results in a partial loss of

pitch control. In the failure of the “up” elevator cable

(the “down” elevator being intact and functional) the

control yoke will move aft easily but produce no

response. Forward yoke movement, however, beyond

the neutral position produces a nosedown attitude.

Conversely, a failure of the “down” elevator cable,

forward movement of the control yoke produces no

effect. The pilot will, however, have partial control of

pitch attitude with aft movement.

When experiencing a loss of up-elevator control, the

pilot can retain pitch control by:

• Applying considerable nose-up trim.

• Pushing the control yoke forward to attain and

maintain desired attitude.

• Increasing forward pressure to lower the nose and

relaxing forward pressure to raise the nose.

• Releasing forward pressure to flare for landing.

When experiencing a loss of down-elevator control,

the pilot can retain pitch control by:

• Applying considerable nosedown trim.

• Pulling the control yoke aft to attain and maintain

attitude.

• Releasing back pressure to lower the nose and

increasing back pressure to raise the nose.

• Increasing back pressure to flare for landing.

Trim mechanisms can be useful in the event of an

in-flight primary control failure. For example, if the

linkage between the cockpit and the elevator fails in

flight, leaving the elevator free to weathervane in the

wind, the trim tab can be used to raise or lower the

elevator, within limits. The trim tabs are not as effective as normal linkage control in conditions such as

low airspeed, but they do have some positive effect—

usually enough to bring about a safe landing.

If an elevator becomes jammed, resulting in a total loss

of elevator control movement, various combinations of

power and flap extension offer a limited amount of

pitch control. A successful landing under these conditions, however, is problematical.

LANDING GEAR MALFUNCTION

Once the pilot has confirmed that the landing gear has

in fact malfunctioned, and that one or more gear legs

refuses to respond to the conventional or alternate

methods of gear extension contained in the AFM/POH,

there are several methods that may be useful in

attempting to force the gear down. One method is to

dive the airplane (in smooth air only) to VNE speed (red

line on the airspeed indicator) and (within the limits of

safety) execute a rapid pull up. In normal category

airplanes, this procedure will create a 3.8 G load on the

structure, in effect making the landing gear weigh 3.8

times normal. In some cases, this may force the landing gear into the down and locked position. This

procedure requires a fine control touch and good feel

for the airplane. The pilot must avoid exceeding the

design stress limits of the airplane while attempting to

lower the landing gear. The pilot must also avoid an

accelerated stall and possible loss of control while

attention is directed to solving the landing gear

problem.

Another method that has proven useful in some cases

is to induce rapid yawing. After stabilizing at or

slightly less than maneuvering speed (VA), the pilot

should alternately and aggressively apply rudder in one

direction and then the other in rapid sequence. The

resulting yawing action may cause the landing gear to

fall into place.

If all efforts to extend the landing gear have failed, and

a gear up landing is inevitable, the pilot should select

an airport with crash and rescue facilities. The pilot

should not hesitate to request that emergency equipment be standing by.

When selecting a landing surface, the pilot should consider that a smooth, hard-surface runway usually

causes less damage than rough, unimproved grass

strips. A hard surface does, however, create sparks that

can ignite fuel. If the airport is so equipped, the pilot

Ch 16.qxd 5/7/04 10:30 AM Page 16-9
16-10

can request that the runway surface be foamed. The

pilot should consider burning off excess fuel. This will

reduce landing speed and fire potential.

If the landing gear malfunction is limited to one main

landing gear leg, the pilot should consume as much

fuel from that side of the airplane as practicable,

thereby reducing the weight of the wing on that side.

The reduced weight makes it possible to delay the

unsupported wing from contacting the surface during

the landing roll until the last possible moment.

Reduced impact speeds result in less damage.

If only one landing gear leg fails to extend, the pilot

has the option of landing on the available gear legs, or

landing with all the gear legs retracted. Landing on

only one main gear usually causes the airplane to veer

strongly in the direction of the faulty gear leg after

touchdown. If the landing runway is narrow, and/or

ditches and obstacles line the runway edge, maximum

directional control after touchdown is a necessity. In

this situation, a landing with all three gear retracted

may be the safest course of action.

If the pilot elects to land with one main gear retracted

(and the other main gear and nose gear down and

locked), the landing should be made in a nose-high

attitude with the wings level. As airspeed decays, the

pilot should apply whatever aileron control is necessary to keep the unsupported wing airborne as long as

possible. [Figure 16-7] Once the wing contacts the

surface, the pilot can anticipate a strong yaw in that

direction. The pilot must be prepared to use full

opposite rudder and aggressive braking to maintain

some degree of directional control.

When landing with a retracted nosewheel (and the

main gear extended and locked) the pilot should hold

the nose off the ground until almost full up-elevator

has been applied. [Figure 16-8] The pilot should then

release back pressure in such a manner that the nose

settles slowly to the surface. Applying and holding full

up-elevator will result in the nose abruptly dropping to

the surface as airspeed decays, possibly resulting in

burrowing and/or additional damage. Brake pressure

should not be applied during the landing roll unless

absolutely necessary to avoid a collision with obstacles.

If the landing must be made with only the nose gear

extended, the initial contact should be made on the aft

fuselage structure with a nose-high attitude. This

procedure will help prevent porpoising and/or wheelbarrowing. The pilot should then allow the nosewheel

to gradually touch down, using nosewheel steering as

necessary for directional control.

SYSTEMS MALFUNCTIONS

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

The loss of electrical power can deprive the pilot of

numerous critical systems, and therefore should not

be taken lightly even in day/VFR conditions. Most

in-flight failures of the electrical system are located

in the generator or alternator. Once the generator or

alternator system goes off line, the electrical source

in a typical light airplane is a battery. If a warning

light or ammeter indicates the probability of an alternator or generator failure in an airplane with only one

generating system, however, the pilot may have very

little time available from the battery.

The rating of the airplane battery provides a clue to how

long it may last. With batteries, the higher the amperage

load, the less the usable total amperage. Thus a 25-amp

hour battery could produce 5 amps per hour for 5 hours,

but if the load were increased to 10 amps, it might last

only 2 hours. A 40-amp load might discharge the battery

fully in about 10 or 15 minutes. Much depends on the

battery condition at the time of the system failure. If the

battery has been in service for a few years, its power may

be reduced substantially because of internal resistance.

Or if the system failure was not detected immediately,

much of the stored energy may have already been used. It

is essential, therefore, that the pilot immediately shed

non-essential loads when the generating source fails.

[Figure 16-9] The pilot should then plan to land at the

nearest suitable airport.

What constitutes an “emergency” load following a

generating system failure cannot be predetermined,

because the actual circumstances will always be

somewhat different—for example, whether the flight

is VFR or IFR, conducted in day or at night, in clouds

or in the clear. Distance to nearest suitable airport can

also be a factor.

Figure 16-7. Landing with one main gear retracted.

Figure 16-8. Landing with nosewheel retracted.

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16-11

The pilot should remember that the electrically powered

(or electrically selected) landing gear and flaps will not

function properly on the power left in a partially

depleted battery. Landing gear and flap motors use up

power at rates much greater than most other types of

electrical equipment. The result of selecting these

motors on a partially depleted battery may well result in

an immediate total loss of electrical power.

If the pilot should experience a complete in-flight loss

of electrical power, the following steps should be

taken:

• Shed all but the most necessary electricallydriven equipment.

• Understand that any loss of electrical power is

critical in a small airplane—notify ATC of the situation immediately. Request radar vectors for a

landing at the nearest suitable airport.

• If landing gear or flaps are electrically controlled

or operated, plan the arrival well ahead of time.

Expect to make a no-flap landing, and anticipate

a manual landing gear extension.

PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM

The source of the pressure for operating the airspeed

indicator, the vertical speed indicator, and the altimeter

is the pitot-static system. The major components of the

pitot-static system are the impact pressure chamber

and lines, and the static pressure chamber and lines,

each of which are subject to total or partial blockage

by ice, dirt, and/or other foreign matter. Blockage of

the pitot-static system will adversely affect instrument

operation. [Figure 16-10 on next page]

Partial static system blockage is insidious in that it

may go unrecognized until a critical phase of flight.

During takeoff, climb, and level-off at cruise altitude

the altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speed

indicator may operate normally. No indication of

malfunction may be present until the airplane begins

a descent.

If the static reference system is severely restricted, but

not entirely blocked, as the airplane descends, the

static reference pressure at the instruments begins to

lag behind the actual outside air pressure. While

descending, the altimeter may indicate that the airplane

is higher than actual because the obstruction slows the

airflow from the static port to the altimeter. The

vertical speed indicator confirms the altimeter’s information regarding rate of change, because the reference

pressure is not changing at the same rate as the outside

air pressure. The airspeed indicator, unable to tell

whether it is experiencing more airspeed pitot pressure

or less static reference pressure, indicates a higher

airspeed than actual. To the pilot, the instruments

indicate that the airplane is too high, too fast, and

descending at a rate much less than desired.

If the pilot levels off and then begins a climb, the

altitude indication may still lag. The vertical speed

indicator will indicate that the airplane is not climbing

as fast as actual. The indicated airspeed, however, may

begin to decrease at an alarming rate. The least amount

of pitch-up attitude may cause the airspeed needle to

indicate dangerously near stall speed.

Managing a static system malfunction requires that the

pilot know and understand the airplane’s pitot-static

system. If a system malfunction is suspected, the pilot

should confirm it by opening the alternate static

source. This should be done while the airplane is

climbing or descending. If the instrument needles

move significantly when this is done, a static pressure

problem exists and the alternate source should be used

during the remainder of the flight. 

ABNORMAL ENGINE INSTRUMENT

INDICATIONS

The AFM/POH for the specific airplane contains information that should be followed in the event of any

A. Continuous Load

Pitot Heating (Operating)

Wingtip Lights

Heater Igniter

**Navigation Receivers

**Communications Receivers

Fuel Indicator

Instrument Lights (overhead)

Engine Indicator

Compass Light

Landing Gear Indicator

Flap Indicator

B. Intermittent Load

Starter

Landing Lights

Heater Blower Motor

Flap Motor

Landing Gear Motor

Cigarette Lighter

Transceiver (keyed)

Fuel Boost Pump

Cowl Flap Motor

Stall Warning Horn

** Amperage for radios varies with equipment. In general, 

the more recent the model, the less amperage required.

NOTE: Panel and indicator lights usually draw less than 

one amp.

1

4

1

1-4

1-2

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

3.30

3.00

1-20

1-2 each

1-2 each

0.40

0.60

0.30

0.20

0.17

0.17

100.00

17.80

14.00

13.00

10.00

7.50

5-7

2.00

1.00

1.50

Electrical Loads for

Light Single

Number

of Units

Total

Amperes

Figure 16-9. Electrical load for light single.

Ch 16.qxd 5/7/04 10:30 AM Page 16-11
16-12

abnormal engine instrument indications. The table on

the next page offers generic information on some of

the more commonly experienced in-flight abnormal

engine instrument indications, their possible causes,

and corrective actions. [Table 1]

DOOR OPENING IN FLIGHT

In most instances, the occurrence of an inadvertent

door opening is not of great concern to the safety of a

flight, but rather, the pilot’s reaction at the moment the

incident happens. A door opening in flight may be

accompanied by a sudden loud noise, sustained noise

level and possible vibration or buffeting. If a pilot

allows himself or herself to become distracted to the

point where attention is focused on the open door

rather than maintaining control of the airplane, loss of

control may result, even though disruption of airflow

by the door is minimal. 

In the event of an inadvertent door opening in flight or

on takeoff, the pilot should adhere to the following.

• Concentrate on flying the airplane. Particularly in

light single- and twin-engine airplanes; a cabin

door that opens in flight seldom if ever compromises the airplane’s ability to fly. There may be

some handling effects such as roll and/or yaw, but

in most instances these can be easily overcome.

• If the door opens after lift-off, do not rush to land.

Climb to normal traffic pattern altitude, fly a normal traffic pattern, and make a normal landing.

• Do not release the seat belt and shoulder harness

in an attempt to reach the door. Leave the door

alone. Land as soon as practicable, and close the

door once safely on the ground.

• Remember that most doors will not stay wide

open. They will usually bang open, then settle

partly closed. A slip towards the door may cause

it to open wider; a slip away from the door may

push it closed.

• Do not panic. Try to ignore the unfamiliar noise

and vibration. Also, do not rush. Attempting to

get the airplane on the ground as quickly as possible may result in steep turns at low altitude.

• Complete all items on the landing checklist.

• Remember that accidents are almost never

caused by an open door. Rather, an open door

accident is caused by the pilot’s distraction or

failure to maintain control of the airplane.

INADVERTENT VFR FLIGHT INTO IMC

GENERAL

It is beyond the scope of this handbook to incorporate a course of training in basic attitude instrument

flying. This information is contained in FAA-H8083-15, Instrument Flying Handbook. Certain

pilot certificates and/or associated ratings require

training in instrument flying and a demonstration of

specific instrument flying tasks on the practical test.

Effect of Blocked

Pitot/Static

Sources on Airspeed,

Altimeter and

Vertical Speed Indications

Pitot Source Blocked

One Static

Source Blocked

Both Static

Sources Blocked

Both Static and

Pitot Sources Blocked

Increases with altitude

gain; decreases

with altitude loss.

Decreases with altitude

gain; increases

with altitude loss.

Unaffected Unaffected

Does not change

with actual gain or

loss of altitude.

Does not change

with actual variations

in vertical speed.

Inaccurate while sideslipping; very sensitive in turbulence.

All indications remain constant, regardless of actual changes

in airspeed, altitude and vertical speed.

Indicated Airspeed Indicated Altitude Indicated

Vertical Speed

Figure 16-10. Effects of blocked pitot-static sources.

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16-13

Pilots and flight instructors should refer to FAA-H8083-15 for guidance in the performance of these

tasks, and to the appropriate practical test standards

for information on the standards to which these

required tasks must be performed for the particular

certificate level and/or rating. The pilot should

remember, however, that unless these tasks are practiced on a continuing and regular basis, skill erosion

begins almost immediately. In a very short time, the

pilot’s assumed level of confidence will be much

higher than the performance he or she will actually

be able to demonstrate should the need arise.

Accident statistics show that the pilot who has not

been trained in attitude instrument flying, or one

whose instrument skills have eroded, will lose control of the airplane in about 10 minutes once forced

to rely solely on instrument reference. The purpose

of this section is to provide guidance on practical

emergency measures to maintain airplane control for

a limited period of time in the event a VFR pilot

encounters IMC conditions. The main goal is not

precision instrument flying; rather, it is to help the

VFR pilot keep the airplane under adequate control

until suitable visual references are regained.

MALFUNCTION PROBABLE CAUSE CORRECTIVE ACTION

Loss of r.p.m. during cruise flight

(non-altitude engines)

Carburetor or induction icing or air filter

clogging

Apply carburetor heat. If dirty filter is

suspected and non-filtered air is available,

switch selector to unfiltered position.

Loss of manifold pressure during cruise

flight

Same as above Same as above.

Turbocharger failure Possible exhaust leak. Shut down engine

or use lowest practicable power setting.

Land as soon as possible.

Gain of manifold pressure during cruise 

flight

Throttle has opened, propeller control has

decreased r.p.m., or improper method of

power reduction

Readjust throttle and tighten friction lock.

Reduce manifold pressure prior to

reducing r.p.m.

High oil temperature Oil congealed in cooler Reduce power. Land. Preheat engine.

Inadequate engine cooling Reduce power. Increase airspeed.

Detonation or preignition Observe cylinder head temperatures for

high reading. Reduce manifold pressure.

Enrich mixture.

Forth coming internal engine faiure Land as soon as possible or feather

propeller and stop engine.

Land as soon as possible or feather

propeller and stop engine.

Defective thermostatic oil cooler control Land as soon as possible. Consult

maintenance personnel.

Low oil temperature Engine not warmed up to operating

temperature

Warm engine in prescribed manner.

High oil pressure Cold oil Same as above.

Same as above.

Same as above.

Same as above.

Same as above.

Same as above.

Possible internal plugging Reduce power. Land as soon as possible.

Low oil pressure Broken pressure relief valve

Insufficient oil

Burned out bearings

Fluctuating oil pressure Low oil supply, loose oil lines, defective

pressure relief valve

Improper cowl flap adjustment Adjust cowl flaps.

Adjust cowl flaps.

Insufficient airspeed for cooling Increase airspeed.

Improper mixture adjustment Adjust mixture.

Detonation or preignition Reduce power, enrich mixture, increase

cooling airflow.

Low cylinder head temperature

High cylinder head temperature

Excessive cowl flap opening

Excessively rich mixture Adjust mixture control.

Exteneded glides without clearing engine Clear engine long enough to keep

temperatures at minimum range.

Ammeter indicating discharge Alternator or generator failure Shed unnecessary electrical load. Land

as soon as practicable.

Load meter indicating zero Same as above

Surging r.p.m. and overspeeding Defective propeller

Defective propeller governor

Adjust propeller r.p.m.

Defective engine Consult maintenance.

Consult maintenance personnel.

Consult maintenance.

Adjust propeller control. Attempt to

restore normal operation.

Defective tachometer

Improper mixture setting Readjust mixture for smooth operation.

Adjust mixture for smooth operation.

Loss of airspeed in cruise flight with

manifold pressure and r.p.m. constant

Possible loss of one or more cylinders Land as soon as possible.

Rough running engine Improper mixture control setting

Defective ignition or valves

Detonation or preignition Reduce power, enrich mixture, open cowl

flaps to reduce cylinder head temp. Land

as soon as practicable.

Induction air leak Reduce power. Consult maintenance.

Plugged fuel nozzle (Fuel injection)

Excessive fuel pressure or fuel flow Lean mixture control.

Loss of fuel pressure Engine driven pump failure Turn on boost tanks.

No fuel Switch tanks, turn on fuel.

Table 1.

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16-14

The first steps necessary for surviving an encounter

with instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) by a

VFR pilot are:

• Recognition and acceptance of the seriousness of

the situation and the need for immediate remedial

action.

• Maintaining control of the airplane.

• Obtaining the appropriate assistance in getting the

airplane safely on the ground.

RECOGNITION

A VFR pilot is in IMC conditions anytime he or she is

unable to maintain airplane attitude control by reference

to the natural horizon, regardless of the circumstances

or the prevailing weather conditions. Additionally, the

VFR pilot is, in effect, in IMC anytime he or she is inadvertently, or intentionally for an indeterminate period of

time, unable to navigate or establish geographical

position by visual reference to landmarks on the

surface. These situations must be accepted by the pilot

involved as a genuine emergency, requiring appropriate

action.

The pilot must understand that unless he or she is

trained, qualified, and current in the control of an airplane solely by reference to flight instruments, he or she

will be unable to do so for any length of time. Many

hours of VFR flying using the attitude indicator as a

reference for airplane control may lull a pilot into a false

sense of security based on an overestimation of his or

her personal ability to control the airplane solely by

instrument reference. In VFR conditions, even though

the pilot thinks he or she is controlling the airplane by

instrument reference, the pilot also receives an overview

of the natural horizon and may subconsciously rely on it

more than the cockpit attitude indicator. If the natural

horizon were to suddenly disappear, the untrained

instrument pilot would be subject to vertigo, spatial

disorientation, and inevitable control loss.

MAINTAINING AIRPLANE CONTROL

Once the pilot recognizes and accepts the situation, he

or she must understand that the only way to control the

airplane safely is by using and trusting the flight instruments. Attempts to control the airplane partially by

reference to flight instruments while searching outside

the cockpit for visual confirmation of the information

provided by those instruments will result in inadequate

airplane control. This may be followed by spatial

disorientation and complete control loss.

The most important point to be stressed is that the pilot

must not panic. The task at hand may seem overwhelming, and the situation may be compounded by

extreme apprehension. The pilot therefore must make

a conscious effort to relax.

The pilot must understand the most important concern—in fact the only concern at this point—is to keep

the wings level. An uncontrolled turn or bank usually

leads to difficulty in achieving the objectives of any

desired flight condition. The pilot will find that good

bank control has the effect of making pitch control

much easier.

The pilot should remember that a person cannot feel

control pressures with a tight grip on the controls.

Relaxing and learning to “control with the eyes and

the brain” instead of only the muscles, usually takes

considerable conscious effort.

The pilot must believe what the flight instruments

show about the airplane’s attitude regardless of what

the natural senses tell. The vestibular sense (motion

sensing by the inner ear) can and will confuse the pilot.

Because of inertia, the sensory areas of the inner ear

cannot detect slight changes in airplane attitude, nor

can they accurately sense attitude changes which occur

at a uniform rate over a period of time. On the other

hand, false sensations are often generated, leading the

pilot to believe the attitude of the airplane has changed

when, in fact, it has not. These false sensations result

in the pilot experiencing spatial disorientation.

ATTITUDE CONTROL

An airplane is, by design, an inherently stable platform

and, except in turbulent air, will maintain approximately straight-and-level flight if properly trimmed

and left alone. It is designed to maintain a state of

equilibrium in pitch, roll, and yaw. The pilot must be

aware, however, that a change about one axis will

affect the stability of the others. The typical light

airplane exhibits a good deal of stability in the yaw

axis, slightly less in the pitch axis, and even lesser still

in the roll axis. The key to emergency airplane attitude

control, therefore, is to:

• Trim the airplane with the elevator trim so that it

will maintain hands-off level flight at cruise airspeed.

• Resist the tendency to over control the airplane.

Fly the attitude indicator with fingertip control.

No attitude changes should be made unless the

flight instruments indicate a definite need for a

change.

• Make all attitude changes smooth and small, yet

with positive pressure. Remember that a small

change as indicated on the horizon bar corresponds to a proportionately much larger change

in actual airplane attitude. 

• Make use of any available aid in attitude control

such as autopilot or wing leveler.

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16-15

The primary instrument for attitude control is the attitude indicator. [Figure 16-11] Once the airplane is

trimmed so that it will maintain hands-off level flight

at cruise airspeed, that airspeed need not vary until the

airplane must be slowed for landing. All turns, climbs

and descents can and should be made at this airspeed.

Straight flight is maintained by keeping the wings level

using “fingertip pressure” on the control wheel. Any

pitch attitude change should be made by using no more

than one bar width up or down.

TURNS

Turns are perhaps the most potentially dangerous

maneuver for the untrained instrument pilot for two

reasons. 

• The normal tendency of the pilot to over control,

leading to steep banks and the possibility of a

“graveyard spiral.” 

• The inability of the pilot to cope with the instability resulting from the turn.

When a turn must be made, the pilot must anticipate

and cope with the relative instability of the roll axis.

The smallest practical bank angle should be used—in

any case no more than 10° bank angle. [Figure 16-12]

A shallow bank will take very little vertical lift from

the wings resulting in little if any deviation in altitude.

It may be helpful to turn a few degrees and then return

to level flight, if a large change in heading must be

made. Repeat the process until the desired heading is

reached. This process may relieve the progressive

overbanking that often results from prolonged turns.

CLIMBS

If a climb is necessary, the pilot should raise the

miniature airplane on the attitude indicator no more

than one bar width and apply power. [Figure 16-13]

The pilot should not attempt to attain a specific climb

speed but accept whatever speed results. The objective is to deviate as little as possible from level flight

attitude in order to disturb the airplane’s equilibrium

as little as possible. If the airplane is properly

trimmed, it will assume a nose-up attitude on its own

commensurate with the amount of power applied.

Torque and P-factor will cause the airplane to have a

Figure 16-11. Attitude indicator.

Figure 16-12. Level turn.

Figure 16-13. Level climb.

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16-16

tendency to bank and turn to the left. This must be

anticipated and compensated for. If the initial power

application results in an inadequate rate of climb,

power should be increased in increments of 100 r.p.m.

or 1 inch of manifold pressure until the desired rate of

climb is attained. Maximum available power is

seldom necessary. The more power used the more the

airplane will want to bank and turn to the left.

Resuming level flight is accomplished by first

decreasing pitch attitude to level on the attitude

indicator using slow but deliberate pressure, allowing

airspeed to increase to near cruise value, and then

decreasing power.

DESCENTS

Descents are very much the opposite of the climb

procedure if the airplane is properly trimmed for

hands-off straight-and-level flight. In this configuration, the airplane requires a certain amount of thrust to

maintain altitude. The pitch attitude is controlling the

airspeed. The engine power, therefore, (translated into

thrust by the propeller) is maintaining the selected

altitude. Following a power reduction, however slight,

there will be an almost imperceptible decrease in

airspeed. However, even a slight change in speed

results in less down load on the tail, whereupon the

designed nose heaviness of the airplane causes it to

pitch down just enough to maintain the airspeed for

which it was trimmed. The airplane will then descend

at a rate directly proportionate to the amount of thrust

that has been removed. Power reductions should be

made in increments of 100 r.p.m. or 1 inch of manifold

pressure and the resulting rate of descent should never

exceed 500 f.p.m. The wings should be held level on

the attitude indicator, and the pitch attitude should not

exceed one bar width below level. [Figure 16-14]

COMBINED MANEUVERS

Combined maneuvers, such as climbing or descending

turns should be avoided if at all possible by an

untrained instrument pilot already under the stress of

an emergency situation. Combining maneuvers will

only compound the problems encountered in individual

maneuvers and increase the risk of control loss.

Remember that the objective is to maintain airplane

control by deviating as little as possible from straightand-level flight attitude and thereby maintaining as

much of the airplane’s natural equilibrium as possible.

When being assisted by air traffic controllers from the

ground, the pilot may detect a sense of urgency as he

or she is being directed to change heading and/or altitude. This sense of urgency reflects a normal concern

for safety on the part of the controller. But the pilot

must not let this prompt him or her to attempt a maneuver

that could result in loss of control.

TRANSITION TO VISUAL FLIGHT

One of the most difficult tasks a trained and qualified

instrument pilot must contend with is the transition

from instrument to visual flight prior to landing. For

the untrained instrument pilot, these difficulties are

magnified.

The difficulties center around acclimatization and

orientation. On an instrument approach the trained

instrument pilot must prepare in advance for the

transition to visual flight. The pilot must have a

mental picture of what he or she expects to see once

the transition to visual flight is made and quickly

acclimatize to the new environment. Geographical

orientation must also begin before the transition as the

pilot must visualize where the airplane will be in relation to the airport/runway when the transition occurs

so that the approach and landing may be completed by

visual reference to the ground.

In an ideal situation the transition to visual flight is

made with ample time, at a sufficient altitude above

terrain, and to visibility conditions sufficient to

accommodate acclimatization and geographical

orientation. This, however, is not always the case. The

untrained instrument pilot may find the visibility still

limited, the terrain completely unfamiliar, and altitude

above terrain such that a “normal” airport traffic

pattern and landing approach is not possible.

Additionally, the pilot will most likely be under

considerable self-induced psychological pressure to

Figure 16-14. Level descent.

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16-17

get the airplane on the ground. The pilot must take this

into account and, if possible, allow time to become

acclimatized and geographically oriented before

attempting an approach and landing, even if it means

flying straight and level for a time or circling the

airport. This is especially true at night.

Ch 16.qxd 5/7/04 10:30 AM Page 16-17
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Ch 16.qxd 5/7/04 10:30 AM Page 16-18
100-HOUR INSPECTION—

An inspection, identical in scope to an

annual inspection. Must be conducted

every 100 hours of flight on aircraft of

under 12,500 pounds that are used

for hire.

ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE—

The vertical distance of an airplane

above the terrain, or above ground

level (AGL).

ABSOLUTE CEILING—

The altitude at which a climb is no

longer possible.

ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE—

The distance required to accelerate to

V1 with all engines at takeoff power,

experience an engine failure at V1 and

continue the takeoff on the remaining

engine(s). The runway required

includes the distance required to

climb to 35 feet by which time V2

speed must be attained.

ACCELERATE-STOP

DISTANCE—The distance required

to accelerate to V1 with all engines at

takeoff power, experience an engine

failure at V1, and abort the takeoff and

bring the airplane to a stop using braking action only (use of thrust reversing is not considered).

ACCELERATION—Force involved

in overcoming inertia, and which may

be defined as a change in velocity per

unit of time.

ACCESSORIES—Components that

are used with an engine, but are not a

part of the engine itself. Units such as

magnetos, carburetors, generators,

and fuel pumps are commonly

installed engine accessories.

ADJUSTABLE STABILIZER—

A stabilizer that can be adjusted in

flight to trim the airplane, thereby

even a trim tab, which provides

aerodynamic force when it interacts

with a moving stream of air.

AIRMANSHIP SKILLS—The skills

of coordination, timing, control touch,

and speed sense in addition to the

motor skills required to fly an aircraft.

AIRMANSHIP—

A sound acquaintance with the

principles of flight, the ability to

operate an airplane with competence

and precision both on the ground and

in the air, and the exercise of sound

judgment that results in optimal

operational safety and efficiency. 

AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL

(AFM)—A document developed by

the airplane manufacturer and

approved by the Federal Aviation

Administration (FAA). It is specific to

a particular make and model airplane

by serial number and it contains

operating procedures and limitations.

AIRPLANE OWNER/

INFORMATION MANUAL—A

document developed by the airplane

manufacturer containing general

information about the make and

model of an airplane. The airplane

owner’s manual is not FAA-approved

and is not specific to a particular serial

numbered airplane. This manual is not

kept current, and therefore cannot be

substituted for the AFM/POH.

AIRPORT/FACILITY

DIRECTORY—

A publication designed primarily as a

pilot’s operational manual containing

all airports, seaplane bases, and

heliports open to the public including

communications data, navigational

facilities, and certain special notices

and procedures. This publication is

issued in seven volumes according to

geographical area.

allowing the airplane to fly hands-off

at any given airspeed.

ADVERSE YAW—A condition of

flight in which the nose of an airplane

tends to yaw toward the outside of the

turn. This is caused by the higher

induced drag on the outside wing,

which is also producing more lift.

Induced drag is a by-product of the lift

associated with the outside wing.

AERODYNAMIC CEILING—

The point (altitude) at which, as the

indicated airspeed decreases with altitude, it progressively merges with the

low speed buffet boundary where prestall buffet occurs for the airplane at a

load factor of 1.0 G. 

AERODYNAMICS—The science of

the action of air on an object, and with

the motion of air on other gases.

Aerodynamics deals with the

production of lift by the aircraft, the

relative wind, and the atmosphere.

AILERONS—Primary flight control

surfaces mounted on the trailing edge

of an airplane wing, near the tip.

Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis.

AIR START—The act or instance of

starting an aircraft’s engine while in

flight, especially a jet engine after

flameout.

AIRCRAFT LOGBOOKS—

Journals containing a record of total

operating time, repairs, alterations or

inspections performed, and all

Airworthiness Directive (AD) notes

complied with. A maintenance

logbook should be kept for the

airframe, each engine, and each

propeller.

AIRFOIL—An airfoil is any surface,

such as a wing, propeller, rudder, or

G-1

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AIRWORTHINESS—A condition

in which the aircraft conforms to its

type certificated design including

supplemental type certificates, and

field approved alterations. The

aircraft must also be in a condition for

safe flight as determined by annual,

100 hour, preflight and any other

required inspections.

AIRWORTHINESS

CERTIFICATE—

A certificate issued by the FAA to all

aircraft that have been proven to meet

the minimum standards set down by

the Code of Federal Regulations.

AIRWORTHINESS 

DIRECTIVE—A regulatory notice

sent out by the FAA to the registered

owner of an aircraft informing the

owner of a condition that prevents the

aircraft from continuing to meet

its conditions for airworthiness.

Airworthiness Directives (AD notes)

must be complied with within the

required time limit, and the fact of

compliance, the date of compliance,

and the method of compliance must be

recorded in the aircraft’s maintenance

records.

ALPHA MODE OF

OPERATION—The operation of a

turboprop engine that includes all of

the flight operations, from takeoff to

landing. Alpha operation is typically

between 95 percent to 100 percent of

the engine operating speed.

ALTERNATE AIR—A device

which opens, either automatically

or manually, to allow induction airflow to continue should the primary

induction air opening become

blocked.

ALTERNATE STATIC SOURCE—

A manual port that when opened

allows the pitot static instruments to

sense static pressure from an alternate

location should the primary static port

become blocked.

ALTERNATOR/GENERATOR—A

device that uses engine power to generate electrical power.

ALTIMETER—A flight instrument

that indicates altitude by sensing

pressure changes. 

pitch, which is the up and down

movement of the airplane’s nose. 

ATTITUDE— The position of an

aircraft as determined by the

relationship of its axes and a reference, usually the earth’s horizon.

AUTOKINESIS—This is caused by

staring at a single point of light

against a dark background for more

than a few seconds. After a few

moments, the light appears to move

on its own.

AUTOPILOT—An automatic flight

control system which keeps an aircraft

in level flight or on a set course.

Automatic pilots can be directed by

the pilot, or they may be coupled to a

radio navigation signal.

AXES OF AN AIRCRAFT—Three

imaginary lines that pass through an

aircraft’s center of gravity. The axes

can be considered as imaginary axles

around which the aircraft turns. The

three axes pass through the center of

gravity at 90° angles to each other.

The axis from nose to tail is the

longitudinal axis, the axis that passes

from wingtip to wingtip is the lateral

axis, and the axis that passes vertically

through the center of gravity is the

vertical axis.

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR—

A type of compressor used in a turbine

engine in which the airflow through

the compressor is essentially linear.

An axial-flow compressor is made up

of several stages of alternate rotors

and stators. The compressor ratio is

determined by the decrease in area of

the succeeding stages.

BACK SIDE OF THE POWER

CURVE— Flight regime in which

flight at a higher airspeed requires a

lower power setting and a lower

airspeed requires a higher power

setting in order to maintain altitude.

BALKED LANDING—

A go-around.

BALLAST—Removable or permanently installed weight in an aircraft

ALTITUDE (AGL)—The actual

height above ground level (AGL) at

which the aircraft is flying.

ALTITUDE (MSL)—The actual

height above mean sea level (MSL) at

which the aircraft is flying.

ALTITUDE CHAMBER—A device

that simulates high altitude conditions

by reducing the interior pressure. The

occupants will suffer from the same

physiological conditions as flight at

high altitude in an unpressurized

aircraft. 

ALTITUDE ENGINE—

A reciprocating aircraft engine having

a rated takeoff power that is

producible from sea level to an

established higher altitude.

ANGLE OF ATTACK—The acute

angle between the chord line of the

airfoil and the direction of the relative

wind.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE—

The angle formed by the chord line of

the wing and a line parallel to the

longitudinal axis of the airplane.

ANNUAL INSPECTION—

A complete inspection of an aircraft

and engine, required by the Code

of Federal Regulations, to be

accomplished every 12 calendar

months on all certificated aircraft.

Only an A&P technician holding an

Inspection Authorization can conduct

an annual inspection.

ANTI-ICING—The prevention of

the formation of ice on a surface. Ice

may be prevented by using heat or by

covering the surface with a chemical

that prevents water from reaching the

surface. Anti-icing should not be confused with deicing, which is the

removal of ice after it has formed on

the surface.

ATTITUDE INDICATOR—

An instrument which uses an artificial

horizon and miniature airplane to

depict the position of the airplane in

relation to the true horizon. The

attitude indicator senses roll as well as

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used to bring the center of gravity into

the allowable range.

BALLOON—The result of a too

aggressive flare during landing

causing the aircraft to climb.

BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT

(GAMA)—Basic empty weight

includes the standard empty weight

plus optional and special equipment

that has been installed. 

BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB (VX)—

The speed at which the aircraft will

produce the most gain in altitude in a

given distance.

BEST GLIDE—The airspeed in

which the aircraft glides the furthest

for the least altitude lost when in

non-powered flight.

BEST RATE OF CLIMB (VY)—

The speed at which the aircraft will

produce the most gain in altitude in

the least amount of time.

BLADE FACE—The flat portion of a

propeller blade, resembling the

bottom portion of an airfoil.

BLEED AIR—Compressed air

tapped from the compressor stages of

a turbine engine by use of ducts and

tubing. Bleed air can be used for

deice, anti-ice, cabin pressurization,

heating, and cooling systems.

BLEED VALVE—In a turbine

engine, a flapper valve, a popoff

valve, or a bleed band designed to

bleed off a portion of the compressor

air to the atmosphere. Used to

maintain blade angle of attack and

provide stall-free engine acceleration

and deceleration.

BOOST PUMP—An electrically

driven fuel pump, usually of the

centrifugal type, located in one of the

fuel tanks. It is used to provide fuel to

the engine for starting and providing

fuel pressure in the event of failure of

the engine driven pump. It also

pressurizes the fuel lines to prevent

vapor lock.

CAMBERED—The camber of an

airfoil is the characteristic curve of its

upper and lower surfaces. The upper

camber is more pronounced, while the

lower camber is comparatively flat.

This causes the velocity of the airflow

immediately above the wing to be

much higher than that below the wing.

CARBURETOR ICE— Ice that

forms inside the carburetor due to the

temperature drop caused by the

vaporization of the fuel. Induction

system icing is an operational hazard

because it can cut off the flow of the

fuel/air charge or vary the fuel/air

ratio.

CARBURETOR—1. Pressure: A

hydromechanical device employing a

closed feed system from the fuel

pump to the discharge nozzle. It

meters fuel through fixed jets

according to the mass airflow through

the throttle body and discharges it

under a positive pressure. Pressure

carburetors are distinctly different

from float-type carburetors, as they do

not incorporate a vented float

chamber or suction pickup from a

discharge nozzle located in the venturi

tube. 2. Float-type: Consists

essentially of a main air passage

through which the engine draws its

supply of air, a mechanism to control

the quantity of fuel discharged in

relation to the flow of air, and a means

of regulating the quantity of fuel/air

mixture delivered to the engine

cylinders.

CASCADE REVERSER—A thrust

reverser normally found on turbofan

engines in which a blocker door and a

series of cascade vanes are used to

redirect exhaust gases in a forward

direction.

CENTER OF GRAVITY (CG)—

The point at which an airplane would

balance if it were possible to suspend

it at that point. It is the mass center of

the airplane, or the theoretical point at

which the entire weight of the airplane

is assumed to be concentrated. It may

be expressed in inches from the reference datum, or in percent of mean

aerodynamic chord (MAC). The location depends on the distribution of

weight in the airplane.

BUFFETING—The beating of an

aerodynamic structure or surface by

unsteady flow, gusts, etc.; the irregular shaking or oscillation of a vehicle

component owing to turbulent air or

separated flow.

BUS BAR—An electrical power

distribution point to which several

circuits may be connected. It is often a

solid metal strip having a number of

terminals installed on it. 

BUS TIE—A switch that connects

two or more bus bars. It is usually

used when one generator fails and

power is lost to its bus. By closing the

switch, the operating generator

powers both busses. 

BYPASS AIR—The part of a

turbofan’s induction air that bypasses

the engine core.

BYPASS RATIO—The ratio of the

mass airflow in pounds per second

through the fan section of a turbofan

engine to the mass airflow that passes

through the gas generator portion of

the engine. Or, the ratio between fan

mass airflow (lb/sec.) and core engine

mass airflow (lb/sec.).

CABIN PRESSURIZATION—A

condition where pressurized air is

forced into the cabin simulating

pressure conditions at a much lower

altitude and increasing the aircraft

occupants comfort.

CALIBRATED AIRSPEED

(CAS)—Indicated airspeed corrected

for installation error and instrument

error. Although manufacturers attempt

to keep airspeed errors to a minimum,

it is not possible to eliminate all errors

throughout the airspeed operating

range. At certain airspeeds and with

certain flap settings, the installation

and instrument errors may total

several knots. This error is generally

greatest at low airspeeds. In the

cruising and higher airspeed ranges,

indicated airspeed and calibrated

airspeed are approximately the same.

Refer to the airspeed calibration chart

to correct for possible airspeed errors.

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CENTER-OF-GRAVITY

LIMITS—The specified forward and

aft points within which the CG must

be located during flight. These limits

are indicated on pertinent airplane

specifications.

CENTER-OF-GRAVITY

RANGE—The distance between the

forward and aft CG limits indicated on

pertinent airplane specifications.

CENTRIFUGAL

FLOW COMPRESSOR—

An impeller-shaped device that receives

air at its center and slings air outward at

high velocity into a diffuser for increased

pressure. Also referred to as a radial outflow compressor.

CHORD LINE—An imaginary

straight line drawn through an airfoil

from the leading edge to the trailing

edge.

CIRCUIT BREAKER—

A circuit-protecting device that opens

the circuit in case of excess current

flow. A circuit breakers differs from a

fuse in that it can be reset without

having to be replaced.

CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE—

Turbulence not associated with any

visible moisture.

CLIMB GRADIENT—The ratio

between distance traveled and altitude

gained.

COCKPIT RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT—Techniques

designed to reduce pilot errors and

manage errors that do occur utilizing

cockpit human resources. The

assumption is that errors are going to

happen in a complex system with

error-prone humans.

COEFFICIENT OF LIFT—See

LIFT COEFFICIENT.

COFFIN CORNER—The flight

regime where any increase in airspeed

will induce high speed mach buffet

and any decrease in airspeed will

induce low speed mach buffet.

CONDITION LEVER—In a turbine

engine, a powerplant control that controls the flow of fuel to the engine.

The condition lever sets the desired

engine r.p.m. within a narrow range

between that appropriate for ground

and flight operations.

CONFIGURATION—This is a

general term, which normally refers to

the position of the landing gear

and flaps.

CONSTANT SPEED

PROPELLER— A controllablepitch propeller whose pitch is

automatically varied in flight by a

governor to maintain a constant r.p.m.

in spite of varying air loads.

CONTROL TOUCH—The ability to

sense the action of the airplane and its

probable actions in the immediate

future, with regard to attitude and

speed variations, by sensing and

evaluation of varying pressures and

resistance of the control surfaces

transmitted through the cockpit flight

controls.

CONTROLLABILITY—A measure

of the response of an aircraft relative

to the pilot’s flight control inputs.

CONTROLLABLE PITCH

PROPELLER—A propeller in which

the blade angle can be changed during

flight by a control in the cockpit.

CONVENTIONAL LANDING

GEAR—Landing gear employing a

third rear-mounted wheel. These

airplanes are also sometimes referred

to as tailwheel airplanes.

COORDINATED FLIGHT—

Application of all appropriate flight

and power controls to prevent slipping

or skidding in any flight condition.

COORDINATION—The ability to

use the hands and feet together

subconsciously and in the proper

relationship to produce desired results

in the airplane.

CORE AIRFLOW—Air drawn into

the engine for the gas generator.

COMBUSTION CHAMBER— The

section of the engine into which fuel

is injected and burned.

COMMON TRAFFIC

ADVISORY FREQUENCY—The

common frequency used by airport

traffic to announce position reports in

the vicinity of the airport.

COMPLEX AIRCRAFT—

An aircraft with retractable landing

gear, flaps, and a controllable-pitch

propeller, or is turbine powered.

COMPRESSION RATIO—1. In a

reciprocating engine, the ratio of the

volume of an engine cylinder with the

piston at the bottom center to the

volume with the piston at top center.

2. In a turbine engine, the ratio of the

pressure of the air at the discharge to

the pressure of air at the inlet.

COMPRESSOR BLEED AIR—

See BLEED AIR.

COMPRESSOR BLEED

VALVES—See BLEED VALVE.

COMPRESSOR SECTION— The

section of a turbine engine that

increases the pressure and density of

the air flowing through the engine.

COMPRESSOR STALL—In gas

turbine engines, a condition in an

axial-flow compressor in which one

or more stages of rotor blades fail to

pass air smoothly to the succeeding

stages. A stall condition is caused by a

pressure ratio that is incompatible

with the engine r.p.m. Compressor

stall will be indicated by a rise in

exhaust temperature or r.p.m.

fluctuation, and if allowed to

continue, may result in flameout and

physical damage to the engine. 

COMPRESSOR SURGE—A severe

compressor stall across the entire

compressor that can result in severe

damage if not quickly corrected. This

condition occurs with a complete

stoppage of airflow or a reversal of

airflow. 

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COWL FLAPS—Devices arranged

around certain air-cooled engine

cowlings which may be opened or

closed to regulate the flow of air

around the engine.

CRAB—A flight condition in which

the nose of the airplane is pointed into

the wind a sufficient amount to counteract a crosswind and maintain a

desired track over the ground.

CRAZING—Small fractures in

aircraft windshields and windows

caused from being exposed to the

ultraviolet rays of the sun and

temperature extremes.

CRITICAL ALTITUDE—

The maximum altitude under standard

atmospheric conditions at which a

turbocharged engine can produce its

rated horsepower.

CRITICAL ANGLE 

OF ATTACK—The angle of attack at

which a wing stalls regardless of

airspeed, flight attitude, or weight.

CRITICAL ENGINE—The engine

whose failure has the most adverse

effect on directional control.

CROSS CONTROLLED—

A condition where aileron deflection

is in the opposite direction of rudder

deflection.

CROSSFEED—A system that allows

either engine on a twin-engine

airplane to draw fuel from any fuel

tank.

CROSSWIND COMPONENT—

The wind component, measured in

knots, at 90° to the longitudinal axis

of the runway.

CURRENT LIMITER—A device

that limits the generator output to a

level within that rated by the

generator manufacturer.

DATUM (REFERENCE

DATUM)—An imaginary vertical

plane or line from which all

measurements of moment arm are

taken. The datum is established by the

manufacturer. Once the datum has

been selected, all moment arms and

parasite drag to compensate for the

additional induced drag caused by the

down aileron. This balancing of the

drag forces helps minimize adverse

yaw.

DIFFUSION—Reducing the velocity

of air causing the pressure to increase.

DIRECTIONAL STABILITY—

Stability about the vertical axis of an

aircraft, whereby an aircraft tends to

return, on its own, to flight aligned

with the relative wind when disturbed

from that equilibrium state. The

vertical tail is the primary contributor

to directional stability, causing an

airplane in flight to align with the

relative wind.

DITCHING—Emergency landing in

water.

DOWNWASH—

Air deflected perpendicular to the

motion of the airfoil.

DRAG—An aerodynamic force on a

body acting parallel and opposite to

the relative wind. The resistance of

the atmosphere to the relative motion

of an aircraft. Drag opposes thrust and

limits the speed of the airplane.

DRAG CURVE—

A visual representation of the amount

of drag of an aircraft at various

airspeeds.

DRIFT ANGLE—Angle between

heading and track.

DUCTED-FAN ENGINE—

An engine-propeller combination that

has the propeller enclosed in a radial

shroud. Enclosing the propeller

improves the efficiency of the

propeller.

DUTCH ROLL—A combination of

rolling and yawing oscillations that

normally occurs when the dihedral

effects of an aircraft are more

powerful than the directional stability.

Usually dynamically stable but

objectionable in an airplane because

of the oscillatory nature.

the location of CG range are measured

from this point.

DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS—

A condition where the low pressure at

high altitudes allows bubbles of

nitrogen to form in the blood and

joints causing severe pain. Also

known as the bends.

DEICER BOOTS—Inflatable rubber

boots attached to the leading edge of

an airfoil. They can be sequentially

inflated and deflated to break away ice

that has formed over their surface.

DEICING—Removing ice after it

has formed.

DELAMINATION—The separation

of layers.

DENSITY ALTITUDE—

This altitude is pressure altitude corrected for variations from standard

temperature. When conditions are

standard, pressure altitude and density

altitude are the same. If the temperature is above standard, the density altitude is higher than pressure altitude. If

the temperature is below standard, the

density altitude is lower than pressure

altitude. This is an important altitude

because it is directly related to the

airplane’s performance.

DESIGNATED PILOT

EXAMINER (DPE)—An individual

designated by the FAA to administer

practical tests to pilot applicants.

DETONATION—

The sudden release of heat energy

from fuel in an aircraft engine caused

by the fuel-air mixture reaching its

critical pressure and temperature.

Detonation occurs as a violent

explosion rather than a smooth

burning process.

DEWPOINT—The temperature at

which air can hold no more water.

DIFFERENTIAL AILERONS—

Control surface rigged such that the

aileron moving up moves a greater

distance than the aileron moving

down. The up aileron produces extra

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DYNAMIC HYDROPLANING—A

condition that exists when landing on

a surface with standing water deeper

than the tread depth of the tires. When

the brakes are applied, there is a

possibility that the brake will lock up

and the tire will ride on the surface of

the water, much like a water ski.

When the tires are hydroplaning,

directional control and braking action

are virtually impossible. An effective

anti-skid system can minimize the

effects of hydroplaning.

DYNAMIC STABILITY—

The property of an aircraft that causes

it, when disturbed from straight-andlevel flight, to develop forces or

moments that restore the original

condition of straight and level.

ELECTRICAL BUS—

See BUS BAR.

ELECTROHYDRAULIC—

Hydraulic control which is electrically

actuated.

ELEVATOR—

The horizontal, movable primary

control surface in the tail section, or

empennage, of an airplane. The

elevator is hinged to the trailing edge

of the fixed horizontal stabilizer.

EMERGENCY LOCATOR

TRANSMITTER—A small, selfcontained radio transmitter that will

automatically, upon the impact of a

crash, transmit an emergency signal

on 121.5, 243.0, or 406.0 MHz.

EMPENNAGE—The section of the

airplane that consists of the vertical

stabilizer, the horizontal stabilizer,

and the associated control surfaces.

ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO

(EPR)—The ratio of turbine

discharge pressure divided by

compressor inlet pressure that is used

as an indication of the amount of

thrust being developed by a turbine

engine.

ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS—

In an aircraft, the systems, including

the supplemental oxygen systems, air

conditioning systems, heaters, and

FIXED SHAFT TURBOPROP

ENGINE—A turboprop engine

where the gas producer spool is

directly connected to the output shaft.

FIXED-PITCH PROPELLERS—

Propellers with fixed blade angles.

Fixed-pitch propellers are designed as

climb propellers, cruise propellers, or

standard propellers.

FLAPS—Hinged portion of the

trailing edge between the ailerons and

fuselage. In some aircraft, ailerons

and flaps are interconnected to

produce full-span “flaperons.” In

either case, flaps change the lift and

drag on the wing.

FLAT PITCH—

A propeller configuration when the

blade chord is aligned with the direction of rotation.

FLICKER VERTIGO—

A disorientating condition caused

from flickering light off the blades of

the propeller.

FLIGHT DIRECTOR—An automatic flight control system in which

the commands needed to fly the airplane are electronically computed and

displayed on a flight instrument. The

commands are followed by the human

pilot with manual control inputs or, in

the case of an autopilot system, sent to

servos that move the flight controls. 

FLIGHT IDLE—Engine speed,

usually in the 70-80 percent range, for

minimum flight thrust.

FLOATING—A condition when

landing where the airplane does not

settle to the runway due to excessive

airspeed.

FORCE (F)—The energy applied to

an object that attempts to cause the

object to change its direction, speed,

or motion. In aerodynamics, it is

expressed as F, T (thrust), L (lift), W

(weight), or D (drag), usually in

pounds.

FORM DRAG—The part of parasite

drag on a body resulting from the

pressurization systems, which make it

possible for an occupant to function at

high altitude.

EQUILIBRIUM—A condition that

exists within a body when the sum of

the moments of all of the forces acting

on the body is equal to zero. In

aerodynamics, equilibrium is when all

opposing forces acting on an aircraft

are balanced (steady, unaccelerated

flight conditions).

EQUIVALENT SHAFT

HORSEPOWER (ESHP)—

A measurement of the total horsepower of a turboprop engine, including that provided by jet thrust. 

EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE

(EGT)—The temperature of the

exhaust gases as they leave the

cylinders of a reciprocating engine or

the turbine section of a turbine engine.

EXHAUST MANIFOLD—The part

of the engine that collects exhaust

gases leaving the cylinders.

EXHAUST—The rear opening of a

turbine engine exhaust duct. The

nozzle acts as an orifice, the size of

which determines the density and

velocity of the gases as they emerge

from the engine.

FALSE HORIZON—An optical

illusion where the pilot confuses a row

of lights along a road or other straight

line as the horizon.

FALSE START—

See HUNG START.

FEATHERING PROPELLER

(FEATHERED)—A controllable

pitch propeller with a pitch range

sufficient to allow the blades to be

turned parallel to the line of flight to

reduce drag and prevent further

damage to an engine that has been

shut down after a malfunction.

FIXATION—

A psychological condition where the

pilot fixes attention on a single source

of information and ignores all

other sources.

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integrated effect of the static pressure

acting normal to its surface resolved

in the drag direction.

FORWARD SLIP—A slip in which

the airplane’s direction of motion continues the same as before the slip was

begun. In a forward slip, the airplane’s

longitudinal axis is at an angle to its

flightpath. 

FREE POWER TURBINE

ENGINE—A turboprop engine

where the gas producer spool is on a

separate shaft from the output shaft.

The free power turbine spins

independently of the gas producer and

drives the output shaft.

FRICTION DRAG—The part of

parasitic drag on a body resulting

from viscous shearing stresses over its

wetted surface.

FRISE-TYPE AILERON—Aileron

having the nose portion projecting

ahead of the hinge line. When the

trailing edge of the aileron moves up,

the nose projects below the wing’s

lower surface and produces some

parasite drag, decreasing the amount

of adverse yaw.

FUEL CONTROL UNIT—

The fuel-metering device used on a

turbine engine that meters the proper

quantity of fuel to be fed into the

burners of the engine. It integrates the

parameters of inlet air temperature,

compressor speed, compressor

discharge pressure, and exhaust gas

temperature with the position of the

cockpit power control lever.

FUEL EFFICIENCY—Defined as

the amount of fuel used to produce a

specific thrust or horsepower divided

by the total potential power contained

in the same amount of fuel.

FUEL HEATERS—A radiator-like

device which has fuel passing through

the core. A heat exchange occurs to

keep the fuel temperature above the

freezing point of water so that

entrained water does not form ice

crystals, which could block fuel flow.

FUEL INJECTION—

A fuel metering system used on some

aircraft reciprocating engines in

GO-AROUND—

Terminating a landing approach.

GOVERNING RANGE—The range

of pitch a propeller governor can

control during flight.

GOVERNOR—A control which

limits the maximum rotational speed

of a device.

GROSS WEIGHT—

The total weight of a fully loaded

aircraft including the fuel, oil, crew,

passengers, and cargo.

GROUND ADJUSTABLE TRIM

TAB—A metal trim tab on a control

surface that is not adjustable in flight.

Bent in one direction or another while

on the ground to apply trim forces to

the control surface.

GROUND EFFECT—A condition

of improved performance encountered when an airplane is operating

very close to the ground. When an

airplane’s wing is under the influence

of ground effect, there is a reduction

in upwash, downwash, and wingtip

vortices. As a result of the reduced

wingtip vortices, induced drag is

reduced. 

GROUND IDLE—Gas turbine

engine speed usually 60-70 percent of

the maximum r.p.m. range, used as a

minimum thrust setting for ground

operations.

GROUND LOOP—A sharp, uncontrolled change of direction of an

airplane on the ground.

GROUND POWER UNIT (GPU)—

A type of small gas turbine whose

purpose is to provide electrical power,

and/or air pressure for starting aircraft

engines. A ground unit is connected to

the aircraft when needed. Similar to

an aircraft-installed auxiliary power

unit.

GROUNDSPEED (GS)—The actual

speed of the airplane over the ground.

It is true airspeed adjusted for

wind. Groundspeed decreases with a

headwind, and increases with

a tailwind.

which a constant flow of fuel is fed to

injection nozzles in the heads of all

cylinders just outside of the intake

valve. It differs from sequential fuel

injection in which a timed charge of

high-pressure fuel is sprayed directly

into the combustion chamber of the

cylinder.

FUEL LOAD—The expendable part

of the load of the airplane. It includes

only usable fuel, not fuel required to

fill the lines or that which remains

trapped in the tank sumps.

FUEL TANK SUMP—A sampling

port in the lowest part of the fuel tank

that the pilot can utilize to check for

contaminants in the fuel.

FUSELAGE—The section of the

airplane that consists of the cabin

and/or cockpit, containing seats for

the occupants and the controls for the

airplane.

GAS GENERATOR—The basic

power producing portion of a gas

turbine engine and excluding such

sections as the inlet duct, the

fan section, free power turbines,

and tailpipe. Each manufacturer

designates what is included as the gas

generator, but generally consists of

the compressor, diffuser, combustor,

and turbine.

GAS TURBINE ENGINE—A form

of heat engine in which burning fuel

adds energy to compressed air and

accelerates the air through the

remainder of the engine. Some of the

energy is extracted to turn the air

compressor, and the remainder

accelerates the air to produce thrust.

Some of this energy can be converted

into torque to drive a propeller or a

system of rotors for a helicopter.

GLIDE RATIO—The ratio between

distance traveled and altitude lost

during non-powered flight.

GLIDEPATH—The path of an

aircraft relative to the ground while

approaching a landing.

GLOBAL POSITION SYSTEM

(GPS)—A satellite-based radio positioning, navigation, and time-transfer

system.

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GROUND TRACK—The aircraft’s

path over the ground when in flight. 

GUST PENETRATION SPEED—

The speed that gives the greatest

margin between the high and low

mach speed buffets.

GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION—

An inherent quality of rotating bodies,

which causes an applied force to be

manifested 90o in the direction of

rotation from the point where the

force is applied.

HAND PROPPING—Starting an

engine by rotating the propeller by

hand.

HEADING—The direction in which

the nose of the aircraft is pointing

during flight.

HEADING BUG—A marker on the

heading indicator that can be rotated

to a specific heading for reference

purposes, or to command an autopilot

to fly that heading.

HEADING INDICATOR—

An instrument which senses airplane

movement and displays heading based

on a 360o azimuth, with the final zero

omitted. The heading indicator, also

called a directional gyro, is fundamentally a mechanical instrument

designed to facilitate the use of the

magnetic compass. The heading indicator is not affected by the forces that

make the magnetic compass difficult

to interpret.

HEADWIND COMPONENT—The

component of atmospheric winds that

acts opposite to the aircraft’s flightpath.

HIGH PERFORMANCE

AIRCRAFT—An aircraft with an

engine of more than 200 horsepower.

HORIZON—The line of sight

boundary between the earth and the

sky.

HORSEPOWER—

The term, originated by inventor

James Watt, means the amount of

work a horse could do in one second.

engine. Some igniters resemble spark

plugs, while others, called glow plugs,

have a coil of resistance wire that

glows red hot when electrical current

flows through the coil.

IMPACT ICE—Ice that forms on the

wings and control surfaces or on the

carburetor heat valve, the walls of the

air scoop, or the carburetor units

during flight. Impact ice collecting on

the metering elements of the

carburetor may upset fuel metering or

stop carburetor fuel flow.

INCLINOMETER—An instrument

consisting of a curved glass tube,

housing a glass ball, and damped with

a fluid similar to kerosene. It may be

used to indicate inclination, as a level,

or, as used in the turn indicators, to

show the relationship between gravity

and centrifugal force in a turn.

INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS)—

The direct instrument reading

obtained from the airspeed indicator,

uncorrected for variations in atmospheric density, installation error, or

instrument error. Manufacturers use

this airspeed as the basis for determining airplane performance. Takeoff,

landing, and stall speeds listed in the

AFM or POH are indicated airspeeds

and do not normally vary with altitude

or temperature.

INDICATED ALTITUDE—

The altitude read directly from the

altimeter (uncorrected) when it is set

to the current altimeter setting.

INDUCED DRAG—That part of

total drag which is created by the

production of lift. Induced drag

increases with a decrease in airspeed.

INDUCTION MANIFOLD—The

part of the engine that distributes

intake air to the cylinders.

INERTIA—The opposition which a

body offers to a change of motion.

INITIAL CLIMB—This stage of the

climb begins when the airplane leaves

the ground, and a pitch attitude has

One horsepower equals 550

foot-pounds per second, or 33,000

foot-pounds per minute.

HOT START—In gas turbine

engines, a start which occurs with

normal engine rotation, but exhaust

temperature exceeds prescribed

limits. This is usually caused by an

excessively rich mixture in the

combustor. The fuel to the engine

must be terminated immediately to

prevent engine damage.

HUNG START—In gas turbine

engines, a condition of normal light

off but with r.p.m. remaining at some

low value rather than increasing to the

normal idle r.p.m. This is often the

result of insufficient power to the

engine from the starter. In the event of

a hung start, the engine should be shut

down.

HYDRAULICS—The branch of

science that deals with the

transmission of power by incompressible fluids under pressure.

HYDROPLANING—A condition

that exists when landing on a surface

with standing water deeper than the

tread depth of the tires. When the

brakes are applied, there is a

possibility that the brake will lock up

and the tire will ride on the surface of

the water, much like a water ski.

When the tires are hydroplaning,

directional control and braking action

are virtually impossible. An effective

anti-skid system can minimize the

effects of hydroplaning.

HYPOXIA—A lack of sufficient

oxygen reaching the body tissues.

IFR (INSTRUMENT FLIGHT

RULES)—Rules that govern the

procedure for conducting flight in

weather conditions below VFR

weather minimums. The term “IFR”

also is used to define weather

conditions and the type of flight plan

under which an aircraft is operating.

IGNITER PLUGS—The electrical

device used to provide the spark for

starting combustion in a turbine

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been established to climb away from

the takeoff area.

INTEGRAL FUEL TANK—

A portion of the aircraft structure,

usually a wing, which is sealed off and

used as a fuel tank. When a wing is

used as an integral fuel tank, it is

called a “wet wing.”

INTERCOOLER—A device used to

reduce the temperature of the

compressed air before it enters the

fuel metering device. The resulting

cooler air has a higher density, which

permits the engine to be operated with

a higher power setting.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION 

ENGINES—An engine that produces

power as a result of expanding hot

gases from the combustion of fuel and

air within the engine itself. A steam

engine where coal is burned to heat up

water inside the engine is an example

of an external combustion engine. 

INTERSTAGE TURBINE

TEMPERATURE (ITT)—The temperature of the gases between the high

pressure and low pressure turbines.

INVERTER—An electrical device

that changes DC to AC power. 

ISA (INTERNATIONAL

STANDARD ATMOSPHERE)—

Standard atmospheric conditions

consisting of a temperature of 59°F

(15°C), and a barometric pressure of

29.92 in. Hg. (1013.2 mb) at sea level.

ISA values can be calculated for

various altitudes using a standard

lapse rate of approximately 2°C per

1,000 feet.

JET POWERED AIRPLANE—An

aircraft powered by a turbojet or

turbofan engine.

KINESTHESIA—The sensing of

movements by feel.

LATERAL AXIS—An imaginary

line passing through the center of

gravity of an airplane and extending

across the airplane from wingtip

to wingtip.

the coefficient of drag for any given

angle of attack.

LIFT-OFF—The act of becoming

airborne as a result of the wings

lifting the airplane off the ground, or

the pilot rotating the nose up,

increasing the angle of attack to start a

climb. 

LIMIT LOAD FACTOR—Amount

of stress, or load factor, that an aircraft

can withstand before structural

damage or failure occurs.

LOAD FACTOR—The ratio of the

load supported by the airplane’s wings

to the actual weight of the aircraft and

its contents. Also referred to as

G-loading.

LONGITUDINAL AXIS—

An imaginary line through an aircraft

from nose to tail, passing through its

center of gravity. The longitudinal

axis is also called the roll axis of the

aircraft. Movement of the ailerons

rotates an airplane about its

longitudinal axis.

LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

(PITCHING)—Stability about the

lateral axis. A desirable characteristic

of an airplane whereby it tends to

return to its trimmed angle of attack

after displacement.

MACH—Speed relative to the speed

of sound. Mach 1 is the speed of

sound.

MACH BUFFET—

Airflow separation behind a

shock-wave pressure barrier caused

by airflow over flight surfaces

exceeding the speed of sound.

MACH COMPENSATING

DEVICE—A device to alert the pilot

of inadvertent excursions beyond its

certified maximum operating speed.

MACH CRITICAL—The MACH

speed at which some portion of the

airflow over the wing first equals

MACH 1.0. This is also the speed at

which a shock wave first appears on

the airplane. 

LATERAL STABILITY

(ROLLING)—The stability about the

longitudinal axis of an aircraft.

Rolling stability or the ability of an

airplane to return to level flight due to

a disturbance that causes one of the

wings to drop.

LEAD-ACID BATTERY—

A commonly used secondary cell

having lead as its negative plate and

lead peroxide as its positive plate.

Sulfuric acid and water serve as the

electrolyte.

LEADING EDGE DEVICES—

High lift devices which are found on

the leading edge of the airfoil. The

most common types are fixed slots,

movable slats, and leading edge flaps.

LEADING EDGE—The part of an

airfoil that meets the airflow first.

LEADING EDGE FLAP—

A portion of the leading edge of an

airplane wing that folds downward to

increase the camber, lift, and drag of

the wing. The leading-edge flaps are

extended for takeoffs and landings to

increase the amount of aerodynamic

lift that is produced at any given

airspeed.

LICENSED EMPTY WEIGHT—

The empty weight that consists of the

airframe, engine(s), unusable fuel,

and undrainable oil plus standard and

optional equipment as specified in the

equipment list. Some manufacturers

used this term prior to GAMA

standardization.

LIFT—One of the four main forces

acting on an aircraft. On a fixed-wing

aircraft, an upward force created by

the effect of airflow as it passes over

and under the wing.

LIFT COEFFICIENT— A coefficient representing the lift of a given

airfoil. Lift coefficient is obtained by

dividing the lift by the free-stream

dynamic pressure and the representative area under consideration. 

LIFT/DRAG RATIO—

The efficiency of an airfoil section. It

is the ratio of the coefficient of lift to

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MACH TUCK—A condition that can

occur when operating a swept-wing

airplane in the transonic speed range.

A shock wave could form in the root

portion of the wing and cause the

air behind it to separate. This

shock-induced separation causes the

center of pressure to move aft. This,

combined with the increasing amount

of nose down force at higher speeds to

maintain left flight, causes the nose to

“tuck.” If not corrected, the airplane

could enter a steep, sometimes

unrecoverable dive. 

MAGNETIC COMPASS—A device

for determining direction measured

from magnetic north.

MAIN GEAR—The wheels of an

aircraft’s landing gear that supports

the major part of the aircraft’s weight.

MANEUVERABILITY—Ability of

an aircraft to change directions along

a flightpath and withstand the stresses

imposed upon it.

MANEUVERING SPEED (VA) —

The maximum speed where full,

abrupt control movement can be used

without overstressing the airframe.

MANIFOLD PRESSURE (MP)—

The absolute pressure of the fuel/air

mixture within the intake manifold,

usually indicated in inches of

mercury. 

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE

TAKEOFF POWER—The maximum power an engine is allowed to

develop for a limited period of time;

usually about one minute.

MAXIMUM LANDING

WEIGHT—The greatest weight that

an airplane normally is allowed to

have at landing.

MAXIMUM RAMP WEIGHT—

The total weight of a loaded aircraft,

including all fuel. It is greater than the

takeoff weight due to the fuel that will

be burned during the taxi and runup

operations. Ramp weight may also be

referred to as taxi weight.

allows air to continue flowing over the

top of the wing and delays airflow

separation.

MUSHING—A flight condition

caused by slow speed where the

control surfaces are marginally

effective. 

N1, N2, N3—Spool speed expressed in

percent rpm. N1 on a turboprop is the

gas producer speed. N1 on a turbofan

or turbojet engine is the fan speed or

low pressure spool speed. N2 is the

high pressure spool speed on engine

with 2 spools and medium pressure

spool on engines with 3 spools with

N3 being the high pressure spool.

NACELLE—

A streamlined enclosure on an aircraft

in which an engine is mounted.

On multiengine propeller-driven

airplanes, the nacelle is normally

mounted on the leading edge of the

wing.

NEGATIVE STATIC 

STABILITY—The initial tendency

of an aircraft to continue away from

the original state of equilibrium after

being disturbed.

NEGATIVE TORQUE SENSING

(NTS)— A system in a turboprop

engine that prevents the engine from

being driven by the propeller. The

NTS increases the blade angle when

the propellers try to drive the engine. 

NEUTRAL STATIC

STABILITY—The initial tendency

of an aircraft to remain in a new

condition after its equilibrium has

been disturbed.

NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY

(NICAD)— A battery made up of

alkaline secondary cells. The positive

plates are nickel hydroxide, the

negative plates are cadmium

hydroxide, and potassium hydroxide

is used as the electrolyte.

NORMAL CATEGORY—

An airplane that has a seating

configuration, excluding pilot seats,

MAXIMUM TAKEOFF

WEIGHT—The maximum allowable

weight for takeoff.

MAXIMUM WEIGHT—

The maximum authorized weight of

the aircraft and all of its equipment as

specified in the Type Certificate Data

Sheets (TCDS) for the aircraft.

MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL

WEIGHT (GAMA)—The maximum

weight, exclusive of usable fuel.

MINIMUM CONTROLLABLE

AIRSPEED—An airspeed at which

any further increase in angle of attack,

increase in load factor, or reduction in

power, would result in an immediate

stall.

MINIMUM DRAG SPEED

(L/DMAX)—The point on the total

drag curve where the lift-to-drag ratio

is the greatest. At this speed, total drag

is minimized.

MIXTURE—The ratio of fuel to air

entering the engine’s cylinders.

MMO—Maximum operating speed

expressed in terms of a decimal of

mach speed.

MOMENT ARM—The distance

from a datum to the applied force.

MOMENT INDEX (OR INDEX)—

A moment divided by a constant such

as 100, 1,000, or 10,000. The purpose

of using a moment index is to simplify

weight and balance computations of

airplanes where heavy items and long

arms result in large, unmanageable

numbers.

MOMENT—The product of the

weight of an item multiplied by its

arm. Moments are expressed in

pound-inches (lb-in). Total moment is

the weight of the airplane multiplied

by the distance between the datum and

the CG.

MOVABLE SLAT—A movable

auxiliary airfoil on the leading edge of

a wing. It is closed in normal flight but

extends at high angles of attack. This

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of nine or less, a maximum

certificated takeoff weight of 12,500

pounds or less, and intended for

nonacrobatic operation.

NORMALIZING

(TURBONORMALIZING)—

A turbocharger that maintains sea

level pressure in the induction manifold at altitude.

OCTANE—The rating system of

aviation gasoline with regard to its

antidetonating qualities.

OVERBOOST—A condition in

which a reciprocating engine has

exceeded the maximum manifold

pressure allowed by the manufacturer.

Can cause damage to engine

components.

OVERSPEED—A condition in

which an engine has produced more

r.p.m. than the manufacturer

recommends, or a condition in which

the actual engine speed is higher than

the desired engine speed as set on the

propeller control. 

OVERTEMP—A condition in which

a device has reached a temperature

above that approved by the

manufacturer or any exhaust

temperature that exceeds the

maximum allowable for a given operating condition or time limit. Can

cause internal damage to an engine.

OVERTORQUE—A condition in

which an engine has produced more

torque (power) than the manufacturer

recommends, or a condition in a

turboprop or turboshaft engine where

the engine power has exceeded the

maximum allowable for a given

operating condition or time limit. Can

cause internal damage to an engine.

PARASITE DRAG—That part of

total drag created by the design or

shape of airplane parts. Parasite drag

increases with an increase in airspeed.

PAYLOAD (GAMA)—The weight

of occupants, cargo, and baggage.

P-FACTOR—A tendency for an

aircraft to yaw to the left due to the

for scheduling fuel flow to the

combustion chambers of a turbine

engine.

POWER—Implies work rate or units

of work per unit of time, and as such,

it is a function of the speed at which

the force is developed. The term

“power required” is generally

associated with reciprocating engines.

POWERPLANT—

A complete engine and propeller

combination with accessories.

PRACTICAL SLIP LIMIT—The

maximum slip an aircraft is capable of

performing due to rudder travel limits.

PRECESSION—The tilting or

turning of a gyro in response to

deflective forces causing slow drifting

and erroneous indications in

gyroscopic instruments.

PREIGNITION—Ignition occurring

in the cylinder before the time of

normal ignition. Preignition is often

caused by a local hot spot in the

combustion chamber igniting the

fuel/air mixture.

PRESSURE ALTITUDE—

The altitude indicated when the

altimeter setting window (barometric

scale) is adjusted to 29.92. This is the

altitude above the standard datum

plane, which is a theoretical plane

where air pressure (corrected to 15oC)

equals 29.92 in. Hg. Pressure altitude

is used to compute density altitude,

true altitude, true airspeed, and other

performance data.

PROFILE DRAG—The total of the

skin friction drag and form drag for a

two-dimensional airfoil section.

PROPELLER BLADE ANGLE—

The angle between the propeller chord

and the propeller plane of rotation.

PROPELLER LEVER—

The control on a free power turbine

turboprop that controls propeller

speed and the selection for propeller

feathering.

PROPELLER SLIPSTREAM—

The volume of air accelerated behind

a propeller producing thrust.

descending propeller blade on the

right producing more thrust than the

ascending blade on the left. This

occurs when the aircraft’s

longitudinal axis is in a climbing

attitude in relation to the relative

wind. The P-factor would be to the

right if the aircraft had a counterclockwise rotating propeller.

PILOT’S OPERATING

HANDBOOK (POH)—A document

developed by the airplane

manufacturer and contains the FAAapproved Airplane Flight Manual

(AFM) information.

PISTON ENGINE—A reciprocating

engine.

PITCH—The rotation of an airplane

about its lateral axis, or on a propeller,

the blade angle as measured from

plane of rotation. 

PIVOTAL ALTITUDE—A specific

altitude at which, when an airplane

turns at a given groundspeed, a projecting of the sighting reference line

to a selected point on the ground will

appear to pivot on that point.

PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS—

The power system in an aircraft used

for operating such items as landing

gear, brakes, and wing flaps with

compressed air as the operating fluid.

PORPOISING—

Oscillating around the lateral axis of

the aircraft during landing.

POSITION LIGHTS—Lights on an

aircraft consisting of a red light on the

left wing, a green light on the right

wing, and a white light on the tail.

CFRs require that these lights be

displayed in flight from sunset to

sunrise.

POSITIVE STATIC STABILITY—

The initial tendency to return to a state

of equilibrium when disturbed from

that state.

POWER DISTRIBUTION BUS—

See BUS BAR.

POWER LEVER—The cockpit

lever connected to the fuel control unit

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PROPELLER

SYNCHRONIZATION—

A condition in which all of

the propellers have their pitch

automatically adjusted to maintain a

constant r.p.m. among all of the

engines of a multiengine aircraft.

PROPELLER—A device for

propelling an aircraft that, when

rotated, produces by its action on

the air, a thrust approximately

perpendicular to its plane of rotation.

It includes the control components

normally supplied by its

manufacturer.

RAMP WEIGHT—The total weight

of the aircraft while on the ramp. It

differs from takeoff weight by the

weight of the fuel that will be

consumed in taxiing to the point of

takeoff.

RATE OF TURN—The rate in

degrees/second of a turn.

RECIPROCATING ENGINE—An

engine that converts the heat energy

from burning fuel into the

reciprocating movement of the pistons. This movement is converted into

a rotary motion by the connecting rods

and crankshaft.

REDUCTION GEAR—The gear

arrangement in an aircraft engine that

allows the engine to turn at a faster

speed than the propeller.

REGION OF REVERSE

COMMAND—Flight regime in

which flight at a higher airspeed

requires a lower power setting and a

lower airspeed requires a higher

power setting in order to maintain

altitude.

REGISTRATION

CERTIFICATE—A State and Federal certificate that documents

aircraft ownership.

RELATIVE WIND—The direction

of the airflow with respect to the wing.

If a wing moves forward horizontally,

the relative wind moves backward

horizontally. Relative wind is parallel

to and opposite the flightpath of

the airplane.

alignment guidance during takeoff

and landings. The centerline consists

of a line of uniformly spaced stripes

and gaps.

RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS—

Runway edge lights are used to

outline the edges of runways during

periods of darkness or restricted

visibility conditions. These light

systems are classified according to the

intensity or brightness they are

capable of producing: they are the

High Intensity Runway Lights

(HIRL), Medium Intensity Runway

Lights (MIRL), and the Low Intensity

Runway Lights (LIRL). The HIRL

and MIRL systems have variable

intensity controls, whereas the LIRLs

normally have one intensity setting.

RUNWAY END IDENTIFIER

LIGHTS (REIL)—One component

of the runway lighting system. These

lights are installed at many airfields

to provide rapid and positive

identification of the approach end of a

particular runway.

RUNWAY INCURSION—

Any occurrence at an airport

involving an aircraft, vehicle, person,

or object on the ground that creates a

collision hazard or results in loss of

separation with an aircraft taking off,

intending to takeoff, landing, or

intending to land. 

RUNWAY THRESHOLD

MARKINGS—Runway threshold

markings come in two configurations. They either consist of eight

longitudinal stripes of uniform

dimensions disposed symmetrically

about the runway centerline, or the

number of stripes is related to the

runway width. A threshold marking

helps identify the beginning of the

runway that is available for landing.

In some instances, the landing

threshold may be displaced.

SAFETY (SQUAT) SWITCH—An

electrical switch mounted on one of

the landing gear struts. It is used to

sense when the weight of the aircraft

is on the wheels.

SCAN—A procedure used by the

pilot to visually identify all resources

of information in flight.

REVERSE THRUST—A condition

where jet thrust is directed forward

during landing to increase the rate of

deceleration.

REVERSING PROPELLER—

A propeller system with a pitch

change mechanism that includes full

reversing capability. When the pilot

moves the throttle controls to reverse,

the blade angle changes to a pitch

angle and produces a reverse thrust,

which slows the airplane down during

a landing.

ROLL—The motion of the aircraft

about the longitudinal axis. It is

controlled by the ailerons.

ROUNDOUT (FLARE)—

A pitch-up during landing approach to

reduce rate of descent and forward

speed prior to touchdown.

RUDDER—The movable primary

control surface mounted on the

trailing edge of the vertical fin of an

airplane. Movement of the rudder

rotates the airplane about its vertical

axis.

RUDDERVATOR—A pair of control

surfaces on the tail of an aircraft

arranged in the form of a V. These

surfaces, when moved together by the

control wheel, serve as elevators, and

when moved differentially by the

rudder pedals, serve as a rudder.

RUNWAY CENTERLINE

LIGHTS—Runway centerline lights

are installed on some precision

approach runways to facilitate landing

under adverse visibility conditions.

They are located along the runway

centerline and are spaced at 50-foot

intervals. When viewed from the

landing threshold, the runway

centerline lights are white until the

last 3,000 feet of the runway. The

white lights begin to alternate with red

for the next 2,000 feet, and for the last

1,000 feet of the runway, all centerline

lights are red.

RUNWAY CENTERLINE

MARKINGS—

The runway centerline identifies the

center of the runway and provides

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SEA LEVEL—A reference height

used to determine standard

atmospheric conditions and altitude

measurements.

SEGMENTED CIRCLE—A visual

ground based structure to provide

traffic pattern information.

SERVICE CEILING—

The maximum density altitude where

the best rate-of-climb airspeed will

produce a 100 feet-per-minute climb

at maximum weight while in a clean

configuration with maximum continuous power.

SERVO TAB—An auxiliary control

mounted on a primary control surface,

which automatically moves in the

direction opposite the primary control

to provide an aerodynamic assist in

the movement of the control.

SHAFT HORSE POWER (SHP)—

Turboshaft engines are rated in shaft

horsepower and calculated by use of

a dynamometer device. Shaft

horsepower is exhaust thrust

converted to a rotating shaft.

SHOCK WAVES—A compression

wave formed when a body moves

through the air at a speed greater than

the speed of sound.

SIDESLIP—A slip in which the

airplane’s longitudinal axis remains

parallel to the original flightpath, but the

airplane no longer flies straight ahead.

Instead, the horizontal component of

wing lift forces the airplane to move

sideways toward the low wing. 

SINGLE ENGINE ABSOLUTE

CEILING—The altitude that a twinengine airplane can no longer climb

with one engine inoperative.

SINGLE ENGINE SERVICE

CEILING—The altitude that a twinengine airplane can no longer climb at

a rate greater then 50 f.p.m. with one

engine inoperative.

SKID—A condition where the tail of

the airplane follows a path outside the

path of the nose during a turn.

SPLIT SHAFT

TURBINE ENGINE—See FREE

POWER TURBINE ENGINE.

SPOILERS—High-drag devices that

can be raised into the air flowing over

an airfoil, reducing lift and increasing

drag. Spoilers are used for roll control

on some aircraft. Deploying spoilers

on both wings at the same time allows

the aircraft to descend without gaining speed. Spoilers are also used to

shorten the ground roll after landing.

SPOOL—A shaft in a turbine engine

which drives one or more

compressors with the power derived

from one or more turbines.

STABILATOR—A single-piece horizontal tail surface on an airplane that

pivots around a central hinge point. A

stabilator serves the purposes of both

the horizontal stabilizer and

the elevator.

STABILITY—The inherent quality

of an airplane to correct for conditions

that may disturb its equilibrium, and

to return or to continue on the original

flightpath. It is primarily an airplane

design characteristic.

STABILIZED APPROACH—A

landing approach in which the pilot

establishes and maintains a constant

angle glidepath towards a predetermined point on the landing runway. It

is based on the pilot’s judgment of

certain visual cues, and depends on

the maintenance of a constant final

descent airspeed and configuration. 

STALL—A rapid decrease in lift

caused by the separation of airflow

from the wing’s surface brought on by

exceeding the critical angle of attack.

A stall can occur at any pitch attitude

or airspeed.

STALL STRIPS—A spoiler attached

to the inboard leading edge of some

wings to cause the center section of

the wing to stall before the tips. This

assures lateral control throughout the

stall.

SLIP—An intentional maneuver to

decrease airspeed or increase rate of

descent, and to compensate for a

crosswind on landing. A slip can also

be unintentional when the pilot fails

to maintain the aircraft in coordinated

flight. 

SPECIFIC FUEL

CONSUMPTION—

Number of pounds of fuel consumed

in 1 hour to produce 1 HP.

SPEED—The distance traveled in a

given time.

SPEED BRAKES—A control

system that extends from the airplane

structure into the airstream to

produce drag and slow the airplane.

SPEED INSTABILITY—

A condition in the region of reverse

command where a disturbance that

causes the airspeed to decrease causes

total drag to increase, which in turn,

causes the airspeed to decrease

further. 

SPEED SENSE—The ability to

sense instantly and react to any

reasonable variation of airspeed.

SPIN—An aggravated stall that

results in what is termed an “autorotation” wherein the airplane follows a

downward corkscrew path. As the airplane rotates around the vertical axis,

the rising wing is less stalled than the

descending wing creating a rolling,

yawing, and pitching motion. 

SPIRAL INSTABILITY—

A condition that exists when the static

directional stability of the airplane is

very strong as compared to the effect

of its dihedral in maintaining lateral

equilibrium.

SPIRALING SLIPSTREAM—The

slipstream of a propeller-driven

airplane rotates around the airplane.

This slipstream strikes the left side of

the vertical fin, causing the airplane to

yaw slightly. Vertical stabilizer offset

is sometimes used by aircraft designers to counteract this tendency.

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G-14

STANDARD ATMOSPHERE—

At sea level, the standard atmosphere

consists of a barometric pressure of

29.92 inches of mercury (in. Hg.) or

1013.2 millibars, and a temperature of

15°C (59°F). Pressure and temperature normally decrease as altitude

increases. The standard lapse rate in

the lower atmosphere for each 1,000

feet of altitude is approximately 1 in.

Hg. and 2°C (3.5°F). For example, the

standard pressure and temperature at

3,000 feet mean sea level (MSL) is

26.92 in. Hg. (29.92 - 3) and 9°C

(15°C - 6°C).

STANDARD DAY—

See STANDARD ATMOSPHERE.

STANDARD EMPTY WEIGHT

(GAMA)—This weight consists of

the airframe, engines, and all items of

operating equipment that have fixed

locations and are permanently

installed in the airplane; including

fixed ballast, hydraulic fluid, unusable

fuel, and full engine oil.

STANDARD WEIGHTS—These

have been established for numerous

items involved in weight and balance

computations. These weights should

not be used if actual weights are

available.

STANDARD-RATE TURN—A turn

at the rate of 3o per second which

enables the airplane to complete a

360o turn in 2 minutes.

STARTER/GENERATOR—

A combined unit used on turbine

engines. The device acts as a starter

for rotating the engine, and after

running, internal circuits are shifted to

convert the device into a generator. 

STATIC STABILITY—The initial

tendency an aircraft displays when

disturbed from a state of equilibrium.

STATION—A location in the

airplane that is identified by a number

designating its distance in inches from

the datum. The datum is, therefore,

identified as station zero. An item

located at station +50 would have an

arm of 50 inches.

TAXIWAY LIGHTS—

Omnidirectional lights that outline the

edges of the taxiway and are blue in

color. 

TAXIWAY TURNOFF LIGHTS—

Flush lights which emit a steady green

color.

TETRAHEDRON—

A large, triangular-shaped, kite-like

object installed near the runway.

Tetrahedrons are mounted on a pivot

and are free to swing with the wind to

show the pilot the direction of the

wind as an aid in takeoffs and

landings.

THROTTLE—The valve in a

carburetor or fuel control unit that

determines the amount of fuel-air

mixture that is fed to the engine.

THRUST LINE—An imaginary line

passing through the center of the

propeller hub, perpendicular to the

plane of the propeller rotation.

THRUST REVERSERS—Devices

which redirect the flow of jet exhaust

to reverse the direction of thrust.

THRUST—The force which imparts

a change in the velocity of a mass.

This force is measured in pounds but

has no element of time or rate. The

term, thrust required, is generally

associated with jet engines. A forward

force which propels the airplane

through the air.

TIMING—The application of

muscular coordination at the proper

instant to make flight, and all

maneuvers incident thereto, a constant

smooth process.

TIRE CORD—Woven metal wire

laminated into the tire to provide extra

strength. A tire showing any cord

must be replaced prior to any further

flight.

TORQUE METER—An indicator

used on some large reciprocating

engines or on turboprop engines to

indicate the amount of torque the

engine is producing.

STICK PULLER—A device that

applies aft pressure on the control

column when the airplane is approaching the maximum operating speed.

STICK PUSHER—A device that

applies an abrupt and large forward

force on the control column when the

airplane is nearing an angle of attack

where a stall could occur. 

STICK SHAKER—An artificial

stall warning device that vibrates the

control column.

STRESS RISERS—

A scratch, groove, rivet hole, forging

defect or other structural discontinuity

that causes a concentration of stress.

SUBSONIC—Speed below the speed

of sound.

SUPERCHARGER—An engine- or

exhaust-driven air compressor used to

provide additional pressure to the

induction air so the engine can

produce additional power.

SUPERSONIC—Speed above the

speed of sound.

SUPPLEMENTAL TYPE

CERTIFICATE (STC)—

A certificate authorizing an alteration

to an airframe, engine, or component

that has been granted an Approved

Type Certificate.

SWEPT WING—A wing planform

in which the tips of the wing are

farther back than the wing root.

TAILWHEEL AIRCRAFT—

SEE CONVENTIONAL LANDING

GEAR.

TAKEOFF ROLL

(GROUND ROLL)—The total

distance required for an aircraft to

become airborne.

TARGET REVERSER—A thrust

reverser in a jet engine in which

clamshell doors swivel from the

stowed position at the engine tailpipe

to block all of the outflow and redirect

some component of the thrust

forward.

Glossary.qxd 5/7/04 10:46 AM Page G-14
G-15

TORQUE SENSOR—

See TORQUE METER.

TORQUE—1. A resistance to turning

or twisting. 2. Forces that produce a

twisting or rotating motion. 3. In an

airplane, the tendency of the aircraft

to turn (roll) in the opposite direction

of rotation of the engine and propeller. 

TOTAL DRAG—The sum of the

parasite and induced drag.

TOUCHDOWN ZONE LIGHTS—

Two rows of transverse light bars

disposed symmetrically about the

runway centerline in the runway

touchdown zone.

TRACK—The actual path made over

the ground in flight.

TRAILING EDGE—The portion of

the airfoil where the airflow over the

upper surface rejoins the lower

surface airflow.

TRANSITION LINER—

The portion of the combustor that

directs the gases into the turbine

plenum.

TRANSONIC—At the speed of

sound.

TRANSPONDER—The airborne

portion of the secondary surveillance

radar system. The transponder emits a

reply when queried by a radar facility.

TRICYCLE GEAR—Landing gear

employing a third wheel located on

the nose of the aircraft.

TRIM TAB—A small auxiliary

hinged portion of a movable control

surface that can be adjusted during

flight to a position resulting in a

balance of control forces.

TRIPLE SPOOL ENGINE—

Usually a turbofan engine design

where the fan is the N1 compressor,

followed by the N2 intermediate

compressor, and the N3 high pressure

compressor, all of which rotate on

separate shafts at different speeds. 

TURBINE SECTION—The section

of the engine that converts high

pressure high temperature gas into

rotational energy.

TURBOCHARGER—

An air compressor driven by exhaust

gases, which increases the pressure of

the air going into the engine through

the carburetor or fuel injection

system.

TURBOFAN ENGINE—A turbojet

engine in which additional propulsive

thrust is gained by extending a portion

of the compressor or turbine blades

outside the inner engine case. The

extended blades propel bypass air

along the engine axis but between the

inner and outer casing. The air is not

combusted but does provide additional thrust. 

TURBOJET ENGINE—A jet

engine incorporating a turbine-driven

air compressor to take in and compress air for the combustion of fuel,

the gases of combustion being used

both to rotate the turbine and create a

thrust producing jet. 

TURBOPROP ENGINE—A turbine

engine that drives a propeller through

a reduction gearing arrangement.

Most of the energy in the exhaust

gases is converted into torque, rather

than its acceleration being used to

propel the aircraft.

TURBULENCE—An occurrence in

which a flow of fluid is unsteady.

TURN COORDINATOR—A rate

gyro that senses both roll and yaw due

to the gimbal being canted. Has

largely replaced the turn-and-slip

indicator in modern aircraft.

TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR—

A flight instrument consisting of a rate

gyro to indicate the rate of yaw and a

curved glass inclinometer to indicate

the relationship between gravity and

centrifugal force. The turn-and-slip

indicator indicates the relationship

between angle of bank and rate of

yaw. Also called a turn-and-bank

indicator.

TROPOPAUSE—The boundary

layer between the troposphere and the

mesosphere which acts as a lid to

confine most of the water vapor, and

the associated weather, to the

troposphere.

TROPOSPHERE—The layer of the

atmosphere extending from the

surface to a height of 20,000 to 60,000

feet depending on latitude.

TRUE AIRSPEED (TAS)—

Calibrated airspeed corrected for altitude and nonstandard temperature.

Because air density decreases with an

increase in altitude, an airplane has to

be flown faster at higher altitudes to

cause the same pressure difference

between pitot impact pressure and

static pressure. Therefore, for a given

calibrated airspeed, true airspeed

increases as altitude increases; or for a

given true airspeed, calibrated airspeed decreases as altitude increases.

TRUE ALTITUDE—The vertical

distance of the airplane above sea

level—the actual altitude. It is often

expressed as feet above mean sea

level (MSL). Airport, terrain, and

obstacle elevations on aeronautical

charts are true altitudes.

T-TAIL—An aircraft with the

horizontal stabilizer mounted on the

top of the vertical stabilizer, forming

a T.

TURBINE BLADES—The portion

of the turbine assembly that absorbs

the energy of the expanding gases and

converts it into rotational energy.

TURBINE OUTLET

TEMPERATURE (TOT)—

The temperature of the gases as they

exit the turbine section.

TURBINE PLENUM—The portion

of the combustor where the gases are

collected to be evenly distributed to

the turbine blades.

TURBINE ROTORS—The portion

of the turbine assembly that mounts to

the shaft and holds the turbine blades

in place.

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G-16

TURNING ERROR—One of the

errors inherent in a magnetic compass

caused by the dip compensating

weight. It shows up only on turns to or

from northerly headings in the

Northern Hemisphere and southerly

headings in the Southern Hemisphere.

Turning error causes the compass to

lead turns to the north or south and lag

turns away from the north or south.

ULTIMATE LOAD FACTOR—

In stress analysis, the load that causes

physical breakdown in an aircraft or

aircraft component during a strength

test, or the load that according to

computations, should cause such a

breakdown.

UNFEATHERING

ACCUMULATOR—Tanks that hold

oil under pressure which can be used

to unfeather a propeller.

UNICOM—

A nongovernment air/ground radio

communication station which may

provide airport information at public

use airports where there is no tower or

FSS.

UNUSABLE FUEL—Fuel that

cannot be consumed by the engine.

This fuel is considered part of the

empty weight of the aircraft.

USEFUL LOAD—The weight of the

pilot, copilot, passengers, baggage,

usable fuel, and drainable oil. It is the

basic empty weight subtracted from

the maximum allowable gross weight.

This term applies to general aviation

aircraft only.

UTILITY CATEGORY—

An airplane that has a seating

configuration, excluding pilot seats,

of nine or less, a maximum

certificated takeoff weight of 12,500

pounds or less, and intended for

limited acrobatic operation.

V-BARS—The flight director

displays on the attitude indicator that

provide control guidance to the pilot.

V-SPEEDS—Designated speeds for a

specific flight condition.

VFE—The maximum speed with the

flaps extended. The upper limit of the

white arc.

VFO—The maximum speed that the

flaps can be extended or retracted.

VFR TERMINAL AREA

CHARTS (1:250,000)—

Depict Class B airspace which

provides for the control or

segregation of all the aircraft within

the Class B airspace. The chart depicts

topographic information and

aeronautical information which

includes visual and radio aids

to navigation, airports, controlled

airspace, restricted areas, obstructions, and related data.

V-G DIAGRAM—A chart that

relates velocity to load factor. It is

valid only for a specific weight,

configuration, and altitude and shows

the maximum amount of positive or

negative lift the airplane is capable of

generating at a given speed. Also

shows the safe load factor limits and

the load factor that the aircraft can

sustain at various speeds.

VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE

INDICATOR (VASI)—

The most common visual glidepath

system in use. The VASI provides

obstruction clearance within 10° of

the extended runway centerline, and

to 4 nautical miles (NM) from the

runway threshold.

VISUAL FLIGHT

RULES (VFR)—

Code of Federal Regulations that govern the procedures for conducting

flight under visual conditions.

VLE—Landing gear extended speed.

The maximum speed at which an

airplane can be safely flown with the

landing gear extended.

VLOF—Lift-off speed. The speed at

which the aircraft departs the runway

during takeoff.

VLO—Landing gear operating speed.

The maximum speed for extending or

retracting the landing gear if using an

airplane equipped with retractable

landing gear.

VAPOR LOCK—A condition in

which air enters the fuel system and it

may be difficult, or impossible, to

restart the engine. Vapor lock may

occur as a result of running a fuel tank

completely dry, allowing air to enter

the fuel system. On fuel-injected

engines, the fuel may become so hot it

vaporizes in the fuel line, not allowing

fuel to reach the cylinders.

VA—The design maneuvering speed.

This is the “rough air” speed and the

maximum speed for abrupt

maneuvers. If during flight, rough air

or severe turbulence is encountered,

reduce the airspeed to maneuvering

speed or less to minimize stress on the

airplane structure. It is important to

consider weight when referencing this

speed. For example, VA may be 100

knots when an airplane is heavily

loaded, but only 90 knots when the

load is light.

VECTOR—A force vector is a

graphic representation of a force and

shows both the magnitude and

direction of the force.

VELOCITY—The speed or rate of

movement in a certain direction.

VERTICAL AXIS—An imaginary

line passing vertically through the

center of gravity of an aircraft. The

vertical axis is called the z-axis or the

yaw axis.

VERTICAL CARD COMPASS—

A magnetic compass that consists of

an azimuth on a vertical card,

resembling a heading indicator with a

fixed miniature airplane to accurately

present the heading of the aircraft.

The design uses eddy current

damping to minimize lead and lag

during turns.

VERTICAL

SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)—

An instrument that uses static pressure

to display a rate of climb or descent in

feet per minute. The VSI can also

sometimes be called a vertical

velocity indicator (VVI).

VERTICAL STABILITY—Stability

about an aircraft’s vertical axis. Also

called yawing or directional stability.

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G-17

VMC—Minimum control airspeed.

This is the minimum flight speed at

which a twin-engine airplane can be

satisfactorily controlled when an

engine suddenly becomes inoperative

and the remaining engine is at takeoff

power.

VMD—Minimum drag speed.

VMO—Maximum operating speed

expressed in knots.

VNE—Never-exceed speed. Operating

above this speed is prohibited since it

may result in damage or structural

failure. The red line on the airspeed

indicator.

VNO—Maximum structural cruising

speed. Do not exceed this speed

except in smooth air. The upper limit

of the green arc.

VP—Minimum dynamic hydroplaning speed. The minimum speed

required to start dynamic

hydroplaning.

VR—Rotation speed. The speed that

the pilot begins rotating the aircraft

prior to lift-off.

VS0—Stalling speed or the minimum

steady flight speed in the landing configuration. In small airplanes, this is

the power-off stall speed at the maximum landing weight in the landing

configuration (gear and flaps down).

The lower limit of the white arc.

VS1—Stalling speed or the minimum

steady flight speed obtained in a

specified configuration. For most

airplanes, this is the power-off stall

speed at the maximum takeoff weight

in the clean configuration (gear up, if

retractable, and flaps up). The lower

limit of the green arc.

VSSE—Safe, intentional one-engine

inoperative speed. The minimum

speed to intentionally render the

critical engine inoperative.

V-TAIL—A design which utilizes

two slanted tail surfaces to perform

equal to the mass of the body times

the local value of gravitational

acceleration. One of the four main

forces acting on an aircraft.

Equivalent to the actual weight of the

aircraft. It acts downward through the

aircraft’s center of gravity toward the

center of the Earth. Weight opposes

lift.

WEIGHT AND BALANCE—The

aircraft is said to be in weight and

balance when the gross weight of the

aircraft is under the max gross weight,

and the center of gravity is within

limits and will remain in limits for the

duration of the flight.

WHEELBARROWING—

A condition caused when forward

yoke or stick pressure during takeoff

or landing causes the aircraft to ride

on the nosewheel alone.

WIND CORRECTION ANGLE—

Correction applied to the course to

establish a heading so that track will

coincide with course.

WIND

DIRECTION INDICATORS—

Indicators that include a wind sock,

wind tee, or tetrahedron. Visual

reference will determine wind

direction and runway in use.

WIND SHEAR—A sudden, drastic

shift in windspeed, direction, or both

that may occur in the horizontal or

vertical plane.

WINDMILLING—When the air

moving through a propeller creates

the rotational energy.

WINDSOCK—A truncated cloth

cone open at both ends and mounted

on a freewheeling pivot that indicates

the direction from which the wind is

blowing.

WING—Airfoil attached to each side

of the fuselage and are the main

lifting surfaces that support the

airplane in flight.

the same functions as the surfaces of a

conventional elevator and rudder

configuration. The fixed surfaces act

as both horizontal and vertical

stabilizers.

VX—Best angle-of-climb speed. The

airspeed at which an airplane gains the

greatest amount of altitude in a given

distance. It is used during a short-field

takeoff to clear an obstacle.

VXSE—Best angle of climb speed with

one engine inoperative. The airspeed

at which an airplane gains the greatest

amount of altitude in a given distance

in a light, twin-engine airplane

following an engine failure.

VY—Best rate-of-climb speed. This

airspeed provides the most altitude

gain in a given period of time.

VYSE—Best rate-of-climb speed with

one engine inoperative. This airspeed

provides the most altitude gain in a

given period of time in a light, twinengine airplane following an engine

failure.

WAKE TURBULENCE—Wingtip

vortices that are created when an

airplane generates lift. When an

airplane generates lift, air spills over

the wingtips from the high pressure

areas below the wings to the low

pressure areas above them. This flow

causes rapidly rotating whirlpools of

air called wingtip vortices or wake

turbulence.

WASTE GATE—A controllable

valve in the tailpipe of an aircraft

reciprocating engine equipped with a

turbocharger. The valve is controlled

to vary the amount of exhaust gases

forced through the turbocharger

turbine.

WEATHERVANE—The tendency of

the aircraft to turn into the relative

wind. 

WEIGHT—A measure of the

heaviness of an object. The force by

which a body is attracted toward the

center of the Earth (or another

celestial body) by gravity. Weight is

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G-18

WING AREA—The total surface of

the wing (square feet), which includes

control surfaces and may include

wing area covered by the fuselage

(main body of the airplane), and

engine nacelles.

WING SPAN—

The maximum distance from wingtip

to wingtip.

WINGTIP VORTICES—

The rapidly rotating air that spills over

an airplane’s wings during flight. The

intensity of the turbulence depends on

the airplane’s weight, speed, and

configuration. It is also referred to as

ZERO FUEL WEIGHT—

The weight of the aircraft to include

all useful load except fuel.

ZERO SIDESLIP—A maneuver in a

twin-engine airplane with one engine

inoperative that involves a small

amount of bank and slightly

uncoordinated flight to align the

fuselage with the direction of travel

and minimize drag.

ZERO THRUST

(SIMULATED FEATHER)—

An engine configuration with a low

power setting that simulates a

propeller feathered condition. 

wake turbulence. Vortices from heavy

aircraft may be extremely hazardous

to small aircraft.

WING TWIST—A design feature

incorporated into some wings to

improve aileron control effectiveness

at high angles of attack during an

approach to a stall.

YAW—Rotation about the vertical

axis of an aircraft.

YAW STRING—A string on the nose

or windshield of an aircraft in view of

the pilot that indicates any slipping or

skidding of the aircraft.

Glossary.qxd 5/7/04 10:46 AM Page G-18
I-1

180° POWER-OFF APPROACH 8-23

360° POWER-OFF APPROACH 8-24

90° POWER-OFF APPROACH 8-21

A

ABSOLUTE CEILING 12-8

ACCELERATED STALL 4-9

ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE 12-8

ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE 12-8

ACCURACY APPROACH 8-21

180° power-off 8-23

360° power-off 8-24

90° power-off 8-21

ADVERSE YAW 3-8

AFTER LANDING 2-11

crosswind tailwheel 13-5

roll 8-7

tailwheel 13-4

AIMING POINT 8-8

AIRCRAFT LOGBOOKS 2-1

AIRFOIL TYPES 11-1

AIRMANSHIP 1-1

skills 1-1

AIRPLANE EQUIPMENT, Night 10-3

AIRPLANE FEEL 3-2

AIRPLANE LIGHTING, Night 10-3

AIRPORT LIGHTING 10-4

AIRPORT TRAFFIC PATTERN 7-1

base leg 7-3

crosswind leg 7-4

departure leg 7-4

downwind leg 7-3

entry leg 7-3

final approach leg 7-3

upwind leg 7-3

AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES 2-1

ALTERNATOR/GENERATOR 12-7

ALTITUDE TURBOCHARGING 11-7

ANTI-ICING 12-7

APPROACH AND LANDING 8-1

after-landing roll 8-7

base leg 8-1

crosswind 8-15

emergency 8-25

estimating height and movement 8-4

faulty 8-27

final approach 8-2

go-around 8-11

multiengine 12-14

night 10-6

normal 8-1

roundout (flare) 8-5

short-field 8-17

soft-field 8-19

stabilized approach 8-7

touchdown 8-6

turbulent air 8-17

use of flaps 8-3

ATTITUDE FLYING 3-2

AUTOPILOT 12-6

AXIAL FLOW 14-5

B

BACK SIDE OF THE POWER CURVE 8-19

BALLOONING 8-3, 8-30

BANK ATTITUDE 3-2

BASE LEG 7-3, 8-1

BEFORE TAKEOFF CHECK 2-11

BEST ANGLE OF CLIMB (VX) 3-13, 12-1

one engine inoperative (VXSE) 12-1

BEST GLIDE SPEED 3-16

BEST RATE OF CLIMB 3-13, 12-1

one engine inoperative (VYSE) 12-1

BETA RANGE 14-7

BLACK HOLE APPROACH 10-2

BOUNCING 8-30

BUS BAR 14-8

BUS TIE 14-9

BYPASS AIR 15-2

BYPASS RATIO 15-2

C

CASCADE REVERSER 15-14

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

STAGE 14-5

CHANDELLE 9-4

CHECKLISTS, Use of, 1-6

CIRCUIT BREAKER 14-9

CLEAR OF RUNWAY 2-11

CLIMB GRADIENT 12-8

Index.qxd 5/7/04 10:52 AM Page I-1
I-2

CLIMBS 3-13

maximum performance 5-8

night 10-5

COCKPIT MANAGEMENT 2-7

COLLISION AVOIDANCE 1-4

COMBUSTION CHAMBER 14-1

COMBUSTION HEATER 12-6

COMPLEX AIRPLANE 11-1

COMPRESSION RATIO 15-1

COMPRESSOR 14-1

CONDITION LEVER 14-4

CONES 10-1

CONFINED AREA 16-4

CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLER 11-4

blade angle control 11-5

governing range 11-5

operation 11-5

CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLER 11-3

CONVENTIONAL GEAR AIRPLANE 13-1

CORE AIRFLOW 15-2

CRAZING 2-2

CRITICAL ALTITUDE 11-7

CRITICAL MACH 15-7

CROSS-CONTROL STALL 4-10

CROSSWIND APPROACH

AND LANDING 8-13

CROSSWIND COMPONENT 5-6

CROSSWIND LEG 7-4

CROSSWIND TAKEOFF 5-5

CURRENT LIMITER 14-9

D

DEICING 12-7

DEPARTURE LEG 7-4

DESCENTS 3-15

minimum safe airspeed 3-16

partial power 3-16

DITCHING 16-1

DOWNWASH 8-3

DOWNWIND LEG 7-3

DRAG DEVICES 15-13

DRIFT 6-2

DUCTED FAN 15-2

E

EGT 11-8

EIGHTS ACROSS A ROAD 6-11

EIGHTS ALONG A ROAD 6-9

EIGHTS AROUND PYLONS 6-11

EIGHTS-ON-PYLONS 6-12

ELEMENTARY EIGHTS 6-9

ELEVATOR TRIM STALL 4-11

ELT 2-1

EMERGENCIES

abnormal instrument indications 16-11

door open in flight 16-12

electrical system 16-10

engine failure 16-5

fires 16-7

flap failure 16-8

landing gear malfunction 16-9

loss of elevator control 16-9

night 10-8

pitot-static system 16-11

VFR flight into IMC 16-12

EMERGENCY APPROACH

AND LANDING 8-25

EMERGENCY DESCENTS 16-6

EMERGENCY GEAR

EXTENSION SYSTEM 11-10

EMERGENCY LANDINGS 16-1

airplane configuration 16-3

psychological hazards 16-1

safety concepts 16-2

terrain selection 16-3

terrain types 16-4

EMERGENCY LOCATOR

TRANSMITTER 2-1

ENGINE FAILURE AFTER TAKEOFF 16-5

ENGINE FAILURE, MULTIENGINE

approach and landing 12-22

during flight 12-21

flight principles 12-23

takeoff 12-18

ENGINE SHUTDOWN 2-12

ENGINE STARTING 2-7

ENTRY LEG 7-3

EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE 11-8

EXHAUST MANIFOLD 11-7

EXHAUST SECTION 14-1

F

FALSE START 14-10

FAULTY APPROACHES 8-27

ballooning 8-30

floating 8-29

high final 8-27

high roundout 8-28

low final 8-27

slow final 8-28

FEATHERING 12-3

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA) 1-1

FEEL OF THE AIRPLANE 3-2

FINAL APPROACH 8-2

FINAL APPROACH LEG 7-3

FIRES

cabin 16-8

electrical 16-7

engine 16-7

Index.qxd 5/7/04 10:52 AM Page I-2
I-3

FIXED SHAFT ENGINE 14-3

FLAP EXTENSION SPEED (VFE) 12-15

FLAPS 11-1

effectiveness 11-2

function 11-1

operational procedures 11-2

use of 8-3

FLARE 8-5

FLIGHT CONTROLS 3-1

FLIGHT DIRECTOR 12-6

FLIGHT IDLE 14-7

FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR, ROLE OF 1-3

FLIGHT SAFETY 1-4

FLIGHT STANDARDS DISTRICT

OFFICE (FSDO) 1-2

FLIGHT TRAINING SCHOOLS 1-3

FLOATING 8-29

FORCED LANDING 16-1

FORWARD SLIP 8-10

FOUR FUNDAMENTALS 3-1

FREE TURBINE ENGINE 14-5

FUEL CONTROL UNIT 14-6

FUEL CONTROLLER 14-1

FUEL CROSSFEED 12-5

FUEL HEATER 15-3

G

GAS GENERATOR 15-2

GAS TURBINE ENGINE 14-1

GLIDE 3-16

GLIDE RATIO 3-16

GO-AROUND (REJECTED LANDING) 8-11, 12-17

GOVERNING RANGE 11-5

GROUND BOOSTING 11-7

GROUND EFFECT 5-7, 8-13

GROUND INSPECTION 2-1

GROUND LOOP 8-33, 13-6

GROUND OPERATIONS 2-7

GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS 6-1

drift and ground track control 6-2

eights across a road 6-11

eights along a road 6-9

eights around pylons 6-11

eights-on-pylons (pylon eights) 6-12

rectangular course 6-4

s-turns across a road 6-6

turns around a point 6-7

GROUND ROLL 5-1

GROUND TRACK CONTROL 6-2

GROUNDSPEED 6-3

HAND PROPPING 2-8

HAND SIGNALS 2-7

HIGH PERFORMANCE AIRPLANE 11-1

HOT START 14-10

HUNG START 14-10

HYDROPLANING 8-34

I

ILLUSIONS 10-2

INITIAL CLIMB 5-1

INTAKE MANIFOLD 11-7

INTEGRATED FLIGHT INSTRUCTION 3-3

INTENTIONAL SPIN 4-15

INVERTER 14-8

JET AIRPLANE 15-1

approach and landing 15-19

low speed flight 15-10

pilot sensations 15-15

rotation and lift-off 15-18

stalls 15-10

takeoff and climb 15-16

touchdown and rollout 15-24

J

JET ENGINE 15-1

efficiency 15-5

fuel heater 15-3

ignition 15-3

operating 15-2

K

KINESTHESIA 3-2

L

L/DMAX 3-16

LANDING GEAR

controls 11-10

electrical 11-9

electrohydraulic 11-9

emergency extension 11-10

hydraulic 11-9

malfunction 16-9

operational procedures 11-12

position indicators 11-10

retractable 11-9 

safety devices 11-10

tailwheel 13-1

LATERAL AXIS 3-2

LAZY EIGHT 9-6

LEVEL FLIGHT 3-4

LIFT-OFF 5-1

LIFT-OFF SPEED (VLOF) 12-1

Index.qxd 5/7/04 10:52 AM Page I-3
I-4

LONGITUDINAL AXIS 3-2

LOSS OF DIRECTIONAL

CONTROL DEMONSTRATION 12-27

M

MACH 15-7

MACH BUFFET BOUNDARIES 15-8

MACH TUCK 15-7

MANEUVERING SPEED 9-1

MAXIMUM OPERATING SPEED 15-6

MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE

CLIMB 5-8

MAXIMUM SAFE

CROSSWIND VELOCITIES 8-16

MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED (VMC) 12-2

MINIMUM CONTROLLABLE

AIRSPEED 4-1

MINIMUM DRAG SPEED 4-2

MULTIENGINE AIRPLANE 12-1

approach and landing 12-14

crosswind approach and landing 12-16

engine failure during flight 12-21

engine failure on takeoff 12-18

fuel crossfeed 12-5

go-around 12-17

ground operation 12-12

level off and cruise 12-14

one engine inoperative approach and 

landing 12-22

propeller 12-3

propeller synchronization 12-5

rejected takeoff 12-18

short-field operations 12-16

slow flight 12-25

stalls 12-25 

takeoff and climb 12-12

weight and balance 12-10

MUSHING 3-2

N

NIGHT OPERATIONS

airplane equipment 10-3

airplane lighting 10-3

airport and navigation lighting aids 10-4

approach and landing 10-6

emergencies 10-8

illusions 10-2

orientation and navigation 10-6

pilot equipment 10-3

preparation and preflight 10-4

start, taxi, and runup 10-5

takeoff and climb 10-5

NIGHT VISION 10-1

NOISE ABATEMENT 5-11

NORMAL TAKEOFF 5-2

NOSE BAGGAGE COMPARTMENT 12-7

O

ONE-ENGINE-INOPERATIVE SPEED (VSSE) 12-1

OVERBANKING TENDENCY 3-9

OVERBOOST CONDITION 11-9

OVERSPEED 15-8

P

PARALLAX ERROR 3-11

PARKING 2-11

PILOT EQUIPMENT, Night 10-3

PILOT EXAMINER, Role of 1-2

PITCH AND POWER 3-19

PITCH ATTITUDE 3-2

PIVOTAL ALTITUDE 6-14

PORPOISING 8-31

POSITION LIGHTS 10-3

POSITIVE TRANSFER OF CONTROLS 1-6

POSTFLIGHT 2-12

POWER CURVE 8-19

POWER LEVER 14-4

PRACTICAL SLIP LIMIT 8-11

PRACTICAL TEST STANDARDS (PTS) 1-4

PRECAUTIONARY LANDING 16-1

PREFLIGHT INSPECTION 2-2

PRESSURE CONTROLLER 11-7

PROPELLER 11-3, 12-3

PROPELLER BLADE ANGLE 11-4

control 11-5

PROPELLER CONTROL 11-4

PROPELLER SYNCHRONIZATION 12-5

PSYCHOLOGICAL HAZARDS 16-1

PYLON EIGHTS 6-12

R

RADIUS OF TURN 3-10

RECTANGULAR COURSE 6-4

REGION OF REVERSE COMMAND 8-19

REJECTED LANDING 8-11

REJECTED TAKEOFF 5-11, 12-18

RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR 11-9

approach and landing 11-13

controls 11-10

electrical 11-9

electrohydraulic 11-9

emergency extension 11-10

hydraulic 11-9

Index.qxd 5/7/04 10:52 AM Page I-4
I-5

operational procedures 11-12

position indicators 11-10

safety devices 11-10

takeoff and climb 11-13

transition training 11-14

REVERSE THRUST 14-7

RODS 10-1

ROTATING BEACON 10-4

ROTATION 5-1

ROTATION SPEED (VR) 12-1

ROUGH-FIELD TAKEOFF 5-10

ROUNDOUT 8-5

ballooning 8-3

floating 8-29

high 8-28

late or rapid 8-29

RUNWAY INCURSION 1-5

RUNWAY LIGHTS 10-4

S

SAFETY CONCEPTS 16-2

SECONDARY STALL 4-9

SECURING 2-12

SEGMENTED CIRCLE 7-3

SERVICE CEILING 12-8

SERVICING 2-12

SHORT-FIELD

approach and landing 8-17

tailwheel 13-3

takeoff 5-8

SIDESLIP 5-6, 8-10

SINK RATE 16-3

SKID 3-8

SLIP 3-8, 8-10

SLOW FLIGHT 4-1, 12-25

SOFT FIELD

approach and landing 8-19

tailwheel 13-4

takeoff 5-10

SPEED BRAKE 15-13

SPEED INSTABILITY 4-2

SPIN AWARENESS 12-26

SPINS 4-12

developed phase 4-14

entry phase 4-13

incipient phase 4-13

intentional 4-15

procedures 4-13

recovery phase 4-14

weight and balance requirements 4-16

SPLIT SHAFT ENGINE 14-5

SPOILERS 15-13

SQUAT SWITCH 11-10

STABILIZED APPROACH 8-7, 15-21

STALL AWARENESS 1-6

STALLS 4-3

accelerated 4-9

characteristics 4-6

cross-control 4-10

elevator trim 4-11

imminent 4-6

jet airplane 15-10

multiengine 12-25

power-off 4-7

power-on 4-8

recognition 4-3

recovery 4-4

secondary 4-9

use of ailerons/rudders 4-5

STEEP SPIRAL 9-3

STEEP TURNS 9-1

STRAIGHT FLIGHT 3-5

STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT 3-4

S-TURNS ACROSS A ROAD 6-6

T

TAILWHEEL AIRPLANES 13-1

crosswind landing 13-5

crosswind takeoff 13-3

short-field landing 13-6

short-field takeoff 13-3

soft-field landing 13-6

soft-field takeoff 13-4

takeoff 13-3

takeoff roll 13-2

taxiing 13-1

touchdown 13-4

wheel landing 13-6

TAKEOFF

crosswind 5-5

ground effect 5-7

multiengine 12-2

night 10-5

normal 5-2

rejected 5-11

roll 5-1

short field 5-8

soft/rough field 5-10

tailwheel 13-3

tailwheel crosswind 13-3

tailwheel short-field 13-3

tailwheel soft-field 13-4

TARGET REVERSER 15-14

TAXIING 2-9

tailwheel 13-1

THRUST LEVER 15-4

THRUST REVERSERS 15-14

TOUCHDOWN 8-6

bounce 8-30

crab 8-32

drift 8-32

Index.qxd 5/7/04 10:52 AM Page I-5
I-6

ground loop 8-33

hard landing 8-32

porpoise 8-31

tailwheel 13-4

wheelbarrowing 8-32

wing rise 8-33

TRACK 6-2

TRAFFIC PATTERN INDICATOR 7-3

TRANSITION TRAINING

complex airplane 11-14

high performance airplane 11-14

jet powered airplanes 15-1

multiengine airplane 12-31

tailwheel airplanes 13-1

turbopropeller powered airplanes 14-12

TRANSONIC FLOW 15-7

TRIM CONTROL 3-6

TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURE 11-8

TURBINE SECTION 14-1

TURBOCHARGER 11-7

failure 11-9

heat management 11-8

operating characteristics 11-8

TURBOFAN ENGINE 15-2

TURBOPROP AIRPLANE 14-1

electrical system 14-8

operational considerations 14-10

TURBOPROP ENGINES 14-2

TURBULENT AIR APPROACH

AND LANDING 8-17

TURNS 3-7

climbing 3-15

coordinated 3-9

gliding 3-18

level 3-7

medium 3-7

shallow 3-7

steep 3-8

TURNS AROUND A POINT 6-7

U

UPWIND LEG 7-3

V

VFR FLIGHT INTO

IMC CONDITIONS 16-12

VISUAL GROUND INSPECTION 2-1

V-SPEEDS 12-1, 15-16, 15-19

W 

WASTE GATE 11-7

WEATHERVANE 5-5

WEIGHT AND BALANCE 12-10

WHEEL LANDING 13-6

WHEELBARROWING 5-9, 8-17, 8-32

WINDSOCK 7-3

WINGTIP WASHOUT 4-5

Y

YAW 3-2

YAW DAMPER 12-6

Index.qxd 5/7/04 10:52 AM Page I-6