Coral Reef Protection Coral Reef Protection

Implementation Plan Implementation Plan
The Office of the Secr fice of the Secretary of Defense designated the Department of the Navy to act as the

DoD representative to the Coral Reef Task For ask Force.

This Coral Reef Pr This Coral Reef Protection Implementation Plan was developed with contributions fr otection Implementation Plan was developed with contributions from the

Navy, Army, Air For , Air Force, and Marine Corps. Text was drafted by ADI Technology, Inc. under the

direction of the Naval Facilities Engineering Command. Publication edited and designed by

Lisa Kerr Lobel and Dr Lisa Kerr Lobel and Dr. Phillip Lobel, Boston University Marine Pr . Phillip Lobel, Boston University Marine Program. All photographs

copyright Phillip Lobel and Lisa Kerr Lobel unless noted other copyright Phillip Lobel and Lisa Kerr Lobel unless noted otherwise. Publication date; wise. Publication date;

November November, 2000. , 2000.

Inquiries r Inquiries regarding the DoD Coral Reef Pr ding the DoD Coral Reef Protection Implementation Plan or other DoD coral otection Implementation Plan or other DoD coral

reef protection activities should be r otection activities should be referred to the Of ed to the Office of the Assistant Secr fice of the Assistant Secretary of the Navy

(Installations and Envir (Installations and Environment). onment).

Department of Defense tment of Defense

Coral Reef Protection Coral Reef Protection

Implementation Plan Implementation Plan

Submitted to:

U.S. Coral Reef Task Force


After a brief introduction, this publication is divided into six sections plus appendices describing the

Department of Defense’s policies, actions and programs related to coral reef conservation and protection.

Section One provides an overview of Section One

DoD authorities and policies pertaining to the protection of coral reef ecosystems.

Section Two describes actions poten- o 

tially affecting U.S. coral reef ecosystems. Military Services are advised to

rapidly resolve or minimize any conflicts between coral reef protection and

the military’s mission.

Section Three discusses existing fund- ee

ing sources available to the Military

Services to implement Executive Order

13089.

Section Four enumerates ongoing pro- our

grams and projects that demonstrate

the military’s commitment to the protection and enhancement of coral reef

ecosystems through other mandates

and authorities. Such protection efforts include measures taken during

military operations and training exercises; shipboard pollution prevention;

DoD’s pollution prevention program;

oil spill prevention, response and

clean-up; invasive species management; and land management practices.

Section Five examines DoD stewardship initiatives to protect and enhance coral reef ecosystems. e

Section Six pr Section Six esents DoD’s continued effort to protect coral reefs and associated habitats and describes

future directions in DoD coral reef protection programs.

For reference, information on legal authority and related legislation, Executive Order 13089, DoD Coral

Reef Policy Documents, Air Force, Army, Marine Corps and Navy Coral Reef Policy Memoranda, and/or

related DoD and/or service policy reference listings are included as appendices.
Introduction 5

Section 1 – Ex Section 1 ecutive Order 13089 9

DoD Authorities and Policies to Protect Coral Reefs 9

Ecosystem Management Policy Directive 9

Environmental Conservation Program 10

Coral Reef Distribution 11

DoD Coral Reef Policy Statements 12

Section 2 Section 2 – I Section 2 dentification of DoD Actions that May Affect U.S. Coral Reef Ecosystems 17

Environmental Impact Assessment Process 18

Integrated Natural Resource Management Plan 19

Actions Identified through Coastal Zone Consistency Determination 20

Actions Identified by the Army Corps of Engineers Regulatory Program 20

Process to Elevate Actions Determined to Affect Coral Reefs

to Appropriate Service Level for Notification/Evaluation 21

Section 3 – Section 3 Existing Funding Sources for Coral Reef Stewardship 23

Operations & Maintenance, Environmental Compliance 23

DoD Legacy Resource Management Program 25

The Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP) 27

Section 4 – Section 4 DoD Programs to Protect Coral Reef Ecosystems 29

Military Activity and Training Exercises 29

Pollution Prevention 31

Shipboard Pollution Prevention 32

Oil Spill Prevention, Response & Clean-up 34

Invasive Species Management 36

Effective Land Management 38

Section 5 – Section 5 DoD Initiatives to Enhance Coral Reef Ecosystems 43

Conservation Initiatives 43

Outreach Initiatives 50

Research Initiatives 52

Artificial Reef Creation 55

Section 6 - L Section 6 ooking Toward the Future...

DoD Continues to Implement Coral Reef Protection Measures 59

Coral Reef Protection Management Guidelines for DoD Vessels and Installations 59

Coral Reef Assessment and Training 60

Outreach and Education 60

Summary 61

 Appendices

 Appendix A: Legal Authority and Related Legislation 62

 Appendix B: Text of Executive Order 13089 65

 Appendix C: DoD Coral Reef Policy Statements and Memoranda 69

 Appendix D: Military Service Coral Reef Protection Policy Statements and Memoranda 73

 Appendix E: Related DoD Policy Reference Listing 83

		



	
	

Coral reefs are among the

most diverse, complex,

and beautiful ecosystems

on Earth. Reefs are a conglomeration of many organisms including

algae, corals, gorgonians, anemones, zooanthids, and other benthic

organisms that create habitat. Living animals build the beautiful formations that we normally envision

when we think of coral reefs. The

outer surface of corals is covered

with numerous individual animals

with symbiotic algae living in their

tissues. These animals secrete a

carbonate exoskeleton, that over

long periods of time, forms the

coral’s three-dimensional structure. Reef surfaces swarm with

fishes, crustaceans, abundant

mollusks, and worms. There are,

of course, many more tiny animals

and plants living secretly in reef

crevices and deep holes that human

visitors rarely see. Many of these organisms are still

scientifically unknown and no one has yet accurately

estimated the total number of different species living

on reefs.

We do know, however, that parts of the reef ecosystem

depend upon one another, and that the reef ecosystem

depends upon neighboring systems. For example, reef

herbivores, such as the long-spined sea urchin, consume algae that might otherwise smother living corals.

The larval stages of many reef animals drift as plankton in the open ocean, and there are also reef connections to sea grass meadows, sand flats, intertidal zones,

and mangroves. Thus the complex web of reef life intertwines with the larger lattice of Earth’s biodiversity.

Millions of people depend on coral reefs for food and

livelihood, and coral reefs directly enhance human habitat. Because of their beauty, coral reefs are also imporCoral reefs include more than just corals. They

are made up of a vast assemblage of living organisms

including various forms of plant, animal, and

microbial life. microbial life.

tant recreationally, underpinning a worldwide tourist

industry. The coral reefs of Florida alone have been

estimated to generate nearly $2 billion annually from

recreational use. Reefs also protect coastlines from erosion and wave damage and create sheltered lagoons

for boat mooring and fishing.

Little was known about the global health of coral reef

ecosystems until about 10 years ago, when government

agencies and environmental interest groups in the

United States and abroad began wide-scale monitoring

and assessment programs. Since then, scientists have

discovered that many of the world’s coral reefs are

gravely imperiled and will continue to deteriorate unless more is done to protect them. Human activities

such as coastal development, destructive fishing practices, pollution, and sedimentation are

the leading causes of coral reef degradation

worldwide.

Surgeonfish schooling on a reef, Johnston Atoll.
In response to the growing concern about the plight of

coral reefs, President Clinton signed Executive Order

13089 (referred to herein as the Order) on June 11, 1998

(see Appendix A). This Order directs Federal agencies

to study, restore, and conserve U.S. coral reef ecosystems. Coral reef ecosystems are defined in EO 13089

as “those species, habitats, and other natural resources

associated with coral reefs in all maritime areas and

zones subject to the jurisdiction or control of the United

States (e.g., Federal, State, territorial, or commonwealth

waters), including reef systems in the south Atlantic,

Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and Pacific Ocean.” For the

purposes of this report, the term “coral reef” means any

reef or shoal comprised primarily of the skeletal material of species of the order Scleractinia (class Anthozoa).

This Order supports recent international efforts—such

as the International Coral Reef Initiative, established by

the United States in 1994, and the 1997 United Nations’ “Year of the Reef”—to collect information about

reefs and educate the public about the significance of these valuable resources worldwide.

The U.S. Coral Reef Task Force (CRTF) was established under the Order to strengthen and coordinate cooperation among Federal agencies

in the stewardship and conservation of the

nation’s reef ecosystems. All major Federal

agencies, plus State and territorial partners, are

members of the Task Force. As outlined in the

Order, the Task Force has four major responsibilities:

 Coordinate a comprehensive

program to map and monitor U.S.

coral reefs;

 Develop and implement research to

identify the causes and consequences

of coral reef ecosystem degradation;

 Conserve, mitigate, and restore

coral reef ecosystems; and

 Foster international cooperation for

protection, and promotion of

conservation and sustainable use of

coral reef species.

This implementation strategy for Federal agencies is

contained in the CRTF’s Draft Oversight of Agency Actions Affecting Coral Reef Protection. This document

establishes CRTF and Federal agency duties as set forth

in the Order, and defines the process through which

related Federal agency program information will be disseminated. To assist the Task Force in developing an

implementation strategy for Federal agencies, each

member Federal agency will provide a report that describes how it will implement policies for protection of

coral reef ecosystems. Agency reports will discuss current guidance, procedures, programs, and operations

that may impact coral reef ecosystems. These reports

will also serve as an awareness tool for agencies to

evaluate measures to protect and monitor coral reef ecosystems.

Members of the

U.S. Coral Reef Task Force

Co-chair: Department of Interior

Co-chair: Department of Commerce

 (National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration)

Environmental Protection Agency

Department of Agriculture

Department of Justice

Department of Defense

Department of Transportation

National Science Foundation

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Department of State

Agency for International Development

State of Hawaii

State of Florida

Territory of Guam

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico

Territory of the U.S. Virgin Islands

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands

Territory of American Samoa

The Coral Reef Task Force
Above: A fighter jet takes off from

Wake Atoll.

Right: A submarine crew

relaxes off the coast of Maui,

Hawaii.

Lower Right: The USS

Niagara Falls coming into port

in Saipan, CNMI.

DoD gives high priority to

the protection of coral

reef Ecosystems

The Department of Defense (DoD) is pleased to submit

this Coral Reef Protection Implementation Plan. Its

purpose is to provide guidance and information to both

its forces and other agencies regarding the protection

on coral reef ecosystems. The information provided in

this document outlines steps DoD has taken and will

take in the future to protect and conserve these unique

ecosystems. As demonstrated through the following

policies and actions, DoD gives high priority to the protection of coral reefs as part of its ongoing commitment

to environmental stewardship. The Military Services

comprising DoD (the Air Force, Army, Navy, and Marine Corps) generally avoid coral reef areas in their normal operations except for some mission-essential

ashore and afloat activities. The Navy, for example,

does not routinely navigate near coral reefs because

reefs pose a navigational hazard to both surface ships

and submarines.

The Military Services also work to minimize activities

on their installations that may negatively impact coral

reef ecosystems. All of the Military Services have active

programs to comply with environmental and natural

resource protection laws. Although most environmental legislation was not passed for the protection of coral

reefs per se, DoD’s compliance with the Clean Water

Act, Ocean Dumping Act, Oil Pollution Act, Coastal Zone

Management Act, and other statutes directly benefits

coral reef ecosystem conservation. As with all DoD

natural resources stewardship, it is and will continue

to be, our policy to ensure safe and environmentally

responsible action in and around coral reef ecosystems.

This Coral Reef Protection Implementation Plan describes DoD implementation of the Order through existing programs, authorities, and policies, and current

funding authorities. It does not provide or implement

any new policies or regulations, nor does it create any

new responsibilities for DoD or the Military Services.



DoD Authorities and

Policies Protect Coral

Reef Ecosystems

Federal regulations promulgated by DoD in Title 32,

Part 190 of the Code of Federal Regulations require that

the Department

“act responsibly in the public interest in managing its lands and natural resources. There

shall be a conscious and active concern for

the inherent value of natural resources in all

DoD plans, actions, and programs. Natural

resources under control of the Department

of Defense shall be managed to support the

military mission, while practicing the principles of multiple use and sustainable yield,

using scientific methods and an interdisciplinary approach. The conservation of natural

resources and the military mission need not

and shall not be mutually exclusive.”

Moreover, Part 190 establishes that the heads of the

Military Services and directors of DoD agencies with

land management responsibilities are trustees for natural resources under their jurisdiction. In keeping with

its regulatory responsibilities, DoD has long recognized

that coral reef ecosystems are biologically rich and diverse habitats worthy of protection, and consequently,

existing policies recognize the importance of coral reef

biodiversity and the need for international protection.

Supporting the participation of the United States in the

International Coral Reef Initiative and as a member of

the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force, DoD is advancing coral

reef conservation by developing management policies

for coral reef ecosystems held in trust by the Military

Services throughout the world. Furthermore, DoD realizes that its continued vigilance is essential because

military activities both ashore and afloat have the potential to harm coral reef ecosystems if they are not

properly planned and managed.

Ecosystem Management

Policy Directive

The “Implementation of Ecosystem Management”

memorandum issued on August 8, 1994, by the Deputy

Under Secretary of Defense (Environmental

Security)[DUSD(ES)] adopts an ecosystem approach to

management of military lands. This early directive articulates the biodiversity conservation policy that underlies DoD’s approach to natural resource management including coral reef preservation and enhancement. The goal of this policy is to:

“Maintain and improve the sustainability and

native biological diversity of terrestrial and

aquatic, including marine, ecosystems while

supporting human needs, including the DoD

mission.” [DoD Instruction 4715.3]


	

Executive Order 13089 and

DoD Policies to Protect Coral Reef Ecosystems

Coral polyps open at night to

catch live prey with stinging cells

on their tentacles. The symbiotic

algae (zooxanthellae) living in

coral tissues produce energy

during the day to supplement that

received from eating live prey.

These polyps are about 1/4 inch

across.

Left- Soft corals on a Palau reef.


The Nassau grouper is an important food fish

throughout the Caribbean. Adult fish migrate long

distances annually to spawning aggregation sites.

Since the adults are then concentrated in one location,

the population can be rapidly overfished. As a result,

most of the spawning aggregations in the Caribbean

have been severely reduced or eliminated. This

grouper is about two feet long.

Environmental

Conservation Program

Conservation management strategies for natural and

cultural resources on DoD installations (including operations and activities) in the United States, territories,

trusts and possessions are set forth in the DoD Instruction 4715.3, Environmental Conservation Program, issued on May 3, 1996. Many of these policies are applicable to coral reef ecosystem protection. DoD Instruction 4715.3 directs all DoD conservation programs

to:

 Work to guarantee continued access to

our land, air, and water resources for realistic

military training and testing while ensuring

that the natural and cultural resources

entrusted to DoD care are sustained in a

healthy condition for scientific research,

education, and other compatible uses by

future generations.

 Within available resources, plan, program

and budget to achieve, monitor, and

maintain compliance with all applicable

Executive Orders, Federal natural and cultural

resources statutory and regulatory

requirements and State regulations as

required.

 Manage natural resources under the

stewardship and control of the DoD to

support and be consistent with the

military mission, while protecting and

enhancing those resources for multiple

use, sustainable yield, and biological

integrity.

 Incorporate the principles of

ecosystem management into

installation Integrated Natural

Resources Management Plans

(INRMPs). INRMPs shall be prepared,

maintained, and implemented for all

lands and waters under DoD control

that have suitable habitat for

conservation and management of

natural ecosystems.

 Utilize best management

practices (BMPs) to minimize

nonpoint sources of water

pollution.

 Conduct DoD operations, activities,

projects, and programs that affect the land,

water, or natural resources of any coastal

zone in a manner that is consistent with the

Coastal Zone Management Act.

Other statements within this policy also promote an

ecosystem approach to management and pertain to

coral reef management. These include:

 Maintain or restore native ecosystem types

across their natural range of variation.

 Maintain or reestablish viable populations

of all native species in areas of natural

habitat, when practicable.

 Maintain evolutionary and ecological

processes, such as disturbance regimes,

hydrological processes, and nutrient cycles.

 Manage over sufficiently long periods to

allow for changing system dynamics.

 Plan to accommodate human use as

necessary.


Coral Reef Distribution Throughout the World

Military Installations

The U.S. maintains several military installations in the

vicinity of coral reef ecosystems. Some oth these areas

include:

Pacific Ocean

 Commonwealth of the Northern

Marianas Islands

 Hawaii

 Johnston Atoll

 Kwajelein Atoll

 Guam

 Wake Atoll

Atlantic Ocean

 Cuba

 Key West and Panama City, Florida

 Puerto Rico

 U.S. Virgin Islands

Indian Ocean

 Diego Garcia

Coral Reefs

Corals grow in all waters including polar and temperate seas. However, coral reef formation is limited to

tropical waters bounded by the 20°C surface isotherm.

The largest reef systems are the Great Barrier Reef of

Australia and the Barrier Reef off of the Caribbean coast

of Central America. Coral reef formation is restricted

not only by temperature but also by depth. In shallow

water with adequate light penetration, the sybiotic zooxanthellae are able to photosynthesize, which greatly increases a coral’s ability to secrete calcium carbonate

and therefore form reefs. Since light is a limiting factor

in reef formation, reefs are not found in water that is

deeper than 50 to 70 meters. This depth restriction is

why most reefs are found on the margins of continents

or islands. Other limiting factors for the growth of coral

reefs include salinity and sedimentation. Corals do not

tolerate a wide range of salinities and reefs are generally absent from areas with freshwater discharge, such

as the mouths of rivers. In addition, most corals have a

limited ability to remove sediment from their surfaces.

Sediment in the water not only decreases the amount

of light a coral receives, it clogs the coral’s feeding structures, eventually killing it.


Department of Defense Coral Reef Policy Statements

One of DoD’s earliest policy documents in direct support of coral reef protection and the International Coral Reef

Initiative was the DoD Coral Reef Policy Statement issued on September 3, 1997 (Appendix C). The statement

declares that

“DoD will identify important reef areas held in trust by the U.S. Military, develop management

guidelines and policies to enhance protection of coral reef ecosystems, and initiate long-term

monitoring efforts to determine the health of these ecosystems over time.”

This policy statement also declares that DoD actions in proximity to coral reefs will conform to host nation

agreements, consistent with DoD mission requirements.

A Philippine reef teeming with fishes. The Philippines have one of the highest concentrations of

tropical reef animals in the world. More than 2,000 species of fishes and dozens of corals occur there.

The number changes because new species are being discovered all the time.

Right - A coral formation in Belize, Caribbean. While the Caribbean is a younger ocean, and has

fewer species of fishes and corals, new species of fish are still being discovered there as well.



The Mandarin fish is also called the

psychedelic fish, for obvious

reasons. How and why coral reef

fishes have evolved such

fantastic colorations is the

subject of much

speculation. This

fish is an adult and

is only about three

inches long.

The Department of

Defense Policy

Statement on

Executive Order 13089

The Department of Defense Policy Statement on Executive Order 13089 – Coral Reef Protection issued on

August 3, 1998, reiterates the requirements of and exceptions to the Order. Furthermore, it states DoD policy

is:

 To protect U.S. and International coral reef

ecosystems and to avoid impacting coral

reefs to the maximum extent feasible.

 To responsibly manage and restore coral

reef ecosystems in carrying out the terms of

all laws, regulations, and policies concerning

coastal zone management and coral reef

protection.

 To conduct an environmental review of

any action likely to affect U.S. coral reef

ecosystems in accordance with the

National Environmental Policy Act, EO

12114, and current DoD policies.

Mitigating measures are required

where coral reef impacts are

unavoidable. Because re-establishment

of living coral reef ecosystems may take

hundreds of years, full mitigation or

replacement is generally not feasible.

Therefore, proponents of the activity that

would cause the loss of such resources shall

recommend appropriate compensatory

measures. Federal regulations regarding

Natural Resource Damage Assessments can

be consulted when developing criteria for

such mitigation.

Right: A nudibranch (about one inch long)

forages over algae in the Philippines. A

nudibranch is related to snails but lacks the

external shell. The algae is Halimeda, a

calcareous alga that contributes to sand

formation.


Military Service Policies

In response to DoD coral reef policies and the Order,

the Military Services have issued policy memoranda directing installations to avoid impacts to coral reef ecosystems and to plan and budget for projects that will

sustain coral reefs (Appendix B). Each Military Service

requires compliance with the Order and DUSD(ES)

policy, and any field action likely to affect a coral reef

ecosystem must undergo environmental review. DoD

requires commands to perform environmental reviews

of planned actions that may impact U.S. coral reef ecosystems. Installations and fleets must also report such

actions and recommend mitigation measures through

the chain of command. Navy has implemented extensive coral reef protection policies since, by the nature

of its mission, Navy operates extensively in the marine

environment.

Naval Warfare Publication (NWP) 4-11, “Environmental Protection” outlines environmental protection measures that must be considered by Naval operational

commanders when planning for and conducting warfare and training exercises. NWP 4-11 directs commanders and planners to be informed about potential environmental effects to determine how best to prevent or

mitigate these effects without compromising operational

objectives. Commanders are instructed to consider the

characteristics of the environment potentially affected

by their activities, particularly with regard to environmentally sensitive areas including “unique biota such

as coral reefs.” Training and combat exercises must

include provisions for the proper management of ship

and vehicular operations to avoid damage to coastlines,

coral reef and associated ecosystems, beaches, and

habitats. Future revisions of this instruction will consider EO 13089 and DoD coral reef protection requirements.

During military operations (at times other than war),

commanders must comply to the extent practicable with

any unique environmental protection requirements associated with the area of operations, including “measures to protect environmentally sensitive areas, such

as coral reefs.” If any scheduled military activity has

the potential to significantly impact these areas, commanders must identify methods for mitigating damage.

Because these are rare and irreplaceable natural resources, every effort is made to identify, avoid, and

monitor them during exercises to ensure damage is not incurred.

NOTE: For a listing of all DoD authorities related to coral

reef ecosystem protection, see Appendix A.




		

IDENTIFICATION OF DoD ACTIONS THAT MAY AFFECT CORAL REEF

ECOSYSTEMS

How does DoD Identify Actions That May Affect

U.S. Coral Reef Ecosystems?

The Order requires all Federal agencies, whose actions may affect U.S. coral reef ecosystems, to identify such

actions so as to seek new ways to avoid damage to or to conserve, mitigate or restore coral reefs. Prior to this

direction, each Military Service had already set in place procedures to recognize and avoid, when possible, any

negative impacts on native natural resources, including coral reefs, before undertaking a new training or operational exercise, construction, or other type of action. Identifying and reducing potential impacts on coral reef

ecosystems is accomplished through a variety of mechanisms, including the use of existing programs to comply

with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), the Sikes Act (through the development and implementation

of INRMPs), Clean Water Act (CWA), Endangered Species Act (ESA), the Coastal Zone Management Act (through

Coastal Zone Consistency Determinations), Essential Fish Habitat requirements, the Marine Protection, Research,

and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA), and the River and Harbors Act (for complete listing, see text block).

Relevant Laws and Executive Orders

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969

Sikes Act of 1997

Clean Water Act of 1977

Executive Order 12114 – Environmental Effects Abroad of Major Federal Actions, 1979

River & Harbors Act of 1899-Aids to Navigation

Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, 1978

Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act of 1980

Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as amended

Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972

Ocean Dumping Act

Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships of 1980, as amended

Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1996

Coastal Barrier Resources Act of 1982

Oil Pollution Act of 1990

Executive Order 12777 – Oil Pollution Act Implementation

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

Executive Order 13112 – Invasive Species, 1999

National Invasive Species Act of 1996

Executive Order 13089 – Coral Reef Protection, 1998

Executive Order 13158 – Marine Protected Areas, 2000

Left - A WWII warship wrecked on the reef of Enewetak Atoll.
	

Environmental Impact Assessment Process

NEPA requires Federal agencies to evaluate the impact of major actions occurring or having an effect on the

natural and manmade environment within the territory of the U.S. Proposed actions with potential to impact

coral reef ecosystems within the territorial seas of the U.S. are subject to analysis under NEPA.

EO 12114, Environmental Effects Abroad of Major Federal Actions, requires agencies to evaluate the impact of

major actions occurring outside the U.S., its territories, and possessions. Proposed actions with potential to

impact coral reef ecosystems beyond the territorial seas of the United States are subject to analysis under EO

12114.

Depending on the location, scope, and potential impact, this analysis is contained in either a Categorical Exclusion, Environmental Assessment (EA) or Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) under NEPA, or Environmental

Study or Concise Review under EO 12114. As the mechanisms for the Military Services to evaluate major actions

for impact to the environment, NEPA and EO 12114 are the primary programs under which DoD can identify

actions that may impact coral reef ecosystems.

The Chief of Naval Operations, Environmental Planning/NEPA Compliance Branch maintains a Navy NEPA/EO

12114 database of EAs and EISs produced since passage of NEPA in 1969. This database also includes Overseas

EAs, Overseas EISs, and Environmental Reviews since the signing of EO 12114. CNO is the central point of

contact for access to these electronic documents, which can be searched by specific terms or subjects

(e.g., coral reef). The archive is currently undergoing conversion to dtSearch, a software package that

will enable a faster, more efficient, and “user friendly” search, view, and print capability. Other Military

Services will utilize their own NEPA/EO 12114 process to identify actions that may affect coral reef

ecosystems.

There are many interactions in coral reef ecosystems. In this photo, the Pacific blue seastar clings

to a reef next to two blue nudibranchs. The starfish also makes a nice perch for a small goby.


Integrated Natural

Resource Management

Plan (INRMP) Plan (INRMP)

An INRMP is a planning document that charts the use

and conservation of natural resources on lands and waters under DoD control. While primarily for use by the

installation’s Natural Resources Manager, the INRMP

also provides master planners with baseline information necessary for the development of master plans. An

INRMP also serves as a principal information source

for preparing EAs or EISs for proposed installation actions. In addition, INRMPs provide the basis for formulating the natural resources budget. Each plan strives

to balance the management of ecosystem resources

unique to each installation with mission requirements

and other land use activities affecting an installation’s

natural resources.

When Is an INRMP Required?

Generally, installations that occupy land and water

or property suitable for the conservation and

management of natural resources must prepare

and implement a comprehensive INRMP by

November 17, 2001. INRMPs must be continually

monitored, reviewed annually, updated if

necessary, and re-approved at least every five

years. These evaluations require at least one

natural resources professional to render an opinion,

based on a minimum of a site visit and current

general assessment of the resources. Evaluations

take into consideration military uses of the area and

capacity to support the mission; acreage, habitat

types, and special natural features; aesthetics;

outdoor recreational opportunities; the ecological

context of the installation within its physiographic

region; and the local community and cultural

resources context. Even a very small installation

might require a plan if it is important to conservation

and management of natural resources. For

example, if the installation provides a habitat that is

rare in the area or that is in proximity to a coral reef,

or it is important to the local community for

aesthetic reasons, an INRMP is justified. A general

rule of thumb might be that if the installation

requires natural resources funding, it should have

an INRMP.

An integrated plan requires input from military planners and trainers, scientists, natural resources managers, regulatory agencies, and the public. The final plan

reflects the cooperation and basic agreement of the U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service, the Department of Fish and

Game of the relevant State, and the National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration (as appropriate) with

respect to management of fish and wildlife. [Specific

policy guidance for the development of INRMPs is provided in specific Military Service instructions.]

Military installations whose operations may affect

a coral reef ecosystem must consider protective

measures, and these measures must be included

in the installation’s INRMP. The primary focus of

the INRMP is to balance resource management with

mission requirements and other land use activities that affect an installation’s natural

resources. This includes the management

of coral reef ecosystems where such systems are deemed “under DoD control.”

Closeup of closed coral polyps. The greenish/

brown color is the symbiotic micro-algae, named

zooxanthellae.


The delicate “pink lace

coral” shown here is not a

true coral but a relative

called a hydrocoral. This

colony is about five inches

across.

Beautiful corals like this

easily become rare due to

collectors removing them

to sell in the curio or

jewelry trade.

Actions Identified by the

U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers Regulatory and

Water Resources

Development Programs

The Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) administers regulatory programs under the Marine Protection Research

and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA), Section 10 of the Rivers

and Harbors Act, and CWA Section 404. The Section

404 program, which the Corps administers jointly with

the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), provides

for a permit program to regulate the discharge of dredged

or fill material into waters of the United States. The

Section 404(b)(1) guidelines, which are codified, set forth

standards to be used by the EPA and the Corps in the

permit application review process. These guidelines require that permit applicants evaluate potential environmental impacts and/or prohibited discharges, and determine if there are practicable available alternatives.

Under these same guidelines, coral reef ecosystems are

now classified as “Special Aquatic Sites” and activities

affecting such sites must undergo a higher level of review. This permitting process enables the Corps to identify potential adverse impacts to coral reef ecosystems.

Actions Identified

through Coastal Zone

Consistency

Determination

The Coastal Zone Management Act requires Federal actions that are reasonably likely to affect any land or

water use or natural resource of the coastal zone to be

consistent with the enforceable policies of a coastal State

or territory’s Federally-approved coastal zone management (CZM) program. The Military Services are subject to Federal consistency requirements and therefore

must ensure that they adequately consider and comply

with State CZM plans.

To undertake an action affecting the coastal zone of a

State with an approved CZM plan, a Military Service

must first coordinate with that State’s CZM progam.

After making any necessary changes to the proposed

action, the Military Service must provide a statement

demonstating consistency with the CZM plan which is

reviewed by the CZM regulator. Through this process, the Military Services can identify actions

that may impact coral reef ecosystems in States

with an approved CZM plan.


As an unfortunate consequence of overfishing on most

Pacific Islands, schools of fish such as these jacks are

rare, except at protected marine sites. Johnston and Wake

Atolls are two U.S. DoD sites that still have big fishes at

natural population densities thanks to the prohibition of

commercial fishing.

The MPRSA prohibits the transportation of material by

U.S. vessels for the purpose of ocean dumping unless

authorized by a permit under the CWA. MPRSA describes criteria for the selection of proposed sites for

the discharges of dredged material by EPA and the

Corps, who must identify and avoid designation of sites

that may result in adverse impacts to coral reef ecosystems, including consideration of potential transport of

material from the site by currents or storm events. Site

management plans are also required for designated

dredged material disposal sites. In the event that there

is potential for coral reef impacts, the required plans

are carefully developed to provide for early detection of

any such impacts. Avoidance of impacts to coral reef

ecosystems may also be considered during the permitting process, and any necessary dumping permit terms

and conditions should require measures necessary for

the protection of coral reefs. Therefore, impacts to coral

reef ecosystems can also be identified by the Corps

through the MPRSA permitting process.

Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act requires a permit for any work or structure, including fill material discharges, in or affecting the course, condition,

location, or capacity of navigable waters of

the U.S. and artificial islands, installations, or

other devices on the Outer Continental Shelf.

An important component of the permitting

process is the public interest review, which

compares potential project benefits against potential adverse impacts. As impacts to coral

reef ecosystems are considered detrimental to

the public interest, such impacts would be

identified during this process. Corps findings

for Section 10 permits should document how

these impacts have been avoided.

In addition to the regulatory activities discussed above, the Corps undertakes the investigation and construction of water resources projects for varying purposes including flood damage reduction, navigation, and

environmental restoration. When investigating the feasibility of these projects, the Corps

does not permit its own activities undertaken

in accordance with Congressionally authorized

projects. However, the Corps must make findings that demonstrate compliance with the

above regulatory requirements and other applicable laws, including those that pertain to

the protection of coral reef ecosystems. CWA

and NEPA guidelines require the Corps to consider all

practicable and reasonable alternatives for proposed

discharges of dredged or fill material into U.S or international waters, identifying the least costly alternative

consistent with engineering and environmental requirements. Any potential impacts to coral reef ecosystems,

and how these impacts can be avoided, should be documented in the Corps’s findings, consistent with the relevant environmental requirements.

Process to Elevate

Actions Determined to

Affect Coral Reefs to

Appropriate Service Level

for Notification / for Notification /

Evaluation

Although DoD is a member of the CRTF, each Military

Service is responsible for evaluating actions that may

affect coral reef ecosystems and notifying its leadership if there could be a conflict between mission requirements and coral reef ecosystem protection. The

emphasis of each Military Service’s policy is to resolve

any conflicts as quickly as possible for the benefit of

the environment.





		

 EXISTING FUNDING SOURCES FOR

CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM STEWARDSHIP

DoD projects and programs that protect, conserve, and

enhance coral reef ecosystems stem from the military’s

commitment to natural resources and biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management. The goal of the

DoD Environmental Security program is to ensure safe

and environmentally responsible behavior throughout

all military actions and organizations (DoD Directive

4715.1, 1996). Biodiversity conservation is the foundation of DoD’s natural resources management approach, as demonstrated through the programs and

projects below. These programs and projects are provided to encourage other installations to seek funding

or undertake similar projects to protect coral reefs and

marine ecosystems.

Operations & Maintenance

Funding, Environmental

Compliance

Operations & Maintenance (O&M) Funding for Environmental Compliance constitutes the majority of funding available for environmental efforts within DoD. This

source funds projects and activities needed because an

installation is currently out of compliance or is required

to meet compliance deadlines associated with applicable Federal or State laws, regulations standards, or

Executive Orders. Those natural resource-related activities may include natural resources conservation

projects and monitoring or studies to assess and mitigate potential impacts of the military mission on conservation resources; planning documentation; baseline

inventories of natural and cultural resources; biological assessments, surveys or habitat protection for specific listed species; mitigation to meet regulatory permit

conditions; and nonpoint source pollution or watershed

management studies or actions needed to meet compliance dates cited in approved State coastal nonpoint

source pollution control plans. Environmental program

requirements related to all major environmental legal

requirements listed in Section Two are funded through

this source.

Installations are encouraged to apply to the program

through the Planning, Programming, Budgeting Process

System for coral reef ecosystem projects in support of

and required by the Order.

Significant funding is also provided on an annual basis

to the Corps to administer its project investigation program through the Civil Works General Investigation Account. This project-related funding is subject to Congressional negotiations each fiscal year; however, the

Corps is authorized to conduct aquatic ecosystem restoration studies under Section 206 of the Water Resources Development Act of 1996, allowing the

Corps to aid in the restoration of damaged coral

reef ecosystems.

Butterflyfish, like the ornate butterflyfish to the

left and the Eastern triangular butterflyfish

below, belong to a diverse group of beautiful

fishes that are used to monitor the health of

coral reefs.

www.coral.noaa.gov/themes/butterfl.pdf


Biodiversity Conservation

Helps maintain natural landscapes for realistic military

training, now and in the future.

Helps DoD protect water resources, endangered species

and other important resources.

Contributes to national security by helping maintain the

natural resources upon which this country’s strength

depends.

Assures the American people that DoD is being a

conscientious steward of the natural resources DoD

holds in trust for them.

Enhances the quality of life for the American people.

Frigate Bird

Coral Hind

Hawaiian Pencil Urchin

Caribbean Seahorse

Zebra Shark


A pair of clownfish hide in the

tentacles of their host anemone.

These fish are protected from

predators by the stinging cells on

the anemone’s tentacles. The

fish returns the favor by chasing

away other fishes that feed on the

anemone. Certain species of

clownfish live only with certain

species of anemones. Recent

research suggests that the young

clownfish imprint on the smell of

their host anemone species while

still in the egg, which is laid at the

base of the anemone. These fish

are about two to three inches

long.

DoD Legacy Resource

Management Program

The Legacy Resource Management Program was established in 1990 to provide financial assistance for DoD

efforts to preserve our nation’s natural and cultural heritage. The program assists DoD in protecting and enhancing resources while supporting military readiness.

A Legacy project may involve regional ecosystem management initiatives, habitat preservation efforts, archaeological investigations, invasive species control,

and/or monitoring and predicting migratory patterns

of birds and animals.

Three principles guide the Legacy Program: stewardship, leadership, and partnership. Stewardship initiatives assist DoD in safeguarding its irreplaceable resources for future generations. By assuming a leadership role as part of the program, DoD serves as a model

for respectful use of natural and cultural resources.

Through partnerships, the program strives to access the

knowledge and talents of individuals outside DoD.

In order to support these principles, the Legacy Program emphasizes five areas:

1. Legacy incorporates an ecosystem

approach that assists DoD in maintaining

biological diversity and the sustainable use of

land and water resources for

DoD’s mission and other uses.

2. Legacy uses an interdisciplinary approach

to resource stewardship that takes

advantage of the similarities between DoD’s

natural and cultural resource plans. Often,

the same person is responsible for managing

both natural and cultural resource plans on

an installation. Legacy strives to take

advantage of this by sharing management

methodologies and techniques across natural

and cultural resource initiatives.

3. Legacy promotes understanding and

appreciation of natural and cultural resources

by encouraging greater awareness and

involvement by both the military and the

public.

4. Additionally, the program takes

advantage of similarities among ecosystems

by applying resource management initiatives

in broad regional areas.

5. Finally, Legacy pursues the identification of

innovative new technologies that enable

more efficient and effective management.

Legacy-funded projects provide a concrete demonstration of DoD’s commitment to the preservation

and enhancement of coral reef ecosystems.

Completed and ongoing projects funded by

the Legacy Program are described in Sections

Four and Five.


Pacific coral reef

islands have a rich

cultural history of their

own but were also sites

of many WWII battles.

A Japanese bunker on

Wake Island is slowly

buried in coral rubble.

The remains of a war

plane wreck in Saipan

lagoon.

A U.S. tank that

failed to make it

ashore during the

invasion of

Saipan.


The Strategic Environmental Research and

Development Program (SERDP) Development Program (SERDP)

SERDP is DoD’s corporate environmental research and development (R&D) program, planned and executed in

full partnership with the Department of Energy (DOE) and EPA, with participation by numerous other Federal

and non-Federal organizations. SERDP funds environmental R&D in specified areas through a competitive process. Within its broad areas of interest, the SERDP focuses on Cleanup, Compliance, Conservation, and Pollution

Prevention technologies. The purpose of the conservation technology program is to use research and development to provide improved inventory and monitoring capabilities; develop more effective impact and risk assessment techniques; and provide improved mitigation and rehabilitation capabilities. Recently, the program solicited Statements of Need for conservation technology proposals to research indicators of stress on threatened and

endangered species and to develop techniques to inventory and monitor threatened and endangered species in

inaccessible areas. Because coral reefs are an imperiled resource and, moreover, a resource that provides habitat

for many sensitive species, coral reef research is a candidate for funding under this program.

This underwater radiation

survey device is used to

assess residual radioactivity

from atmospheric nuclear

tests in the lagoon at

Johnston Atoll. The device

was developed by scientists

at Boston University with

funding from the Defense

Threat Reduction Agency.

A diver takes samples of

marine sediments near an

old 55 gallon drum for

contaminants analysis at

Johnston Atoll. Coral had

already started growing

over the drum. Samples

were analyzed for

polychlorinated biphenyls

(PCBs), dioxins, heavy

metals, and other

potential contaminants.
The nautilus, while not considered a reef organism, lives on the deep slope adjacent to reefs and

comes into shallow water at night to feed.



	


DoD PROGRAMS TO PROTECT CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS

Military Activities and

Training Exercises

It is DoD policy to avoid, where possible, adversely impacting coral reefs during training exercises and routine operations. Consistent with essential national security and mission requirements, DoD carefully plans

maritime exercises and routine operations so as to avoid

physical damage to coral reefs from ships and landing

craft, and biological impairment from oil and fuel spillage, chemical/hazardous waste releases, and excessive

noise. The military has demonstrated its commitment

to coral reef conservation during past activities and operations by evaluating training programs to ensure these

exercises do not damage nearby coral reefs. Specific

examples include:

Geographic Information System

(GIS) Planning

The Navy is developing GIS-based information on the

marine environment to assist:

 Natural resources personnel in mapping

and protecting sensitive marine ecosystems.

 Planning personnel in identifying areas

requiring special considerations.

 Operators in determining time and

locations of exercises to avoid impacts.

Coral reef assessment information will be a part of this

GIS system to provide general locations, habitat condition information, and related marine fisheries information.

Additionally, several GIS planning tools are being developed to provide operational planners with environmental data needed to write the environmental planning documents. Conceptually, this system will take

the planner through the development process, providing the planner with environmental sensitivity data to

support the planner’s decision-making process. By

using the GIS-based approach with decision-making

tools, greater access to environmental data will be available for all individuals involved in marine resource protection. This system will also serve as a helpful resource and checklist to ensure coral reef ecosystem protection as well as the protection of other marine resources.

Farallon de Medinilla (FDM)

Coral Surveys

In accordance with the terms and conditions of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) biological opinion, pursuant to Section 7(b) of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (as amended), the Navy is required to

conduct annual marine surveys at FDM to evaluate the

impacts to the marine environment from continuing

bombing exercises. Use of FDM as a bombing range is

a vital asset for the continued military readiness mission. The Navy along with representatives from NMFS,

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Division of Fish

and Wildlife and Division of Environmental Quality have

participated in these annual surveys. Previous surveys

indicated no significant impacts to marine communities, endangered and protected species, fishery resources

and existing coral. Navy will continue to monitor these

areas annually.

Tandem Thrust 1999

The U.S. and Australian military conducted a series of

ashore and afloat training exercises on the islands of

Tinian and Guam in the Pacific in 1999. Because this

training included amphibious landings on the island of

Tinian, the presence of coral reefs and sea turtles around

Tinian was of particular concern. To ensure that these

species would not be adversely affected, the Navy conducted ecological surveys of the beach and coastal marine environments. Protection of these natural resources

was given high priority in selecting landing corridors

for the amphibious assault vehicles/craft. The Navy

monitored the beaches and coral reefs before, during,

and after the training exercises. The data indicate that

the Navy successfully avoided any adverse impacts to

coral reefs or other components of the marine community from the normal operations of landing

craft air cushions (LCACs) undertaking beach

landings.



Advanced Seal Team Delivery

System Training Device

Navy SEALs use this structure in training exercises to

practice submarine docking maneuvers. Placement of

this structure on the sea floor, off-shore of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, was initiated only after divers selected an

area free from coral reefs. The careful site selection

process ensured that coral reef ecosystems would not

be impacted by the structure or the practice maneuvers.

Marine Corps Base Hawaii

Marine Corps Base Hawaii (MCBH) is comprised of several land holdings on Oahu Island and one on Molokai

Island in the State of Hawaii. Coral reefs exist within

the 500-yard security buffer zone controlled by MCBH

surrounding all three sides of the Mokapu peninsula

portion of MCBH. When Marines transit from

Mokapu Peninsula to Bellows Marine Corps

Tactical Air Base (MCTAB) to practice amphibious beach landings, they carefully maneuver

around the coral reefs that fringe the outskirts of Kailua Bay and Waimanalo Bay. They also

maneuver in a manner that prevents damage to the coral

when moving from ship to shore through coral reef

patches and singular coral heads. Navy LCACS must

do the same in Kane’ohe Bay along the northwest shoreline.

Atlantic Undersea Test and

Evaluation Center (AUTEC)

Navy’s AUTEC facility is located on Andros Island in

the Bahamas. Prior to recent cable-laying activities for

Navy hydrophone arrays in marine areas surrounding

the Bahamas, divers surveyed the regions where fringe

reefs were known to occur and mapped the locations of

live coral. These maps were utilized to develop the cablelaying route and monitor the operation. To lay the cable,

Navy divers slowly swam the cables to the sea bottom

by using a special balloon to control their rate of descent and carefully guided the cables between areas

containing coral to ensure cables were laid only on sand.

A patch reef at

Johnston Atoll.

There are a variety

of corals, algae,

and other marine

life visible on a reef

in just a glance.

Beautiful and

delicate coral

growth can easily

be damaged by

human activity

without proper

planning, mapping,

and monitoring.



The Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent

Disposal System (JACADS) is an

incinerator operation managed by the

Program Manager for Chemical

Demilitarization, Aberdeen Proving

Ground, Maryland. The mission is to establish the protocol for environmentally safe

destruction of chemical weapons. During every phase of operations, the Army has

worked with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, EPA, NOAA and environmental

scientists to ensure that no harm would come to the coral reef environment. About

6% of the U.S. stockpile will be destroyed on Johnston and this mission will be

completed by the end of 2000.

Pollution Prevention

Pollution Prevention (P2) programs being implemented

across DoD are significantly reducing the amount of

toxic chemicals and other pollutants used ashore and

afloat. DoD’s P2 policy (DoD Instruction 4715.4, 1996)

focuses on education and training, acquisition of environmentally friendly products, efficient facilities management, energy conservation, and the use of innovative P2 technologies. DoD strategy also emphasizes

integrating P2 into installation management and

weapon systems acquisition, fostering an environmentally educated work force, and ensuring support from

P2 technology research and development programs. To

implement DoD’s P2 strategy, installations are required

to prepare individual P2 plans, which are updated regularly as operations change. In addition to demonstrating environmental stewardship, P2 has the added benefit of reducing operational costs, environmental compliance costs, and the life-cycle costs of weapons systems.

The tangible success of P2 is evident at the installation

level, where the Military Services have created programs

to assist personnel with P2 implementation at their facility. For example, the Navy developed the

Consolidated Hazardous Material Reutilization

and Inventory Management Program and Hazardous Inventory Control System software to

track and manage hazardous materials from

ship-to-shore. The Fleet Assistance Support

and Technology Transfer Team, which was established to provide support in re-engineering

processes, visits individual Navy facilities to

provide recommendations for best management practices (BMPs) and to transfer and

implement P2 technologies for the reduction

of hazardous materials.

Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent

Disposal System (JACADS)

Pollution Abatement System

The JACADS facility, operated by the Army on Johnston

Atoll, is the nation’s first environmentally conscious

chemical weapons incinerator and destruction system.

Johnston Atoll is a small tropical atoll, 825 miles southwest of Hawaii. This hazardous chemical incinerator

was built with an extensive pollution abatement system to ensure absolute minimal stack emmisions and

that no other waste sources enter the environment.

Johnston Atoll is an isolated coral reef ecosystem that

uniquely shares species in common with both Hawaii

and the Line Islands which lie south of Johnston. The

marine biology of the atoll is unique and includes both

an extensive reef system with about 310 fish species

and a diverse migratory seabird community. DoD operates in partnership with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service in managing the atoll’s natural resources. DoD

applies both its operational and environmental experience at Johnston Atoll through a “Lessons Learned” program to similar facilities in the continental U.S.



Shipboard Pollution

Prevention

DoD aggressively manages shipboard pollution to avoid

adversely impacting sensitive marine ecosystems such

as coral reefs. Awareness of the detrimental impact that

solid waste has on the marine environment and the

growing public concern regarding the pollution of our

oceans resulted in the passage of the Act to Prevent

Pollution from Ships (APPS), which requires military

vessels and other government non-commercial vessels

to comply with strict shipboard pollution prevention

standards.

Solid Waste Management

Navy surface ships manage four types of solid waste:

hazardous, plastic, biodegradable (food, paper, cardboard), and non-biodegradable (glass, metal). Plastic

waste, which can take up to 450 years to decompose in

a marine environment, includes any product containing plastic, including disposable razors and candy wrappers. To control plastic waste while afloat, Navy developed and installed shipboard plastic waste processors,

which compress and melt plastic waste into small disks

for storage. These disks are stored on board and brought

back to shore for disposal or recycling.

Other solid waste generated on board includes

organic waste, such as paper, cardboard, and

food waste, and inorganic waste, such as glass

and metal. This waste is disposed of in accordance with APPS. On-board pulpers process organic waste into a non-floating slurry that is nontoxic to marine organisms and authorized for overboard

discharge. Glass and metal items are shredded and discharged in weighted burlap bags, which sink rapidly to

the seafloor. Although corrosion and burial occurs over

a longer time scale than organic decomposition, the total

annual discharge of bags affects only a negligible

amount of the ocean floor. The introduction of hazardous materials to a ship’s inventory is strictly controlled and hazardous waste is brought back to shore

for proper disposal.

Plastics Removal in Marine

Environment (PRIME)

Reduction of plastic wastes is an important program

within Navy, which has a zero plastics discharge policy

(OPNAVINST 5090.1B, Environmental and Natural Resources Program Manual). All plastic and plastic waste

is stored on board and brought back to shore for disposal or recycling. To reduce the total amount of plastics in the supply system, the Navy also established the

PRIME office in 1990, which has evaluated over 350,000

items used on Navy vessels, with the aim of reducing or

replacing items to eliminate plastic waste. These

changes have resulted in the elimination of over 500,000

pounds of plastics previously taken on board Navy ships

each year.

Beaches throughout the world are littered with

plastics and other garbage that washes ashore.

Plastic garbage is not only unsightly but poses

a hazard to marine life. Seabirds ingest small

brightly colored plastic pieces and feed it to

their young who often die from lack of nutrition.

Sea turtles accidentally ingest plastic bags

which clog their digestive system. Sharks will

also bite plastic objects as is the case with this

plastic bottle.




The endangered green sea turtle often mistakes plastic bags or other small plastic

pieces for jellyfish, accidentally injesting them.

Surface Ships

Navy surface ships actively manage solid waste from

shipboard operations. Navy specifically addressed the

potential impact of solid waste management and disposal to coral reef ecosystems in the Report to Congress: U.S. Navy Ship Solid Waste Management Plan

for MARPOL Annex V Special Areas (November 1996).

Section 5.4 of this report states that the “Navy does not

routinely navigate near coral reefs.” The primary reason for this is that coral reefs typically pose a navigational hazard to both surface ships and submarines.

The report goes on to state that consistent with the APPS

amendments, “navy ships will discharge no pulper effluent within 3 nautical miles (nm) of land and no shredded material within 12 nm of land.” Since many coral

reefs areas are located near coastal regions, the potential for exposure of coral reefs to such discharged material is minimal.

Submarines

The Navy submarine program addressed coral reef protection in the Report to Congress: U.S. Navy Submarine

Solid Waste Management Plan for MARPOL Annex V

Special Areas (December 1997). Section 5.3 of this report states that “submarines usually operate in the vicinity of coral reefs only when transiting into or out of

port, and impacts on coral reefs would not be expected.

By Navy policy, submarines discharge trash disposal

unit (TDU) cans beyond 25 nm from land, or between

12 nm and 25 nm when the water depth is greater than

6000 feet; at that depth, coral reefs are unlikely to occur.”

Waste Reduction Afloat

Protects the Sea (WRAPS)

 Navy also established the WRAPS program to

reduce the amount of total solid waste brought

on board. The goal of WRAPS is to reduce the

amount of cardboard, paper, packing and shipping supplies and containers that accumulate

on board. WRAPS coordinates with vendors to

reduce the amount of packaging accompanying supplies purchased by Navy and is evaluating ongoing efforts to replace paper documents used on vessels with CD-ROMs and electronic form preparation.

Incidental Discharges

The Uniform National Discharge Standards (UNDS),

found in Section 312 of the CWA, require DoD and EPA

to evaluate unregulated discharges (such as deck runoff, bilge water and ballast water) incidental to military

vessel operations, to determine if these discharges require control, and subsequently to develop marine pollution control devices (MPCDs) for discharges requiring control. MPCDs may be equipment or management practices. Through the UNDS process, EPA and

DoD also will develop implementing instructions for the

design, installation, and use of appropriate MPCDs.

During the initial evaluation of incidental discharges,

25 discharges were identified that require control to

minimize their impact to the marine environment. The

discharges were evaluated based on types and levels of

chemicals they contained, their potential for causing

thermal pollution, and their potential for introducing

non-indigenous species. These standards will simultaneously protect marine ecosystems from pollution and

enable DoD to design and build environmentally sound

military vessels according to a consistent set of pollutant discharge standards.

DoD and EPA are currently identifying MPCD options

and associated performance standards for each military vessel discharge requiring control. Ultimately, this

rulemaking will result in enhanced environmental protection of the marine environment.



Oil Spill Prevention, Oil Spill Prevention,

Response and Clean-up

DoD recognizes that oil has lethal and almost immediate effects on a wide range of marine life associated

with coral reef ecosystems, from algae to seabirds, resulting in death through asphyxiation and/or poisoning. Generally, oil floats on the ocean’s surface, well

above coral; however, coral may come into contact with

oil in a number of ways. Weathering processes and

waves breaking on the reefs may distribute droplets of

oil into the water column. Sand blown from nearby

beaches that lands on an oil slick can cause the oil to

sink. Reefs in shallow water may be exposed to the air

during low tides and can come into contact with oil on

the surface or with dissolved toxic oil components encountered in the water beneath large oil slicks.

To prevent damage to marine ecosystems by accidental

oil spills, DoD has many mechanisms in place, both

ashore and at sea, to prevent the accidental release of

oil into the environment and to provide a rapid response

and clean-up action in the event of a spill. In addition

to the well-established compliance programs on the installation level, DoD is a member of the National

Response Team (NRT), established under the

National Contingency Plan. Navy is the DoD

Executive Agent for the NRT and possesses

one of the world’s largest inventories of oil

pollution response equipment (containment, collection,

and processing) with response capability available from

a worldwide network of installations. In the event of

large-scale oil spills, trained operators, mechanics, and

supervisory personnel deploy from U.S. response centers with the appropriate equipment, and DoD maintains access to a full range of technical experts and advisors as well as specialty equipment from other government agencies, industry, and academic institutions.

This spill response capability also assists in cleaning

up non-Navy spills. For example, Navy fleet skimmers

collected half of the oil recovered from the Exxon Valdez

spill in Alaska.

Several Federal laws require DoD installations to develop oil spill prevention measures. Under the CWA, as

amended by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, facilities that

store, transport, or dispense petroleum products are required to prepare a Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure (SPCC) Plan. SPCC plans provide a history

of oil spill events, the potential for discharge of oil, as

well as containment procedures and equipment to prevent oil spills into U.S. waterways or shorelines. Facilities that, because of location, could reasonably be expected to cause substantial harm to the environment

by discharging oil into or on navigable waters or adjacent shoreline must also submit Facility Response Plans

and an associated personnel training program for a

broad range of activities. The requirements of these

plans vary depending on the type of facility; however,

all must include an emergency section of the plan that

provides concise response direction and extensive documentation of response drills and exercises.

Facilities have the option of consolidating multiple requirements and response plans into a single Integrated

Contingency Plan (ICP). An ICP is a single response

plan that fully complies with the applicable regulations

and response plan requirements. ICPs reduce costs associated with developing facility contingency plans, including review, updating, and plan-resubmission. Ships

must prepare shipboard spill contingency plans that

contain procedures for reporting, containment, control,

recovery and disposal of spilled material, and spill

cleanup information. Ships annually conduct at least

one oil or hazardous substance spill response drill for

each duty section.

Homestead Air Force Reserve

Base, Florida

This base is located about ten miles from Biscayne National Park, home to nearly 130,000 acres of coral reefs.

The installation’s spill protection plan addresses protection of these coral reefs.

Seabirds are especially sensitive to oil spills. Not

only do they ingest large amounts when trying to

clean their plumage of oil, but the insulating

properties of their feathers are lost, making them

susceptible to heat or cold.



National Oil and Hazardous Substance Contingency Plan

(National Contingency Plan)

Established in Title 40, Part 300 of the Code of Federal Regulations, the purpose of the National Contingency Plan

is to provide the organizational structure and procedures for preparing for and responding to discharges of oil

and releases of hazardous substances, pollutants, and contaminants. As a member of the National Response

Team charged with implementing the National Contingency Plan, DoD has responsibility to take all action necessary with respect to releases of oil or hazardous substances where either the release is on, or the sole source of

the release is from, any facility or vessel under the jurisdiction, custody, or control of DoD. The U.S. Navy

Supervisor of Salvage (SUPSALV) is the branch of service within DoD most knowledgeable and experienced in

ship salvage, shipboard damage control, and diving. SUPSALV has an extensive array of specialized equipment

and personnel available for use in these areas as well as specialized containment, collection, and removal equipment specifically designed for salvage-related and open-sea pollution incidents. This capability is critical for

mitigating physical damage to coral reefs from ship collisions through removal of wrecked or grounded vessels

and the cleanup of oil and hazardous substances released from such collisions.

Black band disease is a cyanobacterial infestation that eventually kills the coral colony. The

epidemiology of this disease is unknown. More infections do seem to occur when corals are

stressed. However, determining whether corals may be stressed due to “natural” causes

(such as El niño) or due to anthropogenic changes (such as increased pollution) is

extremely difficult.



The planktonic stages of marine organisms are tiny. This photo (taken through a

microscope) shows fish larvae and eggs, as well as the planktonic stages of shrimp

and crabs. Since these larval stages are so small, they are easily taken up in ballast

water. Special precautions must be made to prevent accidental introductions of exotic

species into sensitive ecosystems like coral reefs.

Invasive Species

Management

To minimize the risk of inadvertant introduction of nonindigenous species through ship ballast water, the Navy

complies with the intent of the voluntary ballast water

control guidelines issued by the U.S. Coast Guard. The

Navy’s “double exchange” policy requires that all tanks

containing ballast water taken on within 3 nm of shore

or in polluted areas be purged

twice with clean seawater while

the ship is farther than 12 nm from

shore. Policy also requires ships

to routinely wash down anchors,

chains, and amphibious vehicles

to prevent transfer of species

through sediment. Through these

protective measures, DoD may

help avoid an introduction of an

invasive species that could have

the potential to significantly disrupt coral reef ecosystems and endanger unique species native to

those environments.

In conjuction with the Navy, the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SERC) has initiated a study on

the effectiveness of the Navy’s ballast water exchange

policy. SERC sampled ballast water from Navy vessels

during ten day transits between Spain and Norfolk, Virginia. Ballast tanks were innoculated with a combination of tracers upon ballasting, and ballast water was

sampled for each tracer before and following ballast

water exchange. Results will be published shortly.

Above: The brown noddy lays its

egg exposed on the ground.

Consequently, it is vulnerable to

introduced pests such as rats and

the brown tree snake which has

decimated Guam’s avian fauna.



This species of sergeant major damselfish

(Abudefduf vaigiensis) did not historically occur

in Hawaii or Johnston Atoll, but is widespread

throughout the Indo-Pacific. Usually the larvae

could not survive long enough to travel

between the Indo-Pacific and Hawaii.

However, if there is floating debris such as

large drift nets, the larvae can

metamorphose into juveniles and

can survive much longer. Large drift

nets that were lost in the Indo-Pacific

drifted all the way to Hawaii

introducing this species which has

now also spread to Johnston Atoll.

Normally, brightly colored reef fish

aren’t considered invasive species,

but in this case, this Indo-Pacific

sergeant major may directly

compete with its close relative, the

endemic Hawaiian sergeant major,

Abudefduf abdominalis.

DoD Invasive Species research

Coastal/Marine Biodiversity Inventory

Navy research at the Pearl Harbor Complex has produced a baseline inventory of Hawaiian aquatic species, their distribution, and their environmental and

economic importance. This baseline will be used to

assess how well public resource managers are conserving and managing coastal and marine resources for

biodiversity. For the Navy, this baseline is needed to

offset concerns raised that Naval operations may be

associated with the introduction of these foreign species. Information from the inventory will contribute to

improving the level of planning and coordination for

the needs of all marine vessel traffic in Hawaii and for

the prevention of future invasions of exotic species into

Hawaii’s aquatic ecosystem.

Marine Invasive Species: National

Marine and Estuarine Exotic Species

Database

The Navy is sponsoring a Legacy proposal to determine the extent, patterns, and effects of non-indigenous

marine species invasions in selected coastal ecosystems

and establish a comprehensive database of key data

about these species necessary for management, policy,

and research. This information will ultimately be used

by DoD to understand general patterns of invasion, assess the abundance and significance of invasions in reducing biodiversity, and evaluate the effectiveness of

management strategies for reducing the rate of invasions.

Diego Garcia Ship Husbandry

Assessment

The Pacific Fleet’s Naval Facility Engineering Command,

with the support of Mobile Diving Salvage Unit 1, conducted a rigorous assessment to evaluate potential effects of the Military Sealift Command’s ship husbandry

activities on the coral reefs and marine environment

offshore of Diego Garcia, a British island in the Indian

Ocean. Qualitative and quantitative biological, chemical, and physical data were gathered, including sediment samples and tissue samples from fish and various invertebrates. Chemical analyses were completed

in Honolulu by a marine organic chemist who specializes in hull coatings and their effect on marine organisms. The biological, chemical, and physical data all

indicated that the Military Sealift Command’s ship husbandry activities have not had a detectable adverse effect on the coral reefs or associated organisms in the

area.

	

Effective Land

Management

Another vital factor in achieving protection of coral reef

ecosystems is responsible land management. Though

its effects on coral reefs are indirect, the management

of land and facilities may impact coral ecosystems via

factors such as erosion control (because sediments

washed into coastal waters may settle upon and

smother corals) and regulation of harmful point and

nonpoint source pollutants discharged into waters onshore. In every respect, DoD strives to demonstrate

good stewardship of coral reefs through its land management practices.

Pollutant Control

Pollutants may be discharged into onshore waters directly (point sources) or may be washed there by runoff (nonpoint sources). Either venue can introduce substances into ocean waters that are harmful to the reef

community, and both must be controlled. Military installations typically reduce potential nonpoint source

pollution by applying best management practices

(BMPs) for chemical/pesticide application and erosion control established in accordance with Section 208 of the CWA; they manage point source

pollution by ensuring that discharges are consistent with the receiving water’s Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) for each substance.

Going over and above mere compliance, DoD policy

also encourages installations to become involved in local watershed protection efforts in their regions.

Sedimentation Control

Like pollutants, sediments can also be washed into

ocean waters and jeopardize coral health. DoD minimizes sedimentation on its lands by implementing erosion control measures in onshore operations and taking reparative steps when necessary. A recent example

of shoreline clean-up and restoration occurred at the

Orote landfill on Guam. Debris was removed from the

landfill and the site was capped to prevent leaching and

sedimentation from impacting the nearby coral reef.

This project is being carefully monitored to assess the recovery of the coastal habitat.

No Net Loss of Wetlands

The Military Services have operated under a “no net

loss” of wetlands since President Bush made this declaration back in 1988. Wetlands contribute to cleaner

water in our shorelines, streams, and oceans by acting

as filters for pollutants, trapping sediments, increasing

habitat, and improving overall water quality and availability. Through mitigation of construction areas,

cleanup of existing wetlands, or creation of new wetlands, most installations have contributed to preserving this land-based aquatic ecosystem, thus indirectly

enhancing our coastal reef ecosystems.

Below: An unprotected cliff at the base

of the Orote landfill site on the Naval

Station, Guam has been stabilized to

prevent further landfill erosion into the

Philippine Sea. This project has also

enhanced the health of adjacent coral

reefs by controlling sedimentation.

Photo by Naval Facilities.

Above: Siversides sheltering in the roots of a

Caribbean mangrove forest and seagrass bed.

Mangrove and seagrass systems effectively prevent

erosion of coastlines and act as filters for nearby coral

reefs. The mangroves trap sediment from runoff as

well as pollutants and excess nutrients.



The following examples illustrate DoD’s commitment

to protecting coral reef ecosystems through responsible

land management:

Marine Corps Base Hawaii

(MCBH) Watershed Restoration

MCBH includes numerous facilities on several thousand

acres within the Ko’olaupoko Region on O’ahu. Population growth and development throughout this region

have increased erosion and polluted stormwater runoff. Concern about these growing nonpoint source pollution issues led to the inclusion of regional waterbodies

in the State of Hawaii’s List of Impaired Waters. The

region has also been designated as Priority One for watershed restoration under the National Clean Water

Action Plan. MCBH is working with over 700 volunteer

partners on the Federal, State, and local levels to resolve these shared problems. Their collaborative

projects have included efforts to improve water quality,

DoD Protects Coral Reef Ecosystems through

Responsible Land Management Practices

water circulation, and endangered waterbird habitat;

they have also conducted “watershed tours” for schoolchildren and provided instruction in watershed management techniques (e.g. establishment of native plant

gardens) for teachers. The success of these collaborative projects has attracted additional funding support

from government and community organizations.

Northern Gulf of Mexico

Littoral Modeling Laboratory

 A comprehensive Gulf coastal modeling system is being cooperatively developed by the Navy and EPA at

the Northern Gulf of Mexico Littoral Modeling Laboratory. When complete, the modeling system will provide current and projected information about coastal

environmental conditions that will not only advise

TMDL development, but also inform future modeling

efforts and give modelers new tools to forecast the movement and impact of algae blooms, whose shade poses

a serious threat to coral reefs.

Healthy coral reefs depend on the interaction of land and sea. Responsible land

management is an essential aspect of coral reef protection.


Wake Atoll, located 2000 miles west of Hawaii, has extensive coral reefs and abundant marine life. The

atoll is made up of three islands that almost completely enclose a shallow lagoon. Since commercial

fisheries are

excluded and

spearfishing

is not

allowed,

Wake is one

of the few

reef systems

that has

abundant

schools of

the large

bumphead

parrotfish and

Napoleon

wrasses

which have

been over

fished

throughout

most of their

Point Loma, California

Land Restoration Project

Erosion control is an important component of a land

restoration project recently undertaken by the Navy and

the Soil Ecology and Restoration Group (SERG) at San

Diego State University. The two organizations are working to cost effectively restore disturbed land on Point

Loma, CA, used by the military for 140 years and currently the site of five Navy commands. With SERG, the

Navy is evaluating biodegradable erosion control methods to stabilize the slopes of Point Loma while plant

regrowth occurs.

Vieques Range Facilities

Puerto Rico

A 1996 update to the Vieques Land Use Management

Plan (LUMP) (a GIS-based INRMP) identifies highly detailed natural features of the island of Vieques, PR, and

incorporates them into the GIS. These map layers have

been combined with known constraints, such as landing zones, gun locations, and operational areas, to produce an Overall Land Use Map. The specific purposes

of the LUMP are to facilitate continued Navy training

on Vieques while avoiding adverse impacts to the

island’s natural resources, and to avoid adversely impacting its coral reefs and other coastal resources. Mission training commanders are provided copies of the

Vieques Land Use Map prior to training activities. By

strictly defining operational areas, the map helps prevent adverse impacts to marine resources. The Navy is

working cooperatively with the U.S. Geological Survey

(USGS) Biological Resources Division to update the mapping of coral reefs and sea grass beds contiguous to

Naval Station Roosevelt Roads, Isla Pineros, Cabeza de

Parro, and Vieques. The Navy’s priority is to use the

most current mapping information in NEPA documents

to ensure that operations do not negatively impact coral

reefs and other marine resources.

Air Force Base (AFB)

Wake Island, Pacific Ocean

AFB Wake Island, located in the tropical west central

region of the Pacific Ocean, is ringed by coral reefs. Protection of coral reefs is being addressed in the Air Force

installation’s INRMP.


Johnston Atoll, located 800 miles southwest of Hawaii, is an atypical atoll with four islands and six

miles of emergent reef to the north. It is atypical because the atoll platform is tilted and slopes off the

deep water to the south, which is the reason there is no emergent reef to the south. The main island

of Johnston is pictured with the emergent reef in the foreground. Johnston has a sensitive and

unique coral reef fauna that is a mix of species from Hawaii to the north and the Line Islands to the

south. Even though the lagoon was dredged extensively in the 1960s to enlarge the main islands and

build two additional islands, coral regrowth in some of these dredged areas is extensive.

Andersen AFB, Guam

About 12 miles of reef are located along Andersen AFB’s

northern shoreline. The coral extends from near-shore

to an average distance of 600 meters away, forming a

barrier reef that is included within the Guam National

Wildlife Refuge. Andersen AFB gave extensive consideration to coral resources in developing its INRMP, which

was implemented in 1998.

Pacific Missile Range Facility,

Kekaha, Hawaii

A coral reef is located approximately 100 feet from this

facility. The facility’s INRMP, currently under development, will include measures to protect this reef.

Hickam AFB and Bellows Air

Force Station (AFS), Hawaii

Both the Hickam AFB and Bellows AFS recreational areas contain limited areas of coral. The reef structure

extends from near-shore waters to a distance of 400

meters offshore at Bellows. A single INRMP covers both

installations and addresses reef characterization and

protection.

Johnston Atoll

Approximately 6 miles of emergent reef occurs along

the northern edge of the atoll. The lagoon contains

extensive patch reefs. The atoll is co-managed as a

National Wildlife Refuge by the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service (USFWS) and the Air Force. The

facility’s INRMP, currently under development

in cooperation with USFWS, will include measures to protect this reef.
The Napoleon wrasse, Cheilinus undulatus, is also called the truck fish because they get so

large. These fish have become rare throughout most of their range due to high fishing

pressures. However, they are extremely abundant at AFB Wake Atoll, an installation that does

not allow fishing for reef fishes and excludes all commercial fisheries.




	

 DOD INITIATIVES TO ENHANCE CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS

Recognizing that more needed to be done for coral reefs

and the marine ecosystem, the Department of Commerce and the Navy co-sponsored the National Ocean

Conference in June 1998 in Monterey, CA, which fostered groundwork for new ocean policies and set the

stage for the announcement of the Order. In keeping

with this conference and other initiatives, DoD continues to demonstrate its commitment to coral reef ecosystem protection and overall environmental stewardship by funding projects and programs that could reduce impacts on coral reefs in the future. The following

are some examples of conservation, outreach, and research initiatives that the Military Services have completed or that are in progress.

Conservation Initiatives

Coral Reef Protection

Management Guidelines for DoD

Vessels and Installations

The Navy is sponsoring a Legacy Program project to

develop a management plan containing best management practices (BMPs) for vessels operating near coral

reefs and to create a training protocol that will teach

Navy personnel to implement necessary management

measures. This project will also produce checklists that

will be used during facility construction to maximize

prevention of coral reef degradation. DoD ports and

associated reef ecosystems will be surveyed and the

reefs’ use and condition considered so that priority areas can be identified and further measures to protect

them can be developed.

Coral Reef Conservation Guide

for the Military

The Coral Reef Conservation Guide for the Military Services was funded by the Legacy Program and produced

to raise awareness within DoD of coral reef conservation. The guide provides basic information on coral

reef ecosystems and discusses why their protection is

important. It also provides an overview of DoD and

U.S. laws and policies that pertain to coral reef ecosystem protection and enumerates DoD activities that have

the potential to adversely impact coral reefs.

Sea Grass Bed Protection at

John Pennekamp Coral Reef

State Park, Florida

One of the earliest Coastal America partnership projects

in which DoD participated was the effort to protect sea

grass, an important coral reef ecosystem component,

at John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park in 1992 and

1993. Shallow water around the Florida Keys had rendered its sea grass habitat prone to propeller scarring

by recreational boating traffic. Through a cooperative

arrangement between the Navy, the Florida Department

of Natural Resources, and NOAA, the Navy purchased

and installed shallow water marker buoys around selected areas. Interpretative and educational materials

about the need to protect sea grass habitat from propeller damage were placed at boat landings, dock areas, local marinas, hotels, and boat rental businesses

in the Key Largo area. Based on the success of the program, similar projects were initiated elsewhere in the

Keys and around Florida.

Coral Reef Assessment, Vieques

Range Facilities, Puerto Rico

The Navy plans to conduct a comprehensive baseline

study of Vieques reefs near the range to examine the

location and extent of coral reefs, physical and biological characteristics, reef health, and status. Accurate

mapping of Vieques reef locations, dimensions, bathymetry, and benthic composition has already been completed using digital ortho-photography, hyperspectral

imagery, and marine Lidar. The Navy will conduct a

detailed baseline assessment of reef characteristics and

conditions using site-specific transect, quadrat, photographic, video, computer, and differential global positioning system techniques. Studies of sedimentation

and fish populations will be conducted to evaluate effects of range activities on the surrounding coral reef

ecosystem. This work will enhance our understanding

of long-term natural variation in reef health and reef

building, as well as the potential impacts of human activities.


Los Machos and Red Mangrove

Restoration, Puerto Rico

To support the recovery and protection of coral reefs,

the Legacy Program funded two mangrove restoration

projects in 1992. Like sea grass beds, mangroves filter

pollutants in runoff, increase coastal habitat, and, depending on proximity, protect coral reefs from hurricane damage. Between restoration efforts in the Los

Machos and Red Mangrove Forests, over 1000 acres of

mangroves were restored.

Coral Reef Protection Buoy

Markers, U.S. Virgin Islands

As a willing and able partner in conservation, the Navy

provides assistance, when its duties allow, on conservation projects not directly associated with its lands.

For example, Naval Special Unit Four (NSWU 4) provided personnel and equipment to place four buoys for

protection of a nearby reef off the coast of St. John,

U.S. Virgin Islands, in November 1999. This

assistance provided NSWU 4 a training opportunity in

unfamiliar territory while saving the U.S. National Park

Service more than $50,000.

Rapid Ecological Assessment of

Coral Reefs, Guantanamo Bay

Naval Station, Cuba

The Navy’s Atlantic Fleet funded a project with the Nature Conservancy to complete a Rapid Ecological Assessment of the natural resources at Guantanamo Bay,

Cuba. Included in this assessment are coral reefs, sea

grasses, and adjacent mangroves. The assessment

found that these coral reef ecosystems were in good

condition compared to others in the Caribbean. This

information is being incorporated into the installation

geographic information system (GIS) and integrated

national resource management plan (INRMP), and the

data are available as baseline information for new National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) documents. Recommendations provided by the Nature Conservancy

were used as the basis for revising installation instructions relating to conservation initiatives, particularly

fisheries management. The revisions include modifications to fisheries bag and size limits, seasonal species restrictions, and additional restrictions on spear

gun fishing. Installation environmental and natural resources personnel have prepared, with the assistance

of the Naval Facilities Engineering Command’s Atlantic

Division, a Natural Resources Program brochure for

distribution to installation residents and visiting personnel. Installation natural resources

staff also conduct coral reef and fisheries

awareness training for all new personnel. The

local dive club hosts periodic “eco-dives” to

clean up trash and fishing lines on the coral reefs. The

dive club, in cooperation with Navy Morale, Welfare,

and Recreation Division (MWR), also established mooring buoys for divers and fishing boats to eliminate the

potential for anchor damage to the coral reefs. Additional buoys are programmed for installation in 2000.

Reef Fish Species Inventory and

Reef Community Assessment,

Wake Atoll

Wake atoll is managed exclusively by DoD. It has been

a U.S. military installation in operation since WWII and

has weekly flights of dozens of trans-Pacific military

aircraft. Recently, the Legacy Program funded a marine

biological resource survey, which resulted in the documentation of 120 new records of fish species. This increases the number of reef fish species known to occur

on Wake Atoll from 200 to the current total of 320. Species inventories will aid in the identification of sensitive

or unique reef communities occurring near DoD installations.

Coral Reef Baseline Mapping,

Naval Station Roosevelt Roads,

Puerto Rico

The Navy partnered with USGS Biological Resources Division to acquire baseline data on coral reefs contiguous to Naval Station Roosevelt Roads and outlying areas at Isla Pineros, Cabeza de Perro, and Vieques, Puerto

Rico. The Navy is providing USGS with aerial photography to map and characterize the coral reefs. Adjacent sea grass beds and mangrove systems are also being mapped and characterized. These data are being

digitized to update the installation GIS and will become

part of the installation’s INRMP. Once complete, information from these studies can be used in environmental assesment documents to ensure that future Naval

operations do not adversely affect coral reefs. DoD

Legacy Program funding is being sought to promote enhancement of a large mangrove system that will help

protect adjacent coral reefs.

A common

reef fish, the

sailfin tang,

Zebrasoma

veliferum,

was only

recently

found to

occur at

Wake Atoll.


Brown boobies, like this pair, are

among the 13 species of seabirds

that nest on the four islands within

Johnston Atoll National Wildlife

Refuge.

Human encroachment on seabird

habitat has reduced population

numbers in other areas. However,

seabird and shorebird populations on

Johnston Atoll are healthy and have

been increasing or stable.

Potential impacts of military

operations at Johnston on the

seabirds have been monitored by on

island Fish and Wildlife personnel as

well as scientists with the

Ornithological Council over the last

15 years.

National Wildlife Refuge,

Johnston Atoll

Johnston Atoll is a designated National Wildlife Refuge

with on-island management of reef and seabird populations by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS),

Pacific Ecoregion. It is also the site of the Johnston Atoll

Chemical Agent Disposal System (JACADS); the Air Force

is the current property owner. The atoll encompasses

a large, high-quality coral reef ecosystem. The reef is

approximately 30,000 acres in size and is composed of

33 coral species.

The atoll is co-managed by the Departments of Defense and Interior according to a 1976 Memorandum

of Understanding. The USFWS maintains a presence

on the atoll to advise the military and to monitor human activities and wildlife populations. During the past

decade, both the Air Force and Army have embarked

on several Legacy Program projects to promote public

awareness and to enhance the protection of this valuable resource, without compromising mission capabilities:

Pacific Equatorial Atoll Research

Laboratory (PEARL)

In 1993, the Army established the PEARL, a research

facility on the atoll, to study rare and threatened species and marine resources, including coral. The research

program is administered by the Boston University Marine Program. Scientific data obtained by this research

facility are used by FWS and DoD managers for conservation management and planning of the Johnston

Atoll military base. A list of publications and research

reports is available at

http://www-pmcd.apgea.army.mil/index.html

Johnston Atoll Guidebook

The Army Legacy Program has produced a poster and

guidebook of the area’s marine flora and fauna to illustrate the natural history of rare and threatened species

and military history on the atoll. These products were

developed using data acquired during 17 years of DoDsponsored research in support of the DoD mission on

Johnston Atoll. The poster and guidebook will promote understanding of the fragile and unique

biology of the atoll coral reef ecosystem.


Johnston Atoll

Permanent Mooring Systems

Most recently, in FY 2000, the Air Force and U.S. Fish

and Wildlife Service jointly sponsored a Legacy Program project to protect the Johnston Atoll coral reefs by

installing permanent moorings for recreational boats

used by military and civilian personnel on the island.

Recreation, particularly SCUBA diving and snorkeling,

is an important aspect of the morale of residents on

Johnston Atoll. Divers and snorkelers operate boats and

dive rafts throughout much of the atoll, and may damage the fragile coral each time they drop anchor at a

dive site. Marina records indicate that about 5,000

SCUBA dives plus numerous snorkeling excursions are

made each year. To prevent such damage, permanent

buoys were installed at the most popular dive sites

around the atoll to reduce the potential for damage to

coral reef habitat from recreational activities. These

buoys have become a widely accepted management tool

for marine parks and reserves, and have contributed

significantly to the preservation of coral reefs by lessening the effects of recreational diving and boating activities. The local diving community’s support of this

project should serve to increase general public awareness of the crucial need for conservation measures for

coral reef ecosystems worldwide and of Pacific Air

Force’s endorsement and participation.

Recreational divers using a permanent

mooring line for a safety stop. Permanent

mooring lines help protect fragile coral from

damage due to anchors. At Johnston Atoll, 13

permanent moorings were installed at the most

popular recreational dive locations. At Wake

Atoll, there are five similar permanent

moorings for recreational diving. These

moorings also provide secure anchoring and

avoids the risk of small boat anchors

dislodging. Permanent moorings also provide

locations for divers to adjust their gear and

buoyancy before they reach the bottom and

potentially damage coral.


Haputo Ecological Reserve

Area (ERA) at Communication

Master Station, Western

Pacific, Finegayan

The Haputo ERA was established by the Chief of Naval

Operations (CNO) on March 15, 1984, in cooperation

with various Federal agencies and the Government of

Guam. Haputo Beach lies within the boundaries of the

Naval Communication Master Station, Western Pacific,

Finegayan. An ERA is a physical or biological unit in

which current natural conditions are maintained insofar as possible. The Haputo ERA supports healthy and

diverse population of reef community fishes and associated invertebrates. The double reef at Haputo is one

of Guam’s few remaining examples of a healthy leeward fringing reef community, and provides a nursery

for a great number of species having subsistence and

commercial fishery value. The Navy, in cooperation

with FWS, NMFS, and the Government of Guam, has

conducted intensive surveys of the Haputo coral reefs

and developed a management plan to provide guidance

in their preservation and management. Regulations and

recommended management actions provide for minimum interference by human activities with the ecological processes occurring within the ERA. The Haputo

ERA, with both its terrestrial and marine units, is one of

the largest nature preserves set aside on Guam for preservation and research purposes.

Natural Resources

Management at

Midway Atoll

Fifty years after the famous Battle of Midway,

Midway Island is now the scene of peaceful efforts for environmental conservation. This small

5.2 km2

 area island attracts the largest population of laysan albatross, 16 species of seabirds

(over two million birds), a variety of shore birds,

the endangered Hawaiian monk seal and the

threatened green sea turtle. Its clear lagoon

waters, over 130 fish species, and coral reefs,

attract snorkelers and SCUBA divers from around

the world. In recent years, the USFWS selected

the Naval Air Facility Midway to be used as a

National Wildlife Refuge. Old environmental

policies of the previous half-century had resulted

in the need to remediate areas contaminated by

lead-based paints, asbestos, fuels, and chemicals.

The Navy began cleaning up this contamination

in 1993 in order to prepare Midway Atoll for release, in conjunction with the EPA, FWS, and

NMFS. The turnover was officially complete on June

30, 1997, and today, Midway Atoll is almost as clean

as when the Navy first settled on the island in the 1930s.

Marine Preserve at

Andersen Air Force Base (AFB),

Guam

A FY 1992 Legacy Project laid the foundation for the

establishment of the Andersen AFB Marine Preserve.

The designation of the Preserve was a remarkable conservation undertaking that significantly enhanced coral

reef habitat. The water off the north shore of Guam is

a biologically rich and diverse area and is considered

to be a major fisheries breeding area for local fishes.

Following designation of the Preserve, graduate students

and marine biologists conducted a baseline biological

inventory and subsequently developed conservation

techniques, based on additional monitoring and assessment results. Many project tasks are closely integrated

with public education programs and the media to share

data, findings, and management results to ensure full

appreciation, understanding, and protection of coral resources. Coral reef protection at Andersen AFB has been

an important factor in the recognition received by the

installation and the Air Force, including the General Thomas D. White Award for Natural Resources Conservation and the DoD Natural Resources Conservation

Award. In FY99, a second Legacy Project assessed the

effects of ocean currents on the marine preserve to enhance resource management and conservation planning activities.

The endangered Hawaiian monk seal occurs in the

Northwest Hawaiian Islands.
	

Caribbean mangroves are important habitat for

protecting coastlines from erosion, protecting

reefs from sedimentation and as essential

nursery habitat for the young of many marine

organisms.

They act as

shelter for the

juvenile grunts

in this photo

as well as

other reef

species.

Silverside fish

also find

shelter in

mangrove

roots.

Silversides are

a major prey

item for

carnivorous

reef fishes.

Diving Operation to Remove

Marine Debris at Tern Island,

French Frigate Shoals

Tern Island, part of French Frigate Shoals atoll about

500 miles northwest of Kauai, Hawaii, is a tiny 37-acre

coral island. It was given to the FWS as a National

Wildlife Refuge in 1979 after years of service as a military refueling and navigation station since before World

War II. The Navy continues to maintain a role in keeping the island and the shoals healthy. Most recently, in

1998, a team of Navy divers participated in a two-week

operation to remove derelict fishing nets and other

marine debris from the reefs in the shoals. Five divers

from the Naval Reserve Mobile Diving and Salvage Unit

One Detachment 419 joined representatives from other

Federal, State and county agencies and the private sector to successfully recover nearly 13,000 pounds of fishing nets and other debris contaminating the area. The

French Frigate Shoals is one of the only large areas of

shallow water in the mid-Pacific region. As a result,

fishing nets and other trash that has been lost or abandoned frequently drift onto the reefs destroying the coral

and threatening the endangered Hawaiian monk seal

whose habitat includes this reef ecosystem. By helping

make this cleanup successful, the Navy helped restore

the health of this remote coral reef ecosystem and

showed the power of teamwork.

Rapid Ecological Assessment,

Panama and Mangrove

Restoration at Howard Air

Force Base (AFB), Panama

The U.S. military had a major influence in the Republic

of Panama since the building of the Panama Canal in

the early 1900s. These lands are biologically diverse

with at least 565 species of birds. Legacy Program funding contributed to a Rapid Ecological Assessment of the

area, greatly adding to the data and knowledge base

used to make informed decisions vital to the reuse of

the area. The rich Panamanian coastal mangrove

swamps generate approximately 30 million dollars per

year from the shrimp and lobster industry. Years ago,

80 acres of the Howard AFB mangrove swamp was deforested, affecting the natural aquatic ecosystem. In

the mid-1990s, a recovery project was implemented to

protect this important ecosystem. Pipes were installed

underneath the Approach Lights Maintenance Road to

permit balanced water flow at both sides of the airfield,

restoring the mangroves while ensuring safety and visibility for flight operations.


This debris field is mostly scrap metal that

is left over from World War II. It remained

on one remote beach of Wake Island until it

was removed in 1999 by DoD.

Discarded or lost fishing nets

pose a serious threat to marine

life. Marine mammals, turtles,

fishes and seabirds can

become entangled, with little

hope of escape. The nets also

can smother and break coral.

Some marine debris contains

hazardous materials. A diver

takes a sediment sample next

to this old transformer to

determine if polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCBs) had leaked

into the environment. The

transformer was later removed.


Outreach Initiatives

Coral Reef Conservation Guide

for the Military

The Coral Reef Conservation Guide serves as a general

outreach brochure to heighten awareness within DoD,

to provide an overview of activities conducted by DoD

that have the potential for adverse impacts on coral reef

ecosystems, and to outline pertinent DoD and U.S. national laws and policies regarding coral reef protection.

This guide serves as a major outreach accomplishment

for DoD.

“Worm Rock”

-Unique Habitat ConsiderationsPatrick AFB and

Cape Canaveral AFS, Florida

Although no coral reef areas are found in proximity to

these installations, an offshore substrate known as

“worm rock” provides a unique habitat, similar to coral

reefs, for many invertebrate organisms. The protection of the “worm rock” is considered extensively in

the installations’ INRMPs. Various environmental impact statements (EISs) over the years, most recently for

the Expendable Launch Vehicle, have incorporated ecosystem protection considerations for this mission-related action.

Coral Reef

Conservation Guide

for the

Military

The Christmas tree worms below need hard

substrate to grow on. The “tree” part of the

worm filters the water for food and the rest of

the body is in a hard tube excreted by the

worm found within the live or dead coral that

the worm lives on. Other types of worms, in

some cases, create hard substrate

themselves, which can then be colonized by

multiple invertebrate organisms as shown in

the photo of the “worm rock” (below lower

right).


DoD’s Coastal America

Partnership-Waikiki Aquarium, HI

In addition to conducting site-specific activities aimed

at protecting the coral reefs, DoD also participates in

the Coastal America Partnership of Federal agencies that

work together to address environmental problems impacting coastal ecosystems. In Hawaii, DoD is a partner with the Waikiki Aquarium, which is a designated

Coastal Ecosystem Learning Center of the National

Coastal America Partnership. The Waikiki aquarium is

an active proponent of research and public education

with respect to the problems threatening the long-term

survival of coral reef ecosystems. A recent lecture series at the Waikiki aquarium addressed the increasing

and widespread damage to coral reefs and discussed

the role of public aquariums in finding solutions for sustaining coral reef resources.

Reef Cleanup at Marine Corps

Base Hawaii (MCBH)

In Hawaii, “ghost nets” are a constant threat in Hawaii’s

near-shore waters. Averaging 300 feet in length, they

drift in and impact reefs in three significant ways: (1)

smother, entangle and kill the coral, (2) transport alien

species from reef to reef, and (3) entangle other marine

life, including protected species. Since 1998, MCBH has

worked with State and community volunteers to remove

over 5,000 pounds of net debris each year in Kane’ohe

Bay alone. The Base’s 4th Reconnaissance Company, a

key MCBH participating unit, is thus allowed to practice their diving skills and perform a valuable community and environmental service as well. These cleanup

activities are an annual Earth Day event.

“Adopt a Reef” Program at

Moanalua Intermediate School

In a partnership with Moanalua Intermediate School

under the CNO Personal Excellence Program, a Naval

Oceanography officer from the Naval Pacific Meteorology and Oceanography Center saw an opportunity to

educate school children about the environment and initiated a program to “Adopt a Reef.” The program included periodic beach cleanups, a week in the classroom teaching environmental sciences with a focus on

a presentation on “Marine Debris,” student production

of a “public service announcement” on marine debris,

and participation in the International Coastal Cleanup/

“Get the Drift and Bag It Day.”

Sport and Wildlife Handbook,

Guantanamo Bay Naval Station,

Cuba

Guantanamo Bay Naval Station issued the

“ Outdoor Sport and Wildlife Handbook”

(COMNAVBASEGTMOINST 1710.10F) to personnel.

This handbook provides wildlife harvesting regulations

and restrictions to base personnel. In addition to providing lists of fish and wildlife species that are protected

from harvesting, it also contains measures for the protection of coral reef ecosystems at Guantanamo Bay by

prohibiting personnel from damaging or removing coral

during recreational and other activities.

Ghost nets are lost or discarded

fishing nets that continue to fish.

Fish, turtles, mammals and birds

become entangled and die in these

nets. The net in the photo has

become so entangled in coral that it

is unlikely that any large animals

would be at risk, but it has killed the

coral.


Research Initiatives

Sediment Plume Modeling

Presently the Army Corps of Engineers is developing a

numerical screening model, through the Dredging Operations and Environmental Research Program, designed

to examine the movement and dynamics of sediment

plumes. This research could be adapted to any number of ecosystems, including coral reefs, giving an indication of the type and duration of impacts to these ecosystems.

Coastal Benthic Optical

Properties (CoBOP) Program

CoBOP is a five-year project initiated in 1997 by the

Office of Naval Research to study the interaction of light

with coral reefs, sea grasses, and associated marine

sediments. This program proposes to correlate optical

properties with biological, chemical, and physical processes associated with the shallow ocean floor. Collaboration is on-going between CoBOP and other DoD

research and development programs concerned with

remote sensing and underwater imaging.

The JASON Project

The JASON Project is sponsored by the JASON Foundation for Education, a unique partnership of scientific

research facilities, private industry, museums, and educational institutions. The JASON Project, founded in

1989 following the discovery of the wreck of the RMS

Titanic, is designed to enable students and teachers

worldwide to take part in global explorations using advanced interactive telecommunications. The Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command has cooperated with various hosts, such as the University of Southern Mississippi’s Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, to

provide some 60 hours of live interactive broadcasts

from the JASON expedition site. Since 1993, the live

JASON broadcasts have been experienced by thousands

of students and teachers. The JASON project has conducted several coral reef evaluation and monitoring research initiatives to raise awareness about the value of

coral reefs and the problems affecting them. Examples

of such projects include experiments designed to determine the effects of increased ultraviolet light on coral

and the occurrences of coral bleaching, and programs

to monitor the health of individual corals over time and

to monitor algae growth on coral reefs.



There are several species of giant clams found

on Pacific reefs. Tridacna crocea is pictured

on both pages. The differing colors are caused

by symbiotic zooxanthellae and tissue

pigments which vary among individuals. Giant

clams are threatened because they grow

slowly and have been overharvested as food.

An aquaculture industry started with the intent

of producing giant clams for food, found it more

profitable to sell small clams to the aquarium

trade. Giant clams are also being used as

biomonitoring tools, as mussels are used in the

Mussel Watch Program, to measure

bioavailability of contaminants at polluted sites.

Biomonitoring at

Kwajalein Atoll

A biomonitoring program developed by the U.S. Army

Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine

evaluated the bioavailability of potential contaminants

near marine discharges from the U.S. Army Kwajalein

Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. “Mussel Watch”

methods traditionally used to assess regional status and

trends were adapted to meet reef area conditions at

Kwajalein Atoll. Hatchery-reared juvenile giant clams

(Tridacna maxima) of a uniform size were air shipped

to Kwajalein, acclimated for several days, and then deployed in anchored predator exclusion cages at seven

sites off three islands within Kwajalein Atoll. Vessel

mooring methods that reduce collateral damage to coral

reefs were modified and scaled down to deploy caged

clams at the shallow and high energy stations. After a

three month exposure, clams were retrieved and shipped

to a lab for contaminant analysis. Results identified

several sites with elevated levels of some metals and

these have been targeted for further impact evaluation.

This type of biomonitoring approach may be useful at

other coral reef sites. In this case, the selected genus

Tridacna is symbiotic, like coral, and can also be used

to help monitor coral reef health. The biomonitoring

approach was more cost-effective and time-integrated

than traditional water quality monitoring. Furthermore,

the results provide information about the contaminant

bioaccumulation potential, useful in assessing human

health and ecological risk.


Biomonitoring at

Johnston Atoll

A biomonitoring program using reef fish development

to detect anthropogenic impacts was developed with

collaborative funding by the Program Manager for

Chemical Demilitarization (U.S. Army), U.S. Air Force,

Pacific Command, and the U.S. Coast Guard. This

method involves monitoring populations of damselfish,

spawning in the field, in areas that are potentially “impacted” by chemical contamination as compared to

“non-impacted” areas. This method measures both reproductive and developmental parameters which are

among the most sensitive to chemical pollution. The

blackspot sergeant major damselfish, a common fish

found on reefs throughout the Indo-Pacific is used as

the “indicator” organism for two reasons: 1) it has a

high potential for exposure to contaminants through

its diet, and 2) it lays eggs in a

conspicuous nest that is easy for

divers to monitor and sample.

This species seems to “prefer”

artifical structures for its nesting

sites and can be found spawning

on pier pilings, cement blocks,

and even in old 55 gallon drums.

Samples of fertilized eggs (embryos) are collected from the field

and quantitatively examined for

developmental defects. The level of developmental effects is correlated with the level of environmental contamination. The method of examining fish embryos for

developmental defects and relating the level of effects

observed to contamination has been used extensively

in temperate habitats. However, this is the first application of this technique in tropical environments. Most

importantly, this monitoring method is relatively “low

tech” and only requires a good quality microscope. This

particular damselfish has close relatives on reefs in the

Caribbean so similar monitoring could be conducted

there as well. Current work includes expanding the

embryo monitoring to other reef fish species.

This method is listed as one of the diagnostic

monitoring/biocriteria tools available for coral reefs at:

www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/coral

Most coral reef fishes

have a larval life stage

where they develop in

the open ocean before

returning to the reef as

juveniles. Once these

embryos hatch, the 3

mm long larvae will

spend at least 20 days

in the open ocean.

The early life stages of

coral reef animals

(embryos and larvae)

are extremely sensitive

to environmental

changes including

chemical pollution.

Left- Adult male

blackspot sergeant

major damselfish,

Abudefduf sordidus.

Below - Five day old

damselfish embryos.


Left: Soldierfish, Myripristis berndti,

a prized sport fish, sheltering within

the hold of the wreck pictured below.

Bottom: The wreck of the Stoner, a

fuel ship, lies directly outside the

small boat harbor at Wake Atoll.

Even though the wreck is relatively

young, corals and other

invertebrates have already started

growing on it providing additional

habitat.

Artificial Reef Creation, tificial Reef Creation,

Various Locations

Research has shown that man-made structures, such

as obsolete vessels and oil rigs, will, over time, create a

simulated reef environment, thereby taking pressure off

of natural reefs. These artificial reefs attract bottomdwelling sea creatures, serve as nurseries for small fish,

create hiding places for adults, and thus increase the

number of aquatic species. Since most reef programs

are operated at the State level, creation of new artificial reefs are coordinated with State authorities

(having jurisdiction over the waters

into which the artificial reef will be

created) as well as EPA and NOAA/

NMFS. Artificial reef construction by

DoD includes the following:

REEF-EX

The Defense Logistics Agency (DLA)

Reef Exercise (REEF-EX) Program, in

coordination with the U.S. Army and

Navy Reserves established an innovative method for reusing surplus

military armored vehicles (MAVs).

The REEF-EX program involved three major steps:

cleaning and preparation of the vehicles; land transportation to reef staging areas; and the marine placement of the MAVs on permitted reef sites in cooperation with local programs. These activities were subsidized by DoD, although siting, permitting, and marking support was handled by reef program cooperators.

Preparation involved demilitarization and cleaning to

meet established environmental standards. These efforts removed all potentially hazardous items and any

significant amounts of environmental contaminants

before deployment as reef materials. Preparation also

included efforts to enhance the MAVs as reef habitat by

removing or securing hatches and access panels in open

positions to improve water circulation and fish access.

All REEF-EX materials were placed on reef sites permitted by existing State, county, or city programs. Reefs

were built in New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Louisiana. These reefs provide additional

fish habitat and diving sites. The Army is currently monitoring MAV reefs and comparing

their performance to artificial reefs constructed

from other materials.


Diving Opportunities–Key Largo,

Florida & Oahu, Hawaii

The Navy successfully created an artificial reef in Key

Largo in 1987 by sinking two World War II sister ships.

Both ships have become one of the world’s most popular wrecks for diving, visited by over 40 thousand divers

each year. Over the years, these ships have, in effect,

become a coral reef, providing habitat for many species

of plants and fish and providing recreational divers an

opportunity to dive in an area other than the Key Largo

natural reef. The commercial popularity of this artificial reef has provided much needed relief to the natural

Key Largo reef from the thousands of divers that come

to the area every year.

On March 13, 1998, the Hawaii Department of Land

and Natural Resources led a combined effort with the

Navy and NMFS to add a

110-foot long World War II

era Navy cargo-transport

barge to the State’s

Moanalua Artificial Reef located 1.5 nm off the coast of

Kahala near Hawaii Kai, just

west of Diamond Head. Using the tugboat Neodesha

(YTB 718), the cargo-transport barge was towed from

its location at the Naval

Magazine Lualualei’s West

Loch dock to the artificial reef

site where it was anchored

and sunk by removing

wooden/foam plugs from

holes previously cut into the

hull. The holes will later

provide easy, safe passage

for recreational divers and

fauna. The Navy and the

State of Hawaii inspected

and cleaned the antiquated

barge prior to transport to

ensure it was an environmentally safe addition to the

coral reef ecosystem. This combined effort was coordinated for

more than three years by the

Explosive Ordnance Disposal

Training and Evaluation Unit

One.

Cooperation with State

Programs–Ft. Lauderdale,

Pompano Beach, and St.

Augustine, Florida

The Navy successfully created an artificial reef off the

coast of Ft. Lauderdale, FL, where the Naval Surface

Warfare Center sank a Range Support Boat-1 (RSB-1)

for the Broward County Artificial Reef program. Before

the ship was sunk, it was stripped and cleaned according to standards established by the EPA and NOAA/

NMFS. Then, with oversight by the State of Florida,

Broward County, and Navy explosive ordnance specialists, the RSB-1 was sunk off of Pompano Beach, FL.

Following a similar request and process from the State,

the Navy created an artificial reef off the coast of St.

Augustine, FL, with 33 A-6 Intruder aircraft.

Artificial reefs can also be made from materials including

pipe and cement as in this photo. Artificial reefs can

potentially increase habitat and provide shelter for particular

life stages of invertebrates, fishes and other organisms in

areas where there was no habitat to begin with. These sort

of artificial reefs have been proposed to help rebuild fisheries

in areas where destructive fishing methods have destroyed

the natural reef.


Fisheries Conservation Areas–Oahu, Hawaii

The Navy assisted the State of Hawaii with expanding artificial reefs. Three landing craft were sunk off Oahu on

October 7 and 8, 1997, to increase the size of Hawaii’s artificial reefs. The reefs are being created by the State

Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR) to establish fish habitats in areas where the seafloor is

barren. According to DLNR, “artificial reefs give the State another opportunity to increase the sustainability of

Hawaii’s marine species.” The Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard (PHNSY) donated the vessels and worked closely

with the Hawaii Department of Health to ensure the vessels were environmentally friendly before the Navy towed

the vessels to sea. This assurance included a rigorous inspection to ensure the absence of polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCBs), mercury, lead, petroleum products, and asbestos from the vessels as well as steam cleaning of

fuel tanks. After the vessels were certified by the State, they were moved to select sites off Kahala, located on the

south side of Oahu and at Maile Point on the leeward side of the island. Once the vessels reached their destinations, Navy divers from the Mobile Dive and Salvage Unit 1 positioned the vessels over the existing artificial reefs

and removed plugs to allow water into the crafts. This cooperative effort between the State of Hawaii and the

Navy was initiated by the PHNSY who contacted the State to determine if they had an interest in using the

vessels. After government regulations were met, the project was given the “green light.” The landing craft were

sunk in about 85 feet of water.

In addition to providing habitat for fishes and invertebrates, wrecks are a source of fascination

for recreational divers. Even this small tugboat in the lagoon of Johnston Atoll, attracts

numerous divers.
Like this wrasse, all coral reef organisms are looking to the members of the Coral Reef Task Force,

participating agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and the public for protection.



	


 LOOKING TOWARD THE FUTURE... DOD CONTINUES TO IMPLEMENT

CORAL REEF PROTECTION MEASURES

Although guided by a number of Federal laws and regulations, EOs, and internal policies and procedures, the

driving force behind DoD’s commitment to protection

and enhancement of coral reef ecosystems is a basic

conservation ethic to be good stewards over the lands

and waters we hold in trust for the American people.

DoD has a long conservation history that has evolved

into a successful ecosystem management program, integrated with mission requirements, ensure that critical

and unique resources such as coral reefs are protected.

As we enter the 21st century, DoD will continue to be an

exemplary “Steward of the Seas” as we strive to support and promote the spirit and intent of Executive Order 13089 as a responsible Federal Agency, Natural Resources Trustee, and member of the U.S Coral Reef Task

Force.

It is DoD’s commitment to use its existing authorities to

identify, preserve, protect and enhance coral reef ecosystems within available resources and consistent with

mission requirements.

 DoD will continue to actively participate as

a member of the Coral Reef Task Force and

to join Federal partners in their efforts to

protect coral reef ecosystems.

 DoD will continue to utilize its authorities to

protect and conserve coral reef resources.

 DoD will provide outreach opportunities to

enhance awareness and foster an

environmental ethic with regard to coral reef

ecosystem protection within the Department

and the surrounding communities.

 DoD will continue to seek opportunities to

research, monitor, and restore coral reef

ecosystems.

 DoD will continue to seek funding through

existing sources to sponsor projects and

programs to support the following coral reef

protection measures:

Protect and enhance coral reef

ecosystems and values.

Develop and implement Integrated

Natural Resources Management Plans that

ensure protection of coral reefs where

appropriate.

Manage other areas under DoD control to

include related sea grass beds, coastal

mangrove forests and uplands, designated

marine protected areas, and essential fish

habitat to further protect coral reefs.

Survey, inventory, map, and monitor coral

reef locations as appropriate, to provide

planning level information and data

necessary to meet operational requirements.

Provide training opportunities for DoD

personnel involved in coral reef protection.

Conduct education and outreach on the

importance of coral reef ecosystems.

On-going and future projects to meet these commitments include:

Coral Reef Protection

Management Guidelines for DoD

Vessels and Installations

The Navy is sponsoring a Legacy-funded project to develop a management plan containing best management

practices (BMPs) for vessels operating in proximity to

coral reefs and training protocol for personnel to implement such measures. This project will also develop

checklists to be used during facility construction to

maximize protection of coral reef ecosystems. DoD ports

and associated reef ecosystems will be surveyed to

identify priority areas, based on significant use

and/or sensitive reef conditions, to develop further project recommendations to protect coral

reefs.


Coral Reef Assessment and

Training

Navy divers will have training opportunities to develop

general awareness of sensitive coral reef areas when

working on construction projects or demolition so that

potential impacts to reef ecosystems can be avoided and

minimized. Additionally, Navy divers associated with

the Underwater Inspection Program, administered by

Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center and the

Navy’s Mobile Diving and Salvage Unit(s), may assist

in research efforts to assess the general condition of coral

reefs in proximity to DoD installations/operational areas. Personnel from Boston University Marine Program

will conduct surveys of installation and operational areas for general reef condition to assist the military in

prioritizing future projects to protect and restore coral

reefs. This project is being funded through the Legacy

Program.

Top - A small hermit crab lets coral

grow around its body, instead of

using a shell for protection.

Left - Potter’s angelfish only occurs

in Hawaii and at Johnston Atoll.

Right - The candy cane goby lives

symbiotically with a shrimp.

Outreach & Education

Initiatives

 The DoD Coral Reef Protection

Implementation Plan will serve to create

awareness and outline legal responsibilities,

policies, and procedures for installation or

operational use. It will serve as the primary

document to obtain a consolidated listing of

DoD and service instructions, generate ideas

for stewardship initiatives, and outline a plan

for sound environmental actions. Military

Services should use this plan to help ensure

safe and environmentally responsible actions

for military operations and training in and

around coral reefs. This information will be

available on the Defense Environmental

Exchange Network (DENIX on the Web) at

http://www.denix.osd.mil.

 The Coral Reef Conservation Guide for

the Military (discussed under Conservation

Initiatives) will continue to be made

available on DENIX for military and public

awareness of DoD policy and programs for

coral reef protection.

 DoD will continue to sponsor the Natural

Resources Compliance Course, an InterService Environmental Education Review

Board approved course, which is offered

through Navy’s Civil Engineer Corps

Officers School (CECOS) to provide a

training opportunity to natural resources

managers and other DoD personnel. This

training includes a session to educate

participants of DoD/Federal agency

responsibilities related to the Order. For

more information on this course, visit the web

address at

http://www.cecos.navy.mil.






“The Department of Defense (DoD) r “The Department of Defense (DoD) recognizes coral r ecognizes coral reefs and r eefs and related endemic elated endemic

ecosystems (mangr ecosystems (mangroves and sea grass beds) as biologically rich and diverse habi- oves and sea grass beds) as biologically rich and diverse habitats and gives a high priority to their pr tats and gives a high priority to their protection.” otection.”

— from the Department of Defense Policy Statement on Coral Reefs Department of Defense Policy Statement on Coral Reefs

Coral reef ecosystems are valuable assets that provide food, jobs, recreation,

protection from storms, and billions of

dollars of revenue each year to local

communities and national economies.

Yet, coral reefs are both beautiful and

fragile resources that must be treated

with respect and great care. This implementation strategy is intended to instruct military forces that they must

minimize the potential for adverse impacts to coral reefs when conducting

their operations in these sensitive areas. Whether during military exercises

and training, daily operational procedures, diving, anchoring, or managing

ballast water, the military must be conscious of its responsibilities under EO

13089. Through sound environmental

practices such as knowing the resources, planning carefully, and avoiding sensitive ecological areas when possible, DoD can continue its operations

while fulfilling its stewardship responsibility.

Beyond the policies, authorities, and mandates explained here, additional information on coral reefs is

available through the Internet at:

http://coralreef.gov/

http://www.coralreef.noaa.gov/

http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/coral/


Sikes Act, 16 USC §§670a-670o. The Sikes Act directs the Secretary of Defense to carry out a program

for the cooperative development and implementation

of integrated natural resource management plans to provide for the conservation and rehabilitation of fish, wildlife, and plans on military installations.

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 42 USC

§§4321-4347. 1-4347. NEPA directs F 1-4347. ederal agencies to use a

systematic, interdisciplinary approach that will ensure

that natural resources are given proper consideration

in planning Federal actions. Under the Act, Federal

agencies are required to prepare detailed environmental impact statements for any major Federal action undertaken within the U.S. or U.S. territorial sea significantly affecting the environment.

Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA), 16 USC

§§1451-1465. 1-1465. 1-1465. The CZMA establishes a Federal grant

program to encourage coastal states to develop and

implement coastal zone management programs. Specific emphasis is placed on development and implementation of nonpoint source pollution management efforts

to restore and protect coastal waters. Federal activities

that impact coastal zones must be consistent with enforceable policies of approved state programs to the

maximum extent practicable. The Act also establishes

the national estuarine reserve system.

Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships, 33 USC §§1901-

1912. As amended by the Marine Plastic Pollution Re- 12.

search and Control Act, this Act requires all U.S. ships,

and all ships in U.S. navigable waters or the exclusive

economic zone, to comply with the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

(MARPOL). Annex V of the Convention prohibits the

disposal of plastics and other garbage into the ocean.

For DON, the Act establishes deadlines for surface ship

and submarine plastic discharge termination and special area compliance.

Clean Water Act (CWA), 33 USC §§1251-

1387. The CWA is major Federal legislation

that provides for the restoration and maintenance of the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters. It establishes the

National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permitting program for point sources, and the Dredge and

Fill Permit Program to regulate discharge of dredge and

fill material into navigable waters and waters of the

United States.

National Invasive Species Act (NISA),16 U.S.C. 16 U.S.C.

§§4701-4751. The NISA reauthorizes and amends the

Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control Act of 1990 to prevent and control the unintentional introduction of the zebra mussel and other aquatic

nuisance species into waters of the United States

through ballast water management and other control

methods. Section 4713 of the NISA also established the

Armed Forces Ballast Water Management Program,

which required DoD to implement a ballast water management program for DoD vessels in order to minimize

the risk of introduction of non-indigenous species from

ballast water releases.

Pollution Prevention Act (PPA), 42 USC §§13101-

13109. The PPA establishes national policy for the prevention and source reduction of pollutants, whenever

possible. Under the Act, pollution that cannot be prevented should be recycled in an environmentally sound

manner.

Uniform National Discharge Standards, 40 CFR part , 40 CFR part

1700. This regulation establishes uniform national dis- 00.

charge standards that apply to discharges, other than

sewage, incidental to the normal operation of vessels of

the Armed Forces. Incidental discharges include effluent from the normal operation of vessel systems or hull

protective coatings, but do not include such things as

emergency discharges, air emissions, or discharges of

trash. These regulations apply to 39 types of vessel

discharges and determine which of those discharges

require control through the use of marine pollution control devices (MPCDs). A MPCD is any equipment or

management practice installed or used onboard a vessel to control a discharge.

Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA), 33 U.S.C. §2701 et

seq. OPA revises the FWPCA and other statutes to



DoD Coral Reef Protection Implementation Plan

Legal Authority and Related Legislation


strengthen the National Response System, clarify Federal response authority, increase penalties for spills,

require tank vessel and facility response plans, and provide for additional prevention and preparedness measures in designated areas.

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), 42 U.S.C. §9601

et seq. et seq CERCLA authorizes the Federal government to 

compel persons to clean up sites contaminated by hazardous substances. It also contains provisions to make

responsible parties liable for the costs of cleanup, and

the creation of the hazardous substance Superfund. The

Act imposes liability for the cleanup on responsible

parties and requires them to perform the cleanup, reimburse others for their cleanup expenses or reimburse

the Fund when the Fund is used to pay for cleanup. It

also requires that responsible parties pay damages to

the Federal, State or tribal government for the destruction or loss of, or injury to, natural resources.

Emergency Planning and Community Right-t y Planning and Community Right-to-Know

Act (EPCRA), 42 U.S.C. §§11001-11050). EPCRA es- 0).

tablishes programs to provide the public with information on hazardous and toxic chemicals in their communities and established emergency planning and notification requirements to protect the public in the event

of a release of extremely hazardous substances.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA),

42 U.S.C. §§6901-6992k. R 1-6992k CRA requires comprehensive cradle-to-grave regulation of hazardous waste and

authorizes environmental agencies to order the cleanup

of contaminated sites. The Act also encourages recycling and reuse of solid waste and requires hazardous

waste generators and treatment, storage, and disposal

facility owners to implement programs to reduce the

volume of waste generated and minimize its threat to

health and the environment.

Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act

(MPRSA), 16 USC §§1431-1445a. 1-1445a. MPRSA 1-1445a. authorizes

the Secretary of Commerce to designate and manage

marine areas of national significance as marine sanctuaries. This Act also regulates the dumping of material from outside the U.S. into a territorial sea or the

contiguous zone of the U.S., and transportation of material from the U.S. for dumping into ocean waters.

The Caribbean spiny lobster and spider crab are usually only seen out at night.


Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, 16 USC §§1801-1882. 1-1882. This Act conserves ocean fishery resources and manages fishing

within the exclusive economic zone, anadromous fish

throughout their migratory range, and fish on the Continental Shelf. It establishes eight Regional Fishery Management Councils responsible for establishing fishery

management plans and identifying essential fish habitat.

Water Resources Development Act, 33 U.S.C. ct, 33 U.S.C.

§§2201-2330. This Act authorizes the construction or 0.

study of 270 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects. It

applies to all features of water resources development

and planning, including environmental assessment and

mitigation requirements.

Endangered Species Act (ESA), 16 USC §§1531-1544. 1-1544.

ESA provides a program for the conservation of species

of fish, wildlife, and plants that are listed as threatened

or endangered in the U.S. or elsewhere. It also allows

for the implementation of recovery plans and designation of critical habitat for listed species. The Act also

prescribes procedures for Federal agencies to follow

when taking actions that may jeopardize listed species.

Executive Order 13089, “Coral Reef Protection” (11

Jun 99) Jun 99). EO 13089 requires Federal agencies whose Jun 99)

actions may affect coral reef ecosystems to identify their

actions that may affect U.S. coral reef ecosystems; utilize their programs and authorities to protect and enhance the conditions of such ecosystems; ensure that

actions they fund and carry out will not degrade such

ecosystems, and provide for the implementation of

measures needed to research, monitor, manage, and

restore affected ecosystems.

Executive Order 13112, “Invasive Species” (3 Feb

99). EO 13112 requires Federal agencies to prevent the 99)

introduction of invasive species and to restore native

species. It also establishes a Federal Interagency Invasive Species Council, co-chaired by the Secretaries of

Interior, Agriculture, and Commerce and includes representatives from the Departments of State, Treasury,

Defense, and Transportation and EPA.

Executive Order 12856, “Federal Compliance with

Right-t Right-to-Know Laws and Pollution Prevention Requirements” (3 Aug 93). ug 93). EO ug 93). 12856 requires Federal

agencies to comply with the requirements of the

Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 and the Emergency Planning and Community Right-toKnow Act. It requires Federal agencies to

adopt voluntary goals for reduction of toxic

releases, report toxic chemical releases under the Toxic

Release Inventory program, reduce pollution sources,

develop facility P2 plans, and integrate P2 into acquisition and procurement efforts, and include environmental considerations into life cycle cost decisions.

Executive Order 12114, “Environmental Effect al Effects

Abroad of Major Federal Actions”

(4 Jan 79). (4 Jan 79). EO 12114 (4 Jan 79). requires environmental study,

under delineated circumstances of actions proposed to

be undertaken outside the geographical borders of the

United States or beyond the U.S. territorial sea. Under

this EO, the military considers the effects of proposed

major activities or major exercises conducted in such

areas.

Executive Order 12580, “Superfund Implement der 12580, “Superfund Implementation”

(23 Jan 87). (23 Jan 87). EO 12580 delegates various responsibili- (23 Jan 87). 

ties assigned to the President under the CERCLA to various Federal agencies, including DoD. Under this delegation, the Secretary of Defense through the Secretaries of the Military Departments serve as a Natural Resources Trustee for “land, fish, wildlife, biota, air, water, drinking supplies, and other such resources” such

as U.S coral reefs. As a Natural Resource Trustee, DoD

must take appropriate actions, after notification or discovery of a natural resource injury, loss or threat, to

conduct preliminary surveys and, if needed, carry out

a plan for the restoration, rehabilitation, replacement

or acquisition of equivalent natural resources.

Executive Order 13158, Marine Protected Areas (26

May 00). y 00). EO13158 strengthens and expands the U.S.’s

system of marine protected areas (MPAs) to protect the

significant natural and cultural resources within the marine environment. Some of these MPAs may include

coral reef ecosystems. Under this EO 13158 EPA, relying upon existing CWA authorities, will propose new

science-based regulations, as necessary, to ensure appropriate levels of protection for the marine environment. Such regulations may include the identification

of areas that warrant additional pollution protection

and the enhancement of marine water quality standards.

In addition, similar to the Coral Reef EO, each Federal

agency whose actions affect the natural and cultural

resources that are protected by an MPA will have to

identify such actions, and make public annually a concise description of actions taken by it in the previous

year to implement this order. As this Order is implemented, the military, to the extent permitted by law and

to the maximum extent practicable, shall avoid harm to

the natural and cultural resources protected by an MPA.




Text of Executive Order 13089

A manta ray at Johnston Atoll. Very little is known about manta ray life history and ecology.

DoD protected reefs provide safe haven to species which otherwise would be overfished.







DoD Coral Reef Protection Implementation Plan

Policy Statements and Memoranda

 DoD Policy Statement on Coral Reefs (1997)

 DUSD(ES)/EQ-CO Memorandum of 3 August 1998, “Executive Order 13089 – Coral Reef

Protection.”

These small cardinalfish school for protection from predators in Palau.

Cardinalfish brood their young in their mouth.








Military Service Coral Reef Protection

Policy Statements and Memoranda

 CNO Letter of 4 Dec 98, “Coral Reef Protection Policy.”

 DAIM-ED-N Memorandum of 10 Sept 98, “U.S. Coral Reef Initiative.”

 HQ USAF/ILEV Memorandum for ALMAJCOM/CEV, HQ USAFA/CEV,

“Executive Order 13089, Coral Reef Protection.”

 Army Corps of Engineers Memorandum for Field of 26 Apr 2000, Entitled “Special Emphasis

Given to Coral Reef Protection under the Clean Water Act, Marine Protection, Research and

Sanctuaries Act, Rivers and Harbors Act and Federal Project Authorities.”

 Caribbean bonefish are usually found on sandy flats adjacent to coral reefs.









	


Compliance Outside of the

U.S.

DoD Directive 6050.16, “DoD Policy for Establishing

and Implementing Environmental Standards at Overseas Installations” (20 Sep 1991) and DoD Instruction

4715.5-G, “Overseas Environmental Baseline Guidance

Document” (15 March 2000) issued by DUSD(ES) clarifies how DoD addresses environmental standards outside the United States. DoD operations, activities, and

installation activities in and around foreign nations shall

be consistent with international agreements, status of

forces agreements, final governing standards (FGS) issued for host nations, or where no FGS have been issued, the criteria under the Overseas Environmental

Baseline Guidance Document (OEBGD). Many of the

countries in which the military operates have invoked

similar coral reef protection policies, laws, or initiatives

as apply in the United States. Military operating overseas should be aware of and comply with these mandates.

The OEBGD can be found on the DoD

Environmental Web Site www.denix.osd.mil.

Related Military Service

Policy and Guidance

DoD Instruction 4715.3, Environmental Conservation Program (3 May 96). Assigns responsibilities y 96)

and prescribes policy and procedures for general conservation management, natural resources management,

and cultural resources management on DoD property.

Memorandum on Implement andum on Implementation of Ecosystem

Management in the DoD, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense (8 Aug 94). Assigns ecosystem management as the basis of future management of DoD

lands and waters and provides guidelines for ecosystem management implementation.

Army Regulation 200-3, Natural Resources-Land,

Forest and Wildlife Management (28 Feb 95). eb 95). Pre- eb 95).

scribes current Army policies, procedures, and standards for the conservation, management, and restoration of land and the renewable natural resources consistent with the local military mission, national security, and current Federal laws pertaining to renewable

natural resources and the quality of the environment.

Army Regulation 200-2, Environmental Effect al Effects of

Army Actions. Sets forth policy, responsibilities, and . 

procedures for integrating environmental considerations

into Army planning and decisionmaking.

OPNAVINST 5090.1B, Change 2, Environmental and

Natural Resources Program Manual (9 Sept 99) am Manual (9 Sept 99). am Manual (9 Sept 99)

Provides requirements, assigns responsibilities and issues policy for the management of the environment and

natural resources for all Navy ships and shore activities.

NAVFAC Natural Resources Management Procedural

Manual, P-73, Vol II. Provides guidance and proce- ol II

dures for implementation of natural resources regulations on Navy property.

Marine Corps Order P5090.2A, Environmental Compliance and Protection Manual (10 Jul 98). 0 Jul 98). Describes

the requirements of Federal environmental regulations

and implements DoD environmental policies.

Air Force Instruction 32-7064, Integrated Natural

Resources Management (1 Aug 97). Addresses the ug 97)

management of natural resources on Air Force properties to comply with federal, state and local standards.

Provides MAJCOMs and installations with a framework

for documenting and maintaining AF natural resources

management programs.

Air Force Instruction 32-7061, Secretary of the Air

Force Civil Engineering, The Environmental Impact al Impact

Analysis Process. Implements Air Force Policy Direc- .

tive (AFPD) 32- 70, Environmental Quality. Describes

specific tasks and procedures for the Air Force Environmental Impact Analysis Process (EIAP).



Related DoD Policy Reference List
Seasnake.

Female grey reef

shark with remora.

Indo-Pacific coral reef.

 Publication supported by Legacy Resour Publication supported by Legacy Resource Management Pr ce Management Program Grant DACA87-00-H-0021