NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

Statistical Analysis Report August 1997

Postsecondary Education Descriptive Analysis Reports

Early Labor Force

Experiences and

Debt Burden

U.S. Department of Education

Office of Educational Research and Improvement NCES 97-286
NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

Statisical Analysis Report August 1997

Postsecondary Education Descriptive Analysis Report

Early Labor Fore Experiences

and Debt Burden

Susan P. Choy

Sonya Geis

MPR Associates, Inc.

2150 Shattuck Ave., Suite 800

Berkeley, CA 94704

C. Dennis Carroll

Project Officer

National Center for Education Statistics

U. S. Department of Education

Office of Educational Research and Improvement NCES 97-286
2

U.S. Department of Education

Richard W. Riley

Secretary

Office of Educational Research and Improvement

Ricky Takai

Acting Assistant Secretary

National Center for Education Statistics

Pascal D. Forgione, Jr.

Commissioner

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity for collecting,

analyzing, and reporting data related to education in the United States and other nations. It fulfills

a congressional mandate to collect, collate, analyze, and report full and complete statistics on the

condition of education in the United States; conduct and publish reports and specialized analyses

of the meaning and significance of such statistics; assist state and local education agencies in

improving their statistical systems; and review and report on education activities in foreign

countries.

NCES activities are designed to address high priority education data needs; provide consistent,

reliable, complete, and accurate indicators of education status and trends; and report timely,

useful, and high quality data to the U.S. Department of Education, the Congress, the states, other

education policymakers, practitioners, data users, and the general public.

We strive to make our products available in a variety of formats and in language that is

appropriate to a variety of audiences. You, as our customer, are the best judge of our success in

communicating information effectively. If you have any comments or suggestions about this or

any other NCES product or report, we would like to hear from you. Please direct your comments

to:

National Center for Education Statistics

Office of Educational Research and Improvement

U.S. Department of Education

555 New Jersey Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20208–5651

August 1997

Suggested Citation

U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. Early Labor Force

Experiences and Debt Burden, NCES 97-286, by Susan P. Choy and Sonya Geis. Project

Officer: C. Dennis Carroll. Washington DC: 1997.

Contact:

C. Dennis Carroll

(202) 219-1365
iii

FOREWORD

This report describes the early labor force experiences and debt burden of two groups:

1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients and 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last

enrollment ended by December 1992. It begins with a description of their early labor force experiences, including such topics as the kinds of jobs they obtained, how much money they earned, and

their experience with unemployment. The report then describes their borrowing for undergraduate

education and its relationship to their career choices and, for bachelor’s degree recipients, their

plans for graduate school. Finally, the report examines their loan repayment status and the debt

burden implied by their income and other aspects of their financial circumstances.

The report uses data from the Baccalaureate and Beyond Study (B&B:93/94) and the Beginning Postsecondary Student Longitudinal Study (BPS:90/94). B&B was derived from the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study conducted in 1992–93 (NPSAS:93), and included

students who earned a bachelor’s degree in 1992–93. This group was followed up in 1994, approximately one year after they graduated. BPS was derived from NPSAS:90, and included students who began postsecondary education for the first time in 1989–90. This group was followed

up in 1992 and again in 1994.

The estimates presented in this report were produced using the B&B:93/94 and BPS:90/94

Data Analysis Systems (DASs). The DAS, a microcomputer application that allows users to specify and generate their own tables from the NPSAS, B&B, or BPS data, produces the designadjusted standard errors that are necessary for testing the statistical significance of differences

shown in the tables. For more information about the DAS and directions for obtaining access

through the Internet, see appendix B of this report.
iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank all those who contributed to this report. At MPR Associates,

Laura Horn and Lutz Berkner reviewed the analysis at various stages and provided helpful comments. Thanks also go to Barbara Kridl, who supervised the production of the report; Andrea

Livingston and Karyn Madden, who edited it; Leslie Retallick, who prepared the graphics; and

Mary Sukkestad and Don Eike, who formatted the tables and assembled the final report.

We would also like to acknowledge the careful review and thoughtful comments of the following reviewers: Dennis Carroll, Mary Frase, Robert Burton, Kristin Perry, and Joanell Porter at

NCES; James Hyler and Alan Baldinger from the Department of Education’s Budget Service; and

Jerry Davis from the Student Loan Marketing Association (Sallie Mae).
v

HIGHLIGHTS

This report uses data from the Baccalaureate and Beyond (B&B) and Beginning Postsecondary Student (BPS) studies to examine the early labor force experiences of postsecondary education participants who graduated or left without a degree or certificate; their borrowing for

postsecondary education; and, if they borrowed, their repayment status and the debt burden implied by their income and repayment obligations. The B&B data, collected in 1994, are used to

examine the experiences of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients approximately one year after

they graduated. The BPS data are used to track the experiences of another group of recent labor

market entrants: individuals who began their postsecondary education in 1989–90 and whose last

enrollment ended by December 1992. This group is referred to below as the “noncompleters and

associate’s degree or certificate recipients” or the “nonbaccalaureate group.”

Employment/Unemployment

• The vast majority (87 percent) of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients were employed

in April 1994 (table 7). About three-quarters (76 percent) were working only, and 11

percent were combining work and further education. The rest were enrolled for further

education and not employed (7 percent) or neither working nor enrolled (6 percent).

• Eighty-one percent of the noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients

were employed in April 1994 (table 9). The rest were unemployed or out of the labor

force.

• The average April 1994 annualized salary for the bachelor’s degree recipients was

$22,100 ($24,200 for those working full time); the average 1993 earnings for the nonbaccalaureate group were $16,600 (tables 13 and 14).

• Some experience with unemployment during the first year after graduation was not uncommon for bachelor’s degree recipients: 29 percent had been unemployed for at least

one month (table 15). Their April 1994 unemployment rate was 4.5 percent.

• Among the nonbaccalaureate group, about one-third had experienced some unemployment, but their unemployment was measured over a longer time period than the bachelor’s degree recipients (since 1989) (table 16). The unemployment rate for this group in

April 1994 was 4.7 percent.
HIGHLIGHTS

vi

Borrowing for Undergraduate Education

• About one-half (49 percent) of the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients borrowed

from some source (including family or friends as well as through student loan programs) to finance their undergraduate education (table 18). Among those who borrowed, the average amount was $10,200. Graduates of private, not-for-profit

institutions borrowed more, on average, than graduates of public institutions ($12,800

versus $8,700).

• Overall, 43 percent of the noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients

borrowed from some source for their postsecondary education, and 25 percent borrowed through student loan programs (table 19). The average amount borrowed

through student loan programs was $4,200. For students who last attended a public 2-

year institution, the borrowing rate through student loan programs was 10 percent and

the average amount borrowed was $2,700.

• Bachelor’s degree recipients’ immediate career plans appear unrelated to borrowing,

but borrowing may be an obstacle to immediate enrollment in graduate school (tables

22–28).

Loan Repayment and Debt Burden

• About one year after graduating, 63 percent of bachelor’s degree recipients had no undergraduate debt, either because they had never borrowed or because they had repaid

their loans; 29 percent were required to make loan payments; and the remaining 8 percent still owed money but were not required to make payments in 1994 (table 29).

• Among the noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients, 16 percent

were making payments (table 30).

• For 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were repaying their loans in 1994, the

average monthly payment was $136, which averaged 9 percent of their April 1994 salary (tables 31 and 33). Thirty-one percent of those in repayment were paying less than

5 percent of their monthly income; 38 percent were paying 5 to 9 percent; 15 percent

were paying 10 to 14 percent; and 16 percent were paying 15 percent or more (table

33). Those with the lowest salaries (less than $15,000) had the greatest average debt

burden (15 percent).

• Bachelor’s degree recipients whose debt burden exceeded 15 percent were more likely

than those with debt burdens of under 5 percent to be living with parents or relatives

(table 38).

• The nonbaccalaureate group were less burdened with debt. Their monthly payments averaged $76, and three-quarters had monthly payments amounting to less than 10 percent of their monthly income (tables 32 and 34). The average was 8 percent.
vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Foreword .............................................................................................................................. iii

Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................ iv

Highlights ............................................................................................................................. v

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ ix

List of Figures ...................................................................................................................... xiv

Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1

Background ...................................................................................................................... 1

Data ................................................................................................................................. 3

1992–93 Bachelor’s Degree Recipients ............................................................................. 4

1989–90 Beginning Postsecondary Students ..................................................................... 6

Implications of Recent Increases in Borrowing for This Analysis ....................................... 11

Early Labor Force Experiences............................................................................................ 15

Employment...................................................................................................................... 15

Occupations ..................................................................................................................... 23

Earnings ........................................................................................................................... 27

Experience With Unemployment ....................................................................................... 39

Borrowing for Undergraduate Education............................................................................ 49

Amounts Borrowed .......................................................................................................... 49

Amounts Owed by Borrowers in 1994 .............................................................................. 55

Borrowing and Career Choices ......................................................................................... 58

Borrowing and Plans for Graduate School ........................................................................ 61

Loan Repayment and Debt Burden ..................................................................................... 65

Repayment Status ............................................................................................................. 65

Payment Amounts ............................................................................................................. 69

Loan Payments as a Percentage of Monthly Earnings ........................................................ 72

Other Indicators of Debt Burden for Bachelor’s Degree Recipients .................................. 77

Borrowing and Lifestyle Choices ...................................................................................... 79
TABLE OF CONTENTS

viii

Page

Summary and Conclusion .................................................................................................... 85

1992–93 Bachelor’s Degree Recipients ............................................................................. 85

1989–90 Beginning Postsecondary Students Whose Last Enrollment Ended

 by December 1992.......................................................................................................... 86

Appendix A—Glossary ........................................................................................................ 89

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology ............................................................... 107
ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to type

of degree-granting institution, by gender and race–ethnicity ........................................... 5

2 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to

gender and race–ethnicity, by type of institution ............................................................. 5

3 Percentage distribution of all 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students according

to highest degree attained by spring 1994, by gender and race–ethnicity ......................... 7

4 Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last

enrollment ended by December 1992 according to last institution attended,

by highest degree attained as of spring 1994 ................................................................... 8

5 Percentage distributions of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students according

to selected characteristics for all students, students included in the analysis, and

students not included in the analysis for this report.......................................................... 9

6 Percentage distribution of students participating in federal student loan programs

with any loans in 1992–93 and federal loans in 1995–96 according to total amount

borrowed and average amount borrowed for undergraduate education.......................... 12

7 Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed and

enrolled and percentage distribution according to enrollment and employment

status in April 1994, by selected student and institutional characteristics ....................... 17

8 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to

employment status in April 1994, by selected student characteristics ............................ 19

9 Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last

enrollment ended by December 1992 according to employment status in

April 1994, by selected student and institutional characteristics..................................... 20

10 Percentage distribution of employed 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients

according to April 1994 occupation, by selected student and institutional

characteristics .............................................................................................................. 24
LIST OF TABLES

x

Table Page

11 Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients employed full time who found

their April 1994 job in various ways, by selected student characteristics ....................... 26

12 Percentage distribution of employed 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students

whose last enrollment ended by December 1992 according to 1993 occupation, by

selected student and institutional characteristics............................................................ 28

13 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed

in April 1994 according to annualized salary from primary April 1994 job and

average annualized salary, by selected student and institutional characteristics............. 30

14 Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last

enrollment ended by December 1992 according to 1993 earned income and average

earned income, by selected student and institutional characteristics ............................... 35

15 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to

number of months unemployed since graduating, percentage with any

unemployment spells since graduating, and percentage unemployed in April 1994,

by selected student and institutional characteristics........................................................ 40

16 Percentage of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment

ended by December 1992 who had ever been unemployed in 1989–94, and among

those, the average duration of unemployment spells and the average total number of

months unemployed and the percent unemployed in April 1994, by selected student

and institutional characteristics...................................................................................... 41

17 Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last

enrollment ended by December 1992 according to the number of months after

leaving postsecondary education before obtaining first principal job,

by selected student and institutional characteristics........................................................ 45

18 Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who borrowed for

undergraduate education, average amounts borrowed, and percentage distribution

of those who borrowed by amount borrowed, by selected student and institutional

characteristics .............................................................................................................. 51

19 Percentage of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment

ended by December 1992 who borrowed for undergraduate education,

who took out student loans, and average amount of student loans,

by selected student and institutional characteristics........................................................ 54
LIST OF TABLES

xi

Table Page

20 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who borrowed

according to the amount still owed for their undergraduate education and

average amount owed by those who still owed, by selected student and

institutional characteristics: 1994 ................................................................................. 56

21 Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last

enrollment ended by December 1992 and who borrowed according to the amount

still owed, and average amount owed, by selected characteristics: 1994 ........................ 57

22 Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who reported that various factors

were important to them in determining the type of work they planned to do in the

future, by borrowing status and amount borrowed for undergraduate education:

1994 ............................................................................................................................ 59

23 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients by relationship

between April 1994 job and degree, by borrowing status and amount borrowed

for undergraduate education ......................................................................................... 59

24 Of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients whose April 1994 job was not at all related

to their degree, percentage who gave various reasons for taking that job....................... 60

25 Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last

enrollment ended by December 1992 according to importance of job security and

permanence in determining the kind of work they planned to be doing for most

of their lives: 1994........................................................................................................ 60

26 Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who applied to graduate or

professional school, the percentage accepted among those who applied, and the

percentage who considered applying among those who did not apply, by amount

borrowed and GPA: 1994............................................................................................. 61

27 Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had considered applying to

graduate school but did not apply who gave various reasons as the primary reason

for not applying, by borrowing status and amount borrowed for undergraduate

education: 1994 ........................................................................................................... 62

28 Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were enrolled for further

education in April 1994, and the adjusted percentage after taking into account the

covariation of the variables listed in the table ................................................................ 64

29 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to monthly loan

payment status, by enrollment status: 1994 ................................................................... 67
LIST OF TABLES

xii

Table Page

30 Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last

enrollment ended by December 1992 according to student loan repayment status

and percentage of those making payments who were receiving help with the

payments, by selected student characteristics: 1994....................................................... 68

31 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients in repayment

according to monthly education loan payments and average amount of

payment, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1994............................... 70

32 Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last

enrollment ended by December 1992 who were in repayment according to monthly

student loan payments and average amount of payment, by selected student and

institutional characteristics: 1994 .................................................................................. 72

33 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients making monthly

education loan payments according to their monthly payment as a percent

of their April 1994 salary, and average percent, by selected student and

institutional characteristics: 1994 .................................................................................. 74

34 Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last

enrollment ended by December 1992 making payments on student loans according

to their monthly payment as a percentage of estimated monthly earnings and

average burden, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1994 .................... 77

35 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to monthly

payments for selected noneducational expenses (mortgage, rent, auto loans,

and other debt), and average amount paid, by selected student

characteristics: 1994 ..................................................................................................... 79

36 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to marital

status in April 1994 and percentage who married between 1993 and 1994..................... 80

37 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to

where they were living in April 1994, by selected student characteristics ...................... 82

38 Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients working full time in April 1994

who were saving money and the percentage saving for various reasons, by selected student

characteristics: 1994 .................................................................................................... 84
LIST OF TABLES

xiii

Table Page

B.1 Percentage distributions of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients by selected student

characteristics: 1994 ................................................................................................... 110

B.2 Percentage distributions of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last

enrollment ended by December 1992 according to selected student

characteristics: 1994 ................................................................................................... 111

B.3 Standard errors for table 7: Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who

were employed and enrolled and percentage distribution according to enrollment and

employment status in April 1994, by selected student and institutional

characteristics............................................................................................................. 113

B.4 Standard errors for table 9: Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning

postsecondary students who left postsecondary education or attained an associate’s degree

or certificate by December 1992 according to employment status in April

1994, by selected student and institutional characteristics............................................ 114
xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students according

to highest degree earned, by date of last enrollment: Spring 1994.................................... 6

2 Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students according

to the year their last spell of enrollment ended by 1994 degree status and, for

noncompleters, initial degree objective.......................................................................... 10

3 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to work

and enrollment status in April 1994............................................................................... 16

4 Percentage of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment

ended by December 1992 who were employed in April 1994, by selected

student and institutional characteristics ......................................................................... 22

5 Average April 1994 salary of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients employed

full time, by undergraduate major.................................................................................. 33

6 Average 1993 earned income from all jobs of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary

students whose last enrollment ended by December 1992, by primary

1993 occupation ........................................................................................................... 37

7 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who borrowed for

their undergraduate education and average amount borrowed, by time to

complete degree............................................................................................................ 50

8 Percentage of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment

ended by December 1992 who took out loans, by last institution attended and

source of loan............................................................................................................... 53

9 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to

repayment status in 1994 .............................................................................................. 66

10 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients making payments on

undergraduate loans according to amount of monthly payment in 1994 ......................... 70
LIST OF FIGURES

xv

Figure Page

11 Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose

enrollment ended by December 1992 and were making payments on student loans

according to amount of monthly payment in spring 1994............................................... 71

12 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients making education

loan payments according to their monthly payment as a percent of their

April 1994 income ........................................................................................................ 75

13 Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose

enrollment ended by December 1992 and were making payments on student

loans according to their monthly student loan payment as a percent

of monthly earnings ...................................................................................................... 76

1

INTRODUCTION

While students enroll in postsecondary education for many reasons, most expect earning a

degree or certificate to give them an advantage in the labor market in terms of their employability

and salary, both immediately and in the long run. Because postsecondary students invest a considerable amount of time and money to obtain these credentials, it is important to learn about their

labor market experiences after they graduate or when they leave without graduating. What kinds

of jobs do they get? How much money do they earn? What are their experiences with unemployment? If they have borrowed to finance their education, what are the financial and other implications of this borrowing after they leave postsecondary education? Can they afford to pay back

their loans without undue hardship? How does borrowing affect their further education and lifestyle choices? These questions are addressed in this report.

BACKGROUND

The questions related to borrowing and debt burden have become particularly pressing in

light of recent dramatic increases in borrowing. Over the past two decades, borrowing has become an increasingly common way for undergraduates to finance their education. In 1990–91, for

example, 65 percent of federal grant, loan, and work-study aid was awarded in the form of loans,

compared with 39 percent 20 years earlier.1 In the 1992–93 academic year, borrowing through

the Federal Family Education Loan (FFEL) program totaled $14.9 billion.2 With the introduction

of unsubsidized Stafford loans for students not meeting the need criteria for subsidized loans,

higher maximum loan limits, and changes in need analysis authorized by the Higher Education

Amendments of 1992, borrowing grew suddenly and dramatically. In the 1993–94 academic year,

the FFEL loan volume was $19.0 billion. In 1994–95 and 1995–96, federal loan volumes (which

then included Ford Direct loans as well as FFEL loans) continued to increase, to $22.3 billion and

then $24.4 billion.3

 

1Laura Greene Knapp, Borrowing for College in 1989–90 (Washington, DC: The College Board, 1992), 1.

2The College Board, Trends in Student Aid: 1986 to 1996 (Washington, DC: The College Board, 1996).

3U.S. Department of Education, Budget Services, table prepared for the FY 1998 President’s Budget. Loan volumes refer to net

commitments (loans actually dispersed) and exclude consolidated loans.
INTRODUCTION

2

How much debt is too much? This question has been debated by legislators, policymakers,

and members of the postsecondary community for more than a decade.4 Without disputing the

fact that loans provide students who otherwise would not have the resources to go to college a

way to invest in their future, much concern has been expressed about student debt levels and

whether the growing dependence on loans is creating serious problems for the borrowers and for

society. One set of concerns centers on whether students are in danger of defaulting, a situation

that has financial consequences for the students themselves, the institutions they attend, and the

loan programs through which they have borrowed. A second set of concerns relates to the possibility that the prospect of borrowing and heavy debt may discourage students (especially minorities and others who are traditionally underserved) from enrolling in postsecondary education or

cause them to drop out before they reach their educational goals. A third set of concerns focuses

on how debt affects students’ postgraduation plans. That is, does it prevent them from continuing

their education to the next level, entering a field that is socially beneficial but not necessarily well

paying (such as teaching), or buying a home or car or forming a family at approximately the same

time as their peers without education loans to repay?

This report uses data collected by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) to

examine the experiences of postsecondary education participants who have recently graduated or

dropped out. The rest of this section describes the data and the characteristics of the groups included in the analysis. The next section describes their early labor force experiences, including

how many were working, their occupations, their earnings, and their experience with unemployment. This is followed by a description of their borrowing and its impact on their career choices

and plans for graduate school. The next section addresses loan repayment and the debt burden

implied by borrowers’ current income and repayment obligations and reported information about

other aspects of their financial circumstances. A conclusion summarizes the major findings. Appendix A contains a glossary describing each of the variables used in the analysis, and appendix B

provides details on the data and methodologies used.

 

4See, for example, Janet S. Hansen, Student Loans: Are They Overburdening a Generation? (New York: College Entrance

Examination Board, 1987); W. Lee Hansen and Marilyn S. Rhodes, “Student Debt Crisis: Are Students Incurring Excessive

Debt?” Economics of Education Review 7 (1), 1988, 101–112; and Keith Greiner, “How Much Student Loan Debt Is Too

Much?” Journal of Student Financial Aid 26 (1), 1996, 7–16.
INTRODUCTION

3

DATA

The analysis uses the Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B) and the Beginning Postsecondary Student Longitudinal Study (BPS). Both of these studies were derived from

the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS), a comprehensive, nationwide study of

students enrolled in all types of postsecondary institutions. To this date, four administrations of

NPSAS have been completed (1986–87, 1989–90, 1992–93, and 1995–96).

B&B provides information on the education and work experiences of approximately 11,000

NPSAS:93 participants who received a bachelor’s degree during the 1992–93 academic year (July

1992 through June 1993). The analysis for this report is based on information collected through

NPSAS:93 and the B&B First Followup (B&B:93/94), which was conducted in 1994. BPS provides information on the experiences of 8,000 students in NPSAS:89 who entered postsecondary

education for the first time in 1989–90; this group was followed up in the spring of 1992

(BPS:90/92) and again in the spring of 1994 (BPS:90/94). Appendix B contains additional information on NPSAS, B&B, and BPS.

For the analysis of the BPS data, the sample was limited to individuals whose last spell of

enrollment ended no later than December 1992 (approximately three and a half years after they

started). The sample was limited in this way because studying debt burden requires information on

both monthly loan payments and monthly income. BPS survey respondents were asked to report

the amount of their monthly loan payments in the spring of 1994, but only their annual (rather

than monthly) incomes. The last year for which individuals were asked to provide income data

was 1993. Although dividing respondents’ 1993 annual income by 12 provides a credible estimate

of their monthly income in spring 1994, an accurate picture of debt burden can be obtained only if

the income data apply to a period after students have graduated or dropped out. For this reason,

only students whose last spell of enrollment ended before January 1993 were included in the

analysis described in this report.

Bachelor’s degree recipients were excluded from the analysis of the BPS data, because all

except those who finished in less than four years (5 percent of the bachelor’s degree recipients5)

would have still been enrolled in 1993. Since the number of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary

students who finished a bachelor’s degree in less than four years was relatively small, and to avoid

confusion between the different B&B and BPS bachelor’s degree populations, bachelor’s degree

 

5U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal

Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
INTRODUCTION

4

recipients were excluded from the parts of the analysis that used the BPS data. However, bachelor’s degree seekers who dropped out before January 1993 and did not return were included.

Where possible, this analysis uses B&B:93/94 and BPS:90/94 to answer similar questions

about the early labor force experiences of recent graduates with different types of awards, their

borrowing as undergraduates, and the financial implications of that borrowing. However, these

two studies have different orientations: B&B:93/94 focuses on the experiences of bachelor’s degree recipients during the first year after they graduate, while BPS:90/94 focuses on their persistence, progress, and attainment from when they initially entered postsecondary education.

Consequently, the questions asked of survey participants differed, and direct comparisons of their

experiences were not always possible.

1992–93 BACHELOR’S DEGREE RECIPIENTS

In the 1992–93 academic year, 1.2 million individuals earned a bachelor’s degree in the

United States.6 About two-thirds of them (65 percent) received their degree from a public institution (table 1). Slightly more than half were female in both public and private, not-for-profit institutions (table 2). Eighty-three percent were white, non-Hispanic. Black, non-Hispanics; Hispanics;

and Asian/Pacific Islanders accounted for another 5 to 6 percent each, and the remaining 1 percent were American Indian/Alaskan Natives.7

 Table B.1 (appendix B) shows the percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to various characteristics.

 

6U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study

First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.

7See U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, A Descriptive Summary of 1992–93 Bachelor’s

Degree Recipients 1 Year Later, NCES 96-158, by Alexander C. McCormick and Laura J. Horn, Paula Knepper, project officer

(Washington, DC: 1966), for more information on the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients.
INTRODUCTION

5

Table 1—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to type of degreeTable 1—granting institution, by gender and race–ethnicity

Private,

Public not-for-profit

4-year 4-year Other*

 Total 65.2 31.4 3.5 

Gender

 Male 66.2 30.1 3.6 

 Female 64.3 32.4 3.3 

Race–ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 81.8 12.1 6.1 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 62.8 25.4 11.8 

 Black, non-Hispanic 59.3 37.6 3.1 

 Hispanic 66.2 30.6 3.2 

 White, non-Hispanic 65.6 31.4 3.0 

*Primarily for-profit 4-year institutions.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.

Table 2—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to gender and 

Table 3—race–ethnicity, by type of institution

Race–ethnicity

American

Indian/ Asian/ Black, White,

Gender Alaskan Pacific non- nonMale Female Native Islander Hispanic Hispanic Hispanic

 Total 45.3 54.7 0.6 4.9 6.1 5.1 83.3

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 46.1 53.9 0.7 4.7 5.6 5.2 83.9

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 43.6 56.4 0.2 4.0 7.4 5.0 83.5

 Other 47.6 52.4 1.0 16.6 5.5 4.7 72.2

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
INTRODUCTION

6

1989–90 BEGINNING POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS

Among all those who began their postsecondary education in 1989–90, 26 percent had

earned a bachelor’s degree by spring 1994—that is, within five academic years of the time they

were first enrolled (figure 1 and table 3). Another 11 percent had earned an associate’s degree,

and 13 percent had earned a certificate. The remaining half had not earned any award by this
INTRODUCTION

7

Table 3—Percentage distribution of all 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students according to highest 

Table 4—degree attained by spring 1994, by gender and race–ethnicity

Associate’s Bachelor’s

None Certificate degree degree

 Total 50.0 12.5 11.4 26.1

Gender

 Male 54.3 11.0 10.5 24.3

 Female 46.4 13.8 12.2 27.7

Race–ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 48.7 20.2 9.4 21.6

 Asian/Pacific Islander 38.8 9.5 9.8 41.9

 Black, non-Hispanic 57.5 15.8 9.4 17.4

 Hispanic 55.1 15.8 11.4 17.7

 White, non-Hispanic 49.3 11.9 11.7 27.1

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary 

Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.

time.8 The group selected for analysis for this report was naturally quite different in terms of attainment because it excluded anyone who was enrolled after December 1992. Among the analysis

group, 69 percent were nonattainers as of 1994, 22 percent were certificate recipients, and 9 percent were associate’s degree recipients (figure 1). Of the nonattainers, 62 percent had last attended a public 2-year institution (table 4). To place the analysis group in the context of the entire

BPS population, table 5 shows selected characteristics of the entire BPS population, those included in the analysis, and those not included. Compared with other beginning postsecondary students, those in the analysis group were more likely to be 20 years or older when they began

postsecondary education, to be black, non-Hispanic, and to have last attended a public 2-year or

private, for-profit institution.

Overall, the analysis group represents 43 percent of the BPS population. Figure 2 shows, for

each group of attainers and for nonattainers, what proportion were in the analysis group. The

analysis group includes 72 percent of all beginning postsecondary students who received certificates by 1994. About 60 percent of all those who received certificates did so within two years of

beginning their postsecondary education. The analysis group does not include as great a propor-

 

8See U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Descriptive Summary of 1989–90 Beginning

Postsecondary Students: 5 Years Later, NCES 96-155, by Lutz K. Berkner, Stephanie Cuccaro-Alamin, and Alexander C.

McCormick, Larry Bobbitt, project officer (Washington, DC: 1996), for more information on the 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students.
INTRODUCTION

8

tion of associate’s degree recipients, however: 34 percent. The other 66 percent either finished in

1993 or 1994 or continued on at another institution after earning their associate’s degree. The

analysis group includes 59 percent of the 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students who had not

received any type of award by spring 1994—that is, those who had dropped out before January

1993 and had not returned by the spring of 1994. Table B.2 (appendix B) shows the percentage

distribution of the analysis group according to selected characteristics.

Table 4—Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment 

Table 5—ended by December 1992 according to last institution attended, by highest degree attained

Table 5—as of spring 1994

Private, notPublic for-profit Public Private,

4-year 4-year 2-year for-profit Other

 Total 14.0 3.8 53.8 21.8 6.6 

Highest degree attained by

 spring 1994

 None 17.7 4.8 61.7 11.8 4.1 

 Certificate 2.6 0.7 26.9 55.4 14.3 

 Associate’s degree 12.7 3.7 57.2 18.5 8.0 

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary

Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
INTRODUCTION

9

Table 5—Percentage distributions of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students according to selected 

Table 6—characteristics for all students, students included in the analysis, and students not included in the 

Table 5—analysis for this report

All BPS Included in Not included

students analysis1in analysis2

 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Gender

 Male 46.0 45.3 46.5 

 Female 54.0 54.7 53.5 

Race–ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 0.7 0.6 0.8 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 4.0 2.6 4.9 

 Black, non-Hispanic 8.8 11.7 7.0 

 Hispanic 7.6 8.4 7.1 

 White, non-Hispanic 78.8 76.6 80.2 

Age when began postsecondary education

 19 or younger 73.3 55.7 86.4 

 20 or older 26.7 44.3 13.6 

Level and control of last institution

 Public 4-year 34.6 14.0 49.9 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 13.1 3.8 20.1 

 Public 2-year 37.4 53.8 25.1 

 Private, for-profit 11.5 21.8 3.8 

 Other 3.4 6.6 1.1 

Highest degree attained by spring 1994

 None 50.0 69.4 38.1 

 Not enrolled April 1994 35.9 100.0 18.2 

 Enrolled April 1994 14.1 0.0 19.9 

 Certificate 12.5 21.7 6.7 

 Associate’s degree 11.4 8.9 12.9 

 Bachelor’s degree 26.1 0.0 42.3 

1

 Students whose last enrollment ended by December 1992.

2

 Students who persist until at least January 1993.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning

Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
INTRODUCTION

10
INTRODUCTION

11

IMPLICATIONS OF RECENT INCREASES IN BORROWING FOR THIS ANALYSIS

Unfortunately, the impact of the dramatic increase in borrowing that started in 1993–94 is

not captured in this analysis of the B&B:93/94 and BPS:90/94 data, because the students included

in the analysis had either graduated or left school by then. To get some idea of how cumulative

borrowing for bachelor’s degree recipients has changed with the recent aggregate increases in

loan volume, the cumulative borrowing of the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients was compared to the cumulative borrowing of the 1995–96 fourth- and fifth-year seniors (assuming they

would be the 1995–96 graduates). Because the student-reported data for NPSAS:96 are not yet

available, it is not possible to determine how the percentage of students who borrowed changed

between 1992–93 and 1995–96. However, it is possible to examine changes in the average

amounts borrowed by students who participated in federal student loan programs (which most

borrowers do).

The 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who graduated from public 4-year institutions and

who participated in a federal student loan program borrowed an average of $10,100 from all

sources (federal, state, institutional, family, and other) for their undergraduate education (table 6).

Three years later, in 1995–96, fourth- and fifth-year seniors at public 4-year institutions who participated in a federal student loan program borrowed an average of $12,800 in federal loans for

their undergraduate education, about $2,700 (or 27 percent) more than the 1992–93 bachelor’s

degree recipients who graduated from public 4-year institutions borrowed from all sources. At

private, not-for-profit institutions, the increase in the average amount borrowed between 1992–93

and 1995–96 was approximately $1,200 (from $13,800 to $15,000, about 6 percent). Because

students at private, not-for-profit institutions were more likely than those at public institutions to

take out institutional loans in 1992–93 (2 percent versus less than 1 percent),9the average amount

borrowed through federal loan programs in 1995–96 may understate the total amount borrowed

at private, not-for-profit institutions more than it does at public institutions.

 

9U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Student Financing of Undergraduate Education,

1992–93 [National Postsecondary Student Aid Study], NCES 95-202, by John Tuma and Sonya Geis, Andrew G. Malizio, project officer (Washington, DC: 1995), 90.
INTRODUCTION

12

Table 6—Percentage distribution of students participating in federal student loan programs with any loans 

Table 6—in 1992–93 and federal loans in 1995–96 according to total amount borrowed and average 

Table 6—amount borrowed for undergraduate education

Less $20,000

than $5,000– $10,000– $15,000– or

$5,000 9,999 14,999 19,999 more Average

1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients

(All loans)

 Total* 16.6 28.0 27.9 14.9 12.6 $11,707

Income and dependency level

 Dependent

 Less than $29,999 18.9 22.3 29.6 17.7 11.5 12,095

 $30,000–59,999 17.5 26.8 29.5 14.9 11.3 11,174

 $60,000 or more 20.4 23.5 24.6 13.4 18.1 13,017

 Independent, any income 14.1 32.0 27.2 14.2 12.5 11,527

Institution level and control

 Public 4-year 20.7 31.1 27.7 13.4 7.1 10,117

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 11.6 22.4 29.5 16.3 20.2 13,802

1995–96 4th- and 5th-year undergraduates

(Federal loans only)

 Total 9.6 24.4 29.3 21.0 15.7 13,409

Institution level and control

 Public 4-year 11.0 27.7 29.3 17.8 14.1 12,776

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 6.0 16.3 29.2 28.8 19.7 14,961

*Includes a small number who attended private, for-profit institutions.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System; and U.S. Department of Education, National 

Center for Education Statistics, 1996 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:96).

Data are not yet available on borrowing from all sources for the 1995–96 seniors, and the

B&B data for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients do not distinguish among amounts borrowed

from different sources. Thus, it is impossible to make an exact comparison of cumulative borrowing. However, because some federal loan program participants borrow from other sources as

well, the increases reported here understate the true increases over the three-year period. Despite

the difficulty of making exact comparisons, it appears safe to conclude that the amounts borrowed
INTRODUCTION

13

have increased substantially, at least at public 4-year institutions. Among 1992–93 graduates of

public institutions, for example, 7 percent of federal loan program participants borrowed $20,000

or more for their undergraduate education from all sources, while 14 percent of their 1995–96

counterparts borrowed this amount in federal loans alone. Because of this major increase in borrowing, one can expect that the 1995–96 bachelor’s degree recipients will face larger loan payments than their 1992–93 counterparts did. Their debt burden might also increase, depending on

their salaries.

15

EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

Approximately one year after they graduated (in spring 1994), most of the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients were in the labor force, even those who were continuing their formal education. The 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment ended by December

1992 were also recent entrants into the labor force. All of this group had been out of school for at

least a year by spring 1994, and some had been out for as many as four years, depending on the

length of their program or, if they did not complete their program, when they left.10

This section describes the early labor force experiences of these individuals from a number

of perspectives. Specifically, it examines their employment rates, occupations, and earnings in the

spring of 1994, and their experience with unemployment since completing or leaving their academic programs. For the bachelor’s degree recipients, it also describes whether and how they

combined further education with employment. (None of the beginning postsecondary students in

the analysis group were still enrolled at this point, although overall 13 percent of those who began

their postsecondary education in 1989–90 were still enrolled.11) Particular attention is paid here to

how the early labor force experiences of these individuals varied with the type of institution attended, undergraduate major, and personal characteristics such as gender, age, and race–ethnicity.

EMPLOYMENT

Employment and Enrollment Among Bachelor’s Degree Recipients

In April 1994, about one year after they graduated, the vast majority of 1992–93 bachelor’s

degree recipients were employed (figure 3 and table 7). Seventy-six percent were working only,

and another 11 percent were combining education and work. The remaining 13 percent were

about evenly divided between enrolling only and neither working nor enrolling. The group that

was neither working nor enrolled included individuals who were unemployed (but looking for

work) or not in the labor force (not employed and not looking for work).

 

10Figure 2 shows the last year of enrollment separately for noncompleters, associate’s degree recipients, and certificate recipients.

11U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Descriptive Summary of 1989–90 Beginning Postsecondary Students: 5 Years Later, 3.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

16

What 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients were doing in April 1994 varied with their gender, age, and undergraduate major. Gender differences were relatively minor. Males were slightly

more likely than females to be enrolled only, but a relatively small proportion of bachelor’s degree

recipients were in this category (7 percent).
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

17

Table 7—Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed and enrolled and 

Table 7—percentage distribution according to enrollment and employment status in April 1994, 

Table 7—by selected student and institutional characteristics

Enrollment and employment status

Neither

Total* Employed Employed Enrolled employed

and not and and not nor

Employed Enrolled enrolled enrolled employed enrolled

 Total 87.0 17.9 75.8 11.2 6.7 6.3

Gender

 Male 86.5 18.3 76.1 10.5 7.8 5.7

 Female 87.4 17.6 75.6 11.8 5.8 6.9

Race–ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 86.9 14.7 74.3 12.6 2.2 10.9 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 80.1 20.6 70.4 9.7 10.9 9.1

 Black, non-Hispanic 85.1 16.7 73.4 11.7 5.1 9.9

 Hispanic 83.5 19.9 69.8 13.8 6.1 10.4 

 White, non-Hispanic 87.8 17.7 76.7 11.1 6.6 5.6

Age received bachelor’s degree

 24 or younger 86.8 19.2 75.3 11.5 7.7 5.5

 25–29 90.2 10.6 81.5 8.8 1.9 7.9

 30 or older 85.3 17.4 73.8 11.5 5.8 8.9

Borrowing for undergraduate

 education

 Did not borrow 85.8 19.7 74.2 11.5 8.2 6.1

 Borrowed 88.4 16.1 77.4 10.9 5.2 6.4

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 87.6 17.8 76.1 11.5 6.2 6.2

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 85.8 18.4 75.1 10.8 7.7 6.5

 Other 86.3 14.5 77.6 8.7 5.8 7.9

Baccalaureate degree major

 Business and management 92.4 9.9 85.3 7.1 2.7 4.9

 Engineering, math, or science 79.6 26.3 66.1 13.5 12.7 7.7

 Humanities or social science 84.4 21.0 71.4 13.0 8.0 7.6

 Other 88.8 16.8 77.4 11.4 5.5 5.8

Primary occupation April 1994

 Business and management 100.0 7.9 92.1 7.9 (*) (*)

 School teacher 100.0 15.1 84.9 15.1 (*) (*)

 Professional 100.0 11.4 88.6 11.4 (*) (*)

 Administrative, clerical, support 100.0 18.0 82.0 18.0 (*) (*)

 Sales, service 100.0 13.3 86.7 13.3 (*) (*)

 Other 100.0 13.3 86.7 13.3 (*) (*)

*Sums to more than 100 percent because some are both employed and enrolled.

(*) Not applicable.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

18

Age differences were more notable. Graduates who were 24 years or younger when they received their degree (that is, those who started college relatively soon after graduating from high

school and attended mostly full time without any long breaks in attendance) were considerably

more likely than those who were 25 to 29 years old when they graduated to be enrolled for further education in April 1994.

Work/enrollment patterns varied by undergraduate major, but not by the type of institution

attended. Business and management majors were the most likely to be working only, and those

who majored in engineering, mathematics, or science were the most likely to be enrolled only.

Graduates of public and private, not-for-profit institutions had similar work/enrollment patterns.

Borrowing for undergraduate education may discourage graduates from immediately enrolling for further education unless they are working as well. Borrowers (about half of all bachelor’s degree recipients, table 18) were less likely than nonborrowers to be enrolled only, but the

two groups were about equally likely to be combining school and work. Borrowers were slightly

more likely than nonborrowers to be working only.

Full- Versus Part-Time Employment for Bachelor’s Degree Recipients

Distinguishing between full- and part-time employment allows one to take a closer look at

how graduates are participating in the labor market and how they are combining work and further

education (table 8). Among those who were working only, the vast majority (89 percent) were

working full time. Whether the remaining 11 percent who were working part time were doing so

by choice or because they could not find full-time employment is unknown.

The graduates combining enrollment and work were about equally divided between working

full and part time. Their employment status was related to their enrollment status. Among those

who were enrolled full time, more than half (59 percent) were in the labor force as well: 17 percent working full time, 33 percent working part time, and 9 percent unemployed but looking for

work. Among those who were enrolled part time, all but 9 percent were also in the labor force,

and about two-thirds were working full time.

As indicated in the previous section, borrowing as an undergraduate may encourage employment rather than enrollment only. However, it does not necessarily encourage full-time employment. In fact, the proportions of borrowers and nonborrowers who worked full time were

about the same.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

19

Table 8—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to employment status

Table 8—in April 1994, by selected student characteristics

Employed

Full Part Out of the

Total time time Unemployed labor force

 Total 87.0 73.1 13.9 4.5 8.5 

Employment/enrollment status April 1994

 Enrolled and employed 100.0 53.4 46.6 (*) (*)

 Enrolled and not employed (*) (*) (*) 18.4 81.6 

 Employed and not enrolled 100.0 88.5 11.5 (*) (*)

 Neither employed nor enrolled (*) (*) (*) 52.3 47.7 

Enrollment status April 1994

 Not enrolled 92.3 81.7 10.6 4.0 3.7 

 Enrolled full time 49.8 17.2 32.6 9.0 41.2 

 Enrolled part time 88.7 66.5 22.1 2.6 8.7 

Borrowing for undergraduate education

 Did not borrow 85.8 72.7 13.1 4.2 10.0 

 Borrowed 88.4 73.9 14.5 4.7 7.0 

(*) Not applicable.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.

Employment Among Noncompleters and Associate’s Degree or Certificate Recipients

As was the case with the bachelor’s degree recipients, the vast majority (81 percent) of the

1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment had ended by December 1992

were employed in April 1994 (table 9 and figure 4). The remaining 19 percent were either unemployed or not in the labor force. Among associate’s degree recipients, 86 percent were employed;

among noncompleters, 81 percent; and among certificate earners, 80 percent. However, small

sample sizes make it impossible to determine whether the apparent higher employment rate of associate’s degree recipients is real or simply a statistical artifact.

Like the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients, noncompleters and associate’s degree and

certificate recipients were recent entrants into the labor force in spring 1994. Comparisons of the
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

20

Table 9—Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment 

Table 9—ended by December 1992 according to employment status in April 1994, by selected student 

Table 9—and institutional characteristics

Not

Employed employed

 Total 80.9 19.2 

Gender

 Male 85.8 14.2 

 Female 76.7 23.3 

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 77.2 22.8 

 Black, non-Hispanic 72.9 27.1 

 Hispanic 81.5 18.5 

 White, non-Hispanic 82.1 17.9 

Age when began postsecondary education

 19 or younger 83.2 16.9 

 20 or older 78.0 22.1 

Socioeconomic status

 Lowest quartile 75.0 25.0 

 Middle quartiles 81.4 18.6 

 Highest quartile 85.4 14.6 

Student loans

 Did not take out student loans 81.4 18.6 

 Took out student loans 79.3 20.7 

Highest degree attained by December 1992

 None 80.6 19.4 

 Last attended 4-year 79.4 20.6 

 Last attended public 2-year 83.2 16.8 

 Last attended private, for-profit 69.2 30.8 

 Certificate 79.5 20.5 

 Associate’s degree 86.2 13.9 

Major during last enrollment spell

 Business and management 81.3 18.7 

 Engineering, math, or science 81.5 18.5 

 Humanities or social science 85.1 15.0 

 Education 81.3 18.7 

 Other 80.4 19.6 
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

21

Table 9—Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment 

Table 9—ended by December 1992 according to employment status in April 1994, by selected student 

Table 9—and institutional characteristics—Continued

Not

Employed employed

Academic year last enrolled

 1989–90 78.4 21.6 

 1990–91 83.1 16.9 

 1991–92 82.3 17.7 

 1992–93 80.4 19.6 

Level of last institution

 4-year 80.3 19.8 

 2-year 83.5 16.5 

 Less-than-2-year 73.0 27.0 

Control of last institution

 Public 82.6 17.4 

 Private, not-for-profit 84.5 15.5 

 Private, for-profit 74.0 26.1 

Level and control of last institution

 Public 4-year 78.8 21.2 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 85.5 14.6 

 Public 2-year 83.4 16.6 

 Private, for-profit 74.0 26.1 

 Other 83.6 16.4 

Primary occupation in 1993

 Clerical 91.1 8.9 

 Craftsman/repair, laborer, or machinist 91.0 9.0 

 Manager/administrator 93.0 7.0 

 Professional 96.5 3.5 

 Sales 87.6 12.4 

 Service 94.3 5.7 

 Other 91.1 8.9 

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary

Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

22
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

23

employment rates of the two groups must be made with care, however, because the nonbaccalaureate group being analyzed here excludes anyone enrolled after December 1992, while many of

the bachelor’s degree recipients were combining school and work. Comparing the nonbaccalaureate group only to bachelor’s degree recipients who were not enrolled shows a considerably higher

employment rate for bachelor’s degree recipients than for the nonbaccalaureate group (92 percent

compared with 81 percent) (tables 8 and 9).

Employment rates for the noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients differed by gender, with higher employment rates for males than females (86 percent compared with

77 percent). Some of the 23 percent of females who were not employed were unemployed but

available and looking for work, and some were not in the labor force.

Other characteristics associated with higher employment rates were first enrolling in postsecondary education at age 19 or younger (rather than older); being in the highest (rather than

lowest) socioeconomic status (SES) quartile in 1989–90; having last attended a public or private,

not-for-profit institution (rather than a private, for-profit institution); and having attended a 2-year

(rather than less-than-2-year) institution last (table 9).

OCCUPATIONS

Bachelor’s Degree Recipients

In April 1994, 20 percent of employed 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients were in business and management occupations, 26 percent were in professional occupations, and 18 percent

were in administrative/clerical occupations (table 10).12 The rest were teachers (12 percent), in

sales and service occupations (11 percent), or in “other” occupations (14 percent). As would be

expected, undergraduate majors and occupations one year after graduation were related. For instance, business and management majors were more likely to be in business and management than

most other occupations,13 while graduates majoring in engineering, mathematics, or science were

more likely to report professional or “other” occupations than any other occupation. Among humanities and social science majors, about equal proportions were in business and management,

professional, and administrative/clerical occupations (21 to 23 percent).

 

12The glossary in appendix A contains a description of the occupations included in each category.

13The difference between business and management and administrative/clerical is not statistically significant.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

24

Table 10—Percentage distribution of employed 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to 

Table 10—April 1994 occupation, by selected student and institutional characteristics

Business Administrative,

and School Profess- clerical, Sales,

management teacher ional support service Other

 Total 20.1 11.7 25.6 17.8 11.3 13.5 

Gender

 Male 22.8 6.2 25.8 13.0 12.7 19.6 

 Female 17.9 16.2 25.5 21.8 10.2 8.5 

Race–ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 22.5 15.9 24.6 18.3 10.3 8.4 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 24.6 4.8 24.8 19.4 11.5 15.0 

 Black, non-Hispanic 17.5 10.3 20.2 29.4 8.0 14.5 

 Hispanic 17.2 14.7 24.4 21.7 10.1 12.0 

 White, non-Hispanic 20.2 12.0 26.0 16.7 11.6 13.5 

Age received bachelor’s degree

 24 or younger 20.2 11.2 23.8 19.5 13.1 12.2 

 25–29 18.7 10.9 27.3 16.6 9.6 17.0 

 30 or older 21.0 14.4 32.3 11.4 4.7 16.2 

Borrowing for undergraduate education

 Did not borrow 20.9 10.6 25.4 17.9 12.1 13.0 

 Borrowed 19.3 12.6 26.1 18.1 10.0 13.9 

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 19.0 12.7 25.7 17.7 11.2 13.7 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 22.7 10.3 25.2 18.2 10.8 12.8 

 Other 19.1 4.9 27.4 15.8 18.3 14.4 

Baccalaureate degree major

 Business and management 31.4 1.2 20.3 23.6 14.1 9.5 

 Engineering, math, or science 10.0 6.6 35.3 11.9 7.7 28.6 

 Humanities or social science 22.3 7.8 21.4 23.2 14.1 11.2 

 Other 16.0 22.4 27.5 13.4 9.4 11.3 

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

25

Although the enrollment of women in higher education has grown over the past several decades to the point that women now constitute a majority,14 men and women tend to be employed in

different occupations when they graduate. Among the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients, men

were more likely than women to be in business and management and in sales/service occupations,

while women were much more likely than men to be teachers or hold administrative/clerical/support jobs (table 10).15

Age and occupation appear related. For example, bachelor’s degree recipients 30 years or

older were more likely than those 24 years or younger to be in professional occupations and less

likely to be in administrative/clerical/support or sales/service occupations. This pattern may reflect

greater employment experience either before or during postsecondary education enrollment. Borrowers and nonborrowers had similar occupational patterns.

How Bachelor’s Degree Recipients Found Their Jobs

The discussion here is limited to 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed

full time to help clarify how graduates embarking on a career find their jobs. The most common

way the graduates found out about their jobs was through a referral from family, friends, or professors, with 35 percent finding their jobs this way (table 11). Another 19 percent found their jobs

through a want ad, and 10 percent found them through a campus placement office.

Job search methods and types of jobs (in terms of salary and occupation) were related. For

example, graduates whose jobs paid $25,000 to $34,999 per year were more likely than those

whose jobs paid less than $20,000 to have found them through the campus placement office or an

employment agency. In contrast, graduates with jobs in the $15,000 to $19,999 per year range

were more likely than those with higher paying jobs to have found them through want ads. Similarly, graduates with sales/service jobs were more likely than those with professional jobs to have

found them through want ads.

 

14In fall 1970, women made up 41 percent of enrollment in higher education, and in fall 1992, 55 percent. See U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics 1996, NCES 96–133, Washington,

DC: 1996, 176.

15The early labor force experiences of female bachelor’s degree recipients will be examined in detail in a forthcoming report,

Young Women in the Labor Force.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

26

Table 11—Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients employed full time who found their April

Table 11—1994 job in various ways, by selected student characteristics

Employ- AdvanceWant Campus ment ment in

Referrals ad placement Interview agency company

 Total 35.0 19.2 9.9 5.7 6.7 7.3 

Gender

 Male 38.4 17.3 11.4 4.7 6.9 6.4 

 Female 32.0 20.9 8.6 6.5 6.5 8.1 

Race–ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 33.6 15.4 20.4 4.0 7.2 2.1 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 33.7 14.9 19.2 3.2 8.7 6.1 

 Black, non-Hispanic 32.4 20.2 9.9 7.2 5.4 7.4 

 Hispanic 33.3 13.1 7.2 9.9 7.5 12.1 

 White, non-Hispanic 35.4 19.7 9.4 5.5 6.6 7.1 

Age received bachelor’s degree

 24 or younger 36.6 19.6 11.0 5.4 6.4 5.8 

 25–29 33.7 18.5 9.2 5.7 6.7 10.8 

 30 or older 28.7 18.1 5.7 6.8 7.5 10.9 

Annual salary at April 1994 job

 Less than $15,000 40.7 22.0 4.2 5.8 4.2 5.3 

 $15,000–19,999 36.4 24.8 7.9 5.9 4.9 6.6 

 $20,000–24,999 35.2 18.5 10.4 4.8 7.2 7.4 

 $25,000–34,999 30.6 16.6 14.4 5.2 8.8 7.3 

 $35,000 or more 33.6 14.2 9.2 6.0 8.2 11.1 

Primary occupation April 1994

 Business and management 35.5 16.7 9.9 4.5 7.0 11.1 

 School teacher 33.7 12.5 10.8 9.6 3.3 4.1 

 Professional 30.5 18.6 13.4 6.1 6.9 7.4 

 Administrative, clerical, support 37.7 22.3 7.5 4.9 7.5 7.7 

 Sales, service 41.3 28.9 3.4 3.8 5.6 3.7 

 Other 35.6 18.8 10.1 6.0 8.2 5.6 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

27

Noncompleters and Associate’s Degree or Certificate Recipients

Among the noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients, 25 percent had

clerical jobs in the spring of 1994; 20 percent had craftsman/repair, laborer, or machinist jobs; 16

percent had management/administrator positions; and 16 percent had service occupations (table

12). The rest had sales or “other” positions. Associate’s degrees and certificates appear to lead to

different types of occupations. As an example, those with a certificate as their highest award were

much more likely than those with an associate’s degree to have craftsman/repair, labor, or machinist positions, while those with associate’s degrees were much more likely than those with certificates to be managers or administrators.

As with the bachelor’s degree recipients, the occupations of the nonbaccalaureate group

were strongly related to gender. Among males, approximately half were in either blue-collar occupations (craftsman/repair, labor, or machinist) or managerial/administrative positions (33 percent and 20 percent, respectively). Among females, 38 percent held clerical positions and 21

percent worked in service occupations. Similar percentages of males and females had professional

and sales occupations (5 percent to 6 percent in each case). Also, as with bachelor’s degree recipients, borrowers and nonborrowers were no different in terms of their occupations.

EARNINGS

Annual Salaries of Bachelor’s Degree Recipients

Table 13 shows the annualized salaries for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients from their

primary job in April 1994 (separately for all bachelor’s degree recipients, those employed full

time, and those employed part time). The primary job was defined as the job for which the most

hours were worked. If the hours were the same for more than one job, the one with the highest

salary was considered the primary job.

This discussion focuses on those employed full time based on the belief that the salaries of

this group most accurately portray the immediate economic prospects of bachelor’s degree recipients after graduation. This full-time employed group constitutes the majority of the 1992–93

bachelor’s degree recipients (73 percent) (table 8). One could argue that some bachelor’s degree

recipients may be able to find only part-time work and that this should be reflected in any discussion of the economic outcomes of college graduates. However, among those working part time

are many who are enrolled as well as working and therefore not necessarily working in a
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

28

Table 12—Percentage distribution of employed 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last 

Table 12—enrollment ended by December 1992 according to 1993 occupation, by selected student and 

Table 12—institutional characteristics

Craftsman/

repair, Manager/

laborer, or admin- ProfesClerical machinist istrator sional Sales Service Other

 Total 25.0 19.9 16.3 6.0 5.6 16.1 11.1 

Gender

 Male 10.3 33.2 20.4 5.8 5.2 11.1 14.0 

 Female 38.2 8.1 12.7 6.1 5.9 20.6 8.5 

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 34.9 14.4 12.5 9.6 6.2 19.3 3.2 

 Black, non-Hispanic 22.2 13.2 11.7 3.8 8.2 32.3 8.6 

 Hispanic 44.2 15.5 13.9 6.4 6.2 6.7 7.2 

 White, non-Hispanic 23.2 21.2 17.3 6.1 5.1 14.9 12.2 

Age when began postsecondary

 education

 19 or younger 26.6 15.5 19.0 4.4 7.3 15.8 11.4 

 20 or older 22.9 25.8 12.8 8.0 3.2 16.6 10.6 

Socioeconomic status

 Lowest quartile 25.5 19.9 13.1 9.0 4.9 18.3 9.4 

 Middle quartiles 23.7 21.3 16.4 4.9 5.3 15.7 12.7 

 Highest quartile 27.4 17.1 19.1 5.4 6.7 15.2 9.1 

Student loans

 Did not take out student loans 25.4 19.7 17.2 5.3 5.1 16.5 10.9 

 Took out student loans 24.1 20.6 13.9 7.7 7.0 15.0 11.6 

Highest degree attained by

 December 1992

 None 23.6 21.3 18.4 5.2 6.5 13.8 11.3 

 Last attended 4-year 25.0 17.5 15.9 5.6 9.6 16.8 9.7 

 Last attended public 2-year 22.8 21.0 20.3 5.2 6.2 11.8 12.8 

 Last attended private,

 for-profit 27.6 30.6 12.2 5.0 3.4 15.2 6.1 

 Certificate 25.3 22.0 7.9 7.1 4.0 24.1 9.6 

 Associate’s degree 35.8 4.5 20.6 9.2 1.8 15.3 12.9 
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

29

Table 12—Percentage distribution of employed 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last 

Table 12—enrollment ended by December 1992 according to 1993 occupation, by selected student and 

Table 12—institutional characteristics—Continued

Craftsman/

repair, Manager/

laborer, or admin- ProfesClerical machinist istrator sional Sales Service Other

Major during last enrollment spell

 Business and management 38.5 11.6 20.3 2.6 8.6 11.1 7.3 

 Engineering, math, or science 20.6 35.2 16.7 3.1 2.0 6.9 15.4 

 Humanities or social science 33.3 11.0 14.9 7.3 4.1 18.8 10.7 

 Education 36.9 13.2 22.7 1.5 5.1 11.2 9.5 

 Other 10.1 25.0 12.2 10.6 4.2 26.6 11.4 

Academic year last enrolled

 1989–90 22.7 26.9 14.8 5.0 4.2 15.6 10.9 

 1990–91 29.5 16.3 12.2 5.9 6.2 18.3 11.6 

 1991–92 23.3 14.9 23.3 7.1 6.3 13.9 11.3 

 1992–93 29.3 15.3 9.8 6.9 8.2 22.0 8.5 

Level of last institution

 4-year 25.1 16.4 15.7 7.2 8.8 15.9 10.9 

 2-year 24.5 19.5 18.9 6.1 5.0 13.9 12.1 

 Less-than-2-year 28.8 24.9 7.4 4.6 4.7 21.9 7.8 

Control of last institution

 Public 23.6 19.1 18.1 5.6 5.9 15.3 12.5 

 Private, not-for-profit 25.7 18.8 15.6 13.6 5.6 9.6 11.2 

 Private, for-profit 31.9 23.5 9.4 5.3 4.6 19.0 6.3 

Level and control of last institution

 Public 4-year 25.4 15.1 15.8 5.7 9.4 17.3 11.4 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 24.3 20.7 15.7 12.9 6.5 11.0 9.1 

 Public 2-year 23.6 19.2 19.0 5.5 5.4 14.7 12.6 

 Private, for-profit 31.9 23.5 9.4 5.3 4.6 19.0 6.3 

 Other 20.7 24.7 14.7 9.2 2.5 14.2 14.1 

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary

Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

30

Table 13—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed in

Table 13—April 1994 according to annualized salary from primary April 1994 job and average 

Table 13—annualized salary, by selected student and institutional characteristics

Less than $10,000 $15,000 $20,000 $25,000 $35,000 $50,000

$10,000 to 14,999 to 19,999 to 24,999 to 34,999 to 49,999 or more Average

Total

 Total 12.2 16.1 19.5 20.0 21.1 8.4 2.8 $ 22,131

Gender

 Male 9.6 13.2 16.2 18.6 26.5 11.5 4.4 24,517 

 Female 14.2 18.4 22.1 21.1 16.7 5.9 1.6 20,219 

Race–ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 9.7 16.5 21.0 22.9 14.3 12.6 3.0 21,933 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 10.5 12.6 17.8 26.5 19.8 10.2 2.6 22,257 

 Black, non-Hispanic 17.0 13.2 25.1 18.4 17.3 7.1 1.8 20,888 

 Hispanic 14.1 15.6 17.6 22.9 17.7 9.5 2.6 21,726 

 White, non-Hispanic 11.8 16.5 19.3 19.6 21.7 8.3 2.9 22,222 

Age received bachelor’s degree

 24 or younger 13.7 17.8 21.4 21.0 19.6 5.2 1.3 20,327 

 25–29 8.7 14.8 18.2 19.1 24.1 12.5 2.7 23,585 

 30 or older 7.9 9.5 11.6 15.7 25.4 19.7 10.2 29,235 

Borrowing for undergraduate

 education

 Did not borrow 11.7 16.1 18.4 20.2 21.3 8.8 3.5 22,677 

 Borrowed 12.4 16.2 20.6 19.7 21.0 8.0 2.1 21,628 

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 12.0 16.7 19.9 20.2 22.0 7.1 2.2 21,559 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 12.1 15.6 17.7 19.7 19.9 11.0 4.1 23,392 

 Other 16.3 9.0 27.8 18.0 15.2 9.0 4.8 21,795 

Baccalaureate degree major

 Business and management 6.2 11.1 17.8 20.8 28.8 10.8 4.6 25,726 

 Engineering, math, or science 12.4 12.5 11.8 15.5 30.0 15.9 1.9 24,343 

 Humanities or social science 16.7 19.8 21.4 21.8 14.4 4.3 1.7 19,192 

 Other 12.8 18.2 22.4 20.2 17.1 6.5 2.9 20,929 

Primary occupation April 1994

 Business and management 6.9 9.9 22.1 23.4 24.1 9.1 4.6 24,490 

 School teacher 14.4 26.7 21.3 24.6 11.3 0.7 1.0 18,187 

 Professional 7.4 10.0 14.0 19.8 30.0 15.4 3.5 25,672 

 Administrative, clerical, support 19.8 22.6 26.0 17.3 11.4 1.9 0.9 17,650 

 Sales, service 22.1 20.9 18.4 13.4 15.1 8.4 1.7 18,987 

 Other 7.6 14.6 16.8 20.5 27.0 9.4 4.1 24,201 
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

31

Table 13—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed in

Table 13—April 1994 according to annualized salary from primary April 1994 job and average 

Table 13—annualized salary, by selected student and institutional characteristics—Continued

Less than $10,000 $15,000 $20,000 $25,000 $35,000 $50,000

$10,000 to 14,999 to 19,999 to 24,999 to 34,999 to 49,999 or more Average

Full time

 Total 4.6 13.9 21.1 22.7 24.5 9.9 3.3 $ 24,195

Gender

 Male 3.7 10.7 16.9 20.4 30.2 13.2 4.9 26,440 

 Female 5.3 16.7 24.7 24.6 19.7 7.1 1.9 22,286 

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 1.5 7.8 20.6 31.4 23.8 11.7 3.2 24,885 

 Black, non-Hispanic 6.5 12.4 29.1 20.8 20.4 8.6 2.2 23,119 

 Hispanic 7.7 11.0 16.8 28.5 21.6 11.9 2.6 23,708 

 White, non-Hispanic 4.5 14.5 20.8 22.0 25.1 9.7 3.3 24,246 

Age received bachelor’s degree

 24 or younger 5.5 15.9 23.8 24.1 23.1 6.2 1.5 22,247 

 25–29 3.3 12.6 18.6 20.7 27.2 14.5 3.2 25,435 

 30 or older 1.6 6.4 11.2 17.3 28.9 23.1 11.5 31,994 

Borrowing for undergraduate

 education

 Did not borrow 4.5 13.8 19.8 23.0 24.6 10.4 4.0 24,731 

 Borrowed 4.7 14.0 22.5 22.3 24.5 9.5 2.5 23,660 

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 4.6 14.4 21.5 23.1 25.5 8.5 2.5 23,525 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 4.4 13.8 18.9 22.2 23.1 13.0 4.6 25,625 

 Other 6.3 5.9 34.0 19.2 18.2 10.3 6.0 24,302 

Baccalaureate degree major

 Business and management 2.1 9.8 17.7 22.5 31.2 11.8 5.0 27,069 

 Engineering, math, or science 3.0 9.4 13.2 17.8 35.5 19.0 2.2 27,232 

 Humanities or social science 7.2 17.8 24.0 26.3 17.5 5.3 2.0 21,324 

 Other 5.3 16.2 24.9 22.5 20.0 7.8 3.3 22,812 

Primary occupation April 1994

 Business and management 3.9 8.4 23.0 24.4 25.5 9.9 4.9 25,419 

 School teacher 6.3 23.2 23.6 30.7 14.2 1.0 1.1 20,114 

 Professional 2.9 8.0 14.0 20.8 33.4 17.3 3.7 27,207 

 Administrative, clerical, support 7.1 21.2 31.7 22.1 14.2 2.5 1.2 20,215 

 Sales, service 7.2 20.5 22.0 17.2 19.7 11.3 2.1 22,235 

 Other 2.7 13.3 16.6 21.8 30.4 10.6 4.6 25,868 
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

32

Table 13—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were employed in

Table 13—April 1994 according to annualized salary from primary April 1994 job and average 

Table 13—annualized salary, by selected student and institutional characteristics—Continued

Less than $10,000 $15,000 $20,000 $25,000 $35,000 $50,000

$10,000 to 14,999 to 19,999 to 24,999 to 34,999 to 49,999 or more Average

Part time

 Total 51.3 27.1 11.0 6.0 3.3 0.6 0.7 $ 11,463

Gender

 Male 47.2 29.7 11.8 6.8 2.8 0.6 1.1 12,160 

 Female 53.8 25.6 10.6 5.6 3.6 0.5 0.4 11,052 

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 49.2 33.4 5.6 5.5 2.5 3.7 0.0 10,879 

 Black, non-Hispanic 66.7 17.0 6.0 7.3 3.0 0.0 0.0 10,252 

 Hispanic 40.6 32.4 21.5 0.8 1.9 0.0 2.8 13,759 

 White, non-Hispanic 51.0 27.1 11.0 6.4 3.5 0.4 0.6 11,446 

Age received bachelor’s degree

 24 or younger 54.9 27.2 9.6 5.3 2.4 0.4 0.3 10,749 

 25–29 40.2 27.5 16.0 10.1 5.1 1.1 0.0 12,687 

 30 or older 42.7 26.8 13.3 6.9 6.3 1.0 3.1 14,032 

Borrowing for undergraduate 

 education

 Did not borrow 50.9 28.0 10.4 5.8 3.4 0.6 0.9 11,648 

 Borrowed 51.2 27.1 11.1 6.3 3.3 0.6 0.5 11,353 

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 50.3 28.7 11.3 5.2 3.8 0.3 0.5 11,386 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 53.3 24.6 11.5 6.8 2.2 0.6 1.1 11,519 

 Other 55.6 20.9 3.8 12.4 3.4 4.0 0.0 11,983 

Baccalaureate degree major

 Business and management 50.8 25.6 19.1 2.3 2.2 0.0 0.0 11,067 

 Engineering, math, or science 57.5 27.0 5.5 4.9 3.5 1.2 0.6 10,508 

 Humanities or social science 57.3 28.6 9.7 2.3 1.6 0.0 0.6 10,130 

 Other 45.6 26.7 11.7 9.7 4.6 0.8 0.9 12,743 

Primary occupation April 1994

 Business and management 44.1 27.1 10.6 10.5 6.7 0.0 1.0 13,073 

 School teacher 42.2 38.8 13.1 3.6 1.7 0.0 0.7 11,613 

 Professional 39.7 23.9 14.0 12.4 6.3 1.9 1.8 14,909 

 Administrative, clerical, support 62.9 27.5 7.0 1.5 1.2 0.0 0.0 8,915 

 Sales, service 65.2 22.0 8.0 2.5 1.9 0.0 0.4 9,585 

 Other 40.4 23.3 18.0 11.6 4.8 1.7 0.2 13,122 

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

33

career-oriented job. In addition, some (whose number cannot be determined) may be working part

time by choice rather than because they could find only part-time work. Finally, graduates were

asked to report on only one job. Consequently, the amount of time and earnings of anyone holding multiple part-time jobs simultaneously in April 1994 would have been understated. Although

the salaries of the graduates who are employed full time are not representative of all bachelor’s

degree recipients, they do provide a useful indicator of what a graduate who enters the labor market full time can expect to earn.

The average annualized salary for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients working full time in

April 1994 was about $24,000 (table 13 and figure 5), with approximately two-thirds earning

between $15,000 and $35,000. The average annualized salary for full-time workers varied with

gender and age and also by major field of study, April 1994 occupation, and type of institution

attended.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

34

Among the full-time employed, the average annual salary was higher for males than females

($26,400 compared with $22,300), reflecting, at least in part, the male–female occupational differences described above. Average annual salary increased with age, from $22,200 for those 24

years or less when they graduated to $25,400 for those 25 to 29 years old and $32,000 for those

30 years or older. This pattern may reflect older graduates’ greater lifetime experience in the work

force and in higher paid occupations (table 8).

Some undergraduate majors, at least initially, seem to lead to better paying jobs than others.

However, it is important to keep in mind that beginning salary differences may not persist over the

long term as experience and performance become more important than undergraduate education

in determining labor market success. Full-time employed bachelor’s degree recipients with undergraduate majors in business and management, and in engineering, mathematics, or science earned

considerably higher average annual salaries ($27,000 and $27,200, respectively) than did those

who majored in humanities or social sciences ($21,300). Bachelor’s degree recipients in business

and management and in professional occupations in April 1994 had higher average salaries than

their peers in teaching; administrative, clerical, or support; or sales or service occupations.

The average annual salary was about $2,000 more for a bachelor’s degree recipient who

graduated from a private, not-for-profit institution than for one who graduated from a public institution. This pattern has no straightforward explanation, but may reflect a number of interacting

factors. Regional economic differences might contribute (private, not-for-profit institutions are

more common in some parts of the country than others), as might occupational differences (for

example, bachelor’s degree recipients from private, not-for-profit institutions were slightly more

likely than those from public institutions to have business and management occupations, which

pay more than many other occupations). Differences in family backgrounds might also contribute

to salary differences, especially since, as indicated above, 35 percent of all bachelor’s degree recipients found their jobs through referrals from family, friends, and professors (table 11).

Earned Income of Noncompleters and Associate’s Degree or Certificate Recipients

The average 1993 earned income for noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients was $16,600 (table 14 and figure 6). This includes both full- and part-time employees,

and employees who worked only part of the year because they were out of the labor force or uneployed for part of the year. Because no one in this group was enrolled at any time during
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

35

Table 14—Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment

Table 14—ended by December 1992 according to 1993 earned income and average earned income, 

Table 14—by selected student and institutional characteristics

Less $5,000 $10,000 $15,000 $20,000 $25,000 $35,000

than to to to to to or

$5,000 9,999 14,999 19,999 24,999 34,999 more Average

 Total 11.3 13.5 23.5 20.1 14.5 11.0 6.2 $16,574

Gender

 Male 5.2 7.7 20.9 22.8 18.6 15.9 9.1 19,852 

 Female 16.8 18.8 25.8 17.6 10.8 6.6 3.6 13,601 

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 29.1 15.4 21.6 13.7 5.5 8.0 6.6 12,200 

 Black, non-Hispanic 20.4 20.9 25.9 20.2 7.0 5.4 0.2 11,215 

 Hispanic 10.0 16.4 15.5 32.3 10.3 10.7 4.9 17,362 

 White, non-Hispanic 9.8 12.3 24.1 18.7 16.0 11.9 7.1 17,294 

Age when began postsecondary 

 education

 19 or younger 10.3 14.6 25.3 23.2 14.5 7.9 4.2 15,396 

 20 or older 12.7 11.9 20.8 15.7 14.5 15.5 9.0 18,265 

Socioeconomic status

 Lowest quartile 16.8 13.5 21.2 20.1 11.3 12.9 4.2 15,376 

 Middle quartiles 10.6 13.7 23.8 19.2 14.2 11.6 7.1 17,026 

 Highest quartile 8.1 13.2 24.7 21.9 17.8 8.3 6.0 16,647 

Student loans

 Did not take out student loans 10.0 13.1 21.6 21.5 15.3 11.6 6.9 17,144 

 Took out student loans 14.9 14.6 28.9 16.0 12.4 9.3 4.1 14,946 

Highest degree attained by

 December 1992

 None 10.8 13.5 23.1 21.6 13.0 11.5 6.6 16,700 

 Last attended 4-year 11.8 16.1 27.0 19.2 9.4 9.2 7.2 15,919 

 Last attended public 2-year 9.7 12.5 20.7 22.2 14.0 13.3 7.5 17,553 

 Last attended private, for-profit 15.2 13.5 26.2 23.4 13.6 5.9 2.2 14,307 

 Certificate 11.8 14.8 24.3 16.2 17.8 9.4 5.8 16,446 

 Associate’s degree 13.4 11.3 24.1 17.8 18.4 11.1 3.9 15,930 

Major during last enrollment spell

 Business and management 11.6 11.4 27.6 22.2 13.5 10.3 3.4 15,442 

 Engineering, math, or science 8.8 9.8 15.9 22.2 14.7 16.0 12.7 20,666 

 Humanities or social science 15.3 20.5 20.6 22.9 4.6 8.8 7.3 15,642 

 Education 17.0 12.9 29.9 16.0 14.0 5.2 5.0 13,866 

 Other 10.6 12.5 21.8 17.7 20.2 11.6 5.6 16,759 
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

36

Table 14—Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment

Table 14—ended by December 1992 according to 1993 earned income and average earned income, 

Table 14—by selected student and institutional characteristics—Continued

Less $5,000 $10,000 $15,000 $20,000 $25,000 $35,000

than to to to to to or

$5,000 9,999 14,999 19,999 24,999 34,999 more Average

Academic year last enrolled

 1989–90 9.3 12.5 20.7 18.0 16.9 13.7 9.0 $18,123

 1990–91 11.9 13.8 24.3 20.6 11.9 12.0 5.4 16,007 

 1991–92 14.2 13.1 24.2 22.5 14.6 7.5 4.0 15,530 

 1992–93 4.6 24.5 38.2 19.4 8.4 4.9 0.0 13,417 

Level of last institution

 4-year 10.8 15.9 26.9 18.4 11.4 9.0 7.7 16,235 

 2-year 11.0 12.8 21.5 21.6 15.0 11.6 6.6 17,108 

 Less-than-2-year 13.2 13.8 24.6 18.0 16.9 9.8 3.7 15,170 

Control of last institution

 Public 11.0 13.4 21.8 20.5 14.6 11.7 7.2 17,057 

 Private, not-for-profit 4.9 13.3 29.0 15.8 15.3 10.0 11.6 18,792 

 Private, for-profit 14.7 14.3 25.9 21.0 14.9 7.8 1.5 14,230 

Level and control of last institution

 Public 4-year 12.3 16.5 26.5 18.3 10.7 9.7 6.0 15,561 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 5.0 13.6 28.3 18.4 14.4 6.2 14.1 18,831 

 Public 2-year 11.0 12.8 20.1 21.5 15.0 12.2 7.4 17,423 

 Private, for-profit 14.7 14.3 25.9 21.0 14.9 7.8 1.5 14,230 

 Other 6.2 11.2 27.3 13.7 20.4 13.6 7.6 17,862 

Primary occupation in 1993

 Clerical 13.9 16.3 27.2 21.5 10.7 7.2 3.1 14,038 

 Craftsman/repair, laborer, or 

 machinist 6.9 9.5 18.0 20.6 20.4 15.3 9.3 20,059 

 Manager/administrator 4.6 8.1 22.2 27.0 12.0 16.2 9.8 19,296 

 Professional 4.8 8.3 23.1 15.2 20.9 17.3 10.4 20,289 

 Sales 8.8 16.2 20.6 19.7 19.9 7.6 7.2 16,888 

 Service 19.3 19.1 31.9 13.7 9.8 4.7 1.7 12,181 

 Other 6.7 16.3 17.0 19.6 17.6 14.7 8.1 18,570 

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding. Includes only those with earned income and includes income

from all jobs.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary 

Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

37

1993, none would have worked only part of the year because of enrollment. The average earnings

of the individuals in the nonbaccalaureate group were similar regardless of degree or certificate

attainment. However, this does not necessarily mean that an associate’s degree or certificate has

no immediate effect on earnings. Indeed, earnings vary with other factors as well, such as gender,

race–ethnicity, age, occupation, and time out of school, and many of these factors are interrelated.

Associate’s degree earners are likely to have been out of school less time than certificate earners

or noncompleters, and those employed most recently may have lower salaries. It is also important

to remember that the associate’s degree earners in the analysis group may not be representative of

associate’s degree earners in general, because they represent only 34 percent of all beginning

postsecondary students who earned associate’s degrees by 1994.

Average 1993 earnings were higher for males than females and for white, non-Hispanics

than black, non-Hispanics. In addition, those who began postsecondary education when they were

20 years or older earned more in 1993 than those who began when they were younger than 20

years, perhaps reflecting greater lifetime work experience or different occupations. Average
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

38

earnings varied with the amount of time spent out of school as well, which again may reflect additional work experience or different occupations. For instance, those who had not been enrolled

since the 1989–90 academic year had average 1993 earnings of $18,100, while those whose last

enrollment ended by December 1992 had average 1993 earnings of $13,400. Those who had attended a public 2-year institution rather than a private, for-profit institution last also earned more.

Average earnings were also related to individuals’ primary occupation. Those in the craftsman/repair, labor, or machinist; manager/administrator; and professional categories earned an average of around $20,000 in 1993, while those with clerical occupations earned an average of

$14,000 and those in service occupations, $12,200. Individuals in sales occupations had earnings

that were in between, averaging $16,900. Those who majored in engineering, math, or science

appeared to have earned more than those in other fields, but only the difference with respect to

business and management was statistically significant.

Comparing the Earnings of Bachelor’s Degree Recipients with the Earnings of

Noncompleters and Associate’s Degree or Certificate Recipients

With an average annualized salary of $22,100 based on their primary April 1994 job, the

bachelor’s degree recipients appear to have been doing better financially than the noncompleters

and associate’s degree or certificate earners, whose average earnings for 1993 were $16,600 (tables 13 and 14). Because full- and part-time employment cannot be distinguished for the nonbaccalaureate group, no direct comparison of full-time employment is possible.

In comparing the earnings of the two groups, it is important to keep in mind the difference

in how earnings were reported. Noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients reported their earnings for calendar year 1993. How many different jobs they held, whether or not

they were ever unemployed, and whether or not they worked full or part time all or part of the

year are all unknown. The bachelor’s degree recipients, in contrast, reported their April 1994 salary for their principal job, which was then annualized to estimate annual earnings. The number of

hours they worked per week was taken into account, so part-time employment is reflected. However, no periods during which they were unemployed or out of the labor force were factored into

this estimate of annual earnings. Moreover, some of the bachelor’s degree recipients may have

worked for part of the year at different salaries or they may have held multiple jobs simultaneously.

In summary, the bachelor’s degree recipients’ annualized salaries provide a good indication

of their current earning power for their principal job, but may not accurately represent what they
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

39

earned during the past year. In contrast, the noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate

recipients’ 1993 earnings represent what they actually earned over the past year; however, for

anyone who was not working for a period of time or who recently changed jobs, they do not provide a very accurate picture of their current earning potential. The different types of employment

information collected in the B&B and BPS studies reflect their different purposes and make comparisons between the two groups difficult.

EXPERIENCE WITH UNEMPLOYMENT

Another important aspect of labor force experience—and one that affects the ability to repay

student loans—is unemployment. A person without a job but who is looking and available for

work is considered to be unemployed. The unemployment rate for a particular group depends on

their skills, abilities, and experience relative to the types of jobs available in their geographic area.

A group’s experience with unemployment can be examined from a number of different perspectives, including the unemployment rate at a particular time, how long any spells of unemployment

last, and how long it takes to find a job.

Unemployment Rates in April 1994

In April 1994, 4.5 percent of all 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients were unemployed

(table 15). Those who pursued graduate study had a higher unemployment rate than those who

did not (6.7 percent compared with 4.1 percent). No other apparent differences among subgroups

were statistically significant. The April 1994 unemployment rate for the nonbaccalaureate group

(4.7 percent) was similar to that of the bachelor’s degree recipients (table 16). Among the nonbaccalaureate group, females had a higher unemployment rate than males (6.0 percent versus 3.1

percent). In addition, those who last attended a private, for-profit institution had a much higher

unemployment rate than those who last attended a 4-year private, not-for-profit institution (8.2

percent versus 1.4 percent). No other apparent differences among subgroups were statistically

significant.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

40

Table 15—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to number of months 

Table 15—unemployed since graduating, percentage with any unemployment spells since graduating, and 

Table 15—percentage unemployed in April 1994, by selected student and institutional characteristics

Number of months unemployed Any unem- Unemployed

More ployment April

None 1–2 3–4 5–9 than 9 spells 1994

 Total 71.3 8.2 9.4 6.8 4.3 28.7 4.5 

Gender

 Male 70.3 7.9 9.5 8.0 4.4 29.7 4.8 

 Female 72.2 8.5 9.3 5.8 4.2 27.8 4.3 

Race–ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 66.8 7.7 6.7 16.4 2.5 33.2 4.3 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 69.0 7.0 7.6 10.5 5.9 31.0 6.6 

 Black, non-Hispanic 68.2 7.7 7.2 8.0 8.9 31.8 7.6 

 Hispanic 69.7 7.5 8.9 5.9 8.0 30.3 7.6 

 White, non-Hispanic 71.7 8.4 9.8 6.5 3.6 28.3 4.0 

Age received bachelor’s degree

 24 or younger 69.8 9.4 10.3 6.9 3.7 30.3 4.0 

 25–29 71.8 6.7 9.0 7.6 5.0 28.2 5.6 

 30 or older 77.0 4.4 6.0 5.9 6.8 23.0 6.0 

Date received bachelor’s degree

 July 1992–September 1992 71.2 8.1 6.5 6.1 8.1 28.8 5.7 

 October 1992–January 1993 69.4 8.7 8.6 8.6 4.6 30.6 4.3 

 February 1993–June 1993 72.0 8.0 10.1 6.3 3.7 28.0 4.4 

Months of graduate study

 None 69.9 8.8 10.0 7.2 4.1 30.1 4.1 

 One or more 78.7 5.1 6.1 4.5 5.6 21.3 6.7 

Baccalaureate degree major

 Business and management 72.8 8.2 6.9 7.5 4.5 27.2 3.6 

 Engineering, math, or science 70.8 7.2 8.7 7.6 5.7 29.2 6.1 

 Humanities or social science 70.1 8.9 9.7 7.1 4.3 29.9 4.9 

 Other 71.5 8.2 11.0 5.8 3.6 28.5 4.1 

Primary occupation April 1994

 Business and management 76.1 8.0 8.9 5.9 1.3 23.9 —

 School teacher 62.2 8.8 18.4 8.7 1.9 37.8 —

 Professional 74.8 8.3 9.7 5.9 1.3 25.2 —

 Administrative, clerical, support 69.0 10.7 10.8 7.7 1.9 31.0 —

 Sales, service 69.3 12.1 9.0 7.5 2.1 30.7 —

 Other 76.5 7.9 8.0 6.6 1.0 23.5 —

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 70.6 8.6 9.5 6.8 4.5 29.4 4.8 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 72.2 7.7 9.6 6.6 3.9 27.8 3.9 

 Other 77.8 4.7 5.4 6.9 5.2 22.2 4.6 

— Sample size too small for a reliable estimate.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

41

Table 16—Percentage of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment ended by 

Table 16—December 1992 who had ever been unemployed in 1989–94, and among those, the average 

Table 16—duration of unemployment spells and the average total number of months unemployed and 

Table 16—the percent unemployed in April 1994, by selected student and institutional characteristics

Average

duration of

Ever unemployment Average total

unemployed spells months Unemployed

1989–94 (months) unemployed April 1994

 Total 33.7 7.7 10.3 4.7 

Gender

 Male 31.1 7.5 9.8 3.1 

 Female 35.9 7.9 10.7 6.0 

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 22.5 — — 4.9 

 Black, non-Hispanic 46.1 11.3 15.3 7.6 

 Hispanic 28.9 9.2 12.1 6.2 

 White, non-Hispanic 32.5 6.6 8.9 4.1 

Age when began postsecondary education

 19 or younger 33.9 6.5 8.7 3.9 

 20 or older 33.5 9.4 12.4 5.7 

Socioeconomic status

 Lowest quartile 40.4 9.7 13.3 6.7 

 Middle quartiles 31.9 8.2 10.8 4.8 

 Highest quartile 31.1 4.2 5.6 2.5 

Student loans

 Did not take out student loans 31.1 7.3 9.4 3.9 

 Took out student loans 41.2 8.8 12.3 7.1 

Highest degree attained by December 1992

 None 34.4 7.6 10.3 5.5 

 Last attended 4-year 33.5 6.0 8.0 4.9 

 Last attended public 2-year 31.5 7.1 9.5 4.2 

 Last attended private, for-profit 44.7 12.0 15.8 13.5 

 Certificate 33.0 8.5 11.5 3.1 

 Associate’s degree 30.0 7.0 7.7 2.4 

Major during last enrollment spell

 Business and management 34.1 7.4 10.1 6.8 

 Engineering, math, or science 27.3 7.5 9.9 2.7 

 Humanities or social science 35.8 7.0 11.1 3.7 

 Education 34.0 — — 5.8 

 Other 35.8 7.7 9.9 4.1 
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

42

Table 16—Percentage of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment ended by 

Table 16—December 1992 who had ever been unemployed in 1989–94, and among those, the average 

Table 16—duration of unemployment spells and the average total number of months unemployed and 

Table 16—the percent unemployed in April 1994, by selected student and institutional characteristics

Table 16——Continued

Average

duration of

Ever unemployment Average total

unemployed spells months Unemployed

1989–94 (months) unemployed April 1994

Academic year last enrolled

 1989–90 36.4 8.7 12.1 4.7 

 1990–91 31.2 7.3 9.4 4.0 

 1991–92 33.0 7.0 8.9 5.2 

 1992–93 28.9 5.6 7.9 6.0 

Level of last institution

 4-year 32.5 6.2 8.0 4.5 

 2-year 32.0 7.0 9.3 3.6 

 Less-than-2-year 40.1 10.9 15.0 8.7 

Control of last institution

 Public 32.3 6.7 9.0 4.0 

 Private, not-for-profit 28.8 7.8 9.8 1.8 

 Private, for-profit 39.6 10.6 14.4 8.2 

Level and control of last institution

 Public 4-year 33.2 5.8 7.6 5.4 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 30.3 7.9 9.5 1.4 

 Public 2-year 30.8 6.9 9.1 3.5 

 Private, for-profit 39.6 10.6 14.4 8.2 

 Other 40.5 7.6 10.8 4.1 

Primary occupation in 1993

 Clerical 33.7 5.4 7.4 2.8 

 Craftsman/repair, laborer, or machinist 42.2 6.6 9.1 4.7 

 Manager/administrator 33.2 5.6 6.7 2.7 

 Professional 17.9 7.7 11.5 0.5 

 Sales 33.6 5.3 9.1 9.0 

 Service 35.7 6.7 10.2 1.4 

 Other 26.1 5.8 6.8 3.4 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary

Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

43

To place these rates in context, the unemployment rate for the civilian noninstitutional

population 25 to 44 years of age was 5.3 percent in January 1994. Taking into consideration education, the January unemployment rate was 2.9 percent for college graduates 25 to 64 years old

(including those with graduate degrees) and 5.0 percent for those with some college, but less than

a bachelor’s degree.16

Periods of Unemployment

Some experience with unemployment in the first year after graduating appears to be not unusual for bachelor’s degree recipients. Twenty-nine percent of the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients had been unemployed for at least one month since graduating (table 15). The percentages

were similar for graduates of 4-year public and private, not-for-profit institutions and did not vary

according to undergraduate major.

No meaningful gender or racial–ethnic differences were found in terms of spells of unemployment for bachelor’s degree recipients, but there were some interesting age differences.

Bachelor’s degree recipients who were more than 30 years old when they graduated were less

likely than younger graduates to have been unemployed since graduating. This may reflect a

longer time in the work force prior to graduation. In addition, older students are more likely than

younger students to work full time while enrolled.17 Therefore a greater proportion of older students may have continued with the same job or employer when they graduated. At the same time,

however, graduates 30 years or older were more likely than graduates 24 years or younger to

have been unemployed for 9 months or more, suggesting that the older group may include more

individuals with more severe employability problems.

Broad occupational categories and relatively small sample sizes in some categories make

meaningful differences in graduates’ periods of unemployment difficult to detect. Graduates with

administrative, clerical, or support or teaching occupations were more likely those with business

and management or professional occupations to have been unemployed. Most notable among the

occupational differences was the relatively high percentage of teachers reporting three to four

months of unemployment (18 percent), which was considerably higher than the percentage in any

other occupation (8 to 11 percent). One possible explanation is that some graduates who lined up

 

16U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1996. Washington, DC: 1996, 413, 415.

17In 1989–90, 46 percent of undergraduates 24 years or older worked 40 hours or more per week while enrolled, compared

with 23 percent of those less than 24 years old. See U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,

Profile of Older Undergraduates [National Postsecondary Student Aid Study and Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study], NCES 95-167, by Susan P. Choy and Mark K. Premo, Carlyle Maw, project officer (Washington, DC: 1995), 16.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

44

teaching jobs for the fall did seek, but were unsuccessful at finding, short-term employment until

school started; or, if they graduated before June, they may have had trouble finding anything except for the summer.

Although the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who graduated in the summer or fall of

1992 had been in the labor market longer than spring 1993 graduates, they were not any more

likely to have been unemployed. However, among those who had been unemployed, summer 1992

graduates were more likely than later graduates to have been unemployed for more than nine

months, reflecting their longer time in the labor market.

Information on the unemployment experiences of the nonbaccalaureate group is more limited. Data are available on whether they were ever unemployed between 1989–90 and spring

1994, but not on whether they had been unemployed since they graduated or left postsecondary

education. About one-third of the group experienced at least one spell of unemployment between

1989–90 and spring 1994 (table 16). For those who had been unemployed, the average total number of months of unemployment was 10.

There is some apparent variation in the unemployment experiences of the nonbaccalaureate

group by student and institutional characteristics. For example, noncompleters who last attended

private, for-profit institutions appear to be more likely to have been unemployed than noncompleters who last attended other types of institutions, and engineering, mathematics, or science

majors appear to be less likely than those with other majors to have been unemployed. However,

small sample sizes make it impossible to determine whether the differences are real or simply statistical artifacts.

Time to Find a First Job

How long it takes to find a job upon leaving school is another aspect of experience with unemployment. About three-quarters (76 percent) of the 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students

who left postsecondary education or attained an associate’s degree or certificate by December

1992 (and subsequently worked) found their first principal job within a month of graduating or

leaving postsecondary education (table 17). Those who attended 4-year or public 2-year institutions were more likely than those who attended private, for-profit institutions to find a job within

a month.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

45

Table 17—Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment

Table 17—ended by December 1992 according to the number of months after leaving postsecondary 

Table 17—education before obtaining first principal job, by selected student and institutional

Table 17—characteristics

Months

Less More

than 1 1 to 3 4 to 6 7 to 12 than 12

 Total 76.2 8.6 4.2 5.0 6.1 

Gender

 Male 79.5 6.6 3.3 5.5 5.1 

 Female 73.4 10.2 4.9 4.5 7.0 

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 68.3 13.4 0.3 0.8 17.3 

 Black, non-Hispanic 62.3 8.4 4.3 9.1 15.9 

 Hispanic 73.6 6.5 9.4 8.5 2.1 

 White, non-Hispanic 78.9 8.7 3.7 3.9 4.8 

Age when began postsecondary education

 19 or younger 75.5 9.2 4.7 5.0 5.6 

 20 or older 77.1 7.7 3.6 4.9 6.8 

Socioeconomic status

 Lowest quartile 69.2 8.6 4.9 5.7 11.7 

 Middle quartiles 76.4 9.0 4.6 5.1 5.0 

 Highest quartile 82.2 7.6 2.7 4.1 3.4 

Student loans

 Did not take out student loans 77.9 7.7 4.2 4.4 5.9 

 Took out student loans 71.2 11.2 4.2 6.7 6.8 

Highest degree attained by December 1992

 None 78.3 7.7 3.3 4.8 5.9 

 Last attended 4-year 80.1 8.6 2.3 3.2 5.7 

 Last attended public 2-year 79.6 5.8 3.9 4.9 5.8 

 Last attended private, for-profit 69.7 11.6 2.2 9.2 7.4 

 Certificate 66.6 11.9 6.8 6.3 8.4 

 Associate’s degree 83.5 7.5 4.7 2.6 1.8 

Major during last enrollment spell

 Business and management 77.4 7.3 5.7 4.2 5.4 

 Engineering, math, or science 75.9 8.7 2.8 7.0 5.6 

 Humanities or social science 77.2 5.8 3.6 5.7 7.7 

 Education 69.0 8.6 5.1 4.4 12.9 

 Other 73.4 11.6 3.4 4.7 6.9 

Academic year last enrolled

 1989–90 77.5 8.9 3.5 4.1 5.9 

 1990–91 66.9 10.5 6.2 6.3 10.2 

 1991–92 81.7 6.7 3.3 5.2 3.2 

 1992–93 86.5 4.6 3.9 3.2 1.9 
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

46

Table 17—Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment

Table 17—ended by December 1992 according to the number of months after leaving postsecondary 

Table 17—education before obtaining first principal job, by selected student and institutional 

Table 17—characteristics—Continued

Months

Less More

than 1 1 to 3 4 to 6 7 to 12 than 12

Level of last institution

 4-year 80.7 7.9 2.5 3.0 5.9 

 2-year 78.1 7.1 4.3 4.9 5.6 

 Less-than-2-year 64.9 14.4 5.7 6.7 8.3 

Control of last institution

 Public 78.5 7.5 4.1 4.2 5.8 

 Private, not-for-profit 78.0 9.1 3.4 2.5 7.0 

 Private, for-profit 66.6 12.5 5.1 8.4 7.5 

Level and control of last institution

 Public 4-year 80.4 8.1 2.4 3.2 6.0 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 81.7 7.0 2.8 2.6 5.9 

 Public 2-year 79.4 6.3 4.5 4.5 5.4 

 Private, for-profit 66.6 12.5 5.1 8.4 7.5 

 Other 65.8 17.9 4.3 3.0 8.9 

Primary occupation in 1993

 Clerical 78.6 8.2 5.0 4.8 3.4 

 Craftsman/repair, laborer, or machinist 75.1 9.7 2.8 6.8 5.6 

 Manager/administrator 78.5 8.8 3.0 2.1 7.6 

 Professional 82.5 5.8 0.7 4.8 6.3 

 Sales 78.2 5.4 1.1 5.0 10.4 

 Service 69.5 12.6 5.0 4.8 8.1 

 Other 75.0 6.5 5.7 6.0 6.9 

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary

Students Longitudinal Study Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
EARLY LABOR FORCE EXPERIENCES

47

Those with either an associate’s degree or no award were more likely than those with a certificate to find their jobs within a month (84 percent and 78 percent compared with 67 percent).

However, this should not be interpreted to mean that it is more difficult to find a job with a certificate than with no award. Some of those who left without completing a degree or certificate

may have left because they had obtained a job and therefore would have experienced no delay

between enrollment and employment. In addition, some from all of these groups may have been

already working at the job while enrolled and therefore also would have experienced no delay. It

should also be kept in mind that the “no award” group includes individuals with a mixture of postsecondary educational experiences that could range from a month at a less-than-4-year institution

to three and a half years at a 4-year institution. Consequently, some individuals with no award

could have much more postsecondary education than those with a certificate, which might make it

easier for them to find a job.

Certain student characteristics were associated with relatively greater ease in finding a job.

For example, males were more likely than females to find a job within a month. Also, white, nonHispanics were more likely than black, non-Hispanics to find a job within a month, and black,

non-Hispanics were much more likely to have taken more than 12 months to do so. Finally, those

in the highest SES quartile were more likely than those in the lowest quartile to find their job

within a month, and those in the lowest quartile were the most likely to take more than 12

months.

49

BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

In 1992–93, the average annual cost of attending a postsecondary institution full time (including tuition, fees, and living expenses) was $19,500 at private, not-for-profit 4-year institutions

and $11,100 at public 4-year institutions. Attending a public 2-year institution cost somewhat

less—an average of $9,400—but attending a private, for-profit institution cost an average of

$15,000.18 When these annual costs are multiplied by the number of years attended, the amounts

can be substantial. To help cover these costs, many students borrow, either through a student loan

program or from relatives or friends.

This section describes the debt incurred by 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients and 1989–

90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment ended by December 1992 to finance

their undergraduate education and how much they still owed in 1994. It also examines the extent

to which their career choices and, for bachelor’s degree recipients, their further education, are related to borrowing.

AMOUNTS BORROWED

The 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients were asked to report the total amount they had

borrowed to finance their undergraduate education and to include the amounts borrowed from all

sources, including relatives and friends as well as student loan programs. The beginning postsecondary students were also asked if they had borrowed from any source, but were asked only

about the amounts borrowed through student loan programs. Consequently, care must be exercised in comparing the amounts borrowed by the two groups. Also important to keep in mind

when comparing the two groups or making comparisons among subgroups is that student loan

programs limit both annual and total borrowing, which may reduce the variation in the amounts

borrowed by students at different types of institutions and with different financial circumstances.

 

18U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Student Financing of Undergraduate Education

1992–93, 5.
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

50

Bachelor’s Degree Recipients

Overall, about one-half (49 percent) of all the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients borrowed at some point during their undergraduate education, including borrowing from relatives

and friends as well as through student loan programs (table 18 and figure 7). The average total

amount borrowed from all sources was about $10,200. Tuition is higher, on average, at private,

not-for-profit institutions than at public ones. Reflecting this higher tuition, graduates of private,

not-for-profit institutions were more likely than graduates of public institutions to have borrowed

(54 percent compared with 46 percent) and borrowed more, on average ($12,800 compared with

$8,700). About one out of five graduates of a private, not-for-profit institution borrowed at least

$20,000.

The longer bachelor’s degree recipients took to get their degrees, the more likely they were

to have borrowed (59 percent of those who took six years or more to complete their undergraduate education borrowed, 50 percent of those who took from four to six years, and 41 per-
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

51

Table 18—Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who borrowed for undergraduate education, 

Table 18—average amounts borrowed, and percentage distribution of those who borrowed by amount 

Table 18—borrowed, by selected student and institutional characteristics

Amount borrowed

Percent Average Less $5,000 $10,000 $15,000 $20,000

who amount than to to to or

borrowed borrowed $5,000 9,999 14,999 19,999 more

 Total 49.3 $10,167 28.7 28.4 20.5 10.9 11.5 

Gender

 Male 49.7 10,428 28.0 29.0 20.3 11.0 11.8 

 Female 49.0 9,945 29.3 27.9 20.8 10.7 11.3 

Race–ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 66.2 11,204 29.7 22.2 17.9 9.8 20.4 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 42.7 11,377 26.4 34.2 17.1 9.5 12.8 

 Black, non-Hispanic 64.1 9,570 33.7 22.4 23.9 9.5 10.6 

 Hispanic 60.7 7,966 41.5 26.4 14.9 9.0 8.3 

 White, non-Hispanic 47.8 10,321 27.4 29.0 20.8 11.2 11.7 

Age received bachelor’s degree

 24 or younger 45.3 10,360 28.9 27.7 20.3 11.2 12.0 

 25–29 65.2 9,626 25.9 30.6 23.8 10.5 9.3 

 30 or older 55.1 9,725 30.9 28.7 18.5 9.8 12.1 

Income and dependency level

 Less than $30,000 67.3 10,735 28.1 23.1 23.2 14.8 10.8 

 $30,000–59,999 47.8 9,620 30.7 27.2 21.6 10.9 9.6 

 $60,000 or more 28.7 11,894 29.3 26.0 16.8 10.3 17.6 

 Independent, any income 59.6 9,656 27.5 31.5 20.4 10.0 10.6 

Time from postsecondary entry to

 bachelor’s degree

 4 years or less 41.4 11,063 26.9 26.6 22.1 11.4 13.1 

 More than 4, up to 6 years 50.1 10,126 29.0 28.7 19.3 12.1 10.9 

 More than 6 years 59.4 9,270 29.2 31.2 21.2 9.0 9.4 

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 46.4 8,696 33.7 30.2 19.3 9.4 7.5 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 54.1 12,760 20.4 24.3 23.0 13.3 19.0 

 Other 61.5 10,261 25.6 36.5 17.7 13.0 9.3 

First postsecondary institution

 Public 4-year 45.9 9,023 32.4 31.5 18.1 9.4 8.6 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 53.2 12,482 21.1 23.5 23.1 15.0 17.3 

 Public 2-year 52.8 9,227 30.0 30.3 23.0 9.0 7.7 

 Other 58.1 10,528 23.6 26.5 25.2 12.9 11.8 

Baccalaureate degree major

 Business and management 46.1 10,251 31.1 29.9 17.1 9.5 12.5 

 Engineering, math, or science 53.5 9,966 30.1 27.5 19.9 11.4 11.1 

 Humanities or social science 44.9 9,851 28.4 27.5 22.9 10.0 11.3 

 Other 52.2 10,385 27.0 28.6 21.3 11.7 11.4 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

52

cent of those who finished in four years or less). However, those who finished in four years or less

borrowed more, on average ($11,000), than those who took more than six years to finish

($9,300). This may reflect, at least in part, the fact that graduates of private, not-for-profit institutions (who borrowed more, on average, than their peers at public institutions) were more likely

to finish in four years or less (65 percent compared with 34 percent).19 In addition, some of those

who took six years or longer to finish may have taken longer because they were working and using their earnings to reduce the amount they needed to borrow.

Although some bachelor’s degree seekers who start at 2-year public institutions rather than

4-year institutions may do so in order to reduce the total cost of obtaining their degree, 1992–93

bachelor’s degree recipients who started at public 2-year institutions were actually more likely

than those who started at public 4-year institutions to borrow at some point during their undergraduate education, and they borrowed about the same amount, on average. Those starting at 2-

year institutions may have been more likely to borrow at least in part because they took longer to

complete their postsecondary studies (27 percent took more than six years, compared with 13

percent of those who started at public 4-year institutions).20 They may also have had greater overall financial need (which is related primarily to family income and the cost of the institution attended). In other words, they may indeed have started at a 2-year institution to keep their costs

down, but then had greater need than the average public 4-year student when they later transferred to a 4-year institution. The fact that bachelor’s degree recipients who started at 2- and 4-

year institutions borrowed similar amounts in total may reflect, at least in part, the fact that student loan programs limit the amounts borrowed.

Noncompleters and Associate’s Degree or Certificate Recipients

Overall, 43 percent of the noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients reported borrowing from some source (including family and friends) for their undergraduate education, and 25 percent reported borrowing through a student loan program (table 19 and figure 8).

The variation by type of institution was substantial. For example, 61 percent of those who last attended a private, for-profit institution borrowed through a student loan program, compared with

10 percent who last attended a public 2-year institution. The average amount borrowed

 

19U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, A Descriptive Summary of 1992–93 Bachelor’s Degree Recipients 1 Year Later, 22.

20U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, A Descriptive Summary of 1992–93 Bachelor’s Degree Recipients 1 Year Later, 25.
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

53

through student loan programs ranged from $2,900 at public 2-year institutions to $6,200 at private, not-for-profit 4-year institutions.

The likelihood of borrowing and the average amount borrowed through student loan programs also varied by degree attainment. Those who left postsecondary education with no degree

were the least likely to take out a student loan (19 percent, compared with 43 percent of certificate earners and 34 percent of associate’s degree recipients). This pattern might reflect a shorter

time or intensity of enrollment for at least some noncompleters: for example, students who enrolled only in 1989–90 were less likely to borrow than those who enrolled longer. It also might

indicate less commitment to postsecondary education and less willingness on the part of noncompleters to borrow.

Variation among noncompleters reflects the costs associated with the type of institution students last attended. Those who left a public 2-year institution were the least likely to have
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

54

Table 19—Percentage of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment ended by

Table 19—December 1992 who borrowed for undergraduate education, who took out student loans, and 

Table 19—average amount of student loans, by selected student and institutional characteristics

Took out Student

Borrowed for student loan

education loans amount

 Total 42.6 25.3 $4,178

Highest degree attained by December 1992

 None 37.0 18.6 3,635

 Last attended 4-year 45.4 29.2 4,399

 Last attended public 2-year 27.8 8.1 2,716

 Last attended private, for-profit 68.6 54.0 3,604

 Certificate 54.9 43.0 4,217

 Associate’s degree 56.0 33.9 6,254

Academic year last enrolled

 1989–90 33.4 19.5 3,487

 1990–91 47.5 31.8 4,125

 1991–92 48.6 25.6 4,876

 1992–93 58.5 36.6 5,041

Level of last institution

 4-year 46.1 29.5 4,659

 2-year 34.9 16.5 4,053

 Less-than-2-year 62.8 47.8 3,927

Control of last institution

 Public 32.5 13.1 3,468

 Private, not-for-profit 50.2 40.0 5,900

 Private, for-profit 73.2 60.5 4,319

Level and control of last institution

 Public 4-year 45.0 26.4 4,141

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 49.9 40.5 6,154

 Public 2-year 29.0 9.5 2,947

 Private, for-profit 73.2 60.5 4,319

 Other 40.7 22.6 4,708

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary

Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

55

borrowed through a student loan program (8 percent, compared with 29 percent of those who last

attended a 4-year institution and 54 percent of those who last attended a private, for-profit institution).

Associate’s degree recipients borrowed more, on average ($6,300), through student loan

programs than those who earned certificates ($4,200), reflecting the longer time they were enrolled. Among those who did not complete their studies, borrowers took out student loans averaging a total of $3,600.

AMOUNTS OWED BY BORROWERS IN 1994

Bachelor’s Degree Recipients

By 1994, 17 percent of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had borrowed as undergraduates no longer owed any money (table 20). In some cases, they may have paid off the loan

(possibly with help from their parents or others), while in others they may have had the loan forgiven (especially if the loans were from parents or other relatives). Not all of these loans were

necessarily paid back or forgiven after graduation; some may have been paid back or forgiven

while the graduate was still enrolled. Another 28 percent of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients

who had borrowed as undergraduates owed less than $5,000, and 26 percent owed between

$5,000 and $9,999. The remaining approximately 30 percent owed $10,000 or more. Among

those who still owed, the average amount owed was $9,000. (Among all borrowers, the average

total amount borrowed was $10,200, table 18.)

As one would expect, those from groups that tended to borrow more as undergraduates also

tended to owe more a year after graduation. Borrowers who graduated from private, not-forprofit institutions borrowed more, on average, than borrowers who graduated from public institutions ($12,800 compared with $8,700, table 18). Similarly, among those who owed in 1994,

graduates from private, not-for-profit institutions owed more than graduates of public institutions

($11,300 compared with $7,800, table 20). Graduates of private, not-for-profit institutions were

much more likely than graduates of public institutions to owe more than $10,000.
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

56

Table 20—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who borrowed according to 

Table 20—the amount still owed for their undergraduate education and average amount owed by those 

Table 20—who still owed, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1994

Amount of undergraduate debt still owed

None Less $5,000 $10,000 $15,000 $20,000 Average

than to to to or amount

$5,000 9,999 14,999 19,999 more owed

 Total 16.5 27.7 25.5 16.2 7.9 6.3 $9,068

Gender

 Male 17.3 27.7 24.3 16.7 7.9 6.0 9,148 

 Female 15.8 27.7 26.5 15.7 7.8 6.6 9,001 

Race–ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan

 Native 3.4 37.3 15.6 14.3 12.1 17.4 10,151 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 23.9 15.7 34.0 12.3 6.5 7.7 10,808 

 Black, non-Hispanic 14.4 28.5 24.5 18.5 7.5 6.6 9,035 

 Hispanic 15.4 44.3 18.7 10.7 6.9 4.0 6,988 

 White, non-Hispanic 16.5 27.0 25.8 16.5 8.0 6.3 9,132 

Age received bachelor’s degree

 24 or younger 14.2 29.3 25.6 17.1 8.0 5.9 8,888 

 25–29 18.9 26.3 26.7 16.4 5.9 5.8 8,900 

 30 or older 23.0 23.1 24.1 12.4 9.0 8.4 10,012 

Time from postsecondary entry

 to bachelor’s degree

 4 years or less 13.7 25.4 26.4 19.6 8.0 7.0 9,633 

 More than 4, up to 6 years 14.0 31.2 25.4 15.4 8.5 5.5 8,552 

 More than 6 years 22.0 25.5 26.1 13.4 6.4 6.7 9,144 

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 18.0 32.7 26.1 13.3 6.2 3.8 7,777 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 14.1 19.0 23.3 21.7 10.7 11.2 11,338 

 Other 13.7 25.1 35.7 11.6 9.7 4.2 8,753 

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.

Noncompleters and Associate’s Degree or Certificate Recipients

By spring 1994, many of the noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients

in the analysis group who had borrowed through student loan programs had been out of school
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

57

for several years. Consequently, the borrowers in this group were more likely than the bachelor’s

degree recipients to no longer owe any money (23 percent, table 21, compared with 17 percent,

table 19). Another 61 percent of the nonbaccalaureate group owed less than $5,000, and the remaining 16 percent still owed $5,000 or more (table 21). Among noncompleters, differences in

the percentages no longer owing by type of institution last attended were not statistically significant.

Table 21—Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment

Table 21—ended by December 1992 and who borrowed according to the amount still owed, and average 

Table 21—amount owed, by selected characteristics: 1994

Amount of undergraduate debt still owed

Less $5,000 Average

than or amount

None $5,000 more owed

 Total 23.1 60.8 16.1 $3,165

Highest degree attained by December 1992

 None 28.7 57.9 13.4 2,945

 Last attended 4-year 25.8 52.8 21.4 3,759

 Last attended public 2-year 36.4 53.6 10.0 2,381

 Last attended private, for-profit 25.9 65.3 8.9 2,519

 Certificate 18.2 66.7 15.1 2,952

 Associate’s degree 15.5 54.6 29.9 4,547

Level of last institution

 4-year 23.1 53.8 23.1 3,892

 2-year 26.7 58.2 15.1 3,227

 Less-than-2-year 19.8 67.7 12.6 2,683

Control of last institution

 Public 28.9 57.2 13.9 2,856

 Private, not-for-profit 21.6 55.1 23.3 4,447

 Private, for-profit 19.8 64.6 15.6 3,078

Level and control of last institution

 Public 4-year 24.5 54.8 20.7 3,536

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 19.9 50.3 29.8 4,786

 Public 2-year 34.5 56.3 9.2 2,330

 Private, for-profit 19.8 64.6 15.6 3,078

 Other 21.5 67.9 10.6 3,075

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary 

Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94) Data Analysis System.
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

58

BORROWING AND CAREER CHOICES

Many worry that students who borrow to finance their education might have to be more

concerned than those do not borrow about factors such as a good starting salary, a job’s income

potential, and job security, thus limiting their career choices. Bachelor’s degree recipients were

asked some questions in the B&B survey that can help shed some light on this issue. First, they

were asked whether various factors (including financial ones) were important to them in determining the type of work they planned to do in the future. Second, they were asked if their April

1994 job was related to their degree, and if not, why they took the job. If they were feeling pressured by their loan obligations, one might expect borrowers to be more concerned than nonborrowers about financial factors in choosing a career and to be more likely to take jobs unrelated to

their degree for financial reasons. The responses of bachelor’s degree recipients to these questions

provide no evidence that borrowers are making career choices differently than nonborrowers.

The 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients were asked whether various factors were important to them in determining the type of work they planned to do in the future. Two factors very

relevant to their ability to repay their loans were “good income potential” and “job security.” Borrowers and nonborrowers were about equally likely to indicate that these were important to them

(table 22). However, both borrowers and nonborrowers were more likely to indicate that “interesting work” and “intellectual work” were important to them than they were to indicate that job

security was important.

Overall, 55 percent of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients reported that their job in April

1994 was closely related to their degree, and 20 percent reported that it was somewhat related

(table 23). The remaining 25 percent reported that their job was not at all related. Nonborrowers

were slightly more likely than borrowers to have an unrelated job (26 percent to 24 percent), although there is no obvious reason why this would be so. Among graduates who took jobs that

were unrelated to their degree, borrowers were not any more likely than nonborrowers to take a

job for financial reasons. Among bachelor’s degree recipients whose April 1994 job was not at all

related to their degree, 22 percent said their main reason for taking the job was that it was the

only one they could find, and 25 percent said the pay was better than that in other jobs (table 24).

The percentages of graduates who took jobs for these reasons were similar for borrowers and

nonborrowers.
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

59

Table 22—Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who reported that various factors were 

Table 22—important to them in determining the type of work they planned to do in the future, by 

Table 22—borrowing status and amount borrowed for undergraduate education: 1994

Good Good Interaction

starting income Job Interesting Intellectual with

income potential security work work others

 Total 34.6 45.3 36.3 42.4 44.5 32.7

Borrowing for undergraduate education

 Did not borrow 36.0 45.5 36.6 44.0 45.8 33.7

 Borrowed 33.0 44.8 35.0 40.1 42.9 31.5

 Less than $5,000 32.5 41.6 33.6 36.6 40.1 30.3

 $5,000–9,999 32.2 46.3 35.7 41.8 42.1 30.3

 $10,000–14,999 31.9 44.8 34.6 41.1 47.1 31.5

 $15,000–19,999 36.6 49.1 36.5 42.0 41.4 35.1

 $20,000 or more 34.5 44.9 36.0 41.4 46.0 33.8

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.

Table 23—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients by relationship between

Table 23—April 1994 job and degree, by borrowing status and amount borrowed for undergraduate 

Table 23—education

Somewhat Not at all

Closely related related related

 Total 54.7 20.3 25.0

Borrowing for undergraduate education

 Did not borrow 53.6 20.3 26.1

 Borrowed 56.1 20.3 23.5

 Less than $5,000 57.0 21.7 21.4

 $5,000–9,999 55.2 21.7 23.2

 $10,000–14,999 57.3 17.9 24.8

 $15,000–19,999 56.2 19.0 24.9

 $20,000 or more 54.5 19.1 26.3

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

60

Table 24—Of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients whose April 1994 job was not at all related to their

Table 24—degree, percentage who gave various reasons for taking that job

Better Opporoppor- tunity

Only Held Curious tunities to help Wanted

job job about for people/be manual

could Pay before type of advance- useful to occufind better graduation work ment society pation Other

 Total 22.0 25.2 5.5 5.4 5.3 2.0 0.6 34.2

Borrowing for undergraduate

 education

 Did not borrow 21.7 24.8 5.7 6.4 5.3 2.1 0.8 33.4

 Borrowed 23.2 25.6 5.5 4.1 5.4 1.9 0.4 34.0

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.

Beginning postsecondary students were also asked about the importance of various factors

in determining the kind of work they planned to be doing, but, in contrast to the bachelor’s degree

recipients, borrowers and nonborrowers were different. To virtually all the noncompleters and

associate’s degree or certificate recipients included in this analysis, job security and permanence

were important in determining the kind of work they planned to do for most of their lives (88 percent said these factors were “very important” and another 11 percent said they were “somewhat

important”) (table 25). However, those who had taken out student loans were more likely than

those who had not to rate them as “very important” in determining their future work (92 percent

compared with 86 percent).

Table 25—Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment

Table 25—ended by December 1992 according to importance of job security and permanence in determining 

Table 25—the kind of work they planned to be doing for most of their lives: 1994

Not Somewhat Very

important important important

 Total 1.4 10.7 87.9

Student loans

 Did not take out student loans 1.3 12.3 86.4

 Took out student loans 1.6 6.0 92.4

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary 

Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94) Data Analysis System.
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

61

Direct comparisons between the baccalaureate and nonbaccalaureate groups must be made

with caution because different questions were asked in the two studies. Nevertheless, there was

no evidence that career choice was related to borrowing for bachelor’s degree recipients, but

some limited evidence that it might be for the nonbaccalaureate group.

BORROWING AND PLANS FOR GRADUATE SCHOOL

Bachelor’s degree recipients immediate career choices do not appear to be related to borrowing. However, borrowing does appear to have some effect on whether they enroll in graduate

school right away, with borrowers slightly less likely than nonborrowers to apply to graduate

school (27 percent versus 31 percent) (table 26).

Table 26—Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who applied to graduate or professional

Table 26—school, the percentage accepted among those who applied, and the percentage who considered

Table 26—applying among those who did not apply, by amount borrowed and GPA: 1994

Considered graduate/

professional education

Applied to graduate/ among those who did

professional school Accepted if applied not apply

 Total 28.7 88.0 73.0

Amount borrowed

 Did not borrow 30.5 88.7 71.1

 Borrowed 27.2 87.3 75.2

 Less than $5,000 27.8 87.3 76.8

 $5,000–9,999 28.5 85.5 74.6

 $10,000–14,999 24.8 89.7 74.5

 $15,000–19,999 25.2 84.8 75.6

 $20,000 or more 29.0 90.4 74.0

GPA (4.0 scale)

 Less than 3.0 20.2 85.5 71.0

 3.0 or above 35.2 89.4 75.1

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.

Bachelor’s degree recipients who said that they had considered applying to graduate school

but then had not applied were asked the primary reason they had not applied. Ten percent of those

who had borrowed as undergraduates said that having too much undergraduate debt was their
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

62

main reason for not immediately enrolling in graduate school (table 27). Five percent of those

who borrowed less than $5,000 gave this reason, but 20 percent of those who borrowed $20,000

or more did so. Another roughly 20 percent of those who borrowed gave other financially related

reasons for deciding against graduate school: 12 percent said graduate school cost too much, was

not worth it, or they could not afford it; 6 percent said they had too much other debt; and 3 percent said they could not get enough financial aid. Those who had not borrowed were slightly less

likely to give “cost too much” and “too much other debt” as their main reasons deciding against

graduate school.

Table 27—Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who had considered applying to graduate 

Table 27—school but did not apply who gave various reasons as the primary reason for not applying, by 

Table 27—borrowing status and amount borrowed for undergraduate education: 1994

Too much Too Not

under- much enough Undecided

graduate other financial Cost- Work- what to Other

debt debt aid related* Personal related study academic Other

 Total 5.8 4.2 3.1 10.7 21.1 33.3 3.4 1.5 16.9

Amount borrowed

 Did not borrow 1.5 2.8 2.8 9.5 22.8 37.4 4.0 1.9 17.4

 Borrowed 10.1 5.6 3.4 11.7 19.2 29.9 2.6 1.2 16.4

 Less than $5,000 5.1 5.2 3.7 10.4 19.0 33.3 2.6 1.2 19.6

 $5,000–9,999 8.3 5.1 4.1 13.3 20.5 27.9 2.7 1.8 16.4

 $10,000–14,999 11.7 7.8 2.3 10.2 21.5 28.8 2.6 1.4 13.7

 $15,000–19,999 14.8 4.0 3.6 11.6 14.9 32.1 2.5 0.4 16.2

 $20,000 or more 19.8 5.4 2.6 14.0 16.4 26.0 2.4 0.2 13.2

GPA (4.0 scale)

 Less than 3.0 6.3 5.0 3.0 12.2 20.3 33.3 2.9 2.0 15.0

 3.0 or above 5.3 3.5 3.3 9.2 21.5 33.6 3.8 1.2 18.6

*Cost too much; not worth it; cannot afford it.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.

Additional possible evidence of a negative relationship between undergraduate borrowing

and subsequent graduate or other postsecondary enrollment was the earlier finding that nonborrowers were more likely than borrowers to be enrolled only, while the two groups were about

equally likely to be combining work and enrollment (table 7). These findings, however, do not

take into account the relationships between either further enrollment or undergraduate borrowing
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

63

and various student and institutional characteristics. Examining how enrollment and undergraduate borrowing are associated without considering these relationships may provide misleading results.

Several statistical methods are available to examine the relationship between two variables

while holding other variables constant. Here, a linear a regression model was used to describe the

relationship between immediate enrollment for further education and undergraduate borrowing

while adjusting for the covariance of independent variables.21 The dependent variable was defined

as the percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were enrolled for graduate or

other postsecondary education in April 1994. They might have been enrolled only or both working and enrolled. The independent variables included gender, race–ethnicity, age when they received their degree, whether or not they borrowed from any source for their undergraduate

education, type of institution from which they graduated, undergraduate major, and grades

(GPA).

The results of the multivariate analysis are displayed in table 28. The negative impact of undergraduate borrowing on immediate graduate or other postsecondary enrollment was confirmed.

Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients, borrowers were less likely than nonborrowers to be

enrolled in graduate or other postsecondary education in April 1994. This relationship held regardless of whether they borrowed less than $5,000 or $5,000 or more. The B&B data, because

they were collected only one year after graduation, do not permit any examination of longer term

effects. However, because the 1995–96 NPSAS includes graduate students of all ages, it will be

possible to use these data to examine the relationship between undergraduate borrowing and timing of graduate enrollment.

 

21See appendix B for a detailed discussion of the technique used in this section.
BORROWING FOR UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION

64

Table 28—Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were enrolled for further education

Table 28—in April 1994, and the adjusted percentage after taking into account the covariation of the 

Table 28—variables listed in the table1

Unadjusted Adjusted WLS Standard

percentage2percentage3coefficient4error

5

 Total 17.9 17.9 36.6 0.7 

Gender

 Male 18.3 19.0 (†) (†)

 Female 17.6 16.9* -2.1 0.5 

Race–ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 14.7 18.6 1.2 5.4 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 20.6 19.7 2.3 1.7 

 Black, non-Hispanic 16.7 20.3* 3.0 1.3 

 Hispanic 19.9 21.5* 4.1 1.3 

 White, non-Hispanic 17.7 17.4 (†) (†)

Age received bachelor’s degree

 24 or younger 19.2 19.1 (†) (†)

 25–29 10.6* 11.9* -7.1 0.7 

 30 or older 17.4 17.1* -2.0 0.9 

Borrowing for undergraduate education

 Did not borrow 19.7 19.4 (†) (†)

 Less than $5,000 16.6 16.3* -3.1 0.6 

 $5,000 or more 15.9* 16.4* -3.0 0.5 

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 17.8 18.1 (†) (†)

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 18.4 18.2 0.1 0.9 

 Other 14.5 1.4* -16.7 5.0 

Baccalaureate degree major

 Business and management 9.9* 10.2* -19.0 1.0 

 Education 19.2* 18.9* -10.4 0.8 

 Engineering 20.9* 21.0* -8.3 1.4 

 Math or science 29.6 29.3 (†) (†)

 Health or social services 16.4* 16.7* -12.5 1.2 

 Humanities or social science 21.0* 20.5* -8.8 0.9 

 Other 15.0* 15.6* -13.7 0.9 

GPA (4.0 scale)

 Less than 3.0 13.2* 13.1* -8.6 0.5 

 3.0 or above 21.6 21.7 (†) (†)

*p < .05.

†Not applicable for reference group.

1

The group in italics is the reference group for comparison.

2

Estimates from the B&B: 93/94 Data Analysis System.

3

Percentages adjusted for differences associated with other variables in the table (see appendix B for details).

4Weighted least squares (WLS) coefficient (see appendix B for details). Note that the coefficients presented here were

multiplied by 100 in order to represent the proportional difference between each category and its base comparison group.

5

Standard error of WLS coefficient, adjusted for design effect (see appendix B for details).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study First Follow-up (B&B: 93/94), Data Analysis System.
65

LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

Most student loan programs require borrowers to begin repayment six months after they

leave school, although repayment can be deferred for a variety of reasons. For example, payments

can be deferred if the borrower is enrolled in postsecondary education at least half time, is unemployed, is participating in a qualifying service program such as the Peace Corps, or has an approved hardship (e.g. medical or financial). The terms for loans from families or friends are

negotiated by the parties involved. Repayment schedules for these loans may be formal or informal, and some borrowers may even have their loans forgiven. The first part of this section describes the repayment status of the bachelor’s degree recipients and noncompleters and associate’s

degree or certificate recipients and the amounts of their monthly payments—for all education

loans for the former group and for student loans for the latter.

Understanding the extent to which education loan payments impose a financial burden on

borrowers requires knowing something about the financial circumstances of the borrowers as well

as the size of their payments. Therefore, this section also examines the amount of the payments in

relation to other aspects of borrowers’ financial circumstances, such as earnings, other expenses,

and, if married, their spouse’s educational debt. To complete the picture, this section also looks

for links between borrowing and lifestyle choices that might indicate that education loan payments

are burdensome. Specifically, it examines whether students who borrow marry later or live at

home more often than those who do not borrow, and whether or not they are less able to save for

major items such as a house or further education.

REPAYMENT STATUS

Bachelor’s Degree Recipients

The majority of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients (63 percent) had no debt a year after

graduating, either because they had never borrowed or because they had repaid their loans (table

29 and figure 9). Another 8 percent owed money but were not required to make payments at the

time, either because they were enrolled at least half time, were in the grace period, had a deferment because of unemployment or hardship, or had taken loans only from family or friends and
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

66

were not being required to make payments. Overall, 29 percent of all 1992–93 bachelor’s degree

recipients were required to make loan payments in 1994.

Because repayment can be deferred as long as a borrower is enrolled in postsecondary education at least half time, the percentage of bachelor’s degree recipients required to make loan

payments varied with their enrollment status. Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who

were not enrolled for further education in spring 1994, 32 percent were required to make loan

payments, and among those enrolled part time, 22 percent were required to do so. Although most

student loan programs do not require borrowers who are enrolled full time to make payments, 7

percent of such borrowers did in fact report making or owing payments. These payments might

have been on loans from families or from sources other than student loan programs; they might

have been voluntary repayments; or students enrolled full time in spring 1994 might have started

making payments earlier, when they were not enrolled at least half time and either had not requested or not yet received a deferment.
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

67

Table 29—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to monthly loan 

Table 29—payment status, by enrollment status: 1994

No payments

No No

Payments payments undergraduate

required required debt

 Total 28.7 8.2 63.2

Enrollment status April 1994

 Not enrolled 32.4 4.9 62.8

 Enrolled full time 6.6 28.9 64.5

 Enrolled part time 21.5 12.1 66.5

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.

Noncompleters and Associate’s Degree or Certificate Recipients

Overall, 16 percent of the noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients

were making payments on their student loans in spring 1994; the remaining 84 percent either had

not taken out a student loan or had paid back their loans (table 30). Noncompleters were less

likely than associate’s degree or certificate recipients to be making payments.

Because 84 percent of the nonbaccalaureate group as a whole was not making payments on

student loans, this group appears to be to be more debt free in 1994 than bachelor’s degree recipients (63 percent of whom were debt free at this time, table 29), but the comparison must be made

with caution. Data on bachelor’s degree recipients’ repayments apply to loans from all sources,

while data on the nonbaccalaureate group’s repayments applies only to loans made through student loan programs. If only loans through student loan programs were included in calculating the

percentage of bachelor’s degree recipients who had no debt, the percentage probably would be

greater than 63 percent. However, because very few bachelor’s degree recipients borrowed from

relatives or friends (only 4 percent of those who owed in spring 1994 had these loans22), excluding these loans would make little difference. Thus, it seems safe to conclude that the nonbaccalaureate group was more debt free.

 

22U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Baccalaureate and Beyond Study (B&B:93/94), Data

Analysis System.
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

68

Table 30—Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment 

Table 30—ended by December 1992 according to student loan repayment status and percentage of 

Table 30—those making payments who were receiving help with the payments, by selected student 

Table 30—characteristics: 1994

Receiving help

Repayment status with payments

Making Not making (if making

payments payments payments)

 Total 16.0 84.0 13.1 

Socioeconomic status

 Lowest quartile 18.6 81.4 7.1 

 Middle quartiles 18.3 81.7 16.5 

 Highest quartile 8.4 91.6 10.3 

Highest degree attained by December 1992

 None 10.6 89.4 12.8 

 Last attended 4-year 19.0 81.0 14.9 

 Last attended public 2-year 4.0 96.0 6.6 

 Last attended private, for-profit 30.0 69.9 15.5 

 Certificate 30.0 70.0 12.7 

 Associate’s degree 24.1 75.9 15.3 

—Sample size too small for a reliable estimate.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary Students 

Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94) Data Analysis System.

Among the noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients owing money on

student loans in spring 1994, 82 percent were making payments on their student loans; of those

who were not repaying their loans, 45 percent were not employed in April 1994.23 The rest could

have had hardship or service deferments or been in default. Because none from this group had

been enrolled since December 1992, none would have still been in the enrollment grace period for

federal loans.

Family and friends sometimes help borrowers repay their loans. In spring 1994, 13 percent

of the nonbaccalaureate group who were making payments were receiving help from relatives or

friends, but the vast majority (87 percent) were making payments on their own. Whether or not an

individual was receiving help was related to the family’s socioeconomic status (SES): 7 percent of

 

23U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up, (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

69

those in the lowest SES quartile were receiving help, compared with 17 percent of those in the

two middle quartiles. Similar percentages of those owing less than $5,000 and $5,000 to $9,999

received help: 13 percent and 11 percent, respectively.24

PAYMENT AMOUNTS

A borrower’s monthly payment for student loans depends on the size of the loan and the

interest rate at which the loan was made. The Stafford Loan program, the most commonly used

undergraduate loan program, calls for a 10-year repayment schedule, with a minimum monthly

payment of $50. If, for example, a student borrowed $1,000 or less at 8-percent interest, the

monthly payment would be $50. For a $5,000 loan at that interest rate, the monthly payment

would be $61, and for a $10,000 loan, $120. As indicated above, payments on loans from relatives and friends are negotiated by the lender and borrower.

For the analysis of loan repayment and debt burden that follows, individuals whose monthly

loan payments were more than 50 percent of their monthly salary were excluded. For individuals

in this category, reported payments were examined along with the amount of their loan and the

amount they would have been paying if their loan carried an 8-percent interest rate. In almost

every case, the reported payment greatly exceeded the expected amount (and sometimes even exceeded their salary). While many individuals pay back their loans more quickly than is required, it

did not seem credible that they would voluntarily increase their payments to the point that they

were spending more than half their monthly salary to repay their loans. Because including such

individuals greatly increases the average, excluding them from the analysis seemed to make sense.

About 60 percent of the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were in repayment were

paying between $50 and $150 per month on loans from all sources (including relatives and

friends), with an average payment of $136 (table 31 and figure 10). Reflecting the greater average

amounts borrowed at private, not-for-profit institutions, bachelor’s degree recipients from these

institutions had higher average monthly payments than their counterparts who graduated from

public institutions ($163 per month compared with $121).

 

24U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up, (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

70

Table 31—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients in repayment according to 

Table 31—monthly education loan payments and average amount of payment, by selected student and 

Table 31—institutional characteristics: 1994

Monthly education loan payments

Less $50 $100 $150 $200 $250

than to to to to or Average

$50 99 149 199 249 more payment

 Total 4.8 34.3 26.3 14.2 9.7 10.8 $136

Total undergraduate debt still

 owed in 1994

 Less than $5,000 9.9 61.9 17.9 4.5 1.7 4.1 83 

 $5,000–9,999 2.3 30.1 41.7 14.8 6.4 4.7 127 

 $10,000 or more 1.7 8.4 20.8 24.1 20.9 24.1 201 

Enrollment status

 Not enrolled 4.7 33.5 26.7 14.0 10.0 11.2 138 

 Enrolled full time 11.9 55.2 23.4 7.0 0.8 1.7 84 

 Enrolled part time 5.0 41.7 20.0 20.3 6.2 6.9 119 

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 6.5 38.9 25.7 13.5 7.7 7.8 121 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 2.4 26.2 26.0 15.9 12.9 16.6 163 

 Other 0.0 33.5 37.8 10.5 10.6 7.8 127 

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

71

For almost three-quarters of the noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients, monthly payments on their student loans were less than $100 (table 32 and figure 11). Those

with certificates were paying an average of $71, those with an associate’s degree an average of

$102, and those with no degree or certificate were paying an average of $73.

When comparing the average amounts being paid by bachelor’s degree recipients and by noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients and the relative percentages of each

group paying $150 or more per month (figures 10 and 11), it appears that bachelor’s degree recipients have much greater loan payments. In making such comparisons, it is important to remember that payment amounts for bachelor’s degree recipients include payments on loans from all

sources, while the payment amounts for the nonbaccalaureate group include only payments on

loans made through student loan programs. However, a relatively small proportion of bachelor’s

degree recipients had loans from family or friends outstanding in 1994. This makes it reasonably

safe to assume that payments on such loans make up a minor proportion of bachelor’s degree re-
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

72

cipients’ payments, and that they do indeed have much higher payments than the nonbaccalaureate

group.

Table 32—Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment

Table 32—ended by December 1992 who were in repayment according to monthly student loan 

Table 32—payments and average amount of payment, by selected student and institutional 

Table 32—characteristics: 1994

Less $50 $100 $150 $200 $250

than to to to to or

$50 100 149 199 249 more Average

 Total 6.6 65.8 19.3 4.9 2.6 0.8 $76

Amount owed on student loans

 Less than $5,000 6.9 70.8 16.4 2.7 2.7 0.5 71 

 $5,000 to 9,999 3.7 49.8 34.0 8.5 1.3 2.7 100 

 $10,000 or more — — — — — — —

Highest degree attained by December 1992

 None 8.7 67.2 16.6 4.6 2.4 0.6 73 

 Last attended 4-year 9.8 64.8 17.4 4.2 3.9 0.0 75 

 Last attended public 2-year — — — — — — —

 Last attended private, for-profit 6.9 67.2 20.5 2.8 2.6 0.0 72 

 Certificate 5.1 68.1 20.8 5.5 0.5 0.0 71 

 Associate’s degree 4.1 55.1 24.3 4.6 8.5 3.4 102 

—Sample size too small for a reliable estimate.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary Students 

Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94) Data Analysis System.

LOAN PAYMENTS AS A PERCENTAGE OF MONTHLY EARNINGS

As indicated above, understanding the extent to which education loan payments impose a financial burden on borrowers requires knowing something about the financial circumstances of the

borrowers as well as the size of their payments. The most straightforward way to measure debt

burden is to compute loan payments as a percentage of monthly income. In this analysis, salary

data from B&B and earnings data from BPS are used as proxies for income. If borrowers have

other sources of income, their debt burden will be overstated here. However, it seems unlikely

that students who borrowed to finance their undergraduate education would have significant

amounts of nonearned income only a few years after graduating or leaving school.
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

73

At what point does debt burden become excessive? No consensus has developed, largely

because of the need to make subjective judgments about what percentage of their income new

graduates should be expected to allocate to repaying their student loans. For example, should we

be concerned that a borrower cannot afford buy a house or a new car as soon as a nonborrower?

Nevertheless, several studies have suggested that debt burden beyond 10 to 15 percent may be

excessive. One study conducted by Westat, Inc. recommends accepting 10 percent as a defensible

threshold because mortgage lenders generally expect a family’s non-housing debts not to exceed

10 percent.25 Hansen and Rhodes suggest that manageable debt burden varies with income, and

propose a range from 10 percent to 15 percent.26 A recent analysis by Greiner starts with 12 percent, based on guidelines established by the Department of Housing and Urban Development in

1989 that state that total debt should not exceed 41 percent of income, and that mortgage payments should not exceed 29 percent.27 That leaves 12 percent for automobile, credit card, and

student loans. If one argues that graduates should not expect to buy a home or new car immediately after graduating, 12 percent for student loans appears defensible. Factoring in the results of a

survey of borrowers’ perceptions of debt burden causes Greiner to propose 8 percent as an appropriate alternative. Contributing to this debate is beyond the scope of this analysis, but knowing

what others have proposed as excessive provides a context within which to view the debt burden

of the groups studied in this analysis.

Bachelor’s Degree Recipients

For about two-thirds of the bachelor’s degree recipients in repayment in 1994 and employed

full time, loan payments amounted to less than 10 percent of their April 1994 monthly salary.

Thirty-one percent were paying less than 5 percent, and 38 percent were paying 5 to 9 percent

(table 33 and figure 12). Sixteen percent were paying 15 percent or more, with the average at 9

percent.

Debt burden is related to salary and amount of debt. A low salary or high debt, or both,

could cause an individual to have a high debt burden. Among the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients, the average percentage of monthly salary devoted to repaying loans decreased as salary

increased, as one would expect. Graduates making less than $15,000 per year were devoting an

average of 15 percent of their salary for loan payments, while those making $15,000 to 19,999

 

25U.S. Department of Education, Office of Policy and Planning, Debt Burden Facing College Graduates, by Westat, Inc.

Washington, DC: 1992.

26W. Lee Hansen and Marilyn S. Rhodes, “Student Debt Crisis: Are Students Incurring Excessive Debt?”

27Keith Greiner, “How Much Student Loan Debt Is Too Much?”
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

74

Table 33—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients making monthly education

Table 33—loan payments according to their monthly payment as a percent of their April 1994 salary, and 

Table 33—average percent, by selected student and institutional characteristics: 1994

Less then 5–9 10–14 15 percent

5 percent percent percent or more Average

 Total 30.9 38.0 15.4 15.7 8.8 

Annual salary at April 1994 job

 Less than $15,000 7.8 29.3 21.5 41.4 14.6 

 $15,000–19,999 25.9 44.0 18.0 12.2 8.5 

 $20,000–24,999 32.8 42.5 15.9 8.9 7.4 

 $25,000–34,999 43.2 42.2 9.6 5.0 6.3 

 $35,000 or more 64.2 27.1 6.9 1.8 4.6 

Total undergraduate debt still 

 owed in 1994

 Less than $5,000 58.8 28.3 7.2 5.7 5.5 

 $5,000–9,999 22.1 49.8 15.7 12.4 8.6 

 $10,000 or more 8.8 37.8 23.8 29.6 12.6 

Degree-granting insitution

 Public 4-year 35.9 38.3 13.1 12.7 7.9 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 23.5 34.2 19.8 22.5 10.4 

 Other 20.9 63.0 10.7 5.5 8.1 

Employed full time

 Total 33.5 39.1 15.3 12.1 8.0 

Annual salary at April 1994 job

 Less than $15,000 9.3 31.8 24.3 34.7 13.3 

 $15,000–19,999 26.4 44.1 17.8 11.8 8.4 

 $20,000–24,999 33.2 43.1 16.0 7.7 7.2 

 $25,000–34,999 43.3 42.0 9.8 4.9 6.2 

 $35,000 or more 64.5 26.7 7.0 1.8 4.6 

Total undergraduate debt still 

 owed in 1994

 Less than $5,000 62.4 26.8 6.7 4.1 5.0 

 $5,000–9,999 24.7 52.0 14.8 8.5 7.9 

 $10,000 or more 9.8 40.7 25.3 24.2 11.5 

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 38.8 39.0 12.6 9.7 7.2 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 26.0 35.7 20.6 17.7 9.4 

 Other 18.8 66.8 11.4 2.9 8.1 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

75

per year were paying an average of 9 percent and those making $25,000 to $34,000 were paying

6 percent.

As the amount owed increased, so did the average monthly payment. Loan payments

amounted to an average of 6 percent of their monthly salary for graduates who owed less than

$5,000, 9 percent for those who owed $5,000 to $9,999, and 13 percent for those who owed

$10,000 or more.

Graduates of private, not-for-profit institutions who were repaying loans were using an average of 10 percent of their monthly salary for this purpose, compared with 8 percent for graduates of public institutions. This difference reflects the greater average amount of borrowing

among students at private, not-for-profit institutions, as graduates of private, not-for-profit institutions had slightly higher average salaries, on average, than graduates of public institutions (table

13).
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

76

In summary, then, large debt burdens appear to be a problem particularly for those with very

low salaries (less than $15,000) or high loan amounts (more than $10,000). For example, 41 percent of the former group and 30 percent of the latter had debt burdens of 15 percent or more,

much greater proportions than found among those with higher incomes or lower levels of debt.

Because students who attend private, not-for-profit institutions tend to borrow more than those

who attend public institutions, the former were more likely to have debt burdens of 10 percent or

more.

Noncompleters and Associate’s Degree or Certificate Recipients

The nonbaccalaureate group was less burdened with debt than the bachelor’s degree recipients. About three-quarters of the nonbaccalaureate group were using less than 10 percent of their

monthly earned income to repay their student loans (table 34 and figure 13). The average was 8

percent. Small sample sizes preclude making statistically reliable comparisons among subgroups.
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

77

Table 34—Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment 

Table 34—ended by December 1992 making payments on student loans according to their monthly

Table 34—payment as a percentage of estimated monthly earnings and average burden, by selected student 

Table 34—and institutional characteristics: 1994

Less 15

than 5 to 9 10 to 14 percent

5 percent percent percent or more Average

 Total 34.1 43.0 13.0 9.9 7.8 

Amount owed on student loans

 Less than $5,000 38.3 42.2 11.5 8.0 7.3 

 $5,000 to 9,999 14.4 59.5 13.0 13.1 9.2 

 $10,000 or more — — — — —

Highest degree attained by December 1992

 None 33.1 38.3 16.5 12.0 8.2 

 Last attended 4-year 31.6 38.8 14.8 14.8 8.6 

 Last attended public 2-year — — — — —

 Last attended private, for-profit 37.8 37.7 7.5 17.0 9.0 

 Certificate 36.1 49.7 9.4 4.8 6.8 

 Associate’s degree 31.8 40.4 11.2 16.7 9.4 

—Sample size too small for a reliable estimate.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary Students 

Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94) Data Analysis System.

Because the data for this group do not include monthly earned income for spring 1994 (the

time for which payment information applies), monthly income was calculated by dividing the reported 1993 annual earned income by 12. This assumes that the nonbaccalaureate group’s

monthly earned income in spring 1994 was the same as their average monthly earnings in 1993.

While not ideal, this is the best measure available.

OTHER INDICATORS OF DEBT BURDEN FOR BACHELOR’S DEGREE

RECIPIENTS

While the ratio of loan payments to monthly earnings is probably the most important indicator of debt burden, it is not the only one. Aspects of a borrower’s financial circumstances other

than earnings can also affect the financial burden of the payments. For example, a borrower who

had a nonworking spouse who also had student loan debt would probably find paying 9 percent of
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

78

his or her monthly earnings in loan payments much more of a burden than would a borrower who

had a working spouse with no loan debt. This section looks at two other indicators of debt burden

for bachelor’s degree recipients: monthly payments for other expenses and spouses’ debt burdens.

No comparable information is available for the nonbaccalaureate group.

Monthly Payments for Other Expenses

While complete details of the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients’ financial situations are

not available, data were collected on how much graduates were paying per month for some major

expenses: mortgages, rent, auto loans, and other noneducational debt (credit cards, for example).

The average for these was about $650 per month (table 35).

As one might expect, graduates with higher monthly salaries had higher monthly expenditures for these items. In addition, as loan payments used up an increasing proportion of graduates’

monthly salary, payments for these expenses generally decreased. However, the total amount

owed for undergraduate debt and monthly expenses did not appear to be related. Monthly expenses for the items listed above were similar for borrowers and nonborrowers and did not increase with the total owed. In other words, while higher present loan payments (as a percent of

monthly income) may hamper current spending on other items, the existence of outstanding loans

does not seem to. Those who had borrowed but no longer owed (that is, who either repaid their

loans by 1994 or had them canceled) had higher expenses than those who had never borrowed at

all.

Spouses’ Borrowing for Education

The burden of a graduate’s loan payments may be compounded if the graduate has a spouse

with outstanding loans as well, depending on the spouse’s income. However, relatively few

bachelor’s degree recipients were in this position. About 9 percent of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree

recipients who owed money in 1994 had a spouse who also owed money for his or her education). The average amount owed by spouses with education debt was about $8,300, similar to the

average $9,000 owed by the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients (table 20).28

 

28Data on spouses’ borrowing from U. S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning

Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up, (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

79

Table 35—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to monthly payments

Table 35—for selected noneducational expenses (mortgage, rent, auto loans, and other debt), and average

Table 35—amount paid, by selected student characteristics: 1994

Noneducational expenses

Less $250 $500 $1,000

than to to or

None $250 499 999 more Average

 Total 8.5 10.5 27.1 38.0 15.9 $653

Annual salary at April 1994 job

 Less than $15,000 16.4 18.4 33.3 26.3 5.7 476

 $15,000–19,999 7.8 12.3 30.4 38.9 10.5 586

 $20,000–24,999 4.8 7.3 27.9 45.2 14.8 663

 $25,000–34,999 4.2 5.3 23.2 43.9 23.4 749

 $35,000 or more 4.7 3.0 10.7 41.9 39.7 965

Borrowing for undergraduate

 education

 Did not borrow 11.0 10.4 27.2 35.9 15.4 645

 Borrowed 5.6 10.8 27.0 40.2 16.5 660

Total undergraduate debt still

 owed in 19941

 None 7.0 7.8 25.0 37.1 23.1 732

 Less than $5,000 5.3 10.2 26.4 43.1 15.0 644

 $5,000–9,999 6.2 11.6 26.4 38.4 17.4 674

 $10,000 or more 4.6 12.1 29.7 40.2 13.5 623

Monthly education loan payment 

 as percent of monthly income2

 Less than 5 percent 2.3 6.1 20.5 46.0 25.2 766

 5–9 percent 2.3 9.0 27.6 45.1 16.1 685

 10–14 percent 6.5 16.2 28.1 38.8 10.4 570

 15 percent or more 11.0 16.8 33.1 32.0 7.2 517

1

Includes only those who borrowed.

2

Includes only those making payments.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.

BORROWING AND LIFESTYLE CHOICES

Also of interest to policymakers is understanding how students’ borrowing to finance their

undergraduate education may later influence their lifestyle. Borrowing might affect decisions

about marrying and living at home, and might also affect the ability to save money for purposes

such as a house or further education.
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

80

Marriage

Marrying in the first year after graduation was not related to the existence of outstanding

loans. Overall, 7 percent of all 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients married between the time

they graduated and 1994, with the percentages similar for borrowers and nonborrowers (table

36). Those with the highest monthly education loan payment to salary ratio were just as likely as

those with lower ratios to marry between graduation and 1994.

Table 36—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to marital status in 

Table 36—April 1994 and percentage who married between 1993 and 1994

Marital status in April 1994

Married, Never married, Married between

cohabit as divorced, separated, or 1993 and

married widowed 1994

 Total 30.3 69.7 7.3

Annual salary at April 1994 job

 Less than $15,000 25.0 75.0 7.4

 $15,000–19,999 24.8 75.2 7.0

 $20,000–24,999 28.9 71.1 7.7

 $25,000–34,999 33.1 66.9 8.0

 $35,000 or more 50.4 49.6 5.4

Borrowing for undergraduate education

 Did not borrow 28.7 71.3 7.0

 Borrowed 32.0 68.0 7.6

Total undergraduate debt still owed in 19941

 None 36.8 63.2 7.0

 Less than $5,000 32.1 67.9 9.6

 $5,000–9,999 30.9 69.1 7.8

 $10,000 or more 30.3 69.7 6.9

Monthly education loan payment as 

 percent of monthly income2

 Less than 5 percent 36.5 63.5 8.2

 5–9 percent 33.7 66.4 8.3

 10–14 percent 31.0 69.0 8.7

 15 percent or more 25.6 74.4 9.1

1

Includes only those who borrowed.

2

Includes only those making payments.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

81

Living Arrangements

About one-quarter (27 percent) of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients were living with

parents or relatives in April 1994 (table 37). The likelihood of doing so was related to age, salary,

and debt burden. Younger and lower income graduates were more likely to be living with parents

or relatives. One-third of those who were 24 years or less when they received their bachelor’s degree were living with parents or relatives in April 1994, compared with 20 percent of those 25 to

29 years old and 3 percent of those 30 years or older. One-third of those with salaries less than

$20,000 were living with parents or relatives, a considerably greater proportion than among those

making $25,000 or more. In addition, those with monthly education loan payments amounting to

15 percent or more of their monthly salary were more likely than those with payments amounting

to less than 5 percent of their monthly salary to be living with parents or relatives (35 percent

compared with 22 percent).

Table 37 also shows the living arrangements of graduates who were 24 years or less when

they received their bachelor’s degree. Among those in this age group whose education loan payments amounted to 15 percent or more of their April 1994 salary, 40 percent were living with

parents or relatives.

Saving

About three-quarters of all 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were working full

time in April 1994 were saving money: 30 percent were saving to buy a home, 21 percent for

further education, 24 percent for retirement, 13 percent to buy a vehicle, and 34 percent for a

“rainy day” (table 38). Those earning $35,000 or more were more likely to be saving than those

earning less than $15,000.

Debt burden and the likelihood of saving were generally unrelated. Among bachelor’s degree recipients making loan payments, between 71 and 77 percent of those working full time were

saving, regardless of the percentage of their monthly salary devoted to education loan payments.

Those paying 15 percent or more of their salary for education loan payments were more likely

than those paying less than 5 percent to be saving for further education (28 percent compared

with 16 percent). The amount saved may have been related to debt burden, but B&B participants

were not asked about the amounts they saved.
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

82

Table 37—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to where they were 

Table 37—living in April 1994, by selected student characteristics

Own With

house or parents or

apartment relatives Other

 Total 69.9 26.6 3.5

Age received bachelor’s degree

 24 or younger 63.3 32.9 3.8

 25–29 77.2 20.0 2.8

 30 or older 94.4 3.2 2.4

Annual salary at April 1994 job

 Less than $15,000 60.4 33.4 6.3

 $15,000–19,999 64.4 32.8 2.9

 $20,000–24,999 71.0 26.3 2.7

 $25,000–34,999 77.6 20.2 2.2

 $35,000 or more 87.5 11.2 1.3

Total undergraduate debt still owed in 19941

 None 76.8 20.3 2.9

 Less than $5,000 69.3 26.8 3.9

 $5,000–9,999 67.4 28.9 3.7

 $10,000 or more 72.3 23.1 4.6

Monthly education loan payment as percent of

 monthly income2

 Less than 5 percent 76.0 22.3 1.6

 5–9 percent 71.4 26.0 2.6

 10–14 percent 68.9 29.0 2.1

 15 percent or more 57.4 34.7 7.9

Received bachelor’s degree at age 24 years or less

 Total 63.3 32.9 3.8

Annual salary at April 1994 job

 Less than $15,000 56.4 36.6 7.0

 $15,000–19,999 58.7 38.7 2.6

 $20,000–24,999 65.8 31.6 2.6

 $25,000–34,999 71.5 26.6 1.9

 $35,000 or more 79.0 19.1 1.9

Total undergraduate debt still owed in 19941

 None 67.0 29.8 3.2

 Less than $5,000 62.7 33.1 4.1

 $5,000–9,999 58.8 37.2 4.0

 $10,000 or more 65.5 29.4 5.1
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

83

Table 37—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to where they were 

Table 37—living in April 1994, by selected student characteristics—Continued

Own With

house or parents or

apartment relatives Other

Monthly education loan payment as percent of

 monthly income2

 Less than 5 percent 68.8 29.5 1.8

 5–9 percent 64.8 33.1 2.1

 10–14 percent 60.6 36.7 2.7

 15 percent or more 50.9 40.3 8.9

1

Includes only those who borrowed.

2

Includes only those making payments.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
LOAN REPAYMENT AND DEBT BURDEN

84

Table 38—Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients working full time in April 1994 who were

Table 38—saving money and the percentage saving for various reasons, by selected student 

Table 38—characteristics: 1994

Any Buy a Further Retire- Buy a Rainy

reason home education ment vehicle day

 Total 75.3 29.5 20.8 24.2 13.0 34.1

Annual salary at April 1994 job

 Less than $15,000 68.6 21.0 25.3 9.9 14.1 32.4

 $15,000–19,999 74.6 23.3 26.9 14.6 16.7 33.3

 $20,000–24,999 72.6 31.6 19.4 21.6 13.3 37.0

 $25,000–34,999 77.7 38.5 18.2 32.1 9.8 34.1

 $35,000 or more 86.5 29.7 13.7 43.9 11.5 33.1

Borrowing for undergraduate

 education

 Did not borrow 77.2 30.0 21.7 25.4 13.3 34.9

 Borrowed 73.5 29.0 19.9 23.1 12.5 33.5

Total undergraduate debt 

 still owed in 19941

 None 79.1 32.5 17.0 32.1 13.1 32.7

 Less than $5,000 74.4 30.5 21.2 23.6 13.5 34.2

 $5,000–9,999 72.8 29.3 20.0 21.3 11.0 31.7

 $10,000 or more 69.9 25.7 20.9 19.1 12.4 32.9

Monthly education loan payment

 as percent of monthly income2

 Less than 5 percent 76.7 31.2 16.0 26.5 10.7 34.9

 5–9 percent 74.3 30.6 21.7 21.8 11.5 31.1

 10–14 percent 71.1 25.3 19.4 16.5 15.1 32.2

 15 percent or more 70.9 24.1 27.9 17.0 11.5 31.8

1

Includes only those who borrowed.

2

Includes only those making payments.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
85

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

For two groups—1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients and 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment ended by December 1992—this analysis has examined early

labor force participation, borrowing, and the financial and other implications of this borrowing

after graduating or leaving postsecondary education. This section summarizes the major findings

for each group.

1992–93 BACHELOR’S DEGREE RECIPIENTS

In 1994, approximately one year after they graduated, the vast majority (87 percent) of the

1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients were employed, even if they were continuing their education. About three-quarters (76 percent) were working only, and 11 percent were combining work

and further education. The most common method of finding out about their job was a referral

from family, friends, or professors. Those working full time had an average annualized salary of

about $24,200 from their primary April 1994 job. Some undergraduate majors seem to lead to

better paying jobs than others. Specifically, graduates who majored in business and management,

engineering, mathematics, or science had considerably higher salaries than those who majored in

humanities or social sciences.

The April 1994 unemployment rate for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients was 4.5 percent. Some experience with unemployment in the first year after graduating was not uncommon:

29 percent had been unemployed and looking for work for at least one month. Although older

undergraduates (30 years or older) as a group were less likely than younger ones (24 years or

younger) to ever be unemployed, they were more likely to have been unemployed for 9 months or

more.

About one-half (49 percent) of the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients had borrowed

from some source (including relatives or friends as well as through student loan programs) to help

finance their education. The average total amount borrowed from all sources was $10,200.

Graduates of private, not-for-profit institutions were more likely to have borrowed and to have

borrowed more, on average, than graduates of public institutions. The B&B data provide no evidence that graduates’ career choices were related to borrowing if they were working. However,
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

86

borrowers were less likely to enroll immediately in graduate school or other postsecondary education, even when other student and institutional characteristics were taken into account.

In 1994, 29 percent of all 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients were required to make

payments on their education loans. For those making payments, the average monthly payment was

$136, or about 9 percent of their April 1994 monthly salary. The graduates with the greatest average debt burden (15 percent) were those with salaries less than $15,000.

As monthly debt burden increased, graduates reported spending less on other items, such as

housing, auto loans, and other noneducational debt, but larger outstanding loans did not appear to

limit spending on these items. Marrying did not appear to be related to debt burden, but graduates

whose debt burden exceeded 15 percent were more likely than those with lower debt burdens to

be living with parents or relatives. Whether or not a graduate was saving did not seem to be related to debt burden, but whether or not it affected the amount saved is unknown.

1989–90 BEGINNING POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS WHOSE LAST

ENROLLMENT ENDED BY DECEMBER 1992

As with the bachelor’s degree recipients, the vast majority of this group (81 percent) were

employed in April 1994. Characteristics associated with higher employment rates were being

male, first enrolling in postsecondary education at age 19 or younger, being in the highest SES

quartile in 1989–90, having last attended at public or private, not-for-profit (rather than private,

for-profit) institution, and having attended a 2-year public (rather than less-than-2-year) institution.

The average 1993 earned income for this group overall was $16,600. However, there were

differences by gender, race–ethnicity, occupation, and type of institution attended, all of which are

interrelated.

The April 1994 unemployment rate for this nonbaccalaureate group—4.7 percent was similar to that of the bachelor’s degree recipients. About three-quarters of the beginning postsecondary students who left postsecondary education or attained an associate’s degree or certificate by

December 1992 found their jobs within a month. Those who attended a private, for-profit institution were less likely than those who attended 4-year or public 2-year institutions to find their job

within a month.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

87

Overall, 43 percent of the nonbaccalaureate group borrowed from some source, and 25 percent borrowed through student loan programs. The average amount borrowed ranged from

$2,900 at public 2-year institutions to $6,200 at private, not-for-profit institutions. Those who left

postsecondary education without a degree or certificate were the least likely to have borrowed

through a student loan program. Borrowers were more likely than nonborrowers to report that

job security and permanence were very important factors in determining the type of work they

planned to do for most of their lives.

In spring 1994, 16 percent of the noncompleters and associate’s degree or certificate recipients were repaying student loans. For three-quarters of those repaying loans, their debt burden

was less than 10 percent; the overall average was 8 percent.

89

APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

This glossary describes the variables used in this report. The variables were taken directly from the NCES

B&B:93/94 and BPS:90/94 Data Analysis Systems (DAS). The DAS is an NCES software application that generates tables from the B&B or BPS data. Appendix B contains a description of the DAS software. The glossary is

divided into two parts: Part I describes the B&B data, and Part II describes the BPS data. Within each section, the

entries are organized alphabetically according to the label used in the tables. The DAS variable names are indicated to the right of each label.

Index for B&B Variables

Accepted to graduate school.................... 91

Age received bachelor’s degree ................. 91

Amount borrowed............................. 91

Annual salary at April 1994 job ................ 91

Any unemployment spells...................... 91

Applied to graduate school..................... 91

April 1994 occupation......................... 91

Baccalaureate degree major .................... 93

Considered attending graduate school ........... 94

Date received bachelor’s degree ................ 95

Degree-granting institution .................... 95

Employment status in April 1994 ............... 95

Employment/enrollment status April 1994 ....... 95

Enrollment status April 1994................... 96

First postsecondary institution .................. 96

Gender ................................ ...... 96

GPA (4.0 scale)............................... 96

How found April 1994 job ..................... 96

Income and dependency level .................. 97

Job characteristics important in determining

 future work................................ . 97

Marital status in April 1994.................... 97

Married between 1993 and 1994................ 97

Monthly education loan payment as percent of

 monthly income ............................ 97

Monthly education loan payments .............. 98

Monthly loan payment status................... 98

Months of graduate study...................... 98

Noneducational expenses...................... 98

Number of months unemployed ................ 98

Number of schools accepted.................... 98

Primary reason for not applying to graduate

 school ................................ ..... 98

Race–ethnicity ............................... 99

Reason for saving money ...................... 99

Reason for taking April 1994 job .............. 100

Relationship between April job and degree...... 100

Respondent applied to graduate school ......... 100

Saving money............................... 100

Time from postsecondary entry to bachelor’s

 degree ................................ .... 100

Total undergraduate debt still owed in 1994..... 100

Where living April 1994 ..................... 100

Index for BPS Variables

Academic year last enrolled .................. 101

Age when began postsecondary education...... 101

Amount owed on student loans ............... 101

Average duration of unemployment spells

 (months) ................................ . 101

Average monthly loan payment............... 101

Borrowed for education...................... 101

Control of last institution .................... 101

Debt status in 1994 .......................... 102

Degree working toward in 1989–90............ 102

Earned income in 1993....................... 102

Educational debt burden...................... 102

Employment and enrollment status in April 1994102

End date of last enrollment spell............... 102

Ever unemployed 1989–94.................... 103

Gender ................................ ..... 103
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

90

Highest degree attained by spring 1994 ........ 103

Importance of job security and permanence .... 103

Level and control of last institution ........... 103

Level of last institution ...................... 103

Major during last enrollment spell ............ 104

Months after leaving PSE before obtained first

 principal job.............................. 104

Primary occupation in 1993 .................. 104

Race–ethnicity.............................. 104

Receiving help with payments................. 104

Repayment status in 1994 .................... 105

Socioeconomic status (SES)................... 105

Student loan amount ......................... 105

Student loans ............................... 105

Total months unemployed .................... 105

Unemployed April 1994 ...................... 105
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

91

PART I: B&B VARIABLES

Accepted to graduate school ACCEPT

ACCEPT indicates respondents who applied to graduate school and reported the number to which they were

accepted.

Age received bachelor’s degree AGEATBA

AGEATBA indicates the respondent’s age when he or she received his or her bachelor’s degree at the NPSAS

institution (the institution the respondent was attending when selected for inclusion in NPSAS).

Amount borrowed TOTDEBT

Respondents were asked to confirm the total amount they reported having borrowed in the 1992–93 NPSAS survey.

If they had not provided the information then, they were asked to provide it in this survey. The amount includes

federal, state, and institutional loans, and loans from family, friends, relatives, banks, savings and loans, and credit

unions. It also includes repaid loans.

The variable was also used to distinguish between those who ever borrowed for their undergraduate education and

those who had not. In these instances the variable was labeled “Borrowing for undergraduate education,” with two

categories: did not borrow; and borrowed.

This variable was also used to compute average amounts borrowed.

Annual salary at April 1994 job APRANSAL

This variable was constructed by annualizing the wages/salary reported by respondents for their primary April

1994 job. APRANSAL was computed by multiplying the sum of the wages reported per pay period by the number

of pay periods within a year. If the respondent had more than one job, the primary job was the one with the most

hours worked; if the number of hours was equal, the job with the highest salary was selected.

The variable was also used to compute average salaries. When this variable was used in table columns, the table

included only those whose annual salary was at least $1,000 and less than or equal to $500,000.

Any unemployment spells UNEMPLSP

Positive values on this variable identify respondents with any unemployment spells since graduation. A spell was

defined as one or more contiguous months of unemployment since college graduation. The variable was created

using the monthly employment indicators. If respondent was unemployed during the month, an unemployment

spell was constructed. Note, this does not include those who were not in the labor force.

Applied to graduate school EVERAPP

EVERAPP indicates if respondent ever applied to graduate school.

April 1994 occupation AJOBOCC

Occupation code for respondents’ primary April job. See the entry for “Annual salary at April 1994 job” for the

definition of “primary job.” The occupation was coded during the interview with an on-line coding program
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

92

developed by NCES. This report aggregated the coded occupations as follows (the numbers in parentheses are the

codes from the on-line coding program):

Business and management

Manager/administrator, sales/purchasing (8)

Includes sales managers, buyers, advertising agents, insurance brokers, and underwriters.

Manager/administrator, government (9)

Includes local, state, and federal government managers, supervisors, administrators, treasurers, assessors,

controllers, inspectors, and school administrators and principals.

Manager/administrator, retail/hospitality (10)

Stores, hotels, restaurants, bars, or other retail establishments.

Manager/administrator, manufacturing/construction (11)

Quality control and line supervisors.

Manager/administrator, other (12)

Proprietor/owner, retail/hospitality (21)

Proprietor/owner, manufacturing/construction (22)

Proprietor/owner, other (23)

School teacher

Elementary/secondary school teacher (26)

Includes substitute and pre-school teachers.

Professional

Arts and entertainment occupations (15)

Includes actors, artists, writers, athletes, dancers, designers, editors, reporters, musicians, composers,

photographers, public relations, radio/television announcers, and other entertainers.

Medical, nonphysician (16)

Includes registered nurses, therapists, pharmacists, dietitians, and clinical psychologists.

Engineer (17)

Includes mechanical, electrical, agricultural, aeronautical, chemical, mining, materials, and petroleum.

Physician (18)

Includes physicians, dentists, veterinarians, optometrists, chiropractors, and podiatrists.

Legal professions (lawyer, judge) (19)

All other professions (20)

Includes clergy, social workers, professors, scientists, architects, librarians, and accountants.

Administrative, clerical, support

Secretarial (01)

Includes typists, receptionists, computer/machine operators, payroll/time-keepers, shipping/receiving

clerks, and stenographers.

Financial clerical (02)

Includes bookkeepers, bank tellers, billing clerks, cashiers, bill collectors, real estate appraisers, and

insurance adjusters.

Other clerical (03)

Includes ticket/travel agents, mail carriers/handlers, postal clerks, messengers, meter readers, enumerators,

interviewers, dispatchers, library assistants, teacher aides, and stock clerks.

Sales, service

Sales (25)

Includes all sales positions, advertisers, auctioneers, insurance agents, real estate agents, and brokers.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

93

Service (27)

Includes domestics, barbers, janitors, waiters/waitresses, attendants, nursing aides, baggage porters,

bellhops, orderlies, house-keepers, hairdressers, paper carriers, child care workers, launderers, bootblacks,

and lifeguards.

Other

Crafts, precision production/repair (04)

Includes bakers, mechanics, painters, carpenters, jewelers, machinists, repairers, excavators, inspectors,

electricians, millers, sign painters, tailors, telephone lineworkers, upholsterers, opticians, plasterers, paper

hangers, and plumbers.

Agriculture, fishing (05)

Includes farmers, horticulturists, gardeners/groundskeepers, trappers, foremen, and fish farmers.

Homemaker (06)

Laborer (07)

Includes apprentices, construction workers, sanitation workers, longshoremen, stevedores, teamsters,

vehicle washers, miscellaneous laborers, freight/material handlers, and carpenter’s helpers.

Military personnel (13)

Skilled operative, machinery/equipment (14)

Includes assemblers, drivers, machine operators, cutters, graders, meat cutters, sailors, fire fighters,

welders, textile carders/loopers/knitters, stitchers/sewers, riveters, punchers, mine operatives, and bottlers.

Protective services (24)

Computer science, programming (28)

Includes computer technicians, systems analysts/specialists, and computer engineering assistants.

Noncomputer technician (29)

Includes drafters, medical/dental technicians, hygienists, pilots, radiology technicians, clinical lab

technicians, and engineering assistants.

Uncodeable (0)

Baccalaureate degree major BAMAJOR

A respondent’s undergraduate major field of study was coded during the interview with an on-line program

developed by NCES. In this report major fields were collapsed into categories equivalent to the Recent College

Graduate Surveys for comparison purposes (numbers in parentheses are codes from the on-line program). If

respondents reported more than one major, this variable represents the first one mentioned.

Business and management

Accounting (10)

Business fields (11–16)

Includes finance, business/management systems, business/management administration, business support,

and marketing/distribution.

Engineering, math, or science

Engineering

Includes electrical (31), chemical (32), civil (33), mechanical (34), engineering technology (36), and all

others (35).

Biological sciences

Includes zoology (66), botany (67), biochemistry (68), biophysics (69), and all others (70).

Mathematics and other sciences

Mathematics (71–72)

Includes statistics and other mathematics (not statistics).
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

94

Computer sciences (20–22)

Includes computer programming, data processing technology, and computer and information

sciences.

Physical sciences (84–87)

Includes chemistry, earth sciences, physics, and all others (not chemistry/physics/earth science).

Humanities or social science

Social science

Anthropology/archaeology (92)

Economics (93)

Geography (94)

Sociology (96)

Political science (97)

International relations (98)

History (95)

Humanities

Foreign languages (37–39)

Includes non-European and European/general.

Letters (61–63)

Includes English/American literature, creative/technical writing, and all others.

Philosophy/theology (81–83)

Design (108)

Speech/drama (109)

Film arts (110)

Music (111)

Art history/fine arts (112)

Fine and performing arts (all others) (113)

Psychology (88)

Other

Education

Includes early childhood (25), elementary (26), secondary (27), special (28), physical education (29), and 

all others (30).

Health professions

Allied Health (40–41)

Includes dental/medical technician, community/mental health, nurse assisting, and all others.

Health/Physical Education/Recreation (42)

Health (45–54)

Includes audiology, clinical health science, dentistry, medicine, veterinary medicine, nursing,

health/hospital administration, public health, dietetics, and all others.

Public affairs/social services

Protective services (89)

Social work (90)

Public administration (not social work) (91)

Other (all others)

Considered attending graduate school WANTAPP

Indicates whether or not a respondent ever considered attending graduate or professional school (yes/no). It was

asked only of respondents who had not applied to graduate school.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

95

Date received bachelor’s degree DATRCVBA

Respondents provided the date they received their bachelor’s degree. Three time periods were used in this report:

July 1992 to September 1992; October 1992 to January 1993; and February 1993 to June 1993.

Degree-granting institution SECTOR_B

SECTOR_B refers to the type of institution that granted the bachelor’s degree to respondent. Institutions were

categorized by level, control, and, for 4-year institutions, whether or not they granted PhDs. See the entry for “First

postsecondary institution” for more detail on types of institutions. Three categories of degree-granting institutions

were distinguished in this report:

Public 4-year PhD granting and non-PhD granting.

Private, not-for-profit, 4-year PhD granting and non-PhD granting.

Other Public less-than-2-year; public 2-year; private not-for-profit,

less-than-4-year; private for-profit less-than-2-year; and

private for-profit, 2-years-or-more.

Employment status April 1994 EMPLOY22

Indicates employment status in April 1994. Respondents were asked about their job history since graduation,

including the number of jobs they had held, the beginning and ending dates of the jobs, whether they were

employed full or part time in each job, if they had been looking for work (and if so, if they had received

unemployment benefits), and if they were not working, the reason. Based on the job history information, monthly

indicators were constructed characterizing the monthly employment status of each respondent as: employed full

time; employed part-time; unemployed with benefits; unemployed without benefits; and out of the labor force.

A job was considered full-time if the respondent reported working 35 or more hours per week. For respondents

with multiple jobs, the respondent was considered employed full time if any job they held that month was a fulltime job. If they worked at two or more part-time jobs, they were considered part time even if their hours totaled 35

or more per week.

Respondents who were not working but looking for work were considered unemployed. For this report, the

unemployment categories (with and without benefits) were combined because almost no respondents were

receiving unemployment benefits. Respondents categorized as out of the labor force were those who were not

available for work and not looking for work.

Employment/enrollment status April 1994 ENREMP22

Indicates enrollment status in April 1994. Indicates the respondent’s enrollment and employment status in April

1994. ENREMP22 distinguishes between full- and part-time enrollment. For this report, four categories were used:

enrolled (full or part time) and employed; enrolled (full or part time) and not employed; employed and not

enrolled; neither employed nor enrolled.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

96

Enrollment status April 1994 ENROL22

Indicates enrollment status in April 1994. Respondents were asked about enrollment in any education after

receiving their bachelor’s degree and the dates of enrollment. Based on these dates, monthly enrollment indicators

were constructed with the following values: not enrolled; enrolled full time; and enrolled part time.

First postsecondary institution FSCTYPE1

This variable indicates the type of institution the respondent first attended. It was created by looking for the first

postsecondary enrollment after high school that lasted three months or longer. Institutions attended before high

school graduation were eligible if enrollment continued after high school graduation. The first institution may or

may not be the institution that awarded the bachelor’s degree.

Public 4-year A publicly controlled institution operated by publicly elected

or appointed officials who control the institution’s programs

and activities, and that grants bachelor’s degrees, including

doctorate and nondoctorate-granting institutions.

Private, not-for-profit An institution controlled by an independent governing board

(independent) 4-year and incorporated under section 501(c)(3) of the Internal

Revenue Code and that grants bachelor’s degrees, including

doctorate and nondoctorate-granting institutions.

Public 2-year A public institution, primarily community colleges, with

programs at least 2 years in length awarding certificates and

associate’s degree but not bachelor’s degrees.

Other For this report includes private, not-for-profit less-than-4

year;

public less-than-2-year; and private, for-profit institutions.

Private-for-profit institutions are postsecondary educational

institutions that are privately owned and operated as profit

making enterprises. These institutions include career colleges

and proprietary institutions.

Gender RSEX

B&B:93/94 respondents were asked their gender only if this information was missing from NPSAS and not

obvious during the interview. Respondents were categorized as male or female

GPA (4.0 scale) NORMGPA

NORMGPA is the normalized grade point average fit to a 4.0 scale, based on student transcripts. Respondents

were categorized into two groups: GPA was less than 3.0; and GPA was 3.0 or above.

How found April 1994 job AJBOBT_

Respondents were asked how they found out about their April 1994 job. They could report more than one method.

A yes or no response was recorded for each of 14 methods. This report includes the methods reported by more than

5 percent of the respondents.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

97

Referred by family, friends, professors AJBOBT01

Want ad AJBOBT02

Campus placement office AJBOBT03

Explored possible job opportunities through interview AJBOBT04

Employment agency AJBOBT05

Advancement in company where previous employed AJBOBT06

Income and dependency level INCOME

The source of income for dependent students is their parents or guardians; the source of income for independent

students is their own assets or earnings including those of their spouse if they are married. Incomes refer to 1991

income and were derived from three sources: institutional records, parental reports, and student reports (in priority

order).

Job characteristics important in determining future work CHOICE__

Respondents were asked what factors were important to them in determining the type of work they planned to do in

the future. A yes or no response was recorded for each of 14 factors. This report included factors that had “yes”

responses from at least 30 percent of the respondents.

Good starting income CHOICE02

Good income potential CHOICE03

Job security CHOICE04

Interesting work CHOICE06

Intellectually challenging work CHOICE07

Interaction with people CHOICE09

Marital status in April 1994 MARSTAT

This variable was created using the marital status from NPSAS:93 and reported changes to determine respondent’s

marital status in April 1994. Categories included: married; divorced; separated; widowed; never been married; or

living together in marriage-like relationship. These were grouped into two categories for this report: married or

cohabit as married; and never married, divorced, separated, or widowed.

Married between 1993 and 1994 MARICH01

This variable registers any change in marital status between 1993 and 1994. The percentage who said they went

from being divorced, separated, widowed, never married, or living together in a marriage-like relationship to being

married is identified in the table.

Monthly education loan payment as percent of monthly income EDPCT

Monthly education loan payments divided by monthly income. See entry for “Monthly education loan payments.”

Monthly income (MOINC) was calculated by dividing the April 1994 annual salary by 12.

EDPCT was also used to calculate average ratio of loan payments to monthly income. When this variable was used

in a table or a figure, the table or figure included only respondents with a value of 50 percent or less on EDPCT.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

98

Monthly education loan payments ALLOWE

Respondents who were repaying education loans reported the total amount they paid each month. This variable was

also used as an average. When this variable was used in a table or figure, the table or figure included only those

whose value for EDPCT was 50 percent or less.

Monthly loan payment status ALLOWE2

This variable describes whether respondents were paying off education loans in 1994, and if not, the reason why

not. It was derived from ALLOWE.

Payments required Respondent was required to make monthly payments.

No payments required Respondent was not making monthly payments because

he/she had already paid back his/her loans or had deferred

loan repayment.

No undergraduate debt Respondent was not making monthly payments because

he/she did not take out a loan.

Months of graduate study ENRLGRAD

Total number of months of graduate study since bachelor’s degree completion. Enrollment may have been full or

part time. Graduate study was defined as being in a master’s, doctoral, or first professional degree program. Two

categories were defined for this report: none; and one or more.

Noneducational expenses OTHOWE

Total amount respondent paid each month on mortgage, rent, auto loan, and any other noneducational debt.

This variable was used to compute an average. When this variable was used in a table, the table included only those

whose monthly expenses for these items were less than $2,500.

Number of months unemployed UNEMPMOS

The variable was created using the monthly employment indicators. “Unemployed” is defined as not working and

seeking employment. The variable measures the total number of months unemployed since graduation.

Number of schools accepted ACCEPTED

Among respondents who applied to graduate school, the number of schools at which they reported being accepted.

Primary reason for not applying to graduate school REASNAP

If the respondent did not apply to graduate or professional school, and had considered it, the respondent indicated

the primary reason for not applying from among the following choices:

Too much undergraduate debt

Too much other debt

Not enough financial aid or assistance

Cost-related (cost too much, not worth it, cannot afford it)
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

99

Personal

Wanted to take time off

Family responsibilities too demanding

Don’t like school

Location, no school nearby

Work-related

Not necessary for career

Working and happy with current job

Want work experience before attending

Need to work and save money for graduate school

Job responsibilities too demanding

Undecided about what to study

Other academic

Need better grades, scores

Missed application or test deadline

Graduate school too difficult

Other reasons

Race–ethnicity RETHNIC

This variable was created by combining two items in which respondents reported their race and whether or not

they were of Hispanic origin.

American Indian/Alaskan Native A person having origins in any of the original peoples of

North America and who maintains cultural identification

through tribal affiliation or community recognition.

Asian/Pacific Islander A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the

Far East, Southeast Asia, the Indian Subcontinent or Pacific

Islands. This includes people from China, Japan, Korea, the

Philippine Islands, Samoa, India, and Vietnam.

Black, non-Hispanic A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of

Africa, not of Hispanic origin.

Hispanic A person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South

America or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of

race.

White, non-Hispanic A person having origins in any of the original peoples of

Europe, North Africa, or the Middle East (except those of

Hispanic origin).

Reason for saving money SAVING_

Respondents who reported saving money (see entry for “Saving money”) were asked to respond yes or no for nine

different reasons. This report included those for which more than 10 percent responded “yes.”

Purchase of a home SAVING01

Furthering education SAVING02
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

100

Retirement SAVING04

Purchase of a vehicle SAVING05

Rainy day SAVING08

Reason for taking April 1994 job AJOBREAS

Respondents who said their April 1994 job was not related to their field of study (see “major during last enrollment

spell”) were asked their main reason for taking the job. Possible responses included:

Only job could find

Pay was better than other job(s)

Held job prior to graduating

Curious about type of work

Better opportunity for advancement

Opportunity to help people/be useful to society

Wanted manual occupation

Other reason

Relationship between April job and degree AJOBRELT

Indication of how closely related respondents’ primary April 1994 job was to their field of study. See entry for

“Annual salary at April 1994 job” for definition of “primary job.” Three options were offered: closely related;

somewhat related; and not at all related.

Respondent applied to graduate school EVERAPP

Indicates whether a respondent ever applied to a graduate school (yes/no).

Saving money SAVINGS

Respondents were asked if they were saving money for any reason. Positive values on this variable were used to

identify the percentage of respondents who were saving money for any reason.

Time from postsecondary entry to bachelor’s degree BATIME2

Represents the number of months between the date the respondent began postsecondary education and the date of

bachelor’s degree receipt. If a respondent was missing either date, BATIME2 was set to missing. In a few cases,

the value for BATIME2 was less than 30 months; these cases were excluded. BATIME2 was calculated for only

those students receiving their first bachelor’s in 1992–93. For this report, three lengths of time were distinguished:

4 years or less; more than 4, up to 6 years; and more than 6 years.

Total undergraduate debt still owed UNDGROWE

Respondents who borrowed for their undergraduate education were asked to report the amount they still owed as of

interview date.

Where living April 1994 WHERELIV

The respondent was asked in what type of housing he/she was living on April 1, 1994. The options provided were:

own house or apartment; with parents or relatives; school-owned housing; employer-provided residence;

sorority/fraternity house; or other type of housing. For this report, the last four types were grouped into “other.”
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

101

PART II: BPS VARIABLES

Academic year last enrolled LASTENR

The last academic year in which the student was enrolled.

Age when began postsecondary education AGE8990

AGE8990 indicates the respondent’s age when he or she first began postsecondary education.

Amount owed on student loans DRVOWEAM

Amount the student owed on loans borrowed through student loan programs as of spring 1994. The variable was

also used as an average.

Average duration of unemployment spells (months) MEANDUR

The average number months a respondent’s spells of unemployment lasted. This variable was derived by dividing

the total number of months a respondent was unemployed by the total number of unemployment spells.

Average monthly loan payment SFAVGPAY

For students who reported repaying loans as of spring 1994, the variable represents the average monthly loan

payment they had made.

When this variable was used in a table, the table included only those whose educational debt burden was 50 percent

or less (see EDPCT).

Borrowed for education EVERBOR

Positive values on this variable were used to identify the percentage of students who borrowed from any source,

including family or friends, for undergraduate education.

Control of last institution OFCOLAST

Control of last institution. Aggregates level and control of institution according to control.

Public A postsecondary educational institution operated by publicly

elected or appointed school officials in which the program

and activities are under the control of these officials and that

is supported primarily by public funds.

Private, not-for-profit A postsecondary educational institution that is controlled by

an independent governing board and incorporated under

Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code.

Private, for-profit A postsecondary educational institution that is privately

owned and operated as a profit-making enterprise. These

institutions include career colleges and proprietary

institutions.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

102

Debt status in 1994 DRVOWE

Positive values on this variable are used to identify students who still owed on a postsecondary student loan (not

including loans from family or friends).

Degree working toward in 1989–90 GOAL89AB

Type of degree student reported working toward at the institution where he or she was a beginning postsecondary

student, and type of institution he or she was attending at the time.

Associate’s degree at 2-year Student was attending a 2-year institution with the objective

of earning an associate’s degree.

Bachelor’s degree at 2-year Student was attending a 2-year institution with the objective

of earning a bachelor’s degree.

Bachelor’s degree at 4-year Student was attending a 4-year institution with the objective

of attaining a bachelor’s degree.

Certificate at private, for-profit Student was attending a private, for-profit institution with the

objective of earning a certificate.

Certificate at public 2-year Student was attending a public 2-year institution with the

objective of earning a certificate.

Other Student had any other combination of institution type and

objective, such as an associate’s degree at a 4-year

institution.

Earned income in 1993 SG93EAIN

Amount of gross 1993 income that was earned, for those who had any earned income in 1993. The variable was

also used as an average.

Educational debt burden EDPCT

Monthly student loan payments divided by monthly income. See entry for “Average monthly loan payment.”

Monthly income (MOINC) was calculated by dividing the 1993 earned income (SG93EAIN) by 12. EDPCT was

also used as an average. When this variable was used in a table or a figure, the table or figure included only

respondents with a value of 50 percent or less on EDPCT.

Employment and enrollment status in April 1994 M_MNTH51

Monthly employment and enrollment status indicators were derived from the beginning and ending dates of all

jobs and enrollment. Respondents were categorized as: not employed and not enrolled; enrolled and not employed;

employed and not enrolled; or employed and enrolled. In this analysis, none were enrolled. Thus, all were in one of

two of these categories: employed and not enrolled; or not employed and not enrolled. However, table 5 shows the

proportions of those enrolled and not enrolled in the entire BPS sample.

End date of last enrollment spell ENDTLAST

Ending date of last spell of enrollment before 1994 interview. For this analysis, only beginning postsecondary

students who were not enrolled after December 1992 were included.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

103

Ever unemployed 1989–94 UNEMPLOY

Positive values on this variable were used to identify students who reported ever being unemployed between 1989

and 1994. Unemployed is defined as having no job but actively seeking work.

Gender H_GENDR

BPS:90/94 respondents were asked their gender only if this information was missing from NPSAS and not obvious

during the interview. Respondents were categorized as male or female

Highest degree attained by spring 1994 DEGALL2

From 1994 student interview. This variable includes those with incomplete or minimal enrollment data.

None Respondent had not earned a credential by spring 1994.

Certificate Respondent’s highest degree attained by spring 1994 was a

vocational/technical certificate.

Associate’s degree Respondent’s highest degree attained by spring 1994 was an

associate’s degree.

Bachelor’s degree Respondent’s highest degree attained by spring 1994 was a

bachelor’s degree.

When this variable was used as a row, the tables included only those whose last spell of enrollment ended by

December 1992 and excluded those who attained a bachelor’s degree by that date. In those tables, the variable is

labeled “Highest degree attained by December 1992.”

Importance of job security and permanence SCJOBSEC

Respondents were asked “How important are each of the following incentive factors [in determining the kind of

work you plan to be doing for most of your life]?” “Job security and permanence” was one of the listed incentive

factors. Respondents answered in one of the following ways: not important; somewhat important; or very

important.

Level and control of last institution OFCOLAST

Combined level and control of last institution attended. See entries for “Control of last institution” and “Level of

last institution.” Categories used in this report include: Public 4-year; private, not-for-profit 4-year; public 2-year;

private, for profit; and other (public less-than-2-year, private, not-for-profit less-than-2-year, and private, not-forprofit 2- to 3-year).

Level of last institution OFCOLAST

Level of the last institution attended.

4-year An institution that offers 4-year baccalaureate degrees. These

institutions may or may not also offer master’s, doctoral, or

first professional degrees in one or more programs as the

highest degree awarded.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

104

2-year An institution whose program of study results in an award or

degree below the baccalaureate level, and is at least 2 years

but less than 4 years in duration. These institutions include

many community and junior colleges.

Less-than-2-year An institution whose normal program of study is less than 2

years in duration.

Major during last enrollment spell MAJLAST

Students’ major field of study during last spell of enrollment in a postsecondary institution.

Business and management Student majored in business or management.

Engineering, math, or science Student majored in life or physical sciences, mathematics,

computer and information technology, or engineering.

Humanities or social science Student majored in humanities or social and behavioral

sciences.

Education Student majored in education.

Other Student majored in health, a vocational/technical area, or

another technical/professional field.

Months after leaving PSE before obtained first principal job TIME2FJ

Variable represents the number of months between the students’ last enrollment and when they obtained their first

principal job. Students who obtained a job immediately after postsecondary education were coded as 0. Students

who never worked were coded as missing on this variable.

Primary occupation in 1993 OCCUP93

Occupational category of principal job in 1993.

Clerical

Craftsman/repair, laborer, or machinist

Manager/administrator

Professional

Sales

Service

Other

Race–ethnicity BPSRACE

This variable was created by combining two items in which respondents reported their race (American

Indian/Alaskan Native, Asian, black, white, other) and whether or not they were of Hispanic origin. See entry for

“Race–ethnicity” in Part I for a more detailed description of race.

Receiving help with payments SFREHELP

Positive values on this variable were used to identify students who were receiving help with repaying student loans

from parents, relatives, spouse, friends, or employers.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

105

Repayment status in 1994 REPAY

Respondents who owed money on student loans were asked in 1994 if they had started repaying any of them

(excluding any loans from family or friends). Respondents, including those who had not borrowed, were

categorized as either making payments or not making payments.

Socioeconomic status (SES) SESPERC

Composite variable combining parents’ education and occupation, dependent student's family income, and the

existence of a series of material possessions in respondent's home.

Lowest quartile Socioeconomic status fell at or below the 25th percentile.

Middle quartiles Socioeconomic status fell between the 25th percentile and the

75th percentile.

Highest quartile Socioeconomic status fell at or above the 75th percentile.

Student loan amount DRVBORAM

Amount the respondent borrowed for his or her education between 1989 and 1994. This variable is based on the

1994 question “What is the total amount of student loans you have taken out so far for your undergraduate

education and related expenses? [Do not include loans from parents, relatives, or friends.]” For those who either

refused the question or did not know the amount borrowed, data was substituted from the 1992 question “About

how much in total have you borrowed to help you with postsecondary education?” Respondents with data from

1992 may have included loans from parents, relatives, or friends in the total they provided. Such respondents make

up less than 0.5 percent of all those with responses on this variable.

Student loans GOTLOAN

Took out any loans through student loan programs during postsecondary education (excludes loans from family or

friends). Respondents were placed in one of two categories: did not take out student loans; and took out student

loans.

Positive values on this variable were also used to identify students who received non-family student loans during

postsecondary education.

Total months unemployed TOTDUR

Variable represents the total number of months the student was ever unemployed between 1989 and 1994. This

variable was also used as an average.

Unemployed April 1994 UNEM9404

Positive values on this variable are used to identify respondents who were unemployed (not employed but looking

for work) in April 1994.

107

APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND

METHODOLOGY

BACCALAUREATE AND BEYOND STUDY

The Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/94) tracks the experiences of a

cohort of college graduates who received a bachelor’s degree during the 1992–93 academic year.

It will document this group’s experiences in the areas of further education and degree completion,

employment, public service, family formation, and other adult decisions for a period of 12 years.

B&B:93/94 will provide data that can be used to assess the outcomes of postsecondary education,

including graduate and professional program access, labor market experience, and rates of return

on investment in education.

Participants in the 1993 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93) who received their bachelor’s degree between July 1992 and June 1993 form the base sample for the

B&B study. Approximately 12,500 NPSAS:93 respondents were identified as eligible for the first

followup survey, which was conducted between July 1993 and December 1994 (roughly one year

after participants’ graduation). Approximately 1,500 members of this initial sample were determined to be ineligible at the time of the followup interview, and about 900 others were not interviewed (usually because they could not be located or refused to participate), generating a final

sample of 10,080 college graduates. An overall response rate of 92 percent was achieved for the

first followup. The survey’s methodology report provides additional detail on this survey.29

NPSAS:93 was the third administration of the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study

(earlier administrations were in 1986–87 and 1989–90). NPSAS was designed to include students

enrolled in all types of postsecondary education, and includes students in public; private; not-for

profit; and private, for-profit institutions at the 4-year, 2-year, and less-than-2-year levels.

NPSAS:93 included a stratified sample of approximately 50,000 students (about 90 percent of

whom were undergraduates) from about 1,100 institutions. A methodology report with additional

 

29U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study:

1993/94 First Follow-up Methodology Report, NCES 96-149, by Patricia J. Green, Sharon L. Meyers, Pamela Giese, Joan Law,

Howard M. Speizer, and Vicki Staebler Tardino, Paula Knepper, project officer (Washington, DC: 1996).
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

108

information is available.30 Table B.1 shows the distribution of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients according to selected characteristics.

BEGINNING POSTSECONDARY STUDENT LONGITUDINAL STUDY

The Beginning Postsecondary Student Longitudinal Study (BPS) follows NPSAS:90 students who enrolled in postsecondary education for the first time in 1989–90. The first followup

was conducted in spring 1992 and the second in spring 1994. Using a Computer Assisted Telephone Interview (CATI), BPS collected information from students on their persistence, progress,

and attainment and on their labor force experience. Approximately 8,000 students were included

in the BPS sample with an overall response rate of 91 percent. More information on this survey

can be found in the associated technical report.31 Table B.2 shows the distribution of the 1989–90

beginning postsecondary students used in this report according to selected characteristics.

ACCURACY OF ESTIMATES

The statistics in this report are estimates derived from a sample. Two broad categories of error occur in such estimates: sampling and nonsampling errors. Sampling errors occur because observations are made only on samples of students, not on entire populations. Nonsampling errors

occur not only in sample surveys but also in complete censuses of entire populations.

Nonsampling errors can be attributed to a number of sources: inability to obtain complete

information about all students in all institutions in the sample (some students or institutions refused to participate, or students participated but answered only certain items); ambiguous definitions; differences in interpreting questions; inability or unwillingness to provide correct

information; mistakes in recording or coding data; and other errors of collecting, processing, sampling, and imputing missing data.

 

30U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Methodology Report for the National Postsecondary

Student Aid Study, 1992–93, by John D. Loft, John A. Riccobono, Roy W. Whitmore, Robert A. Fitzgerald, and Lutz K.

Berkner, Andrew G. Malizio, project officer (Washington, DC: 1995).

31U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal

Study Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94) Final Technical Report, NCES 96-153, by Daniel J. Pratt, Roy W. Whitmore, Jennifer S.

Wine, Karen M. Blackwell, Barbara H. Forsyth, Timothy K. Smith, Elizabeth A. Becker, Kurt J. Veith, Marisa Mitchell, and

Gregory D. Borman, Larry G. Bobbitt, project officer (Washington, DC: 1966).
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

109

DATA ANALYSIS SYSTEM

The estimates presented in this report were produced using the NCES Data Analysis Systems (DAS) for the Baccalaureate and Beyond Study First Followup (B&B:93/94) and the Beginning Postsecondary Student Longitudinal Study Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94). The DAS

software enables users to specify and generate their own tables from the B&S and BPS data. With

the DAS, users can re-create or expand upon the tables presented in this report. In addition to the

table estimates, the DAS calculates proper standard errors32 and weighted sample sizes for these

estimates. Tables B.3 and B.4 present the standard errors that correspond to the data presented in

tables 7 and 9 in the text. If the number of valid cases is too small to produce an estimate, the

DAS prints the message “low-N” instead of the estimate.

In addition to tables, the DAS will also produce a correlation matrix of selected variables to

be used for linear regression models. Included in the output with the correlation matrix are the

design effects (DEFT) for all the variables identified in the matrix. Since statistical procedures

generally compute regression coefficients based on simple random sample assumptions, the standard errors must be adjusted with the design effects to take into account the B&B and BPS stratified sampling methods. (See discussion under “Statistical Procedures” below for the adjustment

procedure.)

For more information about the NCES B&B and BPS DAS, contact:

Aurora D’Amico

NCES Longitudinal Studies Branch

555 New Jersey Avenue NW

Washington, DC 20208-5652

(202) 219-1365

Internet address: Aurora_D’Amico@ED.GOV

The DAS can be accessed at www.PEDAR-DAS.org.

 

32The B&B and BPS samples are not simple random samples, and therefore, simple random sample techniques for estimating

sampling error cannot be applied to these data. The DAS takes into account the complexity of the sampling procedures and

calculates standard errors appropriate for such samples. The method for computing sampling errors used by the DAS involves

approximating the estimator by the linear terms of a Taylor series expansion. This procedure is typically referred to as the

Taylor series method.
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

110

Table B.1—Percentage distributions of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients by selected student 

Table B.3—characteristics: 1994

 Total

 Total 100.0 

Gender

 Male 45.3 

 Female 54.7 

Race–ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 0.6 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 4.9 

 Black, non-Hispanic 6.1 

 Hispanic 5.1 

 White, non-Hispanic 83.3 

Age received bachelor’s degree

 24 or younger 71.7 

 25–29 12.4 

 30 or older 16.0 

Borrowing for undergraduate education

 Did not borrow 50.7 

 Borrowed 49.3 

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 65.2 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 31.4 

 Other 3.4 

Baccalaureate degree major

 Business and management 22.0 

 Engineering, math, or science 16.4 

 Humanities or social science 24.3 

 Other 37.3 

Primary occupation April 1994

 Business and management 20.1 

 School teacher 11.7 

 Professional 25.6 

 Administrative, clerical, support 17.9 

 Sales, service 11.3 

 Other 13.4 

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

111

Table B.2—Percentage distributions of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment 

Table B.4—ended by December 1992 according to selected student characteristics: 1994

 Total

 Total 100.0 

Gender

 Male 45.3 

 Female 54.7 

Race–ethnicity

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 0.6 

 Asian/Pacific Islander 2.6 

 Black, non-Hispanic 11.7 

 Hispanic 8.4 

 White, non-Hispanic 76.6 

Age when began postsecondary education

 19 or younger 55.7 

 20 or older 44.3 

Socioeconomic status

 Lowest quartile 23.8 

 Middle quartiles 52.1 

 Highest quartile 24.1 

Student loans

 Did not take out student loans 74.7 

 Took out student loans 25.3 

Highest degree attained by December 1992

 None 69.4 

 Last attended 4-year 22.4 

 Last attended public 2-year 61.7 

 Last attended private, for-profit 11.8 

 Other 4.1 

 Certificate 21.7 

 Associate’s degree 8.9 

Major during last enrollment spell

 Business and management 34.4 

 Engineering, math, or science 15.1 

 Humanities or social science 12.3 

 Education 3.8 

 Other 34.5 

Academic year last enrolled

 1989–90 40.4 

 1990–91 26.9 

 1991–92 28.6 

 1992–93 4.2 
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

112

Table B.2—Percentage distributions of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary students whose last enrollment 

Table B.4—ended by December 1992 according to selected student characteristics: 1994—Continued

 Total

Level of last institution

 4-year 17.8 

 2-year 62.3 

 Less-than-2-year 19.9 

Control of last institution

 Public 72.4 

 Private, not-for-profit 5.9 

 Private, for-profit 21.8 

Level and control of last institution

 Public 4-year 14.0 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 3.8 

 Public 2-year 53.8 

 Private, for-profit 21.8 

 Other 6.6 

Primary occupation in 1993

 Clerical 25.0 

 Craftsman/repair, laborer, or machinist 19.9 

 Manager/administrator 16.3 

 Professional 6.0 

 Sales 5.6 

 Service 16.1 

 Other 11.1 

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary

Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

113

Table B.3—Standard errors for table 7: Percentage of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were

Table B.1—employed and enrolled and percentage distribution according to enrollment and employment

Table B.1—status in April 1994, by selected student and institutional characteristics

Enrollment and employment status

Neither

Total Employed Employed Enrolled employed

and not and and not nor

Employed Enrolled enrolled enrolled employed enrolled

 Total 0.47 0.53 0.60 0.40 0.35 0.32

Gender

 Male 0.70 0.73 0.83 0.58 0.54 0.45

 Female 0.57 0.68 0.79 0.54 0.36 0.44

 American Indian/Alaskan Native 5.54 4.03 6.24 3.92 1.49 5.62

 Asian/Pacific Islander 2.71 2.63 3.08 1.83 1.98 1.57

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.98 1.78 2.39 1.70 0.85 1.82

 Hispanic 2.02 2.38 2.60 1.99 1.28 1.78

 White, non-Hispanic 0.49 0.56 0.64 0.44 0.35 0.32

Age received bachelor’s degree

 24 or younger 0.56 0.61 0.69 0.45 0.41 0.35

 25–29 1.03 1.09 1.37 1.03 0.38 0.99

 30 or older 1.15 1.20 1.47 1.00 0.71 0.92

Borrowing for undergraduate

 education

 Did not borrow 0.66 0.72 0.80 0.58 0.50 0.43

 Borrowed 0.60 0.67 0.79 0.54 0.38 0.45

Degree-granting institution

 Public 4-year 0.56 0.67 0.74 0.51 0.41 0.39

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 0.90 0.88 1.06 0.65 0.67 0.56

 Other 2.68 3.21 3.67 2.65 1.35 2.64

Baccalaureate degree major

 Business and management 0.81 0.97 1.14 0.85 0.48 0.63

 Engineering, math, or science 1.24 1.30 1.44 1.03 0.94 0.87

 Humanities or social science 0.92 1.00 1.10 0.79 0.62 0.71

 Other 0.68 0.79 0.91 0.63 0.46 0.46

Occupation April 1994

 Business and management 0.00 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.00 0.00

 School teacher 0.00 1.34 1.34 1.34 0.00 0.00

 Professional 0.08 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.00 0.08

 Administrative, clerical, support 0.00 1.15 1.15 1.15 0.00 0.00

 Sales, service 0.00 1.30 1.30 1.30 0.00 0.00

 Other 0.00 1.31 1.31 1.31 0.00 0.00

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study First Followup (B&B:93/94), Data Analysis System.
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

114

Table B.4—Standard errors for table 9: Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary 

Table B.2—students who left postsecondary education or attained an associate’s degree or certificate 

Table B.2—by December 1992 according to employment status in April 1994, by selected student

Table B.2—and institutional characteristics

Not

Employed employed

 Total 1.29 1.29

Gender

 Male 1.70 1.70

 Female 1.89 1.89

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 8.64 8.64

 Black, non-Hispanic 4.16 4.16

 Hispanic 4.62 4.62

 White, non-Hispanic 1.45 1.45

Age when began postsecondary education

 19 or younger 1.47 1.47

 20 or older 2.14 2.14

Socioeconomic status

 Lowest quartile 2.89 2.89

 Middle quartiles 1.60 1.60

 Highest quartile 2.47 2.47

Student loans

 Did not take out student loans 1.58 1.58

 Took out student loans 1.86 1.86

Highest degree attained by December 1992

 None 1.61 1.61

 Last attended 4-year 2.22 2.22

 Last attended public 2-year 2.34 2.34

 Last attended private, for-profit 4.01 4.01

 Certificate 2.83 2.83

 Associate’s degree 3.29 3.29

Major during last enrollment spell

 Business and management 2.49 2.49

 Engineering, math, or science 3.97 3.97

 Humanities or social science 3.24 3.24

 Education 7.25 7.25

 Health or vocational/technical 2.27 2.27
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

115

Table B.4—Standard errors for table 9: Percentage distribution of 1989–90 beginning postsecondary 

Table B.2—students who left postsecondary education or attained an associate’s degree or certificate 

Table B.2—by December 1992 according to employment status in April 1994, by selected student

Table B.2—and institutional characteristics—Continued

Not

Employed employed

Academic year last enrolled

 1989–90 2.05 2.05

 1990–91 2.09 2.09

 1991–92 2.51 2.51

 1992–93 5.57 5.57

Level of last institution

 4-year 2.04 2.04

 2-year 1.75 1.75

 Less-than-2-year 3.03 3.03

Control of last institution

 Public 1.54 1.54

 Private, not-for-profit 2.59 2.59

 Private, for-profit 2.59 2.59

Level and control of last institution

 Public 4-year 2.47 2.47

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 3.12 3.12

 Public 2-year 1.99 1.99

 Private, for-profit 2.59 2.59

 Other 4.11 4.11

Primary occupation in 1993

 Clerical 1.98 1.98

 Craftsman/repair, laborer, or machinist 2.26 2.26

 Manager/administrator 2.24 2.24

 Professional 1.47 1.47

 Sales 4.68 4.68

 Services 1.55 1.55

 Other 3.30 3.30

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1990 Beginning Postsecondary

Students Longitudinal Study—Second Follow-up (BPS:90/94), Data Analysis System.
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

116

STATISTICAL PROCEDURES

Two types of statistical procedures were used in this report: testing differences between

means, and adjustment of means after controlling for covariation among a group of variables.

Each procedure is described below.

Differences Between Means

The descriptive comparisons in this report were tested using Student’s t statistic. Differences between estimates were tested against the probability of a Type I error, or significance level. The

significance levels were determined by calculating the Student’s t values for the differences between each pair of means or proportions and comparing these with published tables of significance levels for two-tailed hypothesis testing.

Student’s t values may be computed to test the difference between estimates with the following formula:

t = E - E

se +se

1 2

1

2

2

2 (1)

where E1 and E2 are the estimates to be compared and se1 and se2 are their corresponding standard errors. Note that this formula is valid only for independent estimates. When the estimates

were not independent (for example, when comparing the percentages across a percentage distribution), a covariance term was added to the denominator of the t-test formula.

There are hazards in reporting statistical tests for each comparison. First, comparisons based

on large t statistics may appear to merit special attention. This can be misleading since the magnitude of the t statistic is related not only to the observed differences in means or percentages but

also to the number of students in the specific categories used for comparison. Hence, a small difference compared across a large number of students would produce a large t statistic.

A second hazard in reporting statistical tests for each comparison occurs when making multiple comparisons among categories of an independent variable. For example, when making paired

comparisons among different levels of income, the probability of a Type I error for these comparisons taken as a group is larger than the probability for a single comparison. When more than one

difference between groups of related characteristics or “families” are tested for statistical significance, one must apply a standard that assures a level of significance for all of those comparisons

taken together.
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

117

Comparisons were made in this report only when p≤ .05/k for a particular pairwise comparison, where that comparison was one of k tests within a family. This guarantees both that the individual comparison would have p≤ .05 and that for k comparisons within a family of possible

comparisons, the significance level for all the comparisons will sum to p≤ .05.33

For example, in comparing the percentages of males and females who were enrolled in postsecondary education only one comparison is possible (males versus females). In this family, k=1,

and the comparison can be evaluated without adjusting the significance level. When students are

divided into five racial–ethnic groups and comparisons between all five groups are possible, then

k=10 and the significance level of each test must be p≤ .05/10, or p≤ .005. The formula for calculating family size (k) is as follows:

k = j(j - 1)

2 (2)

where j is the number of categories for the variable being tested. In the case of race–ethnicity,

there are five racial–ethnic groups (Native American /Alaskan Native; Asian/Pacific Islander black

non-Hispanic; Hispanic; and white, non-Hispanic). Thus, when substituting 5 for j in equation 2,

one gets the following formula:

k = 5(5 - 1)

2 = 10

Adjustment of Means

Tabular results are limited by sample size when attempting to control for additional factors

that may account for the differences observed between two variables. For example, when examining the percentages of those who were continuously employed, it is impossible to know to what

extent the observed variation is due to SES differences and to what extent it is due to differences

in other factors related to SES, such academic ability, race–ethnicity, and so on. However, if a

nested table were produced showing SES according to levels of academic ability by race–ethnicity, the cell sizes would be too small to identify the patterns. When the sample size becomes too

small to support controls for another level of variation, one must use other methods to take such

variation into account.

 

33The standard that p < .05/k for each comparison is more stringent than the criterion that the significance level of the comparisons should sum to p < .05. For tables showing the t statistic required to ensure that p < .05/k for a particular family size and

degrees of freedom, see Olive Jean Dunn, “Multiple Comparisons Among Means,” Journal of the American Statistical Association 56: 52–64.
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

118

To overcome this difficulty, multiple linear regression was used to obtain means that were

adjusted for covariation among a list of control variables. Adjusted means for subgroups were

obtained by regressing the dependent variable on a set of descriptive variables such as gender,

race–ethnicity, SES, and so on. Substituting ones or zeros for the subgroup characteristic(s) of

interest and the mean proportions for the other variables results in an estimate of the adjusted

proportion for the specified subgroup, holding all other variables constant. For example, consider

a hypothetical case in which two variables, age and gender, are used to describe an outcome Y

(such as completing a degree). The variables age and gender are recoded into a dummy variable

representing age and a dummy variable representing gender:

Age A

24 years or older 1

Under 24 years old 0

and

Gender G

Female 1

Male 0

The following regression equation is then estimated from the correlation matrix output from the

DAS:

∧

Y = a+ β1A + β2G (3)

To estimate the adjusted mean for any subgroup evaluated at the mean of all other variables,

one substitutes the appropriate values for that subgroup’s dummy variables (1 or 0) and the mean

for the dummy variable(s) representing all other subgroups. For example, suppose we had a case

where Y was being described by age (A) and gender (G), coded as shown above, and the means

for A and G are as follows:

Variable Mean

A 0.355

G 0.521

Suppose the regression equation results in the following equation:

∧

Y = 0.15 + (0.17)A + (0.01)G (4)
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

119

To estimate the adjusted value for older students, one substitutes the appropriate parameter values into equation 3.

Variable Parameter Value

a 0.15 —

A 0.17 1.000

G 0.01 0.521

This results in the following equation:

∧

Y = 0.15 + (0.17)(1) + (0.01)(0.521) = 0.325 (5)

In this case, the adjusted mean for older students is 0.325 and represents the expected outcome

for older students who resemble the average student across the other variables (in this example,

gender).

It is relatively straightforward to produce a multivariate model using B&B and BPS data,

since one of the output options of the DAS is a correlation matrix, computed using pairwise

missing values.34 This matrix can be used by most commercial regression packages as the input

data to produce least-squares regression estimates of the parameters. That was the general approach used for this report, with two additional adjustments described below to incorporate the

complex sample design into the statistical significance tests of the parameter estimates.

Most commercial regression packages assume simple random sampling when computing

standard errors of parameter estimates. Because of the complex sampling design used for the

B&B and BPS survey, this assumption is incorrect. One can get a better approximation of its

standard errors by multiplying each standard error by the average design effect of the dependent

variable (DEFT),35 where the DEFT is the ratio of the true standard error to the standard error

computed under the assumption of simple random sampling. It is calculated by the DAS and produced with the correlation matrix.

 

34Although the DAS simplifies the process of making regression models, it also limits the range of models. Analysts who wish

to use a procedure other than pairwise treatment of missing values or to estimate probit/logit models can apply for a restricted

data license from NCES.

35The adjustment procedure and its limitations are described in Analysis of Complex Surveys, C.J. Skinner, D. Holt, and

T.M.F. Smith, eds. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1989).