Federal Railroad

Administration

U.S. Department

of Transportation

Work Schedule Manager Gap Analysis: 

Assessing the Future Training Needs of 

Work Schedule Managers Using a Strategic 

Job Analysis Approach

Office of Research and

Development

Washington, DC 20590

DOT/FRA/ORD-10/05 Draft Final Report

May 2010
NOTICE

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Work Schedule Manager Gap Analysis: Assessing the Future Training 

Needs of Work Schedule Managers Using a Strategic Job Analysis 

Approach FG385/RR04

DTFR53-06-G-00010

DTFR53-07-G-00007 6. AUTHOR(S)

Stephanie Morrow, Benjamin Walsh, Manijeh Badiee, Terry Stentz, 

David Nash, Vicki Plano Clark, Janet Barnes-Farrell, and James Impara

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION 

REPORT NUMBERS

U.S. DOT/RITA/John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center,

55 Broadway, Cambridge, MA 02142-1093

University of Connecticut Industrial Psychology Applications Center, 

406 Babbidge Road, Storrs, CT 06269-1020

University of Nebraska–Lincoln, W145 Nebraska Hall, Lincoln, NE 

68588

IPAC TR-2009-03

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U.S. Department of Transportation

Federal Railroad Administration

1200 New Jersey Ave., SE

Washington, DC 20590

DOT/FRA/ORD-10/05

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Program Manager: Michael Coplen, Federal Railroad Administration

12a. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE

This document is available to the public through the FRA Web site at 

http://www.fra.dot.gov.

13. ABSTRACT

This report documents the results of a strategic job analysis that examined the job tasks and knowledge, skills, abilities, 

and other characteristics (KSAOs) needed to perform the job of a work schedule manager. The strategic job analysis 

compared information from subject matter experts (SMEs) about best practices in work scheduling to job incumbents’ 

reports of current practices in their scheduling job duties. Data were collected through interviews and surveys with 17 

SMEs in academia and consulting and 16 job incumbents within 11 organizations representing a wide array of 

industries. Gaps between the job tasks and KSAOs that should be important for future work schedule management and 

the job tasks and KSAOs currently used in work schedule management were assessed both quantitatively and 

qualitatively. The results pointed to a need for additional training in understanding how work scheduling affects 

employee health, safety, and performance. In addition, scheduling managers should be better informed about 

ergonomic schedule designs and empowered to evaluate their scheduling systems so as to identify and address 

problems with the system. The report discusses the critical gaps in job tasks and KSAOs and how those gaps should be 

ameliorated through the development of a certification for work schedule managers.

14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF 

PAGES

job analysis, needs assessment, gap analysis, shift work, fatigue, human factors, training, 

certification, credential, work scheduling, knowledge, skills, abilities, job tasks

117

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ii

METRIC/ENGLISH CONVERSION FACTORS 

ENGLISH TO METRIC METRIC TO ENGLISH

LENGTH (APPROXIMATE) LENGTH (APPROXIMATE)

1 inch (in) = 2.5 centimeters (cm) 1 millimeter (mm) = 0.04 inch (in)

1 foot (ft) = 30 centimeters (cm) 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.4 inch (in)

1 yard (yd) = 0.9 meter (m) 1 meter (m) = 3.3 feet (ft)

1 mile (mi) = 1.6 kilometers (km) 1 meter (m) = 1.1 yards (yd)

1 kilometer (km) = 0.6 mile (mi)

AREA (APPROXIMATE) AREA (APPROXIMATE)

1 square inch (sq in, in2) = 6.5 square centimeters 

(cm2

) 

1 square centimeter (cm2

) = 0.16 square inch (sq in, in2) 

1 square foot (sq ft, ft2) = 0.09 square meter (m2) 1 square meter (m2) = 1.2 square yards (sq yd, 

yd2

) 

1 square yard (sq yd, yd2) = 0.8 square meter (m2) 1 square kilometer (km2) = 0.4 square mile (sq mi, mi2) 

1 square mile (sq mi, mi2) = 2.6 square kilometers 

(km2

) 

10,000 square meters (m2

) = 1 hectare (ha) = 2.5 acres

1 acre = 0.4 hectare (he) = 4,000 square meters (m2) 

MASS - WEIGHT (APPROXIMATE) MASS - WEIGHT (APPROXIMATE)

1 ounce (oz) = 28 grams (gm) 1 gram (gm) = 0.036 ounce (oz)

1 pound (lb) = 0.45 kilogram (kg) 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 pounds (lb)

1 short ton = 2,000 

pounds (lb)

= 0.9 tonne (t) 1 tonne (t) =

=

1,000 kilograms (kg) 

1.1 short tons

VOLUME (APPROXIMATE) VOLUME (APPROXIMATE)

1 teaspoon (tsp) = 5 milliliters (ml) 1 milliliter (ml) = 0.03 fluid ounce (fl oz)

1 tablespoon (tbsp) = 15 milliliters (ml) 1 liter (l) = 2.1 pints (pt)

1 fluid ounce (fl oz) = 30 milliliters (ml) 1 liter (l) = 1.06 quarts (qt)

1 cup (c) = 0.24 liter (l) 1 liter (l) = 0.26 gallon (gal)

1 pint (pt) = 0.47 liter (l)

1 quart (qt) = 0.96 liter (l)

1 gallon (gal) = 3.8 liters (l)

1 cubic foot (cu ft, ft3) = 0.03 cubic meter (m3) 1 cubic meter (m3) = 36 cubic feet (cu ft, ft3) 

1 cubic yard (cu yd, yd3) = 0.76 cubic meter (m3) 1 cubic meter (m3) = 1.3 cubic yards (cu yd, yd3)

TEMPERATURE (EXACT) TEMPERATURE (EXACT)

[(x-32)(5/9)] °F = y °C [(9/5) y + 32] °C = x °F

QUICK INCH - CENTIMETER LENGTH CONVERSION

0 1 2 3 4 5

Inches

Centimeters 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 987 1110 1312

QUICK FAHRENHEIT - CELSIUS TEMPERATURE CONVERSIO

 -40° -22° -4° 14° 32° 50° 68° 86° 104° 122° 140° 158° 176° 194° 212°

 

°F

 °C -40° -30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100°
iii

Acknowledgments

This research was conducted as a joint effort among the John A. Volpe National Transportation 

Systems Center (Volpe Center), the University of Connecticut Industrial Psychology Applications 

Center, and the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. The Federal Railroad Administration’s (FRA’s) 

Office of Research and Development funded this research effort. We thank Michael Coplen, 

Senior Evaluator and Manager of the Culture and Safety Performance Program in FRA’s Office of 

Research and Development, and Dr. Stephen Popkin, Director of the Human Factors Research and 

System Applications Center of Innovation at the Volpe Center, for their support and guidance. We 

also like to acknowledge several individuals who generously provided their time and support: 

Dr. Heidi Howarth and Tara DiDomenico at the Volpe Center for their assistance conducting 

interviews, focus groups, and feedback on survey and interview materials, and Janet Renoe at 

the University of Nebraska for assisting with everything from interviewing to organizing 

meetings and managing records. Finally, we want to express our special thanks to all of the 

consultants, researchers, and work scheduling managers who agreed to participate in the 

interviews, surveys, and focus groups. Their candid comments and insights were critical to the 

success of this project. 

The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of 

the Volpe Center, the Research and Innovative Technology Administration, FRA, or the U.S. 

Department of Transportation. 
iv

Contents

Executive Summary .................................................................................................................... 1

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 4

1.1. Background ................................................................................................................. 5

1.2. The Research Team .................................................................................................... 6

2. Strategic Job Analysis ........................................................................................................ 7

2.1. Preliminary Research: Job Task Development ........................................................... 7

2.2. Phase 1: Subject Matter Experts ................................................................................. 8

2.3. Phase 2: Job Incumbents .......................................................................................... 10

3. Gap Analysis .................................................................................................................... 12

3.1. Methodology ............................................................................................................. 12

3.2. Results and Discussion ............................................................................................. 14

4. Recommendations for Training Development ................................................................. 23

4.1. Consultant Recommendations .................................................................................. 23

4.2. Academician Recommendations .............................................................................. 24

4.3. Feedback from Followup Survey ............................................................................. 27

5. Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 29

6. References ........................................................................................................................ 31

Appendix A: Research Team .................................................................................................... 33

Appendix B: Preliminary List of Job Tasks ............................................................................. 35

Appendix C: Materials from Consultant Panel Discussion ...................................................... 38

Appendix D: Materials from Researcher Interviews ................................................................ 46

Appendix E: Finalized KSAOs and Followup Survey ............................................................. 49

Appendix F: Job Incumbent Interview Materials ..................................................................... 59

Appendix G: Job Incumbent Demographics ............................................................................ 72

Appendix H: Qualitative KSAO Content Analysis Tables ...................................................... 74

Appendix I: Job Task Gap Analysis Summary Tables ............................................................. 90

Appendix J: KSAO Importance Rating and Ranking Data ...................................................... 92

Appendix K: KSAO Gap Analysis Summary Tables ............................................................. 100
1 

Executive Summary 

More than 21 million wage and salary workers, or almost 18 percent of the U.S. workforce, 

currently work other-than-day work schedules (McMenamin, 2007). Research has shown that 

poor schedule design can have negative implications for worker performance, safety, and 

health, and as a result cost U.S. businesses approximately $206 billion per year (Broughton 

and Ogilvie, 1992; Tepas, 2001; Kerin and Aguirre, 2005). Yet the vast majority of 

supervisors and managers who perform shift work scheduling and management have no 

formal training in the human factors of sleep, the health and safety impacts of shift work, or 

the array of methods and formulas for designing and managing low stress-high productivity 

work schedules and shift rotations (Kryger, Roth, and Dement, 2000). An apparent gap exists 

between research and practice when it comes to work schedule management, and that gap 

needs to be documented and addressed in industry. 

As part of its efforts to investigate new approaches to work scheduling and fatigue 

management, the Federal Railroad Administration’s (FRA’s) Office of Research and 

Development sponsored this preliminary assessment of the need for advanced training in 

work schedule management and potential for subsequent development of a certification for 

scheduling managers. Although there may be substantial differences in the mechanisms 

associated with managing work schedule operations in general, and fatigue in particular, the 

nature of the problems is very similar across occupational classifications. Therefore, this 

phase of research sought to document the job tasks and knowledge, skills, abilities, and other 

characteristics (KSAOs) common to work schedule managers across a broad array of 

industries that operate multiple and/or around-the-clock work shifts. 

The fundamental goal of this research project was to investigate and identify the gaps between 

the job tasks and KSAOs that work schedule managers should have and what they currently 

have. This was accomplished through the implementation of a strategic job analysis 

comparing information from subject matter experts (SMEs) about best practices in work 

scheduling to job incumbents’ reports of current practices in their scheduling job duties. 

In Phase 1, future-oriented job task and KSAO information was collected from 17 SMEs with 

high-level knowledge of shift scheduling best practices and with experience implementing 

schedule changes in organizations. Ten industry experts were interviewed in a panel 

discussion format, and each brought at least 10 years (yr) of experience consulting for 

organizations that operate around-the-clock. Seven academic experts participated in one-onone telephone interviews and were chosen based on a track record of publishing and 

presenting research related to the health and safety of shift workers. In total, 6 job tasks, 14 

types of knowledge, 14 skills, 12 abilities, and 12 other characteristics were identified as 

critical for work schedule managers. 

In Phase 2, current job task and KSAO information were collected from job incumbents in 

various types of industries that operate around-the-clock. Individual in-person interviews were 

conducted with 16 job incumbents from 11 different organizations. The job incumbents 

worked in the fields of transportation, public utilities, health care, hospitality, public safety, 

and manufacturing. 
2 

The research team used a mixed methods approach to determine an overall assessment of the 

gaps between SMEs’ and job incumbents’ reports of important job tasks and KSAOs in work 

schedule management. The assessment considered quantitative ratings of importance and 

qualitative differences in importance based on a content analysis of interview transcripts. 

Each job task was given one of three labels: minimal gaps, moderate gaps, or significant gaps 

exist. The KSAOs were divided into one of four tiers based on ratings of importance (higher 

tiered KSAOs were rated as more important) and then categorized into one of the three gap 

levels mentioned previously. 

Results suggest that the most significant gaps in job tasks concern addressing the particular 

demands of shift work. Assisting employees with managing shift work schedules and 

monitoring performance and safety to determine whether there are shift-related safety risks 

are key responsibilities that should be managed by shift work schedulers in an organization. 

Employees and organizations need an internal resource to aid them in managing and 

understanding the challenges of shift work. Current work schedule managers may not have 

the knowledge or tools to carry out these activities.

Critical (tier 1) KSAOs demonstrating significant gaps can be divided into two categories: 

knowledge concerning the inputs needed to design work schedules and characteristics needed 

to understand and manage the health and safety risks associated with shift work. Although 

SMEs and job incumbents agreed that these KSAOs were very important, most of the job 

incumbents we interviewed did not demonstrate the level of scheduling design or health and 

safety knowledge that SMEs indicated should be required. However, there were a few 

exceptions. Two of the job incumbents interviewed reported having specialized training. 

Training beyond what was acquired on-the-job assisted both of these scheduling managers in 

carrying out their job responsibilities, albeit in different ways. Yet training is neither 

standardized nor easily accessible to all scheduling managers at this time.

The gap analysis of job tasks and KSAOs revealed a common theme: additional training is 

needed to aid work schedule managers in understanding how the design of work schedules 

can impact employee health, safety, and performance. The incumbents interviewed were fully 

capable of maintaining work schedules and making minor changes to scheduling to account 

for absenteeism, turnover, or overtime needs. However, they may not be qualified to identify 

problems in the schedule design and/or make changes to the system to address those 

problems. SMEs reflected that schedulers and their employing organizations appear to be 

underestimating the importance of proper schedule design. 

Nonetheless, caution should be used when extrapolating these results to the entire population 

of employees with work scheduling job duties. Only a few scheduling managers were 

interviewed for this study. In addition, there were relatively few statistically significant 

differences between empirical ratings of importance. Conclusions are based on holistic 

observations of the quantitative and qualitative data collected and should be used to provide 

guidance for future studies and training development efforts. Additional research is necessary 

to identify training and certification needs in specific occupations, especially considering the 

identified need for substantial industry-specific knowledge in work schedule management. 

Another consideration when moving forward with a work schedule manager certification 

program is that different levels of training need to be developed to target varying levels of 
3

skill development. SMEs indicated that scheduling expertise varies based on industry, type of 

operation, and the size of an organization. Variations in expertise were also evident across job 

incumbent interviews. Work schedule management training is needed at all levels, from firstline supervisors to the next generation of shift work consultants. Addressing the training need 

at different levels requires different kinds of programs, ranging from short-term seminars to 

graduate-level training.

Overall, SMEs expressed enthusiasm for the development of a certification program and 

confirmed the need for greater levels of expertise in work scheduling. Many also expressed 

interest in assisting with the development of training curricula. Job incumbents were helpful 

and cooperative, and confirmed that work scheduling is often not a streamlined process. 

Training, technology, schedule designs, and even “rules of thumb” differ greatly within and 

among organizations. The outcomes of this project suggest that training work schedule 

managers involves finding a balance between company needs and occupational health and 

safety concerns and helping managers navigate that balancing act.
4 

1. Introduction

More than 21 million wage and salary workers, or almost 18 percent of the U.S. workforce, 

currently work other-than-day work schedules (McMenamin, 2007). The global economy is 

fast becoming a 24-hour (h) society of work and activity. The steady increase in these 

nontraditional and 24/7 work schedules over the past century has resulted in less work 

flexibility, extended workdays, and irregular work hours in many industries. Research shows 

that the failure to address these scheduling issues properly can result in productivity losses, 

increased worker stress, higher levels of chronic fatigue and sleep deprivation, increased 

illness, and higher accident injury rates (Broughton and Ogilvie, 1992; Tepas, 2001). 

Furthermore, a recent economic analysis conducted by Circadian Technologies estimated the 

corporate cost of implementing poorly designed work schedules at approximately $206 billion 

per year for U.S. businesses (Kerin and Aguirre, 2005). Not only is the corporate workforce 

involved in managing work schedule operations, but so too are many state and federal 

agencies, such as state police, FRA, and the military. 

Many companies, industries, and government agencies have attempted to ameliorate these 

negative consequences by instituting fatigue management and educational programs, 

developing fatigue management tools, and implementing other fatigue countermeasure 

strategies. However, fatigue is generally considered the outcome of multiple factors, including 

work schedule arrangements, and is often regarded as a cause of poor performance and 

increased accident risk, rather than a symptom of a more system-based problem. This is an 

important distinction, because the development of training or tools to address one part of 

fatigue is unlikely to address the root of the problem, nonergonomic work schedule design, in 

any systematic way. Although a rich and mature body of literature exists on issues 

surrounding the different aspects of fatigue and its relationship with proper work schedule 

design and staffing analyses, this common body of scientific knowledge is largely 

inaccessible to those who need it most. More often it has been distilled and used primarily by 

management-consulting organizations, typically on a reactive basis to help correct an 

identified and specific problem related to fatigue. 

Although there is a current trend to develop competency-based training for individuals who 

schedule shift workers, this training is predominately focused on fatigue management issues, 

not ergonomic work scheduling. No uniform training exists for individuals who are 

responsible for managing work schedule operations. The vast majority of supervisors and 

managers who perform shift work scheduling and management have no formal training in the 

human factors of sleep, social impacts of shift work, health and safety risks, or the array of 

methods and formulas for designing and managing low stress-high productivity work 

schedules and shift rotations (Kryger, Roth, and Dement, 2000). Furthermore, to our 

knowledge, no published studies provide a detailed and thorough analysis of the job 

requirements, skills, abilities, and knowledge required to perform shift work scheduling. In 

fact, there is no entry for “work scheduler” or “shift scheduler” in the O*NET Occupational 

Information Database. Most organizations combine the responsibilities for staffing, schedule 

design, and the general management of work schedule operations with other management or 

administrative duties. 
5

Although substantial differences may exist in the mechanisms associated with managing work 

schedule operations in general, and fatigue in particular, the nature of the problems is very 

similar across occupational classifications. Proper staffing levels and a tailored, ergonomic 

work schedule that fits the worker population and type of operation are the fundamental 

building blocks necessary to minimize consequent issues of fatigue in the workforce. It is 

therefore considered crucial that those responsible for managing complex operations that 

involve multiple round-the-clock work schedules receive the training and tools necessary to 

perform this job properly. 

1.1 Background

In August 2004 a meeting of government stakeholders was convened to review and build on a 

prospectus to determine the means, methodology, and viability of creating a certification for 

work schedule managers. The goal of this program is to create “champions” of scheduling 

best practice principles within 24/7 industries and government agencies. Meeting attendees 

agreed that the first step in the development of this certification was to document the need for 

a certification in around-the-clock industries. This documentation is crucial for justifying the 

funding requests for this program. 

The proposed certification program is targeted at managers and first-line supervisors across 

various work contexts who are responsible for the scheduling of multiple shifts. The goal of 

this program is to provide scheduling managers with the fundamental knowledge and tools to 

assess scheduling concerns and needs regarding their specific 24/7 operations, be it schedule 

design, implementation, staffing, shift relief, fatigue awareness and management, legislation 

and legal issues, or lifestyle training.

To understand the necessary knowledge and skills these managers should possess, the 

government committee initiated a project that would gain insight about these topics from an 

identified group of work scheduling experts and job incumbents. The information collected 

from these groups would lay the proper foundation for developing the proposed certification 

program curriculum.

The initial step in developing this credential was to perform a job analysis for those positions 

and people who are responsible for managing work schedules and other shift work operations. 

Job analysis refers to a category of methodologies for capturing the various work tasks that 

encompass a job and the KSAOs required to carry out those tasks. 

A strategic job analysis was conducted in two phases. The first phase consisted of information 

gathering from identified SMEs in the field of work scheduling and shift work research and 

consulting. These data reflect the job tasks and KSAOs the SMEs believe should be necessary 

to manage fatigue and work schedule operations effectively. The second phase consisted of 

interviews with job incumbents, those people who are employed in existing positions with 

responsibilities for staffing, scheduling and managing work schedule operations. This 

information was used to identify the current KSAOs used to carry out work scheduling job 

functions. A gap analysis was then conducted to compare information from SMEs to that 

obtained from job incumbents and identify commonalities and gaps in KSAOs. Finally, we 

provide recommendations as to the KSAOs that should be targeted in the development of 

training requirements for a work schedule manager credentialing program.
6

1.2 The Research Team

This project was a collaborative effort incorporating individuals from different disciplinary 

and methodological backgrounds affiliated with the University of Connecticut, the University 

of Nebraska–Lincoln, the John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center (Volpe 

Center), FRA, and two independent consultants. Team members included faculty and 

graduate researchers in industrial and organizational psychology with expertise in job analysis 

and quantitative research methods, a faculty member in industrial engineering with experience 

in researching sleep and fatigue issues at work operations, a methodologist in counseling 

psychology with expertise in mixed methods and qualitative research and a graduate research 

assistant with prior experience conducting qualitative research, applied human factors 

researchers in fatigue issues in the transportation industry, a private consultant in fatigue 

mitigation in round-the-clock work scheduling, and a private consultant in educational 

certification and credentialing. A complete list of the people involved in this project is 

presented in Appendix A.
7

2. Strategic Job Analysis

The methodology used for the current job analysis study is consistent with recommendations 

provided by Brannick and Levine (2002) for conducting a combination job analysis (C-JAM), 

and recommendations from Singh (2008) for developing a strategic, forward-looking job 

analysis framework. 

The C-JAM is a type of hybrid job analysis that uses multiple kinds of data collection 

procedures to acquire information about job requirements and worker requirements. C-JAM 

focuses on developing task statements about the job, identifying the KSAOs needed to 

perform the job, and then rating both the tasks and KSAOs based on their importance for job 

performance. 

A strategic job analysis, as defined by Singh (2008), is a purposeful, systematic process of 

collecting current and future work-related aspects of a job. The strategic job analysis approach 

breaks from traditional job analyses by defining job tasks and KSAOs required for a job as the 

job is predicted to exist in the future. Singh’s approach to conducting a strategic job analysis 

also incorporates a gap analysis, whereby present KSAOs are compared with future KSAO 

needs to determine whether significant differences exist that will need to be addressed in the 

future by making changes to such things as training requirements, selection procedures, or job 

design.

The current project lends itself well to a combination of both methodologies. In Phase 1, 

future-oriented job task and KSAO information was collected from SMEs with high-level 

knowledge of shift-scheduling best practices and with experience in implementing schedule 

changes in organizations. In Phase 2, current job task and KSAO information was collected 

from job incumbents well-qualified to address the current state of shift schedule management 

in various types of industries that operate 24/7.

2.1 Preliminary Research: Job Task Development

A member of the project team with extensive work scheduling experience was directed to 

brainstorm 30–100 activities that a worker would need to successfully schedule shift workers. 

The SME developed a list of 52 tasks during this activity. Two additional members of the 

project team familiar with job analysis techniques sorted through the list of job tasks and 

categorized them into four distinct job task groups: 1) scheduling, 2) work monitoring, 3) 

reporting and recordkeeping, and 4) communication and training. Task statements were then 

developed based on the four job task groups. Additional iterations resulted in two additional 

task statements. The scheduling job task group was divided into two separate tasks: one 

related to work-schedule development and the other to day-to-day schedule maintenance 

activities. In addition, subtasks from the other three job task groups were reorganized to create 

a new task related to establishing policies and programs that addresses the particular demands 

of shift working. Thus, a final list of six broad job tasks was developed, with more specific 

subtasks listed as examples underneath each general task statement. The six broad job task 

statements and exemplar subtasks are listed in Appendix B.
8

2.2 Phase 1: SMEs

2.2.1 Panel Discussion with Consultants

On May 15, 2007, 10 consultants specializing in shift work scheduling practices were invited 

to the Volpe Center in Cambridge, MA, to participate in a panel discussion concerning current 

practices and future needs in shift work scheduling. The consultants were chosen to 

participate in the panel because each brought at least 10 yr of consulting experience with 

various organizations that operate around-the-clock. Their consulting duties typically 

consisted of implementing environmental (including schedule system) changes to optimize 

operational functioning and organizational performance. The participating consultants’ names 

and affiliations are listed in Appendix C1.

The daylong meeting began with a discussion of current shift work scheduling practices so as 

to establish that a need exists for the position of a work schedule manager in 24/7 industries. 

The consultants were then asked to participate in a job analysis activity designed to identify 

the KSAOs necessary to perform the job of a work schedule manager. The meeting concluded 

with a discussion of the next steps that must be taken by government and industry to create 

and train employees for work schedule manager positions. The recommendations suggested 

by panel participants are presented in Section 4.1 of this report.

The job analysis activity began by providing the consultants with a copy of the preliminary 

list of six job tasks and initiating discussion of whether the job tasks fit within their 

conceptualization of a work schedule manager. Each task was examined individually, and any 

proposed changes were documented on a flip chart by one of two activity leaders (also 

members of the project team). Although there was agreement that the six proposed tasks 

encompassed the broadly defined job of a work schedule manager, some wording changes 

were suggested and implemented to better clarify the scope of each of the job tasks. The 

revised wordings are presented in Appendix C2, along with an explanation regarding the 

intent behind any word changes that were made.

Consultants were then divided into three break-out groups and assigned two of the six job 

tasks identified above. Each group was then given approximately 40 minutes (min) (20 min 

per job task) to brainstorm the KSAOs needed to perform each of their assigned job tasks. 

Definitions and examples of KSAOs were provided to participants (see Appendix C3) to 

facilitate the brainstorming of KSAOs. After 40 min had passed, the groups reconvened in the 

central meeting room to discuss the KSAOs identified for each job task. All panel participants 

were encouraged to ask questions and suggest additional KSAOs during the discussion. The 

outcomes of this activity, a list of KSAOs by task, are reported in Appendix C4.

2.2.2 Interviews with Academic Researchers

Interviews over a period of 6 months (mo) from July 20, 2007 through January 23, 2008 were 

conducted with seven shift work experts in academia. The academic experts were chosen 

based on a track record of publishing and presenting research related to the health and safety 

of shift workers. Areas of expertise included sleep, circadian physiology, long work hours, 

irregular work schedules, fatigue, alertness, abnormal sleep/wake schedules, and use of 

medications and sleep quality. The interviews were completed over the telephone using a 

semistructured format and averaged 1 h in length. The participating interviewees’ names and 

affiliations are listed in Appendix D1.
9

Each interview was divided into two primary discussion areas. In the first half of the 

interview, interviewees were asked a series of questions about the KSAOs needed to perform 

the job of a work schedule manager. Each interviewee was provided with the list of revised 

job tasks (established during the SME panel discussion) before the scheduled interview and 

directed to consider those tasks when brainstorming KSAOs. The questions the interviewers 

used to direct the discussion and the resulting KSAOs identified across all seven interviews 

are presented in Appendix D2.

The second half of each interview was devoted to a general discussion of the difficulties of 

managing work schedules in a 24/7 environment and suggestions for how a certification 

program could be developed and sustained. The discussion resulting from each of the 

interviews varied greatly as a result of the diverse backgrounds of the academicians. As such, 

some questions were attended to in depth by some interviewees and less so by others. The 

interviews are summarized in Section 4.2 of this report. 

2.2.3 Followup Survey with SMEs

The lists of KSAOs developed during the SME panel discussion and subsequent SME 

interviews were combined and reduced to a master list. All duplicate entries were eliminated,

and some entries were reworded for clarification purposes.

In total, 6 job tasks, 14 types of knowledge, 14 skills, 12 abilities, and 12 other characteristics 

were identified as critical for work schedule managers (see Appendix E1). The research team 

then used this information to create a Web-based survey designed to prioritize the established 

job tasks and KSAOs. 

Job tasks were rated on two dimensions: task difficulty and criticality of performance. 

Respondents were asked to rate their perceptions of how difficult it is to complete each task 

on a seven-point scale from (1) extremely easy to (7) extremely difficult. For each task, 

respondents were also asked to rate the extent to which completing the task incorrectly would 

result in negative consequences (criticality) on a five-point scale from (1) extremely negative 

consequences to (5) no negative consequences. 

KSAOs were rated on two dimensions: level of importance and whether formal training 

would be useful. Respondents were asked to rate the extent to which it is important for a work 

schedule manager to possess each KSAO on a five-point scale from (1) not at all important to 

(5) extremely important. Respondents were also asked to indicate whether each KSAO could 

be taught within the context of a formal, standardized training program with a (1) yes or (2) 

no response.

Survey participants were also given the opportunity, via open-ended questions, to suggest 

additional job tasks or KSAOs that were not addressed in the survey and to provide general 

feedback about the job tasks and KSAOs needed by work schedule managers. A summary of 

the feedback is provided in Section 4.3 of this report.

All of the SMEs who participated in either the panel discussion or an interview were invited 

to participate in the web-based survey hosted by surveymonkey.com. In total, 9 out of 16 
10

SMEs participated, resulting in a response rate of 56 percent (see Appendix E2 for a copy of 

the survey).

2.3 Phase 2: Job Incumbents

Phase 2 built on the data collection efforts of Phase 1 by studying the perspectives of job

incumbents, or practicing work schedulers. Scheduling is a necessary component of any job 

that requires multiple shifts; the job tasks associated with scheduling cut across many 

different industries. Thus, we used a maximal variation sampling strategy to gather 

information from a diverse range of industries. Maximal variation sampling is intended to 

capture and describe themes that cut across an array of cases (Patton, 2002; Creswell, 2008). 

Characteristics that potentially define the sample are identified to categorize the cases. In this 

project, organizations were targeted for participation to capitalize on industry differences. 

Specifically, we sought to interview employees in organizations representing broad industry 

categories of operations, service, and processing. In operation industries, work scheduling is 

dependent on staffing requirements and is commonly managed by using bid systems. In 

service industries, work scheduling is determined by the needs of society, typically resulting 

in fluctuating schedules or proportional staffing. In processing industries, work scheduling is 

determined by the demands of continuous equipment operation, typically resulting in roundthe-clock schedules 7 days a week. Operation industries were sampled through interviews in 

transportation (n = 2) and public utility maintenance and power generation (n = 2), and 

service industries were sampled through interviews in health care (n = 2), hospitality (n = 1), 

public safety (n = 3), and public utility service and dispatching (n = 3). Processing industries 

were sampled through interviews in manufacturing (n = 3).

Interviews were conducted with 16 participants from 11 different organizations over a period 

of 4 months, from October 2, 2008, to January 26, 2009. Nine interviews were conducted by 

members of the research team from the University of Nebraska–Lincoln and seven were 

conducted by members of the research team located at the University of Connecticut. The 

research team developed and pilot tested an interview protocol for use in all interviews, 

consisting of an information sheet, preinterview questionnaire, an in-person interview 

questionnaire, and a postinterview survey (see Appendices F1–F4). 

Permission for this study was granted through the University of Nebraska–Lincoln’s and 

University of Connecticut’s Institutional Review Boards. The information sheet was 

distributed to participants before the interview to constitute informed consent, and consent 

was verified orally before starting the interview. Participants also completed a preinterview 

questionnaire before their scheduled in-person interview to provide the interviewers with a 

brief overview of their scheduling responsibilities. 

2.3.1 In-person Interview

The semistructured in-person questionnaire consisted of 22 main questions and inquired about 

the participant’s job duties, their organization’s scheduling process and their roles in that 

process, training, and the KSAOs that they used in their positions. Before starting the 

interview, the participant verified that he or she is currently responsible for some aspect of 

shift work scheduling in the company. Each participant was given a thorough explanation of 

the study and encouraged to ask questions. During the interviews, researchers probed for more 

detailed information relating to the knowledge, skills, abilities, training, and job processes of 

schedulers. Two researchers were present at each interview, with one asking the questions 
11

from the protocol whereas the other probed further as needed. The interviews lasted 

approximately 1 h each and were audio recorded. A breakdown of the demographic 

characteristics of the job incumbents is presented in Appendix G1, and a summary of job 

incumbents’ responses to the interview questions is available in Appendix G2.

2.3.2 Postinterview Survey

After completing the individual interview, participants completed a paper-and-pencil survey 

designed to assess the importance of each of the KSAOs identified by SMEs in Phase 1 of this 

research project (see Appendix F4). This survey was similar to the follow-up survey 

administered to SMEs. However, incumbents were only asked to rate KSAOs on the 

dimension of importance. In addition, the instructions varied slightly, asking incumbents to 

indicate the extent to which they perceived each KSAO to be important to have in their job in 

particular. Job incumbents rated importance using the same 5 point scale as was administered 

to SMEs, with response options ranging from (1) not at all important to (5) extremely 

important. 
12

3. Gap Analysis

3.1 Methodology

The research team used a mixed methods approach to investigate the gaps between what 

experts indicate as the necessary KSAOs for work schedulers and what job incumbents 

indicate are important in current practice. Mixed methods research is defined as a project in 

which both quantitative and qualitative data are collected, analyzed, and mixed to best 

understand a research problem (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003; Creswell and Plano Clark, 

2007). Mixed methods design is conducive to this research problem for several reasons. First, 

a need exists to understand the experiences of work scheduling from the perspectives of 

practicing schedulers. Second, qualitative data allow for a more complete, indepth description 

of schedulers’ points of view. Third, the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data 

increases the ability to both identify the gaps quantitatively and describe the gaps 

qualitatively, allowing for a more complete picture and increasing the utility of the results for 

suggesting recommendations for practice.

3.1.1 Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis can be described as a “systematic search for meaning” (Hatch, 

2002). This form of inquiry typically focuses on a relatively few number of cases to develop 

an indepth understanding of the research question (Creswell, 2008). Data analysis consists of 

preparing and organizing the data (i.e., transcripts), reducing data into themes through coding 

and condensing the codes, and representing the data through discussion or figures (Creswell, 

2007). Thus, analysis is an iterative, inductive process in which findings emerge from the 

specific to the general (Hatch, 2002). Qualitative interviews allowed the participants’ to 

describe, in their own words, what KSAOs they feel are used in their positions.

Professional transcriptionists prepared verbatim transcripts of each interview. The interviews 

were combined to produce an extensive qualitative database about the work schedule process 

in practice. The 16 interviews were combined for a total of 294 single-spaced pages in the 

database. The transcripts were imported into MAXqda2007, a qualitative data analysis 

software package that facilitates the analysis of open-ended, unstructured data. 

The list of specific KSAOs deemed important for schedulers from Phase 1 (SME data 

collection) informed the primary coding scheme for the interview analysis. Using a strategy of 

topic coding (Richards and Morse, 2007), the primary content analyst read each transcript and 

then analyzed the data line-by-line and coded all discussions and applications of the KSAOs 

found within the transcripts. After every two interviews, a secondary analyst reviewed the 

coding and interpretations to ensure coder agreement. Any feedback or alterations to the 

interpretations were recorded in the code memos, and codes were discussed until 100 percent

agreement was reached. Once all the interviews were coded and discussed, the primary 

analyst reviewed the codes to identify emergent themes and categories. The coding scheme 

was compared with the new data throughout the analysis procedure. Codes in previous 

interviews were reviewed to ensure that they conformed to the current conceptualization of 

the code. If not, they were either removed or assigned to another code if applicable. 
13

The codes were developed into summary tables of KSAOs. The summary tables included 

columns for the code’s name in the software, a bulleted overview, and participants’ quotes. 

The overview emphasized the diverse perspectives present in the interviews by highlighting 

themes that cut across different participants and industries. The quotes were used to provide 

direct evidence of the KSAO in the participants’ own language. The summary tables can be 

found in Appendix H.

In this study, several validation procedures were used to ensure that the qualitative findings 

accurately represent participants’ realities (Creswell and Miller, 2000). Peer review was 

conducted between the primary and secondary analysts and the larger research team to ensure 

that coding criteria were used consistently. Data collection and qualitative analysis occurred 

concurrently and data collection ended when analysis suggested a point of data saturation: 

little new information was revealed with each subsequent interview. Multiple methods of data 

collection were used with interviews and surveys. Finally, direct quotes accompany the results 

of the content analysis to provide additional evidence that the findings represent participants’

words.

3.1.2 Quantitative Data Analysis

The responses to the surveys administered to SMEs and job incumbents were entered into an 

SPSS database. Means and standard deviations were calculated for each KSAO by group 

(SME or job incumbent). T-tests for independent samples were conducted to determine if 

there were significant differences between the mean importance ratings provided by SMEs as 

compared to job incumbents (using α = 0.05). 

Research has shown that the order of collecting quantitative and qualitative data may 

influence the responses given by participants (Vitale, Armenakis, and Field, 2008). In this 

project, the job incumbent survey was administered at the conclusion of the interview so as 

not to bias the open-ended responses in the interviews. As a result, job incumbents’ survey 

responses may be susceptible to inflation because the survey followed indepth discussion of 

the incumbent’s scheduling job duties. To account for this possibility, each group of attributes 

(KSAOs) was rank ordered by participant group (SMEs or job incumbents). Within-group 

rankings can tell us which attributes are considered more important than others for each group 

of participants, regardless of mean differences between groups. 

Three additional types of information were incorporated into the gap analysis to provide a 

more robust picture of the value of each of the KSAOs assessed in this study. First, SMEs 

were asked to provide information regarding the trainability of each of the KSAOs. This 

information was used to determine whether each KSAO would be valuable to incorporate into 

the curriculum for a training program or certification protocol. For instance, a KSAO may be 

ranked as very important; however, it may not be an attribute that is conducive to training. 

Second, the content codes derived from the qualitative interview data were transformed into 

quantitative information by counting the number of times that each KSAO code was applied 

across the 16 job incumbent interviews and the number of interviews where each KSAO code 

appeared (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1998; Onwuegbuzie and Teddlie, 2003). These variables 

were also compared with the data collected from SMEs. Third, qualitative gaps between the 

two groups were identified based on their discussions. This qualitative comparison provides 

additional insight into the different perceptions behind the identified gaps. 
14

3.2 Results and Discussion

3.2.1 Job Tasks

The job tasks are presented in their final form and listed in order of importance in Appendix I. 

Note that importance is determined as a combination of level of difficulty and likelihood of 

negative consequences if the task is performed incorrectly (difficulty + criticality). Qualitative 

observations from the job incumbent interviews are also summarized to indicate the extent to 

which the job incumbents interviewed were responsible for each of the identified job tasks.

Finally, an overall assessment was made with regard to the level of gap that exists between 

SMEs recommendations and job incumbent practices for each job task. This assessment takes 

into consideration importance ratings provided by SMEs and observed differences in 

importance based on interviews with SMEs and job incumbents. Each job task is given one of 

three labels: minimal gaps, moderate gaps, or significant gaps. A summary of these findings is 

presented next.

Significant Gaps

Job Task: Coordinate with management to establish policies and programs that are 

sensitive to the particular demands of shift work schedules. 

This task was rated high on importance by SMEs. However, only two job 

incumbents discussed developing policies or programs to meet the particular needs of 

their shift working employees. Both incumbents talked about using treadmills to assist 

employees in staying alert during overnight shifts. One of the two incumbents also 

investigated making lighting changes to improve employee alertness on overnight 

shifts and indicated that he distributes a monthly shift work newsletter to aid 

employees in managing their irregular shift schedules.

Job Task: Review work production, employee performance, and accident reports in 

conjunction with shift schedules for potential shift-related trends and take action as 

necessary. 

Very few job incumbents indicated that they personally monitored 

performance and safety information for shift-related trends. Two incumbents who held 

positions higher up in management than a typical first-line supervisor indicated that 

they had access to work production, performance, and safety data. Another incumbent 

indicated that there was a person in the organization who specifically developed 

reports on aggregated scheduling data.

This task was rated highest on importance by SMEs, yet only 3 out of 16 job 

incumbents interviewed reported having a role in the design and development of the 

actual scheduling system that is in place in their unit. However, most job incumbents 

were responsible for making decisions about who worked in a particular area or on a 

particular shift, and decisions were made on the basis of staffing requirements. In 

organizations where staffing needs were not stable, staffing was typically determined 

Moderate Gaps

Job Task: Design and implement work schedules for employees, in accordance with 

staffing requirements and employee workload and availability. 
15

by either a software program forecasting staffing needs or a coworker responsible for 

determining production demands for the day.

Job Task: Maintain records of employees’ work schedules and time cards and 

prepare reports as needed. 

All of the incumbents kept records of scheduling information. However, very 

few appeared to be responsible for reporting on that information.

Implementing schedule changes and monitoring work hours encompass the primary work 

responsibilities of the majority of the work schedulers we interviewed. Thus, there appear to 

be minimal gaps between what schedulers are doing and what they should be doing with 

regard to those two tasks. However, the extent to which those tasks are performed effectively 

relies heavily on bridging the significant and moderate gaps that exist across the other four 

tasks identified. Schedule maintenance can be reduced and streamlined with effective work 

schedule designs. Incorporating government-, union-, or organization-mandated restrictions to 

Minimal Gaps

Job Task: Implement schedule changes as necessary because of turnover, 

absenteeism, employee leave requests, and fluctuating workloads. 

All of the job incumbents who had direct responsibility for scheduling workers 

implemented schedule changes on a regular basis. Most made these changes 

autonomously, without need for approval from the next layer of management.

Job Task: Monitor work hours to ensure that staff members comply with 

administrative policies and procedures, safety rules, union contracts, and government 

regulations. 

Most job incumbents indicated that they were responsible for monitoring work 

hours as part of their regular managerial duties. Two incumbents also specifically 

mentioned that they were responsible for monitoring adherence to safety rules in the 

workplace.

Overall, it is suggested that the most significant gaps in job tasks concern addressing the 

particular demands of shift work. Assisting employees with managing work schedules by 

offering training programs or aiding in policy development and monitoring performance and 

safety to determine whether shift-related safety risks or performance decrements are key 

responsibilities that should be managed by work schedulers in an organization. Employees 

and organizations need an internal resource to aid them in managing and understanding the 

challenges of shift work. Most current work schedule managers do not have the knowledge or 

tools to carry out these activities.

Moderate gaps also exist for designing work schedules and preparing reports addressing the 

effectiveness of those schedules over time. Some of the job incumbents interviewed discussed 

the need to make daily changes to their work schedules, often requiring that workers be called 

in or held over to work overtime. Additional training regarding schedule designs, staffing, and 

evaluation may assist these managers in making changes to the scheduling system such that 

intensive daily maintenance is unnecessary. However, carrying out such tasks is currently 

outside of the domain of their work responsibilities.
16

work hours with scheduling software can also reduce the paperwork involved in monitoring 

work hours and allow scheduling managers to focus their efforts on evaluating their work 

schedules and on assisting their employees with managing shift work.

3.2.2 KSAOs

Data informing the results of the KSAO gap analysis are presented in Appendix J. We 

examined the information collected and assessed KSAO gaps in multiple ways. First, SMEs 

and job incumbents may have differed on how important they believe a particular attribute is 

for performing their job. To address this, the previously identified KSAOs were divided into 

four categories, or tiers. The tiers were determined by the mean ratings of importance 

provided by SMEs and job incumbents, whether the KSAO was deemed appropriate to target 

with formal training by SMEs, and whether there were differences between SME and job 

incumbent perceptions of importance. The four-tiered category system allows us to determine 

which KSAOs are agreed on as important, where there are differences in levels of perceived 

importance, and which KSAOs are less of a priority than others. In addition, the fourth tier 

separates out those KSAOs that may be important but are not necessarily appropriate to target 

within the context of formal training. For instance, tier 4 KSAOs may be associated with 

personality characteristics and can be important to consider when selecting work schedule 

managers. Alternatively, these KSAOs may need to be learned on the job through hands-on 

experience. The criteria used to categorize each KSAO into one of the four tiers are listed 

below:

Tier 1: Critically Important and Trainable KSAOs 

 Must achieve an average importance rating of 4.00 (very important) or higher from 

both SMEs and job incumbents

 Must be considered appropriate for training by at least 50 percent of SMEs

Tier 2: Important and Trainable KSAOs with Intergroup Disparities

 Must achieve an average rating of 4.00 or greater from one group of participants 

(SMEs or job incumbents)

 Must be considered appropriate for training by at least 50 percent of SMEs

Tier 3: Moderately Important and Trainable KSAOs

 Must achieve an average rating between 3.00 and 3.99 from both SMEs and job 

incumbents

 Must be considered appropriate for training by at least 50percent of SMEs

Tier 4: Important KSAOs, Training Not Applicable

 Must achieve an average rating of 3.00 or higher from both SMEs and job 

incumbents

 Must be considered appropriate for training by less than 50percent of SMEs

No single KSAO had an average rating below 3.00 (somewhat important), and thus, each 

KSAO falls into one of the four tiers described above. This is not particularly surprising given 

that the list of KSAOs was developed by SMEs, and is intended to be representative of the 

KSAOs that may be important for the target job. The fact that all of the KSAOs achieved an 
17

average score of 3.00 or greater is consistent with our expectations and suggests that the 

original list is a valid representation of important KSAOs.

Each KSAO was analyzed using t-tests for independent samples to determine if there were 

statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) between the mean importance ratings from 

SMEs as compared with the mean importance ratings from job incumbents. We also note that 

the KSAO importance ratings for each of the two groups had significantly different variances, 

as determined by Levene’s test, and equality of variances could not be assumed. Thus, all ttests were run using the more conservative assumption of inequality of variances. KSAOs 

demonstrating significant mean differences between SME importance ratings and job 

incumbent importance ratings are marked with an asterisk (*) in the tables presented in 

Appendix J. Significant differences in mean ratings may suggest a critical KSAO gap that 

should be addressed and attended to in future training development efforts. 

The results of the t-tests indicated statistically significant differences among means for one 

knowledge characteristic, five skills, two abilities, and two other characteristics. However, we 

found that when there were statistically significant differences, job incumbents were more 

likely to have rated the characteristic higher than SMEs. This was an unexpected finding, as 

we anticipated that KSAOs not frequently used on the job would be rated less important by 

job incumbents as compared with SMEs. Additional analyses and examination of the data 

suggest that job incumbents used the rating scales somewhat differently than SMEs. The 

standard deviation for each mean rating was generally lower for the job incumbent group than 

the SME group. Many of the observed differences in standard deviations were also 

statistically significant, as indicated by Levene’s test of equality of variances, mentioned 

previously. In addition, evidence points to restriction of range for the job incumbent group; 

job incumbents consistently used the low end of the rating scale less frequently than SMEs, 

and used the high end of the scale more frequently. Only 35 percent of all KSAOs were rated 

as a 1 or 2 by at least one job incumbent, as opposed to 62 percent of all KSAOs rated by 

SMEs. In addition, 12 percent of KSAOs were rated 4 or higher by all job incumbents, as 

compared with 6 percent of all KSAOs rated by SMEs. Thus, the finding that job incumbents 

rated KSAOs higher than SMEs may be a statistical artifact, given differences in standard 

deviations and restriction of range.

Although there were not as many statistically significant differences as expected, there may 

still be detectable differences between KSAOs ratings by examining within-group rankings of 

importance. Within-group KSAO rankings can be thought of as an indicator of relative 

importance or the importance of each KSAO compared with other KSAOs. We were 

particularly interested in examining rank differences in knowledge characteristics, because 

only one knowledge characteristic evidenced a statistically significant difference between 

mean importance ratings. We believe this additional step was necessary given differences in 

standard deviations and the observation that job incumbents more frequently used the higher 

end of the rating scale. Within-group ranks were determined by ordering each list of KSAOs 

from highest mean rating to lowest mean rating for the job incumbent and SME groups 

separately. When two attributes had the same rating, the attribute with the lower standard 

deviation was ranked higher, because lower standard deviations indicate greater within-group 

agreement. When two attributes had the same mean rating and standard deviation they were 

given the same ranking. As a result, we could establish and compare ordinal lists of attributes 

from most important to least important, and minimize the impact of range restriction and 
18 

unequal variances. For instance, although knowledge of staffing analysis was rated similarly 

by SMEs and job incumbents (4.00 and 4.18, respectively), staffing analysis was ranked 

considerably higher by SMEs (ranked second most important knowledge attribute) than by job 

incumbents (ranked eighth most important), resulting in a rank difference of 6. In other words, 

SMEs ranked staffing analysis six places higher than job incumbents relative to all other 

knowledge attributes. 

Nonetheless, we use caution when interpreting the observed differences in ratings and 

rankings because of the relatively low empirical differences. The quantitative analyses were 

conducted with small sample sizes; thus, there is reduced power to detect significant 

differences between ratings. Moreover, participants were not permitted to review their 

rankings, which might have changed once they realized how their ratings translated into 

ranks. The procedures used to assess KSAO importance also varied slightly between the two 

groups of participants. SMEs rated KSAOs weeks after their initial interviews, whereas job 

incumbents rated KSAOs immediately following their interviews. It is possible that the 

overinflation evident in job incumbent ratings was because that KSAOs were rated 

immediately after a lengthy discussion of the incumbents’ job duties and scheduling 

responsibilities.

Gaps may also exist independent of empirical differences in perceived level of importance. 

Although both SMEs and job incumbents find a particular attribute to be important to have on 

the job, the qualitative analysis of interviews with job incumbents may reveal that said 

attribute is not often used on the job, and there is a clear need for additional training beyond 

that which most schedule managers currently receive. 

Finally, an overall assessment was made with regard to the level of gap that exists between 

the KSAOs that job incumbents currently possess and future KSAO needs. This assessment 

takes into consideration differences in importance ratings and observed differences based on 

interviews with each set of participants. Each KSAO is given one of three labels: minimal 

gaps, moderate gaps, or significant gaps. The results of the gap analysis for each KSAO are 

provided below, grouped by gap assessment and importance tier. Note that the number in 

parentheses appearing after each KSAO indicates its original placement in the final list of 

KSAOs from Appendix E. More detailed information regarding the gap assessment is also 

provided in Appendix K. 

 Tier 1 KSAOs

Significant Gaps

 Knowledge of various designs used to schedule 24/7 work (e.g., fast/slow, 

forward/backward rotations) (1)

 Knowledge of the impact work hours have on health, safety, and performance 

(2)

 Knowledge of staffing analysis (7)

 Skill in recognizing the warning signs of potential fatigue, health, and safety 

issues (8)

 Ability to identify and manage risks (2)
19 

 Passion for safety and health (6)

 Tier 2 KSAOs

 Knowledge of the physiology of sleep as related to performance (3)

 Knowledge of tools and technologies available for scheduling (6)

 Knowledge of program evaluation (13)

 Skill in troubleshooting schedule systems (7)

 Ability to balance conflicting demands (7)

 Tier 3 KSAOs

 Knowledge of employee training programs specific to shift work (10)

 Knowledge of basic ergonomics and human factors (12)

 Skill in using analytical/statistical applications (3)

 Ability to self-evaluate to gauge success (3)

 Well-connected with a community of schedulers (11)

 Tier 4 KSAOs

 Sensitivity to different types of people (12)

 Tier 1 KSAOs

Moderate Gaps

 Skill in problem solving (4)

 Ability to recognize a problem and need for change (8)

 Tier 2 KSAOs

 Skill in using technology (6)

 Skill in working in teams (13)

 Ability to ask the right questions and know where to find the appropriate 

answers (5)

 Willing to compromise (9)

 Tier 3 KSAOs

 Knowledge of policies and procedures concerning the design of an 

organization’s schedule (8)

 Knowledge of human resource systems (11)

 Knowledge of the social implications of shift work (14)

 Skill in converting complex topics to simple explanations (2)

 Skill in managing collective agreements (12)

 Tier 4 KSAOs

 Approachability (5)
20 

 Tier 1 KSAOs

Minimal Gaps

 Knowledge of industry-specific operations and regulations (e.g., OSHA, 

USDA, hours of service (HOS)) (4)

 Skill in interacting with people (9)

 Ability to think critically about problems (6)

 Ability to express oneself clearly through speaking and writing (11)

 Ability to cooperate (12)

 Tier 2 KSAOs

 Knowledge of company policies and procedures, including interactions with 

unions and union contracts (5)

 Knowledge of indicators of an employee’s fitness for duty (9)

 Skill in interfacing with multiple systems (5)

 Skill in observation (10)

 Skill in keeping detailed records (11)

 Skill in leading people (14)

 Ability to read and comprehend ideas in writing (10)

 Tier 3 KSAOs

 Skill in communicating with various levels of an organization’s hierarchy (1)

 Previous involvement with shift work systems (2)

 Tier 4 KSAOs

 Ability to think independently (1)

 Ability to persuade others (4)

 Ability to be flexible (9)

 Integrity (1)

 Honesty (3)

 Discretion (4)

 Patience (7)

 Perseverance (8)

 Commands respect (10)

The most critical (tier 1) KSAOs demonstrating significant gaps can be divided into two 

categories: knowledge concerning the inputs needed to design work schedules and 

characteristics needed to understand and manage the health and safety risks associated with 

shift work. Although SMEs and job incumbents agreed that these KSAOs were very 

important, most of the job incumbents we interviewed did not demonstrate the level of 
21 

scheduling design, or health and safety knowledge that SMEs indicated should be required. 

However, there were a few exceptions. One of the job incumbents we interviewed had a 

background in engineering and computer science. This person demonstrated a high-level 

understanding of the mechanics behind shift-schedule design. However, this person was also 

placed much higher in the organization than most of the other scheduling managers 

interviewed, was personally responsible for designing the current scheduling system, and had 

responsibility for overseeing and reporting on the schedules across all worksites in the 

organization. Another job incumbent interviewed had recently attended a seminar regarding 

work scheduling and fatigue management. This person had sought out the training without 

prompting and was the only incumbent to discuss health and safety in depth, take personal 

responsibility for distributing a shift work newsletter to employees, and initiate environment 

changes to help employees stay alert during the night shift. Specialized training assisted both 

of these scheduling managers in carrying out their job responsibilities, albeit in different 

ways. Training beyond that acquired on-the-job can clearly assist work schedule managers in 

performing their job duties more effectively. However, such training is neither standardized 

nor easily accessible at the current time. 

Significant gaps were also apparent in terms of knowledge of sleep physiology, human 

factors, and shift work training programs, again addressing the health and safety components 

of shift work. Knowledge of evaluation and the ability to self-evaluate also emerged as a 

significant area to target for training. In addition, it was clear that more information about the 

available tools and technologies for scheduling would be beneficial for work schedule 

managers. The ability to balance conflicting demands emerged as an attribute required of all 

the job incumbents interviewed. In addition, balancing conflicting demands was rated as 

considerably more important by job incumbents than SMEs. This attribute was identified as 

an area where significant gaps exist because it may be undervalued by SMEs. Negotiation, 

cooperation, and compromise were all common themes across incumbent interviews and are 

attributes that are particularly beneficial for managing work schedules. 

Although most incumbents indicated that they discussed scheduling issues with other 

supervisors in their organization or that there was a “go-to” person when someone had a 

question about scheduling software, there did not seem to be any indication that incumbents 

received assistance and advice from a community of schedulers. Training programs can 

address this issue simply by fostering communication between participating schedulers and 

providing an avenue for communication to continue well beyond the conclusion of the 

training. Although not necessarily conducive to training, having sensitivity to different types 

of people and their preferences was also targeted as an area where significant gaps exist 

between SME recommendations and job incumbent practices. There was a lot of variability 

between job incumbents with regard to their level of sensitivity, likely because of differences 

in personality and organizational policies. Although sensitivity itself may not be trainable, 

additional training with regard to the health, safety, and performance effects of shift work 

may increase awareness of the particular demands of shift work and result in scheduling 

policy changes that are more sensitive to shift worker needs. 

Some of the common themes emerging among KSAOs with moderate gaps include problem 

solving, skill working with others (teams, subordinates, and unions), knowledge of the 

workings of the organization, and using technology. Minimal gaps were evident among 

KSAOs that are common to all types of management positions, such as leadership, 
22 

communication, flexibility, and integrity. In addition, almost all of the job incumbents 

interviewed were promoted internally and had previous experience working shifts. Many 

indicated that working irregular hours (either currently or in the past) assisted them with 

managing work schedules and negotiating employees’ preferences with business needs. 
23 

4. Recommendations for Training Development

The following section highlights recommendations provided by SMEs in consulting and 

academia with regard to the future development of training for work schedule management. 

Each group of SMEs answered a number of key questions concerning their perceptions and 

experiences advising organizations about and/or researching work scheduling. SMEs also 

provided feedback regarding the final list of job tasks and KSAOs within the followup survey. 

4.1 Consultant Recommendations

What do you see as the most important issues for managing work schedules in shift work 

operations across industries in the United States? 

The general consensus from participants was that the management of work schedules is 

necessary from a fatigue and an organizational cost standpoint. Mismanaged schedules can 

lead to several problems that are not necessarily visible until the problems are serious and 

detrimental. Most organizations operate using a reactive approach to schedule management, 

thus there is little reason to change a schedule unless something occurs, such as a major 

accident, to drive the change. The consultants observed that organizations see no reason to 

change, because “if it’s not broke, don’t fix it.” Furthermore, schedule changes may become 

difficult to initiate because of constraints stemming from the conflicting demands of 

employees, management, and sometimes unions. Driving change without the impetus of a 

major disaster is often met with skepticism and fear of the unknown. Organizations may not 

be able to distinguish a good schedule from a bad schedule until a problem occurs. Based on 

experience, the consultants also agreed that there is a general lack of understanding of the 

benefits of schedule optimization. Organizations are unaware that they are losing money and 

putting their employees at risk when operating with schedules that are inadequately staffed or 

improperly designed. 

If there was a position within an organization that would fulfill the scheduling need, what 

kind of position would it be, and what kind of person would fill that role? 

The consultants observed that although there are currently people in 24/7 organizations 

responsible for scheduling, they often lack formal training. Organizations may develop 

schedules on a shift-by-shift basis, such that each shift has its own person responsible for 

maintaining the schedule with little involvement from upper management to coordinate 

schedules across the organization. Some organizations do not even have a designated person 

overseeing their schedule, oftentimes because the same schedule is used year after year, with 

little regard or consideration of its effectiveness. 

The consultants agreed that changes need to be made in terms of how scheduling is handled 

across 24/7 industries but had differing opinions concerning how such a change would 

manifest into a new position. All argued that the expertise required of a work schedule 

manager would vary based on industry and operation. Some industries must schedule around 

a whole host of restrictions, such as hours of service requirements, overtime allotments, and 

union contracts. Organizations that operate seasonally also have very different scheduling 

requirements than organizations that operate continuously. Thus, some companies may 

require a work schedule manager with a high level of expertise to respond to changing needs 

and conflicting demands. Other work schedule managers may only need to know the basics of 
24 

staffing and fatigue in 24/7 industries, because the schedules they maintain require little 

ongoing support. The consultants worried about training schedule managers to be responsible 

for change, because the process of designing a completely new schedule can be extremely 

complicated and may require external intervention. Instead, it was suggested that work 

schedule managers be responsible for maintaining schedules, making day-to-day changes, and 

acting as an internal troubleshooter who can identify problems before they occur, recommend 

changes, and advise upper management when external help is necessary because schedule 

problems are beyond their ability to fix alone. Overall, work schedule managers need to have 

tools at their disposal to create solutions and bring about change. As such, it is important that 

work schedule managers have a position within the organization where they can gain the trust 

of employees to identify problem areas, and the ear of upper management to recommend 

changes to set in place. 

What are the next steps necessary to implement a certification program and train people for 

the job of a work schedule manager? 

The consultants indicated that the next step beyond documenting the need for training will be 

to secure funding and recruit interested parties to oversee the certification process. Subsequent 

steps include developing the certification curriculum and outlining how the certification 

process will work. The consultants also suggested establishing an education and 

communication plan to make people and organizations aware of the opportunity for 

certification. Once an initial certification program is implemented, it will also be important to 

document changes occurring in organizations with certified work schedule managers. 

Structured scheduling benchmarks would provide empirical data demonstrating the benefits of 

certification training, and thus encourage more organizations across industries to invest in the 

process. Finally, the consultants suggested targeting the initial certification process at people 

in organizations who are currently responsible for managing work schedules, offering 

organizations the ability to train current employees to better manage their schedules. Starting 

with short-term training programs would aid in making organizations aware of the importance 

of managing work schedules properly, and the advantages of having a certified work schedule 

manager. The certification process could then build from the point of training current 

employees with day-long programs to the introduction of a long-term curriculum in colleges 

and trade schools specifically preparing people to obtain jobs as work schedule managers. 

4.2 Academician Recommendations

What do you see as the most important issues for managing work schedules in shift work 

operations across industries in the United States? 

In general, the academicians we interviewed reflected that successful scheduling is more than 

just about managing fatigue. Organizations should be seeking optimization of a variety of 

different factors when creating schedules to manage their staffing needs: the economic needs 

of the company, health and safety issues regarding fatigue and performance, and the 

acceptability of the schedule from the workers’ perspective. Academicians also agreed that a 

work schedule manager should be someone who is located in the middle of the organizational 

hierarchy, not too high and not too low, but with enough positional authority within the 

organization to have the ear of management while still being able to relate to frontline 

workers. There were also some concerns relayed regarding the feasibility of installing a work 

schedule manager in smaller organizations. A small organization would not be able to afford a 

highly qualified work schedule manager and may need to continue to rely on outside 
25

consultants. Overall, there was agreement that large organizations could benefit from the 

creation of a work schedule manager as a full-time permanent position because there 

continues to be a disconnect between scheduling best practices and current practices in shift

work operations from an occupational health and safety perspective.

What initiatives are occurring or have occurred in Europe that we might use as a model for 

improving work scheduling in the United States?

The European academicians suggested that there are advances in Finland, Sweden, and the 

United Kingdom that may aid our progress in the United States. For example, the Working 

Time Directives in Europe require companies to allow their employees at least 11 h off 

between work cycles, at least 2 days of rest every 2 weeks (wk) and a maximum of 48 h of 

night work in 1 wk. In addition, European researchers have developed several different 

models for measuring fatigue risk. One such model, the Fatigue and Work Index developed 

for British Health and Safety, provides estimates of employee fatigue and risk when work 

schedule information is supplied. Researchers in Sweden have developed a course on shift

work that can be tailored to administrators, labor unions, or front-line workers, and is 

designed to teach basic knowledge regarding the health and safety implications of shift work 

and various shift work scheduling practices. Some European countries are also implementing 

scheduling programs that allow for self-selection of work hours. In health care, for example, 

employees can interface with software allowing them to select their own work hours. The 

scheduling software checks that the schedule is fully staffed and prioritizes the filling of 

remaining shifts by assigning them to workers with the fewest self-scheduled work hours. The 

person in charge of the scheduling system is responsible for ensuring that the system is 

working properly and may modify the system to build in ergonomic constraints to the 

schedule. This alternative form of scheduling may reduce the daily workload of the 

scheduling manager but likely requires specialized skills that can be provided by a 

certification program.

What are the common pitfalls organizations run into when trying to manage work schedules?

Many common pitfalls regarding the management of work schedules were identified by 

multiple interviewees. Overall, it was agreed that most companies do not take schedulingrelated health and safety issues, such as hazards associated with lack of sleep and circadian 

physiology, as seriously as they should. Companies sometimes push their workers too hard 

with oddly constructed shifts and little uniformity in scheduling across the organization. At 

the same time, employees may also unknowingly place themselves at greater risk by pushing 

for more work hours or greater numbers of consecutive days on the job at the expense of their 

health and safety. Union-labor negotiations can sometimes result in scheduling changes that 

meet worker demands and preferences without fully investigating whether those demands run 

counter to good health and safety practices. A lack of trust and communication between an 

organization and its employees can often lead to misunderstandings when schedule changes 

are initiated. Administrators and employees need to be re-educated to understand that good 

scheduling practices and employee buy-in are necessary to make any schedule change a 

success.
26 

How should work schedules be evaluated? Using what metrics? 

One interviewee suggested a series of questions that we as researchers should be asking as we 

investigate scheduling practices: “Why are organizations scheduling the way they are; how 

does it match to our understanding of human performance; and is it making them money?” 

The interviewees suggested several ways in which to measure and evaluate work schedules. 

Some took an organizational perspective, identifying economic concerns (e.g., staffing needs, 

productivity, number of recalls) and safety concerns (e.g., number of accidents, injuries, or 

models to predict risk), whereas others suggested developing metrics aimed at the worker 

(e.g., assessing attitudes about work schedules, turnover, medical history, and amount of 

useful time off provided). The specific needs and concerns of various organizations should 

guide which metrics are used in evaluation; however, it is clear that no matter what metrics 

are used they should capture both the perspective of the organization and the worker using 

multiple indicators of success. 

How can the research community better connect with government and/or practitioners? 

All of the academicians agreed that researchers are not as well connected to practitioners as 

they should be, especially in regard to work scheduling issues. One interviewee reflected that 

the area of shift work, in and of itself, is a broad field of study. Researchers in many diverse 

disciplines are studying shift work and each has their own unique terminology, making it 

difficult for collaboration within the research community and leading to confusion outside of 

academia. Those interviewed suggested that the research community needs to provide clearer 

but simpler messages about shift work issues. Shift work research should be prioritized and 

systematically supported so that it may be distilled into something that can be implemented by 

industry. Researchers also need to form more collaborative relationships with businesses to 

develop long-lasting relationships with practitioners and secure funding for continued 

research. Most of all, researchers need to find ways to better identify with industry 

stakeholders to make it “worth their while” to collaborate and contribute funding. 

What should a certification program focus on to properly train work schedule managers? 

We received many helpful suggestions from the academicians interviewed as to how to design 

the certification program for work schedule managers. There were very different suggestions 

as to the level of training that should be provided, ranging from a very basic level of 

certification whereby participants would be provided with scheduling models and criteria for 

implementing best practices in day-to-day schedule maintenance, to a more advanced 

professional certification similar to postgraduate coursework directed at people with 

backgrounds in industrial hygiene or occupational health and safety. The differences in 

suggestions provided by the interviewees suggest that developing a program with multiple, 

clearly-defined, levels of certification is the best course of action. One academician praised 

the idea of differing levels because it would allow people to work their way up through the 

various layers of certification and demonstrate increasing levels of achievement and 

proficiency. 

Some of the content areas suggested as important for a certification program included training 

on factors that contribute to safety risks (e.g., fatigue, circadian phase, time on task, time of 

day effects, main sleep duration, and sleep quality), human factors issues and an 

understanding of individual preferences, identification of decision support tools and software 
27 

that are available for use when designing schedules, and screenings for sleep disorders. Many 

of the academicians suggested that training at lower levels of certification should not be too 

technical. Self-paced study was suggested as a possible option for lower levels of 

certification, with instructional modules available online that could be completed on a more 

flexible timeline than is typically allowed in structured coursework. It was also suggested that 

the program should require update courses and tests to keep individual certifications up-todate and ensure that new knowledge is disseminated to practitioners. The National Institute 

for Occupational Safety and Health continuing education program was also mentioned as a 

potential avenue for reaching out to people in the field and introducing a scheduling 

certification.

What are the linchpins of success in developing a certification program for work schedule 

managers? 

One of the major linchpins of success identified during the course of these interviews was that 

any certification needs to be highly tailored to take into account the type of industry for which 

a person will be creating schedules and a person’s prior educational background to identify 

what level of certification is appropriate. The very basic levels of certification should boil 

down to basic principles and criteria that can be used across all industries and levels of 

expertise to improve scheduling quality and protect against common occupational health and 

safety issues. One interviewee suggested that testing is a key component to developing a 

certification: work schedule managers need scenario testing to learn how to solve problems. 

Multiple interviewees also mentioned developing a central place for work schedule managers 

to ask questions of more experienced experts, such that all schedulers involved in the program 

would benefit from access to the most up-to-date research available on shift work. 

4.3 Feedback from Followup Survey

Many of the SMEs who completed the followup survey also provided comments about the job 

tasks, KSAOs, and overall scope of this research effort. These supplemental comments are 

summarized below. 

 Except for simple changes, designing and implementing new solutions should not be part 

of what the scheduling manager should do. This requires change management and is likely 

beyond the scope of expectations. What the scheduler should do is: review the flow of 

data to payroll, ensure payroll errors are reviewed and corrected, compare workforce to 

workload with cost results, add new employees, remove employees, adjust skills, adjust 

employee preferences, change shift, task, crew, etc., for an employee, provide 

feedback/data to first-line supervision to support needs (performance reviews, employee 

counseling, etc.), run reports, estimate simple workforce staffing requirements, and more. 

 Advancing work scheduling should include coordinating an annual learning process to 

gather, analyze, and assess confidential employee survey data tapping current schedulerelated safety, health, and performance risks and liabilities—as well as suggested 

solutions—from an employee perspective. These data can then be integrated as part of a 

collaborative management/labor strategy to continually track, evaluate, and improve 

scheduling services.
28 

 All the job tasks are well supported by computerized tools that can continually monitor 

and update in real time. Scheduling software can dramatically simplify the job of a work 

schedule manager. 

 An important consideration in designing and assessing a certification program would be a 

broad estimate of the time to learn the necessary skills to complete each task. Recognizing 

that people vary in both existing knowledge base and learning aptitude could still be 

helpful to better inform curricula requirements. This should be included in the next steps 

for developing certification curricula. 

 The key difference that managers face is between changing how equipment is run versus 

changing how employees work. The emotional side of change management in shift work 

operations creates a volatile environment much more complex than even the most difficult 

equipment engineering task. The consequences can be plant shutdown, unionization, and 

considerable lost productivity (and others). 

 A considerable amount of time and dedication is involved in creating a master schedule. 

Training combined with an already strong analytical and social background may take 

3–5 yr of time on the job. The magnitude of the effort required to do this right should not 

be underestimated. The implications can be in the tens of millions of dollars depending on 

the size of the organization. This scheduling issue can shut down an entire operation and 

should never be taken lightly. 
29 

5. Conclusions

Currently, work schedule management is not regarded as a stand-alone job position in most 

organizations. This study is a first attempt to define the position of a work schedule manager 

across industry types by identifying commonly needed job tasks and KSAOs. However, this 

research effort also recognizes that some job tasks and KSAOs are currently undervalued or 

underused by organizations in the management of work schedules. Thus, we have attempted 

to triangulate gaps in job tasks and KSAOs based on our discussions with two critical 

stakeholder groups: SMEs represented by shift work consultants and researchers, and job 

incumbents represented by workers currently responsible for scheduling duties. 

The gap analysis of job tasks and KSAOs revealed a common theme: additional schedule 

management training is needed to aid work schedule managers in understanding how the 

design of work schedules can have an impact on employee health, safety, and performance. 

The incumbents interviewed were fully capable of maintaining work schedules and making 

minor changes to scheduling to account for absenteeism, turnover, or overtime needs. 

However, they may not be qualified to identify problems in the schedule design and/or make 

changes to the system to address those problems. The majority of the training that schedulers 

receive is currently on-the-job, often involving a short-term mentorship with another 

scheduler in their organization. There is very little standardized training even within 

organizations. Instead, bad habits and bad schedule designs may be propagated throughout the 

organization. Most incumbents learned how to manage their work schedules through trial and 

error. SMEs reflected that schedulers and their employing organizations appear to be 

underestimating the importance of proper schedule design. 

However, caution should be used when extrapolating these results to the entire population of 

employees with work-scheduling job duties. Only a few scheduling managers were 

interviewed for this study, covering a very diverse range of occupations and job positions. In 

addition, there were relatively few statistically significant differences between empirical 

ratings of importance. Our conclusions are based on holistic observations of the quantitative 

and qualitative data collected and should be used to provide guidance for future studies and 

training development efforts. Additional research is necessary to identify training and 

certification needs in specific occupations, especially considering the identified need for 

substantial industry-specific knowledge in work schedule management. 

Another consideration when moving forward with a work schedule manager certification 

program is that different levels of training need to be developed to target varying levels of 

skill development. SMEs in consulting and academia indicated that scheduling expertise 

varies based on industry, type of operation, and the size of an organization. Variations in 

expertise were also evident across job incumbent interviews. Work schedule management 

training is needed at all levels, from first-line supervisors to the next generation of shift work 

consultants; however, addressing the training need at different levels requires different kinds 

of programs. Supervisors and managers may need basic training that can be addressed with 

short-term seminars. On the other hand, master schedulers may require graduate level training 

and coursework to achieve certification. 
30 

Overall, SMEs expressed enthusiasm for the development of a certification program and 

confirmed the need for greater levels of expertise in work scheduling. Many also expressed 

interest in assisting with the development of training curricula. Job incumbents were helpful 

and cooperative and confirmed that work scheduling is often not a streamlined process. 

Training, technology, schedule designs, and even “rules of thumb” differ greatly within and 

between organizations. The outcomes of this project suggest that training work schedule 

managers involves finding a balance between company needs and occupational health and 

safety concerns and helping managers navigate that balancing act.
31

6. References

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Vitale, D. C., Armenakis, A. A., and Field, H.S. (2008). Integrating qualitative and 

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33 

APPENDIX A: Research Team
34 

Research Team

Table A-1. Research Team (listed in alphabetical order)

Name Title Affiliation

Manijeh Badiee, M.A. Counseling Psychology Doctoral 

Student University of Nebraska–Lincoln 

Janet Barnes-Farrell, Ph.D. 

Industrial and Organizational 

Psychologist and Director of 

Industrial Psychology 

Applications Center

University of Connecticut 

Michael Coplen, M.A. Human Factors Program 

Manager FRA

Tara DiDomenico Engineering Psychologist Volpe Center

Megan Euler, M.A. Research Associate University of Nebraska–Lincoln

Heidi Howarth, Ph.D. Engineering Psychologist Volpe Center

James Impara, Ph.D. Consultant Independent Consultant

Rachel Mahon Transcriptionist University of Nebraska–Lincoln 

Stephanie Morrow, M.A. Industrial and Organizational 

Psychology Doctoral Student

University of Connecticut and 

Volpe Center

David Nash, M.A. Consultant Independent Consultant

Vicki Plano Clark, Ph.D. Educational Psychologist University of Nebraska–Lincoln

Stephen Popkin, Ph.D. 

Engineering Psychologist and 

Director of Human Factors 

Center of Innovation 

Volpe Center 

Janet Renoe Research Associate University of Nebraska–Lincoln 

Terry Stentz, Ph.D. Industrial Engineer University of Nebraska–Lincoln

Kim Tatum Transcriptionist University of Nebraska–Lincoln 

Ben Walsh, M.A. Industrial and Organizational 

Psychology Doctoral Student University of Nebraska–Lincoln 
35 

APPENDIX B: Preliminary List of Job Tasks 
36 

Preliminary List of Work Schedule Manager Job Tasks

1. Design and implement work schedules for employees, in accordance with staffing requirements and 

employee workload and availability. 

Example subtasks:

 Develop shift schedule rotation

 Communicate shift availability

 Balance overtime with risk

 Develop activity/rest cycles

 Communicate between shifts/crews

 Establish consensus building between shifts

2. Maintain records of employee’s work schedules and timecards and prepare reports as needed.

Example subtasks:

 Maintain records of overtime

 Maintain records of absenteeism

 Validate payroll by hours actually worked 

3. Implement schedule changes as necessary because of turnover, absenteeism, employee leave requests, 

and fluctuating workloads. 

Example subtasks: 

 Grant leave requests (vacation and sick)

 Grant shift trading requests

 Regulate shift turnover

 Regulate proportional staffing by shift 

 Address last-minute overtime requirements 

 Establish overtime smart relief system

4. Coordinate with management to establish policies and programs that are sensitive to the particular 

demands of shift work schedules. 

Example subtasks:

 Communicate to staff and educate on new programs 

 Monitor disciplinary action surrounding fatigue

 Monitor stressors related to shift length 

 Establish circadian profiling

 Establish shift work tolerance profile

 Establish overtime smart relief system

 Establish alertness/napping policy

 Establish fitness for duty program

 Establish work alertness program 

 Champion optimal shift scheduling 
37 

5. Monitor work hours to ensure that staff members comply with administrative policies and procedures, 

safety rules, union contracts, and government regulations. 

Example subtasks:

 Monitor absenteeism/tardiness for abuse

 Monitor adherence to Federal and State regulations

 Monitor shift trading

 Monitor transitions between shifts 

 Monitor start/stop times for shifts

 Monitor break-schedule adherence

6. Review work production, employee performance, and accident reports in conjunction with shift 

schedules for potential shift-related trends and take action as necessary.

Example subtasks:

 Monitor trends in accidents and errors 

 Monitor shift performance and safety 

 Monitor medical claims for shift trends 

 Coordinate data analysis of shift-specific issues 

 Report productivity levels by shift

 Report on staffing analysis per shift 

 Report performance benchmarks for shifts and crews
38 

APPENDIX C: Materials from Consultant Panel Discussion

Consultant Panel Names and Affiliations................................................ C1

Revised Job Tasks from Panel Discussion .............................................. C2

KSAO Definitions....................................................................................... C3

Preliminary KSAO List from Panel Discussion...................................... C4
39 

Consultant Panel Names and Affiliations

Table C-1. Names and Affiliations of Members of Consultant Panel 

Name Affiliation Location

Silvano (Sal) Angelone Circadian Technologies, Inc. Stoneham, Massachusetts

Ted Baker, Ph.D. Shiftwork Resources, Inc. Boston, Massachusetts

Jack Connolly, Ph.D. Shiftwork Consultants, Inc. Long Island, New York 

Jim Dillingham Shiftwork Solutions, LLC Needham, Massachusetts

John Frehse Core Practice Partners, LLC New York, New York

Jerry Krueger, Ph.D. Krueger Ergonomics Consultants Alexandria, Virginia

Andrew Lehrer, Ph.D. 24/7 Performance, LLC Lexington, Massachusetts

Frank Pereira The Capstan Group San Rafael, California

Wayne Rhodes, Ph.D. Fatigue Solutions International Toronto, Canada 

Jim Stam 24/7 Strategies Group Wellesley Hills, Massachusetts
40 

Revised Job Tasks from Panel Discussion

Job Task 1

Original Wording: Design and implement work schedules for employees, in accordance with staffing 

requirements and employee workload and availability. 

Revised Wording: Monitor and manage work schedules for employees, in accordance with staffing 

requirements and employee workload and availability.

The first job task was revised from design and implement to monitor and manage work schedules. 

The focus group agreed that the primary job duty of work schedule managers would be to manage work 

schedules, rather than to create work schedules.

Job Task 2

Original Wording: Maintain records of employee’s work schedules and timecards and prepare reports as 

needed.

Revised Wording: Evaluate efficacy of work schedules using common company metrics.

There was much debate over whether the second job task would be a responsibility of the work 

schedule manager. It was agreed that a work schedule manager would not be responsible for maintaining 

records because that is typically accounted for by a payroll department. Instead, a work schedule manager 

may be responsible for analyzing and evaluating work schedule records to determine whether the 

schedule is working effectively.

Job Task 3

Original Wording: Implement schedule changes as necessary because of turnover, absenteeism, 

employee leave requests, and fluctuating workloads. 

Revised Wording: Recommend schedule changes as necessary because of turnover, absenteeism, 

employee leave requests, and fluctuating workloads. 

The focus group participants suggested that the relative position of a work schedule manager in 

the hierarchy of an organization would provide for the ability to recommend schedule changes. However, 

it would be very unlikely that a work schedule manager would be in the position to actually implement 

schedule changes. Rather, the work schedule manager would act as a policy advisor for senior 

management.

Job Task 4

Original Wording: Coordinate with management to establish policies and programs that are sensitive to 

the particular demands of shift work schedules.

Revised Wording: Coordinate with management to establish policies and programs that are sensitive to 

the particular demands of shift work schedules. 

The wording for job task four remained the same with one caveat: the focus group participants 

again believed it unlikely that a work schedule manager would be involved in the process of changing 

policies. The work schedule manager should be able to inform senior management about policies and 

programs but would not be responsible for creating said policies. Instead, work schedule managers should 

strive to stimulate the change process and recognize when outside help is needed to enact particular policy 

changes. In essence, the work schedule manager becomes the internal educator on the demands of shift 

work and brings that information to senior management. 
41

Job Task 5

Original Wording: Monitor work hours to ensure that staff members comply with administrative policies 

and procedures, safety rules, union contracts, and government regulations.

Revised Wording: Monitor work hours to ensure that staff members comply with administrative policies 

and procedures, safety rules, union contracts, and government regulations.

The wording and understanding of job task five remained the same. Work schedule managers

should be responsible for understanding the particular policies and procedures that govern their work 

schedules. Oftentimes managing a work schedule is about maintaining the best schedule possible for the 

organization while working within the constraints of administrative policies and procedures (e.g., hours of 

service mandates, labor laws, etc.).

Job Task 6

Original Wording: Review work production, employee performance, and accident reports in conjunction 

with shift schedules for potential shift-related trends and take action as necessary.

Revised Wording: Review work production, employee performance, and accident reports in conjunction 

with shift schedules for potential shift-related trends and take action as necessary.

The wording for job task six remained the same, with the understanding that this task also 

included an examination of the health and safety issues associated with shift schedules. This task suggests 

that work schedule managers would be responsible for monitoring shift-related trends in safety and 

performance for an organization.
42 

KSAO Definitions

Knowledge – the degree to which employees have mastered a technical body of material directly 

involved in the performance of a job. 

Skill – the capacity to performance tasks requiring the use of tools, equipment, and machinery.

Ability – the capacity to carry out physical and mental acts required by a job’s tasks where the 

involvement of tools, equipment, and machinery is not a dominant factor. 

Other characteristics – interests, values, temperaments, and personality traits suggesting what an 

employee is likely to do rather than how well an employee can do at peak performance.

Examples

Industrial Engineers:

- Knowledge of the practical application of engineering science and technology. 

- Skill in judgment and decision making; considering the relative costs and benefits of 

potential actions to choose the most appropriate one. 

- Ability to tell when something is wrong or is likely to go wrong. 

Transportation Managers:

- Knowledge of the principles and methods for moving people or goods by air, rail, sea, or 

road, including the relative costs and benefits. 

- Skill in time management; managing one’s own time and the time of others. 

- Ability to apply general rules to specific problems to produce answers that make sense 

(deductive reasoning). 

- Willingness to work unusual work schedules. 

First-Line Supervisors of Production Workers:

- Knowledge of techniques for maximizing the effective manufacture and distribution of 

goods. 

- Skill in motivating, developing, and directing people as they work. 

- Ability to communicate information and ideas in writing so that others will understand. 
43 

Preliminary KSAO List from Panel Discussion

Job Task 1: Monitor and manage work schedules for employees, in accordance with staffing 

requirements and employee workload and availability. 

Knowledge

 Knowledge of various schemes or designs used to schedule 24/7 work (e.g., fast/slow, 

forward/backward rotations)

 Knowledge of the impact long work hours have on health, safety, and performance 

 Knowledge of the physiology of sleep, including circadian rhythm, sleep architecture, sleep 

disorders, naps, chemical substances’ effects on sleep

 Knowledge of industry-specific operations and regulations (e.g., OSHA, USDA, HOS)

 Knowledge of the work rules of the company, including unions, contracts, hours of service, 

overtime pay, and incentives

 Knowledge of company policies, procedures, and practices and how they relate to company 

values

Skills

 Skill in communicating with various levels of an organization’s hierarchy and tailoring 

explanations of ideas to an appropriate level

 Skill in converting complex topics to simple explanations

 Skill with analytical/statistical applications

 Skill in solving problems 

Abilities

 Ability to think independently

 Ability to identify and manage risks

 Ability to self-evaluate to gauge success

Other

 Integrity

 Previous involvement with shift work systems

Job Task 2: Evaluate efficacy of work schedules using common company metrics.

There was much debate over whether the second job task would be a responsibility of the work 

schedule manager. 

Knowledge

 Knowledge of tools and technologies available for scheduling 

 Knowledge of staffing analysis 

Skills

 Skill interfacing with multiple systems and people to capture measures of productivity and other 

outcomes 

 Skill in basic mathematical applications

 Skill building data-based reports 

Abilities

 Ability to persuade others

 Ability to ask the right questions and know where to find the appropriate answers 

Other

 Honesty 

 Discretion
44 

Job Task 3: Recommend schedule changes as necessary because of turnover, absenteeism, employee 

leave requests, and fluctuating workloads. 

Knowledge

 Knowledge of the policies and procedures associated with the design of an organization’s 

schedule

 Knowledge of industry or company-specific indicators of an employee’s fitness for duty

Skills

 Skill in using the tools and technologies of a scheduling management system to track fluctuations 

in workload and usage of relief systems 

 Skill in understanding perceptions of equity and solving problems in an equitable manner 

 Skill in troubleshooting schedule systems to recognize when a system is broken and what is 

needed to repair it

 Skill in coordinating and negotiating with all levels of personnel within an organization 

Abilities

 Ability to think critically about problems

Job Task 4: Coordinate with management to establish policies and programs that are sensitive to the 

particular demands of shift work schedules.

Knowledge

 Knowledge of union interactions with an organization, including the company’s collective 

agreement

 Knowledge of the employee handbook

 Knowledge of employee training programs specific to the management of shift work

Skills

 Skill in tracking schedules and recognizing the warning signs of potential fatigue, health, and 

safety issues

Abilities

 Ability to balance conflicting demands, such as when the needs of the employees conflict with the 

demands of the organization 

 Ability to be diplomatic when interfacing between management and employee goals 

 Ability to recognize a problem and need for change 

 Ability to persuade 

 Ability to be flexible based on changing needs 

Job Task 5: Monitor work hours to ensure that staff members comply with administrative policies and 

procedures, safety rules, union contracts, and government regulations.

Knowledge

 Knowledge of company policies and procedures, including company interactions with unions and 

union contracts

 Knowledge of applicable government rules and regulations 

 Knowledge of company’s human resource systems

Skills

 Skill in using technology 

 Skill in interacting with people

 Skill in observation 

 Skill in analyzing information and using logic to solve problems
45 

Abilities

 Ability to read and comprehend ideas in writing 

 Ability to express oneself clearly through speaking and writing so that others will understand 

 Ability to lead others effectively

 Ability to be persuasive

Other

 Approachability 

Job Task 6: Review work production, employee performance, and accident reports in conjunction with 

shift schedules for potential shift-related trends and take action as necessary.

Knowledge

 Knowledge of basic ergonomics and human factors 

 Knowledge of mechanisms and components that affect job performance 

 Knowledge of circadian physiology

 Knowledge of health and safety issues that relate to work

 Knowledge of current research related to shift work

Skills

 Skill in problem solving and investigation

 Skill with computer systems

 Skill in designing and managing data collection systems 

 Skill in analyzing information and using logic to solve problems 

 Skill in observation 

 Skill in keeping detailed records 

 Skill in mediating between management and employees 

Abilities

 Ability to communicate well with others

 Ability to express oneself clearly through writing 

 Ability to think critically

Other

 Passion for safety and health 

 Patience

 Perseverance
46 

APPENDIX D: Materials from Researcher Interviews

Academic Researcher Names and Affiliations........................................ D1

Preliminary KSAO List from Researcher Interviews............................ D2
47 

Academic Researcher Names and Affiliations

Table D-1. Researcher Names and Affiliations

Name Title Affiliation Location

Torbjörn Åkerstedt, Ph.D. Professor Karolinska Institute Stockholm, Sweden

Greg Belenky, Ph.D. Research Professor Washington State 

University

Spokane, 

Washington

Charles Czeisler, Ph.D. Baldino Professor of 

Sleep Medicine Harvard Medical School Boston, Massachusetts

David Dinges, Ph.D. 

Professor of 

Psychology in

Psychiatry

University of Pennsylvania 

School of Medicine

Philadelphia, 

Pennsylvania 

Simon Folkard, Ph.D. Emeritus Professor Swansea University 

School of Human Sciences 

Wales, United 

Kingdom 

Mikko Härmä, Ph.D. Director of Human 

Factors at Work

Finnish Institute of 

Occupational Health Helsinki, Finland

Michael Smolensky, Ph.D. 

Professor of 

Environmental 

Sciences

The University of Texas 

Health Sciences Center Houston, Texas
48 

Preliminary KSAO List from Researcher Interviews

1. What do work schedule managers need to know to effectively schedule shift work?

 Knowledge of the effects of shift work on health and safety 

 Knowledge of the relationship between sleep and performance, including circadian physiology 

and homeostatic regulation 

 Knowledge of specific company operations, regulations, industry policies, etc. 

 Knowledge of program evaluation 

 Knowledge of individual differences in shift work preferences and the social implications of shift

work

 Knowledge of the relationship between medications, sleep, and performance

 Knowledge of staffing 

 Knowledge of shift scheduling principles

 Knowledge of human factors 

2. What unique skills do work schedule managers need to have to schedule multiple shifts? 

 Skill in integrating knowledge to solve problems

 Skill in negotiating with different levels and parts of an organization (management, labor union, 

frontline employees)

 Skill in managing collective agreements

 Skill in managing questionnaires and interviews

 Numerical skills

 Skill in epidemiology and statistics

 Teamwork skills

 Skill in developing policies and policy documents 

 Interpersonal skills

3. What unique abilities do work schedule managers need for scheduling? 

 Ability to manage software and computers 

 Ability to identify areas of risk

 Ability to talk to and relate to different levels and layers of the organization

 Ability to cooperate 

4. Are there any other characteristics that work schedule managers should have to help them do well in 

their jobs? 

 Balanced personality

 Willing to compromise 

 Needs to command respect

 Should be well-connected with a community of schedulers 

 Sensitivity to different types of people 
49 

APPENDIX E: Finalized KSAOs and Followup Survey

Final List of KSAOs.................................................................................... E1 

Follow-up Survey Administered to SMEs................................................ E2 
50 

Final List of KSAOs

Table E-1. Finalized List of Knowledge Characteristics and Mapping to Original Wording 

KNOWLEDGE 

Finalized wording for KSAO Original wording from SMEs

1 

Various designs used to schedule 

24/7 work (e.g., fast/slow, 

forward/backward rotations)

 Knowledge of various schemes or designs used to schedule 24/7 

work (e.g., fast/slow, forward/backward rotations)

 Knowledge of shift scheduling principles

2 The impact work hours have on 

health, safety, and performance

 Knowledge of the impact long work hours have on health, safety, 

and performance

 Knowledge of mechanisms and components that affect job 

performance

 Knowledge of health and safety issues that relate to work

 Knowledge of current research related to shift work.

 Knowledge of the effects of shift work on health and safety

3 The physiology of sleep as related to 

performance

 Knowledge of the physiology of sleep, including circadian rhythm, 

sleep architecture, sleep disorders, naps, chemical substances’ 

effects on sleep

 Knowledge of circadian physiology

 Knowledge of the relationship between sleep and performance, 

including circadian physiology and homeostatic regulation

 Knowledge of the relationship between medications, sleep, and 

performance

4 

Industry-specific operations and 

regulations (e.g., OSHA, USDA, 

HOS)

 Knowledge of industry-specific operations and regulations (e.g., 

OSHA, USDA, HOS)

 Knowledge of applicable government rules and regulations

 Knowledge of specific company operations, regulations, industry 

policies, etc.

5 

Company policies and procedures, 

including interactions with unions 

and union contracts

 Knowledge of the work rules of the company, including unions, 

contracts, hours of service, overtime pay and incentives

 Knowledge of company policies, procedures, and practices and 

how they relate to company values

 Knowledge of union interactions with an organization, including 

the company’s collective agreement

 Knowledge of the employee handbook

 Knowledge of company policies and procedures, including 

company interactions with unions and union contracts

6 Tools and technologies available for 

scheduling  Knowledge of tools and technologies available for scheduling

7 Staffing analysis  Knowledge of staffing analysis

 Knowledge of staffing

8 

Policies and procedures concerning 

the design of an organization's 

schedule

 Knowledge of the policies and procedures associated with the 

design of an organization's schedule

9 Indicators of an employee’s fitness 

for duty

 Knowledge of industry or company-specific indicators of an 

employee’s fitness for duty

10 Employee training programs specific 

to shift work

 Knowledge of employee training programs specific to the 

management of shift work

11 Human resource systems  Knowledge of company’s human resource systems

12 Basic ergonomics and human factors  Knowledge of basic ergonomics and human factors

 Knowledge of human factors
51 

13 Program evaluation  Knowledge of program evaluation

14 The social implications of shift work  Knowledge of individual differences in shiftwork preferences and 

the social implications of shift work

Table E-2. Finalized List of Skills and Mapping to Original Wording 

SKILLS 

Finalized wording for KSAO Original wording from SMEs

1 Communicating with various levels 

of an organization’s hierarchy 

 Skill in communicating with various levels of an organization's 

hierarchy and tailoring explanations of ideas to an appropriate level

 Skill coordinating and negotiating with all levels of personnel 

within an organization

 Skill in mediating between management and employees

 Skill in negotiating with different levels and parts of an 

organization (management, labor union, frontline employees)

 Ability to be diplomatic when interfacing between management 

and employee goals

 Ability to talk to and relate to different levels and layers of the 

organization

2 Converting complex topics to simple 

explanations  Skill in converting complex topics to simple explanations

3 Using analytical/statistical 

applications 

 Skill with analytical/statistical applications

 Skill in basic mathematical applications

 Numerical skills

 Skill in epidemiology and statistics

4 Problem solving 

 Skill in solving problems

 Skill in understanding perceptions of equity and solving problems 

in an equitable manner

 Skill in analyzing information and using logic to solve problems

 Skill in problem solving and investigation.

 Skill in analyzing information and using logic to solve problems.

 Skill in integrating knowledge to solve problems

5 Interfacing with multiple systems  Skill in interfacing with multiple systems and people to capture 

measures of productivity and other outcomes

6 Using technology 

 Skill in utilizing the tools and technologies of a scheduling 

management system in order to track fluctuations in workload and 

usage of relief systems

 Skill in using technology

 Skill with computer systems

 Ability to manage software and computers

7 Troubleshooting schedule systems  Skill in troubleshooting schedule systems, in order to recognize 

when a system is broken and what is needed to repair it

8 

Recognizing the warning signs of 

potential fatigue, health, and safety 

issues 

 Skill in tracking schedules and recognizing the warning signs of 

potential fatigue, health, and safety issues

9 Interacting with people  Skill in interacting with people

 Interpersonal skills

10 Observation  Skill in observation

11 Keeping detailed records  Skill in keeping detailed records

12 Managing collective agreements  Skill in managing collective agreements

13 Working in teams  Teamwork skills

14 Leading people  Leadership skills

 Ability to lead others effectively
52 

Table E-3. Finalized List of Abilities and Mapping to Original Wording 

ABILITIES

Finalized wording for KSAO Original wording from SMEs

1 Think independently  Ability to think independently

2 Identify and manage risks  Ability to identify and manage risks

 Ability to identify areas of risk

3 Self-evaluate to gauge success  Ability to self-evaluate to gauge success

4 Persuade others 

 Ability to persuade others

 Ability to persuade

 Ability to be persuasive

5 

Ask the right questions and know 

where to find the appropriate 

answers 

 Ability to ask the right questions and know where to find the 

appropriate answers

6 Think critically about problems  Ability to think critically about problems

 Ability to think critically

7 Balance conflicting demands  Ability to balance conflicting demands, such as when the needs of 

the employees conflict with the demands of the organization

8 Recognize a problem and need for 

change  Ability to recognize a problem and need for change

9 Be flexible  Ability to be flexible based on changing needs

10 Read and comprehend ideas in 

writing  Ability to read and comprehend ideas in writing

11 Express oneself clearly through 

speaking and writing 

 Ability to express oneself clearly through speaking and writing so 

that others will understand

 Ability to communicate well with others 

 Ability to express oneself clearly through writing

12 Cooperate  Ability to cooperate

Table E-4. Finalized List of Other Characteristics and Mapping to Original Wording 

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

Finalized wording for KSAO Original wording from SMEs

1 Integrity  Integrity

2 Previous involvement with shift

work systems  Previous involvement with shift work systems

3 Honesty  Honesty

4 Discretion  Discretion

5 Approachability  Approachability

6 Passion for safety and health  Passion for safety and health

7 Patience  Patience

8 Perseverance  Perseverance

9 Willing to compromise  Willing to compromise

10 Commands respect  Needs to command respect

11 Well-connected with a community 

of schedulers  Should be well-connected with a community of schedulers

12 Sensitivity to different types of 

people  Sensitivity to different types of people
53 

Followup Survey Administered to SMEs

Page 1: Welcome to the Work Schedule Manager Job Analysis Survey 

This survey is a followup to the interview and/or focus group that you participated in regarding the 

management of shift work schedules. The next few pages contain questions regarding the job tasks and 

knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) necessary to manage work schedules in 

24/7 operations. We compiled the list of job tasks and KSAOs based on collective input from multiple 

interviews and focus groups. Your responses to this survey will provide us with important information 

regarding the relative importance of the job tasks and KSAOs that have been identified.

Participation in this survey is voluntary, and we will be happy to answer any questions you have 

concerning the study. If you have further questions about this project or if you have a research-related 

problem, you may contact Stephanie Morrow at Stephanie.Morrow@uconn.edu or Janet Barnes-Farrell at 

Janet.Barnes-Farrell@uconn.edu. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant 

you may contact the University of Connecticut Institutional Review Board (IRB) at 860-486-8802. An 

IRB is a group of people that reviews research studies to make sure they are safe for participants. 

The survey should take 15–20 minutes to complete. Thank you for taking the time to participate in this 

study. 

Janet Barnes-Farrell, Ph.D. 

Stephanie Morrow, M.A.

To navigate individual pages of the survey, you can use the Tab and PageUp/PageDown keys on your keyboard or the scroll bar 

on the right hand side of the screen. DO NOT use the Enter key on your keyboard to enter responses or navigate the survey. 

Please click the “Next“ button at the bottom of the page to continue with the survey.
54 

Page 2: Job Tasks 

The following is a list of the various job tasks that define the job of a work schedule manager. Some job 

tasks may be more difficult than others, and some may result in more negative consequences if not done 

properly. Please answer the following questions as they relate to the job tasks of a work schedule 

manager.

1) How difficult is it to complete this task? (Task difficulty) 

1 – Extremely easy task

2 – Considerably easy task

3 – Somewhat easy task

4 – Average task

5 – Somewhat difficult task

6 – Considerably difficult task

7 – Extremely difficult task

2) To what extent would completing the task incorrectly result in negative consequences? (Consequence 

of error) 

 1 – Extremely negative consequences

 2 – Very negative consequences

 3 – Moderately negative consequences

 4 – Somewhat negative consequences

 5 – No negative consequences

1. Design and implement work schedules for employees, in accordance with staffing requirements and 

employee workload and availability. 

2. Maintain records of employee’s work schedules and timecards and prepare reports as needed. 

3. Implement schedule changes as necessary due to turnover, absenteeism, employee leave requests, and 

fluctuating workloads. 

4. Coordinate with management to establish policies and programs that are sensitive to the particular 

demands of shift work schedules. 

5. Monitor work hours to ensure that staff members comply with administrative policies and procedures, 

safety rules, union contracts, and government regulations. 

6. Review work production, employee performance, and accident reports in conjunction with shift 

schedules for potential shift related trends and take action as necessary. 

Please list any job tasks that you believe were not included above, but should be included in the job of a 

work schedule manager.

Do you have any additional comments regarding the listed JOB TASKS? 
55 

Page 3: Knowledge

Think about each of the following knowledge areas as they relate to the job and job tasks of a work 

schedule manager. Some knowledge areas may be more important than others. Some may be learned 

through formal training, whereas others can only be acquired through on-the-job training or experience. 

For each knowledge area, answer the following questions: 

1) How important is it for a work schedule manager to possess this knowledge? (Importance) 

1 – Not at all important 

2 – Somewhat important 

3 – Moderately important 

4 – Very important 

5 – Extremely important 

2) Can this knowledge be taught using a formal, standardized training program? (Formal training)

1 – Yes

2 – No

Knowledge of... 

1. ...various designs used to schedule 24/7 work (e.g., fast/slow, forward/backward rotations) 

2. ...the impact work hours have on health, safety, and performance 

3. ...the physiology of sleep as related to performance 

4. ...industry-specific operations and regulations (e.g., OSHA, USDA, HOS)

5. ...company policies and procedures, including interactions with unions and union contracts

6. ...tools and technologies available for scheduling 

7. ...staffing analysis 

8. ...policies and procedures concerning the design of an organization’s schedule

9. ...indicators of an employee’s fitness for duty

10. ...employee training programs specific to shift work

11. ...human resource systems

12. ...basic ergonomics and human factors 

13. ...program evaluation 

14. ...the social implications of shift work
56 

Page 4: Skills 

Think about each of the following skills as they relate to the job and job tasks of a work schedule 

manager. Some skills may be more important than others. Some may be learned through formal training, 

whereas others can only be acquired through on-the-job experience. For each skill, answer the following 

questions: 

1) How important is it for a work schedule manager to possess this skill? (Importance) 

1 – Not at all important 

2 – Somewhat important 

3 – Moderately important 

4 – Very important 

5 – Extremely important 

2) Can this skill be taught using a formal, standardized training program? (Formal training)

1 – Yes

2 – No

Skill in... 

1. ...communicating with various levels of an organization’s hierarchy

2. ...converting complex topics to simple explanations 

3. ...using analytical/statistical applications 

4. ...problem solving 

5. ...interfacing with multiple systems

6. ...using technology 

7. ...troubleshooting schedule systems

8. ...recognizing the warning signs of potential fatigue, health, and safety issues 

9. ...interacting with people

10. ...observation 

11. ...keeping detailed records

12. ...managing collective agreements

13. ...working in teams

14. ...leading people 
57 

Page 5: Abilities

Think about each of the following abilities as they relate to the job and job tasks of a work schedule 

manager. Some abilities may be more important than others. Some may be learned through formal 

training, whereas others can only be acquired through on-the-job training or experience. For each ability, 

answer the following questions: 

1) How important is it for a work schedule manager to possess this Ability? (Importance) 

1 – Not at all important 

2 – Somewhat important

3 – Moderately important 

4 – Very important 

5 – Extremely important 

2) Can this Ability be taught using a formal, standardized training program? (Formal training) 

1 – Yes

2 – No

Ability to... 

1. ...think independently 

2. ...identify and manage risks 

3. ...self-evaluate to gauge success

4. ...persuade others 

5. ...ask the right questions and know where to find the appropriate answers 

6. ...think critically about problems 

7. ...balance conflicting demands

8. ...recognize a problem and need for change

9. ...be flexible 

10. ...read and comprehend ideas in writing

11. ...express oneself clearly through speaking and writing 

12. ...cooperate 
58 

Page 6: Other Characteristics

Think about each of the following characteristics as they relate to the job and job tasks of a work schedule

manager. Some characteristics may be more important than others. Some may be learned through formal 

training, whereas others can only be acquired through on-the-job training or experience. For each 

characteristic, answer the following questions: 

1) How important is it for a work schedule manager to possess this characteristic? (Importance) 

1 – Not at all important 

2 – Somewhat important 

3 – Moderately important 

4 – Very important 

5 – Extremely important 

2) Can this characteristic be taught using a formal, standardized training program? (Formal training) 

1 – Yes

2 – No

1. Integrity

2. Previous involvement with shift work systems

3. Honesty 

4. Discretion

5. Approachability 

6. Passion for safety and health 

7. Patience

8. Perseverance

9. Willing to compromise 

10. Commands respect

11. Well-connected with a community of schedulers 

12. Sensitivity to different types of people 

Please list any KSAOs that you believe were not included on these lists, but should be required of a work 

schedule manager.

Do you have any additional comments regarding the listed KSAOs? 

You have reached the end of the survey. Please click the “Done” button at the bottom of the page to complete the survey and 

submit your responses.
59 

APPENDIX F: Job Incumbent Interview Materials

Job Incumbent Preinterview Information Sheet .....................................F1

Job Incumbent Preinterview Questionnaire ............................................F2

Job Incumbent In-Person Interview Questionnaire................................F3

Job Incumbent Postinterview Survey .......................................................F4
60 

Job Incumbent Preinterview Information Sheet

INFORMATION SHEET

University of Connecticut – Shift Work Scheduling Job Analysis

Introduction

Thank you for your interest in participating in this research project. The University of Connecticut is conducting a 

job analysis on shift work schedulers in a broad range of industries and organizations in the New England area. This 

research is funded by the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA), Washington, DC. The goal of this research is to 

draft an accurate job description for shift work schedulers. Participation in the study is completely voluntary. You 

are free to decide not to participate in this study or to withdraw at any time without adversely affecting your 

relationship with your employer or the investigators. 

You will be interviewed in person by two members of the research team from the University of Connecticut. The 

interview will take approximately forty-five (45) minutes to complete and will be audio-recorded to ensure that we 

record your responses as accurately as possible. During the interview you will be asked about your job as it relates to 

scheduling workers in your organization, the process you use to create a work schedule, and any tools or information 

you use in the creation of a work schedule. At the end of the in-person interview you will be asked to complete a 

short post-interview survey. This document will ask for you to indicate whether specific knowledge, skills, abilities 

and other characteristics are of importance to do well in your job. Once the interview is completed your involvement 

in the study is over.

Attached to this information sheet is a Preinterview Questionnaire. This document will ask for you to provide the 

interviewer with your contact information, a description of your organization, your job, and basic demographic 

questions such as your age, gender and education. This document will take approximately ten (10) minutes to 

complete. Please complete the questionnaire before the interview, and will pick up the completed questionnaire at 

the time of the interview.

Confidentiality

You have a right to privacy, and the research investigators will take all reasonable measures to protect the 

confidentiality of your records. Your name has been recorded solely for the purpose of contacting you for the 

interview. Following completion of your interview, the audio recording of the interview will be transcribed by a 

professional transcriptionist and only your initials will appear in the transcription script, making it difficult to link 

your name with your responses to questions. Afterward, the audio recordings will be destroyed and the transcription 

will serve as the record of information from the interview. The individuals who interview you will be graduate 

students at the University of Connecticut, and are not employees of your organization. Investigators will have no 

access to your employment records. Your interview responses will not be given to your employer or supervisor. 

Your name and other identifying information will not be available to any person or group other than study 

investigators and a professional transcriptionist. 

Risks & Benefits

This interview process does not involve any risks or inconveniences to you other than the time required to complete 

the interview. However, it is anticipated that the results of this study will help future shift work schedulers and 

organizations through the development of more productive, safer, and more efficient scheduling practices in a 

demanding shift work environment. Again, your participation is completely voluntary.

If You Need More Information

If you need more information or have questions about the interview, please contact the Principal Investigator, Dr. 

Janet Barnes-Farrell, at 860-486-5929 (janet.barnes-farrell@uconn.edu) or the other members of the research team, 

Stephanie Morrow (stephanie.morrow@uconn.edu) or Ben Walsh (benjamin.walsh@uconn.edu). If you have any 

questions about your rights as a research subject that have not been answered by the investigator or to report any 

concerns about the study, you may contact the University of Connecticut, Institutional Review Board (IRB) at 860-

486-8802. An IRB is a group of people that review research studies to make sure they are safe for participants.
61 

Job Incumbent Preinterview Questionnaire

Principal Investigators: Janet L. Barnes-Farrell, Ph.D. E-mail: janet.barnes-farrell@uconn.edu 

Stephanie L. Morrow, M.A. stephanie.morrow@uconn.edu 

Ben M. Walsh, M.A. benjamin.walsh@uconn.edu 

Office Telephone: 860-486-5929 Address: University of Connecticut 

 Psychology Department 

406 Babbidge Road Unit 1020 

Storrs, CT 06269 

The University of Connecticut is conducting a job analysis on shift work schedulers in a broad range of 

industries and organizations in the New England area. This research is funded by the Federal Railroad 

Administration (FRA), Washington, DC. The goal of this research is to draft an accurate job description 

for shift work schedulers. Your responses to these interview questions are a vital contribution to this 

important research. All responses will be strictly confidential. Your cooperation is greatly appreciated. 

Instructions:

 Please complete this questionnaire and have a completed copy with you which we will pick 

up at the time of your interview.

 You may type your responses electronically in the gray highlighted areas. Remember to 

save the file after you have finished filling in the form to save your responses.

PERSONAL CONTACT INFORMATION 

Please provide the following information:

Name:

Phone Number:

E-mail:

COMPANY/ORGANIZATION CONTACT INFORMATION

Company/Organization Name: 

Mailing Address: 

City, State, Zip:
62 

DESCRIBE YOUR COMPANY/ORGANIZATION

1. Please provide a brief description of the main business or operational activity of your 

company/organization or place of employment: 

 

2. How many employees work at your work site? 

3. Does your company/organization operate 24 hours per day, 7 days per week? YES NO

a. If NO...what are your normal days and hours of operation? 

4. Is your workforce unionized? YES NO DON’T KNOW

DESCRIBE YOUR JOB

5. What is your official job title? 

6. How long have you worked for your company/organization? Years Months 

7. What department or group are you assigned to? 

8. What is the job title and department of the person you report to? 

*If you have an organizational chart that includes you and/or your department, please e-mail a 

copy with this preinterview sheet or have it available at the interview. 

DESCRIBE YOUR SCHEDULING ACTIVITIES

9. How long have you been scheduling workers in your 

company/organization? Years Months 

10. Is scheduling workers your main job activity or responsibility? YES NO

*If there are written policies, documents, or procedure pertaining to work scheduling that you 

use, please e-mail copies with this preinterview sheet or have them available at the interview.

11. How many full-time and part-time workers are you typically responsible for scheduling? 

 Full-time Part-time
63 

12. How many hours per week do you typically spend on scheduling activities? Hours/Week

DESCRIBE YOURSELF

13. What is your gender? Male Female

14. What is your age? Years

15. Please indicate the highest level of formal education you have completed.

 High School Diploma or GED 

Associate’s Degree

Bachelor’s Degree

Master’s Degree

Doctoral Degree

Other Please Describe: 

END OF INFORMATION SHEET 

Thank you for completing this pre-interview questionnaire. All of your responses are strictly

confidential. We look forward to talking with you in more depth about your scheduling tasks during your 

interview.

Please have a completed copy of this form with you at the time of your interview. 

Also, please have any documents, additional information, and other items related to your shift work 

scheduling tasks available at the interview. This will save time and make the interview more efficient. 

Thank you. 
64 

Job Incumbent In-Person Interview Questionnaire

Principal Investigators: Janet L. Barnes-Farrell, Ph.D. E-mail: janet.barnes-farrell@uconn.edu 

Stephanie L. Morrow, M.A. stephanie.morrow@uconn.edu 

Ben M. Walsh, M.A. benjamin.walsh@uconn.edu 

Office Telephone: 860-486-5929 Address: University of Connecticut 

 Psychology Department 

406 Babbidge Road Unit 1020 

Storrs, CT 06269 

Instructions to Interviewer:

 Verify that you are interviewing a person who is responsible for shift work scheduling in the 

company/organization. 

 Provide a thorough explanation of the study and answer all questions before beginning. Have a 

copy of the information sheet provided with the pre-interview questionnaire. Assure the interview 

participant of confidentiality before the interview is started and again at the end of the interview. 

Remind the subject that the interview will be recorded so that the research team can more 

accurately evaluate and analyze the responses. 

 Have the completed pre-interview information sheet w

you have studied the responses to the information shee

documentation provided. Some information may not h

and needs to be available during the interview. Prepar

information with you from the interview. 

ith you during the interview. Make sure 

t and reviewed any additional 

ave been enclosed with the pre-interview 

e to take copies of this additional 

PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS AND VERIFICATIONS

INTERVIEWER: Hi. My name is ____________________________. I am working with the University 

of Connecticut to study scheduling practices in industries that operate around-the-clock. Any information 

that you share with us is strictly confidential and your cooperation is voluntary. The interview should take 

about 45 minutes, and, if you agree, I would like to audio record your responses so that the research team 

documents your responses as accurately as possible. May I begin recording? (Confirm participant is 

ready to begin the interview)

**TURN ON THE RECORDER AND MAKE SURE IT IS RECORDING PROPERLY** 

INTERVIEWER: I am _____________________ (name of interviewer). Today is _____________ (give 

the date), and I am at __________________________ (name of organization) interviewing 

_________________________ (first name of interviewee) about (his or her) job as a shift work 

scheduler. I will be audio recording the interview in its entirety and I have turned the recorder on. I need 

to make sure that I have your consent to be interviewed for this research project and give you full 

assurance that your identity and all of your responses are completely confidential in accordance with the 

University of Connecticut Institutional Review Board (IRB) requirements for the protection of human 

research subjects. Do I have your permission and consent to proceed with the interview? 

(If the response is “yes,” then proceed. If the response is “no,” then stop the recording and terminate the 

interview).
65 

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

SCHEDULING IN RELATION TO OTHER JOB DUTIES

INTERVIEWER: We understand that scheduling is often not a person’s sole job duty at work. The 

following questions ask about your work scheduling duties in relation to the other job duties you are 

responsible for at work. 

1. Approximately what percentage of your total job duties does scheduling account for? For example, if 

scheduling is your primary job duty, it might make up 90percent of your job. If scheduling is only a 

small part of your job duties, it might make up only 10percent of your job.

2. What other major job duties or tasks do you perform in addition to the scheduling of workers? 

3. Who are the people that you are responsible for scheduling, what do they do? 

4. How many other people schedule work in your organization? Can you give me a general sense of 

who in the organization is responsible for scheduling what groups of employees? 

5. Who are you directly responsible to for your scheduling tasks and scheduling products? What is this 

person’s job title and position in the organization? Where do they fit in the organization in relation to 

your position? 

THE STRUCTURE OF YOUR WORK SCHEDULE

INTERVIEWER: We’d like to know more about the type of work schedule that you create. 

6. Could you please name and describe the various work schedules that you create and use?

7. How do you determine how many workers must be scheduled for a particular shift or a particular area 

of activity or operation? For example, do you use proportional staffing? 

THE SCHEDULING PROCESS

INTERVIEWER: Think about the steps you take to create a work schedule; the kinds of information 

you gather, the tools you use, and the people you interact with. The following questions are about 

understanding exactly what you do when you create a work schedule.

8. What are the basic steps you take to create a work schedule? 

9. What special tools or technology (ex. software) do you use to create the schedule? 

10. When you generate a work schedule, how many days of the week or how many weeks in a month 

does it typically cover? 

11. How do you determine exactly which employees you schedule for a particular shift? 

12. What other formal or informal information or documentation do you use when designing the 

schedule? 
66 

INTERVIEWER NOTE: Information inputs might include seniority, overtime, employee preference, 

bid position, voluntary, permanent vs. temporary status, rotation vs. fixed, restricted duty, sick leave and 

return from sick leave, etc. 

13. How are employees and supervisors notified of a new or revised shift schedule?

14. What restrictions do you need to consider in creating or revising work schedules? Such as limits on 

hours worked per shift or overtime? (Such as federal or state laws or regulations)

15. OPTIONAL QUESTION: What kind of union contract rules or requirements must you take into 

consideration in creating or revising work schedules? Do you have a copy of these rules and 

requirements that we can review? If documentation is not available then please describe these 

requirements in as much detail as possible.

INTERVIEWER NOTE: Ask this question if the pre-interview information indicated that the 

workforce is unionized.

16. What issues, concerns, information, or data do you take into consideration when you need to call 

someone in to work? How is this decision made, and what are the details of the process of calling 

someone in to work? 

YOUR TRAINING

INTERVIEWER: It is important to understand where, when, and how you learned to design work 

schedules. The following questions ask about you training experiences with regard to work scheduling. 

17. What did you do before your current job? How did you get to be in charge of scheduling? 

18. What kind of, if any, training have you participated in concerning scheduling? (e.g., a continuing 

education course) 

19. What did it take and how long did it take before you felt fully trained and competent? 

20. If you had to train someone else to do the job of scheduling, what kind of knowledge would they 

need? 

21. What kind of skills would someone need to do the scheduling component of your job? Such as skills 

relating to technology? 

22. What other abilities or characteristics make you good at what you do? For example, relating to 

communication or personality? 

FINAL THOUGHTS

INTERVIEWER: Is there anything that we have not talked about or that you think we should know 

with regard to your job, shift work scheduling, or other issues important to understanding your shift 

scheduling job or the work schedules created?

INTERVIEWER: We have finished the discussion portion of the interview, but before we leave we have 

a short survey that we would like you to complete. The survey contains lists of knowledge, skills, 

abilities, and other characteristics that might be needed by employees who schedule shifts. We would like 
67 

you to read over these lists and indicate how important it is to have each of these characteristics for your 

job. It should take no more than 10 minutes to complete. 

(Give postinterview survey to participant and answer any questions, if necessary)

INTERVIEWER (After Completion of Postinterview Survey): Thank you for participating in this 

research project. Again, your responses and our discussion during this interview are strictly 

confidential. If you have any additional questions or would like to talk to a member of the research 

team at any time please contact the principal investigator, Janet Barnes-Farrell, at 860-486-5929.
68 

Job Incumbent Postinterview Survey

The following survey includes lists of knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics that may apply to 

your job as a work scheduler. Please read the items and indicate how important they are in your job.

KNOWLEDGE

To what extent are the following knowledge areas important to have in your job? (Please circle the 

appropriate number; 1 = Not at all important and 5 = Extremely important)

Knowledge of... Important for job?

Not at all Somewhat Moderately Very Extremely

1. ...various designs used to schedule 24/7 work 

(e.g., fast/slow, forward/backward rotations) 1 2 3 4 5 

2. ...the impact work hours can have on health, 

safety, and performance

1 2 3 4 5 

3. ...the physiology of sleep as related to 

performance 1 2 3 4 5 

4. ...government regulations that apply to your 

industry 1 2 3 4 5 

5. ...your organization’s policies and procedures 1 2 3 4 5 

6. ...tools and technologies available for scheduling 1 2 3 4 5 

7. ...staffing analysis 1 2 3 4 5 

8. ...policies and procedures concerning the design 

of your organization’s schedule 1 2 3 4 5 

9. ...indicators of an employee’s fitness for duty 1 2 3 4 5 

10. ...employee training programs specific to working 

shift schedules 1 2 3 4 5 

11. ...human resource systems 1 2 3 4 5 

12. ...basic ergonomics and human factors 1 2 3 4 5 

13. ...methods for evaluating the effectiveness of a 

work schedule 1 2 3 4 5 

14. ...the social implications of working different 

shifts (e.g., day versus night work) 1 2 3 4 5 
69 

SKILLS

To what extent are the following skills important to have in your job? (Please circle the appropriate number; 

1 = Not at all important and 5 = Extremely important)

Skill in... Important for job?

Not at all Somewhat Moderately Very Extremely

1. ...communicating with various levels of an 

organization’s hierarchy 1 2 3 4 5 

2. ...converting complex topics to simple 

explanations 1 2 3 4 5 

3. ...using analytical/statistical applications 1 2 3 4 5 

4. ...problem solving 1 2 3 4 5 

5. ...interfacing with multiple systems 1 2 3 4 5 

6. ...using technology 1 2 3 4 5 

7. ...troubleshooting work schedule systems 1 2 3 4 5 

8. ...recognizing the warning signs of potential 

fatigue, health, and safety issues 1 2 3 4 5 

9. ...interacting with people 1 2 3 4 5 

10. ...observation 1 2 3 4 5 

11. ...keeping detailed records 1 2 3 4 5 

12. ...managing collective agreements 1 2 3 4 5 

13. ...working in teams 1 2 3 4 5 

14. ...leading people 1 2 3 4 5 
70 

ABILITIES

Which of the following abilities are important to have in your job? (Please circle the appropriate number; 1 = 

Not at all important and 5 = Extremely important)

Ability to... Important for job?

Not at all Somewhat Moderately Very Extremely

1. ...think independently 1 2 3 4 5 

2. ...identify and manage risks 1 2 3 4 5 

3. ...self-evaluate to gauge success 1 2 3 4 5 

4. ...persuade others 1 2 3 4 5 

5. ...ask the right questions and know where to find 

the appropriate answers 1 2 3 4 5 

6. ...think critically about problems 1 2 3 4 5 

7. ....balance conflicting demands 1 2 3 4 5 

8. ...recognize a problem and need for change 1 2 3 4 5 

9. ...be flexible 1 2 3 4 5 

10. ...read and comprehend ideas in writing 1 2 3 4 5 

11. ...express yourself clearly through speaking and 

writing 1 2 3 4 5 

12. ...cooperate 1 2 3 4 5 
71 

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

To what extent are the following characteristics important to have in your job? (Please circle the appropriate 

number; 1 = Not at all important and 5 = Extremely important)

Important for job?

Not at all Somewhat Moderately Very Extremely

1. Integrity 1 2 3 4 5 

2. Previous involvement with shift work systems 1 2 3 4 5 

3. Honesty 1 2 3 4 5 

4. Discretion 1 2 3 4 5 

5. Approachability 1 2 3 4 5 

6. Passion for safety and health 1 2 3 4 5 

7. Patience 1 2 3 4 5 

8. Perseverance 1 2 3 4 5 

9. Willing to compromise 1 2 3 4 5 

10. Commands respect 1 2 3 4 5 

11. Well-connected with a community of schedulers 1 2 3 4 5 

12. Sensitivity to different types of people 1 2 3 4 5 
72 

APPENDIX G: Job Incumbent Demographics
73 

Job Incumbent Demographics 

Industry Job Title Gender Age Education Tenure Tenure 

Scheduling

% of Job 

Spent 

Scheduling

How Long 

Until Fully 

Trained

Health Care

(ER Nursing) Clinical Manager Female 50 Bachelor’s 28 years 15 years 5% 2 months

Health Care

(Surgical 

Nursing)

Nursing Director Female 53 Master’s 2 years 3 years 10% 3 months

Hospitality 

Service

(Restaurant)

Restaurant 

Manager Female 50 High School 18 years 15 years 20% 2 months

Manufacturing

(Meat 

Processing)

Manufacturing 

Supervisor Male 49 Bachelor’s 29 years 4 years 15% 6 months

Manufacturing

(Electric 

Equipment)

Manufacturing 

Supervisor Female 56 Bachelor’s 32 years 12 years 10% 6 months

Manufacturing

(Electric 

Equipment)

Processing 

Scheduler Female 55 High School 29 years 8 years 5% 1 month

Public Utilities

(Power 

Generation)

Operations 

Supervisor Male 38 Bachelor’s 6 years 4 years 7% Still learning

Public Utilities

(Service 

Technicians)

Utilities 

Supervisor I Male 50 High School 29 years 8 years 15% Almost 

immediately

Public Utilities 

(Mechanical 

Maintenance)

Transportation 

Department 

Manager

Male 49 Associate’s 27 years 8 years 25% 10 months

Public Utilities

(Dispatching)

Utilities 

Supervisor III Male 53 Associate’s 35 years 7 years 10% 2 years

Public Utilities

(Dispatching)

System 

Operations Center 

Supervisor

Male 46 Bachelor’s 5 years 6 years 12% Almost 

immediately

Public Safety

(Fire & 

Emergency 

Response)

Captain Male 42 Bachelor’s 21 years 3 years 3% Still learning

Public Safety

(Corrections) Captain Male 42 Associate’s 16 years 14 years 40% 6 months

Public Safety

(Police)

Assistant Director

of Public Safety Male 51 High School 26 years 15 years 1% 8 months

Transportation

(Passenger Bus)

Transportation 

Manager Male 50 Some College 28 years 24 years 75% Still learning

Transportation

(Passenger Rail)

Superintendent of 

Operations Male 53 High School 32 years 15 years 1% 6 months
74 

APPENDIX H: Qualitative KSAO Content Analysis Tables
75 

Qualitative KSAO Content Analysis Tables

Table H-1. Content Analysis of Knowledge: Key Themes and Quotations from Job Incumbent Interviews 

KNOWLEDGE 

Knowledge Key Themes Quotations from Interviews

1. Various designs 

used to schedule 

24/7 work (e.g.,, 

fast/slow, 

forward/backward 

rotations)

 Types of schedules

 names of schedules used in field

 standard vs. non-standard

 Info related to shift

 type (e.g., rotating) 

 shift duration

 consecutive shifts worked

 how shifts cycle

 Selecting schedule conducive to 

organizational needs

“I adapted a work schedule, and I believe 

it’s called in our industry the DuPont 

schedule. It’s a 12-hour, rotating shift 

that’s comprised of 3 weeks of 

alternating day and night shifts three 12-

hour shifts and four 12-hour shifts in a 

row with days off in between and it’s a 

28 day cycle...” 

“For us, being a public safety entity, like 

I said we’re 24/7, 365, so we have to 

come up with a schedule that schedules 

people here year-round. There are a 

number of different schedules that public 

safety departments use to do that. We’ve 

chosen the 2–10s and 2–14s because it’s 

conducive to what we need to have 

here.” 

2. The impact work 

hours have on 

health, safety, and 

performance

 Effect of schedule on health

 physical (e.g., heartburn, caffeine effect, 

sleep schedule)

 emotional

 mental (e.g., home schedule)

 psychological

 How schedule influences performance

 job satisfaction

 productivity 

 abilities

 people’s moods at work

 How work hours interact with safety

 impaired abilities

 Implementing solutions to reduce negative 

impact of work hours

 “mix” long and short shifts

 dissemination of info to employees

 “take it a little bit easier” on certain 

shifts, e.g., night shift

 allow workers time to decompress

“...whoever does scheduling has to have 

a good understanding of what it’s like to 

be for someone who does work those off 

shifts to have an understanding of what it 

does to your body and how it makes you 

feel if you don’t have a decent schedule 

because it’s a big part of what job 

satisfaction, safety, if you are chronically 

tired because your schedule is terrible 

potentially you could be putting yourself 

at risk, you could be putting your patients 

at risk.” 

“But he [police chief] has said that he 

doesn’t want to see all 12-hour shifts, he 

would like to see a mix in between...” 

“I think 12 hours and 13 hours is ok but I 

think you start to get at 14 and 15 hours

we start losing some of your abilities.” 

3. The physiology of 

sleep as related to 

performance

 Education about sleep

 dissemination of info to employees

 learning industry standards & trends re: 

sleep

 importance of sleep education

 Consistency of sleep schedule

 problematic to disturb sleep schedule

 difficult to have inconsistent sleep 

schedule

 Knowledge of sleep’s importance

 Knowledge of coping strategies with fatigue

“We are also looking at...how 

companies are being held liable for 

workers falling asleep on their way home 

from work.” 

“...if they get too acclimated to the night 

shift then it makes it that much harder to 

switch over to days...” 

“And [I] had an understanding I think of 

how important sleep is...” 
76 

4. Industry-specific 

operations and 

regulations (e.g., 

OSHA, USDA, 

HOS)

 Industry knowledge

 products (e.g., equipment)

 trade shows

 Restrictions (e.g., federal & state law, city 

contracts)

 Local trends that impact schedule

 city becoming metropolitan

 Knowing practices for similar organizations

“...knowing meat in general would help 

as far as knowing what you’re even 

doing...like you are at a pork plant, and 

these are the products.” 

“You have to watch those and there is so 

much more equipment coming out, new 

technologies that when you go to the 

shows and the literature in the magazines 

that you comb through all the time you 

may see something new out there that 

would be a good fit for our area...” 

5. Company policies 

and procedures, 

including 

interactions with 

unions and union 

contracts

 Union contract

 shift restrictions (e.g., days in week, 

duration, overtime)

 procedural restrictions (e.g., review 

schedule with employees, precedence of 

seniority, bidding process)

 Machinery

 capability

 parts (e.g., types of breakers, availability 

of parts)

 user qualifications 

 Operations

 different jobs (e.g., dispatch)

 areas of operation (e.g., production)

 knowing organization as a whole

 budget

 services offered

 Policies 

 calling into work

 emergency

 swapping people

 promotions

 accounting

 Employee base

 number of employees, departments

 employee qualifications and certifications

 average number of working years

 ability to handle stress

 skill level

 hiring trends

 Client base

 number served, areas of service

 client needs

 Restrictions other than union

 capital budget

 court times

 Hierarchy

“But somebody could walk in here and 

be supervisor and not know the actual 

machines and stuff, and just through on 

the job training they could probably learn 

in that way. It’s just a little more difficult 

when it comes to the scheduling because 

you’re not, you don’t immediately think 

of the flow of the material going through 

and how if you don’t have somebody 

sitting here it’s going to affect the whole 

line. So knowing the flow really helps.” 

“I put down here the most important part 

is the technical part, knowing what the 

equipment is used for and all the systems 

that the equipment includes versus a 

bigger derrick versus an aerial device. 

You would have to know how the utility 

works, what the equipment usage is, the 

parts availability, the money restrictions 

that you are working underneath as far as 

operating budgets and capital budgets. 

That’s really in mind the lowest part the 

technical part is most important to me.” 

“Yeah just understanding the contract, 

you have to know the contract, the rules, 

the regulations, the dos, and the don’ts. I 

think that would be key I would say to 

someone is know the contract before you 

walk in there because the other side of 

the table they know the contract exactly.” 

6. Tools and 

technologies 

available for 

scheduling

 Knowledge of program they are using by 

hand

 software (Accustaff, Duty Supervisor 

Manual Time Release Rest Period 

Matrix, shiftwork.com) 

 Basic knowledge of software capabilities 

(manipulate, put people in)

 One located & selected program by doing 

“We use Accustaff as an organization. 

It’s a software program, a scheduling 

program and basically the two 

advantages of it are is its computerized, 

so it’s easy to read, and then the other 

one is it gives me numbers at the end so 

that you know I have a lot of people to 

schedule.” 
77 

Internet search

 Know who to call for support

 Need for training on the software

 one received formal training

 need to learn

7. Staffing analysis  Employee-related information

 number of available employees (e.g., in 

general, for particular shift)

 duties

 job classifications

 experience level

 ability level/strength

 Responding to business needs

 matching number of shift workers with 

that day’s business (e.g., patient census)

 making sure to have backup person on 

call

 changing times due to shifting needs

“So we try to match up our officers with 

the amount of calls for service that we 

were having. We staff heavier from six at 

night to three in the morning than we do 

any other time of the day. Six at night to 

three in the morning I have a minimum 

staffing of seven officers over here and 

the rest of the time it’s five.” 

“If we only had 12 patients, we’d 

require three nurses, one nursing 

technician, and one secretary. This 

yellow line is our predicted average daily 

census on the unit and that means that we 

need five nurses, four nursing 

technicians, and like one and a half 

secretaries. And that’s the same on 

evenings. Then nightshift they’d require 

four and three...Nursing is quite, we’re 

benchmarked against both a productivity 

company and also there’s also a database 

of national nursing quality indicators that 

our staffing is benchmarked against 

also.” 

8. Policies and 

procedures 

concerning the

design of an 

organization's 

schedule

 Shift description

 start and end times

 number of workers per shift and what 

jobs they perform

 shift cycles (e.g., fixed or rotating)

 minimum number of staff per shift

 proportional vs. volume-driven

 responsibilities of each shift

 implications of shift (e.g., bonuses or 

rewards for certain shifts) 

 pay differences associated with 

shifts(e.g., long hours equal higher pay 

rate, paid lunches)

 Changes in schedule

 calling in sick

 scheduling vacations

 notifying employees of changes

 calling someone into work (e.g., 

minimum pay, voluntary)

 factors in determining priority (e.g., 

seniority) 

 Restrictions

 overtime

 contract

 Scheduler’s role

 give feedback

 approve schedule

 Procedures

“A couple of my spreadsheets, well I 

think they all do, is driven also by 

capacities. So my spreadsheets that do 

have out for production, knowing that 

they can make 500 cases a shift, I don’t 

schedule them 700 knowing that that’s 

not feasible. So I mean I also have yes 

the working tool of capacities and packs 

per man hour and everything about to 

also put on an effective schedule.” 

“Yeah basically once we have jobs what 

we do is advertise the issues and over a 

period we advertise the issue and let the 

employees bid the positions. After the 

employees see the bids a line of bids is 

read and after everybody bids a job they 

are ruled into that position and that’s the 

cycle pretty much what we go through. 

And we do this cycle twice a year for the 

crew and basically that’s what we do we 

pick the schedule, we put the jobs 

together, come to an agreement with the 

field, and then the CMS goes together to 

rule and agree on the couplets, we agree 

upon the couplets, we make the jobs, 

advertise the jobs, and we bid the jobs, 

and then we implement them on a certain 

day.” 
78 

 production schedules

 maintenance (scheduled and 

unscheduled)

 holiday, vacation, overtime, sick leave

 time in advance schedule gets done (e.g., 

1 day ahead, 6 weeks)

 emergency (e.g., power outage)

 union procedures (e.g., bidding)

 theory behind procedures

 Scheduling inputs 

 capacity (e.g., availability of equipment, 

packs per hour, police canines)

 minimum spread time between shifts

 restrictions on working alone

 overtime 

 business demands (e.g., service calls, 

operational orders, corporate office 

needs)

 supervisor feedback

 employee preferences

 managing inputs

“Well, they need an infinite knowledge 

of what we do, especially from the needs 

of the department and also they have to 

be aware of all the contractual things in 

the union that need to be brought into the 

thought process when doing the 

scheduling.” 

9. Indicators of an 

employee’s fitness 

for duty

 Qualifications and knowledge level

 requirements for machinery

 training

 experience level

 skill level

 capability

 familiarity with different jobs

 Health indicators

 general knowledge of how employees are

affected by stress

 self-care outside workplace (e.g., eating 

habits)

 fatigue

 not under influence of drugs

 Other indicators (e.g., appropriate uniform)

“Basic understanding of people, what 

kind of stress they will be under 

depending on what their schedule is in 

terms of my job and my previous job as a 

lieutenant scheduling people I was 

looking at how tired are they, what skill 

level they are at, how capable are they in 

this particular post, is it new to them or 

something they’ve done for years, and 

those kinds of combinations.” 

10. Employee training 

programs specific 

to shift work

 Self-taught regarding schedule

 Attending seminar on shift scheduling

 Relying on previous experience and 

supervisor input

“Interviewer – So in essence nobody here 

taught you schedule?

Job Incumbent – No.

Interviewer – You really taught 

yourself?

Job Incumbent – Yes.” 

“...Circadian Technology is the 

company. I went to a seminar and got 

this hand book it was a three day seminar 

and it talked about numerous different 

shift schedules that are pros that are cons, 

what industries tend to use different 

types of shift schedules...” 

11. Human resource 

systems

12. Basic ergonomics 

and human factors

 Avoidance of repetitive tasks

 Consideration of ergonomics

“And there are sometimes that I have to 

rotate if it’s a highly repetitive job...” 

“...it all depends on how you get to 

know the people and how to improve 
79 

their training...” 

13. Program 

evaluation

14. The social 

implications of 

shift work

 Employee patterns in volunteering for shifts

 frequency of asking for volunteers

 overtime vs. voluntary

 some shifts likelier to volunteer (e.g., 

second shift not as likely)

 Employee absences

 calling in vs. no show

 frequency of people calling in sick

 leaving before shift is over

 Considerations in scheduling two employees 

together

 how well they get along (e.g., bickering)

 potential problems from two employees 

having worked together for a long time 

(e.g., poor communication, potential for 

error, bad habits, familiarity)

 Implications of certain shifts

 impact on social life (with second shift 

having social life is difficult)

 some shifts require more employees

 Preferences regarding shifts

 preferring two consecutive shifts

 consistency in wanting same shift

 popularity/dislike for a certain shift (e.g., 

preference for days)

 factors influencing preferences (e.g., 

hunting season, school, age, time with 

kids, interests, pay bonuses, desire for 

variety)

 Impact of schedule

 how schedule effects lifestyle

 home, life, sleep

 flexibility – can allow for second job

“The only thing I do is check over to see 

if there are certain people, I have certain 

people who really shouldn’t be close to 

each other because they are having 

personal issues and I have to keep them 

apart. So when I go through the ECAS I 

have to actually look and see where they 

are placed on a daily basis so they aren’t 

close to each other.” 

“Because we work second shift, and it’s 

basically everybody else on like first they 

will have their social time they can leave 

work at three o’clock in the afternoon 

and they actually have a social life. 

Second shift people they [say] it’s hard 

to have a social life at all.” 

“I don’t see how you could work a 

rotating shift and have kids running 

around the house screaming...it’s hard 

having the younger guys who are on shift 

who have working spouses...And that’s 

where the seven day stretch becomes so 

valuable. By the time we get to the end 

here they are pretty burned out.” 
80 

Table H-2. Content Analysis of Skills: Key Themes and Quotations from Job Incumbent Interviews 

SKILLS 

Skill Key Themes Quotations from Interviews

1. Communicating with 

various levels of an 

organization's 

hierarchy

 Communicating with the people they 

are responsible for scheduling

 notifying employees of schedule 

(e.g., phone, posting on board, 

verbal, physically handing it to 

them)

 strategies for asking people to 

come in outside of their work 

hours (e.g., calling people on list 

according to seniority, asking one 

shift to stay longer)

 answer questions related to 

schedule

 Communicating with supervisors

 having supervisor approve 

schedule

 relaying employee needs

 working closely with supervisor 

 Reporting new information regarding 

schedule

“I try to be [a good communicator]. 

Communication to me is like it can be the greatest 

asset or the largest hindrance in completing the 

mission there is. You get to the root cause of most 

conflicts and it has to do with poor communication 

between the parties involved.” 

“Sometimes we feel like we are really working our 

staff hard and corporate wants us to meet this 

percentage of labor and we say, yeah but can you 

give us a couple more percentages? You know what 

I mean? Let us put a little more labor on, just so we 

don’t burn out our employees, you know?” 

“You have to have a good interpersonal because 

even though a lot of what I have talked about is 

paperwork, you have to talk to the people that are 

being transferred. You have to talk to people if 

there is a schedule change. You have to be able to 

do it in a way that they understand and it’s not 

offensive or abusive or it’s because I said so type of 

mentality.” 

2. Converting complex 

topics to simple 

explanations

 Explaining scheduling process and 

rationale behind it

“...because they don’t want to see a mathematical 

formula, they want you to sit down and explain this 

is what we are going to do and be able to answer to 

them why are you going to do it that way, does it 

make sense for you to do it that way, how did you 

come to that conclusion.” 

3. Using 

analytical/statistical 

applications

 Mathematical skills

 developing assignment matrix

 Accounting

“Then once I have the number of bodies and I have 

the number of presses, which would be the 38, you 

can do basically a mathematical layout of one 

person runs...First, I have to figure out, like I know 

the available, I know I got a bucket of x amount of 

set ups, well mathematically I have to come up with 

how many presses they need to run. Once I have 

that number then all I got to do is just go through 

and cross out the ones that are priority.” 

“Although my background in math fed right into 

that you know we talked about creating the shift 

relief factor and figuring out how many positions 

you need. It’s all about understanding math...How 

different factors will affect it.” 

“Math I would put right at the top and if you can’t 

understand mathematical formulas and how 

changing one part of that formula will affect 

another part then there is no way you can set and 

design scheduling systems. You will fail, so that is 

key.” 

4. Problem solving  Handling equipment failures

 Managing changes in employees’ 

schedules

 taking time off (e.g., medical leaves)

“...I’ve given the job of the schedule to one of the 

leads and pretty much it’s her job to take care of it 

cause it’s like seven people. Well she brings it to 

me still because I can’t figure this out look at it I 
81 

 Handling changes in organization’s 

scheduling demands

 unexpected orders

 random fluctuations in client 

needs

 weather: expected (e.g., summer 

trends) and unexpected (e.g., 

storm) 

 Selecting optimal scheduling strategy

 Knowing who to go to for help

 factors in selecting who (e.g., 

familiarity with problem)

 Balancing input and employee needs

 consider work hours impact

 consider inputs (e.g. federal and 

state laws)

know you’ll find how to make it work. And I don’t 

know why it’s pretty easy for me to look and say ok 

you need to move this person here, move this 

person there, then you’ll get it all covered and then 

this will be they will have their days together. She 

says I don’t know how you do it. So some of it is I 

think how you’re made. I don’t know. I’m not sure, 

it’s a skill you might be able to teach but it might 

be more difficult for them.” 

“You need to have the ability to solve problems 

objectively and uniquely...I’d say logical thinking, 

problem solving.” 

“Basically it’s our responsibility to take the current 

operating train schedules along with the rules out of 

the service rules and federal rules to make efficient 

train couplets and we try to do this by making the 

most efficient couplets and that’s basically putting 

two trains together to make a job that will fit with 

employees.” 

5. Interfacing with 

multiple systems

 Combinations of different systems

 products and machinery

 software, other plants’ processes, 

and shipments

 operating schedules and laws

 inventory and software

 machinery and sales

 department mission and 

organization’s needs

 Multitasking

“He puts those on a press, in other words, he will 

say like press one, he will schedule this part 

number this part number and so many of each one. 

And he will put those in a priority order and he 

does that two or three times a week. He changes 

that because of the way our other plants order the 

parts. That effects how we produce our parts.” 

“I just basically have reports from SAP that print 

with all the information as far as what we have on 

inventory, what other plants are making that are 

bring into the DC, and what our shipments would 

be. So that is basically my tool when I make my 

schedule.” 

6. Using technology  Uses for software

 run reports (e.g., number of 

patients, jobs that need to run)

 managing inputs (e.g. look up 

orders, forecasting clients, 

overtime)

 employees (e.g., assign duties to 

people, swap shifts, making online 

calendar accessible to employees)

 Types of software

 scheduling systems (e.g., 

Accustaff, shiftwork.com, Mitis, 

OpCrew)

 spreadsheet (e.g., Excel) 

 database (e.g., Access)

 other (e.g., MIS, Outlook, 

VisiPro, VSSPro, Microsoft)

 Noncomputer related tools

 phone

 intercompany radio

 Comfort level with technology

 made job easier

 received continuing education 

regarding software

“Well that would be ECAS and then for the

production schedules I have to our MIS program 

and the FAS programs to see what work is actually 

needed for that day. When products are due to see 

if there are certain orders and customize orders that 

have to be sent out that day.” 

“...so what it does is it prints out numbers...so for 

0700 it tells me on which days I have eight people 

coming in and which days I have six so I can se my 

holes pretty easily when I’m working on it. That 

way I know ok gosh I may need to find another 

nurse for this day and another nurse for that day 

and so its broken down that at 7 a.m. I have this 

many coming in, 9 a.m. I have this many coming 

in, 11 a.m., and so that way very quickly I am able 

to look and find where my holes in my schedule are 

so that then they can work.” 

“...there was a lot of actual computer work to what 

I do. Our rosters which I maintain are spreadsheets 

if I didn’t understand Excel well then I couldn’t 

maintain them and keep them running...When they 

are asking for analysis that is done through, you are 

pulling out of an Access database and putting it into 

an Excel spreadsheet and producing charts, graphs, 
82 

whatever they need at the time. So there is actually 

a heavy technological need for my specific 

position.” 

7. Troubleshooting 

schedule systems

 Making organization run more 

efficiently (e.g. reducing layover 

between runs and eliminating “dead 

head jobs”)

“I am troubleshot for the last 20 years.” 

“I’ve had very good luck in eliminated dead head 

jobs and making people work at both directions and 

getting all of this done.” 

8. Recognizing the 

warning signs of 

potential fatigue, 

health, and safety 

issues

 Health issues

 considering shift-related physical 

activity 

 Fatigue

 giving people enough time 

between shifts

“But then you have to start shuffling those people 

around and you are trying to avoid putting 

somebody clear over on we’ll call it row one and 

then clear over on row five. So that they don’t have 

to walk 500 feet. So that’s up to me as an individual 

to try to do the best job possible to keep their 

presses as close together as possible.” 

“The problem was that our call volume increased to 

the point where the seven 12-hour nights, we were 

burning our people out, so we went to a more 

conducive schedule that doesn’t burn our people 

out. It gives them enough recoil time in between 

their shifts, especially the night shifts, to not 

become fatigued and burn our person out.” 

9. Interacting with 

people

 People skills

 support 

 interpersonal

 listening 

 communication

 helpful 

 taking things personal

 Understanding of people

 Knowledge of people

 Resolving conflicts

“Your people skills are probably one of your most 

important jobs” “So they have to know the people, 

the tribal knowledge of the people. Their 

personalities, their needs, a little bit about their 

home life of course...” 

10. Observation  Observe people

 Observe shift work

“Being insightful, having good observation skills as 

far as knowing the people who work for you so that 

when you are pairing these two people up for the 

next 2 years you have an idea what to expect out of 

that shift both from a technical side and from a 

personalities involved.” 

“I am out there so I can actually support them and 

observe what is going on.” 

11. Keeping detailed 

records

 Constantly monitoring schedule 

(including materials and books)

 Keeping track of overtime and 

holidays

 Organizational skills and attention to 

detail

“So you have to keep track of everything. You have 

to keep track of your materials, your boxes, 

everything just so you can do the scheduling.” 

“I mean you have to pay attention to detail.” 

“You have to keep track of who you’ve given an 

extra holiday off. There’s a lot of little things with 

scheduling of 24-hour people around the clock that 

even though the system could look at it, you really 

do need to keep track of.” 

12. Managing collective 

agreements

 Negotiating

 Responding to union requests

 Maintaining good relations with union 

contacts

“It’s all experience and kind of what XXX said it’s 

not rocket science to actually do the schedules and 

the couplets where you really gain your experience, 

knowledge, and expertise in scheduling is through 

the learning the negotiation process that 

management has to go through with the union 

leadership. That takes probably a greater skill than 
83 

the actual development of schedules.” 

“... what it boils down to is really being able to sit 

and negotiate and come out the room with an 

agreement. Sometimes you don’t and we had this 

pass go around where you don’t come to an 

agreement and you have to take the tact that listen 

this isn’t a democracy I’m asking for your opinion 

and I’m asking your help but if you aren’t going to 

work with me then we are just going to impose 

what we are going to impose and you do what 

you’ve got to do and we are going to do what we 

are going to do.” 

13. Working in teams  Unity to achieve common goal

 mention of “together”

 negotiating

 allowing others to take the lead

 reviewing schedule

 receiving routine updates as a 

team

 Seeking & receiving feedback

 Support & backup 

 complementary strengths

 relying on other teams

 Team members

 leaders of the lines

 in-house & outside schedulers

 people getting scheduled

 teams helping each other

“...we are all in this together and as long as we 

work as a team there isn’t anything that we can’t 

achieve...” 

“...one of the things I learned was talk to the guys 

that work them; they are the ones that have the 

knowledge. I have a good idea but I want their 

input ...” 

14. Leading people  Managing tasks & behaviors

 subordinates report to scheduler

 approve schedules

 firm with other people

 hold people accountable

 staying “in control”

 Teaching/instructing/advising

 Delegating roles & responsibilities

 Handling interpersonal issues

 organizing people

 knowing & understanding 

employee needs & preferences

 Creating own rules

 Motivating employees

 building confidence

 willing to substitute for employee

 keep employee stress levels down

“I don’t want to put them into a situation again 

where they are set up for failure, because they don’t 

know what to do. I try to give them all their 

information that they would need to perform this 

task and be successful at it.” 

“I don’t try to be a dictator in the position here.” 

“We will start with that and I mean if I have a lot of 

choices, I will pick the strongest server.” 
84 

Table H-3. Content Analysis of Abilities: Key Themes and Quotations from Job Incumbent Interviews 

ABILITIES 

Ability Key Themes Quotations from Interviews

1. Think 

independently

 Developing new 

ideas/nonconventional thinking

 Taking initiative

“I had to have a lot of personal motivation to go out 

and gather it.” 

“So in order to do that you had to be able to step 

completely out of the box of where anyone had 

been for the last 8 or 9 yr and completely rewrite 

what was done.” 

“Me personally, since I’m the one who, I won’t say 

designed it, but I’m the one who initiated it, set it 

up, the way we are going to use it...” 

2. Identify and 

manage risks

3. Self-evaluate to 

gauge success

 Ways shift workers are self-evaluating

 regular review

 consulting with contacts

 determining shift worker and 

manager expectations

 experimenting with new ideas

 Knowing impact of scheduling 

processes on success

 Changing inefficient or inadequate 

schedules 

“I can do that, I can sit here and make decisions but 

are they going to be the right ones or are they going 

to be with all the input that I could have gotten and

all the information I could have gathered is the best 

way to do it and I feel that is.” 

“We actually review shift relief and how it is going 

on a regular basis.” 

“Like I said, our scheduling came out of a need to 

change because the schedule that we were

previously on, wasn’t going to work 

anymore...because of call volume, and it just 

wasn’t a good schedule.” 

4. Persuade others  Motivating employees to action

 calling people into overtime

 Who they are persuading

 shift workers

 upper management

“I mean it all depends on you know you get to 

know the people and how to improve their training 

and how to get them to do things for you so you can 

put them in different spots and get the best for your 

buck if you want to call it that.” 

“We did a presentation for the deputy of 

commissioner; they liked what they heard...”

5. Ask the right 

questions and 

know where to 

find the 

appropriate 

answers

 Ways to find right answers

 software

 colleagues

 tech support

 research

 contact labor relations

 Topics they are able to find answers to

 accounting

 software

 budget 

 policy

 labor

“And helpful, because people will sometimes will 

ask questions like maybe they got dinged on their 

yields and they know because I know accounting 

they can come to me to get an answer, print them a 

report, look in the system, or look in specs.” 

“We also will do audits for him, investigations if it 

comes up, like if someone at the union complains 

that the overtime was hired appropriately, he will 

send me in and I will go into the facility and 

research whether it’s the following policy or not 

and then I respond directly back to him.”

6. Think critically 

about problems

 Analytical/logical thought

 looking at problem from different 

angles

 Evaluating and improving efficiency

 crew optimization

 Wanting to know rationale

“Ok. I sent out some of my crews also, which 

involved shift workers and you hit the nail on the 

head. There I had to start tweaking the system again 

and I had to get the Excel spreadsheet going and 

see what shift they were on and start filling their 

shifts because I didn’t want to be depleted back 

here. Sure it’s nice to help somebody else out, but 

we have our own stuff to take care of also. So I had 

to be selective on who I chose to go out there and I 
85 

tried to grab my guys that had their fixed schedule 

first so that it didn’t screw up the rotation too 

much.” 

“...the bottom line is money you know that we 

want to make things as efficient as possible.” 

“I guess you would have to be able to think 

analytically. Ok, I have this, then I can have this, 

then I can have that. You know, you have to be able 

to sequentially be able to see a pattern.” 

7. Balance 

conflicting 

demands

 Shift restrictions

 number of workers 

 overtime

 union contract

 vacation

 certifications

 rest period

 ensuring employees have 40 hours

 Scheduling policies as inputs

 corporate rules

 military leaves

 bereavement policies

 various types of schedules

 seniority rules

 Multitasking

 managing and knowing inputs

 matching resources to shift 

coverage

 Employee needs and demands

 school schedules

 restrictive duty

 fatigue assessments

 various cultures & languages

 evaluating benefit to employees

 care not to overburden workers

 employee preferences

“If you can’t multitask being a supervisor, then you 

are going to struggle.” 

“We look at the previous schedule from the year 

before and see what worked and what didn’t work 

and if there was anything we wanted to tweak. I 

look at the amount of officers that I’m given from 

the Chief and it if there is going to be any spots that 

I am going to have to lock, which won’t be able to 

bid into. I look at our minimum staffing, what 

numbers I am going to have to have on the street at 

any time and then I am going to want to staff at 

least two about that, so that I can let two officers 

off at least...Then I get feedback from the sergeants 

that worked the area and ask them to get feedback 

from the officers that worked the area and ask them 

what they think of the schedule, areas that they 

would like to see changed, or what they like or if 

they like the schedule just as it is.” 

“...we have male, female, black, white, Hispanic, 

Albanian, Cuban, Mexican, I mean I don’t think 

there is anyone we don’t have and that means you 

have different levels of you know for a lot of our 

employees English is a second language and these 

are all the things that have to be juggled everyday 

to keep the moral up, to keep people working, and 

to get the product out. It’s a lot and it’s a lot of 

things that we sometimes take for granted.”

8. Recognize a 

problem and need 

for change

 How they realized there was a problem

 employee feedback

 previous experience

 Initiating change

 modifying scheduling framework, 

like how many people are needed 

in each shift

 changing shift times

 adding exercise equipment

“And we are out there busy and my team we used 

to have a two-thirty start time for our second shift 

and a year ago I changed it, we start at four o’clock 

in the afternoon because my team is very busy up 

until four in the morning. Other teams may shut 

down at 2:30 I move mine to four in the morning so 

that I have better coverage and more officers...I 

have three school resource officers that work until 

four so if something does go on during the day and 

I need resources I still have school resource officers 

that I can pull up until four o’clock. But at twothirty in the morning there are no other resources 

around here that can help.” 

“You need to be able to look at what people have 

done before, analyze why it did or didn’t work, and 

come up with a potentially an entirely different way 

of looking at. The change in the shift relief was a 

great example of that. We completely rewrote how 

that formula went together and what it took into 

consideration.” 
86

9. Be flexible  Thinking on feet

 Dealing with constant changes to 

schedule

 hourly vs. daily vs. weekly

 “on the fly” orders

 tardiness and no shows

 department needs

 production changes

 weather

 equipment failure

 Making adjustments as needed

 moving people around

“...when I arrive at work I will check with the 

guard or my phone to see if anyone called in that 

will be missing and then I can maybe adjust my 

schedule right quick that day.” 

“Yes when the storms blow in then I have to tweak 

the shift a little bit. If someone had to work a 16 the 

night before and it ran even an hour into their sleep 

time then I have to adjust and get someone else 

even if I have to go to a different department to 

grab a lineman to help fill that shift I will do that.” 

“Some times you fly by the seat of your pants 

depending upon what the situation brings in. You 

might come to work thinking it’s a normal Monday 

morning and a storm has hit and all bets are off and 

you go into emergency mode and we have 

experienced a lot of that through the years and 

that’s the fun part of the job.” 

10. Read and 

comprehend 

ideas in writing

11. Express oneself 

clearly through 

speaking and 

writing

 “Good communicator”

 Modes of communication

 email

 post on bulletin board

 verbal

“I try to be [a good communicator]. 

Communication to me is like it can be the greatest 

asset or the largest hindrance in completing the 

mission there is. You get to the root cause of most 

conflicts and it has to do with poor communication 

between the parties involved. Unfortunately when 

you’re dealing with shift workers a lot of the 

communication from my stand point is via 

email...so I’ve had to develop new ways of 

communicating and I’ve learned that email is not 

the best way to communicate with anyone. You 

know you can write a sentence that seems perfectly 

straightforward and innocuous and send it and it 

gets received a totally different way. You have to 

be careful what you put in an email there is a time 

and a place for an email and there is a time and a 

place for verbal communication.”

“You need to be able to write well so that you can 

communicate it.” 

12. Cooperate  Negotiating

 Responding to union requests

 Maintaining good relations with union

contacts
87 

Table H-4. Content Analysis of Other Characteristics: Key Themes and Quotations from Job Incumbent Interviews 

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

Other Char. Key Themes Quotations from Interviews

1. Integrity  Fairness

 rotating people on shifts

 not giving preferential 

treatment

“I think one of the things that I feel strongly about is and 

sometimes probably to a fault is I believe in fairness. I try 

to look at things and try to make sure that it’s fair for 

everyone and that I am not going to look at nurse X and 

always make sure they get it their schedule just because 

they want it because they are the one that’s going to 

complain the most or this nurse over here because they 

never complain. I think it needs to be fair for everyone.” 

“And then also when we rotate shifts every 2 years I look 

at how many people have worked how many holidays so 

that I’m not always rotating someone into another 

schedule where they just lost their Christmas again or 

their Thanksgiving again...it can make it kind of 

complicated after the second or third swap but hopefully 

you know by that time everybody has worked with 

everybody and everybody has had some time off on the 

holidays.” 

“I treat everybody equal. I treat everybody equal on 

overtime. I play no favoritism.” 

2. Previous involvement 

with shift work 

systems

 Types of previous jobs

 same job and department 

as people they are now 

scheduling (e.g., staff 

nurse/night nurse, 

dispatcher, sergeant)

 Navy service warfare 

officer

 management

 What they learned from their 

experiences 

 importance of sleep (e.g., 

firsthand experienced 

with uninterrupted sleep 

due to schedule)

 role of schedule in job 

satisfaction and safety

 exposure to different 

aspects of job

 how to interact with 

people

 impact of being away 

from family for long 

periods of time

 empathy 

 getting familiar with 

company policies, 

including scheduling 

processes

“[When asked if naval experience helped in developing 

current abilities and personality] Invaluable to me, 

because as an officer as well as an enlisted guy because I 

got to see a little bit of both sides of the fence. You spend 

seven months at sea with a group of guys you get to learn 

a lot about people that you wouldn’t necessarily learn in a 

cubicle in a company or as a you know tie down at the 

end of the hall. So I think personally I think it was 

invaluable. I wouldn’t even be sitting here without it. I 

don’t know what I’d be doing but I know I wouldn’t be 

doing this job right now. So to me it was invaluable.” 

“Well I am going to say 99 percent of the time in my job 

we are going to hire within and we are going to hire 

someone who has been through this...it’s going to take a 

little bit more than shiftwork.com to get them through 

this...you have got to know how they feel, how these 

guys feel after being out in the field and doing the chaotic 

storms or something safety wise. You almost have to be 

one of them to do this job.” 

“I think the knowledge that they would need would be 

that I feel that would be important is that they would need 

to have worked shift work before. Nights, seconds, days, 

different days off, and 8-, 10-, 12-hour shifts, I think if 

they had that background I think they could take a lot of 

that experience that they had, which would make them 

better at scheduling. I think that if you came into this and 

you never been a police officer that has had to work these 

different shifts the 8, 10, and 12 hours, and had court and 

overtime and been called in on different occasions I think 

it would be tough to schedule. I think that is something 

they would need...Something where as if you experience 

it I think you can feel the pain of the schedule you are 

creating. You just can’t create it based on calls for service 
88 

time date only or you can’t do it based on you know 

something like 8 hours where you think it will be best for 

the captain or for overtime. You have to bring in 

everything.”

3. Honesty  Honesty in assigning shifts “I think I’m honest with people you know I am not trying 

to put them on a job just because I don’t like them. And I 

would love to put certain people on jobs every single day 

because I know they do better than others so I try to be 

honest about rotating everybody even though they might 

not be as good on the machine as I would like.” 

4. Discretion

5. Approachability  Employees feel comfortable 

with scheduler

 employees initiate contact

 they are able to say no

 Functioning as resource for 

employees

“People feel very open as far as coming in and talking to 

me at any time.” 

“They say I am the go to person.” 

6. Passion for safety and 

health

 Dissemination of information 

to employees 

 newsletter

 diet advice

 Adjusting workplace to 

improve health

 treadmill for late night 

shifts

 sunlamp 

“I do subscribe to we have a monthly newsletter that we 

pay these people to give out a monthly newsletter for 

shift workers and I post that on the board out there every 

month and gives them health tips you know how to avoid 

indigestion you know gastric problems from working 

nights. How to maximize sleep just different heath tips on 

working shift and there is also one for supervisors as a 

email that comes out on a monthly basis that’s got all 

these different articles that you can read for making 

management aware of the needs of shift workers you 

know...There was a handbook that I came back from that 

conference with and I gave it to the guys and it opened 

some guys up to hey you know I shouldn’t eat a huge 

meal at four o’clock in the morning you know right 

before I go to bed you know maybe that’s why I have 

heartburn when I wake up the next day or you know. We 

ended up one of the recommendations was to put the 

treadmill up in the control room so that if an operator is 

feeling tired rather then going and slamming two gallons 

of coffee that’s going to interfere with his sleep when he 

gets off shift you know at two in the morning he can get 

on treadmill.”

7. Patience  Patience as job requirement

 Union does not allow for 

losing patience

“You have to have a lot of patience with people.” 

“...as far as me yelling no. Besides my kids but no you 

can’t lose your cool here. Oh no not with the union.” 

8. Perseverance  Inner strength 

 Dedication 

“They [people being trained to do scheduling] know the 

rules, they have the dedication, and they have the desire 

to get promoted so therefore they have the desire to 

learn.” 

“...you need to be strong enough to put the patients first 

and make sure you have enough coverage for your 

patients.” 

9. Willing to 

compromise

 Balancing different needs

 operational and personnel 

 Compromising with union

“You have to balance it with you know operational needs 

versus personnel needs and this is the best compromise 

we could come up.” (“But trying to get in from the union 

membership that might be losing several hundred 

thousand dollars over a year in overtime and having to 

listen to them say listen it’s not me I’m going to have to 
89 

listen to my constituents telling me and working out a 

compromise.”)

10. Commands respect  Not being gullible

 Firm

 Giving and earning respect

 Self-confidence

“People have a hard time trying to fool me on things, 

because I’ve been around here so long and I know the 

jobs. And they will try to come up and try to BS me and 

say, we ok we can’t do that because of this is happening 

and I say NO, you can go over here you can get it done 

you don’t have to wait for this person or that machine to 

run there’s alternatives.” 

“Well I think you could just , you have to be firm...you 

have to have somewhat of a backbone I mean because 

you are going told you are always doing something, you 

either overrun or you didn’t make, so you kind of get 

talked to everyday. So I mean you have to have the 

ability to have a personality that would match that job 

number one. Because you are basically directing 

supervisors/department on what needs to be done, so you 

can’t be a pushover.” 

“...he respects the people that work for him and they 

respect him back.” 

11. Well-connected with 

a community of 

schedulers

 Consulting with schedulers in 

same industry

“I mean the way we developed this prior to that was we 

contacted a number of other power plants. I mean we did 

a lot of talking on the phone in the 2 years we were under 

the construction before we transitioned to shift work to 

find out how NPPD the kind of schedules they used how 

OPPD does their schedules.”

12. Sensitivity to 

different types of 

people

 Lack of sensitivity

 prioritizing organizational 

needs over employee 

preferences

 Recognition of diversity 

among employees

 ability levels, talents

 strengths, weaknesses

 gender

 preferences

 ethnic diversity

 Relating to people 

 insightful

 empathy

 Applying sensitivity in 

workplace

 announce schedule well in 

advance

 allow employees 

flexibility in determining 

options

 shortened shifts on 

holidays 

 allowing people with 

families to pick vacation 

time first

 filling in rather than 

calling someone in

“I do this as a courtesy for the family holidays, 

Thanksgiving, Christmas, and that kind of thing. I have 

the night team like this Tuesday night they will work 

until 11:30, I give them 8 hours of rest and ask them if 

they could come back in at 8 o’clock the next morning 

and then I will have both crews on days and then I will let 

them take off early. It’s just a little deal I do for them and 

I try to always make sure that they get 8 hours off to rest 

and that includes their travel time and they realize that. 

But they would rather do that then come in and work that 

night shift right before the holiday, so it gives them a 

chance...” 

“So I know and understand what makes one person 

stressed out and another person can slump it off or bypass 

it.” 
90 

APPENDIX I: Job Task Gap Analysis Summary Tables
91 

Job Task Gap Analysis Summary Tables

Table I-1. Gap Analysis Summary Table for Job Tasks 

Job Task Difficulty 

Rating

Criticality 

Rating

Overall 

Importance 

Rating

Gap Level

Design and implement work schedules for 

employees, in accordance with staffing 

requirements and employee workload and 

availability. (1)

5.78 4.00 9.78 Moderate Gaps

Coordinate with management to establish 

policies and programs that are sensitive to the 

particular demands of shift work schedules. (4)

5.67 3.56 9.22 Significant Gaps

Implement schedule changes as necessary due 

to turnover, absenteeism, employee leave 

requests, and fluctuating workloads. (3)

5.44 3.44 8.89 Minimal Gaps

Review work production, employee 

performance, and accident reports in 

conjunction with shift schedules for potential 

shift-related trends and take action as 

necessary. (6)

5.11 3.00 8.11 Significant Gaps

Monitor work hours to ensure that staff 

members comply with administrative policies 

and procedures, safety rules, union contracts, 

and government regulations. (5)

4.11 3.22 7.33 Minimal Gaps

Maintain records of employee’s work 

schedules and timecards and prepare reports as 

needed. (2)

3.67 2.44 6.11 Moderate Gaps

Note: Number in parentheses indicates original order of job task.
92 

APPENDIX J: KSAO Importance Rating and Ranking Data

KSAO Data Tables...................................................................................... J1

KSAO Importance Ranking Tables & Graphs........................................ J2
93 

KSAO Data Tables

Column Definitions 

Attribute – The characteristic analyzed, grouped by KSAOs, and listed in order of SME Importance 

Rating.

SME Importance Mean (SD) – The overall mean rating of importance provided by SMEs, with standard 

deviation appearing in parentheses. The mean can range from 1 (not at all important) to 5 (extremely 

important). An asterisk (*) next to the mean indicates that there are significant differences between 

ratings of importance.

Job Incumbent (JI) Importance Rating – The overall mean rating of importance provided by job 

incumbents, with standard deviation appearing in parentheses. The mean can range from 1 (not at all 

important) to 5 (extremely important). An asterisk (*) next to the mean indicates that there are significant 

differences between ratings of importance. 

Difference in SME and JI Rankings – This number indicates the difference between SME rankings of 

importance and job incumbent rankings of importance. KSAOs that are ranked higher by SMEs have 

positive numbers, whereas KSAOs ranked higher by job incumbents have negative numbers. A zero 

indicates that SMEs and job incumbents ranked that KSAO the same. 

Total Number of Codes in JI Interviews – This number indicates the total number of times the KSAO 

was coded as appearing in any of the interviews conducted with job incumbents. Higher numbers indicate 

that the KSAO was discussed more frequently in job incumbent interviews.

Total Number of Interviews Coded with KSAO – This number indicates the number of interviews 

where the KSAO was coded at least once. This number can range from 0 to 16 (the total number of 

interviews conducted). Higher numbers indicate that the KSAO appeared more often across interviews.

Percentage of SMEs Indicating Trainable – This number indicates the percentage of SMEs who 

reported that the KSAO could be taught within a formal training program. Any KSAO with a percentage 

over 50 percent should be considered for inclusion in a training curriculum. 

Table J-1. Knowledge: Importance Ratings, Number of Content Analysis Codes, and Percentage

of SMEs Indicating Characteristic Is Trainable 

KNOWLEDGE

Attribute Importance 

Mean (SD)

JI Importance 

Mean (SD) and JI 

Rankings

Codes in JI 

Interviews

Interviews 

w/ Code

Indicating 

Trainable

The impact work hours have on 

health, safety, and performance 4.44 (0.73) 4.53 (0.51) 0 16 8 100%

(2)

Industry-specific operations and 

regulations (e.g., OSHA, 4.00 (0.87) 4.47 (0.62) 1 16 11 100%

USDA, HOS) (4)

Staffing analysis (7) 4.00 (0.87) 4.18 (0.73) 6 70 15 89%

Various designs used to 

schedule 24/7 work (e.g., 

fast/slow, forward/backward 

rotations) (1)

4.00 (1.32) 4.35 (0.61) 1 5 5 89%

Tools and technologies 

available for scheduling (6) 3.89 (0.78) 4.24 (0.75) 2 25 10 89%

Company policies and 

procedures, including 

interactions with unions and 

union contracts (5)

3.89 (0.93) 4.53 (0.62) -4 67 16 78%

The physiology of sleep as 

related to performance (3) 3.78 (0.97) 4.00 (1.00) 2 24 10 100%

SME Diff. in SME Total # Total # JI % of SMEs 
94

Employee training programs 

specific to shift work (10) 3.78 (1.09) 3.76 (0.97) 4 4 4 100%

Indicators of an employee’s 

fitness for duty (9) 3.78 (0.83) 3.88 (1.22) 2 8 5 89%

The social implications of 

shift work (14) 3.67 (0.71) 3.88 (0.86) 0 54 14 89%

Policies and procedures 

concerning the design of an 

organization’s schedule (8)

3.67 (0.87)* 4.41(0.62)* -7 66 15 89%

Program evaluation (13) 3.67 (0.87) 4.29 (0.69) -6 0 0 78%

Basic ergonomics and human 

factors (12) 3.44 (0.73) 3.71 (0.85) 0 5 2 100%

Human resource systems (11) 3.22 (0.67) 3.53 (1.01) 0 1 1 89%

Note: The number in parentheses listed after each attribute indicates the original KSAO ordering. An asterisk (*)

indicates that there are significant differences between SME ratings and JI ratings of importance.

Table J-2. Skills: Importance Ratings, Number of Content Analysis Codes, and Percentage of 

SMEs Indicating Characteristic Is Trainable

SKILLS

Attribute

SME 

Importance 

Mean (SD)

JI Importance 

Mean (SD)

Diff. in SME 

and JI 

Rankings

Total # 

Codes in JI 

Interviews

Total # JI 

Interviews 

w/ Code

% of SMEs 

Indicating 

Trainable

Recognizing the warning signs 

of potential fatigue, health, and 

safety issues (8)

4.56 (1.00) 4.12 (0.86) 7 47 12 78%

Interacting with people (9) 4.00 (0.67) 4.47 (0.62) 1 31 9 89%

Troubleshooting schedule 

systems (7) 4.00 (0.71) 3.94 (0.90) 7 83 16 100%

Problem solving (4) 4.00 (0.73) 4.47 (0.51) -2 3 3 89%

Observing (10) 3.89 (0.87)* 4.35 (0.70)* -1 3 3 78%

Leading people (14) 3.78 (0.50) 4.65 (0.49) -5 20 14 67%

Communicating with various 

levels of an organization’s 

hierarchy (1)

3.78 (0.71) 3.94 (1.03) 4 1 1 78%

Using analytical/statistical 

applications (3) 3.78 (0.97) 3.76 (0.75) 5 41 12 56%

Keeping detailed records (11) 3.78 (0.33)* 4.35 (0.70)* -5 2 2 78%

Converting complex topics to 

simple explanations (2) 3.67 (1.09) 3.65 (0.86) 4 17 7 89%

Managing collective 

agreements (12) 3.56 (0.88) 3.81 (1.17) 1 8 3 78%

Working in teams (13) 3.44 (0.44)* 4.35 (0.86)* -6 11 7 100%

Using technology (6) 3.33 (0.53)* 4.18 (0.64)* -6 22 11 67%

Interfacing with multiple 

systems (5) 3.22 (1.20)* 3.94 (0.56)* -5 34 13 67%

Note: The number in parentheses listed after each attribute indicates the original KSAO ordering. An asterisk (*)

indicates that there are significant differences between SME ratings and JI ratings of importance.
95

Table J-3. Abilities: Importance Ratings, Number of Content Analysis Codes, and Percentage of 

SMEs Indicating Characteristic Is Trainable

ABILITIES

Attribute

SME 

Importance 

Mean (SD)

JI Importance 

Mean (SD)

Diff. in SME 

and JI 

Rankings

Total # 

Codes in JI 

Interviews

Total # JI 

Interviews 

w/ Code

% of SMEs 

Indicating 

Trainable

Cooperate (12) 4.33 (0.62) 4.59 (0.67) 1 31 12 56%

Identify and manage risks (2) 4.33 (0.61) 4.24 (0.87) 7 14 8 89%

Be flexible (9) 4.22 (0.61) 4.59 (0.87) -2 7 7 33%

Recognize a problem and need 

for change (8) 4.11 (0.53) 4.35 (0.97) 1 0 0 67%

Express oneself clearly through 

speaking and writing (11) 4.11 (0.75) 4.41 (0.71) 3 3 3 78%

Think critically about problems 

(6) 4.00 (0.70) 4.35 (0.87) 1 9 7 56%

Self-evaluate to gauge success 

(3) 3.78 (0.62) 3.82 (0.60) 5 8 5 56%

Ask the right questions and 

know where to find the 

appropriate answers (5)

3.67 (0.51)* 4.53 (0.71)* -5 0 0 67%

Persuade others (4) 3.67 (0.44) 3.88 (0.71) 3 12 10 33%

Read and comprehend ideas in 

writing (10) 3.67 (0.70) 4.06 (1.05) -4 5 4 56%

Think independently (1) 3.67 (0.80) 4.35 (0.73) -1 0 0 44%

Balance conflicting demands 

(7) 3.44 (0.51)* 4.47 (0.50)* -8 60 14 89%

Note: The number in parentheses listed after each attribute indicates the original KSAO ordering. An asterisk (*)

indicates that there are significant differences between SME ratings and JI ratings of importance.

Table J-4. Other Characteristics: Importance Ratings, Number of Content Analysis Codes, and 

Percentage of SMEs Indicating Characteristic Is Trainable

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

Attribute

SME 

Importance 

Rating

JI Importance 

Rating

Diff. in SME 

and JI 

Rankings

Total # 

Codes in JI 

Interviews

Total # JI 

Interviews 

w/ Code

% of SMEs 

Indicating 

Trainable

Integrity (1) 4.67 (0.71) 4.53 (0.62) 1 16 7 33%

Honesty (3) 4.56 (1.01) 4.59 (0.62) -1 1 1 22%

Discretion (4) 4.33 (0.71) 4.41 (0.62) 1 0 0 33%

Patience (7) 4.11 (0.33) 4.29 (0.69) 3 2 2 33%

Perseverance (8) 4.11 (0.33) 4.24 (0.66) 4 3 2 33%

Passion for safety and health (6) 4.11 (0.60) 4.35 (0.70) -1 1 1 56%

Approachability (5) 3.89 (0.33)* 4.47 (0.62)* -4 8 6 33%

Sensitivity to different types of 

people (12) 3.89 (0.78) 4.12 (0.99) 1 12 7 44%

Commands respect (10) 3.78 (0.97) 3.82 (0.95) 1 6 3 33%

Willing to compromise (9) 3.56 (0.73)* 4.35 (0.70)* -5 2 2 78%

Well-connected with a 

community of schedulers (11) 3.44 (1.24) 3.65 (0.86) 0 1 1 100%

Previous involvement with

shift work systems (2) 3.33 (1.00) 3.47 (0.62) 0 26 9 67%

Note: The number in parentheses listed after each attribute indicates the original KSAO ordering. An asterisk (*) 

next to the mean indicates that there are significant differences between SME ratings and JI ratings of importance.
96

KSAO Importance Ranking Tables & Graphs

Table J-5. Importance Rankings and Rank Differences for Knowledge Characteristics

KNOWLEDGE

KSAO KSAO Label SME 

Rank

JI 

Rank

Rank 

Difference

The impact work hours have on health, safety, and 

performance (2) K_impact 1 1 0

Industry-specific operations and regulations (e.g., OSHA, 

USDA, HOS) (4) K_regulations 2 3 -1

Staffing analysis (7) K_staffing 2 8 -6

Various designs used to schedule 24/7 work (e.g., 

fast/slow, forward/backward rotations) (1) K_designs 4 5 -1

Tools and technologies available for scheduling (6) K_tools 5 7 -2

Company policies and procedures, including interactions 

with unions and union contracts (5) K_policies 6 2 4

The physiology of sleep as related to performance (3) K_sleep 7 9 -2

Employee training programs specific to shift work (10) K_training 8 12 -4

Indicators of an employee’s fitness for duty (9) K_fitness 9 11 -2

The social implications of shift work (14) K_social 10 10 0

Policies and procedures concerning the design of an 

organization’s schedule (8) K_design 11 4 7

Program evaluation (13) K_evaluate 12 6 6

Basic ergonomics and human factors (12) K_ergonomics 13 13 0

Human resource systems (11) K_resource 14 14 0

Note: The number in parentheses listed after each attribute indicates the original KSAO ordering.

 Importance Rankings

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

11.00

12.00

13.00

14.00

K_impactK_regulationsK_staffingK_designsK_toolsK_policiesK_sleepK_trainingK_fitnessK_socialK_designK_evaluateK_ergonomicsK_resource

Knowledge

Rank

SME Rank JI Rank

SMEs ranked more important Incumbents ranked more important

 Importance Rankings

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

11.00

12.00

13.00

14.00

K_impactK_regulationsK_staffingK_designsK_toolsK_policiesK_sleepK_trainingK_fitnessK_socialK_designK_evaluateK_ergonomicsK_resource

Knowledge

Rank

SME Rank JI Rank

SMEs ranked more important Incumbents ranked more important

Figure J-1. Graph of Differences in Importance Rankings for Knowledge Characteristics
97

Table J-6. Importance Rankings and Rank Differences for Skills

SKILLS

KSAO KSAO Label SME 

Rank

JI 

Rank

Rank 

Difference

Recognizing the warning signs of potential fatigue, health, 

and safety issues (8) S_fatigue 1 8 7

Interacting with people (9) S_interact 2 3 1

Troubleshooting schedule systems (7) S_troubleshoot 3 10 7

Problem solving (4) S_problems 4 2 -2

Observation (10) S_observe 5 4 -1

Leading people (14) S_leading 6 1 -5

Communicating with various levels of an organization’s 

hierarchy (1) S_communicate 7 11 4

Using analytical/statistical applications (3) S_analytics 8 13 5

Keeping detailed records (11) S_records 9 4 -5

Converting complex topics to simple explanations (2) S_explain 10 14 4

Managing collective agreements (12) S_agreements 11 12 1

Working in teams (13) S_teams 12 6 -6

Using technology (6) S_technology 13 7 -6

Interfacing with multiple systems (5) S_interfacing 14 9 -5

Note: The number in parentheses listed after each attribute indicates the original KSAO ordering.

 Importance Rankings

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

11.00

12.00

13.00

14.00

S_fatigueS_interactS_troubleshootS_problemsS_observeS_leadingS_communicateS_analyticsS_recordsS_explainS_agreementsS_teamsS_technologyS_interfacing

Skills

Rank

SME Rank JI Rank

SMEs ranked more important Incumbents ranked more important

 Importance Rankings

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

11.00

12.00

13.00

14.00

S_fatigueS_interactS_troubleshootS_problemsS_observeS_leadingS_communicateS_analyticsS_recordsS_explainS_agreementsS_teamsS_technologyS_interfacing

Skills

Rank

SME Rank JI Rank

SMEs ranked more important Incumbents ranked more important

Figure J-2. Graph of Differences in Importance Rankings for Skills
98

Table J-6. Importance Rankings and Rank Differences for Skills

ABILITIES

KSAO KSAO Label SME 

Rank

JI 

Rank

Rank 

Difference

Cooperate (12) A_cooperate 1 2 1

Identify and manage risks (2) A_risks 2 9 7

Be flexible (9) A_flexible 3 1 -2

Recognize a problem and need for change (8) A_change 4 8 4

Express oneself clearly through speaking and writing (11) A_express 5 5 0

Think critically about problems (6) A_critically 6 7 1

Self-evaluate to gauge success (3) A_evaluate 7 12 5

Ask the right questions and know where to find the 

appropriate answers (5) A_ask 8 3 -5

Persuade others (4) A_persuade 8 11 3

Read and comprehend ideas in writing (10) A_read 10 10 0

Think independently (1) A_think 11 6 -5

Balance conflicting demands (7) A_balance 12 4 -8

Note: The number in parentheses listed after each attribute indicates the original KSAO ordering.

 Importance Rankings

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

A_cooperateA_risksA_flexibleA_changeA_expressA_criticallyA_evaluateA_askA_persuadeA_readA_thinkA_balance

Abilities

Rank

SME Rank JI Rank

SMEs ranked more important Incumbents ranked more important

 Importance Rankings

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

A_cooperateA_risksA_flexibleA_changeA_expressA_criticallyA_evaluateA_askA_persuadeA_readA_thinkA_balance

Abilities

Rank

SME Rank JI Rank

SMEs ranked more important Incumbents ranked more important

Figure J-3. Graph of Differences in Importance Rankings for Abilities
99 

Table J-7. Importance Rankings and Rank Differences for Skills

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

KSAO KSAO Label SME 

Rank

JI 

Rank

Rank 

Difference

Integrity (1) O_integrity 1 2 1 

Honesty (3) O_honesty 2 1 -1 

Discretion (4) O_discretion 3 4 1 

Patience (7) O_patience 4 7 3 

Perseverance (8) O_perservere 4 8 4 

Passion for safety and health (6) O_passion 6 5 -1 

Approachability (5) O_approach 7 3 -4 

Sensitivity to different types of people (12) O_sensitive 8 9 1 

Commands respect (10) O_respect 9 10 1 

Willingness to compromise (9) O_compromise 10 5 -5 

Well-connected with a community of schedulers (11) O_connected 11 11 0 

Previous involvement with shift work systems (2) O_previous 12 12 0 

Note: The number in parentheses listed after each attribute indicates the original KSAO ordering.

 Importance Rankings

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

O_integrityO_honestyO_discretionO_patienceO_perservereO_passionO_approachO_sensitiveO_respectO_compromiseO_connectedO_previous

Other Characteristics

Rank

SME Rank JI Rank

SMEs ranked more important Incumbents ranked more important

 Importance Rankings

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

O_integrityO_honestyO_discretionO_patienceO_perservereO_passionO_approachO_sensitiveO_respectO_compromiseO_connectedO_previous

Other Characteristics

Rank

SME Rank JI Rank

SMEs ranked more important Incumbents ranked more important

Figure J-4. Graph of Differences in Importance Rankings for Other Characteristics
100 

APPENDIX K: KSAO Gap Analysis Summary Tables
101 

KSAO Gap Analysis Summary Tables

KNOWLEDGE 

Column Definitions 

Gap Assessment – The overall assessment of the gap that exists between the level of KSAO that should 

be required of future work schedule managers and the level of KSAO that appears to exist currently. The 

overall assessment options are minimal gaps, moderate gaps, or significant gaps.

Tier – The overall assessment of importance. Each KSAO can fall into one of four tiers: tier 1 is 

Critically Important and Trainable KSAOs; tier 2 is Important KSAOs with Intergroup Disparities; tier 3 

is Moderately Important and Trainable KSAOs; and tier 4 is Important KSAOs but Training Not 

Applicable. KSAOs in higher tiers are more important than KSAOs in lower tiers. Please see the report 

for a complete explanation of each tier. 

Overall Comments – A summary of qualitative observations from job incumbent interviews and a 

review of the KSAO data tables. The overall comments informed the final gap assessment.

Table K-1. Gap Analysis Summary Table for Knowledge Characteristics

Knowledge Gap 

Assessment Tier Overall Comments

Various designs used to 

schedule 24/7 work (e.g., 

fast/slow, 

forward/backward 

rotations) (1)

Significant 

Gaps 1 

Approximately six of the job incumbents interviewed had 

participated in, or instigated, a schedule redesign while in 

their current position. Only those that had participated in a 

schedule redesign indicated some knowledge of different 

shift schedule design options. In addition, only three of those 

six indicated that they had personally researched schedule 

design options and only one had participated in formal 

training concerning shift schedule designs. It appears that 

most are not aware of the body of research exploring the 

positive and negative aspects of various schedule designs 

unless they were responsible for making considerable 

changes to their scheduling system.

The impact work hours 

have on health, safety, 

and performance (2)

Significant 

Gaps 1 

Both SMEs and job incumbents rated this knowledge as 

most important for the management of shift work schedules. 

Clearly, there is agreement that knowledge about the effects 

of irregular work hours is critical in this job. However, only 

half of the job incumbents interviewed indicated that they 

considered health and safety issues when developing or 

making changes to work schedules. In addition, the two job 

incumbents who demonstrated the most indepth health and 

safety knowledge also indicated the desire for more training 

in this knowledge area. Most concerning is the fact that half 

of the job incumbents did not explicitly talk about health, 

safety, or performance concerns with regard to their shift 

work scheduling duties.

Staffing analysis (7) Significant 

Gaps 1 

Staffing analysis was rated as very important by both SMEs 

and job incumbents. However, SMEs ranked this attribute 

much higher than job incumbents relative to all other 

knowledge attributes. In addition, staffing analysis was 

discussed in depth as important to scheduling during the 

panel discussion held with SMEs in consulting positions. 

Components of staffing analysis were evident in most 
102 

interviews with job incumbents, and most demonstrated an 

awareness of the need to balance employee needs with 

business demands. However, staffing analysis was never 

discussed as a formalized process. It is likely that those job 

incumbents working in industries where scheduling is 

determined by forecasted service volumes are utilizing the 

outputs of a staffing analysis to create their schedules. More 

formalized training providing structured information about 

conducting a staffing analysis should be included in a 

training program.

The physiology of sleep 

as related to performance 

(3)

Significant 

Gaps 2 

Only 3 of the 16 job incumbents interviewed mentioned 

concerns about sleep and the fatigue levels of their 

shiftworkers. In addition, only one exhibited indepth 

knowledge of sleep and performance relationships, as a 

result of attending a training seminar concerning shiftwork, 

coincidentally taught by a fatigue management consulting 

group that employs one of the SMEs we interviewed. Sleep 

physiology is clearly an area that should be targeted for 

additional training.

Tools and technologies 

available for scheduling 

(6)

Significant 

Gaps 2 

A majority of job incumbents demonstrated indepth 

knowledge of the tools and technologies used to schedule 

workers within their organization. However, there was very 

little awareness of the alternative options that may be 

available for scheduling. For the most part, the first-line 

supervisors interviewed appeared to have little control over 

the technologies utilized by their organization, especially in 

larger organizations with a centralized scheduling software 

system and many schedule managers. On the other hand, it 

was surprising that about half of the job incumbents use 

simple spreadsheets to schedule their workers. A more indepth knowledge of the technologies available for shift work 

scheduling would likely be beneficial to scheduling 

managers at all levels of an organization.

Program evaluation (13) Significant 

Gaps 2 

Although job incumbents rated this knowledge higher than 

SMEs, there was very little direct evidence of knowledge of 

methods for evaluating a schedule’s effectiveness in the 

interviews we conducted. Additional training in this area 

would be beneficial to assist schedule managers in 

recognizing the positive and negative aspects of the 

scheduling design and system they use, especially in cases 

where a schedule redesign would be beyond the scope of 

their job duties and additional, outside assistance would be 

necessary. 

Employee training 

programs specific to 

shiftwork (10)

Significant 

Gaps 3 

Although SMEs and job incumbents rated this attribute 

similarly, SMEs ranked this knowledge considerably higher 

relative to other knowledge attributes. Furthermore, there is 

very little evidence of knowledge or use of employee 

training programs for managing shiftwork based on the job 

incumbent interviews we conducted. One job incumbent 

indicated subscribing to a shiftwork newsletter that provides 

recommendations to shiftworkers for managing their 

irregular work hours, and another incumbent indicated that 

the company provided documents to shiftworkers to aid 

them in managing their work schedules. Shiftwork schedule 

managers should receive training on managing irregular 

work schedules so that they can better assist and train their 
103 

shiftwork employees.

Basic ergonomics and 

human factors (12)

Significant 

Gaps 3 

Only one job incumbent discussed taking ergonomic 

considerations into account when performing scheduling 

activities. This person was primarily responsible for 

scheduling workers on set shifts to specific work tasks and 

would rotate task assignments every 4 h during a shift. Two 

of the incumbents interviewed demonstrated some 

knowledge of fatigue countermeasures related to workplace

lighting and physical activity. Knowledge of human factors 

research with regard to shiftwork was incomplete at best. 

Although this knowledge was rated relatively low by SMEs 

and job incumbents, 100% of SMEs indicated that 

knowledge in this area could be improved through formal 

training, thus making it a clear area to target when 

developing training curricula for shiftwork schedule 

management.

Policies and procedures 

concerning the design of 

an organization’s 

schedule (8)

Moderate 

Gaps 3 

Formal and informal policies regarding fitness for duty were 

discussed indirectly in most of the interviews with managers 

in safety-critical industries. However, fatigue level was not 

normally considered as one of the indicators of fitness for 

duty. In fact, in one organization where employees may be 

mandated to work an additional 8-h shift if understaffing 

occurs, only physical indicators (e.g., injuries) are used to 

assess fitness for duty. Although fitness for duty may not be 

applicable in all industries that utilize shiftwork, additional 

training may be useful for those in safety-critical industries.

Human resource systems 

(11)

Moderate 

Gaps 3 

Although knowledge human resource systems was not 

captured by the qualitative coding of job incumbent 

interviews, many interviewees were responsible for 

monitoring work hours, managing payroll, conducting 

performance appraisals, hiring new workers, etc. These 

responsibilities typically fall under the human resource 

umbrella. In some cases, especially for those with 

responsibility for a small staff, there was no centralized 

human resource department. In addition, job incumbents 

responsible for complicated shift rotation schedules 

demonstrated knowledge of how the rotation pattern impacts 

weekly work hours for employees (e.g., some weeks they 

average 32 h, other weeks 42 h). General knowledge of 

human resource systems may be required of any worker in a 

management position. Specific knowledge of how the design 

of the shift schedule impacts human resource systems is 

vastly important for this job.

The social implications 

of shiftwork (14)

Moderate 

Gaps 3 

Job incumbents and SMEs rated knowledge of the social 

implications of shiftwork relatively low compared with other 

knowledge areas and ranked the attribute similarly relative 

to all other knowledge areas. There was also strong evidence 

that job incumbents consider the social implications of 

shiftwork when designing and managing their work 

schedules. However, most of this knowledge appears to stem 

from incumbents’ own experiences working irregular 

schedules and through communication with staff about their 

personal preferences and concerns when working other-than-
104 

day shifts. Additional formal training with regard to the 

social implications of shiftwork may be beneficial to give 

schedule managers a more well-rounded understanding of 

documented psychosocial research on shiftworkers.

Industry-specific 

operations and 

regulations (e.g., OSHA, 

USDA, HOS) (4)

Minimal 

Gaps 1 

Although job incumbents rated this knowledge area higher 

than SMEs, there were no significant differences in ratings, 

both groups had an average rating above 4.0 (very 

important), and both ranked the attribute similarly compared 

with all other knowledge areas. Most job incumbents talked 

in depth about complying with industry regulations (where 

applicable) as something they must consider when making 

or revising shift schedules. In addition, industry-specific 

knowledge was often discussed as very important for new 

work schedule managers to have and/or learn on the job. A 

majority of the managers interviewed were promoted to their 

positions after many years of experience as first-line workers 

in their industry. For instance, one of the transportation 

organizations that participated indicated that they only take 

on new first-line supervisors through internal promotions 

and a well-tailored supervisor-in-training program. It is these 

first-line supervisors that share scheduling duties. Some 

industry-specific knowledge can be trained but may be most 

effectively learned with on-the-job experience.

Company policies and 

procedures, including 

interactions with unions 

and union contracts (5)

Minimal 

Gaps 2 

Knowledge of company policies and procedures was a 

common theme when talking with job incumbents. All 

demonstrated indepth knowledge of their organization’s 

policies with regard to such things as overtime, calling 

people in to work, and the scheduling of people and tasks. In 

addition, all of the job incumbents from organizations with a 

unionized workforce clearly indicated the importance of 

knowing the union contract when making scheduling 

decisions. Much of this knowledge is organization-specific 

and is required of all employees at any level of management.

Indicators of an 

employee’s fitness for 

duty (9)

Minimal 

Gaps 2 

Job incumbents rated this knowledge area significantly 

higher in importance than SMEs. In addition, there was 

strong evidence that job incumbents have knowledge of their 

organization’s procedures for designing and managing work 

schedules. This is a core component of their job 

responsibilities. However, generalized training concerning 

this knowledge may not be critical or appropriate due to the 

vast differences in scheduling policies and procedures even 

within the same industry. Managers adequately acquire this 

knowledge through on-the-job training.

Note: The number in parentheses listed after each attribute indicates the original KSAO ordering.
105 

Table K-2. Gap Analysis Summary Table for Skills

SKILLS 

Gap Skill Tier Overall Comments Assessment

Recognizing the warning 

signs of potential 

fatigue, health, and 

safety issues (8)

Significant 

Gaps 1 

Skill in recognizing fatigue, health, and safety risks was 

rated very highly by SMEs. In addition, there was a 

considerable difference between SMEs and job incumbents 

with regard to the overall rank of this skill relative to other 

skills (SMEs ranked this first, whereas job incumbents 

ranked this eighth). This attribute is closely related to 

knowledge of the impact work hours have on health, safety 

and performance, and knowledge of indicators of fitness for 

duty. There was minimal evidence from job incumbent 

interviews that this skill was regularly utilized. In most cases 

it appears to be a worker’s responsibility to monitor his/her 

own level of alertness, wellness, and ability to perform the 

job. Training scheduling managers to recognize warning 

signs of fatigue, health, and safety issues goes hand-in-hand 

with teaching about the impact work hours have on health, 

safety, and performance.

Troubleshooting 

schedule systems (7)

Significant 

Gaps 2 

Troubleshooting in general seemed to be a valuable skill for 

job incumbents because of the need to make daily changes to 

work schedules based on the amount of work required for 

the day and the number of people available to work. 

Although SMEs and job incumbents rated this skill 

similarly, SMEs indicated that this was the 3rd most 

important skill, whereas job incumbents ranked it 10th. Very 

few incumbents demonstrated direct skill or experience 

troubleshooting the schedule system during their interview. 

One incumbent did have vast experience troubleshooting 

schedule systems; however, that incumbent’s job 

responsibilities included auditing the scheduling system used 

by the entire organization, which was atypical of most of the 

people we interviewed. In addition, 100% of SMEs indicated 

that this was a highly trainable skill.

Using 

analytical/statistical 

applications (3)

Significant 

Gaps 3 

There was a lot of variability between job incumbents with 

regard to use of analytical or statistical applications. Some 

job incumbents, particularly those responsible for creating 

the schedule systems that they use, indicated that math, 

analytical, and/or accounting skills were extremely 

important in carrying out their jobs. However, two 

incumbents, when directly asked, stated that math skills 

were not particularly important to have in their jobs. This 

skill may be very important for more complicated shift 

scheduling systems and for schedule managers who are 

responsible for analyzing scheduling data.

Problem solving (4) Moderate 

Gaps 1 

Problem solving was rated highly by both SMEs and job 

incumbents and appeared frequently in job incumbent 

interviews. Job incumbents demonstrated that problem 

solving was important in their job both indirectly through 

dialog concerning their scheduling experiences and directly 

when asked to list the important skills they use on the job.
106 

Using technology (6) Moderate 

Gaps 2 

Job incumbents rated using technology as significantly more 

important than SMEs. In addition, there was significant 

evidence of the importance of technology skills within each 

of the incumbent interviews. Several incumbents 

emphasized the importance of technology skills when asked 

directly to list the skills important to have in carrying out 

their scheduling responsibilities. Almost all of the 

incumbents used computers when scheduling, and many 

who had been with their organizations for a long time noted 

that there was a steep learning curve when they switched 

from scheduling on paper to scheduling with computers. 

However, it should be expected that scheduling managers 

have some base level of proficiency with computers. Thus, 

any technology training should specifically focus on using 

scheduling software.

Working in teams (13) Moderate 

Gaps 2 

Approximately half of the job incumbents interviewed 

demonstrated the need for teamwork skills. Although job 

incumbents rated this skill significantly higher than SMEs, 

100% of SMEs indicated that teamwork skills are highly 

trainable. Taken together, it is a likely area to target in 

training. However, this skill likely applies more to 

management in general than managing schedules in 

particular.

Converting complex 

topics to simple 

explanations (2)

Moderate 

Gaps 3 

Job incumbents and SMEs rated this skill relatively low 

compared with other skills. SMEs ranked this attribute 

higher than job incumbents, but it still appeared in the lower 

half of all skills when ranked by importance. In addition, 

there was little evidence of this skill set within job 

incumbent interviews. However, this skill may be more 

important when considered in combination with other skill 

and knowledge sets that scheduling managers should have in 

the future. For instance, converting complex topics to simple 

explanations may be necessary as a skill when passing on 

information about the health and safety implications of 

shiftwork to shiftworkers.

Managing collective 

agreements (12)

Moderate 

Gaps 3 

Job incumbents in organizations with a unionized workforce 

demonstrated extensive knowledge of union contracts and 

skill in negotiating with unions. Only two of the job 

incumbents interviewed played a role in managing collective 

agreements and both resided higher up in their organization 

than most schedule managers. However, when applicable, 

negotiating with unions and knowing the contract was 

perceived as extremely important. This skill is also likely to 

be critical in instances where scheduling managers need to 

make changes to the design of their shift scheduling system.

Interacting with people 

(9)

Minimal 

Gaps 1 

Interacting with people was rated significantly higher by job 

incumbents than SMEs; however, SMEs and job incumbents 

ranked this attribute similarly relative to all other skills. This 

skill set was mentioned in almost all of the job incumbent 

interviews. Although this skill is clearly important for any 

employee in a supervisory role, it appears to be a critical 

skill for those responsible for work schedules because of the 

need to communicate schedule changes to workers, call 

people in to work, and make decisions about leave and 

vacation.
107

Interfacing with multiple 

systems (5)

Minimal 

Gaps 2

There was moderate evidence that job incumbents interface 

with multiple systems as a skill set. Most incumbents 

discussed this skill in terms of needing to interact with a 

combination of systems to manage their work schedules. For 

instance, some incumbents noted that they drew information 

from production schedules, purchase orders, and equipment 

availability when scheduling workers to tasks on different 

shifts. However, SMEs ranked this attribute as least 

important compared with all other skills. Some of the need 

to interface with multiple systems may be reduced with the 

introduction of more streamlined scheduling processes.

Observation (10) Minimal 

Gaps 2

Observation skills were rated significantly higher by job 

incumbents than SMEs, but ranked similarly overall. Two 

incumbents specifically mentioned observation as an 

important skill to have in their jobs. Observation may be a 

critical skill for management in general but is particularly 

important when considered in light of the need to recognize 

risks related to shiftwork.

Keeping detailed records 

(11)

Minimal 

Gaps 2

There is strong evidence of the need for skill in keeping 

detailed records in the job incumbent interviews. Incumbents 

mostly discussed this skill in terms of “keeping track,” 

especially with respect to overtime. Job incumbents rated 

this skill significantly higher than SMEs, likely because it is 

a skill expected of managers in general.

Leading people (14) Minimal 

Gaps 2

There was strong evidence of leadership in the job 

incumbent interviews, and these leadership skills were 

demonstrated in a variety of ways. Leadership may be 

critical for managers in general, but less important than other 

attributes when it comes to managing schedules in particular. 

Leadership skills may be low on the list of training priorities 

for a program specific to managing work schedules.

Communicating with 

various levels of an 

organization’s hierarchy 

(1)

Minimal 

Gaps 3

The critical element of this skill concerns interacting with 

different levels of an organization. Job incumbents and 

SMEs rated this skill similarly, and there was significant 

evidence in almost all job incumbent interviews that 

skillfully communicating with upper management and 

frontline employees was important. In addition, many of the 

incumbents we interviewed directly stated that 

communication in general was an important skill to possess 

in their jobs.

Note: The number in parentheses listed after each attribute indicates the original KSAO ordering.
108

Table K-3. Gap Analysis Summary Table for Abilities

ABILITIES

Ability Gap 

Assessment Tier Overall Comments

Identify and manage 

risks (2)

Significant 

Gaps 1

Identifying and managing risks was rated highly by both 

SMEs and job incumbents; however, SMEs ranked the 

ability much higher than JIs (ranked second most important 

as compared with ninth most important, respectively). Risk 

management was also not particularly evident in job 

incumbent interviews. This ability is likely related to a 

general skill in troubleshooting and additional training 

appears to be needed.

Balance conflicting 

demands (7)

Significant 

Gaps 2

The ability to balance conflicting demands was one of the 

most common KSAO themes to emerge from the qualitative 

content coding of job incumbent interviews. This 

documentation suggests that job incumbents regularly need 

to balance conflicting demands. Although SMEs rated this 

attribute relatively low and ranked it as least important 

compared with other abilities, many indicated in interviews 

that shift scheduling is often a balancing act between 

employee needs and business needs. This ability may have 

been undervalued by SMEs, and more training is likely 

needed to better assist scheduling managers with this 

balancing act.

Self-evaluate to gauge 

success (3)

Significant 

Gaps 3

SMEs and job incumbents rated this attribute similarly, 

although it was ranked considerably higher by SMEs than 

job incumbents. Approximately half of the job incumbents 

discussed self-evaluation in their interview, and it was 

addressed in terms of the techniques used to self-evaluate. It 

was also noted that most incumbents did not require 

approval from a higher level of management before 

implementing schedule changes; therefore, self-evaluation 

should be relatively important for most work schedule 

managers. 

Recognize a problem 

and need for change (8)

Moderate 

Gaps 1

This ability was rated similarly by SMEs and job 

incumbents. Approximately one-third of job incumbents 

interviewed demonstrated a strong ability to recognize a 

problem and need for change. In these instances incumbents 

talked at length about the changes they made to the design or 

procedure for scheduling workers in their unit. However, 

some of the incumbents interviewed described shift 

schedules with vast amounts of daily maintenance and 

frequent instances of having to call people in to work 

overtime. This suggests that problems in the scheduling 

system may be unrecognized and additional training is 

necessary.

Ask the right questions 

and know where to find 

the appropriate answers 

(5)

Moderate 

Gaps 2

Job incumbents rated and ranked this ability higher in 

importance than SMEs. There was also evidence of this 

attribute in approximately half of incumbent interviews; 

however, most instances related to finding appropriate 

answers. The ability to ask the right questions may need to 

be addressed with shiftwork schedule training so that 

schedule managers are better versed on what questions they 
109

should be asking with regard to the design of their schedules, 

their employees’ abilities to handle working shifts, and 

whether change is necessary.

Think critically about 

problems (6)

Minimal 

Gaps 1

SMEs and JIs rated and ranked this ability similarly in 

importance. There was evidence of critical thinking ability in 

most of the job incumbent interviews. Some incumbents 

directly reported the need to think critically in terms of being 

analytical. However, this does appear to be an area where 

additional training would be beneficial, similar to the ability 

to recognize problems and manage risks.

Express oneself clearly 

through speaking and 

writing (11)

Minimal 

Gaps 1

SMEs and job incumbents agreed that this ability was very 

important, and both ranked it the same overall. Most job 

incumbents indicated that communication in general was an 

important ability to possess on the job. In addition, 

communicating schedule changes was a large part of most 

incumbents’ job responsibilities. 

Cooperate (12) Minimal 

Gaps 1

Cooperation was ranked as highly important by both SMEs 

and job incumbents. Although there was no explicit mention 

of cooperation in the qualitative content coding of job 

incumbent interviews, incumbents did express elements of 

cooperation when working in teams, communicating with 

various levels of their organizations hierarchy, and balancing 

conflicting demands. Cooperation is important, but 

incumbents do not appear to be lacking in this ability.

Read and comprehend 

ideas in writing (10)

Minimal 

Gaps 2

This ability was not well documented in the qualitative 

analysis of incumbent interviews. However, reading and 

writing was different to capture in coding because 

interviewees were unlikely to explicitly state that they 

comprehend ideas in writing. This attribute does not appear 

to be particular to scheduling, but generally to management 

or administrative positions.

Think independently (1) Minimal 

Gaps 4

This ability was highly regarded as important by job 

incumbents and documented as important in four of the 

incumbent interviews. However, this ability is likely 

important for managers in general and not particular to 

shiftwork schedule managers.

Persuade others (4) Minimal 

Gaps 4

There was some evidence from incumbent interviews that 

persuading others is an important component of the 

scheduling job, mainly with regard to making schedule 

changes and negotiating with upper-level management and 

unions. However, only 33% of SMEs regard this as an 

attribute appropriate to target in formal training.

Be flexible (9) Minimal 

Gaps 4

There was significant evidence of the need for flexibility in 

the majority of job incumbent interviews, and both 

incumbents and SMEs rated flexibility as highly important. 

However, only 33% of SMEs regard this as an ability that 

can be improved with formal training.

Note: The number in parentheses listed after each attribute indicates the original KSAO ordering.
110

Table K-4. Gap Analysis Summary Table for Other Characteristics

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

Other Characteristic Gap 

Assessment Tier Overall Comments

Passion for safety and 

health (6)

Significant 

Gaps 1

Both SMEs and job incumbents rated this characteristic, on 

average, as very important. However, only one job 

incumbent demonstrated a passion for safety and health, 

talking at length about the relationship between shiftwork, 

health, and performance and countermeasures for managing 

fatigue related to shiftwork. However, this passion was 

likely in part due to the incumbent’s attending a seminar on 

shiftwork and fatigue management in the past year. Training 

may assist in fostering a passion for safety and health.

Well-connected with a 

community of schedulers 

(11)

Significant 

Gaps 3

Only one job incumbent mentioned personally interacting 

with a community of schedulers. This job incumbent 

contacted other work schedulers in the industry to 

understand different scheduling designs. One hundred 

percent of SMEs indicated that this characteristic can be 

addressed in a formal training program. In fact, the 

development of a training credential may foster stronger 

connections between work schedulers and between 

schedulers and the greater research and consulting 

community.

Sensitivity to different 

types of people (12)

Significant 

Gap 4

About half of the job incumbents interviewed demonstrated 

sensitivity to their employees’ needs and preferences and an 

awareness of how that affects work scheduling. However, a 

few job incumbents discussed policies and procedures that 

were decidedly insensitive to employees’ needs. Although 

the majority of SMEs indicated that sensitivity is not an 

easily trainable attribute, training with regard to the social 

implications of shiftwork may also foster sensitivity to 

different types of people.

Willing to compromise 

(9)

Moderate 

Gaps 2

A willingness to compromise was explicitly mentioned in 

two incumbent interviews. However, this characteristic may

have been undercoded because it overlaps with flexibility 

and cooperation. In addition, job incumbents rated this 

characteristic as significantly more important than SMEs. 

On the other hand, some job incumbents indicated that there 

are many situations where they must be unwilling to 

compromise in scheduling for the good of employee health 

and safety or the organization’s bottom line. This 

characteristic may be perceived as more valuable by some 

job incumbents than others.

Approachability (5) Moderate 

Gaps 4

Approachability was rated significantly higher by job 

incumbents than SMEs. Approachability was also well 

documented in the incumbent interviews, with most 

discussing it in terms of how easy it is for employees to 

initiate contact and discuss schedule issues or conflicts. 

However, approachability was not generally regarded as 

trainable by SMEs.

Previous involvement 

with shiftwork systems 

(2)

Minimal 

Gaps 3

Although this characteristic was rated relatively low by both 

SMEs and job incumbents compared with other 

characteristics, it was mentioned in most of the incumbent 
111

interviews. Job incumbents and SMEs state that working 

irregular hours can provide unique insight into the job of 

shift scheduling because schedulers are more keenly aware 

of the toll shiftwork can take on one’s health and social 

interactions. Some of this shiftwork knowledge is trainable, 

but many argue that it cannot replace on-the-job experience.

Integrity (1) Minimal 

Gaps 4

Integrity was rated and ranked highly by both SMEs and job 

incumbents. In addition, most job incumbents discussed the 

value of integrity in terms of making fair and just decisions, 

following and enforcing the rules, and being dedicated to the 

work. However, most SMEs did not consider this a 

characteristic that can be trained.

Honesty (3) Minimal 

Gaps 4

Honesty was also rated highly by both groups of 

participants, but most SMEs indicated that this too is not a 

trainable characteristic.

Discretion (4) Minimal 

Gaps 4

Discretion was rated highly on importance by both SMEs 

and job incumbents. However, discretion did not appear in 

the qualitative coding of incumbent interviews, and SMEs 

indicated that it is unlikely to be a very trainable 

characteristic. This characteristic is unlikely to be 

appropriate to target for training.

Patience (7) Minimal 

Gaps 4

Two job incumbents mentioned patience as an important 

characteristic, and both job incumbents and SMEs rated it 

relatively high on importance. Patience may not be a 

trainable characteristic, but it does appear to be important for 

work schedule managers to possess.

Perseverance (8) Minimal 

Gaps 4

Perseverance was rated as very important by both job 

incumbents and SMEs and was briefly mentioned in two 

incumbent interviews. Perseverance may also be related to 

incumbents’ perceptions of the importance of dedication and 

the need to be uncompromising in some situations.

Commands respect (10) Minimal 

Gaps 4

Three job incumbents specifically mentioned and 

emphasized commanding respect as an important 

characteristic to have in their line of work. SMEs indicated 

this attribute can be important because scheduling managers 

need to communicate with various levels of their 

organization.

Note: The number in parentheses listed after each attribute indicates the original KSAO ordering.