The Science & Technology Journal of the Minerals Management SErvice

Volume 4 Issue 2

MMS

april/may/june 2007

SCIENCE

Adapting to 

Change . . . Safely

Adaptive 

Management

New Technology

Managing Aging 

Pipelines

Helping to Make 

the OCS Safer 

Through TAR

BOP-ing the 

Gusher

Dealing with 

Hurricanes in 

the OCS

Compliant Towers

New Loop Current 

Information
 mms OCEAN SCIENCE Science & Technology Journal

April/May/June 2007

Volume 4 Issue 2

mms OCEAN SCIENCE is published 

quarterly by the Minerals Management 

Service to communicate recent ocean 

science and technological information 

and issues of interest related to offshore 

mineral recovery, ocean stewardship, 

and mineral revenues.

Please address all questions, comments, 

suggestions, and changes of address to:

Dr. Deborah Epperson

mms OCEAN SCIENCE Editor

Minerals Management Service

1201 Elmwood Park Boulevard

New Orleans, LA 70123

deborah.epperson@mms.gov

(504) 736-3257

3 Adapting to Change . . . Safely

4 Adaptive Management

Furthering the MMS Mission

8 New Technology

3D Images Allow Scientists to "See" the Future

9 Sacrificial Anodes

Managing Aging Pipelines

10 Technical Assessment and 

 Research Program

Helping to Make the OCS Safer

Through TAR

11 BOP-ing the Gusher

Preventing Blowouts

12 Step by Step

Dealing with Hurricanes in the OCS

14 Stability Through Flexibility

 Compliant Towers

15 New Loop Current Information

Better Data Means Less Stress

16 New Waves

Late-Breaking News & Information

ABOUT THE COVER

Top Left: A juvenile scamp, Mycteroperca phenax, 

on a deep patch reef at West Flower Garden Bank. 

Photo courtesy of NOAA.

Top Center: A satellite image shows hurricane Floyd 

just off the Florida coast on September 14, 1999. 

Photo courtesy of NOAA.

Top Right: A sperm whale surfaces near BP’s Horn 

Mountain spar and Heerema’s construction vessel 

Balder.

Main Photo: BP's Thunder Horse, a moored 

semi-submersible PDQ (Modularized Production, 

Integrated Drilling and Quarters).

Back Page: Background platform image by Gregory 

S. Boland

All photos courtesy of Minerals Management Service 

unless otherwise noted.

Publication services provided by Schatz Publishing Group

The Science & Technology Journal of the Minerals Management SErvice

For more information about the Minerals Management Service, 

check out our site on the World Wide Web:

www.mms.gov

Subscribe

To receive mms OCEAN SCIENCE, sign up on the website 

www.gomr.mms.gov, click on e-mail subscriptions on the lefthand column, check the box marked Environmental Studies or 

e-mail deborah.epperson@mms.gov or call (504) 736-3257

April/May/June 2007 Volume 4 Issue 2

MMS

SCIENCE
MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE APRIL/MAY/JUNE 2007

As the Nation’s need 

for energy grows, oil 

and gas operators on 

the Outer Continental 

Shelf (OCS) are learning to find energy resources more 

quickly, extract them more cleanly, 

transport them safely, and do it all 

in adverse weather and ocean conditions...while minimizing disturbance 

to its living neighbors. That is a tall 

order, but the Minerals Management 

Service (MMS) and its industry partners are doing it every day. 

Winds and waves buffet exploration and production equipment and 

can cost millions of dollars in equipment fatigue and wear. Scientists 

and engineers have researched 

new equipment designs capable of 

moving with the winds and waves. 

Compliant towers that can literally sway with the winds are being 

installed! Scientists are also working 

to learn more about powerful currents such as the Loop Current and 

design ways to work with or counteract this natural force.

Safety is another ongoing issue 

that demands continuous attention 

from industry partners. One of these 

issues is the pressure of oil and gas 

pockets that could cause blowouts in 

wells. Blowout preventers are being 

constantly improved and upgraded 

to ensure that valuable resources 

are not lost and worker 

safety is enhanced. 

And then there are hurricanes! Lessons learned after 

Hurricanes Ivan, Katrina, 

and Rita are ensuring that 

plans are in place to mitigate 

or prevent damage to equipment and the environment. 

While there is a strong 

interest in providing oil and 

Divers swimming under a platform.

gas supplies from the OCS to the 

consumer as fast and as economically as possible, MMS is making sure 

that it is done cleanly, safely, and 

responsibly. Through adaptive management strategies, MMS is anticipating and responding to changes 

in technologies, assimilating new 

information from its ongoing studies, and implementing flexible management approach as it responds to 

new ideas, new situations, and new 

knowledge...every day.

An MMS inspector witnesses 

testing of a safety device at an 

instrumentation panel.
mms OCEAN SCIENCE Science & Technology Journal

I

n a perfect world, decisionmaking would be as easy as 

retrieving a crystal ball from 

its designated place on the 

shelf and gazing into it to foresee the consequences of a particular 

action. In the real world, however, 

no one can predict with absolute certainty exactly what will happen when 

choosing one option over another. 

Acknowledging this uncertainty is 

just part of a new Department of the 

Interior (DOI) policy directive to 

incorporate a process called “adaptive management” (AM) whenever 

possible. What is adaptive management and how does the Minerals 

Management Service (MMS) use it?

Simply put, adaptive management is a systematic, planned 

approach to improving resource 

management even in the face of 

uncertainty, and gaining experience 

and knowledge that will improve 

future management decisions. While 

the concept may sound elementary, 

it actually encompasses many processes already in place at MMS. 

Judy Wilson, Chief, 

Environmental Compliance Unit at 

MMS, explains. “AM is likely carried 

out differently based on mission and 

responsibilities. The resource mandate for the Fish & Wildlife Service 

(F&WS), for example, is to protect 

and further the conservation of wildlife. MMS, however, is a regulatory 

agency for energy exploration, development and production on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS) so we have 

a different focus and responsibility. 

Adaptive management for the F&WS 

may emphasize testing a hypothesis 

to determine what management strategies may be most effective or which 

sampling methodology is statistically 

most appropriate for a particular 

species. With a regulatory agency, 

we have to come up with specific 

answers. How will a decision or activity impact marine, human, and/or 

coastal environments? How will we 

protect those resources from harm? 

How will mitigations work and how 

can we evaluate their effectiveness?” 

Wilson clarifies how adaptive 

management comes into play when 

considering, for example, the best 

methods for decommissioning offshore structures. “We require operators to clear the seafloor of obstructions at the end of the lease or after 

structures are no longer useable. 

Adaptive 

Management:

Furthering the 

MMS Mission

Above: At the Flower 

Garden Banks, the giant 

anemone (Condylactis 

gigantea) is found only 

in the deeper areas, not 

on the reef crest. Photo 

courtesy of NOAA.
MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE APRIL/MAY/JUNE 2007

Many times, they use explosives to 

remove bottom-founded structures 

at least 5 meters below the mudline, 

but those explosives might impact 

marine life. In the case of sea turtles 

or sperm whales, for example, MMS 

consults with agencies that manage 

those resources, and we must know 

how decommissioning activities 

affect each species. We didn’t have 

all of the answers—there were areas 

of uncertainty.” 

Wilson says adaptive management is extremely helpful in such 

cases. For decommissioning, MMS 

funded studies and research to 

understand the various explosive and 

non-explosive removal techniques; 

forecast the characteristics of future 

explosive removals; compare insitu, engineered and bulk explosive 

charges; and model shock wave and 

sound propagation to aid in calculating the protected species impact 

zones during explosive removals. 

“This helps us establish a protected 

zone so as not to negatively impact 

marine mammals, sea turtles, or fish. 

Other efforts looked at how past 

removals with protective measures 

in place were carried out and their 

effects. Combining socioeconomic 

studies, engineering studies, predictive modeling studies, and monitoring programs helps us decide the best 

way for operators to decommission 

retired structures while protecting the 

marine environment.”

In adaptive management, comparing actual outcomes against predicted outcomes promotes improved 

understanding of not only which 

actions work and which do not, 

but also why. This key part of the 

process involves careful monitoring 

of outcomes that advance scientific 

understanding and may lead to policy or operational adjustments as part 

of an iterative learning process. 

With any mitigation measure, 

like those for decommissioning, 

MMS checks to see if operators carry 

out the measures and if the outcome 

is as predicted. That evaluation was a 

big part of structure removal discussions with MMS, industry, and the 

National Marine Fisheries Service. 

Those discussions help MMS decide 

whether to continue requiring the 

same measures. If outcomes are not 

as predicted, the new information is 

assessed and management decisions 

are adjusted. “We require industry to 

implement mitigations and we monitor them to see if they are effective 

and appropriate,” says Wilson. “It is a 

continuous learning cycle.” 

Adaptive management extends 

beyond compliance and into many 

MMS field operations. Currently, 

activities in the Arctic have been 

limited to exploration, and so far 

no development facilities exist on 

Federal lands. Under the OCS Lands 

Act, MMS is required to collect 

information about the environment 

in order to make assessments of the 

potential environmental impacts 

from activities associated with the 

resource recovery. One key issue 

raised is the potential impact on 

endangered species, particularly the 

bowhead whale. The whales migrate 

in the spring and fall from their winter feeding grounds in the Bering Sea 

to their summer breeding area east 

Adaptive Management Guidebook 

Adaptive management [is a decision process that] promotes flexible 

decision making that can be adjusted in the face of uncertainties 

as outcomes from management actions and other events become 

better understood. Careful monitoring of these outcomes both advances 

scientific understanding and helps adjust policies or operations as part of 

an iterative learning process. Adaptive management also recognizes the 

importance of natural variability in contributing to ecological resilience 

and productivity. It is not a 'trial and error' process, but rather emphasizes 

learning while doing. Adaptive management does not represent an end 

in itself, but rather a means to more effective decisions and enhanced 

benefits. Its true measure is in how well it helps meet environmental, 

social, and economic goals, increases scientific knowledge, and reduces 

tensions among stakeholders.

In adaptive management, comparing 

actual outcomes against predicted 

outcomes promotes improved 

understanding of not only which actions 

work and which do not, but also why.
mms OCEAN SCIENCE Science & Technology Journal

of the Beaufort Sea. During the fall 

migration, the whales are hunted by 

subsistence whalers that reside along 

the coast of the Beaufort Sea. 

When the program first started, 

little was known about bowhead 

whales beyond the traditional knowledge of the Iñupiat. The impacts 

from the activities were unknown 

and the factors that influenced 

where the whales migrated were also 

unknown. Addressing the issues of 

bowhead whale migration and subsistence whaling has involved numerous scientific projects over the years. 

Two projects specifically include 

monitoring. The objective of the 

first project was to address the concerns of native subsistence whalers 

regarding the impacts of offshore oil 

exploration, and production activities 

on the migratory path of bowhead 

whales. Aerial surveys of migrating whales were initiated in 1979 to 

evaluate the effects of exploratory 

activities on the migratory pathway. 

During most of the years, exploration activities were occurring, but 

some surveys were taken during 

years when no activity occurred. 

A second project was initiated in 

2000 to address the direct concerns 

Assess

Design

Implement

Monitor

evaluate

Adjust

raised by residents of the Village 

of Nuiqsut, who hunt whales near 

Cross Island in the Beaufort Sea, 

which is close to the first offshore 

platform in the Arctic. Noise from 

an offshore oil production facility 

is perceived to cause the bowhead 

whales to migrate farther from land, 

thus making whaling efforts more 

difficult, dangerous, and possibly 

unsuccessful. In an effort to understand and define these concerns, the 

second project was funded to monitor the subsistence whaling effort and 

assist in management strategies.

Another adaptive management 

strategy used by MMS can also be 

recognized in the Gulf of Mexico 

(GOM). As industry began planning 

for operations in the GOM in the 

early 1970s, MMS began writing 

environmental impact statements 

for lease sales and initiated environmental studies to support analyses. 

Studies documented, among other 

things, thriving coral reef communities at the unique Flower Garden 

Banks (FGB) in the northwestern 

GOM. Recognizing the need to 

ensure the protection of these reefs 

in the face of uncertain impacts, 

MMS sponsored the first "multipleuse" meeting in 1973, which brought 

together the oil and gas industry, 

the general public, academia, and 

private contractors. This and numerous other meetings and public hearings culminated in several mutually 

agreeable concepts to protect the 

reef communities, including stipulations for monitoring and adaptive 

environmental management.

The MMS stipulations specified the protective measures, and 

the stipulations became a part of the 

lease document. The stipulation for 

the FGB established a No Activity Bowhead whales in the Gulf of Alaska. Photo courtesy of NOAA.
MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE APRIL/MAY/JUNE 2007

Adaptive Management 

Operational Steps

Set-up phase

Step 1 - stakeholder involvement: 

Ensure stakeholder commitment to adaptively manage the enterprise for 

its duration.

Step 2 - objectives: 

Identify clear, measurable, and agreed-upon management objectives to 

guide decisionmaking and evaluate management effectiveness over time.

Step 3 - management actions: 

Identify a set of potential management actions for decisionmaking.

Step 4 - models: 

Identify models that characterize different ideas (hypotheses) about how 

the system works.

Step 5 - monitoring plans: 

Design and implement a monitoring plan to track resource status and 

other key resource attributes.

Iterative phase

Step 6 - decisionmaking: 

Select management actions based on management objectives, resource 

conditions, and enhanced understanding.

Step 7 - Followup monitoring: 

Use monitoring to track system responses to management actions.

Step 8 - assessment: 

Improve understanding of resource dynamics by comparing predicted vs. 

observed change in resource status.

Step 9 - iteration: 

Cycle back to Steps 1 and 6.

Set-up phase

stakeholders

objectives

alternatives

models

monitoring

Iterative phase

decisionmaking

monitoring

assessment

Two-phase learning in adaptive management. Technical learning involves an iterative 

sequence of decisionmaking, monitoring, and 

assessment. Process and institutional learning 

involves periodic reconsideration of the adaptive management set-up elements.

Zone and a 4-mile "shunt" zone. 

The No Activity Zone, where no 

activities can take place, protects the 

banks' biota from mechanical damage due to drilling, platform and 

pipeline emplacement, and anchors. 

The shunt zone, in which all effluent from the drilling process must 

be shunted to near the seafloor, 

was designed to prevent drilling 

discharge from reaching the banks' 

unique biota. As part of the stipulation, lessees had to monitor environmental conditions at production 

sites and at the banks themselves 

under strict MMS guidelines.

As more was learned about the 

banks through the studies program 

and monitoring, the stipulation was 

modified to reflect the best possible 

information, and the provisions of 

the latest stipulation was applied to 

appropriate blocks regardless of the 

older stipulation in the lease. After 

several years and numerous monitoring reports, MMS knew no damage 

was being done to the banks or the 

coral habitat. The MMS showed 

great flexibility at this time in reducing the stipulation for compliance 

monitoring at production sites. At 

the same time, MMS recognized 

the need to continue to monitor the 

condition of living reefs. It became 

clear that the banks were being 

severely damaged from sports fishing and commercial vessels anchoring on the shallow coral reefs. The 

MMS assisted with the installation 

of anchor moorings at the banks so 

vessels could tie up easily and not 

drop anchor.

Wilson says that a continuous 

process of flexible decisionmaking 

and careful monitoring of outcomes 

isn’t simply a mandate for MMS. 

“Even though it’s DOI policy that 

we try to incorporate adaptive 

management into our proposed 

actions, we’re doing it because it 

makes sense. It furthers our mission to avoid or reduce the likelihood of impact on the environment 

by improving our management 

and improving how industry manages its activities. I think we have 

always practiced adaptive management but it may not have been so 

well defined.” 
 mms OCEAN SCIENCE Science & Technology Journal

For more information:

Digital Seismic 

Profile Data

Website: www.mms.gov/

 sandandgravel/PDF/

 MMSFinal.pdf

Finding Oil and Gas

Website: www.ig.utexas.edu/

 people/staff/backus/res.

 a.htm?PHPSESSID=

 def1b9

New 3-D imaging 

technology being 

used in deepwater 

exploration is 

making it possible 

for scientists to “see” beneath the 

earth’s surface. Scientists are using 

the technology to discover pathways 

through which fluids such as oil may 

flow, as well as formations that may 

be barriers to that flow. Operators 

can use this information to place 

exploratory wells more precisely, 

which reduces costs and risks and 

aids the recovery of a greater amount 

of the oil resource discovered. 

Many oil and gas companies 

are using advanced visualization 

technology to take advantage of the 

new imaging capability. Advanced 

visualization technology allows 

scientists to “immerse” themselves in 

New

Technology

the data using large-scale, 3-D, highresolution displays. The display allows 

greater collaboration, faster, more 

accurate evaluation and interpretation 

of the data, and improved exploration 

success rates.

The Minerals Management 

Service (MMS) is acquiring an 

immersive visualization center that 

will allow 3-D data to be shown on 

multiple projection walls or room 

theaters. The computers used in 

the center interpret an enormous 

3-D Images

Allow Scientists to

"See" the Future

array of geological, petrophysical, 

geophysical, and palentological data 

to create the 3-D “picture” of the 

area being studied. 

Although the image presented 

is far more complete than in the 

past, it is not without gaps. Smaller 

and thinner reservoirs and fractures 

cannot be located with any certainty 

by the new technology. In addition, 

the data cannot distinguish between 

fluids – water or oil may appear 

the same. As the new technology is 

refined, however, these gaps in the 

information may be filled in and 

a more complete picture of what 

is below the surface may appear, 

allowing oil and gas companies to 

concentrate their resources in areas 

where the largest potential is “seen.” 

Figure at left: 3-D seismic data cube of 

gas found in the Gulf of Mexico at about 

1.5 kilometer depth. Strata dip up to the 

left toward a salt dome. Gas trapped in 

a porous sandstone layer shows up as a 

brightly colored layer of red over blue - a 

low impedance layer. Image courtesy of 

www.ig.utexas.edu.
MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE APRIL/MAY/JUNE 2007 

Managing Aging Pipelines

Sacrificial anodes

As the steward of the 

Nation’s energy and 

mineral resources on 

the Outer Continental 

Shelf (OCS), the 

Minerals Management Service 

(MMS) has become concerned 

in the last decade with a process 

that has the potential to create an 

environmental impact: pipeline 

corrosion. Pipelines are the safest 

means of transportation for oil and 

gas from the source to onshore and 

offshore storage facilities on the 

OCS. But even the safest means 

can fall short when equipment 

is damaged or fails as a result of 

corrosion. The consequences of 

pipeline failure can be oil spills, 

repair expense, interruption of oil 

and gas supplies, pollution, and 

subsequent litigation. 

The most common corrosion 

protection system in use today is the 

installation of a sacrificial anode on 

the pipeline. The sacrificial anode 

(positive) is a piece of corrodible 

metal (generally alloys of zinc, 

magnesium, and aluminum) attached 

by an electrically conductive solid 

or liquid to the steel pipeline that 

serves as the cathode (negative). 

Polarization from the electrical 

current flow between the anode 

and the cathode causes the steel 

to become more negative, which 

protects the surface from corrosion. 

The anode corrodes first (it is 

sacrificed) and generally will nearly 

completely dissolve before the 

protected pipeline will corrode. 

According to a study by Florida 

Atlantic University and funded by 

MMS, it is estimated that 55 percent 

of pipeline incidents in the GOM 

before 2004 were a direct result of 

corrosion. In the Pacific Region, 44 

percent of the pipeline failures in the 

last 12 years were corrosion-related. 

Many oil and gas pipelines in the 

shallow waters of State and Federal 

OCS waters have been in service for 

40-50 years. The sacrificial anode 

systems meant to protect them from 

corrosion were only designed to 

last 25 years. Because the existing 

pipelines are aging and more 

For more information:

Preventing Oil Spills

Website: www.mms.gov/ tarprojects/242.htm

Website: www.mms.gov/tar

 projects/496/Final

 Report.%20FAU.

 06.20.05.pdf

Sacrificial anode on a steel underground storage tank. Photo courtesy of www.epa.gov.

anode

pipe 

Schematic illustration of an offshore pipeline galvanic anode.

pipelines are being added, the need 

to address this issue is a priority. 

The increased impacts of 

corrosion and the possibility of 

leakage has prompted MMS and 

its academic and industry partners 

to study new ways to retrofit old 

pipelines. In addition, a standardized 

procedure is being formulated for 

checking for internal and external 

corrosion, reporting that corrosion, 

repairing the same, and retrofitting 

new corrosion prevention systems. 

These consistent procedures are 

going to be especially important as 

pipelines venture farther into deep 

water, where the difficulty of repair 

and oversight will increase.
10 mms OCEAN SCIENCE Science & Technology Journal

Helping to

make the 

OCS Safer 

Through TAR

Data compiled by 

the Technology 

Assessment and 

Research (TAR) 

Program can be vital 

to understanding and reacting to 

natural disasters. As an integral 

part of the Minerals Management 

Service (MMS) Regulatory 

Program, the TAR program is 

designed to support research associated with operational safety parameters and pollution prevention. 

Established in the 1970s, TAR was 

tasked with ensuring that industry 

functions on the Outer Continental 

Shelf (OCS) incorporated current 

operational standards as outlined 

in the Outer Continental Standards 

Land Act (OCSLA) of 1978.

Through the use of its two functional research programs, Operational 

Safety and Engineering Research 

(OS&ER) and Oil Spill Research 

(OSR), TAR is designed to address 

technological issues associated with 

all degrees of operational functions. 

It is through the combined use of 

these two programs that OCS issues 

may be determined, evaluated, and 

incorporated into future plans.

There are four principal objectives for TAR: 

Technical Support (the evaluation of MMS-lead operational 

proposals) 

Technology Assessment (the 

review of industrial applications) 

Research Catalyst (a vehicle for 

research initiatives)

International Regulatory (working 

through international cooperation 

for research and development).









 It is through these 

highly focused areas 

that TAR works to provide the best possible 

knowledge base for safe 

and responsible operations in the OCS.

Of recent concern 

to MMS is the devastation brought on 

by hurricanes such as 

Katrina and Rita. With 

one of the Nation’s 

largest sources of oil 

and gas production 

concentrated in the 

Gulf of Mexico, such 

overwhelming forces can cause 

unprecedented damage and destruction. Through a 4-week period in the 

months of August and September 

2005, substantial damage was inflicted throughout offshore oil platforms 

in the region. Although the path of 

destruction left by both hurricanes 

(which registered as Category 5 

storms) resulted in the greatest natural disasters to oil and gas development in the history of the Gulf of 

Mexico, there was no loss of life, no 

energy related long-lasting environmental impact, and most structures 

performed adequately. These impressive facts are a tribute to the safety 

protocols and requirements developed previously by industry, MMS, 

and their partners. 

Following these recent hurricane 

disasters, TAR was charged through 

MMS to study these powerful events 

to even better prepare and protect 

the U.S. energy supply from future 

storms. The directives given to TAR 

included in-depth study of wave 

crests and their impact, data collection on wind and wave development, 

and pipeline damage assessment. 

The ultimate goal of these initiatives 

was a qualitative and quantitative 

evaluation of fixed offshore platform 

performance. In addition, damage to 

structures was assessed and the effectiveness of current design standards 

and pollution prevention systems 

were determined. 

The MMS is constantly assessing 

and evaluating methods by which the 

OCS can better be prepared for, and 

withstand, natural disasters. TAR is 

a valuable program that assists MMS 

in keeping with its mission as an 

ocean steward.

J-lay pipeline welding and weld inspection operations.

Technology Assessment and Research Program

For more information:

Pipeline Research

Website: www.mms.gov/tarproject

 categories/pipeline.htm
11

For more information:

Blowout Preventers

Website: www.glossary.oilfield.slb. com/Display.cfm?Term= blowout+preventer

Website: www.mms.gov/ tarprojects/008.htm 

Website: www.mms.gov/

 tarprojects/566.htm

MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE APRIL/MAY/JUNE 2007

Preventing Blowouts

BOP-ing

the Gusher

When many people 

think of oil wells, 

they think of 

a plume of oil 

shooting high 

into the sky and covering the wildcatters below in black liquid as they 

celebrate hitting the “Big One.” 

Beneath this romanticized version 

of oil exploration lies the real truth 

– gushers or blowouts were costly 

and dangerous. That danger and 

loss of revenue led to the invention 

of the blowout preventer (BOP), 

which has proved invaluable to the 

oil and gas industry. 

The BOP is a large valve that 

surrounds or encompasses the top of 

an oil and gas well. This 

valve can be closed (usually remotely) if the pressure from oil and gas fluids backs up and threatens 

to explode out of the drill 

pipe and put the rig at risk. 

The valve can be reopened 

when the pressure has 

been controlled and the 

danger is past. 

There are many 

types and sizes of BOPs 

encompassing many pressure ratings. Some BOPs 

seal around drill pipes 

or casings in the well, 

while others close over 

the top of the open wellbore. Still others can cut 

through the drill pipe to 

seal the top. A ram BOP, 

invented by James Smither 

Abercrombie and Harry S. 

Cameron in 1922, can literally “ram” the drill string 

shut with two opposing 

hydraulic rams. The annular 

BOP, invented by Granville 

Slone Knox in 1944, is 

a common preventer. 

The annular BOP uses a 

rubber “ring” reinforced 

with steel to squeeze the 

well closed. 

No matter which 

type of BOP is used, 

a regular maintenance 

schedule is essential 

because of the critical 

nature of the equipment. Test schedules 

can range from daily 

checks for critical wells 

to 14-day intervals for 

wells with little history or probability 

of pressure buildup. 

The Minerals Management 

Service (MMS) monitors the test 

results as well as new developments and strategies in BOP design, 

development, and testing. A reliable 

BOP able to withstand the higher 

pressures of deepwater wells with 

larger drilling diameters is of special 

importance to industry. The MMS 

and its industry partners are initiating studies to stay ahead of the issue, 

create new technical standards, and 

ensure that any existing or upgraded 

equipment will protect personnel, 

equipment, and the environment that 

surrounds them.

Injector head

Stripper

Drill floor

Mud returns

Annular preventer

Blind rams

BOP stack 7 1/16 in., 

5000 psi

Shear rams

Kill Choke

Wellhead, casing, 

or Christmas tree

Ground

Blowout preventer.

Diagram of a blowout preventer. Graphic copyright 

Schlumberger, Ltd., used with permission.
12 mms OCEAN SCIENCE Science & Technology Journal

Dealing with

Hurricanes in the OCS

After Hurricanes 

Katrina and Rita, 

the Minerals 

Management 

Service (MMS), oil 

and gas exploration and production operators, and State and local 

officials recognized the need for 

an updated Hurricane Operations 

Plan and recovery procedures that 

could deal with the next “100-year 

storm.” Hurricane Operations 

Plans are filed by each operator and outline their evacuation 

methods, measures for “shuttingin” the oil and gas production, 

and start-up procedures for poststorm recovery. The Hurricane 

Operations Plans are complicated, 

but operators develop, test, and 

refine their plans frequently so that 

facilities are ready to implement 

the plans immediately when hurricane season begins. 

The most important priority 

for MMS and oil and gas 

operators is to ensure there is 

no injury or loss of life. As soon 

as it is projected that a tropical 

storm or hurricane will enter 

the Gulf of Mexico (GOM), 

non-essential personnel will 

usually begin evacuation. Nearly 

20,000-30,000 employees work 

in the GOM, so the process 

of evacuation takes time and 

coordination. Service helicopters 

and boats will take personnel 

to safe facilities onshore. Those 

employees necessary to “shutin” the facility and protect the 

company’s assets will remain until 

that process is completed. 

Protecting the Nation’s supply of oil and gas from production 

and transportation disruption and 

protecting the environment from 

oil spills are the next priorities for 

MMS. Operators also prioritize protection of their company’s oil and 

gas production and transportation 

equipment. All wells on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS) must be 

equipped with downhole safety 

valves, which shut off the flow of 

oil in the event of an emergency. 

When a hurricane is forecast, the 

valves are closed and the oil flow is 

stopped to prevent spills should the 

platform be damaged. They remain 

shut until MMS gives the go-ahead 

for restart. 

All oil and gas operators are 

required to report shut-in production statistics to MMS. These statistics include the platform name, 

daily oil production, cumulative oil 

shut-in, daily natural gas production, cumulative natural gas shut-in, 

anticipated production return time, 

and the reason production was 

shut-in. At the height of Hurricane 

Katrina, 95 percent of oil production and 83 percent of gas production in the OCS was shut-in. 

As soon as the hurricane 

passes, operators return to inspect 

for damage to their platforms, rigs, 

and equipment both above and 

below water. If the initial underwater inspection detects significant 

structural damage, more detailed 

underwater inspections must be 

conducted. A complete inspection 

of pipelines must also be completed 

before start-up. A visual inspection 

is conducted by divers or remotely 

operated vehicles. A check for flow, 

leaks, or other damage that cannot 

be readily seen by the initial visual 

inspection is also required. 

Before production can resume 

on a platform or rig, operators and 

lessees must provide their initial 

start-up plans to MMS, who will 

review them for safety concerns. 

The MMS will then allow start-up 

to continue, making certain resuming production is accomplished as 

rapidly as possible while still ensuring the protection of human lives 

and ocean ecosystems. Operators 

continue to provide updated status 

reports each month as the start-up 

process continues.

In a 2006 joint press conference 

with the Department of Energy 

and the American Petroleum 

Institute, MMS announced 

Lessons learned as a result of Hurricanes 

Katrina and Rita have underlined the 

importance of preparation.
For more information:

Hurricane Preparedness

Website: www.mms.gov/tarprojects/559.htm

Website: www.mms.gov/tarprojects/559/AB-4c_Planning_ResposneAcuf-Transocean.pdf

Website: www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/hurr.pdf

the implementation of several 

improvements to their oversight 

system. The improvements include 

Extensive pre-season planning 

with the Department of Energy 

and the U.S. Coast Guard 

(USCG) to facilitate communications during storms; 

Coordination with industry 

to improve safety, specifically 

through mobile offshore drilling 

unit (MODU) improvements, 

jack-up site assessment guidelines, risk assessment tools, and 

platform upgrades; 

Inviting a representative of the 

U.S. Coast Guard to join the 

MMS Continuity of Operations 

Plan (COOP) team to improve 

and enhance communication 

regarding damage to facilities 

and subsequent warnings to 

mariners by the USCG; and

Improvements to electronic 

hurricane reporting systems to 

better improve communications 

between industry and MMS.

Lessons learned as a result of 

Hurricanes Katrina and Rita have 

underlined the importance of preparation. The struggle to quickly obtain 

repair and replacement equipment, 

add additional personnel, and obtain 

the basic necessities for recovery have 

emphasized the need for a broader 

plan to deal with potential disasters. 

At the same time, offshore operations were able to maintain a record 

of no loss of life and no significant 

environmental damage from wells 

on the OCS during both storms. The 

MMS and industry representatives 

will continue to refine and implement Hurricane Operations Plans that 

emphasize the safety of personnel, 

equipment, and marine environments, 

while ensuring minimal disruption of 

oil and gas production in the GOM. 

1.

2.

3.

4.

MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE APRIL/MAY/JUNE 2007 13

Hurricane Operations Plan

Notification is received that a hurricane will be entering the Gulf.

All non-essential personnel are removed to shore by ship or 

helicopter. Personnel with “shut-in” responsibilities remain on 

platform. 

To prevent spills should the platform be damaged, valves “shut-in” 

the oil flow until it can be safely restarted. 

All remaining personnel are evacuated before the storm hits.

Operators report shut-in statistics daily to MMS. These statistics 

include the platform name, daily oil production, cumulative oil shutin, daily natural gas production, cumulative natural gas shut-in, 

anticipated production return time, and the reason production was 

shut-in.

After the storm passes, operators return to inspect for damage 

to their platforms, rigs, and equipment. They inspect for damage 

above and underwater.

Repairs are carried out both above and below water.

A complete inspection of pipelines must also be completed before 

start-up. A visual inspection is conducted by divers or remotely 

operated vehicles. A check for flow, leaks, or other damage that 

cannot be readily seen by the initial visual inspection is also required.

After repairs, operators and lessees provide their initial start-up plans 

to MMS, who will review them for any safety concerns.

Operators provide updated status reports each month as the start-up 

process continues.

When the inspections and repairs are completed, environmental safety 

is assured, the start-up process is finished and production resumes.

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14 mms OCEAN SCIENCE Science & Technology Journal

Stability Through Flexibility

Much like the earthquake-resistant 

structures that are 

being built in areas 

such as California, 

a flexible, swaying offshore platform 

tower is an advantage in the Gulf of 

Mexico (GOM). When hurricanes or 

other severe storms hit, waves, wind, 

and currents pound tower structures 

and create resonance and amplification by their energy. This amplification causes vibrations in the structure 

that can create excessive stress on the 

construction and decrease endurance. 

Compliant or flexible towers are created to yield to wind and water movement rather than to resist them. 

During hurricanes, natural wave 

intervals are about 13 seconds long. 

Compliant towers can typically 

achieve natural sway periods of 30-

33 seconds. This difference in wave 

rates significantly reduces the resonance and amplification of winds 

and waves. The towers are secured to 

the seafloor with piles, but the structure has flex legs or axial tubes that 

help control the mass or weight and 

stiffness of the tower, making it less 

sensitive to the vibration frequencies 

of wind and waves. 

Compliant towers are in their 

third generation and have advanced 

significantly in technology since 

they were introduced in the GOM 

in the early 1990s. But though the 

technology has advanced, they have 

remained simple to construct using 

commonly available equipment 

and parts, which reduces the cost 

and construction time of the tower. 

The updated design has reduced 

the structural weight, but the tower 

remains very stable. 

Owned by ChevronTexaco, 

Petronius is the tallest compliant 

tower installed in the GOM to 

date. The 2,001-foot tower is standing in 1,700+ feet of water and is 

arguably the tallest free-standing 

structure in the world. The entire 

structure weighs around 43,000 

tons and can deflect or sway within 

a 25-foot envelope.

Compliant Towers

For more information:

Compliant Towers

Website: www.offshore-technology. com/projects/baldpate/

Website: www.mms.gov/tar

 projects/052/052AA.pdf

Website: www.mms.gov/tar

 projects/052/052AD.pdf

Website: https://portal.mustangeng.

 com/pls/portal30/docs/

 folder/mustangeng/

 technical_articles_

 content/June1999.pdf

Above: Types of offshore oil and 

gas structures. 

1,2) Conventional fixed platforms 

3) Compliant tower

4,5) Vertically moored tension leg and minitension leg platform 

6) Spar 

7,8) Semisubmersibles 

9) Floating production, storage, and offloading facility 

10) Subsea completion and tie-back to 

host facility (all records from 2005 data). 

Courtesy of NOAA.

Definitions

Resonance:

The prolongation of sound or 

reverberation.

Natural Wave Interval:

The average timeframe between 

waves.

Sway Period:

How long a structure is forced 

into a non-vertical position.

As exploration and production 

move deeper and deeper, compliant 

towers will make it easier and less costly to construct platforms in the GOM. 

And as the natural sway response of 

these towers is improved and refined, 

they may prove a boon to protecting 

oil and gas interests in the Gulf. 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE APRIL/MAY/JUNE 2007 15

New Loop Current information

Better Data Means

Less Stress

As oil and gas exploration and production move farther 

into deeper waters 

of the Gulf of 

Mexico (GOM), the challenges, 

too, grow more difficult and costly. 

Equipment at great depths faces 

stress from high pressure, cold temperatures, and the movement of 

strong currents such as the Loop 

Current. The strain on equipment, 

especially during installation, and 

the resulting damage and expense 

caused by vibrations from currents is a source of concern both 

to operators and the Minerals 

Management Service (MMS). 

The Loop Current is a horseshoe-shaped phenomenon that 

streams up from the tropical waters 

of the Caribbean, moves across 

the GOM, and exits at the Florida 

Straits near Cuba. Periodically, 

this current will squeeze off deep, 

warm eddies, which travel across 

the GOM until they eventually dissipate, usually in the western Gulf. 

Some eddies are so large they 

have their own names and can be 

hundreds of miles wide. The Loop 

Current travels at approximately 

4 knots, or the equivalent of a 60-

mile-per hour gale-force wind. 

When strong currents such 

as the Loop Current flow around 

platform pipes, they create a vortex 

or eddy as they pass. When this 

eddy breaks away from the pipe 

or riser, it creates vibrations that 

travel up the pipe, greatly reducing 

the life of the equipment. To ensure 

drilling equipment is manufactured 

to safely withstand those vibrations, 

MMS has adopted tough standards 

from the American Petroleum 

Institute (API). These standards are 

being incorporated into regulations 

governing postlease safety and pollution prevention. 

Although scientists know the 

path of the Loop Current historically, it has always been capricious. 

Operators have used models to try 

to accurately predict where this 

current might be at a given time 

– with little success. Results have 

been limited to where the current 

might be in days or weeks. In an 

effort to predict currents with greater 

accuracy, MMS issued a Notice 

to Lessees and Operators (NTL 

Two Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers commonly used by the U.S. Geological Survey. 

Photos courtesy of USGS.

This effort was cited in President Bush’s U.S. Ocean 

Action Plan as an excellent example of the partnership 

between government and industry in support of the 

Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS).

2005-G05) in April 2005, requiring oil companies in the GOM to 

report current velocity information 

from Acoustic Doppler Current 

Profilers (ADCPs) based on oil 

platforms. The ADCPs measure 

current velocity at 20- to 30-minute intervals, covering areas of the 

Outer Continental Shelf with total 

water depths between 1,300 and 

7,900 feet. This effort was cited 

in President Bush’s U.S. Ocean 

Action Plan as an excellent example of the partnership between government and industry in support 

of the Integrated Ocean Observing 

System (IOOS).

The availability of this information will enable scientists to form 

a large three-dimensional picture 

of ocean movements. They will 

be able to better understand the 

Loop Current and its eddies, as 

well as newly discovered deepwater 

currents. This understanding will 

enable operators to avoid installing 

equipment during periods of greater 

current activity, saving money and 

system stress, and ultimately providing a safer structure.
MMS

A steward of the 

ocean environment

Ocean Research Priorities Plan 

and Implementation Strategy.

Report Now Available

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Charting the Course for Ocean Science in the United 

States for the Next Decade: An Ocean Research 

Priorities Plan and Implementation Strategy 

describes national ocean research efforts that must 

be pursued over the next 10 years. Developed with 

extensive ocean community involvement, this document 

represents the first national effort to identify research 

priorities that address key interactions between society 

and the ocean. This document will serve to guide 

research efforts for the ocean community, including 

Federal agencies, for the next decade. 

Integral to the successful pursuit of these research 

efforts is the participation of the many sectors of the 

ocean community. No one group or sector, including 

Federal agencies, is expected to address the priorities 

alone, thus, engagement of multiple entities and 

partnerships between them is a critical component of 

the implementation strategy. These efforts will also help 

ensure that national priorities are appropriately addressed 

at a variety of scales (global to local) and tailored to 

account for differences in geographic regions, as well 

as different ocean uses, interactions, and phenomena 

within these areas. The research efforts outlined in this 

document will help ensure the health and sustainability 

of our ocean ecosystem for years to come. 

Electronic copies of the Ocean Research Priorities 

Plan and Implementation Strategy are available at 

http://ocean.ceq.gov/about/docs/orppfinal.pdf. 

Hard copies of the document may be obtained by 

contacting the National Ocean Partnership Program at

National Ocean Partnership Program 

1201 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 420 

Washington, DC 20005

Phone: (202) 332-0063 • Fax: (202) 332-9751

Email: NOPPO@COREocean.org