Leveraging Augmented Reality 

for Highway Construction

FHWA Publication No.: FHWA-HRT-20-037

FHWA Contact: Hoda Azari, HRDI-20, (202) 493-3064, 

hoda.azari@dot.gov

Researchers: Kevin Gilson; Jagannath Mallela, Ph.D.; Paul 

Goodrum, Ph.D.

This document is a technical summary of the Federal 

Highway Administration report, Leveraging Augmented 

Reality for Highway Construction (FHWA-HRT-20-038).

INTRODUCTION

Challenges in highway construction management and field operations 

include the lack of integrated information that can be obtained in real 

time, gaps between planned solutions and practical implementations, 

a lack of established quality assurance (QA) practices, and ineffective 

project communications. 

As design and construction workflows based on three-dimensional 

(3D) models become more common on highway projects, the 

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is promoting these 

and other innovations through its Every Day Counts initiative and 

Building Information Modeling (BIM) efforts. This increased use of 

3D model–based design and construction workflows as well as the 

rapid advancement in computer interface design and hardware make 

augmented reality (AR) a tool for overcoming such challenges.

AR is an immersive technology that combines visual computergenerated information with the real environment in real time. It 

enhances user perception of reality and enriches information content, 

helping project managers and engineers deliver projects faster, safer, 

and with greater accuracy and efficiency because managers can 

catch errors before construction and potentially improve design and 

construction details. They may also be able to use the tools for training, 

construction inspection, and stakeholder outreach. 

AR enhances a scene while a user maintains a sense of presence in 

the real world. AR can augment traditional two-dimensional drawings 

with digital 3D images to help improve construction inspection and 

review, QA, worker safety, training, and project management. A close 

companion to AR is virtual reality (VR). VR typically consists of a fully 

immersive environment in which a person’s senses are under the 

control of a display system, usually through a headset. Although VR 

applications are still being developed, their use in the review of design 

alternatives and stakeholder communication shows strong potential, 

especially in collaborative environments.

Research Synopsis

The FHWA study “Leveraging Augmented Reality for Highway 

Construction” documents current AR technologies and applications 

focused on the state of the practice in highway design, construction, 

Research, Development, and 

Technology

Turner-Fairbank Highway 

Research Center

6300 Georgetown Pike

McLean, VA 22101-2296

https://highways.dot.gov/research

TECHBRIEF
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and inspection. The study included a literature review 

(with a desk scan to document AR use in construction) 

and interviews with researchers and vendors. Two 

workshops that involved technology and application 

developers, State departments of transportation, 

contractors, consultants, and other practitioners were 

also held.

The final task of the FHWA study involved the 

development of five use-case examples of potential 

highway construction activities that could be enhanced 

using AR. These use-cases were based on workshop 

outcomes that were then refined using research results 

from chapter 4, which focused on AR state of the 

practice. Each use-case was outlined in a narrative 

format with a description of the AR technology and 

workflow that would be used.

Research Objectives

A key study objective was to identify the availability, 

accessibility, and reliability of AR for construction 

inspection and review, QA, training, and project 

management. Other study objectives included 

documenting methodologies for managing data flows 

and integrating AR into highway agency design and 

planning workflows—in particular, how AR workflows 

are compatible with BIM workflows.

A final study objective was to identify current AR 

activities that could illuminate and promote AR in the 

construction management of highway infrastructure. 

The study identified emerging AR technologies being 

used in the field of construction and presented best 

practices and lessons learned from the use of AR in 

other industries.

DEFINITION OF AR 

Although AR and VR are often discussed in tandem, 

they are different. A widely accepted definition of AR 

states that it must combine real and virtual, be interactive 

in real time, and be registered in 3D space (Azuma 

1997). This definition does not require any specific 

output device, nor does it limit AR to visual media. AR 

provides an intuitive and direct connection between the 

physical world and digital information (Azuma 1997). 

AR is a general term for several display technologies 

capable of overlaying (or combining) alphanumeric, 

symbolic, and graphical information with a user’s 

real-world view. This technology provides aligned, 

correlated, stabilized, contextual, and intelligent 

information that augments the user’s understanding 

of his or her real-world view. By comparison, VR 

completely replaces the visual world experienced by the 

user (Azuma 1997).

Another term, mixed reality (MR), is becoming 

more common in product literature. Milgram and 

Kishino (1994) developed a continuum to define 

the relationship between AR, VR, and MR, which is 

illustrated in figure 1. 

With full reality at one end and full VR at the other end, 

the region in between is MR. AR is a subset of MR and 

lies near the reality end of the spectrum. A significant 

portion of the AR experience is based in the real world, 

augmented by computer-generated contextual data. 

The term augmented virtuality refers to the inverse, a 

mostly virtual experience that can be augmented with 

images or video from the real world. For construction 

applications, perception of the real world via AR with 

the associated virtual data and imagery are a powerful 

combination (Milgram and Kishino 1994). 

OVERVIEW OF AR TECHNOLOGIES 

General AR system architecture is described based on 

the type of sensory input device, the tracking device 

and software, the type of computing device, the form of 

media representation, and the data input mechanism.

AR Display Technologies

Two basic display types are found in AR systems—

handheld devices, such as smartphones or tablets, 

and head mounted–display (HMD) devices, such as 

headsets or glasses. Primary differences include the 

way the devices display imagery to users and track their 

position relative to the real world.

Figure 1. Illustration. The reality-virtuality continuum.

Source: FHWA.
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Handheld Devices

Smartphone and tablet devices are typically video seethrough (VST) displays that use back-facing cameras to 

capture video of the real-world environment and display 

that image on the front screen. With these displays, the 

device needs to be held close to eye level and at arm’s 

length to capture the widest field of view (FOV), which 

can be difficult over long periods and challenging in a 

construction site environment. 

Handheld devices typically use satellite network 

position (global navigation satellite system [GNSS]) 

tracking to determine the initial user location within a 

few meters and then use inertial movement to calculate 

their position as they are moved through space and 

change the view as the device is moved around. Some 

vendors have demonstrated prototype applications 

that optically track the imagery in the video feed to 

support registration with the real-world view and 

track movement. Many commercially available AR 

applications use a marker-based positioning tool in 

which a target is placed in the real world and viewed 

by the video feed to register the real-world position 

relative to the virtual model. 

HMDs

HMDs are typically optical see-through (OST) displays 

in which the view out from the device into the real 

world is overlaid in front by a computer-generated 

image. These devices offer more immersive and realistic 

experiences than handheld devices because the realworld view is direct and the virtual view is typically 

stereoscopic. The scene changes as the user moves his 

or her head. Most HMDs use a combination of inertial 

and visual tracking and are good at tracking the realworld scene once the user’s position is established. 

Like handheld devices, HMD devices rely on GNSS 

localization or markers in the field to determine the 

user’s initial position. Some AR application tools allow 

3D models of elements from the real world to be ported 

to the device and used to register the device view to the 

real-world elements. These virtual model elements are 

viewed over the real-world view and then used to line 

up the model elements to identical elements in the real 

world (Aukstakalnis 2017). 

Display Characteristics

Ocularity and Stereoscopy

Monocular devices present images to one eye. A 

monocular HMD can be used for AR, but these types of 

devices are not as immersive as stereoscopic devices. 

Google® glasses are an example of a monocular 

display. Perhaps the best use for monocular devices is 

text display or graphical annotation directly associated 

with real-world objects; this type of application could 

have use in training and inspection scenarios. Binocular 

displays present separate images to each eye, resulting 

in a stereoscopic effect and a stronger sense of realism 

and immersion. The trade-off is that separate images 

must be rendered for each eye, thus increasing system 

performance requirements.

Stereoscopy and Perception of Scale

Human vision is binocular and relies on disparities 

between each eye to perceive depth and the true scale 

of objects. Because AR and VR systems present images 

to each eye with the same geometry a user’s eyes would 

see in the real world, the user gets an immersive and 

realistic view that renders the depth and scale of objects 

much like a real-world view (Schmalstieg and Hollerer 

2016). 

Device Tracking—Sensing Movement 

Within the Real-World Environment

AR devices must follow a user’s movement relative to 

his or her position and orientation in the real world in 

real time. This tracking process is a significant challenge 

in AR design. Sensors in AR systems help track the 

location and orientation of the user’s device and the 

location of real objects and markers in the environment 

via real-world coordinates. Several technologies can 

track position and orientation, including sensors that 

monitor GNSS and wireless networks; inertial sensors; 

optical sensors, including video and infrared sensors; 

simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) 

processors; and sensors that perform 3D scanning of 

environments on the fly. For outdoor environments, 

hybrid systems combining inertial sensors and optical 

tracking technology are the most robust and establish 

the most accurate positioning for AR applications. 

Construction sites require high tracking accuracy, 

long-range tracking, high bandwidth, and the ability 

to process large amounts of data. Outdoor challenges 

include sensitivity to static and dynamic errors and less 

control over the environment. Construction sites change 

often, which may limit or even eliminate the ability to 

place static sensors or markers onsite.

User-Controlled Positioning and 

Navigation 

User navigation and interaction widely vary between 

AR devices and applications. Handheld devices 

typically support swiping and touch controls. Many 

HMD device manufacturers allow users to navigate 

and control virtual elements with hand and finger 

motions. Devices such as Intel® RealSenseTM and Leap 

Motion® natively support these gestural navigation 
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controls. The Microsoft® HoloLensTM uses audio-based 

commands and controls and gestures. Most systems 

support interaction with menus and virtual objects with 

a technique called “gaze and dwell” that involves 

a reticle in the scene showing where the user’s view 

is focused, and when that view is held for a certain 

amount of time on an object or menu (dwell), the object 

is selected, or the menu command is processed. 

Types of controls available on construction-focused AR 

applications will be a critical aspect of implementation 

and adoption for user safety and convenience in a 

complex construction site environment.

CHALLENGES FOR AR SYSTEMS IN 

CONSTRUCTION SITE ENVIRONMENTS

As noted, construction sites, especially highway 

construction sites, are particularly challenging for AR 

systems. Also, highway projects are typically smooth, 

flat, and curved and do not contain a lot of fine details, 

making it more difficult for 3D modeling systems to 

represent these types of objects so they are easily 

recognized by the user and the AR system. As a result, 

these elements will require more forethought and 

preparation for their use in AR systems.

Several technological challenges apply to all AR 

applications. Specific challengers related to construction 

applications are described in the following sections.

Performance and Portability

AR systems require significant processing power to 

concurrently support tracking processes and the realtime display of the virtual 3D model. To be truly useful 

in a construction site environment, AR devices must 

stand alone and be portable, which means processing 

for tracking and display must be on board the device. 

Some systems are tethered to a separate wearable 

computing device that reduces the necessary weight on 

an HMD. Larger 3D models, more accurate tracking, 

and increased display quality require more processing 

power. As AR systems evolve, there will be a trade-off 

in performance of the system and the size, weight, and 

comfort of the AR device.

Portability of the 3D virtual model assets is also a 

challenge because 3D project models can be quite 

large, depending on the level of detail and the area 

covered. The AR device must include enough onboard 

storage for the model assets or have access to a remote 

connectivity solution to allow the model to be streamed. 

Display Brightness

A key challenge with HMDs is the brightness of the 

virtual image that is overlaid onto the real-world view. 

In an OST AR device, the quality of the virtual image 

directly depends on the brightness of the real-world 

environment. Bright outdoor scenes are the most difficult 

for the display systems to match. Because typical 

highway construction sites are outdoors and bright, the 

quality and usefulness of most current AR HMD devices 

is limited.

Handheld devices have VST displays, and they control 

the real-world display on the screen. The video display 

and virtual displays are better matched in overall 

brightness, providing higher quality and greater realism 

of the displayed scene. Near term, handheld devices 

likely provide better opportunities for the use of AR at 

outdoor construction locations. 

FOV

A limiting factor of current devices is the available 

FOV presented to the user. In handheld devices, the 

display screen size and video feed limit the FOV. If the 

FOV of the video feed does not closely match the FOV 

displayed on the screen, there is a disconnect with the 

real-world view. In addition, the user must pan around 

with the device to view a large area, which could be 

prohibitive over long periods.

Current HMD technology in available devices is also 

limited in the FOV of the overlaid virtual model view that 

can be displayed to the user. In most current devices, 

approximately 60 degrees of virtual view is displayed. 

To view a large area, users must pan their heads back 

and forth to fill in the scene, which can be distracting 

and tiring over a long period.

As the ability of devices to display larger FOVs 

improves, performance requirements for tracking and 

virtual model processing by the systems will increase.

Occlusion

AR systems easily display virtual models on top or in 

front of the real-world image. In complex construction 

site environments, virtual elements in the model may 

need to be behind real-world elements. The occlusion, 

or masking, of the hidden elements presents a complex 

problem for AR, both in the calculation of the occlusion 

and in the display. When the occlusion is ignored or 

poorly displayed, the realism and immersive quality 

of the displayed scene are significantly affected. 

Commercially available systems do not currently 

support occlusion rendering.

Safety

Safety issues on a construction site are of particular 

concern. Handheld devices are held in front of the user, 

require the use of at least one hand, and can block 
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visibility. HMDs can limit the user’s peripheral view and 

block site sounds. Like any display device, some user 

attention will be focused on the device and not entirely 

on the surroundings. It is anticipated that these devices 

could be designed to recognize safety issues and risks 

for the user because they would know the user’s precise 

location on the site.

AR INFORMATION DISPLAY OPTIONS

AR can display several distinct categories of information 

with unique applications to a user on a construction site.

Display What Is Not Yet Constructed

Incorporating AR into a BIM workflow allows users 

to see 3D design models in the real-world context, 

providing them with the following opportunities: 

• Compare design alternatives in context.

• Check relationships between existing and future 

elements.

• Monitor site logistics and equipment movements.

• Preview complex installation procedures.

• Illustrate construction methods and sequencing.

• Participate in onsite training.

• Check traffic management plans and temporary 

structures.

Display What Was Intended to Be 

Constructed

AR can overlay and compare 3D design models (design 

intent) onto what was constructed in the field. Potential 

opportunities from this capability include the following: 

• Inspect and validate a site.

• Monitor code, standards, and compliance.

• Check quantities and work progress.

• Provide inspection training opportunities.

• Check traffic management plans and temporary 

structures.

Display What Is Hidden from View

AR allows the 3D display of existing elements that are 

not visible to the user in the real world. The challenge 

is to represent foreground objects as transparent or cut 

open so the user can see behind them. This capability 

would allow the user to visualize existing elements, 

such as buried utilities or structural components, that are 

obstructed from the current view.

Display Abstract Information Aligned with 

Real-World Context

AR can align and display abstract information that 

typically would only be available in a drawing plan 

view or virtual 3D model. These elements can be 

aligned and scaled to match visible real-world elements 

such as the following:

• Alignment information, easements, site boundaries, 

and right-of-way boundaries.

• Environmental boundaries, such as flood levels or 

sea-level rise data.

• Sensitive areas, such as archeological and historic 

sites.

• Potential work-zone hazards.

• Metadata tagged to real-world objects.

AR could also help display other types of remote 

information, including video feeds from another user or 

documentation, instructions, or user guides associated 

with real-world objects or activities. Abstract information 

for user safety could be displayed through AR—the 

system could monitor and display unsafe areas and risks 

or guide users safely through a construction site.

AR-ENABLING SOFTWARE AND 

APPLICATIONS

Several system-level platforms are designed for the 

development of AR applications on mobile devices 

and headsets. Each major operating system and 

Web browser developer has created a software 

development kit for AR. Many of these kits have built-in 

support for real-time game development platforms, 

such as Unreal 4TM and UnityTM. WebARTM is a 

JavaScriptTM library of browser-capable AR tools that 

allow the creation of simple AR interactivity in a Web 

environment.

AR applications for construction will likely leverage 

the display of annotated and graphical information 

that enhances the understanding of real-world objects 

or 3D design and construction models when that 

information is overlaid accurately in the real-world 

environment. Many current AR applications are already 

moving in this direction, and most are based on existing 

workflows and tools that support BIM applications 

for design and construction. These computer-aided 

drafting and design (CADD) and BIM tools are a logical 

starting point for AR tool development. It is reasonable 

to assume that many AR applications will eventually 

become extensions of current BIM and 3D model 

workflows rather than discrete processes. 
6

Virtually all major vendors, such as Autodesk, 

Bentley, and Trimble, for 3D design applications have 

implemented tools and workflows for deployment of 3D 

models to mobile devices for the field, and most support 

those devices’ built-in georeferencing capabilities. 

Most platforms for 3D design applications support 

the review and collection of data in the field through 

mobile devices. The data are then synchronized with 

project models and data in the office. Most of these 

vendors have also enabled deployment of these 

3D models to one or more of the AR HMD devices on 

the market through these mobile platforms. Although 

most of the tools offer ways to optimize models and 

model display on mobile devices with more limited 

processing power and storage, this optimization will be 

even more important for AR devices and applications 

that require enough graphics performance to support 

real-time stereoscopic rendering of the 3D models. 

Current limitations of most available AR HMDs include 

processing power, memory, data storage, and 

connectivity.

This challenge of bringing large 3D models to the work 

site is similar to that currently faced by agencies and 

contractors transitioning to BIM- and 3D model–based 

workflows. These workflows are now being used more in 

construction and will certainly be helpful in the adoption 

of AR tools for construction.

AR-READY DEVICES AND APPLICATIONS

Applications that currently support AR viewing on 

mobile devices could be used to display 3D design 

data in a construction site environment. One vendor has 

demonstrated a solution that includes a 3D modeling 

application, a platform for model deployment to mobile 

devices, and a construction site–ready mobile device 

that can access a model through the platform and 

register and track the model and viewer onsite in real 

time. This device is shown in figure 2. 

AR-Ready HMD

A few HMD devices have been used in demonstrations 

and prototype applications specifically for onsite AR 

display of 3D model data. Two of the more commonly 

used devices are the Microsoft HoloLens and the 

DAQRI® Smart HelmetTM and Smart GlassesTM. Figure 3 

shows a user viewing a virtual model through such 

a device.

AR-Ready Software Applications

Although no construction management–specific AR 

applications were found, several applications have 

recently been released that focus on the architectural 

design market. For some time, 3D viewing–specific 

applications intended to deploy 3D design models 

for viewing on different display devices have been on 

the market. Many of these vendors are now targeting 

commercially available AR devices. This trend will likely 

continue. As these applications and supported devices 

become more stable and portable, construction site–

specific tools will likely emerge.

Mobile Device–Based AR Viewing 

Applications

Several off-the-shelf AR applications allow the user to 

display a 3D model over the live video feed of a mobile 

device. The application is given a target image—either 

graphical (e.g., a plan or rendering) or a photograph. 

The image is printed out, and when the application 

on the mobile device recognizes the target image, the 

3D model is displayed in alignment as defined in the 

application. The model view is locked to the position of 

the target image in the video feed (figure 4). Many of 

these applications import standard 3D model formats 

from the major 3D design vendors.

Figure 3. Photo. User viewing bridge model through 

an HMD.

© 2019 WSP.

Figure 2. Handheld AR tablet device with GNSS 

tracking hardware.

© 2019 Trimble.
7

AR STATE OF THE PRACTICE

Few AR implementations specifically for highway 

construction were found; however, several research 

studies and product prototype development activities 

were identified that were closely related to highway 

construction and inspection. These activities represent 

workflows and technology applications that would be 

an important aspect of the development of highway 

construction–specific applications.

Some key examples of AR applications from this 

research include the following:

• Simplified, and sometimes relatively complex, 

3D model data were deployed to an AR device for 

display in the field. This process is currently unique 

to the device and system platform being used. 

The 3D model data flows required are similar to 

existing BIM-to-Field workflows being developed 

by 3D modeling and CADD software vendors. 

These workflows have been developed for the 

most common mobile device platforms. For specific 

headset devices, the workflow is commonly unique 

to that device (Jahangiri, Keane, and Tang 2017).

• Autodesk BIM 360 DocsTM is an established 

platform for sharing data in the cloud and is 

extensively used on collaborative design and 

construction projects. At Autodesk University 2018, 

Chen et al. discussed the results of a collaboration 

between DAQRI (a developer of AR headset 

devices), Autodesk, and McCarthy Building 

Companies, Inc. (a contractor), that leverages 

the BIM 360 Docs platform to support an AR 

application for validating design information in 

the field. The application was developed using the 

Autodesk ForgeTM system, which is used to create 

data flows and interfaces within the 360 platforms 

and accomplished several things that will be 

essential to AR workflows. The application used the 

DAQRI Smart Glasses wearable device (Chen et al. 

2018). 

• In an application presented by Los Alamos County, 

users measured areas of newly installed concrete 

pads to calculate contractor payment amounts. 

The users captured points with the AR device 

using a cursor, which was placed over real-world 

points and captured using finger gestures. Those 

points and the surface of the existing condition 

were captured and scanned by the sensors on the 

HoloLens. Data were processed later to interpret 

the 3D locations of the points and the areas of the 

surfaces enclosed (Moreu et al. 2018).

AR IN TRANSPORTATION CONSTRUCTION 

WORKSHOPS

The AR in Transportation Construction workshops 

educated participants on the current capabilities of AR 

technologies and related applications in MR, identified 

potential new applications for AR in transportation 

construction, and prioritized future applications of 

AR in the industry. The workshops offered interactive 

experiences for the participants to explore the 

capabilities of a range of AR devices and to engage in 

meaningful dialogue about future applications.

Workshop participants ranked the use-cases in terms 

of potential impact on transportation construction and 

feasibility of development. Final rankings include the 

following: 

• AR support of Right-of-Way Acquisition: Provide 

project visualization to property owners to better 

understand project impact and design options.

• Visual Variances: Visually tag schedule and quality 

variances in the field to ensure all parties view the 

same issues.

• Inspector’s Toolkit: Use AR to verify proper 

installation by providing the appropriate 

information and format for the inspector in the field.

• NextGen Training and Certification: Use 

AR-supported training and certification for 

construction inspection.

• Automated Inspection: Use AR to support 

automated code and standard compliance check of 

installed items through machine learning.

KEY RESEARCH FINDINGS

The FHWA Study “Leveraging Augmented Reality for 

Highway Construction” resulted in some key take-aways 

regarding AR and its application:

Figure 4. Photo. 3D model view overlaid on live video 

through a mobile device.

© 2019 WSP.
8

• AR hardware, applications, and workflows are 

rapidly changing and improving. During this 

research, several new AR technologies were 

released, and existing technologies and devices 

have advanced and dramatically improved. 

Conversely, several devices documented early in 

the study have disappeared—an indication of the 

industry’s instability and rapidly changing nature. 

• A few devices in the study focused on the 

architecture, engineering, and construction market, 

especially for interior architectural design and 

construction. The HMD devices with success in 

this market are mobile and offer robust support of 

commonly used 3D modeling platforms. 

• Most of the current AR devices were reported to 

have good tracking capabilities once registered 

in the real-world environment. Most devices and 

applications achieve good tracking results by using 

markers (or target images) in known locations. 

Once localized, devices track user movement and 

view with image, 3D, and inertial motion tracking. 

• Challenges with AR visualization were found in 

outdoor and unstructured open-area environments. 

Tracking sensors require adequate detail, which 

highway construction sites may lack, to efficiently 

track the real world. 

• Challenges with HMD devices include visual 

display performance, durability in a construction 

site environment, onboard digital storage capacity, 

and access to onsite wireless communication. 

Safety is also an ongoing concern.

• Tablet devices are making more rapid advances in 

the highway construction field because they have 

fewer display and viewing limitations. The trade-off 

is less accurate tracking technology, and thus, less 

precision of the registration of virtual to real-world 

imagery. One vendor focuses on this market by 

combining a tablet-viewing device integrated with 

special hardware and software to provide higherprecision tracking and better registration of virtual 

3D data to the real-world view.

• A unique application of AR headset devices is the 

ability to leverage the 3D scanning hardware used 

for AR tracking to capture existing 3D data in the 

field. The precision of the data depends on several 

factors, including available site survey information 

and the scanning precision of the sensor hardware. 

On a typical highway construction site with good 

survey targets and a robust 3D model–based 

workflow, this capability will become an important 

aspect of AR implementation, especially for site 

inspections.

• Workflows that support AR devices for this industry 

are similar to 3D model–based workflows and BIM 

processes. Data flow and 3D model management 

challenges are similar to current BIM workflow 

challenges.

REFERENCES

Aukstakalnis, S. 2017. Practical Augmented Reality: 

A Guide to the Technologies, Applications, and 

Human Factors for AR and VR. Boston, MA: 

Addison-Wesley.

Azari, H., K. Gilson, J. Mallela, and P. Goodrum. In 

press. Leveraging Augmented Reality for Highway 

Construction. Report No. FHWA-HRT-20-038. 

Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration. 

Azuma, R. 1997. “A Survey of Augmented Reality.” 

Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 6, 

no. 4: 355–385.

Chen, P., J. Moffett, J. Negrete, and D. Tyner. 2018. 

“Mixing Realities: A McCarthy, Autodesk, DAQRI 

Partnership.” Autodesk, Las Vegas, NV (website). 

https://www.autodesk.com/autodesk-university/

class/Mixing-Realities-McCarthy-Autodesk-DAQRIPartnership-2018. Accessed June 4, 2019.

Jahangiri, B., D. Keane, and W. Tang. 2017. 

“Augmented Reality: Practical Applications for 

Real World Problems.” Autodesk, Las Vegas, NV 

(website). https://www.autodesk.com/autodeskuniversity/class/Augmented-Reality-PracticalApplications-Real-World-Problems-2017. Accessed 

June 4, 2019.

Milgram, P., and F. Kishino. 1994. “A Taxonomy of 

Mixed Reality Visual Displays.” IEICE Transactions 

on Information and Systems E77-D, no. 12: 1321–

1329.

Moreu, F., M. Injante, D. Maharjan, P. Shelton, B. 

Glisic, and D. Mascarenas. 2018. “TRB Straight to 

Recording for All: Augmented Reality for Structural 

Inspections.” Transportation Research Board, 

Washington, DC (website). http://www.trb.org/

ElectronicSessions/Blurbs/178486.aspx. Accessed 

March 19, 2019.

Schmalstieg, D., and T. Hollerer. 2016. Augmented 

Reality, Principles and Practice (Usability). Boston, 

MA: Addison-Wesley.
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 AUGUST 2020 FHWA-HRT-20-037

HRDI-20/08-20(WEB)E

Researchers—This study was conducted by Kevin Gilson and Jagannath Mallela, Ph.D., from WSP and Paul 

Goodrum, Ph.D., from the University of Colorado at Boulder, under contract DTFH6117C00027.

Distribution—This TechBrief is being distributed according to a standard distribution. 

Availability—This TechBrief may be obtained online at https://highways.dot.gov/research.

Key Words—Augmented reality, AR, virtual reality, construction.

Notice—This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation 

(USDOT) in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government assumes no liability for the use of the 

information contained in this document. The U.S. Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. 

Trademarks or manufacturers’ names appear in this TechBrief only because they are considered essential to the 

objective of the document.

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