Introduction

Housing has not been a prominent element of recent discussions of welfare

reform. The goal of the 1996 Personal

Responsibility and Work Opportunity

Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) was to

move individuals dependent on public

assistance to economic independence.

Clearly, the movement of people to

affordable housing is an important consideration in achieving that goal. 

The earlier welfare program, Aid to

Families with Dependent Children (AFDC),

and the housing assistance programs

were designed to assist different clienteles but sometimes served the same populations. The focus of this report is on

government-sponsored programs that

provide either direct or indirect rental

assistance for low-income families. This

assistance can take the form of housing

vouchers that are given to families for

which payments are made directly to a

private landlord, it can be in the form of

reduced rent for households living in government owned and operated properties,

or it can take the form of a reduced interest rate.1 This report discusses changes

in receipt of rental subsidies between

1993 and 1999 using the Survey of

Program Dynamics (SPD) second

longitudinal file (SLF).2 In addition, the

report compares receipt of housing assistance with participation in the food stamp

and public assistance programs.3

Highlights4

• The number of renters increased from

26 million in 1993 (± 753 thousand) to

30 million in 1999 (± 783 thousand),

but the proportion receiving a rental

subsidy remained unchanged at 

18 percent (see Table 1).

• In 1993, 80 percent of renters receiving rental subsidies were not married,

and 41 percent had at least one child

living with them. In 1999, 85 percent

of renters receiving rental subsidies

were not married, and 30 percent had

at least one child living with them

(see Table 1). 

• Of those persons receiving rental subsidies in both 1993 and 1999, 75 percent were nonworkers in 1993, and

72 percent were nonworkers in 1999.

For those who received a rental subsidy in 1993 but did not in 1999, 

40 percent were nonworkers in 1993,

U S C E N S U S B U R E A U

Helping You Make Informed Decisions

U.S.Department of Commerce

Economics and Statistics Administration

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

Issued October 2003

SPD-2003-1

Receipt of Rental Subsidies: 

1993 and 1999

Demographic Programs

By 

Tracy A. Loveless

and 

John J. Hisnanick

SPD Analytic Reports

1 Under the Federal Housing Authority’s (FHA)

“below market-interest rate” programs, the amount

of interest paid on the mortgage by the project

owner is reduced so that the owner can charge rents

that can be afforded by families and individuals of

low and moderate income. The FHA pays the mortgage lender the difference between the interest payment required at the market rate and the lower

interest payment made by the owner.

2 The SPD SLF, in comparison to the SPD first longitudinal file, includes two additional years of data

and the variables on eligibility collected in the 1998,

1999, and 2000 SPD. 3 Throughout this report the term “renter” refers

to the reference person in the household. The reference person is the individual in whose name the

home is rented. If a married couple jointly rents the

home, either the husband or wife may be listed as

the reference person. 4 The estimates in this report are based on

responses from a sample of the population. As with

all surveys, estimates may vary from the actual values because of sampling variation or other factors.

All comparisons made in this report have undergone

statistical testing and are significant at the 90-percent confidence level unless otherwise noted.
and 32 percent were nonworkers in 1999. Of the renters who

did not receive a rental subsidy

in 1993 but did in 1999, 64 percent were nonworkers in 1993,

and 69 percent were nonworkers in 1999 (see Table 5).

• Renters receiving rental subsidies in 1993 but not in 1999

experienced a 98 percent

increase in their median

income.5 Median income for

renters that continued to receive

or started to receive a rental

subsidy did not significantly

change (see Table 5).

• From 1993 to 1999, receipt of

public assistance and food

stamps declined among renters

that continued to receive,

stopped receiving, or started

receiving a rental subsidy (see

Tables A-1, A-2, and A-3).

Background

The Personal Responsibility and

Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act

of 1996 (PRWORA) ushered in major

reforms in the welfare program and

required the U.S. Census Bureau to

conduct the Survey of Program

Dynamics (SPD) to help researchers

evaluate the legislation’s effectiveness.6 The Census Bureau collected

7 years of longitudinal data on the

demographic, social, and economic

characteristics of a national

representative sample of the U.S.

population to supplement 3 years

(9 or 10 waves) of longitudinal data

available from the 1992 and 1993

panels of the Survey of Income and

Program Participation (SIPP). When

all data are finally released, the SPD

will provide 10 years of data on

program eligibility, access and participation, transfer income and inkind benefits, employment transitions, income, and family

composition (see text box: The

Survey of Income and Program

Participation). 

The SPD collected data in three

phases. In the first phase, people

from the 1992 and 1993 SIPP panels were recontacted and interviewed in May-July 1997 about

their 1996 income and program

participation using the 1997

“Bridge” Survey, a slightly modified

version of the March 1997 Current

Population Survey (CPS).

Approximately 35,000 households

were interviewed using the 1997

“Bridge” Survey, which included

everyone interviewed in the first

and last waves of the 1992 and

1993 SIPP panels. 

The second phase involved the full

implementation of a core set of

questions on topics such as

employment, earnings, income, and

program participation during the

preceding calendar year. A new

computer-assisted questionnaire

was administered in 1998 to household respondents 15 years old and

over in a sample of approximately

19,000 households with children

under age 15. 

The third phase of SPD started in

1999 and surveyed a sample of

approximately 19,000 households

through 2002, collecting core data

as well as data dealing with such

topics as child well-being, health

care, and child support.7

The SPD SLF provides information

on more than 29,000 individuals

and covers the 1993-94 and 1996-

99 periods. Common for each year

is core data collected on demographic characteristics, labor force

activity, and income and program

participation. The SPD SLF does

provide information on program

participation, the causes of program

participation, and its long-term

effects on the well being of recipients and their households.8 The

SPD SLF also provides information

2 U.S. Census Bureau

The Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP)

The data already collected in the 1992 and 1993 SIPP panels provide

extensive background information which can help researchers determine the effects of welfare reform. The SIPP is a longitudinal survey

of households, interviewed at least nine times at 4-month intervals,

where all initial household members are followed if they have

moved. The SIPP collects more detailed data than any other national

survey on program eligibility, access and participation, transfer

income, and in-kind benefits. Coupled with an extensive array of

economic and demographic data (for example, employment and job

transition, income, and family composition), the 1992 and 1993 SIPP

panels represent the pre-reform situation of households quite well. 

5 The 1993 median household income was

adjusted to 1999 dollars by the CPI-U-RS. 6 The specific language of P.L. 104-193

requires and funds a new survey by the

Census Bureau, the Survey of Program

Dynamics. The legislation directs the Census

Bureau to “continue to collect data on the

1992 and 1993 panels of the Survey of

Income and Program Participation as necessary to obtain such information as will enable

interested people to evaluate the impact on a

random national sample of recipients of assistance under state programs funded under this

part and other low-income families, and in

doing so, shall pay particular attention to the

issues of out-of-wedlock birth, welfare

dependency, the beginning and end of welfare

spells, and the causes of repeat welfare spells,

and shall obtain information about the status

of children participating in such panels.”

7 At the time this report was being prepared, the fully edited, third longitudinal

component of the Survey of Program

Dynamics was not yet available for analysis. 8 A more complete description of the SPD

longitudinal files is available at the SPD Web

site (www.sipp.census.gov/spd) and the SPD

Users Guide, also available online. 
on participation in housing assistance programs, as well as insights

into the impact of welfare reform

on the utilization of the housing

assistance program (see text box:

SPD housing assistance questions). 

In the following discussion, the data

are analyzed cross-sectionally and

longitudinally. The cross-sectional

analysis provides insights on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of renters at two distinct

points in time, 1993 and 1999. 

The subsequent longitudinal analysis, on the other hand, provides

insight on changes that occurred

between 1993 and 1999 in the

demographic and socioeconomic

characteristics of renters.

U.S. Census Bureau 3

Table 1.

Characteristics of Renters: 1993 and 1999

Characteristic

1993 1999

Received

a rental

subsidy

Standard

error

Did not

receive a

rental

subsidy

Standard

error

Received

a rental

subsidy

Standard

error

Did not

receive a

rental

subsidy

Standard

error

Renters (thousands) ............... 4,831 228 21,367 429 5,368 240 24,868 451

Percent of total . ................... 18.4 0.8 81.6 0.8 17.8 0.7 82.2 0.7

Median household income

(1999 dollars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $11,021 $406 $33,455 $532 $9,898 $320 $30,854 $712

Race and Ethnicity

White .......................... 64.9 2.3 81.9 0.9 62.6 2.2 81.6 0.9

Non-Hispanic.................. 53.7 2.4 70.9 1.0 50.1 2.3 70.9 1.0

Black........................... 32.3 2.2 14.4 0.8 32.9 2.2 14.0 0.7

Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0 0.9 3.7 0.4 4.6 1.0 4.5 0.4

Hispanic, any race . . . ............ 16.4 1.8 13.4 0.8 16.7 1.7 12.7 0.7

Sex

Male ........................... 28.4 2.2 54.5 1.2 25.2 2.0 49.8 1.1

Female . . . ...................... 71.6 2.2 45.5 1.2 74.8 2.0 50.2 1.1

Marital Status

Married, spouse present .......... 18.7 1.9 34.1 1.1 12.0 1.5 30.0 1.0

Married, spouse absent . . . . . . . . . . 0.9 0.5 1.4 0.2 2.8 0.7 1.7 0.3

Widowed ....................... 20.6 1.9 8.8 0.7 27.4 2.1 9.9 0.7

Divorced........................ 22.1 2.0 17.8 0.9 18.5 1.8 18.9 0.9

Separated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 1.2 7.3 0.6 6.4 1.2 5.4 0.5

Never married ................... 31.1 2.2 30.5 1.0 32.8 2.2 34.2 1.0

Age

Under 25 years old . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 1.3 12.0 0.7 7.5 1.2 15.1 0.8

25-34 years old. . . ............... 25.2 2.1 34.3 1.1 13.7 1.6 30.0 1.0

35-44 years old. . . ............... 19.7 1.9 23.0 1.0 15.1 1.6 19.0 0.9

45-54 years old. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 1.4 12.8 0.8 12.3 1.5 13.0 0.7

55-64 years old. . . ............... 10.3 1.5 6.5 0.5 10.2 1.4 7.8 0.5

65 and older . . . ................. 27.1 2.1 11.4 0.7 41.2 2.2 15.0 0.8

Number of Children in Household

None ........................... 59.1 2.4 69.8 1.0 70.1 2.1 73.9 0.9

1 .............................. 19.1 1.9 14.6 0.8 12.5 1.5 13.6 0.7

2 .............................. 12.5 1.6 10.7 0.7 9.6 1.3 8.4 0.6

3 or more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 1.4 4.9 0.5 7.8 1.2 4.1 0.4

Working Status

Full time, full year................ 19.4 1.9 56.7 1.2 16.5 1.7 56.8 1.0

Part time, full year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 1.3 7.3 0.6 6.8 1.2 7.7 0.5

Full time, part year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 1.2 11.0 0.7 5.3 1.0 9.5 0.6

Part time, part year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.0 1.3 5.1 0.5 6.4 1.2 4.0 0.4

Nonworker ...................... 58.0 2.4 20.0 0.9 65.0 2.2 22.0 0.9

Did household receive public

assistance?

Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.0 2.2 10.4 0.7 13.5 1.6 3.5 0.4

No . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68.0 2.2 89.6 0.7 86.5 1.6 96.5 0.4

Did household receive food

stamps?

Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.6 2.4 16.9 0.9 34.4 2.2 9.0 0.6

No . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48.4 2.4 83.1 0.9 65.6 2.2 91.0 0.6

Notes: Numbers may not add to 100 percent because of rounding. Results are (± 1.645 * standard error).

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Program of Dynamics second longitudinal file.
Cross-Sectional Analysis 

of Rental Assistance

This first analysis of the SPD SLF

looks at the data at two distinct

points in time, 1993 and 1999,

and provides an overview into the

characteristics of those receiving

and not receiving rental assistance.

While the number of renters

increased 15 percent from 1993 to

1999, the proportion receiving

rental assistance remained

unchanged between 1993 and

1999. People receiving rental

assistance in these 2 years share

several characteristics. Those

receiving subsidies are unemployed, single women with low

household incomes and have two

or more children (see Table 1). 

Between 1993 and 1999, the median household income for those

receiving rental assistance

decreased 10 percent, from

$11,021 in 1993 to $9,898 in

1999. By comparison, those not

receiving a subsidy experienced an

8 percent decrease in median

income ($33,455 in 1993 and

$30,854 in 1999) between 1993

and 1999. Non-Hispanic Whites

constituted more than 54 percent of

those receiving a rental subsidy in

1993 and 50 percent in 1999.

About 80 percent of those receiving

4 U.S. Census Bureau

Table 2.

Characteristics of Renters Who Received a Rental Subsidy

in Both 1993 and 1999

(Stayers)

Characteristic Number in

thousands

Percent

of total Standard error

Total 2,552 100.0 –

Race and Ethnicity

White ................................. 1,529 59.9 3.3

Non-Hispanic ........................ 1,261 49.4 4.3

Black. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925 36.3 3.2

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 3.9 1.3

Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 16.1 2.5

Sex

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 20.7 2.7

Female . . .............................. 2,025 79.4 2.7

– Represents zero.

Notes: Numbers may not add to total because of rounding. Results are (± 1.645 * standard error).

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Program Dynamics second longitudinal file.

Table 3.

Characteristics of Renters Who Reported Receiving a

Rental Subsidy in 1993 But Not in 1999

(Leavers)

Characteristic Number in

thousands

Percent

of total Standard error

Total 2,279 100.0 –

Race and Ethnicity

White ................................. 1,596 70.1 3.2

Non-Hispanic ........................ 1,336 58.6 4.2

Black. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 27.9 3.2

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.0 1.0

Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 16.7 2.6

Sex

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844 37.0 3.4

Female . . .............................. 1,435 63.0 3.4

– Represents zero.

Notes: Numbers may not add to total because of rounding. Results are (± 1.645 * standard error).

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Program Dynamics second longitudinal file.

Table 4.

Characteristics of Renters Who Did Not Receive a Rental

Subsidy in 1993 But Did in 1999

(Entrants)

Characteristic Number in

thousands

Percent

of total Standard error

Total 1,063 100.0 –

Race and Ethnicity

White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696 65.5 4.9

Non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 46.2 6.4

Black. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 28.5 4.7

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 6.0 2.5

Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 21.9 4.3

Sex

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 27.1 4.6

Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 72.9 4.6

– Represents zero.

Notes: Numbers may not add to total because of rounding. Results are (± 1.645 * standard error).

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Program Dynamics second longitudinal file.

................................

................................

................................

SPD housing assistance

questions

The SPD asks renters: 

HPUBLIC: "Is this a public

housing project owned by a

local housing authority or

other public agency?"

(YES/NO)

HLORENT: "Are you paying

lower rent because the federal, state, or local government

is paying part of the cost?"

(YES/NO).
a rental subsidy in 1993 were not

married and 85 percent were not

married in 1999, while 31 percent

were “never married” in 1993 and

33 percent “never married” in

1999.9 In 1993, 22 percent of

those receiving a rental subsidy had

two or more children and by 1999,

this number decreased to 17 percent. In 1993, 58 percent of people

receiving a rental subsidy were nonworkers and by 1999 this proportion increased to 65 percent. In

comparison, 20 percent of those

not receiving a subsidy in 1993

were nonworkers, as were 22 percent by 1999.

Receipt of public assistance and

food stamps decreased for those

receiving and those not receiving a

rental subsidy, but decreased more

for those receiving a rental subsidy. For both those receiving and

those not receiving a rental subsidy, there were decreases in both

the numbers receiving public assistance and food stamps, with most

notable changes occurring for

U.S. Census Bureau 5

9 Not married consists of those who are

widowed, divorced, separated, or never married.

Table 5.

Selected Characteristics of Renters Receiving a Rental Subsidy in 1993 or 1999

Characteristic

Stayers Leavers Entrants

1993 1999 1993 1999 1993 1999

Total. . . .............................. 2,552 2,279 1,063

Median household income (1999 dollars)..... $9,049 $9,805 $14,899 $29,450 $11,514 $11,160

Marital Status

Married, spouse present ................. 10.1 11.3 28.4 35.5 18.4 15.9

Married, spouse absent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 1.2 0.8 2.8 2.8 1.3

Widowed ............................... 29.9 31.1 10.2 12.7 22.8 27.0

Divorced ............................... 19.9 21.6 24.6 23.1 18.7 26.0

Separated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 6.9 5.1 3.4 8.9 8.9

Never married .......................... 31.3 28.0 30.9 22.6 28.5 20.9

Age

Under 25 years old . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 0.6 12.5 0.0 11.0 0.0

25-34 years old . . ....................... 16.9 10.2 34.6 20.0 17.6 17.6

35-44 years old . . ....................... 16.8 16.0 23.0 35.4 13.0 13.8

45-54 years old . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 13.3 10.8 19.3 14.1 15.5

55-64 years old . . ....................... 14.1 11.2 6.0 9.3 10.0 11.9

65 and older . ........................... 39.6 48.7 13.0 16.1 34.4 41.2

Number of Children in Household

None .................................. 66.7 69.0 50.7 49.6 66.7 66.6

1...................................... 16.6 10.1 21.9 19.3 17.0 11.4

2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 12.6 17.3 13.9 12.7 10.3

3 or more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 8.4 10.2 17.2 3.7 11.7

Working Status

Full time, full year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 12.3 33.0 45.8 11.0 12.8

Part time, full year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 6.8 9.5 9.3 5.0 6.4

Full time, part year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 5.1 8.6 9.8 13.6 4.5

Part time, part year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 3.4 9.3 3.1 7.0 7.3

Nonworker.............................. 74.5 72.4 39.6 32.0 63.5 69.0

Notes: Numbers may not add to total because of rounding. Results are (± 1.645 * standard error).

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Program Dynamics second longitudinal file.

Figure 1.

Median Income of Stayers, Leavers, 

and Entrants in 1993 and 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Program Dynamics second longitudinal file.

Entrants

Leavers

Stayers

1993

1999

$9,049

$11,160

$11,514

$29,450

$14,899

$9,805
people receiving a rental subsidy.

In 1993, 32 percent of those

receiving a rental subsidy also

reported receiving public assistance, but by 1999 only 14 percent

did so. The same pattern occurred

for participation in the food stamp

program, 5-in-10 people receiving

a rental subsidy also reported

receiving food stamps in 1993 but

only 3-in-10 did so in 1999.

Longitudinal Analysis of

Rental Assistance

This second analysis uses the longitudinal component of the data—the

fact that the data in 1993 and 1999

are about the same individuals—

separating individuals in the SPD

SLF into three groups. Group 1

(stayers) is comprised of those who

received a rental subsidy in both

1993 and 1999. Group 2 (leavers)

are those who received a rental subsidy in 1993 but not in 1999.

Group 3 (entrants) consists of people who did not receive a rental

subsidy in 1993 but did so in 1999.

The housing assistance program is

a means-tested program that uses

household income and size to

determine eligibility for participation. Therefore, factors such as

changes in marital status, family

composition, and employment status can affect participation and

movements on and off the program. 

The main differences among the

groups appear when looking at

changes in their working status and

median income between 1993 and

1999. The proportion of leavers

who were workers increased nearly

8 percentage points, from 60 percent in 1993 to 68 percent in 1999.

By comparison, for stayers and

entrants, the working status was

statistically equal.

These changes in the working status are similarly reflected in the

changes in their median incomes.

For leavers, median household

income rose 98 percent, from

$14,899 in 1993 to $29,450 in

1999. For stayers and entrants,

the median household income

remained statistically unchanged

(see Figure 1).10

The distribution of marital status

was about the same for stayers and

entrants between 1993 and 1999

(see Figure 2). For leavers, 29 percent were married in 1993, and by

1999, this number increased to 38

percent. There were, however,

several notable changes in household composition for all of the

groups during that period. For

6 U.S. Census Bureau

Figure 2.

Marital Status of Renters Receiving a 

Rental Subsidy: 1993 and 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Program Dynamics second longitudinal file.

1999

1993

1999

1993

1999

1993

Percent 

not married

Entrants (1,063)

Leavers (2,279)

Stayers (2,552)

(Numbers in thousands)

88.9

17.2 82.8

21.2 78.8

38.3 61.7

29.2 70.8

12.5 87.5

11.1

Percent

married

Figure 3.

Work Status of Stayers, Leavers, and 

Entrants: 1993 and 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Program Dynamics second longitudinal file.

1999

1993

1999

1993

1999

1993

Percent

did not work

Entrants (1,063)

Leavers (2,279)

Stayers (2,552)

(Numbers in thousands)

74.5

31.0 69.0

36.5 63.5

68.0 32.0

60.4 39.6

27.6 72.4

25.5

Percent

worked

10 The 1993 median household income

was adjusted to 1999 dollars by the CPI-U-RS.
stayers, household composition did

not significantly change between

1993 and 1999. In 1993, 17 percent of stayers had two or more

children living in the household, 17

percent had one child, and 67 percent had no children in the household. In 1999, 21 percent of stayers had two or more children living

in the household, 10 percent had

one child, and 69 percent had no

children living in the household. 

For leavers, the proportion of

renters with no children did not

change, but the proportion of 

households with three or more

children increased from 10 percent

in 1993 to 17 percent in 1999. 

Entrants experienced no change in

household composition. In 1993,

16 percent had two or more children living in the household; by

1999, 22 percent had two or more

children living in the household.

The number of entrants with one

child was 17 percent in 1993 and

11 percent in 1999. In both 1993

and 1999, 67 percent of entrants

had no children living in the

household.

Figure 3 summarizes work status

and participation in the housing

assistance program. For stayers,

three-quarters (75 percent) were

nonworkers in 1993 and this did

not change for 1999 (72 percent).

However, the proportion of leavers

who were not working declined,

from 40 percent in 1993 to 32 percent in 1999. Entrants experienced just the opposite: 64 percent were nonworkers in 1993 and

69 percent in 1999.

Housing Assistance

Participation and Public

Assistance and Food Stamp

Participation

For each group, the proportion

receiving public assistance

declined between 1993 and 1999

(see Figure 4).11 Leavers experienced the largest decline in receipt

of public assistance, from 33 percent in 1993 to 7 percent in 1999.

For stayers, those receiving public

assistance dropped from 31 percent in 1993 to 15 percent in

1999. Similarly, the number of

entrants receiving public assistance dropped from 35 percent in

1993 to 17 percent in 1999.

Food stamp participation declined

between 1993 and 1999 for all of

the three groups (see Figure 5).

For leavers, the proportion

declined from 49 percent in 1993

to 20 percent in 1999. For stayers, the proportion receiving food

stamps fell from 54 percent in

1993 to 35 percent in 1999. For

entrants, the proportion receiving

food stamps fell from 54 percent

in 1993 to 40 percent in 1999.

U.S. Census Bureau 7

Figure 4.

Percentage of Stayers, Leavers, and Entrants Who 

Also Received Public Assistance: 1993 and 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Program Dynamics second longitudinal file.

Entrants

(1,063)

Leavers

(2,279)

Stayers

(2,552)

Received public assistance in 1993

Received public assistance in 1999

35.2

14.5

31.1

7.2

33.0

17.3

(Numbers in thousands)

Figure 5.

Percentage of Stayers, Leavers, and Entrants Who 

Also Received Food Stamps: 1993 and 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Program Dynamics second longitudinal file.

Entrants

(1,063)

Leavers

(2,279)

Stayers

(2,552)

Received food stamps in 1993

Received food stamps in 1999

53.7

39.5

53.9

19.6

49.2

34.8

(Numbers in thousands)

11 Public assistance refers to any cash payments received from the state or federal government because a household’s income was

too low to meet their needs. The income

sources that public assistance includes are (1)

general assistance, (2) TANF/AFDC, and (3)

other assistance received.
Conclusion

This report describes research

undertaken to investigate participation in rental subsidy programs

during the period of welfare reform

using the SPD SLF. While the number of renters increased between

1993 and 1999, the proportion

receiving a rental subsidy

remained the same. Several

notable characteristics are common

among the recipients, however.

Those who continued to receive or

started to receive a rental subsidy

are predominantly poor, young,

unmarried women with children,

who were not working. Moreover,

the SPD SLF indicates a decline in

the receipt of both public assistance and food stamp benefits

between 1993 and 1999 for people

receiving rental subsidies. The

release of the SPD third longitudinal file will provide two additional

years (calendar years 2000 and

2001) of data and will allow for

the ongoing investigation of

people who continued to receive,

stopped receiving, and started

receiving rental subsidies, as well

as their participation in the public

assistance and food stamp

programs. 

SPD Public-Use File

The SPD second longitudinal public-use file, containing data from

1992 through 1999 was released

in the fall of 2002. For further

information contact the HHES

Information Staff at 301-763-3242

or by e-mail at 

hhes-info@census.gov or visit the

SPD Web page at 

www.sipp.census.gov/spd/.

Accuracy of the Estimates

Statistics from surveys are subject

to sampling and nonsampling

error. All comparisons presented in

this report have taken sampling

error into account and are significant at the 90-percent confidence

level. This means the 90-percent

confidence interval for the difference between the estimates being

compared does not include zero.

Nonsampling errors in surveys may

be attributed to a variety of

sources, such as how the survey

was designed, how respondents

interpret questions, how able and

willing respondents are to provide

correct answers, and how accurately the answers are coded and classified. The Census Bureau employs

quality control procedures throughout the production process including the overall design of surveys,

the wording of questions, review

of the work of interviewers and

coders, and statistical review of

reports to minimize these errors.

The Survey of Income and Program

Participation weighting procedure

uses ratio estimation, whereby

sample estimates are adjusted to

independent estimates of the

national population by age, race,

sex, and Hispanic origin. This

weighting partially corrects for

bias due to undercoverage, but

biases may still be present when

people who are missed by the survey differ from those interviewed

in ways other than the age, race,

sex, and Hispanic origin. How this

weighting procedure affects other

variables in the survey is not precisely known. All of these considerations affect comparisons across

different surveys or data sources.

For further information on the

source of the data and accuracy of

the estimates including standard

errors and confidence intervals, go

to www.sipp.census.gov/sipp

/sourceac/s&a96_040501.pdf or

contact Dennis Sissel of the Census

Bureau Demographic Statistical

Methods Division on the Internet at

charles.d.sissel@census.gov. For

information on the content of the

report, contact John Hisnanick,

Chief, Longitudinal Income

Statistics Branch, at 301-763-6685.

8 U.S. Census Bureau
U.S. Census Bureau 9

Table A-1.

Characteristics of Renters Who Reported Receiving a Rental Subsidy in Both 1993

and 1999, by Year (Stayers)

Characteristic

Received a rental subsidy in both 1993 and 1999

1993 (000s) Percent S.E. 1999 (000s) Percent S.E.

Total. . . .............................. 2,552 100.0 – 2,552 100.0 –

Median household income (1999 dollars)..... $9,049 – $347 $9,805 – $552

Marital Status

Married, spouse present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 10.1 2.0 288 11.3 2.1

Married, spouse absent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 1.0 0.7 31 1.2 0.7

Widowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763 29.9 3.1 793 31.1 3.1

Divorced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 19.9 2.7 550 21.6 2.7

Separated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 7.8 1.8 175 6.9 1.7

Never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 31.3 3.1 715 28.0 3.0

Age

Under 25 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 4.5 1.4 15 0.6 0.6

25-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 16.9 2.5 261 10.2 2.2

35-44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 16.8 2.5 408 16.0 2.7

45-54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 8.1 1.8 341 13.3 2.5

55-64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 14.1 2.3 285 11.2 2.3

65 and older .............................. 1,011 39.6 3.3 1,243 48.7 3.6

Number of Children in Household

None .................................... 1,701 66.7 3.4 1,760 69.0 3.3

1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 16.6 2.7 257 10.1 2.2

2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 8.2 2.0 322 12.6 2.4

3 or more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 8.5 2.0 214 8.4 2.0

Working Status

Full time, full year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 7.3 1.6 314 12.3 2.0

Part time, full year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 5.6 1.4 173 6.8 1.5

Full time, part year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 5.8 1.4 130 5.1 1.3

Part time, part year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 6.8 1.5 88 3.4 1.1

Nonworker................................ 1,902 74.5 2.6 1,848 72.4 2.7

Did Household Receive Public Assistance

Payments?

Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793 31.1 3.1 370 14.5 2.3

No. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,759 69.0 3.1 2,182 85.5 2.3

Did Household Receive Food Stamps?

Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,371 53.7 3.3 889 34.8 3.2

No. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,181 46.3 3.3 1,663 65.2 3.2

– Represents zero.

Note: Numbers may not add to total because of rounding. Results are (± 1.645 * standard error).

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Program Dynamics second longitudinal file.

APPENDIX TABLES
10 U.S. Census Bureau

Table A-2.

Characteristics of Renters Who Reported Receiving a Rental Subsidy in 1993,

But Not in 1999, by Year (Leavers)

Characteristic

Received a rental subsidy in 1993, but not in 1999

1993 (000s) Percent S.E. 1999 (000s) Percent S.E.

Total................................. 2,279 100.0 – 2,279 100.0 –

Median household income (1999 dollars)..... $14,899 – $1,340 $29,450 – $2,821

Marital Status

Married, spouse present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 28.4 3.2 808 35.5 3.4

Married, spouse absent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 0.8 0.6 64 2.8 1.2

Widowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 10.2 2.1 289 12.7 2.4

Divorced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 24.6 3.0 526 23.1 3.0

Separated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 5.1 1.6 77 3.4 1.3

Never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 30.9 3.3 515 22.6 3.0

Age

Under 25 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 12.5 2.5 0 0.0 0.0

25-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788 34.6 3.6 455 20.0 3.1

35-44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 23.0 3.2 806 35.4 3.7

45-54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 10.8 2.4 439 19.3 3.0

55-64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 6.0 1.8 213 9.3 2.2

65 and older . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 13.0 2.6 367 16.1 2.8

Number of Children in Household

None .................................... 1,154 50.7 3.5 1,131 49.6 3.5

1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 21.9 2.9 439 19.3 2.8

2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 17.3 2.7 318 13.9 2.4

3 or more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 10.2 2.1 392 17.2 2.7

Working Status

Full time, full year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753 33.0 3.0 1,044 45.8 3.2

Part time, full year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 9.5 1.9 212 9.3 1.8

Full time, part year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 8.6 1.8 223 9.8 1.9

Part time, part year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 9.3 1.8 71 3.1 1.1

Nonworker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902 39.6 3.1 729 32.0 3.0

Did Household Receive Public Assistance

Payments?

Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752 33.0 3.3 163 7.2 1.8

No. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,527 67.0 3.3 2,116 92.9 1.8

Did Household Receive Food Stamps?

Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,121 49.2 3.5 447 19.6 2.8

No. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,158 50.8 3.5 1,832 80.4 2.8

– Represents zero.

Note: Numbers may not add to total because of rounding. Results are (± 1.645 * standard error).

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Program Dynamics second longitudinal file.
U.S. Census Bureau 11

Table A-3.

Characteristics of Renters Who Did Not Receive a Rental Subsidy in 1993,

But Did in 1999, by Year (Entrants)

Characteristic

Did not recieve a rental subsidy in 1993, but did in 1999

1993 (000s) Percent S.E. 1999 (000s) Percent S.E.

Total. . . .............................. 1,063 100.0 – 1,063 100.0 –

Median household income (1999 dollars). . . . . $11,514 – $1,124 $11,160 – $666

Marital Status

Married, spouse presesnt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 18.4 4.0 169 15.9 3.8

Married, spouse absent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.8 1.7 14 1.3 1.2

Widowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 22.8 4.3 287 27.0 4.6

Divorced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 18.7 4.0 276 26.0 4.5

Separated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 8.9 2.9 95 8.9 2.9

Never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 28.5 4.7 222 20.9 4.2

Age

Under 25 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 11.0 3.2 0 0.0 0.0

25-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 17.6 3.9 187 17.6 3.9

35-44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 13.0 3.5 146 13.8 3.6

45-54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 14.1 3.6 165 15.5 3.7

55-64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 10.0 3.1 127 11.9 3.3

65 and older . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 34.4 4.9 438 41.2 5.1

Number of Children in Household

None . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709 66.7 4.9 708 66.6 4.9

1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 17.0 3.9 121 11.4 3.3

2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 12.7 3.4 110 10.3 3.1

3 or more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.7 2.0 124 11.7 3.3

Working Status

Full time, full year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 11.0 2.9 136 12.8 3.1

Part time, full year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 5.0 2.0 68 6.4 2.3

Full time, part year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 13.6 3.2 48 4.5 1.9

Part time, part year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 7.0 2.4 78 7.3 2.4

Nonworker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675 63.5 4.5 733 69.0 4.3

Did Household Receive Public Assistance

Payments?

Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 35.2 4.9 184 17.3 3.9

No. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688 64.8 4.9 879 82.7 3.9

Did Household Receive Food Stamps?

Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572 53.9 5.2 420 39.5 5.0

No. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 46.1 5.2 643 60.5 5.0

– Represents zero.

Note: Numbers may not add to total because of rounding. Results are (± 1.645 * standard error).

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Program Dynamics second longitudinal file.
U.S. Department of Commerce

Economics and Statistics Administration

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

Washington, DC 20233

OFFICIAL BUSINESS

Penalty for Private Use $300

FIRST-CLASS MAIL

POSTAGE & FEES PAID

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