FEDERAL MOTOR CARRIER SAFETY ADMINISTRATION

Contact: Jerry Robin, MCS-30, (202) 366-2985

Validation of Simulation Technology

in the Training, Testing, and Licensing

of Tractor-Trailer Drivers

Introduction

Simulators have been successfully employed in the military and commercial sectors for

several decades. While most simulation technology was developed to satisfy aviation

training needs, similar technology has been applied to training in other contexts:

nuclear power stations, petrochemical plants, ground vehicles, ships, and locomotives.

Now, low-cost, full-mission, high-fidelity commercial motor vehicle (CMV) simulators

are available, and may be useful to supplement the training, testing, and licensing of

CMV drivers.

On the basis of a 1996 Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) report that evaluated

the functional capabilities of truck driving simulators, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety

Administration (FMCSA) is pursuing the validation of truck simulator technology.

Although CMV simulator technology is available, there had been little previous effort

by either the private or public sector to examine the transferability of simulation 

training to real driving, or to assess its usefulness, effectiveness, or efficiency. This 

tech brief summarizes the final report addressing the research design of the planned

validation study.

Purpose

The FMCSA is seeking to empirically validate a low- to mid-cost simulator for purposes

of CMV driver training, testing, and licensing. In the first phase, which is the focus of

this tech brief, researchers developed a research design to validate the use of simulation technology. In the second phase, researchers will conduct the follow-on empirical

study using the Phase 1 research design. 

The Phase 1 research plan was designed to determine if the use of simulatorsupplemented training, as compared to traditional behind-the-wheel (BTW) training,

results in the same, better, or worse performance in driver training and on the 

commercial driver’s license (CDL) examination. Provisions for a longitudinal study will

also ascertain the relationship between type of training method (i.e., simulation vs.

truck) and actual job performance by determining if simulator-based training 

ultimately results in reliable differences in a driver’s on-the-road performance. 

Methodology

Because the focus of this project was to develop a research design that adequately 

validated truck driving simulator technology, researchers sought to better understand

the requirements of the training and licensing industry. A preliminary outline of the

Tech Brief

The goal of the Federal Motor

Carrier Safety Administration

(FMCSA) is to reduce the 

number and severity of large

truck-involved crashes

through more commercial

motor vehicle and operator

inspections and compliance

reviews, stronger enforcement

measures against violators,

expedited completion of 

rulemaking proceedings, 

scientifically sound research,

and effective CDL testing,

recordkeeping, and sanctions.

The Office of Research and

Technology manages research

and technology development

and deployment programs 

for the FMCSA.

There are eight major research

and technology focus areas:

crash causation and profiling;

regulatory evaluation and

reform; compliance and

enforcement; HAZMAT safety

and cargo tank integrity; 

driver training and performance management; driver

alertness and fatigue; driver

physical qualifications; and

car-truck proximity.

Driver training and performance management includes

research on driver recruiting,

selection, training, testing,

licensing, and safety 

performance management.

Office of Research and

Technology

400 Seventh Street, SW

MCS-30; Room 3107

Washington, DC 20590
initial, proposed research design and subsequent 

status update was presented several times to the

Subcommittee on Simulation and Measurement of

Vehicle and Operator Performance at the annual

meetings of the Transportation Research Board.

Suggestions from these sessions were incorporated

into the final validation design. Researchers directed

considerable effort toward developing driving scenarios that could provide the appropriate out-of-window

forward scenes, coupled with the training requirements for novice truck drivers. 

A workshop was held on April 16, 1996 that included

experts from the trucking industry, simulation experts,

truck driver training experts, regulatory groups, the

research community, FMCSA, and other government

agencies. The objective of the workshop was to

obtain input from external reviewers to develop 

driving scenarios, both traditional and advanced.

Scenarios for the advanced driving capabilities were

fine-tuned and consolidated to capitalize on the

capabilities of the technology at that time. 

In addition to conducting the scenario review workshop, FMCSA conducted informal interviews with 

representatives from the U.S. Department of

Transportation, other federal agencies, Transport

Canada, motor carrier industry training organizations,

simulator vendors, and potential users. In general, 

discussions with representatives from the motor 

carrier industry indicated that they favored the use of

simulators for CMV driver training. 

A preliminary draft of the research design was 

submitted to a peer review process in June 1997;

members of the review panel included researchers,

simulation experts, training experts, regulators, 

members of the heavy vehicle industry, and U.S. and

international government representatives. This workshop resulted in a refinement of the original design,

focusing on measures of performance, points for the

longitudinal test, data collection, and study logistics.

Planned Research Design

The validation study design is divided into three

parts. Part 1 incorporates a transfer of training 

paradigm, allowing for the comparison of training

effectiveness. (Transfer of training is defined as the

influence of past learning on present learning and 

job performance.) The CDL will be the criterion task

for providing evidence that simulation-based training

results in equivalent or better performance on the

licensing examination. Part 2 is the assessment of the

advanced driving capabilities using simulation and

will demonstrate potential applications to enhance

the licensing environment. Part 3 will be a longitudinal study to determine the effect of simulation-based

training on job performance outcomes. A comprehensive analysis of the collected data will follow.

Part 1 — Transfer of Training

This portion of the study involves a forward transfer

of training with student tractor-trailer drivers who

will be trained on all units of the Professional Truck

Driver Institute (PTDI) curriculum, as modified in the

peer review for purposes of this study. Fifty-four

novice truck drivers will be recruited and the 

participants will be required to possess a valid 

commercial driver learner’s permit and to meet 

state medical, age, and drug and alcohol testing

requirements. 

Students will be divided into two groups, with one

group receiving conventional truck-based training,

and the other group receiving simulatorsupplemented training. The control group will 

receive all BTW training (44 hours) in an actual 

vehicle, except for some limited exposure to the 

simulator for familiarity purposes; the experimental

group will receive 66 percent of the BTW training 

in a simulator (30 hours) and the rest (14 hours) in a

vehicle. Simulator assessment will take place on 

10 of the 16 units of the PTDI curriculum (Basic

Operation and Safe Operating Practices portions) as

modified in the peer review: 

Basic Operation

• Basic Control

• Shifting

• Backing

• Coupling and Uncoupling

• Proficiency Development

Safe Operating Practices

• Visual Search

• Communication

• Space Management

• Night Operation

• Proficiency Development

Driver performance will be assessed and measures 

will include the number of trials necessary to 

achieve the skill-level objectives for each of the 

training lesson units, and the amount of time 

necessary to pass the skill unit. In addition to the

requirements for the instructional units, student 

drivers will perform two in-course skills tests, the 

Pre-Street Range Test (PSRT) and the Final
Examination Road Test (FERT). Both of the incourse tests have traditionally been performed in a

truck. Student drivers in both the control group and

the experimental group will attempt the PSRT and

the FERT first in a truck, then in the simulator. The 

ultimate criterion task for the transfer of training 

will be the student driver’s performance on the CDL

examination. Figure 1 illustrates the proposed

research study design for Part 1. 

Part 2 — Advanced Capabilities

Part 2 of the research design provides

for an evaluation of the advanced

capabilities of the simulator to 

replicate the more complex driving

skills, such as the operation of double

and triple combination vehicles, evasive

maneuvers, jackknives, and driving on

black ice. Simulation appears to lend

itself particularly well to driving 

situations that are dangerous, unusual,

or infrequently encountered. The

objective of the advanced capabilities

assessment is to “showcase” and assess

the technology to determine the 

efficacy of simulation for training, 

testing, and licensing CMV drivers on

these particular maneuvers and 

vehicle configurations. 

For this part of the study, researchers

plan to recruit two groups of eight 

drivers, experienced and novice.

Experienced drivers will have had at

least 15 years of professional truck 

driving experience, a tenure of at 

least 2 years with the same carrier, 

and no recordable accidents or 

citations for 3 years. Novice truck 

drivers will be a subset of the students

participating in Part 1 of the study 

who obtained their CDL. 

After drivers receive a brief 

orientation to the simulator,

researchers will administer a general

skills pre-test to establish baseline 

differences between the two groups.

Scores from the pre-test will be 

collected in the form of instructor’s

observation for the number of 

pass/fail performances on each trial.

Following the pre-test, all drivers will

be tested individually on four defined

advanced capabilities scenarios: 

Special Rigs (triples and doubles), 

Speed Management, Extreme Driving Conditions, 

and Emergency Maneuvers. Upon completion of the

scenarios, all drivers will participate in a post-test 

similar to the pre-test. Additionally, the experienced

drivers will complete a post-experiment questionnaire

to determine the degree of agreement among 

experienced truck drivers on the simulator’s ability 

to present driving situations in a realistic and 

useful manner. 

PSRT Skills Test

FERT Skills Test

CDL Test (Truck-Based)

Job Performance Evaluation

Conventional Group Experimental Group

Basic Operation and

Proficiency Training

100% Truck-Based

Basic Operation and

Proficiency Training

34% Truck-Based

66% Simulator

Safe Operating

Practices and

Proficiency Training

100% Truck-Based

Safe Operating

Practices and

Proficiency Training

34% Truck-Based

66% Simulator

Figure 1. 

Transfer of Training Research Study Design

PSRT = Pre-Street Range Test

FERT = Final Examination Road Test

CDL = Commercial Driver’s License
Researcher

This study was performed by

Science Applications International Corporation in 

collaboration with George

Mason University.

Distribution

This Tech Brief is being 

distributed according to a 

standard distribution. Direct 

distribution is being made to

the Service Centers and

Divisions.

Availability

The study final report is 

available from the National

Technical Information Service,

Telephone: (703) 605-6000.

Key Words

driving simulator, truck driver

training, heavy trucks, 

commercial motor vehicles, 

tractor-trailers.

Notice

This Tech Brief is disseminated

under the sponsorship of the

Department of Transportation 

in the interest of information

exchange. The Tech Brief 

provides a synopsis of the

study’s final publication. The

Tech Brief does not establish

policies or regulations, nor does

it imply USDOT endorsement of

the conclusions or recommendations. The U.S. Government

assumes no liability for its 

contents or their use.

Part 3 — Longitudinal Study

This longitudinal study is a continuation of Part 1, and will determine if simulatorbased training ultimately results in reliable differences in drivers’ performance. The 

student drivers’ post-training driving records will be examined at 3 and 12 months 

following the completion of the CDL examination. Measures of on-the-job driver 

performance during this part of the study will include the number of crashes, the 

number of citations, supervisory ratings, and other measures as deemed appropriate.

Continuing Research

Given technological advances and cost reductions since the first simulator market

assessment in 1996, Phase 2 of this research project includes a market reassessment of

the simulator technology to assure that the truck simulator to be used in the study

reflects the most up-to-date technology. The market reassessment is currently being

conducted and will recommend a simulator for use in the follow-on validation study.

The reassessment is scheduled for completion by mid-2000. The actual simulator 

validation empirical study will begin in FY 2001.

Final Reports

The final report on which this tech brief is based, Validation of Simulation Technology

in the Training, Testing, and Licensing of Tractor-Trailer Drivers, is available from the

National Technical Information Service (NTIS), order number: PB2000-100587 The final

report can also be accessed at the USDOT Information Services Web site:

http://isweb.tasc.dot.gov, report number: FHWA-MC-99-060.

The 1996 FHWA report to validate the functional capabilities of truck driving 

simulators, Commercial Motor Vehicle Simulation to Improve Driver Training, Testing,

and Licensing Methods, is also available from the National Technical Information

Service (NTIS), order number: PB96-183405.

February 2000

Publication No. FMCSA-MCRT-00-007 

Federal Motor Carrier Safety

Administration