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I ýOPERATION

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MAR 2 0 1984

I United States Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Tests

Nuclear Test Personnel Review

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UN1CLASSIFI ED SECURITY CLAý So-FICATION OF THIS PAGE (W7hon Dole. Ftmrid)

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:4. TITLE (and 5,•brtrlo) $- TYPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED

OPERATICMN SANDSTONE: 1948 TROniaM e poJ A

T. PoERFORMING ONG.-REPORT NUMBER KT-82-O26(R)

7. AUTHOR(s) 8I. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMSER(s)

L. H. Berkhouse J.FI. Hallowell F.W. McI-ullan

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19. KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse aide it necessary and identify by block number)

Nuclear Testing Enewetak JTF-7

Nuclear Test Personnel Review X-Ray

SANDSTON E YOKE

Pacific Proving Ground ZEBRA

20 ABSTRACT rConthiue on reverse *#de It necessary and Identify by block mainbor)

SANDSTONE was a three-detonation atmospheric nuclear weapon test series

conducted during the spring of 1948 at Enewetak Atoll in the rlarshall Islands.

Report emphasis is on the radiological safety of the personnel. Available

records on personnel exposure are summarized.

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g%

FACT SHEET

SANDSTONE was a three-detonation nuclear weapon test series held at Ene-j

wetak Atoll, the Atomic Energy Commission's (AEC) Pacific Proving Ground

(PPG). in the spring of 1948. Located In the Central Pacific Ocean, the PPG

consisted principally of Enewetak* and Bikinii atolls in the northwestern

Marshall Islands.

I

Assigned Local Yield -~Name Date Location (KT)a

X-RAY 15 April 200-foot (61-meter) tower on Enjebi Island 31

YOKE 1 May 200-foot (61-meter) tower on Aomon Island 49

ZEBRA 15 May 200-foot (61-meter) tower on Runit Island 18

Note:

ap

aOne kiloton equals the approximate energy release of a one-thotusandton TNT explosion.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

operation SANDSTONE was the second test series to be held in the Marshall

Isladsbutit differed from the first series (CR~OSSROADS in 1946) in that It

was primarily an AEC scientific test series with the armed forces serving in a

supporting role. Its purpose was to proof-test Improved-design atomic weapons,

whereas the purpose of CROSSROADS was to test nuclear weapons effects on ships.

The weapons were tested at Enewetak by a joint military and civilian

organization designated Joint Task Force 7 (JTF 7). This was a military organization In form, but contained military, civil service, and contractor personnel of the Department of Defense (DOD) and the AEC. The commander of this force

was the appointed representative of the AEC and reported to both the Joint

chiefs of staff and the Commander in Chief, Pacific.

Peak DOD numerical strength at SANDSTONE was approximately as follows:

Uniformed military 91890

DOD civilians 350

DOD contractors 126

10,N366

**Formerly Eniwetok. A better understanding of the Marshall Islands language

has permitted a more accurate transliteration of Marshall Island names into

English language spelling.

ton NT eploson,1

I
Numerous technical experiments were carried out in conjunction with each

of the three detonations. These experiments measured the yield and efficiency

of the devices and attempted to gauge military effects of the explosions. DOD

personnel participated in this test operation as individuals whose duty stations were at the AEC weapon design and development laboratories, as units

performing separate experiments, and as units performing various support roles.

An extensive radiological safety (radsafe) program with the following

objectives was instituted:

1. Keeping personnel radiation exposure at the lowest possible level consistent with medical knowledge of radiation

effects and the importance of the test series

2. Avoiding inadvertent contamination of populated islands

or transient shipping.

This program established an organization to provide radsafe expertise and services to commanders of the separate components of the task force, who were

responsible for personnel safety within their commands. Personnel were trained

in radiological safety. Standards governing permissible exposure were established. The standards were 0.1 roentgen (R) per 24-hour period and a maximum

exposure of 3 R for certain approved specific missions. Film badges were Issued

to persons likely to be exposed to radiation, as well as a representative group

of the task force. An extensive weather forecasting group was established to

predict wind directions and areas of potential fallout. Personnel were evacuated from danger areas before each detonation. Reentry to radioactive areas

was restricted to personnel required to retrieve important data, and their

radiation exposures were monitored.

TEST OPERATIONS AND EXPOSURES

Each of the SANDSTONE tower shots produced fallout; however, none of the Inhabited islands In the area received appreciable fallout. Kwajalein received measureable fallout on 3 May, two days after the YOKE shot. The estimated dose

from fallout for persons who were on Fwajalein for the entire test series was

calculated to be 0.075 R.

Most task force personnel were on Kwajalein or aboard ships. The remainder

were on Enewetak and stayed there for the three shots. The temporary camps on

the northern and eastern Islands of the atoll near the detonation sites were

abandoned and dismantled before the shots. Task force ships evacuated the lagoon, except for USS Albemarle (AV-5), USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7), USS Curtiss

(AV-4), and USS Bairoko (CVE-115), which remained in the lagoon near the base

islands on the southern side of the atoll.

Highest DOD exposures for both the Army (6.050 R, and the Navy (5.140 R)

were accrued by radiation monitors from the Joint Radiological Safety Group.

Only eleven personnel (0.6 percent of those badged) received exposures In ex- :

cess of the imposed standards of 3 R. In fact, radiation exposure for badged

JTF 7 personnel at SANDSTONE averaged less than 0.25 R, and approximately 65 P

percent had zero exposures. Recorded SANDSTONE exposures are surnndrized in the

table on the following page. -

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SANDSTONE Juint Task Force 7 Personnel Exposures

Exposure Ranges

(roentgens)

Number Over High

Badged 0 0.001-1 1-2 2 (R)

Army 327 168 141 10 8 6.050

% of Total 51 43 3 3

Navy 973 730 233 8 2 5.140

% of Total 75 24 1 <1

Air Force 350 195 144 8 3 3.060

% of Total 56 41 2 1

Marines 112 102 9 1 0 1.040

% of Total 91 8 <1 0

Non-DOD Participants 119 18 83 6 12 17.0

% of Total 15 70 5 10

Totals 1,881 1,213 610 33 25 17.0

% of Total 65 32 2 1

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PREFACE

•

Between 1945 and 1962, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) conducted

235 atmospheric nuclear weapon tests in the United States and in the Pacific

and Atlantic oceans. In all, about 220,000 Department of Defense (DOD) participants, both military arid civilian, were present at the tests. Of these, approximately 142,000 participated in the Pacific test series and approximately

another 4.000 in the single Atlantic test series.

In 1977, 15 years after the last aboveground nuclear weapon test, the Center for Disease Control (CDC) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services noted more leukemia cases than would normally be expected among about

3,200 soldiers who had been present at shot SMOKY, a test of the 1957 PLUMBBOB

Series. Since that initial report by the CDC, the Veterans Administration (VA)

has received a number of claims for medical benefits from former military personnel who believe their health may have been affected by their participation

In the weapon testing program.

In late 1977, the DOD began a study that provided data to both the CDC and

the VA on potential exposures to ionizing radiation among the military and civilian personnel who participated in the atmospheric testing 15 to 32 years earlier. In early 1978, the DOD also organized a Nuclear Test Personnel Review

(NTPR) to:

e Identify DOD personnel who had taken part In the atntospheric nuclear weapon tests

9 Determine the extent of the participants' exposure to ionizing radiation

* Provide public disclosure of information concerning participation by DOD personnel in the atmospheric nuclear

weapon tests.

This report on Operation SANDSTONE is one of many volumes that are the

product of the NTPR. The Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA), whose Director is the

executive agent of the NTPR program, prepared the reports, which are based on

military and technical documents concerning various aspects of each of the

tests. Reports of the NTPR provide a public record of the activities and associated radiation exposure of DOD personnel for interested former participants W

and for use in public health research and Federal policy studies.

Information from which this report waz compiled *cs primarily extratLea

from planning and after-action reports of Joint Task Force 7 (JTF 7) and Its

subordinate organizations. Documents were desired that accurately placed

personnel at the test sites so that their degree of exposure to the ionizing

radiation resulting from the tests could be assessed. The search for this Information was undertaken in archives and libraries of the Federal Government,

in special collections supported by the Federal Government, and by discussion

or review with participants.

5d
1A

For SANDSTONE, the most important archival source is the National Archives

and Record Center, Modern Military Branch, Washington, D.C. The Naval Archives

at the Washington Navy Yard also was helpful, as was the collection housed in

the Air Force Weapons Laboratory Technical Library at Kirtland Air Force Base, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Other archives searched were the Department of Energy

archives at Germantown, Maryland, its Nevada Operations Office archives at Las

"Vegas, and archives of the Test Division of Los Alamos National Laboratory.

JTF 7 exposure records and an additional file of exposure-related documents

(microfilmed by the Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Company, Inc., support

contractor for the Department of Energy/Nevada Operations) have also been very

useful.

The work was performed under RDT&E RMSS B350079464 U99 QAXMK 506-09 H2590D

for the Defense Nuclear Agency by personnel from Kaman Tempo. Guidance was

provided by Mr. Kenneth W. Kaye of the Defense Nuclear Agency.

ON

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

I

Paie

FACT SHEET I

PREFACE 5

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 13

LIST OF TABLES 16

Chapter

OVERVIEW 17

Introduction I/

Purpose 17

Historical Background 17

Report Organization 21

Nuclear Tests and Radiation Exposures 21

Experimental Program 23

Weapon Diagnostic Experiments 24

Yield Measurements 24

Diagnostic Measurements 24

service Tests 26

Oceanic Testing Operations 26

Marshall Islands Setting 26

Special Problems in Testing in the Marshalls 28

Joint Task Force 7 30

Joint Task Force 7 Heddquarters 32

Task Group 7.1 (Atomic Energy Commission

Proving Ground Group) 32

Task Unit 7.1.1 (Scientific) 32

Measurements Section 35

Firing and Engineering Branch 35

Services Section 36

7

.-. -e -o. •.- . .. .°. . . ........--. " , ", "S"• S
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Chapter Page

1 (cont) Task Group 7.2 (Army) 36

Task Group 7.3 (Navy) 38

Task Group 7.4 (Air force) 39

Task Unit 7.4.1 (Headquarters and Service Unit) 43

Task Unit 7.4.2 (Drone Unit) 43

Task Unit 7.4.3 (Photography Unit) 44

Task Unit 7.4.4 (Weather Unit) 44

Task Unit 7.4.5 (Air Rescue Unit) 44

"Task Unit 7.4.6 (Airways and Air Communications

Service Unit) 44

Task Unit 7.4.7 (Interisland Iransport Unit) 44

Task Unit 7.4.8 44

Task Unit 7.4.9 (Liaison Unit) 44

Task Group 7.5 (Joint Security Group) 45

Task Group 7.6 (Joint Radiological Safety Group) 45

Task Group 7.7 (Kwajalein Island Command) 46

Task Group 7.8 (Observer Escort Group) 47

2 RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY 48

Organization and Responsibilities 48

Task Unit 7.6.1 (Air Monitoring Unit) 49

Task Unit 7.6.2 (Staff Unit) 51

Task Unit 7.6.3 (Operations Unit) 52

Task Unit 7.6.4 (Laboratory Unit) 52

Task Unit 7.6.5 (Radiological Records Unit) 53

Task Unit 7.6.b (Technical Measurements Unit) 53

Task Unit 7.6.7 (Monitor Unit) 53

Task Unit 7.6.8 (Advisory Unit) 54

Task Unit 7.6.9 (Rear Echelon Unit) 54

Training 54

Safety Criteria 57

Radiation Safety Standards 57

Radiation Exposure Waivers 58

8% .
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Chapter Page

2 (cont) Radiation Exposure Records 58

Group Exposure Record 59

Radiological Safety Instrumentation 59

Personnel Film Badges and Records 60

"Pre-Event Safety Measures 61

Danger Area 61

Fallout and Lagoon Contamination Prediction 66

Command Briefing 66

Weather Prediction 67

Eye Protection 68

Evacuation and Reentry Plans 68

POSTEVENT SAFETY MEASURES 69

Cloud Tracking 70

Sample Recovery Techniques 70

Protective Clothing 76

Personnel Decontamination 76

Ship Decontamination 81

Equipment Decontamination 82

Aircraft Decontamination 82

3 DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM 89

Experimental Participation 89

Weapon Diagnostic Experiments 92

Radiochemistry 92

Neutron Measurement 94

Neutron Generation -- Rossi Method 94

Neutron Generation -- Teller Method 95

Gamma-Ray Spectrum 95

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Rossi Method 95

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Teller Method 95

Technical Photography 96

Blast Measurements 96
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Chapter Page

* 3 (cont) Service Tests 97

Reinforced Concrete Structures 97

Blast Resistance of Structures 97

Aircraft Blast Acceleration 98

Exposure of Biological Materials 98

Exposure of Materials to Radiation 99

"Evaluation of New Radiological Instruments 99 ."

Radiation Shielding by Materials 99

"Evaluation of Collective Piotectors 100

Residual Crater Contamination 100

Aerial Survey of Ground Contamination 100

"Aerial Survey of Cloud Intensity 101

Survey of Cloud Particle Size 101

4 TEST OPERATIONS 102

X-RAY 105

YOKE 110

ZEBRA 114

5 U.S. ARMY PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 118

Headquarters Joint Task Force 7 118

Task Group 7.1 (Atomic Energy Commission

Proving Ground Group) 118

Task Group 7.2 (Army) 120

'0 Task Group 7.3 (Navy) 123

Task Group 7.4 (Air Force) 123

d Task Unit 7.4.1 (Hq and Service Unit) 123

Task Unit 7.4.2 (Drone Unit) 123

Task Unit 7.4.3 (Photography Unit) 124

Task Group 7.5 (Joint Security Group) 124

Task Group 7.6 (Joint Radiological Safety Group) 124

6 U.S. NAVY PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 125

Headquarters Joint Task Force 7 125

10
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Chapter Paqe

6 (cont) Task Group 7.1 (Atomic Energy Commission

Proving Ground Group) 128

Task Group 7.2 (Army) 129

Task Group 7.3 (Navy) 130

Staff Organizations 130

Ship Units 130

Air Units 146

Task Group 7.4 (Air Force) 146

Task Group 7.5 (Joint Security Group) 147

Task Group 7.6 (Joint Radiological Safety Group) 147

Task Group 7.1 (Kwajalein Island Command) 148

Task Group 7.8 (Observer Escort Group) 149

Non-Task-Force Ships 149

7 U.S. AIR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 151

Headquarters Joint Task Force 7 152

Headquarters Air Forces, Joint Task Force 7 152

Task Group 7.1 (Atomic Energy Commission

Proving Ground Group) 152

Task Group 7.4 (Air Force) 153

Task Unit 7.4.1 (Hq and Service Unit) 153

Task Unit 7.4.2 (Drone Unit) 153

Task Unit 7.4.3 (Photography Unit) 153

Task Unit 7.4.4 (Weather Unit) 154

Task Unit 7.4.5 (AWr Rescue Unit) 154

Task Unit 7.4.6 (Airways and Air Communications

Services Unit) 1544

Task Unit 7.4.7 (Interisland Transport Unit) 154

Task Unit 7.4.9 (Liaison Unit) 155

Task Group 7.5 (Joint Security Group) 155

Task Group 7.6 (Joint Radiological Safety Group) 155 *

p

II
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Chapter Page

7 (cont) Task Group 7.7 (Kwajalein Island Command) 155

1535th Air Force Base Unit 155

31-8 Air Weather Service Detachment 156

Official Observers 156

8 U.S. MARINE CORPS PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 157

Joint Task Force 7 Staff 157

Task Group 7.3 (Navy) 157

Task Group 7.4 (Air Force) 158

Task Group 7.5 (Joint Security Group) 159

Task Group 7.6 (Joint Radiological Safety Group) 159

Task Group 7.7 (Kwajaleln Island Command) 159

9 JOINT DEFENSE, ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, OTHER

GOVERNMENT AGENCIES, AND CONTRACTOR PARTICIPATION

IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 160

Joint Defense Agencies 160

Atomic Energy Commission 161

Contractors to the Atomic Energy Commission 162

Other Government Agencies 163

Department of Defense Contractors 163

10 SUMMARY OF PERSONNEL EXPOSURES 165

REFERENCES 167

Append ixes

A RADIOLOGICAL STATUS REPORT OF ENEWETAK ATOLL 179

B GLOSSARY OF TERMS 185

C ENEWETAK ISLAND SYNONYMS 197

12
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Frontispiece: SANDSTONE Shot X-RAY Fireball

Figure Page

1 The Central Pacific. 19

2 Enewetak Atoll, 1948. 20

3 Aerial view of Ananij Island, Enewetak Atoll, in 1948. 28

4 Enewetak Island, 1948, showing upwind (northeast) end

of runway with junk revetments and B-17 samplers in

foreground. 29

5 Parry Island, 1948; Joint Task Force 7 ships in background. 29

6 Organization of Joint Task Force 7. 31

7 Organization of Headquarters Joint Task Force 7. 33

8 Organization of Task Group 7.1. 34

9 Organization of Task Group 7.2. 37

10 Organization of Task Group 7.4. 41

11 Task Group 7.6 (Joint Radiological Safety Group). 49

12 Monitors calibrating Victoreen Model 247A instruments on

board USS Bairoko (CVE-115) before SANDSTONE as the instructor

observes. 57

13 Air patrol plans A, B, and C. 62

14 Air patrol plan 0. 63

15 Air patrol plan E. 64

16 Air patrol plan F. 65

17 Drone B-17 at Enewetak after shot ZEBRA, approached by

truck with forklift with extension arm to grasp top

sampler box. 71

18 Forklift extension arm lifts top filter from drone B-17

following shot ZEBRA. 72

19 Two men take top filter box from forklift and place it on the

ground following shot ZEBRA. 72

20 Man pulls lanyard to remove one of two filter-paper holders

from top filter unit following shot ZEBRA. 73

21 Lanyard pulls filter-paper holder free from top filter unit

following shot ZEBRA. 73

13
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (continued)

FigurePage

22 Second filter holder comes free from top filter; man in

background tilts top filter unit from another drone. 74

23 Hard pull and both hands are required to free filter-paper

holder. 74

24 Two men run in to pull filter holders from lower sampler

on B-17 drone following shot ZEBRA. 75

25 Filter papers in lead box handed up to C-54 preparing for

flight to United States following shot ZEBRA. 75

26 Booties or shoe covers used in Operation SANDSTONE. 71

27 Personnel leave Enjebi timing station several days following

shot X-RAY. 77

28 Decontamination truck and drone B-17 viewed through clothesline at shower station on Enewetak Island. 78

29 Shower station on Enewetak; personnel are being monitored

before dressing in clean clothes. 78

30 Drone maintenance man rewashes hands following work on drone

B-17. 79

31 Hands are remonitored. 79

32 Monitor checks radioactivity following SANDSTONE shot with

plastic-wr3pped Geiger-Mueller instrument. 83

33 Pilot who had just moved drone B-17 into position for

decontamination is monitored for radioactive contamination. 84

34 Monitors record radioactivity of SANDSTONE drone sampler

before decontamination. 85

35 Decontamination of SANDSTONE B-17 drone sampler. 86

36 Decontamination of SANDSTONE 8-17 drone sampler. 86

37 Enlisted man is monitored for radioactivity following

decontamination of SANDSTONE drone sampler. 87

38 Military policeman prevents access to SANDSTONE drone B-17

following its decontamination. 87

39 Drone tank used for soil sampling operation. 93

40 Drone tank in revetment; helicopter hovers overhead to

control tank after it has been started. 93

41 Navy Bureau of Yards & Docks experimental structural

shapes after shot YOKE. 98

42 Evacuation of Enjebi before shot X-RAY. 104

43 Ship positions at shot time, X-RAY. 106

14
4,..

I, N

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (continued)

Figure Page

44 Monitor in SANDSTONE, X-RAY crater, probably 6 days after

the shot. 107

45 Ship positions at shot time. III

46 Ship positions at shot time. 115

6*b

15

it SriI.ii liI I i i I
LIST OF TABLES

,:1 SANDSTONE detonations, Enewetak, 1948. 17 2

S2 Task Group 7.1 personnel strength. 35

i3 Task Group 7.2 operating strength at Enewetak. 38

-•4 Task Group 7.3 organization and personnel strength. 4U .

S~5 Task Group 7.4 SANDSTONE personnel distribution , ': (26 January 1948). 42

S6 SANDSTONE aircraft. 43

S7 Radiological safety equipment distribution. 51,_

•.. • SANDSTONE experiments. 90 '-

9% SANDSTONE scientific personnel radiation exposure 1 "'

1 0 SANDSONE personnel exposures, U.S. Army organizations. 119

11 SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Navy organizations. 126-..

12 SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Air Force organizations. 152 ,-

13 SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Marine Corps prganizations, 158 ..

14 SANDSTONE personnel exposures, civilians from joint dL.ense

and other government agencaes and contractors. 161

15 Exposures by task group for the entire SANDSTONE serpes. 165

16
CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW

Vp.

INTRODUCTION

Purpose

SANDSTONE was a test series in which three nuclear fission devices were

detonated at the Atomic Energy Commission's (AEC) Pacific Proving Ground (PPG)

at Enewetak Atoll* in the spring of 1948. Table 1 lists the detonations.

Table 1. SANDSTONE detonations, Enewetak, 1948.

Assigned -oca1 Yield

Name Date Location (KT)a

X-RAY 15 April 200-foot (61-meter) tower on Enjebi Island 37

YOKE 1 May 200-foot (61-meter) tower on Aomon Island 49

ZEBRA 15 May 200-foot (61-meter) tower on Runit Island 18

Note:

aOne kilotcn equals the approximate energy release of a one-thousandton TNT explosion.

This report documents the participation of Department of Defense (DOD)

personnel who were active In the test series. Its purpose is to bring together

the available information about the atmospheric nuclear test series pertinent

to the radiation exposure of DOD personnel, both uniformed and civilian employees. The report explains the reasons why DOD personnel were present at

these tests, lists the DOD organizations represented, and describes their

activities. It discusses the potential radiation exposure involved in these

activities and the measures taken for the protection of DOD personnel. It

presents the exposures recorded by the participating DOD units. "

Historical Background

Operation SANDSTONE was primarJly conducted to proof-rest new weapon designs. Interest in weapon effects experiments in these tests was definitely

secondary. A proof-test had not been conducted since the TRINITY test in July

1945, in which the design of the weapon used for the Nagasaki attack was

* A better understanding of the Marshall Islands language has permitted a more

accurate ttansliteration of Marshall Islands names into English language

spelling. These newer transliterations are used in this report with few exceptions. Appendix C lists the names and their variant spellings.

17
proven. Operation CROSSROADS was conducted in 1946, chiefly to test the effects

of nuclear detonations on Navy ships.

When the President approved the preliminary SANDSTONE test program on

27 June 1947, the United States apparently had only 13 nuclear weapons In its

stockpile. One year later, in spite of heavy emphasis on increased production

of fissionable material, the number of weapons was only about 50, far short of

the number (estimated at as high -as 200) that military planners calculated

would be required in a war with the Soviet Union. The more efficient weapon designs proof-tested at SANDSTONE, coupled with the higher production rates of

fissionable material, allowed the great expansion in the U.S. stockpile evident

by the end of 1949 (Reference D.1).

Meetings were held on 9 July at Los Alamos, Mew Mpxico, to define test responsibilities for SANDSTONE. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL), the

organization that had developed the wartime atomic weapons and the AEC organization that did research and laboratory development of new nuclear weapon designs, was to provide technical leidership and the military services were to

provide supplies and support. Potential test sites in the Marshall Islands

were visited In September 1947, arid a site was selected on 11 October 1947

(Reference A.8, pp. 140 and 141).

Enewetak Atoll was selected because it was large enough for three shots,

and the steady trade winds would carry fallout from the shots over the open

ocean to the west. These trade winds, and their orientation with respect to

Enewetak Island (the major island of the atoll), made a permanent major airfield possible. This was undoubtedly a factor that made Enewetak more desirable than Bikini Atoll, which had been used for Operation CROSSROADS (Reference

A.5). Figure 1 shows the location of the Marshalls in the Central Pacific and

Figure 2 is a map of Enewetak Atoll.

Although inhabited by about 140 people, the dri-Enewetak and the driEnjebi, who lived on the islands of Bijire and Aomon, Enewetak Atoll was far

removed from other inhabited islands. Bijire housed the dri-Enjebi, the people

whose normal home was Enjebi In the northern islands of the atoll, and Aomon

was occupied by the dri-Enewetak, whose normal home was Enewetak Island on the

southern side of the atoll. Both of these islands had been the scene of fierce

fighting during World War 1I and later were major military operating areas,

requiring the population's rerroval. In 1946, these people were moved to Meck

Island at Kwajalein Atoll for a short time when Enewetak was consid d a possible site for the CROSSROADS test series (References A.9 ai ' A.10).

Ujelang Atoll, 124 nmi (230 kin) southwest of Enewetak, was selected as the

future home for this group of people, and construction of cisterns, water

catchments, latrines, tent frames, and other buildings was begun by a Navy

construction battalion gzoup on 22 November 1947. UJelang had been without

permanent inhabitants from the time It had been abandoned in the late nineteenth century by the survivors of a typhoon that swept the atoll.

On 2 December 1947, the United States notified the United Nations Security Council that it was closing Enewetak Atoll In order to conduct necessary experiments relating to nuclear fission. The land area of Enewetak Atoll, Its

18
44

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Figure 2. Enewetak Atoll, 1948.

p 24

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20
lagoon, and the waters within 3 miles (5 km) of Its seaward sides constituted

the test area. These islands were part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific

islands, a strategic area trusteeship of the United Nations, administered by

the United States. The U.S. agency in charge of the test area itself was the

AEC.

On 3 December 1947, military authorities met with the dri-Enewetak and

dri-Enjebi to explain the proposed move. Chiefs and members of the councils

visited Ujelang on the following day and agreed to move upon their return to

Enewetak on 5 December. The move of the people and their belongings was completed by 20 December by USS LST-857 (References A.9 and A.10). The number of

people moved is given in contemporary sources as 142, but recent a authoritative work cites 136 (Reference A.10).

Report Organizatlon

Subsequent sections of this overview chapter discuss the form of experimental nuclear weapon test programs with emphasis on the potential radiation

exposure of participating DOD personnel. The experimental activities are considered first without particular reference to geographic location of the testing and are then related to the geographic limitations on such activities at

the PPG. The portion of the experimental program of heaviest DOD participation

is emphasized. The chapter concludes with a description of Joint Task Force 7

(JTF 7), the organization that conducted SANDSTONE, and indicates how the DOD

elements within JTF 7 functioned.

Chapter 2 is concerned with the radiological safety (radsafe) aspects of

the tests. This chapter documents procedures, training, and equipment used to

protect participants from radiation exposure potential inherent in test operations.

Chapter 3 focuses on the role of the DOD in the experimental program of

SANDSTONE in general, leading to a discussion of DOD operations for the test

events in Chapter 4.

Chapters 5 through 8 report participation by the Army, Navy, Air Force and

Marine Corps. Chapter 9 summarizes participation of other government agencies

and contractors. A listing of participating units and a statistical characterIzation of their personnel exposures are included in these chapters. Personnel

exposures are discussed in Chapter 10.

NUCLEAR TESTS AND RADIATION EXPOSURES

Nuclear testing before 1961 usually consisted of the unconfined detonation

of nuclear devices (usually no', weapons) in the atmosphere. Devices might bc

placed on a platform or a bargE on the surface, placed atop a tower, supported

by a balloon, dropped from an airplane, flown on a rocket, or shot from a cannon. A few were detonated underwater or buried In the earth In underground

tunnels or shafts. SANDSTONE was the first operation in the Pacific to detonate

nuclear devices on towers.

In theory, personnel could be exposed either by the radiation emitted at

the time of explosion and for about 1 minute thereafter -- usually referred to

21
as initial radiation -- or the radiation emitted later (residual radiation). Initial radiation is part of the violent nuclear explosion process itself; to

be close enough for initial radiation exposure would place an unprotected observer within the area swept by lethal blast and thermal effects.

The neutron component of initial radiation has the property of altering

certain nonradioactive materials so that they become radioactive. This process,

called activation, works on sodium, silicon, calcium, manganese, and iron, as

well as other common materials. Activation products thus formed are added to

the inventory of the radloactive products produced In the nuclear detonation

process and contrioute to the possibility of personnel exposure as residual

radiation.

The potential for personnel exposure to residual radiation was much greater

than the potential for exposure to initial radiation. In the nuclear explosion

proceE;, fissioning atoms of the heavy elements, uranium and plutonium, split

into lighter elements, releasing energy. These lighter atoms are themselves

radioactive and decay, forming another generation of descendants from the origAnal fission products. This process is tapid immediately after the explosion

but slows later and continues for years at very low levels of radioactivity.

Overall radioactivity of all the fission products formed decays at a rae

that is closely approximated by a rule that states that for each sevenfold

increase In time the intensity of the radiation will decrease by a factor o(f

ten. Thus, a radiation exposure rate of I roentgen per hour (R/hr) at 1 hour

after detonation would be expected to be about 0.1 R/hr after 7 hours and 0.01

R/hr after 49 hours. This rule seems to be valid for about 6 months following

an explosion, after which the observed decay rate is somewhat faster than that

predicted by this relationship. Activation products, in general, decay at a

faster rate than the fission products.

Fission products and activation products. along with unfissioned uranium

or plutonium from the device, are the components of the radioactive material

in the debris cloud, and this cloud and its fallout are the primary sources of

potential exposure to residual radiation.

In a nuclear airburst In which the central core of intensely hot material,

or fireball, does not touch the surface, weapon residues (including the fission

products, activation products resulting from neutron interaction with device

materials, and unfissioned uranium and/or plutonium) are vaporized. These vapors condense as the fireball rises and cools, and the particles formed by

condensation are small and smoke-like. They are carried up with the cloud to

the altitude at which its rise stops, usually called the cloud stabilization

altitude. Spread of this material then depends on winds and weather. If the

detonation is small, cloud stabilizatilon altitude will be in the lower atmosphere and the material will act like dust and return to the Earth's surface in

a matter of weeks. Essentially all debris from detonations with yields equivalent to I'ilotons of TNT will be down within 2 months (Reference A.6). Areas in

which this fallout material will be deposited will appear on maps as bands

* following the wind's direction. Larger detonations (yields equivalent to megatons of TNT) will have cloud stabilization altitudes in the stratosphere

(above about 10 miles [16 km] in the tropics); radioactive material from such

22
altitudes will not return to Earth for many months and its distribution will

be much wider. Thus, airbursts contribute little potential for radiation exposure of personnel at the testing area, although some residual and short-lived

radioactivity might come from activated surface materials under the burst if .-

burst altitude is sufficiently low for neutrons to reach the surface.

Surface and near-surface bursts pose larger potential radiation exposure

problems. These detonations create more radioactive debris because more mate- 7-.

rial is available for activation within range of neutrons generated by the

"explosion. In such detonations the extreme heat vaporizes device materials and

activated earth materials as well. These materials cool in the presence of

additional material gouged out of the burst crater. This extra material causes

the particles formed as the fireball cools to be larger in size, wiLh radioactivity embedded in them or coating their surfaces. The rising cloud will lift

these particles to altitudes that depend on particle size and shape and the . power of the rising air currents in the cloud, which In turn depend on yield

of the detonation. The largest particles will fall back into the crater or very

near the burst area with the next largest falling nearby. It has been estimated

that as much as 80 percent of the radioactive debris from a land-surface burst

falls out within the first day following the burst (Reference A.6).

Detonations on the surface of seawater generate particles consisting mainly

of salt and water drops that are smaller and lIghter than fallout particles

from a land detonation. As a consequence, water-surface bursts produce less

early fallout than similar weapons detonated on land. Large-yield surface

bursts in the PPG over relatively shallow lagoon waters or on small areas of

truly dry land probably formed a complex combination of land-surface- and

water-surface-burst particle-size characteristics. --

Detonations on towers may be considered as low airbursts or ground bursts,

burst will create more fallout than a smaller burst on equal-height towers, not

only because of the additional fission products and weapon debris, but also because it will pull up more earth materials, or even form a crateL. In addition,

materials of the tower itself provide a source of easily activated materials.

Particles of the tower material may also act as centers on which debris vapcts

may condense to form the larger particles that lead to heavier early fallout.

Devices that fission uranium or plutonium Inefficiently will cause more of

these radioactive components of the device residue to be dispersed.

EXPERIMENIAL PROGRAM

Central to the test series was the experimental program. This program and

its requirements dictated the form of the test organization ond the detail of

personnel participation. SANDSTONE's experimental program incorporated two

aspects, the most important of which was the development of the weapons themselves; the second aspect was measuring effects of the detonations on equipment .• .

and structures.

These two aspects serve as a rough measure of the differentiation of interest between the major participants: the AEC interest in weapon development,

and the DOD Intefest in military applications of the effects of the explosions.

23 ".

"-I:'

w -. ' " ' " -• • • ' T '. . . . . . ' . . .. i .. . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .-. .
The several parts of the weapon development and the effects studies each had

particular features that led to the possibility of radiation exposure.

Weapon Diagnostic Experiments

LASL was responsible for conducting experiments designed to measure the

output of the nuclear devices, specifically radiation, blast, and yield. In

testing devices, weapon designers are interested in two classes of measurements: the total energy release of the device, and the rate of release. Total

energy release measurements are called yield measurements, and the rate of

release measurements are called diagnostic measurements.

YIELD MEASUREMENTS. Device yield usually was determined by several methods,

two of which involved photo-optical techniques. Growth of the intensely hot

and radiating mass of device debris and air that constitute the nuclear fireball varies with its yield. Very-high-speed cameras were therefore used to

record this growth, and film records subsequently analyzed to infer yield.

Duration and intensity of the energy pulse in the optical-thermal spectral

region also vary with yield; thus, light detectors coupled to recorders were

also used to derive yield.

In addition, yield may be determined by collecting and analyzing radioactivity of a representative sample of the device debris. Inferences are then

drawn regarding the yield, based on knowledge of the materials In the device.

Construction, instrumentation placement, and data recovery for the photooptical yield determinations usually did not require personnel to be in areas

with a high potential for exposure to radiation. Cameras and light detectors

need only a clear field of view of the burst point and enough breadth of view

to encompass the fireball. Camera placement did not Involve personnel activities at times and places of high radiation levels. Film recovery generally did

not involve high exposure potential, as the photo stations were usually at

ranges and in directions not heavily contaminated by fallout.

Sampling of device debris, however, necessitated exposure to higher levels

of radloacivity. The technique used in most atmospheric tests was to fly aircraft with collectors directly through portions of the radioactive (or mushroom) cloud, although for some shots rockets and drone aircraft were used.

About 90 percent of the fission debris was usually considered to be in the

upper portion of the radioactive cloud (Reference A.6).

For SANDSTONE, cloud debris was collected by eight unmanned B-17 drone

aircraft. The drones picked up significant amounts of radioactive material on

their surfaces, posing potential radiation exposure to ground crews involved

In decontamination. Samples collected were radiologically "hot" and required

special handling as they were taken from the aircraft and prepared for shipment

to laboratories for analysis.

DIAGNOSTIC MEASUREMENTS. The detonation of a nuclear device is a progressive release of increasing amounts of nuclear radiation, some of which directly

escapes the device. The rest of the radiant energy interacts with the associated material of the device itself and is converted into differing forms of

24

-•:' .. "- '- " ":" . t....i"i .. " .. t. " . " "...... . ..... . . . '".1-I"" I' "l .T' T'I i .. - .. . .. ..
. ...... .. . . ... .. -. .. ... .- . -. . . .%... .

radiation and Into the kinetic energy of the remaining materials in a small

fraction of a second. The intensely hot core then reradiates, heating the surrounding air and creating a shock wave that propagates outward from the burst

point.

Weapon diagnosticians used sophisticated techniques to follow the processes '-1

that occur during the device detonation. Detectors and collectors were run up

to, and sometimes inside, the device case so that the radiation being sampled

could be directly channeled some distance away and be recorded by instrumentation designed to survive the ensuing blast. To enhance its transport, radiation

was conducted through pipes (often evacuated or filled with special gases)

from the device to stations where recording instrumentation was located or where the information could be retransmitted to a survivable recording station.

Radiation measurements are based upon the effects that result from the

interaction of the radiation with matter. Fluorescence is one such effect.

Materials that tluoresce with radiation exposure were placed in view of cameras -N

or light detectors to provide a record of the variation of fluorescent intensity with time, thereby providing an indirect measurement of the radiation

environment.

Other methods of detecting radiation involve the shielding (attenuation)

properties of earth materials, water, and other substances. These materials

are also used to baffle or collimate radiation to ensure that radiation is

directed toward the detecting instrument.

Radlofrequency energy produced by the detonation can be detected by radio

receivers and, with the addition of filtering and processing circuitry, can

also provide informaticn about the energy flow from the explosion. Such measurements permit remote placement of receiving and recording instruments.

The potential for radiation exposure of personnel associated with weapon Fi

diagnostic experiments depended upon the proximity of the measurement or data

recovery point to surface zero and the time lapse between the detonation and

the data collection. %

The primary radiation exposure poteitial In the vicinity of surface zero

is from fission products and materials made radioactive by neutron activation t

of device and earth materials. Thus, the distance from surface zero is a principal factor in assessing exposure to persons engaged in the experimental

program.

Since radiation decays with time, the time lapse between the detonation

and exposure is a critical factor in dose assessment. Primary recording media

for weapon diagnostic experiments were photographic films from oscilloscope,

streak, or framing cameras located in survivable bunkers near the detonation

point. Because radiation fogs film In time, these films and other timesensitive data were removed from the bunkers by helicopter-borne personnel

within hours of the detonation to minimize damage by fogging. This recovery

constituted the main potential for exposure of weapon diagnostics participants.

25
"41

Service Tests

These experiments were designed to measure the effects of detonations on

equipment and structures. They were requested by the military services. approved by the AEC, and conducted by a variety of task force organizations.

The potential for radiation exposure of personnel responsible for recovery

depended in general upon the proximity of the instruments to the device and

the elapsed time between detonation and instrument recovery. If the recovery

was not time-sensitive, the exposure was very low.

OCEANIC TESTING OPERATIONS

P Nuclear test operations in the Pacific posed problems in logistics and in

the management of radioactive contamination because of the limited land area

and the remoteness of Enewetak Atoll.

"Marshall Islands Setting

The Marshall Islands are in the easternmost part of the area known as Micronesia ("tiny islands"). The Marshalls are spread over 770 thousand m12 (2

million km2 ) of the Earth's surface, but the total land area is only about

70 mi2 (180 km2 ). Two parallel chains form the islands: Ratak (or Sunrise)

to the east, and Ralik (or Sunset) to the west; Enewetak is in the Ralik chain

at its northern extreme (Figures I and 2).

A typical atoll, Enewetak is a coral cap set on truncated, submerged volcanic peaks that rise to considerable heights from the ocean floor. Coral and

sand have gradually built up narrow islands into a ring-like formation with

open ocean on the outside and a relatively sheltered lagoon on the inside.

Enewetak has three passages, Southwest Passage, Wide Entrance, and Deep Entrance, that permit access to its lagoon from the sea. All the islands are

low-lying, with elevations seldom over 20 feet (6 meters) above high tide.

During nuclear testing, the more populated, support-oriented sections were

the south and southeast areas of the atoll where the larger islands are located. Devices were detonated on the northern islands and over the northern

reefs. The western sections of the atoll were not involved in test activities

except for limited use as instrumentation sites.

Elliptically shaped, Enewetak A-coll Is approximately 550 nmil (about 1,020

km) southwest of Wake Island and 2,380 nmi (4.410 kin) southwest of Honolulu.

It encloses a lagoon 17 by 23 miles (27 by 37 kin) and has a total land area of

2.75 mi2 (7.12 km2 ). with elevations averaging 10 feet (3 meters) above

mean sea level. The support section of Enewetak (Enewetdk, Parry, and Japtan

e. islands) constitutes about 34 percent of the atoll's land surface. The string

of islands from Runit co Boko]uo, the detonation area, constitutes about 32

percent. The various names used for the islands of the atoll are listed in

Appendix C, "Island Synonyms."

'The climate of Enewetak Atoll is tropical marine, generally warm and humid.

Temperature changes are slight, ranging from 700 to 90OF (210 to 32 0 C).

Rainfall is moderate, and prolonged droughts may occur. North of Enewetak is

26

-o .

ttA.t~e-.'. fRES t~tp d..-r .1.4. .- ~. - a~'. .i,¶ -s-a~s¶* .a.t. -..- .
open ocean for over a thousand miles, with the only inhabited island being Wake. East of Enewetak are several atolls including Bikini, Rongelap, Rongerik, A1linginae, and Utirik. Rongelap, the nearest inhabited atoll, Is a little over

260 nmi (about 480 kin) from Enewetak. Storms are infrequent, although typhoons

occur; nevertheless, both wind and sea are continuous erosional agents. Although possible at any time, most tropical storms occur from September to

December. Much cumulus cloud cover exists in the area.

The Enewetak region incorporates three basic wind systems. The northeast

trade winds extend from the surface to 25,000 or 30,000 feet (7.6 or 9.1 km),

the upper westerlies from the top of the trades to the base of the tropopause

at 55,000 to 60,000 feet (16.8 to 18.3 kmn), and the Krakatoa easterlies from

the tropopause into the stratosphere. These systems are all basically east-towest or west-to-east currents. Dav-to-day changes reflect the relatively small

north-south components, which are markedly variable. Greatest variation occurs

in the upper westerlies, particularly during late summer and fall.

The steady northeast trade winds in the lower levels cause the water at

the surface of the lagoon to flow from northeast to southwest, where it sinks

to the bottom and returns along the lower levels of the lagoon, rises to the

surface along the eastern arc of the reefs and Islands, and Is moved by the

winds to the southwest again. The lagoon waters moving In this closed loop

also mix with those of the open ocean, resulting in a flushing action. Flushing

is rapid and has two major routes. The first is directly through the eastern reefs to the western reefs; the second is in through Deep Entrance between

Japtan and Parry and out Wide Entrance west of Enewetak Island. These two

routes also function to keep the waters of the northern part of the lagoon

separate from the southern waters.

The islands of Enewetak Atoll had been used for growing coconuts from the

time of their German possession in the nineteenth century, but during the 1944

assault and capture of the atoll by American forces, the coconut stands had

been destroyed on the islands of Enjebi, Enewetak, and Parry. On those islands

on which the coconut stands had not been destroyed, the lack of normal care

was evident (Figure 3) as the low-growing native shrubbery advanced.

After the fighting, an airstrip was built on Enewetak Island, but little

attempt was made to clear battle debris (Reference A.10). Facilities and

structures on the islands were in poor condition in the fall of 1947. In addition, surplus American property purchased by the Chinese had to be removed

from the island. Many of the islands had short piers that were In poor repair.

Airstrips had to be built and submarine cable laid. The overall construction

plan for the proving ground required three test-firing sites, a 200-foot

(61-meter) tower on each site, and Instrunent stations. Photographic towers

also had to be erected and a control station built.

By Christmas 1947, construction was progressing on schedule, and the rehabilitation of living and messing facilities at Enewetak was well underway. A

causeway between Aomon and Bijire was constructed by a private company.

27

. ....
.4--

.4.]

.J

pX

Figure 3. Aerial view of Ananij Island, Enewetak Atoll, in 1948. - Instrument tower is visible.

I - h

- Specizl Problems in Testing in the Marshalls

The remoteness of Enewetak Atoll posed significant logistics problems in

procuring and transporting personnel, materials, and supplies to the test site.

Special security arrangements were also required for transport of the nuclear

devices from laboratories in the Unlited States to the test area. Radioactive

* cloud samples had to be expeditiously transported back to several U.S. laboratories for analysis.

The limited land area at Enewetak Atoll was also a problem. The two inihabited Islands at the southern end -- Enewetak and Parry --- -were overcrowded

during testing. Buildings on Enewetak and Parry were originally constructed to accommodate approximately 2,100 men. Aerial views of these base islands are

shown in Figures 4 and 5.

Lack of a land bridge to the northern Islands required a major effort to

transport men and materiel to the test islands. Navy landing craft were used

extensively for this task.

SoTesting at Enewetak, however, also had some advantages besides the large

open ocean area that surrounds the atoll. Separation between the noithern and

southern islands created a natural safety barrier from the dethenations. The

separate islands also made control of personnel movement easier. o1

* 28

deie fro laboratories. in thA ntdSae otets ra aiatv-
Figure 4. Enewetak Island, 1948, showing upwind (northeast) end of runway

with junk revetments and B-17 samplers in foreground.

dim.,

. 1--4

' - ,.. : • ,' .

F g r Parry Is d 1 . J

rigre . Eeweagoo isnd the 8 shkgowingdp.d(nrhat

-,,29

-. "I i ,-. - .-

Fig re . Parr Isa- , 14 . 3 l tT s F r e 7 s ls a e • h

laonA h akrud

- .~ 29
JOINT TASK FORCE 7

On 18 October 1947, JTF 7 was activated and assigned the code name.

"Switchman." Incorporated into its organization were elements of the four

military services, other government agencies including the AEC, and civilian

organizations under contract. The AEC, charged with responsibility for nuclear

energy development by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, designated Commander JTF d

7 (CJTF 7) as its representative. JTF 7 was also subordinate to the Joint

Chiefs of Staff (JCS). These relationships are illustrated in Figure 6.

The resulting organization, though complex, worked well enough, as It conformed with the realities of the situation. The realities were that the tests

were being conducted to develop nuclear weapons, an activity limited by law to

a civilian agency, the AEC. The tests were mainly being conducted in an area

that came under the jurisdiction of the AEC (in the sense that the AEC was the

U.S. government agency primarily responsible for the islands that were included

in the test area). Furthermore, the territory was remote from the United States

and required special supply and security arrangements appropriate to military

operations. Finally, the organization for which the weapons were being developed was the U.S. military establishment. The mission of the task force was

to, "construct a proving ground, under the scientific direction of the AEC,

and conduct proof testing of atomic weapons on the Enewetak Atoll" (Reference

C.5, p. 2-6). Any military service tests or experiments were to be conducted

on a noninterference basis.

The Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP) was the trn-service military organization formed to manage the receipt, storage, safety, security, and ,

inspection of atomic weapons, if and when the military was required to use

them. It was most interested in participating in the SANDSTONE tests and coordinated with LASL early in the planning. AFSWP was to provide military personnel to be integrated into Task Group (TG) 7.1 (AEC Proving Ground Group), and

.• 116 personnel were assigned to this organization.

The armed services furnished personnel, equipment, and services necessary

to ensure security, proper operation, and logistic support. The joint task

force was divided into functional and service-branch oriented task groups.

The test director of TG 7.1 was responsible to the AEC for direction of

technical test activities and policies. All military experiments were under

his direction. TG 7.2 (Army Task Group) was commanded by an Army general officer who was also Commander, Enewetak Atoll. He was responsible for construction and security on the atoll as well as billeting, transportation, sanitation.

recreation, medical facilitIes, and utilities maintenance for all units. TG

7.3 (Naval Task Group), cor•manded by a Navy flag officer, was responsible for

the operational control of all TG 7.3 units, augmenting air-sea rescue by

available aircraft and ships as required, offshore patrol of a circular area

from the center of Enewetak Atoll commensurate with available aircraft and

surface craft, operation of a boat pool, ship security, helicopter operations

except when attached to the Air Force, and laying of submarine cable. TG 7.4

(Air Task Group) commanded by an Air Force general officer, was responsible

for all air operations, meteorological services, interisland air transportation, air-sea rescue, and aerial photography. TG 7.5 (Joint Security Group)

was responsible for advising appropriate commanders relative to security

30

"/'"=
MILITARY IAISON

ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION CMIITARY .... SECRETARY OF DEFENSE

JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF

I :%•

JOINT TASK FORCE 7

TASK GROUP 7.1

AEC PROVING GROUND GROUP

TEST DIRECTOR

DEPUTY Y UFEUT A~ri OM A DRC

TASK UNIT 7.1.1 NR

SCIENTIFIC UNIT /

LOS ALAMOS LABORAI DRY SCIENTIFIC DIRECTOR

DEPUTY SCIENTIFIC DIRECTOR CHIEF OF STAFF

F IRST ASSISTANT ARMY

SCIENTIFIC DIRECTOR p

I ~TASK GROUP 7.3 .

SECOND ASSISTANT

SCIENTIFIC DIRECTOR

TASK GROUP 7.4

MEASUREMENTS AIR FORCE

TASK GROUP 7.5 p

JOINT SECURITY

ENGINEERINC CONTROL

TASK GROUP 1.6

SERVICES •JOINT RADIOLOGICAL

S AF"TY

TASK GROUP 7.7

KWAJALEIN ISLAND

LEGEND COMMANDER

COMMAND

--- .TECHNICAL DIRECTION

COORDINATION

Figure 6. Organization of Joint Task Force 7, SANDSTONE.

31

-*_ .A . - P, ,: - - . - o - -. _.o *.
control measures, for safeguarding classified information, for security of the

instrumentation Islands, and for providing couriers. TG 7.6 (Joint Radiological

Safety Group) was responsible for the operational detection and determination

of intensities and types of radioactivity. This group furnished monitors to

accompany all parties returning to an area of possible radioactivity. TG 7.7

(Kwajalein Island Group) was responsible for billeting, transportation, sanitation, recreation, medical facilities, and utilities maintenance for all JTF

7 units on KwaJalein, for the military security of the island, and for construction on Kwajalein. A radsafe officer from the staff of CJTF 7 was assigned

to TG 7.7 to determine radiological exposure potential for all personnel, Including precautions necessary to protect personnel against exposure and detection and determination of intensities and types of radioactivity. TG 7.8

* (Observer Escort Group) was responsible for escorting observers in the test

area. Thirty spaces each were allocated to the AEC and the armed forces for

observers.

During peak manning periods the Army provided approximately 2,124 personnel

for SANDSTONE, the Navy 5,850, the Air Force 1,800, and AFSWP 116. Approximately 350 nonservice civilians from LASL, DOD, and vaclous other contractor

organizations participated. The Navy provided a total of 28 Navy ships, 11

small craft, 6 helicopters, 6 patrol seaplanes, 3 large land-based patrol aircraft, and 2 small aircraft. The Air Force supported SANDSTONE operations with

over 60 other aircraft,

Joint Task Force 7 Headquarters

Figure 7 shows the organization of Hq JTF 7. CJTF 7 had three principal deputies, one of whom was the Test Director and in charge of TG 7.1. The Joint

staff and the comptroller were patterned after other military organizations.

During test operations, Hq JTF 7 was located on USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7);

"some staff members were also on USS Albemarle (AV-5), USS Curtiss (AV-4), and

Balroko _USS (CE-I5). Total strength of Hq JTF 7 during April and May was

approximately 175 personnel, with approximately 96 stationed on Mount McKinley

(Reference C.5, p. 3-A9).

lask Group 7.1 (Atomic Energy Commission Proving Ground Group)

Figure 8 shows the organization of TG 7.1, which was the heart cf the task

force. It was responsible for preparing and firing the three nuclear devices,

preparing and conducting all experimental programs, and operating and maintaining all atoll base facilities except those on Enewetak Island, which were

* manned by TG 7.2. TG 7.1 contained both scientific and military civilian personnel. Subordinate task units are discussed subsequently. In the forward

area, TG 7.1 was composed of 283 personnel from LASL; AFSWP; Naval Research

Laboratory; Naval Ordnance Laboratory; Argonne National l.aboratory; Edgerton,

* Germeshausen & Grier, Inc.; Aberdeen Proving Ground; AEC; Navy Bureau of Per-

"sonnel; David Taylor Model Basin; and the Military Liaison Committee. Table 2

lists task group strength figures.

TASK UNIT 7.1.1 (SCIENTIFIC). Task Unit (TU) 7.1.1 was staffed primarily

with scientists from LASL who were assisted by military personnel as weil as

scientists from other AEC Installatlons and outside agencies. Its nucleus of

32

I-
COMMANDER f

JOINT TASK FORCE 7

DATOM IC ENERGY

COMMANDER COMMANDER COMMISSION

TEST DIRECTOR

TASK GROUP 7.1

CHIEF OF STAFF SCIENTIFIC •._ DIRECTOR

r-.1

I4

J-3 J4

-1 ADJUTANT METEOROLOGIST ENGINEER ATOMIC ENERGY

GNRLPHOTOGRAPHIC FISCAL - -- H COMMISSION

PROvOS; OTFFCER STAFF SMARSHAL NAV'Y M H SUPPLY

HEADOUARTERS COMMANOAN r SURGEON

TRANSPORTATIONADIOLOGICAL COMMUNICATIONS ORDNANCE - SAFETY OFFICER OFFICER OUARTE RNIAST ER --

i i.4

I'i

II

4,COMMANDER TASK CROUP 7.6 ATOMIC ENERGY-i

TASK GROUP 72 COMMANDER OF (JOINT COMMISSION

(ARMY) AIR FORCES RADIOLOGICAL OPERATING

SAFETY) UNITS

TASK GROUP 7.4 - (AIR FORCEi I___ ___

COMMANDER TASK GROUP 7 7 TASK GROUP 7.8 ISLAND UBSER .8

TASK GROUP 7.3 TASK GROUP 7.I (KWAJALEIN ERVER

(JOIY)NT SECURITYI ISLANDf

(NAVY) COMMANDERI ESCORT

5`'?•:P)JSI8LF T(L•O,,M&AN()El1 ] • T %Sw, F(,RCf 7

ONcY FOil SuPP('4tT OF THIS )PEF"ATIC'.

Figure 7. Organization of Headquarters, Joint Task Force 7, SANDSTONE.

33

S°"MI A
COMMANDER

TASK GROUP 7.1

TEST DIRECTOR

h DEPUTY TEST DIRECTOR

=d

STAFFREAR ECHELON LSTAFF WASHINGTON. D.C

HONOLULU. HAWAII

COMMANDER TASK UNIT 7,1.1

SCIENTIFIC DIRECTOR

STAFFDEPUTY SCIENTIFIC DIRECTOR

MEASUREMENTS SECTIUN FIRING AND EVCSCTO

ENGINEERING BRANCH SRIE ETO

LAJ I THCORETICAL PHYSICS -LAJ 9 ASSEMBLY LAJ 14 LOGISTICS

LAJ-2 RADIOCHFMISTRY [-` LAJ,10 ENGINEERING -LAJ,15 ADMINISTRATION

LAJ 3 MEASUREMENT OF -LAJ I COMMUNICATIONS LAJ 16 CIRCUITS AND

NEUTRONS I._LA. 12 TIMING AND MAPS

f-LAJ 4 NEUTRON GENERATION FIRING

METHOD 1-ROSSI METHOD LAJ-13 CONSTRUCTION

METHOD 2-TELLER METHOD

LAJ.E GAMMA RAY SPECTRUM

LAJ 6 GAMMA RAY APPEARANCE

s METHOD 1 ROSSI METHOD E METHOD 2-TELLER METHOD

LAJ 7 TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY

LAJ B BLAST

Figure 8. Organization of Task Group 7.1. Operation SANDSTONE.

"34

.o ~ *F. 3 ~ U - - - -
Table 2. Task Group 7.1 personnel strength, SANDSTONE.

Number of

Agency Personnel

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 77

Armed Forces Special Weapons Project 116

Naval Research Laboratory 23

Naval Ordnance Laboratory 20

Argonne National Laboratory 6

Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grier, Inc. 12

Aberdeen Proving Ground, Army 8

Atomic Energy Commission 12

Bureau of Personnel, Department of the Navy 6

David Taylor Model Basin, Navy 2

Military Liaison Committee, Atomic Energy

Commission 1

Total 283

Source: Reference C.5, p. 1-24.

LASL personnel was assigned to LASL's newly created J-Division, and personnel

from other divisions were also transferred to J-Division (Reference C.5, p.

1-24).

The mission of the scientific task unit was to provide equipment and personnel and to prepare detailed plans for and to conduct the scientific and

technical phases of the proof-tests. It fired the devices and made necessary

observations. TU 7.1.1 was divided into Measurements Section, Firing and

Engineering Branch, and Services Section.

Measurements Section. The responsibilities of this section were divided

into four phases: (1) planning experiments, (2) pteparing an experiments handbook, (3) consulting with experimenters at Enewetak, and (4) interpreting results of the experiments. The nucleus of the group consisted of three civilians

from LASL. This section included J-1 through J-8, which conducted experiments

in theoretical physics, radlochemistry, neutron measurements, neutron generation, gamma-ray spectrum, gamma-ray appearance, tecnnical photography, and

blast.

Firing and Engineering Branch. An assistant Scientlfic Director was responsilble for the engineering and tiring work. He selected a staff of engineers

from Sandia Branch of LASL to carry out his duties. This branch was responsible

for the following activities:

35
L4L

* Weapon assembly and handling

a Ships' modifications and Installations

* Engineering

"* Communications liaison

* Firing circuitry liaison

Construction liaison

Industrial safety.

Services Section. Services Section included J-14 through J-16 -- Logistics,

Administration, and Circuits and Maps. Logistics (J-14) was a service group In -

charge of procurement, shipping, and property control.

J-15 (Administration) was primarily concerned with personnel matters,

including employment of personnel at LASL., preparation of all personnel under

"the Scientific Director for overseas travel, arrangements for travel to and

from the test area, and multiple problems arising from maintaining personnel

at the forward base. Other minor responsibilities Included provision of office

space, equipment and services, housing at LASL, and similar functions overseas.

J-16 (Circuits and Maps) was responsible for preparing maps and plans

indicating the location of all experimental installations and underground

*f cables and wires. This group was also responsible for coordinating cable-laying

during the construction period (Reference C.40, pp. 33, 115, 129).

Task Group 7.2 (Army)

Most Army personnel in JTF 7 were assigned to TG 7.2. The group was activated on 15 October 1947. CTG 7.2 was also Atoll Commander for JTF 7. Figure 9

shows the TG 7.2 organization. Table 3 lists units involved and enumerates the

*, personnel at Enewetak. This task group was engaged in construction throughout

the atoll and operated base facilities at Enewetak Island and the atoll.

During the operational shot phase, TG 7.2 personnel provided the following

• -• services for all units ashore on the atoll:

9 Construction

* Maintenance of ordnance wheeled vehicles

0 Atoll ground defense and general security .S

* operation of transient billeting -

. Bakery and messing

* Repair and maintenance services for utilities arid

facilities

* Operation and maintenance of off-island radio

communications

* Transportation

e Counterintelligence

36
z W 0 1 > w LU

u 4L I

>i 22 x2 0j

z 'm ,<_ I 

o - -> .0

:34' c 02 6 -J L)uMc

LL w ww

o- U- ýI- a0 0 

a. < - <

0 WU >0 L

cc Z w 0

0 A

z 440

Lu C

I'-

2u

2 ~ ~ 1 Z)0 ~ a

-j 4jcL LU 2 2

20 0

0. L J ~ 1 c U. th I I I b

0 Z co

41 w(2 L.. -o( IA.

37N t.0
Ir

Table 3. Task Group 7.2 operating strength at Enewetak, SANDSTONE.

Unit Strength

1220th Provisional Engineer Battalion 26 officers

(1217th, 1218th Composite Service 2 warrant officers

Platoons; Hq & Hq Detachment, 18th 468 enlisted men

Engineer Construction Company;

1219th Signal Service Platoon with

attached Composite Signal Detachment)

2nd Engineer Special Brigade 49 officers

(532nd EB&SR, Hq & Hq Company D, 4 warrant officers

Company E, and Medical Detachment) 566 enlisted men

461st Transportation Amphibious Truck Company 1 officer

26 enlisted men

Hq 854th Transportation Port Company 8 officers

272 enlisted men

Naval Shore Base Detachment, with Navy 7 officers

Signal Team 110 enlisted men

Photo Team No. 7 2 officers

4 enlisted men

401st CIC Detachment 2 officers

50 enlisted men

Sources: Personnel Rosters TG 7.2, 31 March 1948; SANDSTONE

Reports 3 and 4)

* Sanitation

* Operation of port and port headquarters

* Special services (recreation) facilities

* Medical. and dental services

* Financiel services.

Task Group 7.3 (Navy)

The Navy task group provided support at Enewetak Atoll for the scientlfic

programs and carried out surface and air operations in and around the atoll.

The main tasks of TG 7.3 were to:

• Deliver nuclear components to Enewetak Atoll

* Provide mobile facilities for devices at the test site

9 Conduct surface and air security measures An the Enewetak

Danger Area

38

....... •'*** V
.0

".•d

e Provide Intra-atoll water transport

* Plan for evacuation of all personnel from the atoll

* Transport personnel and scientific and naval equipment to

and from the atoll

* Provide living accommodations for task group personnel

e Lay cable

a Provide offshore patrol.

In order to carry out these tasks, TG 7.3 was organized into eight functional

task units.

Most of the naval vessels stayed at Enewetak during the test series except for the destroyers, which routinely were on surveillance patrols of the area.

The flagship, Mount McKinley, was anchored off Parry Island for all three " shots. USS Comstock (LSD-19) was the mother ship for the boat pool, which pro- vided water transportation for all task units during SANDSTONE. Most TG 7.3

personnel remained on board ships except for those involved in scientific

operations. Table 4 provides the personnel strength for TG 7.3.

Task Group 7.4 (Air Force)

The SANDSTONE TG 7.4 mission was local air transport, cloud sampling, weather data, communications, search and rescue, and photographic support.

Specific missions were to:

o Provide and operate aircraft for experimental programs and

cloud sampling operations

* Provide and operate aircraft to gather weather data SI

o Provide and operate weather observation posts at Enewetak, 4 Rongerik, Majuro, Kwajalein, and Wake

* Provide and operate JTF 7 Weather Central on Mount McKinley

* Provide and operate liaison-type aircraft for Intra-atoll

transportation at Enewetak

' * Provide and operate aircraft for search and rescue opera-

"tions within 300 nimi (556 km) of Enewetak

e Provide photographic coverage of Operation SANDSTONE.

Air Force personnel in SANDSTONE were in many task force organizations in I addition to manning TG 7.4. Within Hq JTF 7, there were 55 Air Force personnel, r'

22 on the JTF 7 staff and 33 working for Commander Air Forces. Commander Air A:,

Forces was also a deputy to the task force commander and had his own staff and

"-* command authority for TG 7.4. TG 7.4 was organized as shown in Figure 10.

Table 5 shows GF 7.4 personnel distributed by task unit.

- Providing and operating aircraft in support of SANDSTONE was the primary

function of TC. 7.4. Table 6 shows types and numbers of aircraft used at SAND--

STONE by TG 7.3 and TG 7.4.

4 39

-•,• * S."............ ,". . .. -.. * - ". •-'L:%a-- . -.- ''•"•%•-''''''%'•''•'£''
4

Table 4. Task Group 7.3 organization and

personnel strength, SANDSTONE.

lask Unit/Designation Strength

/.3.1 Flagship USS Mount McKinley (AGC-1) 518

/.3.2 Main Naval ]ask Unit, Inewetak

USSPickaway (APA-2?) 290

USS Warrick (AKA-89) 167

USS_ Curtissý (AV 4) 555 USSYancej (AKA-93) i48

USS Albemarle (AV-5) 53/

USS LST 45 66

USS LS-21 9 60

USS LSI-61 1 53

/.3.3 -- Off-Shore Patrol

USS GardinersBaa (AVP-39) 213

USS Hen yW. Tucker (DDR-875) 233

USS Roqers (DDR-876) 234

USS Perkins (DDR-871) 223

USrSjan•!er (DE -696) 135

USS George (DE-697) 141

USS_Raby (D0-698) 143

USS Marsh (01-699) 138

US C ur rfer (DI -700) 136

Patrol Squadron (MS) 6 Detachment 153

Developmental Squadron 4 Detachment 54

AVR #C-26638 6

AVR #C-26653 6

7.3.4 -- Helicopter Unit

USS Balroko (CVE-115) with 4 H03S and 710

2 HiL helicopters

/.3.5 -- Services Unit

USSAreuipa (AF-31) 76

USS Pasig (AW-3) 164

YOG-64 11

YW-94a

7.3.6 - Cable Unit

LSM-250 61

LSM-378 43

Naval Signal Unit No. 1 54

7.3.7 -- Boat Pool Unit

USS Comstock (LSD-19) 252

USS Askari (ARL-30) 164

LCI-549 18

Lf'fL)-lO54 21

;., (I )-1090 21

LI-I 4 7 2 a

LCI-494;

LCi-l1 9 4a

LCI- 1 3 4 5 a

Various smtall boats: 4 LCTs, 2 AVRs, 28 LCMs

32 LCVPs, 1 LCPR, 6 LCPLs, 2 PPBs. 2 50-foot MLs,

2 35..Foot MBs. 1 MWB.

7.3.8 -- Evacuation and Reentry Unit

Units from other task units as assigned

Iotal 5,984

Note:

No data available.

Sources: Data from CNO OP 901-10 Aug 82 and

Reference C.4, p. XVI -34.

40
I ~I.

W7.

COMMANDER TASK GROUP 7.4

DEFUT' COMMANDER

LEGEND

--- COMMANDK

CHIEF OF STAFF OPERATIONAL , CONTROL ONLY

S•--COORDINATION

A-1 INTE LLIGENCE A-2 A-3 A4 SURGEON

ADMhINISTRA7TION OPENRAT•SLLOE

AND SECURITY OEAV\C OITC SmUGO

CHAPLAIN

-fSPECIAL SERVICES

- L EGAL I

STATISTICF 1

BýGET AND FICL

II

TASK UNIT 7A.1 TSUT7 AKNTA TASK UNIT 7.4.7

HEADQUARTERS L INTERISLAND

AND SERVICES PHOTOGRAPHY AIR RESCUE TRANSPORT

TASK UNIT 7.4.6 "TASK UNIT 7.42 , TASK UNIT 7.4A AIRWAYS AND AIR TASK UNIT 7.4.9

DRONES WEATHER COMMUNICATIONS LIAISON

SERVICE

Figure 10. Organization of Task Group 7.4, SANDSTONE.

41
Ii

Table 5. Task Group 7.4 SANDSTONE personnel distribution

(26 January 1948).

Unit Command Officers Airmen Civilians Totals

Hq JTF 7 Mixed 17 5 -- a

Commander Air

Forces, JTF 7 SAC 12 10 -- 22a

TU 7.4.1 APG 66 518 -- 584

TU 7.4.2 APG 105 376 -- 481

TU 7.4.3 APG 43 102 19 164

TU 7.4.4 ATC 47 185 -- 232

TU 7.4.5 ATC 13 20 -- 33

TU 7.4.6 ATC 4 109 -- 113

TU 7.4.7 ATC 12 35 -- 47

TU 7.4.9 Mixed 2 11 -- 13

Notes:

aU.S. Air Force strength only, does not include other services.

SAC -- Strategic Air Command

APG -- Air Proving Ground

ATC -- Air Transport Command

Source: Reference C.5, p. 3-A-12.

42
Table 6. SANDSTONE aircraft.

Type Quantity Task Unit Mission

PBM-5 6 7.3.3 Offshore air patrol

PB-lW (B-17G) 3 7.3.3 Offshore air patrol

DB-17G 12 7.4.2 Drone controllers

QB-17'ý 12 7.4.2 Drone samplers

C-54 2 7.4.3 Photography

F-13a 3 7.4.3 Photography -

WB-29 8 7.4.4 Weather reconnaissance "

S

SB-17 2 7.4.5 Search and rescue OA-IO 8 7.4.4 Weathrhan reonisane :

H23S 4 7.4.5 Search and rescueb

b 4TL 2 7.4.5 Search and rescue

b ,-

PBM-5 2 7.4.5 Search and rescue b

C-54 11 7.4.7 Interatoll transport

and sample return

C-47 3 7.4.7 Interatoll transport

L-4 2 7.4.9 Liaison

L-5 11 7.4.9 Liaison

Notes:

aAn F-13 was a B-29 modified for photography.

bNavy supplied two PBM seaplanes for search and rescue on shot

days only and four H03S and two HTL helicopters. The helicopters were used for scientific support on shot days and for

high-priority interisland transportation on nonshot days.

Sources: Reference C.3, pp. VIII-.5, 26, 32, 60; Reference C.4,

pp. XVII-35).

TASK UNIT 7.4.1 (HEADQUARTERS AND SERVICE UNIT). This unit formed Hq TG 7.4 and provided TG 7.4 aircraft with supply and maintenance support. It also performed most of the base housekeeping services for Air Force units on Kwajalein,

where it was stationed.

TASK UNIT 7.4.2 (DRONE UNIT). This unit was made up of 460 men from the 1st

Experimental Guided Missiles Group at Eglin Field, Florida. Men from this task

unit operated 24 B-17s, 12 of which were drone control aircraft and 12 were unmanned cloud sampling aircraft. Contaminated drones were landed at Enewetak,

where the radioactive cloud sample filters were removed by LASL personnel. The

43

.... =
drones were decontaminated at Enewetak and then returned to Kwajalein where

the unit was stationed.

TASK UNIT 7.4.3 (PHOTOGRAPHY UNIT). This unit had separate suborganizations

to accomplish its diverse missions. Aerial photography was done by the 311th

Air Division using C-54s and F-13s. Documentary photography was done by seven

teams on various ships and attached to various task groups. Tower photography

was done by another team. A film processing laboratory was also set up on

board Curtiss. Additional personnel for TU 7.4.3 came from Lookout Mountain

Laboratory, LASL, Army, Navy, and Marine Corps.

TASK UNIT 7.4.4 (WEATHER UNIT). This unit was composed of two separate

groups that collected weather data. Weather reconnaissance was done by the

514th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron operating eight WB-29s out of Kwajalein.

These aircraft were also used to track the radioactive cloud after each shot

for up to 5 days. For cloud-tracking operations a monitor from TG 7.6 was

aboard each aircraft. Cloud-tracking aircraft always returned with exterior

contamination, requiring monitoring and personnel decontamination operations

(Reference C.43, p. 91). The second group was the weather reporting portion of

the task unit. Two persons were stationed aboard Mount McKinley. One of these

was in charge of JTF 7 Weather Central. Weather reports from several other

atolls were furnished daily to Weather Central.

TASK UNIT 7.4.5 (AIR RESCUE UNIT). This task unit was made up of personnel

of the 5th Air Rescue Squadron from MacDill AFB, Florida, who flew two OA-10

and two SB-17 rescue aircraft. They were stationed at Kwajalein but were at

Enewetak on shot days. The Navy provided six helicopters from Balroko and two

PBMs on shot days.

TASK UNIT 7.4.6 (AIRWAYS AND AIR COMMUNICATIONS SERVICE [AACS] UNIT). This

unit was responsible for TG 7.4 communications and for airbase navigational

aids at Enewetak and Kwajalein. The 71st AACS Group, Hickam Field, Hawaii,

provided 27 men; 86 more came from several units in the United States.

TASK UNIT 7.4.7 (INTERISLAND TRANSPORT UNIT). This unit operated 11 C-54

and 3 C-47 aircraft from the Kwajalein Air Base, ferried personnel and equipment to and from Enewetak, and conducted aerial radiological surveys of groundlevel radiation at shot sites. The C-54s also flew radioactive cloud samples

and exposed film to the United States. This task unit, which consisted of 47

men, also borrowed personnel and aircraft from the 1535th Air Force Base Unit,

which was permanently stationed on Kwajalein.

TASK UNIT 7.4.8. This unit was used only to control the mo':ement of TG 7.4

personnel to and from the PPG.

TASK UNIT 7.4.9 (LIAISON UNIT). This unit operated 13 fixed-wing light aircraft and 6 helicopters to transport men and equipment to the vdrious islands

of Enewetak Atoll. Thirteen Air Force personnel were assigned to this unit

along with Navy pilots who flew the helicopters off Balroko.

44
Task Group 7.5 (Joint Security Group)

The missions assigned to TG 7.5 were:

9 Travel control (air and water)

* Protection of technical installations

* Security survey of the atoll

0 Dissemination of security information

* Establishment and Implementation of security clearances in

the forward area.

In addition, TG 7.5 personnel guarded the drones when they landed at Enewetak.

Five TG 7.5 courier teams escorted the radioactive cloud sample filters and

film back to the United States. Approximately 30 AFSWP personnel from the 38th

Engineer BattalJon wpre sent to TG 7.5 as special guards (Reference C.5, p.

5-1). On 24 January 1948, two officers and thirty-three enlisted military

police arrived to strengthen units on Enjebi. Aomon, Runit, and Parry.

Task Group 7.6 (Joint Radlological Safety Group)

On 29 February 1948, TG 7.6 was divided into the following units for operational purposes (Reference C.35, p. 37):

" TU 7.6.1 Air Monitor Unit (based on Kwajalein)

"* TU 7.6.2 Staff Unit

"* TU 7.6.3 Operations Unit

"* TU 7.6.4 Laboratory Unit

"* TU 7.6.5 Radiological Records Unit

"* TU 7.6.6 Technical Measurements Unit

"* TU 7.6.7 Monitor Unit

"* TU 7.6.8 Advisory Unit

"* TU 7.6.9 Rear Echelon Unit.

The primary responsibility of the Air Monitor Unit was to ensure the radiological safety of TG 7.4 and also to obtain, compile, and evaluate data likely

to be of value to the AEC or DOD. It consisted of 24 Air Force officers (Reference C.35, p. 86).

The Staff Unit administered services such as communJcations, logistics,

historical records, photographic liaison, and athletics. It was also concerned

with personnel morale. This unit consisted of six officers and eight enlisted

men.

The Operations Unit supported CJTF 7 and CTG 7.6 planning and vadsafe

operations. It maintained current Information on all radioactive areas and on

the location of all monitors and parties engaged in radiological operations.

It controlled operations of all radsafe missions. The unit consisted of seven

officers.

45

S....,.
The Laboratory Unit performed all laboratory work required to support

radsafe operations including: repair and calibration of instruments; developing, reading, and calibrating personnel film badges; measurement of decay

rates of radioactive samples; and determination of the radiation exposure

potential from radioactive materials. It also prepared comparative records of

instrument performance. The unit consisted of two officers, eight enlisted

men, and two civilians.

The Radiological Records Unit calculated exposures of all personnel who

entered radioactive areas and submitted its findings. It prepared all necessary

reports concerning exposures and overexposures and made recommendations to CTG

7.6. The unit also established a anedical review board to consider and comment

on all findings of radiological overexposure. It consisted of one officer, one

enlisted man, and one civilian.

The Technical Measurements Unit supervised and coordinated all technical

measurement projects assiqned to TG 7.6. It consisted of five officers, four

enlisted men, and two civilians.

The Monitor Unit provided monitors and equipment for all radsafe missions,

including decontamination operations. This unit consisted of nine Army officers, twelve Navy officers, one Pubic Health Service officer, and four Army

enlisted men.

The Advisory Unit acted In an advisory capacity to the task force radsafe

officer on medical and technical matters. It consisted of three civilians.

The Rear Echelon Unit consisted of one officer. He maintained liaison with

supporting activities in the continental United States.

TG 7.6 arrived on Enewetak Atoll by 16 March 1948. In addition to Its

radsafe duties, TG 7.6 also conducted several experiments, which are described

in Chapter 3 (References C.35 and B.6.1).

Task Group 7.7 (Kwajalein Island Command)

A permanent garrison of Army, Navy, and Air Force personnel existed on

Kwajalein Island at the time of SANDSTONE. Most of TG 7.4 was stationed on

Kwajalein. Commander Navy Base KwaJalein was designated as CTG 7.7 to facilitate integration of Kwajalein Into the planning and operation of SANDSTONE. He

was responsible for billeting, transportation, sanitation, recreation, medical

facilities, and dtilities maintenance for all task force units ashore on

Kwajalein. He was also responsible for military security and all construction

at Kwajalein. TU 7.7.3 was the Joint Control and Liaison Office. iU 7.7.4 was

the Aviation Engineer Unit (926th Aviation Engineer Battalion) and did all

construction in preparation for TG 7.4.

The Kwajalein Island Command had two Air Force units assigned to assist

during SANDSTONE. One, the 1535th Air Force Base Unit, supplied personnel and

alircraft for TU 7.4.7. The other was the 31-8 Air Weather Service Detachment, which had 23 men on Kwajalein to support SANDSTONE with air weather

information.

46
Task Group 7.8 (Observer Escort Group)

TG 7.8 was organized to escort official observers and was assisted by personnel and facilities of TG 7.2. TG 7.2 arranged for observers' accommodations,

transportation, and activities ashore. Five or six officers of TG 7.2 were

assigned to observer parties to provide Information (Reference C.3, p. VII

C-8-9).

to

47

4-

1 . . . .. .. .. ..... .. 7
CHAPTER 2

RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY

Radiological safety (radsafe) for Operation SANDSTONE was defined as a

command responsibility in Joint Task Force 7 Field Order 1. One task group, TG

7.6, was given primary responsibility for ensuring the health and safety of

the task force in the face of potential exposure to radioactivity (Reference

C.43, Appendix B-i). Activities of TG 7.6 had the following objectives (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex A):

1. Inform Commander Joint Task Force 7 (CJTF 7) regarding

safe employment of personnel in radioactive areas

2. Inform CJTF 7 about radiological hazards that might cause

injury or sickness

3. Prepare instructions outlining precautions necessary to

protect personnel from radiation exposure

4. Reevaluate the hazards of radioactive areas as radiological work progressed

5. Advise the Task Force Surgeon on diagnosis and treatment

of illness or injury resulting from, or associated with,

exposure to radioactivity.

The radsafe plan for TG 7.6 was derived primarily from the Joint Task Force

Field Orders. It detailed the application of safety criteria during operations

and included procedures for training, installing equipment aboard task force

ships, monitoring, and decontaminating personnel and equipment.

ORGANIZATION AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Overall organization planning and authority for radiological safety rested

with CJTF 7. The commander's staff, specifically the Staff Radiological Safety

Officer, was responsible for radsafe planning. The Staff Radiological Safety

Officer coordinated radsafe information during shot operations and maintained

liaison with the Commander-in-Chief of the Pacific (CINCPAC) regarding radiological contamination outside the Pacific Proving Ground (PPG) (Reference C.43,

p. 4). Elements of control existed at all command levels, and operational

control was Implemented through normal command channels. For example, party

leaders in radioactive areas were responsible for the radiological safety of

their personnel.

CTG 7.5 exercised control of a functional group composed of Army, Navy,

Air Force, U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS), and various civilian personnel.

Carrying out the safety policy within a separate activity allowed coordination

of effort without impeding the overall operation (Reference C.43, p. 4). CTG

7.6 performed the following tasks (Reference C.43, Appendix B-l):

1. Organization and command of a Joint radsafe group composed

of radsafe monitors and supporting personnel

48

4 . . .. . . ...
2. Support of all operations in radioactive areas by supplying radiological monitors and equipment

3. Promulgation of radsafe regulations and reporting their

Infractions

4. Detection and determination of the intensity and types of

radioactivity encountered in all radioactive areas

5. Organization and supervision of personnel decontamination

as necessary.

TG 7.6 was divided Into the task units shown in Figure 11. Descriptions of

major functions of the task units follow.

I ASK GROUP 7.6

JOINT RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY GROUP

TASK UNIT 7.6.1 TASK UNIT 7.6A .'K ONII 7.67

AIR MONITOR UNIT UNIT MONITOA UNIT

24 VI LI T AR MIj 2 LITARY _2CIVILIANS ?25MILITAI Y 1 USPHS

TASK UNIT 7.62 TASK UNIT 7.65 TASK UNIT 7.6.8

STAFF UNIT RADIOLOGICAL RECORDS UNIT ADVISORY UNIT

4 ,1L IITAHY 2 MILITARY I CIVILIAN 3 CIVILIANS

ASK UNIT 7.6.3 TASK UNIT 7.6.6 TASK UNIT 7.6.9

OPERATIONS UNIT TECHNICAL MEASUREMENTS UNIT REAR ECHELON

1 MILITARY 9MILITARY 2CIVILIANS I OFFICER

Figure 11. Task Group 7.6 (Joint Radiological Safety Group),

Operation SANDSTONE.

Task Unit 7.6.1 (Air Monitoring Unit)

Task Unit (TU) 7.6.1 was composed of 24 Air Force officer monitors. It

operated from Kwajalein Atoll, supporting the mission of Commander Air Forces,

JTF 7, and had responsibities for instrument repair, calibration, and photometry (Reference C.43, Appendix B-2).

During the period from 1 November to 15 December 1947, personnel requirements for the radsafe group were estimated at 50 officers, 17 enlisted men,

and 5 civilians. Ten officers were air monitors, whose chief duty was to advise

airborne crews about radioactive intensities at shot time, indicate paths of

least Intensity for entry and exit, distribute film badges to aircrews before

takeoff, and collect film badges upon completion of the mission (Reference

C.43, p. 7). About 22 January 1948, planners realized that the number of air

monitors needed had been underestimated. As a result, nine offIcers of the

Medical Service Corps, USAF, were added (Reference C.43, p. 8).

49
On 17 March personnel from TU 7.6.1 departed for Kwajalein from Enewetak

to begin operations with TG 7.4 (Reference C.43, p. 50). Projects undertaken

Immediately included publication of operational memoranda, assignment of monitors to mission aircraft, indoctrination and ground training of monitors for

flying operations, construction of personnel decontamination and instrument

calibration facilitie3, orientation and indoctrination of TG 7.4 personnel.

evaluation of instrument performance at high altitudes, photographic documentatlion, detailed operational planning for shot days, and monitoring indoctrination flights (Reference C.43, pp. 86-87).

A TU 7.6.1 air monitor was aboard each manned aircraft In the test area on

shot days to prevent aircraft from entering areas where the radiation intensity ex:eeded 0.100 R/hr. Radiation detection equipment used by air monitors

is listed in Table 7. The unit monitored drone dircraft after landing and

engaged in decontamination operations at Enewetak. It also participated in

aircraft monitoring and personnel decontamination operations on Kwajalein,

including cloud-tracking operations until H+108. TU 7.6.1 personnel also repaired and calibrated instruments, prepared medical exposure records, and

compiled mission reports (Reference C.43, pp. 87-88).

Each monitor averaged two training flights with his assigned crew before

the X-RAY rehearsal. These practice flights permitted monitors to develop

radsafe procedures that minimized interference with the primary mission.

Instrument performance data were accumulated and analyzed. As a result of

these data, instrumentation procedures were changed for better operations

(Reference C.43, p. 88).

By the day of the X-RAY rehearsal, the unit had mapped out radsafe procedures aboard aircraft, completed operational plans for test days, and was

plotting radiological exclusion (radex) areas daily. In addition, the personnel

decontamination center at Kwajalein for TG 7.4 and TG 7.6 was being readied

for operation. TU 7.6.1 also indoctrinated TG 7.4 personnel (Reference C.43,

pp. 38-89).

The radiological procedure aboard aircraft during the X-RAY rehearsal and

X-RAY test consisted of the following (Reference C.43, p. 90):

"* At H-30 minutes instruments were turned on

"• At H-5 minutes cabin heaters were shut off and all crewmembers turned on 100 percent oxygen

"* At H-10 seconds all crewmembers adjusted high-density

goggles

"* After detonation, goggles were removed to observe burst

phenomena and monitor instruments

"* After leaving the area the interior of aircraft was

monitored

"* Upon landing the crew and the aircraft exterior were

monitored.

50
Table 7. Radiological safety equipment distribution, SANDSTONE.

Party

Group Equipment Monitor Member

Scientific Film badge X X

Group Dosimeters X X

Protective clothing X X ,Gas masksa X X

Air Group Ion-chamber survey instrument X

Geiger-Mueller counter X

1 or 2 proteximeters X

1 pocket dosimeter (0.2 R) X

1 or 2 high-range dosimeter(s) (10 R or 50 R) X 1 casualty film badge X Film badge X X

Disaster Group Casualty film badge X Film badge X

Pocket dosimeter (0.2 R) X

Pocket dosimeter (10 R) X

Pocket dosimeter(50 R) X

Gas mask, hood X

High-range ion survey meter X

Alpha meter X

Zero Day Ashore Film badges X X

Group 0.2 R pocket dosimeter X X

10 R pocket dosimetera X X

Casualty film badgea X X

Enewetak, Geiger-Mueller counter X

Parry, Ujelang Ion chamber instrument X

0.2 R pocket dosimeter X

Film badgesb X X

Notes:

aurgent work. The casualty film badges originally were planned to contain

high-range film (above 10 R), but there is no evidence that they were used.

The high-range film may have been incorporated in the normal film badge.

bparry and Enewetak personnel only.

Source: Reference C.43, Annex J-3 to Field Order 1.

Task Unit 7.6.2 (Staff Unit)

The Staff Unit of TG 7.6 was established by Special Order Number 2 to

administer services to the task group. The kinds of services ranged from communications to athletic programs (Reference C.43, p. Appendix B-2). Six officers and eight enlisted men were assigned to this task unit on 29 February

1948 (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex I, Part II-1).

51
I

Task Unit 7.6.3 (Operations Unit)

The Operations Unit, composed of seven officers, supported CJTF 7 and CTG

7.6 planning and radsafe operations. It maintained current information on

location of all monitors and parties engaged in radiological operations. It

also maintained current information on all radioactive areas and controlled

operations of all radsafe missions (Reference C.43, p. Appendix B-2). The

plotting room located on the flag bridge of USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7) was

used and maintained only for shot days unless otherwise directed by the JTF 7

Radsafe Officer. Data were recorded on a chart of the atoll and on detailed

maps of each island involved In the test. The unit also maintained current air

and surface radex area information. The Radsafe Center on Mount McKinley furnished systematic information to the plotting room and the JTF 7 Radsafe Officer. The Radsafe Center communicated directly with monitors in the field on

test days.

Task Unit 7.6.4 (Laboratory Unit)

TU 7.6.4, established by Special Order 2, was composed of two civilians,

two officers, and eigh, enlisted men (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex I,

Part 11-2). This unit porformed all labotatory work required to support radsafe

operations, including repair and calibration of instruments; development,

reading, and calibration of personnel film badges; and measurements of the

decay rates of radioactive samples (Reference C.43, Appendix B-2). laboratories

were established on Enewetak (specifically for crater sample recovery) and

aboard USS Bairoko (CVE-115). These laboratories plotted isointensity lines

(or contours) and monitored biological samples (Reference C.43, p. 60). All

samples were brought to the instrument issue area, never directly to the laboratory (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex C-1&2).

TU 7.6.4 was responsible for maintaining an adequate stock of health physIcs survey instruments: for the repair, servic:Ing, and calibration of the

instruments; and for an evaluation of the various types of health physics survey instruments. It processed and read the photographic personnel film badges.

Laboratory facilities were also made available to TU '.6.5 (Technical Measurements Unit) for any measurements necessary in connection with its projects

(Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex C-l).

The Laboratory Unit maintained a stock of calibrated ionization chamber

and Geiger-Mueller (GM) survey instruments and pocket dosimeters in the after

ready room of Balroko for reentry surveys. Instruments wore Issued on the

hangar deck of Bairoko upon recommendation of the Operations Officer and were

returned there after use. Photographic film badges were issued to each party

In sufficient numbers to badge all members. Instruments were checked for con--

tamination (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex C). Film badges and pocket

dosimeters were returned to the issue room where they were processed, read,

and recorded on forms supplied by the Radiological Records Unit. Records were

kept on repair and replacement of each survey Instrument. In addition, a series

of tests was conducted on the various instruments, and the monitors were surveyed to evaluate instrument design features.

52
Task Unit 7.6.5 (Radiological Records Unit) 6

This unit was composed of a civilian, an officer, and an enlisted man

(Reference C.43, Special Order 2). TU 7.6.5 calculated and recorded the exposures for all personnel who entered radioactive areas and prepared regular

exposure reports as well as special reports of any overexposures. The Radiological Record Unit's Medical Review Board considered and commented on all

overexposures (Reference C.43, Appendix B-2). All pocket dosimeters and film 6

badges were read and the results recorded when work In radioactive areas was

completed. CTG 7.6 sent the results to CJTF 7, with copies to the Test Director

and Scientific Director. The report gave the names of all Individuals receiving

exposures exceeding 0.1 R on any day of operations and indicated total accumulated radiation received by the individuals to date (Reference C.43, Appendix

B, Annex A).

Task Unit 7.6.6 (technical Measurements Unit)

The Technical Measurements Unit was composed of 11 men, Including civilians

and military. The unit supervised all technical measurement projects assigned

to CTG 7.6 (Reference C.43, Appendix B-2). Projects were suggested by the Armed

Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP), Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery

(BuMed), Navy Bureau of Ships (BuShips), Navy Bureau of Aeronautics, and Army Chemical Corps. These projects, discussed further in Chapter 3, Involved studies of nuclear and optical radiation effects of nuclear detonations (Reference

C.43, Appendix B, p. G-1-2).

Task Unit 7.6.7 (Monitor Unit)

The monitor unit, composed of 26 officers, provided monitors and equipment

for all radsafe missions. It also decontaminated personnel as necessary.

Because of the number of operations using monitors and the necessity for

locating each member of TC 7.6, a detailed operation schedule for each day

throughout the test periods was prepared. Each radsafe party was given a number, its time of movement noted, monitors' names given, type of transportation

cited, and a brief summary of the specific mission stated. Mission priority

was also designated as routine or urgent. A rough draft of the schedule was

thoroughly studied. and shortly before X-RAY it was mimeographed In final form

and distributed to all personnel concerned. Beginning 2 days after X-RAY

(X-RAY D+2), a schedule was published each night for the following day. A new,

abbrevidted schedule gave the radsafe party number, a brief description of the

mission, names of the monitors, type and number of instruments involved, number of film badges provided, and times of issue and departure. Monitor assignments were regulated in accordance with previous exposure (Reference C.43, pp.

56-56a).

The basic plans for YOKE and ZEBRA operations followed the same pattern as

X-RAY. Radsafe activities were a repetition of those of X-RAY. Whenever possible, however, personnel were reassigned from one groop to another, so broad

experience in various aspects of radiological safety could be gained (Reference

C.43, pp. 62, 64).

53
Task Unit 7.6.8 (Advisory Unit)

This unit was established by Special Order 2 to advise the task force

Radsafe Officer on medical and technical matters. TU 7.6.8 was staffed by

three clvilians (Reference C.43, Appendixes B-i and B-2).

Task Unit 7.6.9 (Rear Echelon Unit)

The Rear Echelon Unit maintained liaison with supporting activities in the

United States. It was established by Special Order 2 (Reference C.43, Appendix

B-2) and consisted of one officer based in Washington, D.C., who was affiliated

with AFSWP (Reference C.43, Appen- dix B. Annex I, Part 11-3).

TRAINING

Considerable staffing problems had to be resolved before assembling the

necessary TG 7.6 "primary duty" technicians, most of whom were military personnel affiliated with AFSWP or the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and were

graduates of the radsafe schools at Treasure Island (Navy) and Edgewood Arsenal

(Army) (Reterence C.43, p. 5).

"Before CROSSROADS, a special JTF 1 Radiological Safety School was established by the Navy. One of the lessons learned by the Navy from CROSSROADS was

that a full radiological safety program was required. Accordingly, in October

1946, the Chief of Naval Operations directed that such a program be established

with the least practicable delay (Reference B.3.0.1). The Bureau of Naval Personnel Special Committee outlined the goals of a radsafe training program on 3

December 1q46. The basic premises (Reference B.3.0.2) in Instituting the Navy's

training program were:

1. Navy damage control procedures should be able to handle

multiple effects of atomic bombs

2. Shore establishments were the most important target of an

atomic attack

3. The Navy's radsafe training program should supplement

courses given at the damage control schools

4. Personnel should be trained at several levels of qualificat ion

5. Instruments for the classes should be provided through a

BuShips development program

6. The primary source of basic ralio]ogical information

should come from the Radiological Safety Manual Project

of the Joint CROSSROADS Committee.

Among the training programs were a nuclear physics correspondence course

(functioning by 20 December 1946 at New York, New Orleans, San Francisco, and

Great Lakes naval installations); the Radiological Safety Officer and Meter

Operator Training Program (a 6-week course at the damage control schools to

qualify radiological safety officers); the Radiological Safety Engineer TrainIng Program (being formulated at the U.S. Navy Postgraduate School from tr,

Postgraduate Physics-Electronics-Radar Group for a limited number of officf

54
and the radiological safety courses at damage control schools (Reference

B.3.0.2).

Of these five, the last was among the most Important. Two courses were set

up to cover radiological safety at damage control schools in Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania, and Treasure Island, California. Instructors selected had thorough knowledge of physics, radiological decontamination, and had instructional

experience. In Instructing radiological meter operators, at least one ensign

or lieutenant, three chief petty officers and one electronics technician were

assigned per fifty students (Reference B.3.0.2).

Of the two damage control schools, the one at Treasure Island was perceived

as better suited for setting up a radiological safety course, partially because

the nearby Hunters Point and Mare Island Naval Shipyards had been used in the

decontamination work following CROSSROADS. Furthermore, use of radiological

experts from the University of California at Berkeley could be arranged. All

instructors participating in the Philadelphia Radsafe Training School assisted

in establishing the first courses at Treasure Island. This ensured that the

courses at Philadelphia would be similar.

The target date for the opening of the radsafe course was established as

I March. All Anstructors were to be present at the Treasure Island Damage Control School on I February to prepare all of its officers and instructors and

to have all instructional materials on hand before the opening date (Reference

B.3.0.2).

The Radiological Safety School actually opened on 17 March 1947 with 40

officers (24 Navy and Marine Corps, 15 Army, and I USPHS). The most serious

problem associated with the first class in the radsafe training program was in

the selection of attendees. After the first day, it was apparent that many

students were unable to handle even rudimentary mathematical concepts. A voluntary. supplementary course designed to facilitate mathematics training did not

completely eliminate the problem. Significantly, fifteen people, more than onethird of the class, regularly attended the extra sessions. As a result of the

lack of mathematically sophisticated students, restriction of future classes

to individuals who had the equivalent of Naval Academy training, or at least

to those who had had at least one college course in science or mathematics,

was recommended (Reference B.3.0.3),

The Army implemented a similar program. The Joint Radiological Safety

V.: Training Committee authorized the program. The committee (Reference B.2) determined the:

I. Types of radsafe billets required by the armed services

2. Types and ranks or rates of personnel required to fi]l

the billets

3. Types of training required to fill each billet and approximate length of training periods

4. Types and numbers of instructors required per hundred

students and their availability

55
jk°

5. Training organization required and recommended relation- ship between such an organization and the War and Navy Departments and the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS).

Edgewood Arsenal was a desirable location to provide radsafe training on

the East Coast, and the Chemical Corps recommended beginning the first class

about 8 September 1947. AFSWP determined student qualifications, curricula, 'I

length and nature of courses, and types, numbers and availability of instructors (Reference B.2).

Criteria were established to ensure the quality of instruction. Six weeks

appeared to be the optimum training period. If the course were extended to

eight weeks, as had been suggested, augmenting the material presented or decreasing the tempo of presentation would be required. Additionally, further

increase in material would have required the students to have greater mathematical knowledge.

A Joint indoctrination lecture-syllabus was prepared and offered to the

schools for inclusion in their curricula. The Joint Radiological Safety Training Committee recommended that it be closely coordinated with indoctrination

lectures, primarily on radiological safety, plus movies and one demonstration

(Reference B.6.2).

The proposed radsafe indoctrination course 'Reference B.6.2, Encl. A)

given in the schools was to include the following material:

* Security lecture using the Army, Navy Screen Magazine #86

"What is Radsafe?"

o Atomic energy film/types of radiation lecture

* CROSSROADS film/atomic bomb explosion phenomena lecture

* Biological effects lecture (blast and radiation)

e Instruments lecture/demonstration

* Radsafe film/decontamination lecture

e Organization and training lecture

* Tactical and strategic implications lecture.

On 29 February 1948 Bairoko departed Long Beach, California, with TG 7.6

embarked, for Pearl Harbor and Enewetak. On the day of embarkation, further

indoctrination of TG 7.6 personnel began. CTG 7.6 gave two orientation lectures

In which all aspects of the mission were covered. Immediately upon sailing for

Pearl Harbor, detailed operational planning and a comprehensive study of expected problems began (Reference C.43, p. 35, 36).

The School Director at the Radiological Safety School, Treasure Island, California, had been designated the School Officer for TG 7.6. He outlined a

schedule of classes to be conducted en route to the test site. These classes

began on I March ard were conducted daily. In addition to scheduled lectures, a daily afternoon period was established for calibration of the various Instruments used in monitoring operations (Reference C.43, p. 39). Figure 12 shows

56

* t
Figure 12. Monitors calibrating Victoreen Model 247A instruments

on board USS Bairoko (CVE-II5) before SANDSTONE as

the instructor observes.

monitors calibrating Vlctoreen Model 247A instruments on the Balroko deck as

the instructor observes.

Physical conditioning was deemed advisable, particularly for mionitors, who

would be involved in strenuous operational activities. Accordingly, a period

of physical training was scheduled each afternoon (Reference C.43, p. 39).

r

SAFETY CRITERIA

Radsafe criteria An gen~eral followed the standards set forth by the

National Cortmilttee on Radiation Protection: 0.1 R per day; 0.5 R per week.

operational rules for radiological situations were disseminated throughout

JTF 7 as Annex J to JTF 7 Field order 1.

Radiation Safety Standards

The permissible radiolog~ical exposure was established at 0.1 R per 24-hour

period. In the event that anyone exceeded 3 R (total), he would be denied access to radioactive areas for 30 days and was not to be further exposed unless

specifically cleared by CJTF 7 on advice from the, Radsafe officer.

All Individuals scheduled to enter radioactive areas or to work with radioactive materials received a complete physical examination, including chest

X-ray, blood count, and urinalysis, before leaving the United States. " 57

57 '

Fgr12 MoItor cairtn VItre Moe 4AIntues
Radiation Exposure Waivers

Absolute adherence to the radiological standards prescribed for routine

laboratory or industrial use was recognized as unrealistic for the special

conditions of a field test (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex A). A definition

of overexposure, standard operating procedures for exposures, and rest periods

required after overexposures were established by the JTF 7 Staff Radsafe Officer and TG 7.6 staff. The basic formula of 0.1 R per 24-hour period was set as

the maximum, except for certain specific missions where exposures of 3 R were permitted. All missions Involving 3 R exposure were to be approved by the Test Scientific Director and the Staff Radsafe Officer. No exposure over 3 R would

be permitted unless approved by CJTF 7 (Reference C.43, p. 9).

Radiation exposure records were maintained by the Radiological Records

Unit (TU 7.6.5). TG 7.6 and the task force Medical Officer exchanged medical

data required for evaluating an individual's radiation health record.

The Medical Review Board considered an individual's medical file, his group

exposure record, and his radiation exposure record and rendered decisions on

his availability for future work in radioactive areas. An individual was reported to the board if he received over 0.1 R per 24-hour period or approached

the authorized limit of 3 R. Personnel receiving 3 R had the data included on

their medical charts, along with the expected date they could resume activity

In a radioactive area. The board also maintained records on any instrument

suspected of giving an erroneous reading and evidence of such was entered on a

group exposure record for future evaluation as well as for medical-legal purposes (Reference C.43, Appendix B. Annex H).

Radiation Exposure Records

In recording exposures, JTF 7 used a definition of "overexposure" that

requires a note of explanation. Exposures of 0.1 R or less per day were not

considered overexposures. Exposures greater than 0.1 R/day were considered

overexposures, and if a man's cumulated total reached 3.0 R he was withdrawn

from activity that would involve the possibility o! addltional exposure for a

period of 30 days. This overexposure cumulation, however, could be lessened by

0.1 R for each day the man received no exposure. For example, if an Individual

received 0.1 R per day for four days, his overexposure was zero. If on the

fifth day he received 2.4 R, his overexposure was 2.3 R. It on the sixth day

his exposure was 0.8 R, his overexposure for that day was 0.7 R. The 0.7 R was

added to the 2.3 R of day five for a total overexposure of 3 R, the prescribed

limit for overexposure, and he was not permitted any activities involving the

potential presence of radioactivity for 30 days to allow him to recover from

his overexposure at a rate of 0.1 R per day. Had he only received 0.2 R on the

sixth day instead of 0.8 R, his overexposure would have been 0.1 R for that

day. which would have been added to the fifth day's reading of 2.3 R for an

exposure total of 2.4 R. If he then received no radiation exposure for 5 days,

his total overexposure would then drop to 1.9 R on the basis of a recovery

factor of 0.1 R per day. If however, he received 0.1 R each day, the total

overexposure would remain 2.4 R until the day of no overexposure. This overexposure total was kept on a radiation exposure record (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex H).

58
Group Exposure Record

The group exposure record included names of all individuals assigned to

each work party, the organization to which they belonged, the general nature

of the mission, and the times of departure and return. The monitor collected

film badges and other instruments and entered film badge and pocket dosimeter

numbers issued for each man on the form. He also entered pocket dosimeter readings opposite the man's name after the mission. If any members of the party

required decontamination or if any unusual event relating to safety occurred,

the monitor entered the remarks on the group exposure record. He also entered

any appropriate remarks concerning the instruments. He returned the form to

the instrument Issue desk immediately upon return to Bairoko. The record was

then sent to the Radiological Records Unit (TU 7.6.5) for entry of the film

badge readings. This unit dispatched the completed record to the Medical Review

Board if an overexposure was indicated. When the review was completed, the

group exposure record was returned to TU 7.6.5. After exposures were transcribed from the group exposure record, the record was then filed (Reference

C.43, Appendix B, Annex H).

RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY INSTRUMENTATION

The major radsafe instruments wore the 247-A ion chamber and the 263-A

Geiger-Mueller (GM) instruments manufactured by Victoreen Instrument Company.

On 22 September 1947, a group of radsafe specialists recommended to the JTF 7

radsafe advisors that the following instruments be procured: 150 GM counters

(from d variety of manufacturers), 100 ion-chamber survey instruments, 600

direct-reading dosimeters (pocket electrometers), and 900 direct-reading

dosimeters (vacuum-tube integration) (Reference C.43, p. 10-11). Table 7 lists

radsafe equipment for all task force groups expected to be exposed to

radiation.

The quantities of survey instruments recommended included allowances for

only six aircraft. If more aircraft were to be involved it was recommended

that the following quantities and types of instruments be procured for each

aircraft: one Ion-chamber survey meter, two GM survey meters, and one proteximeter (Reference C.43, p. 13). During the test series, each air group monitor

was furnished with an ion-chamber survey instrument, one GM counter, one or

two proteximeters, one 0.2 R pocket dosimeter, one or two high-range pocket

dosimeters (10 R or 50 R), and one casualty badge (a film badge capable of

registering high- or casualty-range exposures) (Reference C.43, Appendix B,

Annex B-2).

In addition to recommendations made by the instruments couuittee, others

suggested the addition of 40 alpha-measuring instruments, 20 additional (unmodified) Rauland-Zeus Alpha--Beta-Gamma meters, and 20 AEC-designed Pluto

meters (Reference C.43. p. 13). AEC was responsible for procuring the radsafe

instruments and spare parts (Reference C.43, p. 13).

Among the instruments available for the technical measurements portion

were film badges, crystal dosimeters, activation samples, filter collection

units, rate-meters, and recorders (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex G).

59
The three manufacturers of gamma-recording pocket dosimeters, (Beckman,

Cambridge, and Kelly-Koett) all designed rather rugged instruments. They included the following models: Kelly-Koett Models K-100, K-150, K-160; Cambridge

(no model number, AEC catalog nuber PIC-9A); and Beckman Model MX-7 (AEC catalog numbers PIC-lIA and PIC-12A) (Reference C.43).

An AN/PDR-l (X-1) was sent by Admiral Electronics and Raytheon for SANDSTONE. This experimental model differed from the AN/PDR-l contracted for by the Navy (OP-36) later in the year. By 3 November 1948 the AN/PDR-1 was Iden-" tical to the AN/PDR-8 except for power supply (Reference B.3.0.4).

All instrument calibration presumably utilized radium sources (Reference

C.43, p. 39). The radium standards procured from BuShips were 25-, 50-, 100-,

and 250-mg sources in containers of 0.5 mm of platinum or Its equivalent (Reference C.43, Appendix A-4).

PERSONNEL FILM BADGES AND RECORDS

On 5 November 1947, a memorandum was issued stating that 10,000 film badges

with a range of 0 to 10 R were to be supplied by Eastman Kodak Company (Reference C.43, p. 15). These were to be of two types -- Type A and Type K. the

latter distinguished by a lead cross-shield.

On 3 March, the first calibration of personnel film badges was run, using

a 48.7-mg radium source. A second calibration was completed on 6 March. The

films were then developed and read on a Western densitometer, model number 877

(Reference C.43, p. 46). Several men from TG 7.6 received low exposures during

the eight instrument calibration sessions. Many of these exposures were detected only on the direct-reading dosimeters and not by film badges. The exposures recorded by the film badges were typically 0.005 R .or each calibration

session, although at one session a badge recorded 0.040 R (Reference E.1). I These readings are typical for detection instrument calibration laboratories and were largely derived from removing the radium sources from their shields

and placing them in calibration position. The readings were recorded In a

Kardex file for radiological records. This served as a dry run of the record

system. (Reference C.43, p. 45).

| Only men who were expected to be exposed to radioactivity weLe badged.

Before leaving for a potentially radioactive mission, all personnel were

checked against the control list by a monitor and issued appropriate equipment,

Including film badges, pocket dosimeters, and any necessary protective clothing. After the radioactivity on the shot islands had decayed for several days,

the issue of the badges and equipment was handled at a checkpoint manned by TU

7.6 personnel on the shot island. An example of the task force's perception of

the expectation of exposure to these personnel may be found in the instructions. In the 24 April (X-RAY D+9) instructions for the checkpoint on Enjebi,

the monitors are instructed to issue badges to anyone expected to come closer

than 550 yards (503 meters) to the surface zero. The instructions for the

following 2 days use the same distance as a criterion. (Reference C.43, Monitor Instructions, pp. 26-28). When work was completed in the radioactive area,

all film badges and pocket dosimeters were returned to the monitor (Reference

C.43, Appendix B, Annex A-3).

60

I 2 " I 1 [. . .] . . .- - -
4%

One film badge was furnished for each aircraft crewmember. Film badges and

pocket dosimeter readings were returned by air from Kwajalein to Bairoko (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex B-2).

At first, film badges were apparently processed and read in order of receipt. On X-RAY day, for example, film badges and monitor cards began to come

In at 1200. By 2300. 250 had been received. All film badges were processed and

overexposures reported to CJTF 7 the next day (Reference C.43, p. 84). Beginning on the night of X-RAY D+2, the system of film processing was accelerated

by segregating all darkened badges and reading them first. This allowed completion of the overexposure report by midnight of X-RAY D+2. This procedure

was continued throughout the series (Reference C.43. p. 84).

On YOKE D+4, permission was obtained from CJTF 7 to change the method of

submitting overexposure reports. Up to that time, all individual exposures

exceeding 0.1 R/day had been reported daily. Thereafter, no individual was

reported by dispatch unless he received more than 0.3 R in 3 days (Reference

C.43, p. 84).

Procedures used throughout the first two tests were continued for ZF3RA.

On ZEBRA D+l, a dispatch was received by CJTF 7 concerning entries on the

physical records of all Navy and Marine Corps personnel. A conference of medlcal officers and CTG 7.6 devised a report form that would supply all task group

commanders with the necessary exposure data (Reference C.43, p. 85).

A Kardex file system was set up to maintain individual records. On X-RAY

D+5, the Kardex file was rechecked and all overexposures were recorded. The

final information on overexposure was submitted on X-RAY D+13 in the postshot

report (Reference C.43, p. 84). The records created in this file consist of

3- by 5-inch preprinted cards, noted as a JTF 7 form and labeled "Individual

Exposure Record." The ca,-ds had the man's name entered as well as the date(s)

of badge issue, the expcsure(s) (in milliroentgens) from the badge(s), and

usually the exposure recorded from a pocket dosimeter. A column was reserved

for entering the calculated overexposure. This file of cards, along with film

badge log sheets, is the basic dosimetric record for SANDSTONE personnel exposure (References A.3 and E.l).

After ZEBRA, CJTF 7 recommended that the radiological medical records with

medical-legal supporting data be delivered to the Test Director for incorpora- tion in AEC records on D+25 (Reference C.43, Field Order 2). Copies of the

records of all military personnel were forwarded to AFSWP for distribution

among the armed services (Reference C.43, p. 52).

PRE-EVENT SAFETY MEASURES

Danger Area

On 30 December 1947, the AEC issued a press relea> uuAIuuuLY LhaL itulft

3i January i948 through 31 December 1948, a Danger A-ea would exist around

Enewetak Atoll as a result of the planned weapon tests. The Danger Area was

defined as laying between 100 15'N and 120 45'N and between 160 035'E and

163 055'E (see Figure 13). This notice was also published through routine air and maritime channels (Reference C.5, p. ]-A6). Entry into the Danger Area was

not prohibited, although Enewetak itself was a Closed Area.

61
120 45-N

"N

PLANE PLANE NO.• NO. 3,

NO.

27 nmi

52 nrm

M

0

1001 S'N

Plan A. One plane patrols inner ring (between 17 and 27 rnmi) (32

and 50 km) in a six-leg (hexagonal) flight path with total

circuit length of 132 nmi (245 km).

Plan B. Two planes: one flies Plan A, and a second patrols outer ring

(between 40 and 52 nmi) (74 and 96 km) in a six-leg (hexagonal)

flight path with total circuit length of 276 nmi (456 km).

Plan C. Three planes: one flies Plan A, Plane 2 patrols western half

of outer ring, and Plane 3 patrols eastern half.

Figure 13. Air patrol plans A, B, and C, Operation SANDSTONE

The Danger Area was patrolled both with surface ships and aircraft under

TG 7.3. The surface patrol worked outside of Enewetak Lagoon. TG 7.3 maintained

a plot of Individuals, vessels, and aircraft authorized to operate in the

Closed Area and the Danger Area.

The Air Patrol Unit (TU 7.3.3) flew a variety of search patterns in the Danger Area. It was composed of Navy Medium Seaplane PaLrol Squadron 6

(VP[MS]-6) and Navy Air Development Squadron 4 (VX-4) (Reference B.3.2).

62
To prevent inadvertent contamination or unauthorized surveillance, the

greatest attention was paid to the area 40 nmi (74 km) offshore from Enewetak .

Atoll. particularly to the north and east. During patrols, all vessels discovered within the Danger Area were Identified and warned to leave immediately.

Immediate reports of all such Incidents were made to Hq JTF 7. Contact surveillance of any vessel in the area was maintained until further instructions were

received. CTG 7.3 had to be prepared to use the maximum patrol force patrol

during the period H-48 and H+24 (patrol plan F) (Reference B.3.1, Annex A-2).

Figures 13 to 16 show the proposed methods of patrolling the Closed and

Danger Areas.

1 244 5'""

SECTOR SECTOR

C A

"N

LI"

SOECTOR

B

I I • 1:

Figure 14. Air patrol plan D, Operatioki SANDSTONE. (Four planes: plane I

flies patrol plan A; planes 2-4 patrol sectors A through C in

accordance with the diagram.)

63

-, - '-1 - •, I I- ;. C' - - -- . . . . . . . . .
_%

i'-

P

!.

i.

SECTORO ! IE SECTOR A L- "-

[ •-

I , .

.ENEWETAK.: ";

. 

SECTO

.'• C B ',

1I

20 40 60 -,wq

NAUT!CAL MILES •-'

w

20 •o •o 80 ,oo • 

I 1 1 I I I •. iql

KILOMETERS "•

10(:I 5,•j ,•

e•

Figure 15. Air patrol plan E, Operation SANDSTONE• (Five planes: plane 1 •.

flles patrol plan A" planes 2-5 patrol sectors A through D •n t 4

accordance wlth the dlagram.) i'

64
.4

p.,.

1.%°

010

12'45-N

N

% SECTOR SECTO

% E ASETO OREECOTORt.

I I!"

K I 1 0%, 1 ESECTOR SCTORC.-R

I _bIel * a I \- , ",

10°1 5"t,j .

Figure 16. Air patrol plan F, Operation SANDSTONE. ('ix planes plane 1

flies patrol plan A; planes 2-6 patrol sectors A through E In

accordance with the diagram.

65

I,

) . . . .. ° . . . • • q . •
Fallout and Lagoon Contamination Prediction

The Radsafe Office prepared fallout predictions, delineated radiological

exclusion (radex) areas (showing where radioactivity and fallout were expected

to be present in the air and on surfaces), and presented the predictions at

command briefings before each shot. Radex plotting used vector analysis of wind

patterns. Fallout patterns were predicted for the surface, 15,000, 20,000,

25,000 and 30,000 feet (4.6. 6.1, 7.6, and 9.1 kin). The surface radex area,

designated between two bearings from zero point, was determined from the predicted fallout patterns.

Fallout predictions were based on weather observations. If fallout from

45,000 feet (13.7 km) or below was predicted to occur outside the sector

bounded by 900 T and 170 0 T from zero point, the day was considered as a possible shot day. If fallou.t from 45,000 feet (13.7 kin) was predicted on the

bearings of Enewetak-Parry islands (150 0 -160 0 T), the day was judged questionable with moderate hazard. If fallout from 35,000 feet (10.7 km) or below

was predicted on these islands, the day was ruled a nonshot day (Reference

C.43, Appendix I, Annex 1-3 and 1-4).

Three days preceding the test, a forecast for a test day was

made, and on the day before the test day the latest weather

forecast was presented at 1800. Actual wind data was plotted

at intervals from this time to 0300 at which time the last

balloon sounding was made and the data was prepared for the

briefing.

At Ujelang, a monitor aboard the designated evacuation ship furnished

radiological data to the ship's commanding officer. The monitor was to advise

the commanding officer of any necessary action if radioactive rainout occurred

on Ujelang.

A special study of currents around Enjebi was made. This study was conducted to anticipate the direction and spread of any possible radioactivity

from the explosion. The drift of partially submerged floating objects was also

observed by helicopter and small boat patrols. The study indicated that currents were generally from east-northeast and that no radioactivity would be

expected south of a line bearing 240 0 T from the southern tip of Enjebi.

Results of the lagoon survey following X-RAY bore out the accurdcy of these

predictions (Reference C.43, p. 53).

Command Briefing

CJTF 7 decided whether to go ahead with a test firing on the basis of four

meetings. The first of these meetings was held at 1500 on D-3. At this meeting

meteorologists gave a weather briefing, Including a 4-day forecast. Based on

this forecast, he decided whether to proceed with the firing procedure for D-2

and the morning of D-1. Each task group reported on its state of readiness

during this meeting. The meeting was attended by CJTF 7 and his deputies, the

Chief of Staff, Test and ScJentific Directors, Commander TG 7.2, Commander TG

7.3, Commander Air Forces, staff meteorologist, Radsafe Officer, staff photographer, and representatives of 3-2 and J-3.

66
A second meeting was held at 1100 on D-1. At this meeting CJTF 7 decided

if the weather would be satisfactory for the shot, determined how the operation

was proceeding, and if all ships, aircraft, equipment, instruments, and personnel were ready for the test. If he decided to proceed with the test, he notifled the AEC.

A third meeting was held at 1800 on D-l. In addition to the latest weather

forecast, the Radsafe Officer presented his forecast of the movement of the

radioactive cloud. A meeting was sometimes held at H-4 to determine if takeoff

of the drone control planes from Kwajalein was acceptable. The last meeting

was held at H-1. Any changes in weather or cloud travel forecasts were given,

and a final decision was made.

A postponement of the test after the D-3 meeting involved little repetition of firing sequence operations. During the 1800 meeting on D-l, the decision

was made whether ships should leave their anchorages and whether the firing

party should proceed to the shot island to complete the firing circuits. At

the last meeting it was decided whether to fire the weapon. The meetings were

not closely scheduled with meteorological operations. At some meetings decisions were made with much poorer meteorological information than would have

been available a few hours later. However, the last meeting was held at H-1

when the final firing decision was made based upon the latest weather data.

(Reference C.7, pp. 157-159).

Weather Prediction

Because fallout forecasts depend primarily on forecasts of wind speed and

direction, the accuracy of SANDSTONE fallout predictions was related to the

accuracy of the weather predictions. CTG 7.3 and CTG 7.4 administered and supported weather elements to provide meteorological data in conjunction with the

SANDSTONE tests. (Reference C.5, pp. 3-A195 ff).

The meteorological organization provided information to JTF 7, including

cloud-cover forecasts for all air and photographic operations, wind information

to heights of 60,000 feet (18.3 km) or higher for radiological studies and

safety procedures, climatological information, and severe storm warnings. Weather detachments were located at Kwajalein, Majuro, Enewetak, Rongerik, and

Wake islands.

Commander Air Forces, JTF 7, established and operated the weather stations

at these islands except Kwajalein and Wake. He resupplied the weather detachmerts with assistance from TG 7.3 for Rongerik, TG 7.7 for Majuro, and Pan

American Airlines for Wake. The weather stations provided complete weather

observation service, including a minimum of four rawinsondes (instrumented

balloons) per 24-hour period, a forecast and briefing service for crews of

transient and JTF 7 aircraft, and a relaying service to disseminate all weather

information (including flight reports and flight summaries). In addition to

the outlying weather stations, Joint Task Force Weather Central was located

aboard Mount McKinley.

The JTF 7 Staff Weather Officer recommended flight paths for the two weather reconnaissance flights edch day. The 43rd Weather Wing maintained weather

facilities at Enewetak until CTG 7.4 meteorological facilities were in place.

The 43rd Weather Wing transferred control of eight WB-29 aircraft and crews,

67
plus one additional officer and seventy enlisted men, to Commander Air Forces

for weather reconnaissance and cloud-tracking duties. it also lent additional

support by ferrying meteorological equipment and personnel to weather stations.

Bairoko, USS Albemarle, (AV-5) and USS Curtiss (AV-4) also served as weather

ships. These ships gathered and disseminated information from four rawinsonde

and two radios,.nde observations per day as well as information from complete

shipboard surface observations. A small number of 2,000-gm balloons for highaltitude ascents (100,000 feet [30.5 km]) were included In the weather equipment (Reference C.5, p. 3-A 198).

Eye Protection

Individuals looking directly at a blast at H-hour wore high-density goggles. They were issued to all airborne personnel. The special goggles were put

on at H-2 minutes. Copilots attempted to protect their eyes completely (for

an extra margin of safety) by covering their eyes with bent arms until after

the flash. A copilot could then take over if the pilot were temporarily blinded

(Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex A, 11-3).

Evacuation and Reentry Plans

JTF 7 issued an evacuation plan to ensure that all personnel were removed

from danger of the explosion or radioactivity at test time. Two days before

each test, CTG 7.2 made a detailed, physical search of all islands in Enewetak

Atoll (except for Enewetak and Parry) to ensure that no unauthorized personnel

were ashore. Color-coded badges, coupled with access lists, facilitated identification of authorized personnel.

On D-l, CJTF 7 alone authorized movement into and within a 40-nmi (74-km)

radius from the center of Enewetak Atoll. On the same day, authorized ships entered Enewetak Lagoon only after being passed by CTG 7.3 control. Similarly,

CTG 7.4 prohibited any unauthorized JTF 7 aircraft from leaving Kwajalein or

Enewetak islands.

All personnel, except those authorized to be at Enewetak, Parry, and the

shot islands, evacuated the atoll by H-i. They moved aboard the ships of TU

7.3.8, which were east of the atoll during shot operations. Individuals ashore

consisted of the minimum number of CTG 7.1 personnel at Enewetak, Parry, and

the shot islands to carry out the scientific operations plan. CTG 7.2 maintained a mobile reserve of three officers and eighteen enlisted men on Enewetak

Island during the test, as well as minimum security guards and communications

personnel on Enewetak and Parry islands. A minimum boatccew under CTG 7.3 remained at Enewetak or Parry Island. Minimum aircrews and operations personnel,

including air communications, photographic, and weather personnel, remained at

Enewetak Island. CTG 7.5 maintained one officer and nine enlisted men as security guards who remained on the shot islands until returning with the firing

crew to Parry Island. Other TG 7.5 guards remained on the unused shot Islands

until 1215 on D-1. They were evacuated to Enewetak Island, remaining there

during the test. CTG 7.6 kept required radsafe monitors at Enewetak and Parry

islands, CTG 7.3 evacuated the remaining personnel from the shot island. They

arrived at Parry Island between H-3 and H-1. The shot island thus was completely evacuated and preparations on Parry Island complete.

68

1' . ,•%' >' • •••'••, J ", $4 ,--*/.,'•-''' '• i .'-...'-'. 6•• .
I

In addition to general Enewetak evacuation, CTG 7.3 was prepared to evacuate personnel from Ujelang. CTG 7.2 planned to give suitable warning to all

personritl on Enewetak and Parry islands to assemble in a designated area if

the radsafe monitor Indicated that this was appropriate. CTG 7.3 maintained

sufficient craft to evacuate the individuals in an emergency. CTG 7.4 was to

be e-acuated with Air Force personnel to Kwajalein by air (Reference C.7, pp.

3-A-,44 ff).

The reentry plan dictated that only personnel with "urgent" duties return

to radioactive areas on shot day. CTG 7.6 conducted a radiological survey of

the shot island and surrounding islands. After they were cleared, experiment

personnel would be allowed to conduct "routine" work. Ships and aircraft landed

only at Enewetak and Parry islands in accordance with CJTF 7 or the reentry

plan. Following the shot, no aircraft flew within 2 nmi (3.7 km) of the shot

islands except in accordance with the reentry plan or on orders of CJTF 7.

These restrictions were in effect throughout SANDSTONE (Reference C.7, pp.

3-A153 ff).

POSTEVENT SAFETY MEASURES

Mount McKinley Radsafe Center issued radex area information where significant fallout was predicted to occur within 6 hours after detonation. Task

units were denied entry into radex areas except with specific authorization.

Data were recorded on shot days on a chart of the atoll and on detailed

maps of the shot islands maintained on board Mount McKinley. Air and surface

radex area information was available there.

All communications from radsafe missions were directed to Mount McKinley

Radsafe Center and monitored by the Radsafe Center on Bairoko. This provided

immediate, first-hand information tor the radsafe officer aboard Mount

McKinley. On days after a shot the plan called for direct communications with

the Radsafe Center on Bairoko. Mount McKinley Radsafe Center plotted fallout

patterns based on weather forecasts for the radsafe officer and maintained

daily surface and air radex area plots. Information from TU 7.6.1 monitors and

from the cloud-tracking aircraft was also plotted In the Radsafe Center (Reference C.43, p. 58).

Mount McKinley Radsafe Center furnished systematic information to CJTF 7

and the JTF 7 Radsafe Officer. Radiological situation maps were updated based

on Information received there. Air and surface radex areas were changed after

the shots when warranted by weather conditions. Isointensity lines of 0.1 R

per day in the lagoon water were plotted, as were fallout data from Kwajalein

and Ujelang (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex E-9 and E-10).

All islands north of Runit were considered radioactive until cleared by TG

7.6. Enewetak postshot control and decontamination activities were centered at

Enewetak Island. Partles recovering scientific data soon after the shot operated from naval vessels In the lagoon until eary radiological surveys determined whether it was safe to move data-recovery operations ashore.

All personnel entering radioactive areas were badged. Radsafe checkpoints

strictly controlled entry into and exit from these areas. Protective clothing

69

...-. .... . ... ..- ... .. .. ... . .. -... .. . ,. .. •¢ .•...¢ • _ . . . .. • • ..
was required in radioactive areas. The radsafe monitors accompanying the scientific parties determined the amount of protective clothing necessary, including

whether gas masks were advisable. Instructions were given to the monitors in

some cases so that they did not themselves decide on the degree of protection

required. Instructions for 24 April on Enjebi, for example, stated that personnel coming closer than 550 yards (503 meters) to the X-RAY surface zero

would wear gas masks if they were doing anything to raise dust (Reference C-43,

Monitor Instructions, p. 26).

The Radiological Records Unit (TU 7.6.5) maintained cumulative personnel

exposure records aboard Balroko. When work parties returned to Bairoko, they

turned in their clothing, pocket dosimeters, and personnel film badges.

Transport of radioactive materials out of the test area complied with AEC

regulations for shipping radioactive materials (AEC Regulations, Safety No. 3,

Standard Safety Requirements, Part 14). All radioactive materials were monitored by TG 7.6 before transport. Authority to remove samples of radioactive

material from the test area was obtained from the Test Director and such removals complied with security requirements (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex

A-4).

Cloud Tracking

Tracking debris with WB-29 weather reconnaissance aircraft was the primary method planned to verify radioactive cloud travel in the predicted direction.

An aerial survey determined radiation intensities and fallout occurring at

varying altitudes in the vicinity of the shot island. TU 7.6.1 plotted the

cloud-tracking information aboard Mount McKinley. (Reference C.43, p. 58).

Major areas of concern were:

1. Downwind, especially Enewetak and Ujelang

2. Upwind

3. Upwind of the native populated atolls to the southeast

4. Air and surface transportation routes through Wake Island - and the Marshall Islands. ki

Sample Recovery Techniques

Unmanned drone B-17s were used to collect samples of particles from the

radioactive shot clouds. These samples were collected on filter papers placed

In sheet-metal boxes mounted in the normal position of the top and chin turrets

of the B-17 (see Figure 17). Three flights were made though the weapon cloud

by each of several drones, after which the planes were landed at Enewetak.

After the drone B-17s had stopped rolling, their tails were checked for radioactivity and a tow bar attached to each drone's tail. The drones were

then towed into an area at the eastern end of the runway on the lagoon side of

the Island (see Figure 4). An area there had been isolated by rows of junked

heavy construction equipment, trucks, steel landing mats, etc. These rows were

meant prJmarily to protect the landed samplers from any other drones that might

70

S~~~~~~~~~~~~~........ ......... j . ........ °. .,•,b,,.. ... ,...°-. .,. .-.--....
ii -

- -.-.

Figure 17. Drone B-17 at Enewetak after shot ZEBRA, Operation SANDSTONE,

approached by truck with forklift with extension arm to grasp

top sampler box. Lower sampler box is under nose.

go out-of-control during their landing. They also served to attenuate radiation

emanating from the contaminated drone aircraft.

The first stc? in recovering the samples was releasing the filter boxes.

This was done by a man running in and pulling a release lanyard under the

trailing edge of the B-17 wing at its root. The top filter box was then removed

by a modified forklift in the bed of a 2-1/2-ton truck (Figure 18). Two men

took the filter box from the forklift (Figure 19) and placed it on the ground

well away from the B-17. The filter papers themselves were then removed from

the box in their holders. Lanyards were available to pull the filter holders

free, one from each side of the box. Figures 20, 21, and 22 show a man freeing

the filter holders using only the lanyard. The filter holders, however, apparently did not always come free easily. Figure :3 shows a man using his free

hand on the box and exerting considerable pull to remove the filter holder.

The lower filter box was dropped to the ground and the filter holders were

then removed. By the third shot it was observed that It was quicker to simply

have men run In and remove the filter holders from the lower boxes while the

boxes were still attached to the B-17. Figure 24 shows this being done after

ZEBRA.

When all the filter holders for a drone were freed, they were moved away from the drones, opened, and the filter papers removed, marked, and placed in

lead containers on the back of a jeep. Figure 25 shows the transfer of the lead

container to the aircraft that transported the filter papers to Los Alamos.

71
V--

Fiur FokII

F~ gur ~ 8. Fork 11ftextensiton 

arm lift t p 1 te fr m d

sO t ZE BRA , OPera st i0 s d roneO~ B- 17~ } '

IV4

4rV 7.T

Fig re.9

Ing. 

;#t k~shot ZEBRA , fOe rak'Ou TaNfD 
*Figure 20. Mari pulls lanyard to remove one of two filter-paper holders from

from top filter unit following shot ZEBRA, Operation SANDSTONE.

.40

-71~

II - --

-" . • . .- , - .% -

. - ,- -- • • *1" 

Figure 21. Lanyard pulls filter-paper holder free from top filter

unit following shot ZEBRA, Operation SANDSTONE.

,73
'-"4 -. " ~-- - " . . .

Figure 22. Second filter holder comes free from top filter. Man in background

tilts top filter unit from another drone. Junk revetment is at

right, SANDSTONE.

I . - -.

Figure 23. Hard pull and both hands are required to free filter-paper

holder, Operation SANDSTONE.

74
fr ,r r . .r -rr~ . w r*~ C •; % 2"-T' * 3⁄45 :cv~ r_° ' _'-•• Y° .J.L"j -%'.. . . " .?. C. , -. , ' .. .. - - • , . •

'11r • . ----- • . •, - -" 4

W- .

Figure 24. Two men run in to pull filter holders from lower sampler on

8-17 drone following shot ZEBRA, Operation SANDSTONE. Junk

revetment is in background. '"''

'- -44 2 .

Figure 25. Filter papers in lead box handed up to C-54 ,preparing for flight to United States following shot ZEBRA, Operation SANDSTONE.

"75

N . .. ... .. . _• • = . . ..
Four-foot (1.2-meter) tongs were available to handle the papers. although they

were not always used as they were unwieldy. All the men wore gloves, some wearIng rubber gloves under cotton ones. The filter papers were identified by drone

aircraft number. which was stapled to the papers when they were removed from .

the filter holders.-_'

Generally, the filters were divided into two equal groups and flown directly to Albuquerque for radloachemical analysis at LASL, the aircraft making

one stop at Honolulu en route to Albuquerque.

Samples were also collected from the ground surface near the detonation

point with a radio-controlled drone tank. These were taken to Bairoko by LCVP

boat or helicopters and were returned to Los Alamos later. The techniques and

protective measures used In handling these samples are not documented. The

samples themselves were not as intensely radioactive as the samples collected

by the aircraft.

Protective Clothing

Personnel working in areas likely to be contaminated or working with con-

"taminated objects wore clothing to avoid contaminating skin, hair, and personal

clothing. This protective clothing usually consisted of coveralls or fatigues

with a head covering, gloves, and shoe covers. The function of this clothing

was to trap radioactive particles in the cloth. This made personnel decontam-14

* nation much easier and also prevented inadvertent transport of the radioactive

materials to uncontaminated areas. A gas mask was also worn where airborne

contamination was suspected. Personnel shown In Figures 18 through 24 are shown

wearing the usual protective clothing. Figure 26 shows the shoe coverings or

booties, and Figure 27 shows personnel wearing masks during an inspection of a

timing station after shot X-RAY.

Personnel Decontamination

The basic method used for personnel decontamination was removal of contamOw", inated clothing, radiation monitoring, showering, radiation monitoring with

additional washing, and additional monitoring as required before donning fresh

clothes. Shower and change facilities were set up near worksites where personnel contamination was likely. Figures 28 and 29 show the shower near the drone

decontamination area in Enewetak with personnel who had been working cn the

drones passing through after their shift. Special attention was paid to hands.

They were frequently rewashed and remonitored (Figures 30 and 31).

Any personnel caught in radioactive fallout or rainout were to take cover

immediately in as airtight a location as was available. Gas masks were to be

"worn if senior monitors present advised. Any person actually contaminated by

radioactive rain was to remove his clothing and wash himself. No eating, drinking, or smoking were allowed while the ralnout continued or before decontamination was complete.

On Enewetak and Parry islands, all personnel were to take cover In buildIngs previously selected by monitors and remain there until danger from fallout

or radioactive rain ended. Monitors were to check the area surrounding the

"shelter to determine when it was safe to resume normal operations in the open.

76
111

i

figur 27]. Pesne lev Enb tiin s•tati. . on sevra days

SC'

Figure 26. Booties or shoe covers used in Operation SANDSTONE.

,"- --- 7 .--

'p.

4.,

FigueaveEnjbi 2. Pesonel imin sttio sevralday

follwingsho Oeraion X-RY, ANDSON"

I7
'.

ii

Figure 28. Decontamination truck and drone B-17 viewed through clothesline

at shower station on Enewetak Island, Operation SANDSTONE.

•'1

.9A I a "

Figure 29. Shower station on Enewetak, Operation SANDSTONE. Personnel

are being monitored before dressing In clean clothes.

78
.4i

Figure 30. Drone maintenance man rewashes hands following work on

drone B-17, Operation SANDSTONE.

Figure 31. Hands are remonitored, Operation SANDSTONE.

79
If task force ships were involved in a radioactive rainstorm, all personnel

were to go below deck and all hatches were to be closed. The ship was to follow a course predicted to take it out of the rain as rapidly as possible. As

soon as the rain ended, the monitor was to check exposed surfaces and, if necessary, recommend hosing down to remove contamination (Reference C.43. Appendlx B, Annex J-2, pp. 3-4).

Ujelang was considered unlikely to receive fallout. However, plans were

made that upon warning from CJTF 7 that it lay in a possible fallout zone, the

Enewetak people living there would board an LST for possible evacuation.

Fallout typically occurred at Enewetak on the uninhabited islands northwest

of the shot islands. Two days after YOKE, fallout was reported on Bairoko off

Aomon Island) and at Kwajaiein. Chapter 4 has a more thorough discussion of

the fallout and its consequences.

On D+l a beach radsafe center on the shot island was set up near the landing point in on area of low radioactivity. Radiation monitors from It accompanied all partips entering the shot Island. It also served as a communication

and information center.

When background radiation was less than 0.0001 R/hr (gamma), a person was

considered contaminated if any part of his body gave a reading greater than

0.0001-R/hr above background. If background was greater than 0.0001 R/hr (gamma), personnel were not checked until taken to an area where it was less than

0.0001 R/hr (gamma) (Reference C.43, Appendix E, Annex I1- and 1-2).

When personnel were contaminated on the shot island, they returned after

the mission to the beach radsafe center and removed their clothing, including

cloth booties and gloves. Clothing was considered contaminated if it measured

more than 0.0001 R/hr (gamma) above background, if background itself was less

than 0.0001 R/hr. If background was higher than 0.0001 R/hr, all clothing worn

in the radioactive area was placed in containers that were later weighted and

dumped at sea in deep water.

Personnel who had removed their gloves in the radioactive area were required to wash their hands. The monitor checked everyone in his party for

radioactivity. Fresh clothing from the beach radsafe center was Issued after

the individual was monitored. If removing clothing failed to complete personnel

decontamination, the monitor escorted any remaining contaminated personnel to

Bairoko. rechecked them, and they undertook necessary additional decontamination for complete clearance.

Personnel were advised not to bring valuable personal Items ashore. If,

however, any valuable item (such as a watch or ring) became contaminated In

excess of 0.0001 R/hr above background. It was put in a clean container and

stored on Bairoko until the item was radiologically cleared.

If a person was contaminated somewhere other than on the shot island, monitors checked him to ensure that he was decontaminated at the completion of

the misslon during which he was exposed. Procedures similar to those on the

shot islands were carried out. If rainout or fallout contaminated inhabited

80

............................................
islands, the monitor reported the circumstances to CJTF 7 and CTG 7.6. Walking

in radioactive areas and handling contaminated materials were kept to a minimum

*' (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex D).

A portside section of Bairoko's hangar deck was set up as a decontamination

center, supply section, and issue point. As monitors prepared to leave the

ship, they reported to this area and drew instruments, booties, gloves, and

any other equipment required for the mission. When the mission was completed,

they came aboard portside and passed into a restricted zone roped off on the

deck. Here they were monitored for contamination, decontaminated if required,

"drew new clothing, and turned in their equipment, film badges, pocket dosimeters, and monitor report cards. This procedure was an established routine and

prevented personnel in contaminated clothing from spreading radioactivity

throughout the ship (Reference C.43, pp. 55-56).

A personnel decontamination center was constructed on Kwajalein and placed

"In operation before X-RAY (Reference C.43, p. 88). After fallout occurred on

Kwajalein following YOKE, a radiological control center was established there.

*..-Surveys were made and water samples collected for radiation counts.

" Ship Decontamination

*" Ship decontamination had been a great concern to the Navy before SANDSTONE.

.- -. BuShips was responsible for developing ship decontamination measures, and a

project was designed to provide information about the contaminability and relative ease of decontamination for a variety of materials used as protective

coatings on naval equipment and structures. Although high levels of contamination were not expected at SANDSTONE, the operation provided an opportunity to

"gain information. These materials were exposed as part of the TG 7.6 experimental activity discussed in Chapter 3 (Reference C.43, pp. 30-31).

P On an operational level, one ship, USS Rogers (DDR-876), reported that

decontamination was necessary. It probably was done using firehoses. An LCM

"was deliberately sunk rather than decontaminated. Four days after the last

shot, all ships present were surveyed for their radiological clearances before

they left for the United States. Areas monitored on the ships included evaporators, auxiliary condensers, weather decks, berth decks, intake screens of

fl high-capacity supply blowers, and ventilation duct elbows. Hull scrapings near

the waterline were taken from ships that had anchored within 5 nmi (9.3 km) of

the test area. CTG "7.6 noted in a memo to CTG 7.3 that the radiological inspection of the ships was generally satisfactory, except for intake screens of the

blowers. He suggested that the screens be removed and scrubbed with soap and

•- water on the following day. The monitor then rechecked the screens (Reference

C.43, Appendix I, Annex IV, 18 May 1948).

Mount McKinley, Albemarle, Curtiss, Balroko, USS Comstock (LSD-19), USS

Gardiners Bqa (AVP-39). UT' Pickaway (APA-222), USS Mispillion, USS Askarl

(ARL-30), U35 Henry W. Tucker (DDR-875), Roqges, UVS tlr (DW-696), !rS§

Yancey (AKA-93), USS Raby (DE-698), USS Pasig (AW-3), LSM-378, LSM-250, USS

LST-45, and LCI(L)-1054 had spot readings greater than 0.0002 R/hr above back-

"ground. All of the above-named ships with high- and Intermediate-capacity

supply blowers showed readings above 0.0002 R/hr on intake screens after scrub-

".$ bing. Contamination above 0.0002 R/hr persisted also on the No. 1 five-inch gun

81

.. . .........
on Spangler and three air-conditioning units on Curtiss. As a result, CTG 7.6

suggested that the intake supply screens of the ships' blowers be scraped to

bare metal, reoalnted, and monitored on arrival at a Navy yard. He recommended

that shipyard workers wear respirators when wire-brushing or sand-blasting

these screens and that workers with cuts on their hands not participate (Reference C.43, Appendix I, Annex IV, 18 May 1948).

USS Perkins (DDR-877), USS George (DE-697), USS Marsh (DE-699). USS Currier

(DE-700), USATS FS-370, YW-94, YOG-64, LCI(L)-1090, LCI(L)-1540, AVR-26653, and

AVR-26638 had no readings greater than 0.0002 R/hr above background. BuShips

and BuMed therefore immediately issued final radiological clearance (Reference

C.43, Appendix I, Annex IV, CTG 7.6 to CTG 7.3, May 20, 1948).

Equipment Decontamination

Radlac instruments were often wrapped in plastic (Figure 32) to avoid contamination of the instrument itself. However, when radiac instruments were

contaminated, the issue officer aboard Bairoko was informed when they were

returned. If scientific instruments showed less than 0.0001 R/hr (gamma), they

were considered uncontaminated. For more heavily contaminated instruments, CTG

7.6 cleared specific items for removal to task force ships. Otherwise they were

left at the measurement site to allow the radioactivity to decay. If background

exceeded 0.0001 R/hr (gamma) and if the scientific instruments were urgently

needed, they were removed to a site having a background less than 0.0001 R/hr

(gamma) so that their level of radioactivity could be determined and final

disposition arranged.

The drone tanks used in collecting radioactive samples near the shot craters became contaminated, but were sunk in the lagoon rather than being decontaminated. The project personnel felt that such an effort was not worthwhile

as better equipment would be available in any future tests. (Reference C.10,

p. 55 and Appendix C).

Aircraft Decontamination

The drone cloud sampler B-17s required decontamination after each shot

before they could be serviced and necessary maintenance performed. This was

done after the planes had sat undisturbed in the sample removal area at Enewetak for several days to allow radiation on the planes to lessen due to natural

decay processes.

Just before decontamination, the aircraft were moved to another atea of

the Island, but this location is not documented. In later test series held at

Enewetak, a decontamination area was set up at the downwind end of the runway

next to the lagoon to minimize the hazards from contaminated runoff water and

spray. Possibly this area was also used during SANDSTONE.

The drone B-17s were moved under their own power. The two outboard engines

were started and the planes were taxied by a pilot from the upwind corner of

the airfield to the decontamination area. After ZEBRA, 3 days elapsed before

this took place, but the intensity of the drones' radioactivity Is not known.

82
Ii

.' I

I aN

4.W

--A

4. X.

IL

Fiqjre 32. Monitor checks radioactivity following SANDSTONE shot with

plastic-wrapped Geiger-Mueller instrument.

A ivtrlon picture film exists (19 RMF 153) that shows ZEBRA drone 7 being taxied 1 ito position fec decontamination. The film shows the pilot drop from a hatch

after the propellers had stopped and sprint from the stopped plane. The photographer's no.es describe him "running to a safe area" where he was monitored

to see If he had picked up any radioactive particles while moving the drone

(Figure 33). The pilot wore standard fatigues and his hands were gloved. No

film badge was visible on his unifcrm, but a fountain-pen-like object, probably

an electroscopic dosimeter, may b, observed In his left chest pocket.

-. N

83 -
9

iO

A1

Figure 33. Pilot who had just moved drone B-17 into position

for decontamination is monitored for radioactive

contamination, Operation SANDSTONE.

Decontamination of the drones themselves consisted of monitoring, washing,

rinsing, and remcnitoring. Figures 34 through 36 show these operations. The

engines were the most contaminated parts because oil and grease in their many

narrow passages trapped and retained radioactive particles.

Decontamination personnel wore protective clothing and were monitored

(Figure 37). Shower and change facilities were located close by the drone

contaminatiorn area.

After decontamination the drones were still radioactive, but radiation had

decayed enough to allow some maintenance work. At this time maintainance work

was limited to 90 minutes for any man. Access to the decontaminated drones was

controlled (Figure 38).

Some TG 7.6 personnel were assigned to TG 7.4 in time to provide the 0equired briefing and indoctrination of personnel for these decontamInation

operutions. Early assignment also allowed them to provide technical advice and

monit(,ing :ervices essential for safe conduct of the operation (Reterence

C.,.3, Appondix B, Annex A).

84
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IS

,,'1

Fiue3. oios eodra.atvtyo ADSOEdon ape

beo e e ona*1tlo•

V8
• -,,•... . ... .S .. , ... . , , .r r -. v. ,. .. . . . ....-. . . L . " ".... . .. . "'" " " ''"* •'" " ' • ... ""

I ) ., 

-'U1 11• i

""I,...tiI9I'/. II '

•)Figure 35. Decontamination of SANDSTONE 8-17 drone sampler.

-U',

"U'

@1 - q. 

_ v . -.. , - _.--

"_4' Figure 36. Decontamination of SANDSTONE 8-17 drone sampler.

14-.

"U2 8
-S,- .* * - S . A . .. .-. - ' ". .' * .-- . K ' % 7 - . -

~~~~- ... bb • "• " !' -"

tA

...

Figure 37. Enlisted man is monitored for radioactivity following

decontamination of SANDSTONE drone sampler.

II

Figure 38. Military policeman prevents access to SANDSTONE drone

1B-17 following its decontamination.

83

I
The first member of the TG 7.6 party arrived at Enewetak Island on 30 March

1948. A radsafe center was established in the radlochemistry laboratory, close

to the drone parking area. The drone planes were not parked together, however,

following the first shot. This caused some confusion, since the monitor was

unable to keep track easily of all his men. Complete rehearsals, including

drone landings, were held for X-RAY. It was estimated from the rehearsal that

two monitors could handle filter-removal operations (Reference C.43, Annex 1-1).

The air monitor unit monitored drone aircraft and decontamination operations at Enewetak, aircraft and personnel decontamination operations at KwaJalein, and cloud-tracking operations until H+108. It also maintained and

recallbrated instruments, prepared medical dosimetry records, and compiled

mission reports (Reference C.43, pp. 87-88). Monitors from the air monitor

unit also accompan!ed each manned aircraft on shot days to prevent them from

entering areas where radiation intensity was greater than 0.1 R/hr (Reference

C.43, pp. 87-88). If the aircraft encountered an intensity of 0.1 R/hr, the

monitor advised the pilot to take immediate evasive action to avoid the radioactive area (Reference C.43, Appendix I, Annex I-1 and 1-2).

Following the detonations, drone aircraft returned to Enewetak. All other

aircraft involved In the tests returned to Kwajalein. Cloud-tracking missions

were flown until D+5. Aircraft used for these missions following X-RAY returned

with exterior contamination, necessitating monitoring and aircraft and personnel decontamination. Six monitors supervised drone aircraft decontamination

operations at Enewetak. All ground crews and personnel working on the contaminated drones wore film badges provided by the monitor assigned to the landing

site (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex A, Part 11-2). Two monitors were sent

to Guam to assist in weather reconnaissance aircraft decontamination.

Additional TG 7.6 monitoring operations consisted of postshot photography

aircraft missions, compilation of mission data, and monitoring drone aircraft

ground maintenance operations following the return of drone aircraft to Kwajalein (Reference C.43, p. 91).

Aircraft were cleared to return to the United States after the radioactive

contamination had decayed below 0.016 R/hr. Four monitors from TU 7.6.1 accom- panied these aircraft back to Eglin Field, Florida (Reference C.43, p. 93).

88
CHAPTER 3

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

EXPERIMENTAL PARTICIPATION

SANDSTONE was a proof-test of second-generation nuclear devices. The two

weapons detonated at CROSSROADS (1946) were the same type weapon dropped on

Nagasaki. On 3 April 1947, the General Advisory Committee to the Atomic Energy

Commission (AEC) recommended development and testing of new weapons. Los

Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) had developed tne SANDSTONE weapons and

was charged with the responsibility for measuring their outputs as well. Measurement of weapon output (X-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, heat, blast, etc.)

was a new science, and in October 1947 LASL created a new division, called

J-Division, to manage the nuclear testing program. J-Division contracted with

selected military service laboratories and private contractors to assist it.

Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) was tasked to prepare and conduct experiments

to measure blast overpressures. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) was similarly

"* tasked to prepare and conduct radiation measurement experiments. Argonne

National Laboratory was tasked to measure gamma-ray output. Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grier, Inc. (EG&G) was contracted to design and Install timing and

firing systems to trigger the nuclear devices and to activate the many experlments at precisely the right time (Reference C.7, p. 105).

The military services were eager to participate in the testing to determine

the effects of blast, heat, and radiation on biological specimens, equipment,

and structures. They proposed many experiments and 15 were finally approved.

These experiments were not to Interfere with the basic mission of testing the

new weapons and were under the technical control of Commander Task Group (CTG)

7.1 (Reference C.1, p. 37).

Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP) assisted the AEC in the weapon

diagnostics experiments that measured nuclear device outputs. AFSWP also supervised the proposed effects experiments from the mJlitary services and assisted

the services in gaining AEC approval. Approximately 116 AFSWP personnel were

integrated Into Task Group (TG) 7.1 (AEC Proving Ground Group), where they

assisted in almost every area of effort (Reference C.43, p. 21).

Table 8 lists the weapon diagnostics and service test experiments. The

table also lists the six experiments of a special operation, associated with

long-range detection of tnt detonations, which were conducted indeppndently of

SANDSTONE by the Air Force with dssIstance from the U.S. Coast and Geodetic

Survey (USC&GS), the Navy, and NRL. No radidtion exposure potential existed

for these six experiments as the operations were far removed from the test

site. No task force personnel participated In these experiments.

Table 9 contains exposure information for personnel who could be associated

with a particular experiment. Information for individuals associated with

weapon diagnostics experiments is complete. Not everyone associated with the

89
Table 8. SANDSTONE experfioents.

Experiment Responsible Organization

Weapon Diagnostics Experiments

Radiochemistry Los Alamos Scientitic Laboratory

Neutron Measurement Lo. Alamos Scientific Laboratory

Neutron Generation -- Rossi Method Naval Research Laboratory

Neutron Generation -- Teller Method Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grier, Inc.

Gamma-Ray Spectrum Argonne National Laboratory

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Rossi Method Naval Research Laboratory

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Teller Method Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grier, Inc. .

Technical Photography Task Group 7.4 ,

Blast Measurements Naval Ordnance Laboratory

Service Tests

p Reinforced Concrete Structures Task Group 7.2

Blast Resistance of Structures Task Group 7.3

Aircraft Blast Acceleration Task Group 7.4

Exposure of Biological Material Task Group 7.6

Exposure of Material to Radiation Task Group 7.6

Evaluation of New Radiological Instruments Task Group 7.6

Radiation Shielding by Materials Task Group 7.6

Evaluation of Collective Protectors Task Group 7.6

Residual Crater Contamination Task Group 7.6

Aerial Survey of Ground Contamination Task Group 7.6

Aerial Survey of Cloud Intensity Task Group 7.6

Survey of Cloud Particle Size Task Group 7.6

Special Operations

Observation of the Moon Air Force

MagnetIc Effects Air Force; Naval Ordnance

Laboratory

Seismic Observations U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey

Acoustic Observations Navy

Remote Detection by Airborne Filters Air Force

Remote Detection by Ground Observation Air Force

90
Table 9. SANDSTONE scientific personnel radiation exposures.

Exposure Ranges (roentgens)

No. of

No. of Persons 0.001- 0.5- 1- 1.5- ?- 2.5- Over

Experiment lltle/Organization Persons Badged 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3a

Weapon Diagnostics Experiments

Radiochemistry

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 8 8 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 5

"Aberdeen Proving Ground 5 5 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 0

Neutron Measurement

"Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 26 26 2 13 1 1 3 3 1 2

Neutron Generation -- Rossi Method

Naval Research Laboratory 38 19 11 8 0 0 0 0 0 0

Neutron Generation -- Teller Method

Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grier, Inc. 23 23 19 4 0 0 0 0 0 0

Gamma-Ray Spectrum

Argonne National Laboratory 8 8 2 6 0 0 0 0 0 0

Ganma-Ray Appearance -- Rossi Method

Naval Research Laboratory 38 19 11 8 0 0 0 0 0 0

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Teller Method

* Edgerton, Germoshausen, & Grier, Inc. 23 23 19 4 0 0 0 0 0 0

Technical Photography

Task Unit 7.4.3 175 166 122 43 1 0 0 0 0 0

ENaval j Blast Measurements

Ordnance Laboratory 38 38 14 21 0 2 1 0 0 0

Service Tests

* Reinforced Concrete Structures

Task Group 7.2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0

Structural Shapes

Task Group 7.3 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

Aircraft Blast Acceleration

Task Group 7.4 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Exposure of Biological Material

lask Group 7.6 1 1 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0

Exposure of Material to Radiation

Task Group 7.6 5 5 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 0

Evaluation of New Radiological Instruments

Task Group 7.6 2 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

Radiation Shielding by Materials

lask Group 7.6 4 3 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0

Evaluation of Collective Protectors*

laik Group 7.6 3 3 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0

Aerial Survey of Ground Contamination

.4 S Task Group 7.6 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

Aerial Survey of Cloud Intensity lask Group 7.6 3 3 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0

Survey of Cloud Particle Size

Task Group 7.6 3 3 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0

Note:

* apermissible exposure was 0.1 R/day. Overexposure, over 0.1 R/day, to a maximum of 3 R was allowed before

removing an individual from additional exposure for a period of 30 days.

N 91

,. .
service tests could be identified, however, so this Information is based on

personnel who could be Identified with a particular test. Some Individuals

worked 'on more than one service test. Wherever this occurred, the individual

has been counted under each service test In which he participated. The table

omits the special long-range detection operation, since task force personnel

did not participate.

WEAPON DIAGNOSTICS EXPERIMENTS

These experiments were designed to measure the output of the nuclear devices.-specifically yield, radlation, and blast. LASL was responsible for these

experiments and accomplished them with its own personnel or with personnel from

other organizations (see Table 8).

Radlochemistry

Agency: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL)

Operations: Radioactive cloud samples were collected by eight remotely

controlled drone B-17s on two shots by seven drones on one shot. Each

drone. controlled by a manned B-17 flying clear of the weapon, made two or

three passes through the radioactive cloud shortly after detonation to

collect cloud debris on filter paper in special boxes mounted on top of

and under the fuselage. Personnel from LASL removed the highly radioactive

papers at Enewetak Island and these were flown to Los Alamos, New Mexico,

for analysis. The techniques used in handling these samples are discussed

in Chapter 2.

Soil samples were collected by a modified light tank with a digging

device installed and the turret removed (Figure 39). The tank was unmanned

and was controlled from a hovering helicopter. The tank was placed in a

protective shelter on the shot island (Figure 40) before the shot. Several

hours after the shot it was driven out of its shelter by personnel landed

on the island by LCM or helicopter. After the tank was started it was

turned over to the controller in the helicopter for sampling runs into the

crater area. The craters formed by the SANDSTONE shots were slightly depressed areas on the surface under the burst point, not deep holes In the

ground. The concrete bases of the towers survived. A second drone tank was

available in the LCM that brought personnel to the island in case the first

tank failed. The soil samples retrieved by the tanks were then split, with

one part analyzed locally and the other sent to LASL for analysis.

Staffing: LASL (LAJ-2) provided eight men and Aberdeen Proving Ground five

men for this experiment. In addition, the entire Drone Unit of 460 wen in

TG 7.4 participated. LASL civilians performed various tasks, including

removal of filters from the drone aircraft. LASL personnel also directed

the ground-sample, drone tank operation. This operation was delayed until

the filters from the aircraft drones had been removed so that the LASL

scientist who supervised that operation could be flown by helicopter from

Enewetak Island to'the shot island.

The actual operation of the drone tanks involved an officer, an NCO,

and three civilians from Aberdeen Proving Ground (Army). The officer acted

92

•-...,• .- .. -•.- -.-.-' • " ..• q .•-/ j ." ." . .• ". -* "..• •.• i'• •'j ..• .. • L . • . •....,.-% % I • -••" • €.,'. • •'• .... -•-)'.•. '. •.'€,€ -. # " .• "./-- '. ".•,LZ:-',•%."_'• "•".,," ,'?• ¢.' '. .'.. ,• . 1
.-,

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Figure 39. Drone tank used for soil sampling operation, Operation SANDSTONE. -

tn-e

SNTN

93.

A~w

A~'

pn

Figure 40. Drone tank in revetment; helicopter hovers overhead •,

to control tank aftcr It has been started, Operation 2.

SANDSTONE "

93 "-:
as controller in the helicopter on shot days. He was also involved in

recovering the tank that stalled after X-RAY and YOKE shots.

The Navy provided the helicopter and pilot for the drone tank operation

as well as the LCM and crew for the backup tank. A second helicopter was

also involved and was positioned to help the tank-control helicopter keep its position away from the radioactive area. The particular Navy personnel

involved cannot be Identified.

Paricipants in this experiment, particularly those handling the samples from the drone aircraft, had relatively high exposures.

Project Reports: References C.3, C.5, and C.l0.

Neutron Measurement

A__geqnc.Sy: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL)

Operations: On all three shots, neutron measurements were made with two

strings of samples, a land string and a water string. Samples were placed

on the water string from 100 to 1,000 yards (91.4 to 914 meters) at 100-

yard (91.4-meter) intervals from surface zero and on the land string from 200 to 1,000 yards (183 to 914 meters) at 200-yard (183-meter) intervals from surface zero. Samples consisted of a variety of elements. Both strings

were designed for retrieval of samples by pulling them In from a safe

distance.

taffing: LASL provided 10 men including the LAJ-3 section leader, and

AFSWP provided 16 military personnel for this experiment. Exposures of one

LASL and one military worker exceeded the 3-R limit (see Table 9). Exposures were generally higher than for other experiments because the samples

were retrieved shortly after each detonation.

Project Reports: References C.18 and C.19.

Neutron Generation -- Rossi Method

Agency: Naval Research Laboratory (NRL)

Operations: Instrumentation was placed at three to four stations (dependIng on the shot) at varying distances from surface zero. In addition, one

test station was located at the base of each shot tower, one station 300

meters from each shot tower, and one station located over 1,000 meters

from each shot tower. Data and films were recovered from the various stations 7 hours after the X-RAY detonation and 4 hours after the YOKE and

ZEBRA detonations.

Staffing: NRL provided 22 men including the project leader, and AFSWP initially provided 16 military personnel for this experiment. After X-RAY

about one-third of the military particlpants were released to AFSWP. and

after YOKE all but one of the remaining military were released to AFSWP,

All personnel were billeted on USE Albemar)1- (AV-5). Exposures were low,

as reflected in Table 9.

Project Reports: References C.11, C.12, and C.13.

94
Neutron Generation -- Teller Method

Agency: Edgerton. Germeshausen & Grier. Inc. (EG&G)

Operations: Measurement of early neutrons was attempted by detecting

visible light variations. A mirror optical system was used with photomultipliers.

Staffing: EG&G provided 11 technicians including the project leader, and

AFSWP provided 12 personnel. Since return to the shot Island for recovery

operations was unnecessary, exposures were quite low (see Table 9).

Prolect Reports: References C.15. C.16, and C.17.

Gamma-Ray Spectrum

Agency: Argonne National Laboratory

Operations: Argonne was charged with measuring gamma rays as a function of

time. "Gamma shelters" were constructed on or near each shot island: Shelters A and B for X-RAY, and Shelters A, B and C for YOKE and ZEBRA. The

shelters were located 150, 1,300 and 1,800 yards (0.69, 1.19, and 1.65 km)

from surface zero. Personnel were required to return to the shelters after

each shot to retrieve data: however. 'ecause of distances to surface zero,

radiation at recovery time was at an acceptable level.

Staffing: Eight Argonne staff members martaged and executed this experiment.

Their exposures are shown in Table 9.

Project Report: Reference C.29.

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Rossi Method

Agency: Naval Research Laboratory

Operations: The experiment was essentially Identical to the Neutron Generation -- Rossi Method experiment. Gamma output was calculated from measured

neutron production.

Staffing: Staffing was the same as for the Neutron Generation -- Rossi

Method experiment.

Project Reports: References C.1.1, C.12, and C.13.

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Teller Method

Agency: Edgerton, Germeshauser. & Grier, Inc.

operations: The experiment was essentially identical to the Neutron Generation -- Teller Method experiment. Gamma output was calculated from

measured neutron production,

95
Staffing: Staffing was the same as for the Neutron Generation -- Teller

Method experiment.

Pr1ect Reports: References C.15, C.16, and C.17.

Technical Photography

Agency: Task Group 7.4 (TG 7.4)

Operations: Fireball growth can be used for a variety of nuclear device

diagnostic measurements if good photographs are collected. Four large

towers were constructed for photography at locations that Allowed use of

two towers on each shot. A tower constructed on a coral head in the lagoon

was used for all three shots. Towers were also built on Ananij, Aomon, and

Runit; one was used for each of the three shots. Film was placed in cameras

the day before each shot and retrieved from the Coral Head Photo Tower by

personnel in small boats (LCM) and from the island towers by personnel

flown over In L-5 aircraft the morning of the shots. In addition to tower

photography, LASL also required airborne photography of the fireball

growth. TG 7.4 (Air Force) furnished two OA-10 and two F-13 aircraft for

technical photography on each shot. These aircraft circled the surface

zero island at a safe distance, at altitudes ranging from 12,000 feet (3.7

km) to over 30,000 feet (9.1 km).

Staffing: LASL furnished 19 photographers and 3 other men to assist TG 7.4,

which managed the entire photography program. The Air Force Photography

Unit (Task Unit [TU] 7.4.3) had 175 personnel assigned, including the 19

LASL. civilian photographers and 12 Army, 5 Navy, 1 Marine, and 138 Air

Force personnel. This group is discussed further under TU 7.4.3 (Photography Unit) in Chapter 7. Those in TU 7.4.3 involved with technical photography cannot be distinguished from those involved with documentary

photography; therefore, Table .9 lists everyone In TU 7.4.3.

Project Reports: References C.27 and C.28.

Blast Measurements

Agency: Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL)

Operations: To measure peak overpressure at various distances, variation

of pressure with time, and shock arrival time, concrete piers 1.5 feet

(0.46 meter) high were set in the ground from 220 to 2,921 yards (0.20 to

2.67 km) to hold blast gauges on each of the three shots. The gauges were

primarily self-recording and consisted of empty beer cans, foil-meters,

pipes, 5-gallon (19-liter) cans, indenter gauges, velocity switches, harps,

and free-piston gauges, but some strain-gauge data were telemetered. Gauges

were retrieved the afternoon of D+l. Recovery crews were accompanied by a

monitor and wore film badges, pocket dosimeters, booties, caps, and gloves.

Staffing: NOL provided 21 men including the project leader, AlSWP provided

12, Army Bahllistics Research Laboratories provided 3, David Taylor Model

96
-4-

Basin provided 1, and L.ASL provided 1 this experiment. All 38 were badged:

most exposures ranged from zero to 0.5 R (see Table 9).

Project Reports: References C.20, C.21, and C.22.

SERVICE TESTS

These experiments were designed to measure effects of the detonations on

equipment and structures. They were requested by the military services, ap- proved by the AEC, and conducted by a variety of task force organizations.

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Agency: Task Group 7.2 for Office, Chief of Engineers (Army).

Operations: To determine the protection afforded by structures and earth

barricades against blast and radiation from an atomic Jetonation, four

reinforced concrete structures and one earth barricade were constructed on

EnJebl Island and subjected to the effects of the X-RAY detonation. The

structures were 12 by 24 feet (3.7 by 7.3 meters). Two had walls 1 foot

(0.30 meter) thick and two had walls 2 feet (0.61 meter) thick; the former

were located at 1,500 and 2,500 feet (457 and 762 meters) from surface zero

and the latter located at 1,000 and 1,500 feet (305 and 457 meters) from

surface zero. The earth barricade was 10 feet (3 meters) high and located

2,500 feet (762 meters) from surface zero. Navy Bureau of Ships (Busnips)

personnel (TG 7.3) placed gamma-reading film badges and AFSWP placed neutron detectors in the structures. BuShips personnel also placed test sam-

"ples on the exterior of the structures for thermal radiation studies.

, Photographs were taken of the structures before and after the shot to

"record the effects.

Staffing: Two TG 7.2 personnel have been identified with this experiment,

an Army major and a civilian employed by the Army. Exposures were less

than 0.5 R for both (see Table 9).

ProjectRepo rt: Reference C.24.

Blast Resistance of Structures

Agency: Task Group 7.3 for Navy Bureau of Yards and Docks

Operations: To determine blast damage to a variety of structural shapes

made of concrete, steel, and wood, 79 specimens were exposed on X-RAY and

92 specimens were exposed on YOKE. Structural shapes included cubes.

prisms, cyliniers, 'npheres, halt -ili.dloders, pyramrCL;, and Lmro,. all with

VLaylrig thicknesses. Figure 41 shows these shapes on Aomon after the YOKE

shot. The specimens were placed between 1,000 and 5,000 feet (0.31 to 1.52

km) from surface zero. To record and evaluate the damage, pre- and postshot

photographs were taken, visual examinations were made and recorded, and

the contours of all steel specimens were measured and recorded.

Staffing: Most specimens were designed and constructed at Jocatlons in the

United States. Army engineers built a few on site; however, they departed

97
-. . - . . -• • _ .- s _ . x -.... A . . . • " .:r - I %' . _• : - :' _

I6JI

- - W----- -0- -- 

Figure 41. Navy Bureau of Yards & Docks experimental structural shapes

after shot YOKE, Operation SANDSTONE.

the forward area before the test series began. An onsite Navy lieutenant

commander was the manager of the experiment and received less than 1 R

during the series (see Table 9).

Prolect Report: Reference C.25.

Ile Aircraft Blast Acceleration

Agency: Task Group 7.4

Operations: Four of the 12 B-17 drones used for cloud sampling were Instrumented with accelerometers, strain gauges, and pressure gauges to measure

and record the initial blast effects and buffeting they received when they

penetrated the radioactive cloud. This instrumentation was removed by TG

7.6 air monitors when the drones landed at Enewetak, shortly after completing their cloud sampling missions.

Staffing: An Air Force colonel was the onsite manager for this experiment.

Drone Unit (TU 7.4.2) and TG 7.6 personnel assisted In preparing the

instrumentation In the drones and In removing the recorded data. The

colonel's exposure is listed in Table 9.

Project Repcrt: Reference C.23.

Exposure of Biological Materials

Ancy: Task Group 7.6 for Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery (BuMed).

Operations: Selected biological materials, Including seeds, grain, insects,

fungi, and bacteria, were exposed to ionizing radiation during the first

98

.- •.
,4,   ,  r    ,% ,..  ,, , ,. .. ,, ,  , . ., ., .. ., .. ., ,. . . ,. . . . . .

two shots. These came from the Department of Agriculture, California Institute of Technology, Army Chemical Corps, and Naval Medical Research Institute. The materials were placed In 20 separate packets and located at

distances from 250 to 1,000 yards (229 to 914 meters) from surface zero.

A second part of this experiment consisted of placing four empty animal

containers between 350 and 1,500 yards (0.32 and 1.37 km) from the X-RAY

and YOKE detonations. The purpose was to determine their suitability for

use in future irradiation testing of larger animals, such as dogs and pigs.

Staffing: A Navy captain from TG 7.6 managed this experiment. Recovery after detonation was not time-sensitive so exposure to radiation was low

(see Table 9).

Project Report: Reference C.33.

Exposure of Materials to Radiation

Acjnc : Task Group 7.6 for Navy Bureau of Ships (BuShips)

Operations; Small samples of several materials were exposed at 12 separate

stations on each of the three SANDSTONE shots to determine the effects

of radiation from fission products. Some of the materials had special

coatings.

staffing: Five TG 7.6 personnel managed this experiment for BuShips. Their

exposures are listed in Table 9.

Project Report: Reference C.5.

Evaluation of New Radiological Instruments

A ency: Task Group 7.6 for Navy Bureau of Ships

Operations: Several new types of radlac meters were tested and evaluated

under field conditions. Twelve types of beta--gamma instruments were tested,

some of which were also designed to measure a]pha activity. Seven types of

pocket dosimeters were tested along with newly designed dosimeter chargers

and new concepts In alpha meters. A total of over 300 gamma-beta instruments and over 1,000 pocket dosimeters were available for field testing by

TG 7.6.

Staffing: Two TG 7.6 personnel were assigned to test these instruments

under field conditions. Their exposures are included in Table 9.

Project Report: Reference C.31.

Radiation Shielding by Materials

Agency: Task Group 7.6 for Navy Bureau of Ships

Operations: Film badges were placed behind concrete, steel, and other samples to determine relative radiation protection. Samples varied In thickness and in distance from surface zero.

99
Staffing: Four TG 7.6 personnel were assigned to this experiment (see

Table 9).

Prolect Reports: References C.5 and C.43.

Evaluation of Collective Protectors

Agency: Task Group 7.6 for Army Chemical Corps

Operations: To determine the efficiency of a system for the removal of

"airborne radioactive materials, field collective protectors were installed

before X-RAY, one in the reInforced-concrete structure at 1,500 feet (457

meters) from surface zero and one in an LCVP 2,500 yards (2.29 km) downwind

from surface zero. The LCVP sank before the detonation and a second collective protector was installed on an LCM downwind of the YOKE surface

zero. Recovery soon after the burst was unnecessary and exposures were

low, although the LCM was highly radioactive and was scuttled rather than

decontaminated.

staffing: Three TG 7.6 personnel have been identified with this experiment.

"Their exposures are listed In Table 9.

Prolect Reports: References C.24, C.30, and C.43.

Residual Crater Contamination

Agency: Task Group 7.6

Operations: The Technical Measurements Unit (TU 7.6.6) was responsible for

this experiment. Unit personnel carried out studies of residual radiation

in the craters by measuring radiation in soil samples collected by remotely

controlled tanks on shot day and several succeeding days.

Staffing: Two U.S. Public Health Service personnel in TG 7.6 have been

identified with this experiment. Personnel from the Aberdeen Proving Ground operated the drone tank and their exposures are listed under TG 7.1 In

Table 9.

Project Report: Reference C.43.

Aerial Survey of Ground Contamination

Agency: Task Group 7.6

"Operations: The concept of this test was to determine If an aerial radiation survey could be used to determine levels of radioactivity on the

"ground. A C-47 aircraft flew over the contaminated islands shortly after

', tch detonation at altitudes varying from 1,000 to 7,000 feet (0.31 to

13 km) taking readings of gamma intensity. This procedure was repeated

on CDf for each detonation and again on D+6 (except for the ZEBRA shot).

100
Staffing: The C-47 was flown by a crew from TG 7.4. A TG 7.6 monitor conducted the experiment. His exposure is included In Table 9.

Project Report: Reference C.43.

Aerial Survey of Cloud Intensity

Agency: Task Group 7.6

Operations: Film badges were placed in each drone that conducted sampling

operations on all three shots. Since each drone sampled the radioactive

cloud at an assigned altitude, this assisted In determining distribution

of Intensity within the cloud. Badges were removed by TG 7.6 personnel

when the drones landed at Enewetak.

Staffing: Three individuals from TG 7.6 have been identified with this experiment. Two had exposures in excess of I R (see Table 9).

Project Report: References C.30 and C.43.

Survey of Cloud Particle Size

Agency: Task Group 7.6 for Army Chemical Corps

Operations: Cascade Impactors, which collect particles In the air, were

placed in all four reinforced concrete shelters for X-RAY. For ZEBRA, a

cascade Impactor was in one of the drones. For YOKE and ZEBRA a cascade

impactor was in operation on board an LCM, 2,500 yards (2.29 km) downwind

of surface zero. Recovery was on D+l.

Staffing: Three TG 7.6 personnel have been identified with this experiment.

Their exposures are listed in Table 9.

Project Report: Reference C.30.

101
C,. e. --. 

CHAPTER 4

TEST OPERATIONS

Each SANDSTONE nuclear device was placed on a 200-foot (61-meter) tower,

allowing clear lines of sight from instrument stations to the burst point. The

Islands used -- Enjebi, Aomon, and Runit -- were stripped of vegetation and

graded level to facilitate instrument placement and test activities. On Enjebi.

the 1944 World War II bombardment had destroyed the coconut palms, and only

shrubby brush on the Island remained before SANDSTONE. Aomon, nearby Bijire,

and Runit, however, had to be cleared of these trees, although one section of

Aomon was left untouched.

A causeway was built between Aomon and Bijire in preparation for SANDSTONE.

The causeway allowed underground Instrument cable runs from the test tower to

an Instrument station on Bijire. It was also a roadway for a radio-controlled

tank used to collect samples of soil In the burst area, and allowed freer movement of conscruction dnd test personnel on the small islands before the shot.

Details of Instrument placement and experimental activities are in Chapter 3.

The succession of shots was from Enjebi, the most northern and western of

the test Islands, to Runit, the most southern and eastern. Winds at Enewetak

are usually such that the area of potential contamination by radioactive fallout would lie north of a line running west-southwest to east-northeast, passing

just south of the burst point. Moving the shot points progressively from northwest to southeast minimized the possibility of personnel working in areas contaminated by prior shots.

Operations for each of the three test shots were similar but were carried

out more precisely with YOKE and ZEBRA as collective experience grew (Reference

C.3, p. IX-70). Operations were rehearsed from 4 to 8 April, with the latter

the date of the X-RAY shot rehearsal

Test operations began about a week before each shot, when various samples of materials to be exposed were set out in or near test structures and at other

measurement sites.

On D-3, a meeting of all commanders and principal staff officers was held

to determine If all preparations were sufficiently advanced to permit proceeding according to schedule. Upon receiving Commander Joint Task Force 7 (CJTF

7) approval to proceed, orders were issued to execute the Evacuation Plan.

On D-2, movements within and Into the atoll were restricted to ]ast-minuwe essentials; all islands except Enewetak and Parry were searched to ensure that

everyone had been evacuated.

On D-1, a personnel muster took place to ensure an accurate check of all

personnel; last-minute preparations of all scientific equipment were carried

out; and Enewetak Atoll was evacuated completely except for the personnel and

equipment essential for the test. ..

102

i - -itt - - -. I .. 1 •l ." -- ....- - i '-(i, . . . .. " . '-" ..
-%-

Throu~ghout test preparation days, the weather watch continued to ensure

that the day selected for the test would have favorable weather.

"Wind direction and velocity at all altitudes were critical to minimize the

possibility of fallout from the radioactive cloud on task force ships and any

inhabited islands. Light, variable winds, which made forecasting more diffi-

"cult, and winds with a northerly component presented unfavorable conditions

for firing. Clouds that would interfere with visual direction of drone aircraft

"through the radioactive cloud also made firing conditions unfavorable. Addi--

tionally, heavy cloud cover would interfere with aerial photography, but since

this was not essential to scientific recording, this condition could be tol-

"erated If other criteria were favorable. Rainshowers that could be predicted

as "few and scattered" were acceptable, but predicted "heavy showers" were not

acceptable because of possible interference with surface photography, which

was essential to scientific recording. Keeping the drone aircraft away from

' all rainshowers to avoid wetting their filters was also essential.

During periods of normal trade wind conditions, weather forecasts could be

made with a high degree of certainty, but during periods of little weather

movement, forecasts were very uncertain (Reference C.2, pp. 111-24 and III-25).

Three musters were held on the day before each shot. The first, at 0600,

was to account for everyone who was in the Enewetak area before personnel left

for their assigned shot-hour stations. The second, at 1330, was to ensure that

personnel were at their assigned stations before the departure of the boats

and ships. The third, at 1800, was to determine the whereabouts of everyone in

the task force (Reference C.7, p. 157).

Task force personnel on Enewetak were evacuated to ships the day before the

shot, except for a small group that remained on Enewetak and Parry islands for

the three shots. The temporary camps on Enjebi, Runit, and Aomon were abandoned

and dismantled for each shot on those islands. Evacuation of Enjebi before

"X-RAY was photographed and is shown in Figure 42. The shot tower is in the

background. Task force ships evacuated the lagoon except for USS Albemarle

""-(AV-5), LISS Mount McKinley (AGC-7), USS Curtiss (AV-4), USS Bairoko (CVE-l15).

AVR C-26638, and AVR C-26653 (air-sea rescue boats), which were off Parry

Island.

Plans were made to evacuate UJelang (the atoll to which the Enewetak people

had been moved before Operation SANDSTONE began) If fallout from any of the

three shots occurred there. An LST was dispatched to Ujelang on D-3 for each

shot to stand by if needed for evacuation. Four C-54 aircraft were on standby

at Kwajalein to assist in evacuating the skeleton force on Enewetak if fallout

occured. Neither contingency plan had to be used for any of the three shots.

Cloud sampling was conducted by directing unmanned B-17 drones through the

cloud. These drones were controlled by manned B-17 controller aircraft on a

"one-to-one basis. The drones were landed at Enewetak where the "hot" filter

papers were removed and flown to Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) for - analysis. Analyses of the bomb debris collected by these filters were used to

determine device yields and other technical data.

'N10

• 103
- 

- --

-.-

jaw)

Figure 42. Evacuation of Enjebi before shot X-RAY, Operation SANDSTONE. Fiur"4.Shot tower in background.

Choice of the shot hour was a compromise that resolved conflicting require- "ments. The experiment to measure gamma output by the Teller method needed darkness to record visible light emission. However, Task Group (TG) 7.4 (Air Force)

* needed daylight for the B-17 control aircraft to properly guide the B-17 drone

sampling runs. Several early morning practices were held by TG 7.4 to determine

"the earliest possible time it could fly the drones, and a shot time that was

.I dark enough for the gamma measurement and light enough shortly thereafter for

sampler control was cho7en.

The Air Force also operated C-54 and F-13 airctaft foc photoytgphy, SB-17 and OA-10 aircraft for search and rescue, and WB-29 aircraft for weather re- I connaissance and cloud tracking. Eleven other C-54s were available for courier

service and emergency evacuation. Five were designated for transport of filter

papers, soil samples, and film to the United States. Four of these aircraft

were at Enewetak on shot days. Four C-54s were on standby at Kwajalein for

emergency evacuation of Enewetak. One was used to ferry B-17 drone spare parts

between Kwajalein and Enewetak and another ferried photo equipment from Kwaja- lein to the United States. Table 6 contains a list of the aircraft available

to support SANDSTONE.

104
X-RAY

The X-RAY nuclear device was detonated with a yield of 37 KT at 0617 on 15

April 1948 Just before sunrise on a tower on Enjebi. Figure 43 shows ship positions at burst time. The detonation produced a brilliant flash, and observers

felt radiant heat on their faces for an instant. The fireball was immediately

obscured by a condensation (Wilson) cloud that moved out behind the advancing

shock wave and formed a hemispherical shape with a diameter of about 5 nmi

(9.3 km), which was Illuminated from within by the fireball. This cloud disappeared after a few seconds, and the incandescent fireball changed from nearly

white. to yellow, to orange, and finally to red in about 20 seconds. In 45 to

50 seconds, the sound of the shot -- like that of heavy thunder -- reached the

observers on the ships In the lagoon.

The radioactive cloud pushed through the deck of broken cumulus shortly

after the first minute. When its top reached 40,000 feet (i2.2 km) in approximately 5 minutes, an ice cap was seen to form. The darkness prevented careful

observations, and not all observers reported this Ice-cap phenomenon. After 6

minutes, the cloud top was at approximately 44,000 feet (13.4 km). 1he cloud

consisted of two major portions: the mushroom with Its tapering stem, and a

large cumulus-type cloud from which the stem appeared to extend. This lower

cloud portion reached up to an estimated height of 15,000 feet (4.6 km) and

was mingled with the other lower clouds so that it was mostly obscured. As the

mushroom continued to rise, it began to move eastward with the prevailing

southwesterly winds. This eastward drift had begun between 3 and 4 minutes

after the detonation, when the cloud had reached approximately 30,000 feet

(9.1 km). Meanwhile, the lower portion was drifting westward, and the stem was

elongating and becoming smaller in diameter.

At 9-1/2 minutes, Albemarle observers recorded a clean break, or shear,

between the upper and lower cloud masses that was estimated to occur at 20,000

feet (6.1 km). The stem of the cloud rapidly disperspd in this wind shear reglon during the following 3 or 4 minutes, leaving an irregular patch of dust

or smoke that separated itself from both the upper and lower portions of the

cloud. This shear point was at about the altitude that measured winds showed a

direction change from predominantly northwest to predominantly northeast.

Between 12 and 13 minutes after detonation, the mushroom reached Its highest altitude. The upper portion of the cloud was estimated to be approximately

5.5 nmi (10.2 km) In diameter at this time, and its center was 19 nmi (35.2 km)

from the observing ships. After reaching maximum altitude, the upper cloud was

moved by a wind from 2300 at approximately 25 knots (46 km/hr).

The lower cumuli's-type portion of the cloud remained visible for about 20

minutes, when it was obscured by other clouds. The stem of the mushroom, which

formed a broad, irregularly shaped area of fine dust and smoke, appeared to

disperse In the region of wind shear and disappeared after about 2 hours. The

primary portion maintained its general shape but appeared to become thin and

sheet-like so that it closely resembled cirrocumulus. Finally, in approximately

3 hours even this most prominent part of the cloud could not be distinguished

by surface observers (Reference C.35, pp. 9 and 10).

At H-hour plus 20 minutes a helicoptet left Bairoko to go to Enjebi to

check on the cable winch, which was there to retrieve samples from near the

105

.-7

o o .o " . . "'..- . °" *" .- '- ,f" " - •4 . ** .o "".* *...°°.°*" , .* . ... - -°"..* . . . .-.. ° '° . ° . .,.. . '... .-.. .",. ° ,.' .'•, " °
U!; ULOHIl. )I)1 l6/1

"34 mm (63 kr'wI NE

BOKEN ENJEBI

BOKOLUO .*

AOMON

-SURFACE

ZERO

BILLAE USS HENRY W TUCKER (DDR 875b

RUNIT •

UNIBOR .

DREKATIMON" TASK UNIT 7,38

USS PICKAWAY ,APA.222) I IVY•' -USS CURRIER (DE.700)

USS WARRICK (AKA 89)

PARRY * US. MISPILLION (AO1051

SPARRY SS GARDINERS BAY (AVP.39) BIKEN JAPTAN USS COMSTOCK (LSD 191

,U'.; ALBEM'1AR(LE 1AV .I V/

_USSPANC6.ER IDF 696.. \ o •

-_IJUSS F3AIROKO ýCVE 1151l--,*, of 3 _j-% MIOUNT MCKIrLEY IAGC 7)-"0/ USS RABY DE-6981

.U 5' CU 14' T I SS IAV-41•/ 0

KIDRENEN'. ENEWETAK USS ROGERS iDDR-876)

'12IJ' IKURE:N O

00 USS PERKINS (DDR 8•/)

LCI 549 rASK UNIT 13.5

USS PASIG (AW3)

USS MARSH (DE-699)

YW 94

YOG 64 NUSS ASKARI (AItI :101 FS ,:u1

tI•S ST 4b

ICI 1954

LII:"!ZI2LCI 1090 , I,, LSM 250

LLU..LL IU L;AIII|I'I! S. 

S AI I III, (A : 1

ii l, II

1,A 17 I fI Al i ll I

it,1"1 f iII

1; 162'"10' 162")20' 162)30' 162")40'0

EAST LONGITUDE:0

Figure 43. Ship positions at shot time, SANDSTONE, X-RAY.

106
burst point, and the feasibility of other data-recovery work in that auea. Ten

minutes earlier an AVR had left Parry for Enjebi in case a helicopter in the

shot area required assistance. Another AVR with a qroup of radsafe monitors,

who were to be set ashore on Enjebi, also left Parry at this time. These men

were monitors for high-priority data-recovery missions (Reference C.3, p.

IX-67).

At H-hour plus 45 minutes, Batroko got underway from the anchorage and

moved toward Enjebl. When the ship was about 5 nmi (9.3 km) from Enjebi two

small boats were lowered. These were manned by TG 7.6 personnel and preceded

Bairoko. surveying the lagoon waters for radioactivity. After Bairoko was

anchored off Enjebi, these boats continued this survey activity in the lagoon

(Reference C.3, p. IX-68).

The B-17 drones had been flown to Enewetak Island the day before and the

B-17 controllers arrived from Kwajalein early enough on the morning of 15 April

to have all eight drones in position before the detonation. One B-17 drone

became unmanageable and crashed In the ocean a few minutes before the detonation. Five drones made three cloud penetrations and the remaining two drones

made two cloud penetrations to collect cloud debris. These seven drones were

landed at Enewetak and the filter papers removed. Filters from the top of the

fuselage were removed, placed In flat lead boxes by 0900. and were en route to

LASL aboard a C-54 by 0945. Filters from the under-fuselage box were en route

.* by 1040 (Reference C.23, p. 28). The drones were washed down with kerosene and

distilled water by TG 7.6 personnel and returned to Kwajalein 5 days later

(Reference C.3, pp. VIII-68 and 70, IX-113).

A light tank had been modified at Aberdeen Proving Ground to scoop up soil

samples In the craters formed by the detonations. The character of this crater

Is shown in Figure 44. It was merely a slightly depressed area surrounding the

remains of the shot tower. The tank had been parked on Enjebi in a specially

V 4V

Figure 44. Monitor in SANDSIONE, X-RAY crater, probably 6 days after

the shot. Stumps of the shot tower are snown.

107

1.
built protective revetment In preparation for the X-RAY shot. After the filters

had been pulled from the drone aircraft, the Rad-Chem section chief flew to

Enjebi in a helicopter to supervise soil sample collection. He first advanced

toward the crater to set out a row of red flags indicating the limit of safe

approach. The antenna of the revetted tank had been sheared off by the blast.

After the antenna of the backup tank was used as a replacement, the tank was

* started. A helicopter, hovering at a safe distance, was used to guide the tank

into the crater by radio control. On the third attempt the tank mired in the

soft soil and could not be restarted. Since the backup tank in an LCM in the

lagoon lacked a radio antenna, it could not be used (Reference C.43, Annex 3).

The C-47 for aerial radsafe survey left Enewetak at H-hour plus 30 minutes

and flew to a position 10 nini (18.5 km) upwind of the shot point, where It

began its survey at H-hour plus 69 minutes. Almost Immediately the monitor

observed a reading of 0.12 R/hr and ordered a change of course. The plane had

apparently come under a fringe of the upper portion of the cloud. The background in the plane remeined at 0.008 R/hr for 1 hour, but had decreased to

0.001 R/hr by landing time. Flights at altitudes from 5,000 feet (1.52 km)

down to 1,000 feet (0.30 km) over the crater followed; peak rate readings of

3.5 R/hr (uncorrected) were recorded. Later flights over the islands west of

Enjebi indicated that, as expected, they had been contaminated by fallout.

Readings of 0.5 R/hr were recorded 200 feet (61 meters) over Boken, Bokaidrikdrik, and DridrilbwiJ (Reference C.30, Rpt 2, p. 17).

The diagnostic experiments fielded by LASL (LAJ-3) were attached to a land

cable and a water cable. LAJ-3 personnel, accompanied by a monitor, were flown

0~ by helicopter to the land cable that was attached to a winch situated in a

relatively safe position. This cable was successfully winched in and most samples were recovered. The water-cable samples suffered appreciable blast damage,

and 2 days were required to recover those that could be located. Exposures for

the land-cable sample recovery personnel were less than 0.200 R for the 2-hour

mission. A survey of the water cable locations took a second party nearer to

the shot point. Exposures were higher, but "well within the tolerance established." The 'tolerance established" is not cited in the source document, but

must refer to the up-to-3 R exposure allowed for "specific urgent missions."

The monitor for both the first and second parties was the same person and was,

in fact, also the project leader for the experiments. His total exposure for

the day was 0.75 R (Reference C.43, Appendix I, Annex I, p. 3, and Appendix I,

Annex I, Appendix 1, p. 5: and Reference E.l).

Five hours after detonation, personnel from LAJ-4 and LAJ-5 were helicoptered to Enjebl. They recovered instruments and film from the timing station

and Gamma B station. Jeeps left on the island were used for transportation

(Reference C.5, p. 3-22).

Photo personnel recovered film from the Coral Head Photo Tower by LCM from

Enewetak and from the Aomon Photo Tower by L-5 aircraft. Blast records were

recovered from Enjebi by LAJ-8 personnel on D+i (Reference C.5, p. 3-22).

Two C-54 and two F-13 aircraft photographed the detonation. Two were at

12,000 feet (3.66 km), one at 30,000 feet (9.14 km), and one above 30,000 feet

(9.14 km). They flew from Kwajalein and circled Enjebi from a safe distance

while taking pictures (Reference C.7, p. IV-19).

108

]I
•' • •. . ,• . .• ,.• •- .w .- . '; . .. .• o - . .-'. -'• .• . -. •• • : . • .• • - -. ,- - " . , -- , -. 2- . '

One weather reconnaissance WB-29 flew over Enewetak from midnight to 0530

the morning of the shot. The WB-29 on this mission lost a propeller and aborted

the mission; however, it was replaced by a second WB-29. After the detonation, the WB-29s were used in 12-hour shifts for 5 days to track the radioactive

cloud. All of these aircraft returned contaminated and the aircraft crews required decontamination (Reference C.3, p. IX-102). In fact, the filters from

one WB-29 were too radioactive to analyze initially (Reference A.4, p. 22).

Albemarle, Mount McKinley, and Curtiss steamed to Aomon from Parry after

sunrise on D-day (15 April) to begin preparations for the next shot. Bairoko

steamed to Enjebi to set up radiation controls and monitor personnel and

equipment for radioactivity (Reference C.5, p. 3-21).

A fallout chart of Enewetak, Kwajalein, and Ujelang atolls was maintained

on board Bairoko. The Enewetak chart included daily surface and air radex

areas. Fallout patterns for surface, 15,000, 20,000, 25,000, and 30,000 feet

(4.6, 6.1, 7.6, and 9.1 kim) were plotted (Reference C.43, Annex 1).

The unpopulated islands west of Enjebi were heavily contaminated; however, the rest of the islands were relatively free of any radioactivity. On D+5, CTU

7.6 recommended closing the islands from Elle around to Southwest Passage because of radioactivity along the beaches and evidence of fallout. Temporary clearance of the other islands and their beaches for swimming was also recommended (Reference C.43, p 1-4).

Evidently, monitors from TG 7.6 were in heavy demand, for on 19 April the

task force commander sent a dispatch to all task groups as follows:

19 April 1948

From: CJTF-7

Action: All Task Group Commanders

Personnel of Task Group 7.1 will be allowed to work on

Enjebi In the area in which radiation intensity is less than

12.5 mR/hr for a period of 8 hours unaccompanied by a monitor

in accordance with the following procedures: CTG 7.1 will be

notified daily by CTG 7.6 as to the extent of this area and

CTG 7.1 will inform all TG 7.1 working parties, who can accomplish their work In this area, of the extent of the area. CTG

7.6 will insure that there will be at least one monitor In

this area to advise all Individuals working under the above

provisions. CTG 7.6 will provide for issue of film badges, pocket dosimeters and clothing as necessary at the landing

area on Enjebi. Upon returning all working parties will stop

at the Bairoko as It is not feasible to monitor personnel for

contamination on Enjebi due to high background.

The bogged tank that was to collect soil samples was recovered on 25 April, 10 days after the shot (Reference C. 43, Annex I, p. 27). This recovery was

done by attaching a cable to the tank and pulling it free of the loose sand

with another vehicle, after which thu tank was driven out by an Aberdeen ProvIng Ground (APG) technician. The cable could not be hooked to any substantial

109
point on the top of the tank's hull, although attempts were made. Finally, the

cable was hooked to a towing point on the underside of the tank's hull. AccordIng to the Army officer from APG who did the hook up, this required considerable time crawling under the tank. The LASL radiochemist who was in charge of

the project and was at the recovery acting as the monitor recollects that the

hookup required little more than bending at the waist to accomplish (Reference

D.5). A recent analysis was made of this incident using the conservative (and

incorrect) assumption that the incident took place 5 days after X-RAY shot.

Assuming that extensive crawling was required, the results of this analysis

were that the whole-body gamma dose would have been between 4.4 and 7.2 rem.

All personnel were badged for the incident and the APG officer's badge recorded

0.140 R for the day. The film badges of the four monitors on this mission recorded between 0.150 and 0.180 R for the day (Reference E.1). I

Engineers destroyed the remains of the test structures on Enjebi in order

to prevent unauthorized persons from obtaining any information on the effects

of the test. Nine days after the shot, Bairoko had shifted Its anchorage to a

location near the YOKE test site, joining the test support ships that had moved

there earlier. Eleven days after the shot, Enjebi was closed to all personnel.

YOKE

YOKE was detonated at 0609, just before sunrise on I May 1948 on a tower

on Aomon. It had been postponed 1 day because of unfavorable winds. Its yield

w.ýs 49 KT, the largest nuclear detonation to that time. Figure 45 shows ship

positions at shot time. Observers noted the same brilliant flash and heat as

from X-RAY, but the condensation cloud was larger, about 6 nmi (11.1 km)

across. The sound of the YOKE detonation was perceived as a "resounding pop

similar to (but] considerably magnified . a paper bag which is

forcefully burst in a small room" (Reference C.35. p. 9).

When the condensation cloud vanished, the fireball was seen. The base of

the fireball seemed to spread out over the island and appeared to linger momentarily before rising. In about 10 seconds the fireball had grown to a diameter

of 1 mile (1.6 km). The brilliant yellows and oranges changed to red as the

incandescent gases cooled In about 20 seconds. In one minute, the mushroom top

was estimated at about 2 miles (3.2 km) in diameter. From about 2 to 5 minutes,

the cloud rose as a large, spherical mass on a broad stem, leaving a relatively

thick trail of dust and smoke in Its wake.

After 5 minutes, the mushroom stem bent to the east, as strong westerly

winds took effect. The cloud reached a maximum altitude of 56,000 feet (17.1

km). At this time, it consisted, from the surface upward, of (1) a thick vertical mass estimated to be 1-1/2 miles (2.4 km) in diameter extending to 15,000

feet (4.6 km); (2) a slanting column, tilted toward the east, of irregular

patches of reddish-brown smoke and dust: and (3) an upper, dominant mass that

was about 5 miles (8 km) in diameter and 3 miles (4.8 kW) thick. All parts of

the cloud remained connected.

At H-hour plus 16 minutes, the highest portion of the cloud resembled an

anvil top, similar to that found on a cumulonimbus cloud, assumed to have been

caused by Its top spreading out as It flattened against the stratospheric

110
i4.

.A

0 USS HENRY W. TU~CKER (DDR 875)

BOKEN ENJEBI

BOKOLUO

11040 AOMON

%/

SURFACE

BILLAE

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%0

DREKATIMON -

11030'TASK UNIT 7.3.8

11030"15 nni-20 ami (28 37 kin) ESE

UISS PICKAWAY (APAU222)

PARRY LISS CURRIER (DE-700)

ii LISW• C AK-

, BIKEN JAPTAN LISSARICKJI fAKA9)

U)LSS ALBEMARLE \J(SSMSPLIO-AOlS tS IE N AUSS COMSTOCK ILSD 19)

P- LIS SPANGLER ICERFACE-

< AUSS ROGE RS LISS GARDINERS BAY(AVPE39) L1 151-.... (DDR"876)

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U S MCSS PKIINLAWY-2

USIRCU LS RTSISSS PERIN JALIN MARRI (DE-700) SS WSARRIC (AKA-39)

* LSM-250

12- USRNUSGOREELSK U ST-45

\"- USPNLER(D-96-.54900jUS OGR USSASG)ARW3ER BA0.P3 

USSBAIROK (CVE-115USS- MARSH IDE(DR6991 OUT C USSUS PNEYRKINS7 USS AKARI ARL3

O KIDRENN" • TAA -250S

YW 94

N FS-370

LC I - 1054

LCI- 1090

LSM-378

0 5 10

II I I I I I I I I I

NAUTICAL MILES

0 5 10

I I I I l I I I I II

STATURE MILES

0 5 10

II III III III

KILOMETEJIS

11" lI I

1621 162"10' 162"20' 162030' 162040'

rAST LONGITUDE

Figure 45. Ship positions at shot time, SANDSTONE, YOKE.

111
r 'f' ' .7. -w 

 .  . ** . .

inversion. After 1 hour, the highest portion of the former anvil seemed to

contain the only moisture in the entire cloud. It appeared to have stretched

out into a rectangular patch of cirrocumulus; whereas the remainder of the

cloud maintained its reddish-brown color and smoky, dusty appearance. The cloud

had been drawn out by the upper winds Into a ribbon whose extremities were

about 50 miles (80 km) apart. This ribbon varied in width and density, but

remained unbroken. It generally zig-zagged downward in a slanting line from

east to west and reached completely across the northern sky. The cloud had

moved away until it was less than 100 above the horizon. ?fter 2 hours. it

appeared at such a low angle, and was so dispersed, that Its general form

could not be determined (Reference C.35, pp. 10-11).

Four helicopters landed on Aomon at H+20 min, tes to retrieve the land

cable with attached samples using a powered wlnch. A jeep was also used to

assist in retrieving the samples. The cable closest to the detonation measured

15 R/hr at a distance of 6 inches (15 cm) when it was reeled In. Two members

of the party approached the crater until readings reached 20 R/hr, then retreated. One of these two was the TG 7.6 monitor. His exposure for this mission

was 1.450 R (Reference C.43, Annex I).

LAJ-4 and LAJ-5 personnel arrived at Aomon-Bijire by an LCVP at aoout H+1.

They recovered instrumentation from the Gammi A and 1, stations, which was flown

by helicopter to Albemarle. All personnel i ,turned via Bairoko for monitoring

and decontamination (Reference C.43, Annex I). The TG 7.6 monltot with this

party received 0.800 R during the operation AP erence C.29)

Mount McKinley, Albemarle and Curtiss left the Parry Island anchor-je after

the shot and steamed for Runit, site of the next shot. Balroko headed for

Aomon to control entry to radex areas and to monitor personnel and equipment

from the YOKE shot Island. It encountered an increase In background radiation

(amount not given) on the bridge even before It departed Parry Island; however,

it was not sufficient to be of concern. lr•us s ne increase was noted on Parry

Island (Reference C.43, Annex 1).

Fallout charts were maintained for Enewetak, Kwajalein. and Ujelang atolls;

again the Enewetak chart included air as well as ground radexes. The unpopu--

lated islands northwest of Aomon were heavily contaminated by shot YOKE (Reference C.43, Annex 1).

As they had been for X-RAY, the drones were prepositioned at Enewetak the

day before the shot. B-17 controllers departed from Kwajalein early enough on

shot day to guide the drones to the target area well before shot time. One

drone made a simulated bomb run over the target area at H-hour and took pictures of the detonation. It flew at 20,000 feet (6.10 km) and experienced

severe buffeting but returned safely. It did not perform any sampling as the

radiation might have damaged the exposed photographic film. It was one of four

B-17 drones instrumented to measure blast effects. LASL. personnel removed the

filters from all sampler drones after they landed at Enewetak and by 0940 had

placed them aboard awaiting C-54s for flights to LASL. Drones were again decontaminated by TG 7.6 personnel and flown back to Kwajalein after a few days

(Reference C.3, p. VIII-71; Reference C.23, p. 55).

112
The radio-controlled tank intended to collect soil samples from the YOKE 14

crater was started after 1130. It stalled, and the LCM landed the backup tank

and it obtained usable samples. These were shipped back to LASL via Enewetak,

belng dispatched by air from there after 1510 (Reference C.3, p. V111-73).

The C-47 was dispatched from Enewetak shortly after the detonation to conduct a radiological survey of Aomon and surrounding Islands. It encountered

fallout at about 1 hour and 15 minutes and readings inside the aircraft rose

to 0.150 R/hr. The Intensity did not drop rapidly despite flying through rain

clouds to flush its exterior, and the mission was terminated at 0128 when the

reading was 0.048 R/hr, only 3 minutes after the fallout was encountered. The

C-47 landed at Enewetak at 0805 with a reading of 0.025 R/hr. It was allowed

to sit and "cool" until 1310, when the intensity had dropped to 0.004 R/hr.

The aircraft then resumed its mission. This later mission was considered quite

successful, and several low passes were made over the crater at 500- and 600-

foot (152- and 183-meter) altitudes. Intensity readings on one of these passes

rose to 25 R/hr. The TG 7.6 monitor on board the C-47 received an exposure of

0.2Pn R during this mission (Reference C.30, p. 2-20: Reference E.1).

Film recovery personnel were taken to the Coral Reef Photo Tower by an LCM

from Enewetak and to the Runit Photo Tower by L-5 aircraft, Monitors accompanied both parties; however, neither tower was radioactive (Reference C.27,

p. 40).

Blast records were recovered from Aomon-Bijire the afternoon of D+1 by

Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) personnel (LAJ-8) accompanied by a TG 7.6 monitor. All personnel wore booties, caps, and gloves and had pocket dosimeters

as well as film badges (Reference C.20, p. 148).

The two C-54 and two F-13 photography aircraft circled the shot Island at

the same altitudes as for X-RAY -- two at 12,000 feet (3.66 km), one at 30,000

feet (9.14 km), and one above 30,000 feet (9.14 ki). They took extensive pictures of the development of the cloud from a safe distance. They flew from and

returned to Kwajalein (Reference C.1, p. IV-19).

A WB-29 weather aircraft patrolled the Enewetak Atoll area reporting on

cloud conditions from midnight until almost 0600 the morning of the shot.

WB-29s were again used to track the radioactive cloud in 12-hour shifts for 5

days (Reference C.4, p. XII-42). Most returned with some radioactivity (Reference C.3, p. XII-102).

Two days after YOKE, Balroko (anchored off Aomon) experienced fallout. The

maximum intensity recorded was 0.0017 R/hr. At about the same time Kwajalein

was also experiencing fallout. Intensities on Kwajalein exceeded 0.002 R/hr,

and the total lifetime exposure for persons remaining in the open was calculated to be 0.770 R (Reference D.6). Because of concern that inhabited islands

might have experienced fallout, drinking-water samples were taken from Majuro,

Likiep, Rongelap, Ujelang, and Ujae as well as Kwajalein. All samples were

found to be completely safe (Reference C.43, Annex I, Annex IV).

According to the Monitor Schedule, the stalled drone tank was recovered 2

days after the shot. Four days after the shot, a regular monitor station was

113

S. . • •,• • •,• "-. . ... . •'" " T " " 'I'I' -... "....... &"' .. ' . .
set up on Aomon to control access to the island, on which by that time radioactivity had decreased enough to begin destruction of surviving test structures. The island was closed and declared a restricted area 11 days after YOKE

(Reference C.43, Appendix I, Annex I, Appendix 1, p. 8).

ZEBRA

The third and last shot of the SANDSTONE series was detonated atop a tower

on Runit at 0604 just before sunrise on 15 May 1948. Its yield was 18 KT. Figure 46 shows ship positions at shot time. Observers saw the brilliant flash

and felt the heat, as during the two previous shots. The sound was described

as like the "bang of an eight Inch gun" heard at a distance of several hundred

feet. The condensation cloud formed as before, but the base was at an altitude

of about 2,000 feet (610 meters), allowing direct observation of the fireball.

Because of its relative nearness and the unobstructed view, the fireball

seemed brighter and appeared to last longer than those of previous shots. DurIng the first 2 minutes, the cloud rose almost straight up. After 3 minutes,

the upper part of the cloud began to move toward the east. Between 10 and 11

minutes, the top of the cloud moved to the east of the broad stem, and observers on Bairoko were able to look up into the base of what had been the

rising mushroom head. These observers stated that the cloud, viewed from the

bottom, had a hollow appearance and looked somewhat like a smoke ring.

After H+I, the edges of the cloud became indistinct, and it began to blend

with the thin cirrus clouds that almost completely covered the sky. By 90 minutes, the outline of the cloud was indefinite; and at 2 hours, only a light

tan patch remained of the primary cloud mass; no other parts of it could be

seen.

Eight B-17 drones were directed through the cloud for sampling operations, each aircraft making three passes. One drone was to make a simulated bomb run

at 20,000 feet (6.1 km) at H-hour; however, the control B-17 had trouble with

this drone, so the bomb run was cancelled. Four of the drones were equipped to

measure blast effects. The drones and samples were noticeably more radioactive

than on the previous two shots.

As on the previous two shots, five LASL personnel were assigned to remove

the filter papers from the aircraft. Three of the five had performed this oper-

"ation on both the earlier shots. On this shot, however, three of the men received serious beta radiation burns on their hands. O i-all gamma exposure for

.*. the five ranged from 2 R to 17 R during ZEBRA. This .as accumulated as they removed the wire-mesh filter-paper holders f, m the l.rge filter boxes on the

aircraft. After removing these they took the filter papers from the holders

and stapled an Identifying tag (aircraft number) to each filter paper. Fourfoot- (1.2-meter-) long tongs were available to hold the paper. but these were

difficult to manipulate in the brisk trade winds and were apparently seldom

used. The papers were then placed in flat lead boxes (called "pigs") and

transported to two awaiting C-54 aircraft.

The three men who received the radiation burns showered thoroughly and

flew back to LASL on the two C-54 aircraft. Even before arriving at LASL their

114
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USS CURTISS (AV 4! 7 LSNI 378

z KIDRENEN" ". ENEWETAK /

USS HENRY W TUCKER

11°20. (DR 875i 1 1

0 20' IKUREN DR75

LCI-549 TASK UNIT 738

USS PICKAWAY IAPA 222)

LUSS CURRIER JDE-700)

USS I COMSTOCK iLSD 19)

LUSS MISPILLION (AO 1051

USS GARDINERS BAY AVP 39,

N

TASK UNIT 7.3 5

l1 - LIUSS PASIG JAW 3)

10 oUSS 5 MARSH iDE 699i • I • Il I 1I !YW 94

NAUTICAL MILES YOG 64

USS ASKARI (ARL 30}

0 5 10 FS 370

I I I I I I I I LCI 1054

STATUTE MILES LCI 1090

0 S 10 LS,1.250

I I I1 I I I I I l I USS LST 45

KILOMETERS

1101 l1

162) 162010 162"120' 162"30 162140.

EAST LONGITUDE

Figure 46. Ship positions at shot time, SANDSTONE, ZEBRA.

115

416ý*,A.
hands had become red, swollen, and itching. At LASL their injuries were quickly

diagnosed as beta burns and all three were hospitalized. An individual who had

done this job for YOKE also had complained of sore hands upon his return to

LASL. He was called to the hospital and diagnosed as having beta burns also.

He was hospitalized at this time, but was released on 28 May as his burns were

minor. The other three men had badly burned hands that required skin grafts

(Reference D.2).

TG 7.6 personnel decontaminated the drones during the following few days,

and Drone Unit personnel flew them back to Kwajalein (Reference C.3. p.

VITI-74). They were cleared for flight back to Eglin AFB when the intensity

levels had dropped to 0.016 R/hr, but were required to stay at least 24 hours

at Hickam AFB, Hawaii, and 24 hours at Fairfield-Suisun AFB, California, during their flight to Eglin (Reference C.43, p. 93; Reference C.43, "Messages."

p. 4).

LAJ-3 personnel and a TG 7.6 monitor were ferried to Runit after the detonation to retrieve the samples attached to the land cable and winch. The cable

snagged, however, and the samples had to be removed by driving a jeep down

alongside the cable, exposing the party to somewhat higher radiation intensities than encountered on the previous shots. Blast gauges were retrieved by

NOL (LAJ-8) the afternoon of D+l. .

t.

The neutron- and gamma-ray diagnosticians (LAJ-4 and LAJ-5) wre helicop--

tered to Runit the morning of the detonation to recover Instruments and film

from the gamma stations and the timing station. Jeeps were again used on the

shot island (Reference C.5, p. 3-22).

The radio-controlled tank on Runit stalled in the ZEBRA crater, but the

bdckup tank was successfully employed to obtain soil samples from the crater.

The samples were not sent to LASL but were analyzed locally aboard Albemarle

(Reference C.3, p. VIII-75). The two tanks used for the three shots were disposed of in the ocean after ZEBRA.

The aerial radsafe survey C-47 took off on schedule from Enewetak shortly after the detonation and surveyed Runit and the surrounding Islands. Heavy S

fallout on the islands north of Runit was discovered. The C-47 also conducted

a radsafe survey on D+l to determine the extent of contamination (Reference

C.30, pp. 2-25, 2-26).

Photo personnel recovered their film from the Coral Head Photo Tower and

the photo tower on Ananij. Light fallout was detected at the Coral Head Photo

Tower, but it decayed rapidly (Reference C.43, Annex I).

The two C-54 and two F-13 photography aircraft again flew from Kwajalein

and took high-speed photographs of the detonation and cloud development from a

safe distance. Altitudes were the same as for X-RAY and YOKE (Reference C.7,

p. IV-19).

One WB-29 flew weather reconnaissance in the Enewetak area from midnight

until 0500 the morning of the shot to ensure that cloud cover was not too heavy

for the shot. After the detonation, WB-29s were used in 12-hour relays to track

116
*8'

I

the radioactive cloud for 5 days. At about H plus 3 hours, a WB-29 inadvertently passed through a finger of the cloud and became contaminated. After

another 40 minutes, the air monitor on board Indicated that the WB-29 should

return to its base at Kwajalein because of the contamination. The pilot flew

through several rain squalls to reduce the radioactivity. The rain washed the

radiating particles from the surface of the airplane and the radioactivity was

reduced within (Reference A.4, pp. 22-24). The pilot was apparently not badged. 3

A review of all air monitor records (air monitors were always badged) shows

that none received an exposure exceeding I R for the SANDSTONE series (Reference E.1, p. E2.6).

On ZEBRA D+3, TG 7.6 monitors inspected the task force ships. Particular

attention was paid to blower intake screens, open decks, lifeboats, evaporators, and auxiliary condensers. Blower screens that were found to be contaminazed were removed and scrubbed with soap and water. When this did not reduce

"contamination of the blowers to acceptable levels on 23 ships, TG 7.6 recommended removal of intakes, scraping to bare metal, and repainting. Monitoring

when they arrived at a Navy yard was also recommended.

On 19 May the island of Runit was closed and no further operations were

permitted there. The crater areas on all three shot islands were posted with

danger signs in various languages. No attempt was made to fill the craters

(Reference C.6, p. 16-6). On 20 May all but one person in TG 7.6 departed the

test area and all monitoring operations ceased. This Individual remained as

Radsafe Officer for Enewetak. The JTF 7 Radsafe Officer provided the radiolog- ical status of the Enewetak islands in a 20 May 1948 letter, which is reproduced as Appendix A.

-W117

S e -&a ,: '.,• '•'-.e~ .• ~ • 't'' • ' .• • .. - - • '-.. -.. ' .. -.. -.. . ., . .. . ' .. . . - .. . '..' -. ' -. ' -.
CHAPTIR 5

U.S. ARMY PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSION[

The Chief of Staff of the Army was the executive agent for the Joint Chiefs

of Staff (JCS) in executing SANDSTONE. Commander Joint Task Force 7 (CJTF 7)

was an Army general officer and other Army personnel were represented in Hq

JTF 7 and in all the task groups. Army units constructed scientific test structures, airstrips, and base facilities at Enewetak. Support services included

activities such as supply shipments, communications, stevedoring, laundry,

small boat support. and security for Army personnel and for other elements of

the task force. Personnel from Army laboratory and research agencies and Army

personnel serving in the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP) participated in the experimental program. More than 1,300 Army personnel were at SANDSTONE during the testing period.

Units supplying Army personnel are discussed below, arranged by the element of the task force the units' men were in. Available radiological exposure

Information for the units is summarized in Table 10.

HEADQUARTERS JOINT TASK FORCE 7

A total of 88 Army personnel served in Hq JTF 7, and 11 (10 officers and 1

enlisted man) were badged.

TASK GROUP 7.1 (ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION PROVING GROUND GROUP)

Over 100 personnel from the following Army organizations participated in

Task Group (TG) 7.1 scientific activities.

Aberdeen Proving Ground, Research Department, Maryland. Three civilians, one

officer and one noncommissioned officer participated In radiochemistry

drone tank operations conducted by Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LAS..).

All were badged. High exposure WdS 1.070 R (Reference C.5, p. 6-3).

Ballistic Research Laboratories, Aberdeen, Maryland. Three civilians participated in blast measurements with the Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL). Three

were badged with the high exposure being 1.295 R.

Chemical Corps. The Chemical Corps sponsored the project on the evaluation of

protective field collectors. This experiment was conducted by TG 7.6 personnel with no apparent on-site Chemical Corps participation.

Corps of Engineers. This organization sponsored the tests of blast effects on

concrete structures. Manning was by Army personnel In TG 7.2.

Signal Corps. The Signal Corps participated in an attempt to detect the atomic

explosion by reflection of Its light from the moon on YOKE day as part

of the Air-Force-sponsored experiments. Four were badged with the Signal

Corps; all received zero readings.

118
Table 10. SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Army organizations.

Exposure Ranges (roentgens)

No. of

Persons Over

Organization Badged 0 0.001-0.5r 0.5-1.0 1.0-1.5 1.5-2 2 High

Hq Joint ]ask Force 7 11 6 5 0 0 0 0 0.3R(0

Task Group 7.1

Aberdeen Proving Ground 5 0 1 3 1 0 0 1.070

Ballistics Research

Laboratories 3 0 2 0 1 0 0 1.295

Signal Corps 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0

38th Engineer Battalion 75 43 29 0 0 1 2 5.085

Other I 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total Army in TG 7.1 88 48 32 3 2 1 2 5.085

Task Group 7.2

Hq 1220th Provisional

Engineer Battalion 8 4 4 0 0 0 0 0.050

Hq 1220th Provisional

Engineer Battalion,

Medical Detatchment 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1219th Signal Service

Platoon 3 1 2 0 0 0 0 0.010

.Hq 532nd Engineer

Boat & Shore Regiment 30- 23 7 0 0 0 0 0.175

532nd Engineer Boat &

Shore Regiment, Co 0 12 2 10 0 0 0 0 0.443

532nd Engineer Boat &

Shore Regiment, Co E, Med 16 8 B 0 0 0 0 0.080

461st Transportation

Amphibious Truck Co 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0.200

Unidentified units 27 1 26 0 0 0 0 0.305

Total Army in TG 7.2 99 40 59 0 0 0 0 0.443

Task Group 7.4

Task Unit 7.4.2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0.5

Task Unit 7.4.3 12 10 2 0 0 0 0 0.150

Total in TG 7.4 13 10 3 0 0 0 0 0.5

Task Group 7.5

369th CIC Detachment 18 11 7 0 0 0 0 0.230

401st CIC Detachment 9 B 1 0 0 0 0 0.090

8456th Military Police Co. 54 41 12 1 0 0 0 0.580

Total Army in TG 7.5 81 60 20 1 0 0 0 0.580

Task Group 7.6 35 4 9 9 3 4 6 6.050

Totals 3 2 7 a 168 128 13 5 5 B 6.050

aMean total of those badged was 0.271 R.

179
38th Engineer Battalion, Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AWSWP). A total

of 42 officers (mostly engineers) and 61 enlisted men from this battalion

(an AFSWP organization) were assigned to various task units of TG 7.1. The

battalion did not participate in SANDSTONE as a whole; rather, individuals

from this unit reported for temporary duty for AFSWP activities. Altogether, 75 personnel were badged. The highest exposure, 5.085 R, was probably incurred in recovering samples.

Five men were assigned to USS Albemarle (AV-5) to help assemble and

anchor rafts. They assisted in posttest sample recovery and counting samples. A total of 15 men were assigned to the Neutron Generation and GammaRay Appearance e:-periments. They procured, tested, packaged, and shipped

copper conductors, built a nitrogen supply system, and constructed lead

shields.

Twelve personnel (four officers and eight enlisted men) participated

with Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grier, Inc. (EG&G) In studies of control,

power, and monitoring circuits in the Timing and Flirng Section. Altogether. 13 personnel (3 officers and 10 enlisted men) worked in the Blast

Measurements Section. They assembled. checked, and maintained blast gauges.

Five personnel (one officer and four enlisted men) participated in the

Mechanical Assembly Section. The Pit Assembly Section consisted of 12 officers (divided into four teams); Teams 2 and 3 monitored nuclear materials

and the other two teams counted neutron samples.

One officer and two enlisted men worked in the Engineering Section.

The officer escorted official observers, and the enlisted men maintained

the tower hoists. One officer worked in the Communications Section as liaison between TG 7.1 and the task force Communications Officer. Five officers

and nine enlisted men were in the Firing Section, checking and testing firing-cone assemblies. They formed three teams; each team participated in

one shot. Three officers and four enlisted men worked in the Logistics Section; they operated warehouses on Enewetak and stockrooms aboard Albemarle.

Two officers were assigned to the Circuit Diagrams and Map Section (Reference C.5, p. 4-1 ff). Apparently this AFSWP unit also provided 25 men for

special guard assignments under TG 7.5 (Reference C.5, p. 5-2). However,

this was, at least for some, additional to their assignment in TG 7.1

(Reference C.5, p. 3-C8).

In addition, an Army NCO served in the office of CTG 7.1. He was badged with zero exposure. His home station is not known (Reference C.5, p. 3-C3).

TASK GROUP 7.2 (ARMY)

Most Army personnel In the task force were in TG 7.2. TG 7.2 was composed

primarily of service units and teams, and was activated by Hq JTF 7 on 15 October 1947. TG 7.2 was responsible for construction at Enewetak test site and for

military security of the atoll. This task group was also responsible for housIng. medical care, local transportation, and general housekeeping for all units

ashore on the atoll (Reference C.1, p. 18). TG 7.2 population reachd a peak hl

of 2,124, Including 40 observers and a naval signal unit of approximately 100

men stationed on Parry Island; however, this was before actual testing began

(Reference C.l, p. 60). In general, the main body of TG 7.2 was in place on

Enewetak by 29 December 1947. Discussions of participating Army units follow.

120
ti.=

1220th Provisional Engineer Battalion. This battalion, consisting of service

units and teams, was organized on 22 October 1947 and arrived on Enewetak

Atoll on 29 November 1947 from Oahu. The 1220th included the following

service units and teams: Battalion Headquarters, 1219th Composite Service

"Platoon with attached Composite Signal Detachment, 1218th and 1217th Composite Service Platoons, and the 18th Engineer Construction Company with

attachments. The Medical Detachment was part of Headquarters. The mission

of the 1220th was to rehabilitate Enewetak Island as a base of operation

before arrival of the main body of troops by 25 December. The 18th Engineer

Construction Company constructed facilities on Enjebi Island and also provided housing and housekeeping facilities for civilian workers engaged in

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) work. Personnel strengths of the components

of this battalion were (Reference E.2.2.1):

* Battalion Headquarters (included mess, supply, medical,

postal, finance, and chaplain): 11 officers, 2 warrant

officers, and 89 enlisted men (including 6 from JTF 7 Engineer and 13 from 18th Engineer Construction Company).

Eight men were badged with Headquarters; the highest exposure of this group was 0.050 R. Another individual badged

with the 12-man Headquarters Medical Detachment had a zero

reading (Reference C.3, p. 27 ff).

e 1219th Signal Service Platoon; 5 officers, 2 warrant officers, 60 enlisted men: Composite Signal Detachment: 2 officers, 100 enlisted men. This unit also included personnel

from several other units. One officer, designated as commanding officer of the 1219th Composite Signal Detachment,

was from 4th Army Headquarters. One first lieutenant from

the 51st Signal Battalion, Ft. Meade, Maryland, was as--

signed to the 1219th Composite Signal Detachment. A total

of 43 enlisted men from the 9400th TSU, Ft. Monmouth, New

Jersey, unit were assigned to the 1219th Composite Signal

Detachment. Six enlisted men from the 17th Signal Service

Company, Ft. Myer, Virginia, were assigned to the 1219th

Composite Signal Detachment. Three individuals were badged

according to Individual exposure records (Reference E.1):

one man had a zero reading, another recorded an exposure

of 0.005, and the third recorded 0.010 R.

* 1218th Composite Service Platoon: 4 officers and 62 enlisted men.

1217th Composite Service Platoon: 2 officers and 50 enlisted men.

* 18th Engineer Construction Company (with attachments): 2

officers and 107 enlisted men.

532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment (EB&SR) of the 2nd Engineer Special

Brigade. The 532nd EB&SR arrived for Operation SANDSTONE on 9 October 1947.

The operating strength of this brigade was 46 officers, 4 warrant officers,

and 566 enlisted men for construction activities during SANDSTONE. The

following units of the 532nd EB&SR were committed for this operation:

121

-. ...
".p.

9 Hq Company: 28 officers, 4 warrant officers, and 187 enlisted men

* Company D: 7 officers, 180 enlisted men

* Company E: 6 officers, 180 enlisted men

* Medical Detachment: 5 officers, 19 enlisted men

The officers were attached directly to the 2nd Engineer Special Brigade

(Reference E.2.2.1).

Headquarters Company, stationed on Enewetak, performed construction on

Parry and Enewetak islands (Reference C.4, p. XVI-53). This company was

installed on Enewetak Island to function as a service unit and provided

personnel to assist other allied headquarters on the island. According to

the individual exposure records, 30 individuals were badged. The highest

exposure was 0.175 R.

Company D began construction activities on Aomon, LoJwa, and Bijire

islands by 5 January 1948. It also assisted civilian contractors on the

lagoon and AnaniJ photo tower projects and the causeway adjoining Aomon

with Bijire Island. The maximum number of personnel present for duty was

180, with normal strength averaging 156 (Reference C.4, p. XVI-32). According to the individual exposure records, 12 personnel were badged with

Company D. The highest exposure was 0.443 R.

Company E landed on Runit on 29 December 1947 as part of an advance

echelon that had arrived on 24 December aboard USS Yancey (AKA-93). It constructed showers, latrines, mess halls, quarters, and installations on

Runit Island. According to the company commander, the average daily

strength was 115 enlisted men and 4 officers (Reference C.3, p. XIII1 ff). Company E also used two pioneer platoons, consisting of 2 officers

and 35 enlisted men. for construction work and a heavy-equipment platoon

of ' officer and 25 enlisted men (Reference C.3, p. IV-6). According to

the individual exposure records, 16 personnel were badged with the 532nd

EB&SR, Company E, Med. The highest exposure was 0.080 R.

The first part of the Medical Detachment (one officer and three enlisted men) arrived on Runit Island on 8 January 1948 and set up a field

dispensary. It is not possible to tell If the 16 men badged with the 532nd

(above, E Company) were from Company E or the Medical Detachment.

461st Transportation Amphibious Truck Company. Composed of one officer and

twenty-six enlisted men, this unit operated and maintained amphibious troop

trucks (DUKWs) for Company D, 532nd EB&SR (Reference C.3, p. 75; Reference

E.2.2.1). Two personnel were badged. The highest exposure was 0.200 R.

854th Transportation Port Company. This unit loaded and unloaded ships at Enewetak. Its operating strength was 8 officers and 272 enlisted men, includIng 1 officer and 45 enlisted men from the 447th Transportation Port Company and 1 officer and 17 enlisted men from the 863rd Transportation Port

Company (Reference C.4). None wera badged according to the individual

exposure records. t

122
TASK GROUP 7.3 (NAVY) P

Ships of the U.S. Army Transportation Service supported SANDSTONE operations during which time they came under the control of CTG 7.3. The units were:

USATS FS-211. This ship arrived at Enewetak on 19 March transporting dry

stores. It left on 22 March and stopped at UJea, Ailinglapalap, Jaliut,

Majuro, and Mill and twice at Kwajalein before returning to Enewetak on

7 April. On 10 April, the ship left Enewetak for a reprovisioning trip to

Rongerik and Bikini (Reference C.3, p. VII-80 to 82). FS-211 was in the

vicinity of Bikini Atoll for X-RAY. For YOKE, FS-211 was steaming with TU

7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and 41 kin) southeast of surface zero on

Aomon. Between 6 and 10 May, the ship left Enewetak for a resupply run to

Rongerik and Bikini. On 12 May, the ship left Enewetak for Mill to assist

in the rollup of a station there and remained there for ZEBRA. The day

after ZEBRA the ship left Mill for Ailinglapalap and returned to Kwajalein

on 17 May. FS-211 was monitored for contamination at Pearl Harbor in early

June. The usual crew size for this class of ship was 26 men.

USATS FS-234. On 25 November 1947, this ship reported to CJTF 7 for operational

control. It arrived at Kwajalein on I December. From then until late January 1948, It was the dry stores shuttle between Enewetak and Kwajalein. On

11 February 1948, FS-234 left Enewetak for Pearl Harbor and returned to

control of U.S. Army Pacific (C.3, pp. VII-14, -15, -22, and -24). The

usual crew size for this class of ship was 26 men. The ship was not in the

operation area for any of the test shots.

USATS FS-370. This ship arrived at Enewetak on 8 December 1947. operating under

CTG 7.3, It served as a refrigerator ship. It left Enewetak for Kwajalein

on 3 January 1948 and returned on 11 January (Reference C.3). During X-RAY

it was underway as part of TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nini (50 and 59 kin)

southeast of the shot island. During YOKE it was underway with TU 7.3.5

between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and 41 km) southeast of surface zero on Aomon.

For ZEBRA It was also with TU 7.3.5 about 20 rimi (37 km) south of Runit,

the shot island.

The radsafe Inspection on 20 May revealed no radioactivity or FS-370

(Reference D.4, p. 6). The date of the ship's departure from Enewetak after

SANDSTONE cannot be determined from available documents. The usual crew

size for this class of ship was 26 men.

TASK GROUP 7.4 (AIR FORCE)

Army personnel served in several elements of this predominantly Air Force

unit.

Task Unit 7.4.1 (Hq and Service Unit)

Twenty-three Army personnel were in this service unit. None were badged.

Task Unit 7.4.2 (Drone Unit)

Five Army personnel were with this TC 7.4 unit, which operated the drone

B-17s that collected radioactive cloud samples. The unit, like most of TG 7.4,

123

9. ~~~~~~~ . . . .i.- I .: * * ~4 - - -
L

was based on Kwajalein but the unmanned flights originated at Enewetak where

the sample collection and aircraft decontamination took place. One of the five

Army personnel was badged; his exposure was 0.5 R.

Task Unit 7.4.3 (Photography Unit)

Twelve Army personnel were in the photo teams of this unit. All were badged

and the exposures were low.

TASK GROUP 7.5 (JOINT SECURITY GROUP)

The Army primarily provided a provisional military police company and two

CIC detachments for security of the atoll.

369th CIC Detachment. This detachment consisted of five officers and thirteen

personnel who were assigned various security duties. A total of 18 personnel were badged according to the individual exposure records. The highest

exposure was 0.230 R (Reference E.2.0.4).

401st CIC Detachment. This detachment was the nucleus of the security force for

JTF 7 and was attached to TG 7.5. By 13 December 1947, the detachment was

assigned the following missions:

"* Travel control (air and water)

"* Protection of technical Installations

"* Security survey of the atoll

"* Dissemination of security information

"* Security clearances.

A total of 13 personnel (including 2 officers and 1 warrant officer, and

10 enlisted men) comprised this detachment. Four of these conducted the

initial security survey, and the remaining were assigned as resident CIC

agents on Enjebl, Aomon, Runit, and Parry islands. A total of nine personnel were badged according to the individual exposure records. The highest

exposure was 0.090 R (Reference C.3, p. 32, and Reference E.2.0.4).

8456th Military Police Company. This company consisted of 6 officers and 99 enlisted personnel who were assigned security duties. A total of 54 personnel were badged accordina to the Individual exposure records. The highest

exposure was 0.580 R (Reference E.2.0.4).

TASK GROUP 7.6 (JOINT RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY GROUP)

A total of 35 Army personnel (31 officers and 4 enlisted men) performed

various tasks for TG 7.6. All were badged. An officer in TU 7.6.3 (Operations

Unit) had the highest reading with a 6.0-0 R exposure according to individual

exposure records, The operations unit planned and controlled radiation safety

missions. The second highest exposure was 5.085 R and belonged to an enlisted

man who was part of TU 7.6.7 'Monitor Unit). He was probably a monitor (Reference E.2.0.3).

124
CHAPTER 6

U.S. NAVY PARTICIPATION IN SANDSTONE

[

Eight thousand, thirty-four naval personnel have been identified as having

participated in SANDSTONE Most were in crews of ships operating in the Enewetak

area under command of Commander Task Group (CTG) 7.3. The Navy operated about

40 ships in the area to support SANDSTONE. Roughly two-thirds of the 10,000-man

task force were stationed aboard ship. Most personnel in Hq Joint Task Force 7

(JTF 7), TG 7.1, and TG 7.6 were billeted and worked aboard ship.

Naval air units flew out of both Enewetak and Kwajalein in support of the

test series. Several naval units were ashore under command of CTG 7.2. Kwajalein Air Station and various attached naval units supported SANDSTONE in

addition to their regular duties.

Civilian and military personnel from naval technical bureaus and laboratories worked on the experimental program as part of TG 7.1 and TG 7.6. Naval

personnel also participated in the radiological safety (radsafe) activities of

TG 7.6. Naval personnel held many positions in the Headquarters of JTF 7.

USS Albemarle (AV-5), a seaplane tender, was modified to be a laboratory

ship for TG 7.1. Alterations included installation of work benches, racks,

bins, darkrooms, power outlets, test panels, and instruments. Albemarle was

used to transport the nuclear devices to the test area. The devices, less the

nuclear components, were stored aboard USS Curtiss (AV-4). USS Mount McKinley

(AGC-7) was used as the command ship and also had the Weather Center and Air

Operations Office on board. USS Balroko (CVE-115) was used by the radsafe personnel (TG 7.6). Navy ships also patrolled the Danger Area to keep unauthorized

ships out and conducted weather-reporting operations to supplement other weather data. Both confirmed and unconfirmed reports of submarine siqhtings were

recorded during SANDSTONE, all quite close to Enewetak Atoll.

Not all Navy personnel who served with the joint task force were badged:

however, exposure records of those badged are available, along with rosters of

most ships and other naval organizations involved. From these sources, a detailed picture of naval participation can be constructed. Available exposure

information is tabulated in Table II.

HEADQUARTERS JOINT TASK FORCE 7

As of 31 March 1948, 52 uniformed Navy personnel were assigned to the

headquarters (Reference E.2.0.2). It is not clear, however, whether all of

these were at the Pacific Proving Ground (PPG) because even during the operational period the joint task force maintained small offices in Hawaii and

Washington. Badged personnel can be assumed to have been at Enewetak, but the

location of unbadged personnel is uncertain.

125
Table 11. SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Navy organizations.

Exposure Ranges (roentgens)

No. of

Persons Over

Organization Badged 0 0.001-0.5 0.5-1 1-1.5 1.5 High

Hq Joint Task Force 7 13 6 6 1 0 0 0.620

Task Group 7.1

David Taylor Model Basin 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.010

Naval Ordnance Laboratory 21 5 15 0 1 0 1.180

Naval Research Laboratory 14 9 5 0 0 0 0.030

Other 17 12 5 0 0 0 0.250

Navy Total in TG 7.1 53 26 26 0 1 0 1.180

Task Group 7.2

Enewetak Shore Detachment 17 6 11 0 0 0 0.090

Signal Unit 1 6 5 1 0 0 0 0.002

Navy Total in TG 7.2 23 11 12 0 0 0 0.090 -.

Task Group 7.3

Commander Task Group 7.3 7 4 3 0 0 0 0.140

USS Albemarle (AV-5) 137 125 12 0 0 0 0.248

USS Arequipa (AF-31) 3 3 0 0 0 0 0

USS Askari (ARL-30) 44 44 0 0 0 0 0 -.

AVR C-26638 6 4 2 0 0 0 0.110

AVR C-26653 5 1 4 0 0 0 0.130

USS Bairoko (CVE-115) 56 32 22 2 0 0 0.780

USS Comstock (LSD-19) 2 1 1 0 0 0 0.020

Boat Pool 34 14 20 0 0 0 0.370

USS Currier (DE-700) 105 103 2 0 0 0 0.050

USS Curtiss (AV-4) 39 34 5 0 0 0 0.373

USS Gardiners Bay (AVP-39) 2 0 2 0 0 0 0.110

Sonobuoy Monitor Unit 7 5 2 0 0 0 0.030

USS Henry W. Tucker (DDR-875) 22 3 19 0 0 0 0.070

LCI(L)-1090 16 16 0 0 0 0 0

LSM-250 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

LSM-378 3 3 0 0 0 0 0

USS LST-45 4 4 0 0 0 0 0

USS LST-219 7 7 0 0 0 0 0

(continued)

126

- -, -. - --
I

Table 11. SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Navy organizations (continued).

Exposure Ranges (roentgens)

No. of

Persons Over

Organization Badged 0 0.001-0.5 0.5-1 1-1.5 1.5 High

Task Group 7.3 (continued)

USS Marsh (DE-699) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7) 23 17 6 0 0 0 0.080

USS Pasig (AW-3) 11 9 2 0 0 0 0.360

USS Pickaway (APA-222) 12 7 4 1 0 0 0.826

USS Raby (OE-698) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

USS Rogers (DOR-876) 178 178 0 0 0 0 0

USS Spangler (DE-696) 9 8 1 0 0 0 0.005

USS Warrick (AKA-89) 40 40 0 0 0 0 0

Medium Seaplane Patrol Sqdrn 6 11 1 10 0 0 0 0.370

Navy Total in TG 7.3 786 666 117 3 0 0 0.d26

Task Group 7.4 Total Navy 6 2 4 0 0 0 0.100

Task Group 7.5 Total Navy 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

Task Group 7.6

Bureau of Medicine & Surgery 3 0 1 1 1 0 1.340

Bureau of Ships 1 0 0 1 0 0 0.780

Bureau of Yards & Docks 1 0 0 1 0 0 0.735 |

Other 41 6 23 4 5 3 5.140

Total Navy In TG 7.6 46 6 24 7 6 3 5.140

Task Group 7.7

Construction Battalion 1509 5 0 5 0 0 0 0.020

Naval Air Station, Kwajalein 13 0 13 0 0 0 0.305

Naval Station, Kwajalein 4 0 4 0 0 0 0.010

Naval Station, Kwajalein

Ship Security Detachment 18 12 6 0 0 0 0.180

Total Navy in TG 7.7 40 12 28 0 0 0 0.305

Task Group 7.8 Navy Observers 5 0 4 1 0 0 0.760

Total Navy Badged 973a 730 221 12 7 3 5.140

Note:

aMean of those badged was 0.085 R. .4

127

I
Office of the Deputies. Six naval officers and two enlisted men were listed as

assigned to this office on I April 1948. By the end of the operation only

three had been badged. One badged and one unbadged officer also served for

some period of time with TG 7.1 (Reference E.2.0.4; Reference C.5, p.

3-ClI).

Office of the Chief of Staff. One naval officer is listed. He was not badged.

J-1 Section. An officer and an enlisted man were assigned to this office. Nelther was badged.

J-2 Section. Seven Navy personnel were listed. Three were badged.

J-3 Section. A badged Navy captain served in this section.

J-4 Section. Five Navy men were listed, two of whom were badged.

Communications Section. As of 1 April 1948. this section had 22 Navy officers

and enlisted men; only two were badged.

Fiscal Section. Two unbadged Navy officers were assigned to this section.

Meteorological Section. Of two officers assigned, one was badged.

Photographic Section. One unbadged Navy officer was assigned.

"Surgeon. The surgeon was a Navy captain who was badged (Reference E.2.0.4)

TASK GROUP 7.1 (ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION PROVING GROUND GROUP)

-* Most of the 64 Navy personnel in this task group were drawn from Naval

Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) and Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), although other

Navy organizations contributed. The organizations were;

Bureau of Personnel. Six personnel from this bureau were noted as being in TG

7.1 in the forward area, but their SANDSTONE activities have not been

identified. They were probably among the Navy personnel in the office

force of either CTG 7.1 or CTU 7.1.1 (see below).

David Taylor Model Bnsin (DTMB). The Test Director's report indicates that two

DTMB personnel were in TG 7.1. One DTMB staff member was badged as part of

the blast measurement program (Reference C.5, pp. 1-24 and 3C-7),

Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL). Altogether 21 civilian employees of this organization were badged and worked In LAJ-8 Section -- Blast (see Chapter 3

for a discussion of these sections). Another NOL man was also aboard USS

Pelican (AMS-32). but he was not badged (Reference C.5, pp. 1-23 and 3-C7;

References E.2.0.3, E.2.0.5, and E.2.3.3).

Naval Research Laboratory (NRL). A total of 23 personnel from this organization - served In TG 7.1, but only 20 can be Identified by name. Of these, 14 were

badged and based on Albemarle. NRL personnel made up the majority of the

128

U.

.. .. . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .

'' U.
personnel In Subsection A of the task group's LAJ-4 and LAJ-6 Sections

(Reference C.5, pp. 1-23 and 3-C5; Reference E.2.0.5).

The home organization for 20 other Navy personnel in TG 7.1 is not clear,

although it is likely that the six from Bureau of Personnel mentioned above

were among the CTC- 7.1 or CTU 7.1.1 office personnel. TG 7.1 organizations

indicated as having Navy personnel for whom home station Information is not

available follow.

Office of Commander Task Group 7.1. A Navy captain headed the task group with

a Navy lieutenant commander as his chief staff officer. The office was on

Albemarle. Nine Navy enlisted men were members of the clerical staff

(Reference C.5, p. 3-C3; Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2594-2595). The commander

of the task group, the chief staff officer, and seven of the nine Navy

enlisted men were badged.

Office of Commander Task Unit 7.1.1. Stationed on Curtiss, the unit's six-man

clerical staff apparently included five Navy enlisted men, all of whom

were badged (Reference C.5, p. 3-C4).

LAJ-10 Section -- Engineering. A Navy commander was a member of this group,

but he was not badged (Reference C.5, p. 3-C9: Reference E.2.3.3, p. 2596).

LAJ-11 Section -- Communications. A Navy commander was technical advisor to

this section. He was badged (Reference C.5, p. 3-C9).

LAJ-16 Section -- Circuit Diagrams and Maps. A badged Navy lieutenant commander

served in this section (Reference C.5, p. 3-CIO).

Two additional Navy officers have been identified by Dame as serving with

TG 7.1. but information Is lacking on which task group components they worked

in. Before their work in TG 7.1, they were assigned to the Office of the Deputies In the Hq JTF 7. One was badged and had a reading of 0.100 R. The other

was not badged.

TASK GROUP 7.2 (ARMY)

Two units manned by 95 Navy personnel served in SANDSTONE under the operational control of TG 7.2.

Enewetak Shore Detachment. This detachment consisted of 5 officers and 37 enlisted men. According to individual exposure records, 17 personnel were

badged. The highest exposure was 0.090 R (Reference E.l).

Signal Unit 1. This unit, attached to the Enewetak Shore Detachment, maintained

and operated the shore station on Parry Island. It was manned by 1 Navy

officer and 52 Navy enlisted men. They assembled at Port Hueneme, California, and sailed to Enewetak aboard USS Pickaway (APA-222), arriving by

6 December 1947 (Reference E.2.0.3, P. 29). They were attached to the

1220th Provisional Engineer Battalion for movement purposes. According to

the individual exposure records, six personnel from Signal Unit 1 were

badged. The highest exposure was 0.010 R.

129

- 4 4

`*.- - .. .. ., *- **,`•4. •***-.( , j -. 4- ° .. • • ' ". . -. . .... '-4' • ' t
TASK GROUP 7.3 (NAVY)

Most Navy personnel were in TG 7.3, which totaled 6,788 personnel. Most

were assigned to ships or smaller surface craft. Total numbers of badged personnel are listed by, unit in Table 11. Unless otherwise indicated, information

on ship movements is drawn from the deck logs of the ships discussed.

Following the last test at SANDSTONE, all but seven task force ships were

monitored for radiation at least once, and in many cases twice, bv JTF 7

radsafe personnel. All ships that were inspected were cleared of any radiological hazard to personnel; in no case did readings reach accepted human

however, and the standard Commander Western Sea Frontier inspection form was

not used, CJTF 7 recommended that all ships be monitored again when they arrived at Pearl Harbor, San Francisco, or Puget Sound. The radiological readings listed in this chapter for the task force ships were, in general, the highest

readings on the ship and were obtained on high- and intermediate-capacity airsupply blower screens, where a buildup could be expected from the large volumes

of air passing ovet the screens. In the few cases where screens approached

tolerance, they were removed and destroyed or cleaned. Very few readings were

noted on other shipboard surfaces.

Fallout was only recorded aboard task force ships following YOKE and this

was low level, but it must have been enough to cause the contamination later

detected. Eighteen ships and one infantry landing craft were found to have low

levels of contamination, as did one maritime patrol bomber and a number of

small boats on USS Comstock (LSD-19). Wher. checked, five ships, two infantry

landing craft, two service craft, two aircraft rescue vessels, and a number of

other small boats on Comstock were found to be free of significant contamination (Reference D.4, pp. 1-6).

Staff Organizations

Staff of Commander Task Group 7.3. This organization included 54 personnel and

was based aboard Mount McKinley. They provided support to CTG 7.3. Seven

were badged (Reference E.2.3.3, p. 2594; Reference C.3, p. VII-4).

Commander of Escort Division 1 and Staff. The escort division was made up of

USS Spangler (DE-696). USS George (DE-697), USS Raby (DE-698). USS Marsh

(DE-699). and USS Currier (DE-700). The commander and his four-man staff

were aboard George. All can be identified by name, but none were badged

(Reference C.3, pp. VII-4 and VII-5; Reference E.2.3.3, p. 2594).

Commander Destroyer Division 52 and Staff. Destroyer Division 52 was made up of USS Henry W. Tucker (DDR-875), USS Rogers (DDR-876), and USS Perkins

(DDR-877). The commander and his staff were aboard Tucker, but neither the

commander nor his staff can be identified by name. Apparently they were

not badged (RefeLence C.3, p. VII-4).

Ship Units

USS Albemarle (AV-5). This seaplane tender was part of TU 7.3.2, the Main Naval

Task Unit. Albemarle arrived at the proving ground on 16 March 1948. The

130

• " . " ' % .-o "% ". , - .- - -- ,. - , .. % - •" . .- . . .% -- " , - i •. . . . . - . • • .- ., , • - , . •- ,- - - , • . .. - ..
%,

-A°

ship had the major laboratories for analysis of test samples and

Instruments (Reference C.5. pp. 2-3). It served as the center for TG

7.1 operations (Reference C.6, p. 7-13). After each shot, samples were

brought to Albemarle (Reference C.1, p. 137). Of Its 537 crewmembers,

137 were badged.

* X-RAY (15 April). At shot time moored about 3,520 yards (3.2 kin)

west of Parry, 16.5 nmi (30.6 km) south-southeast of the shot

island. At 0715 the ship got underway and at 0925 it anchored

about 2,750 yards (2.5 km) south-southwest of Aomon.

* YOKE (1 May). At shot time moored about 3,520 yards (3.2 km) west

of Parry, 13.5 nmi (25 kin) south of the shot island. At 0811 the

ship got underway and at 0934 it anchored about 2,030 yards (1.9

kin) west of the south end of Runit.

* ZEBRA (15 May). At shot time moored about 3,520 yards (3.2 kin)

west of Parry, 8.5 nmi (15.8 km), south of the shot island. Underway at 0834. the ship anchored 3,890 yards (3.6 km) west-southwest

of Ananij at 0916.

On 18 May, Albemarle was underway for refueling at sea, later anchoring in the lagoon near Enewetak Island. On 20 May, radsafe monitors found

readings of 0.0005 to 0.0007 R/hr on four air intakes on the ship (Reference D.4, p. 1). The ship left the proving ground for Pearl Harbor on

21 May.

USS Arequipa (AF-31). This stores ship arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 11 April

and anchored in the lagoon off Enewetak Island. The ship participated only

for X-RAY, supplying provisions to other task force ships. At shot time on

15 April, it was steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50 and 59

km) southeast of the shot island. At 1050, the ship anchored in the lagoon

off Enewetak Island. Arequipa left Enewetak Atoll for Pearl Harbor on

20 April before YOKE. Three of its seventy-six crewmembers were badged.

USS Askari (ARL-30). This landing craft repair ship arrived at Enewetak Atoll

on 11 January 1948 and was attached to TI 7.3.7, the Boat Pool Unit. It

assisted Comstock in keeping boat pool and other boats in running order,

and it provided repair services to forces ashore and afloat. Of its 164

crewmembers, 44 were badged.

* X-RAY (15 April). At shot time, underway with TU 7.3.5 between 27

4 -and 32 nmi (50 and 59 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1053,

the ship anchored in the lagoon about 1,780 yards (1.6 km) westnorthwest of the northern tip of Enewetak Island.

* YOKE (Q May). At shot time, steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and 41 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1212, the

ship anchored in the lagoon about 1,780 yards (1.6 km) westnorthwest of the northern tip of Enewetak Island.

a ZEBRA (15 May). At shot time, underway with TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi

(37 kin) south of the shot island. At 1100, the ship anchored in

the lagoon in Its post-X-RAY and post-YOKE location.

131
Rddsafe monitors came aboard Askarl on 18 ard 20 May. They detected

radiation In two 1ocations, the highest reading being 0.001 R/hr in a vent

set (Reference D.4, p. 2). The ship departed Enewetak Atoll on 29 May

bound for Kwajalein Atoll.

AVR C-26638 and AVR C-26653. These aviation rescue vessels were assigned to TU

7.3.3 (Off-Shore Patrol Unit) (Reference C.3, p. VII-4). Before each detonation they transported the firing party from the shot island to Parry.

Immediately following each detonation, they transported scientific recovery

parties, radsafe monitors, and DUKW and LCVP crews to the shot island.

Thereafter they moved personnel, delivered samples to the ships, and acted

as search and rescue vessels in the lagoon (Reference C.3, p. VII-71-72).

Neither vessel was found to be radioactive during the radsafe check of

20 May (Reference D.4, p. 6). Each boat had a crew of six. of which all

but one of the twelve were badged.

USS Bairoko (CVE-1l5). This escort aircraft carrier carried personnel and

equipment of TG 7.6. Bairoko arrived at Enewetak Island with its 770-man

crew on 36 March. During the test series it was part of TU 7.3.4, the

Helicopter Unit (Reference C.3, pp. VII-4 and 25). It served as the base

for the helicopter unit and TG 7.6. The helicopter unit provided four HO3S-is and two HTL-2s and was manned by five officers and thirteen

enlisted men.

0 X-RAY (15 April). At shot time, anchored about 4,600 yards (4.2 km)

west of Parry in Enewetak Lagoon, about 16.5 nimi (30.6 km) southsoutheast of surface zero on Enjebi (Reference C.3, p. VII-70). At

0700, the ship got underway for an anchorage off Enjebi. About

5 nmi (9.3 km) from the island, two small boats were lowered into

the water. They preceded Bairoko up the lagoon. and TG 7.6 personnel aboard them monitored radiation levels and reported their findings to the ship (Reference C.43, p. 59). At 0843, it anchored

3,480 yards (3.2 km) southwest of the southern tip of Enjebi.

Thereafter, it supported recovery operations, especially the

radsafe activities of TG 7.6 (Reference C.43, p. 71).

o YOKE (I May). At shot time, anchored about 4,600 yards (4.2 km)

west of Parry In Enewetak Lagoon and about 13.5 nmi (25 kin) from

the shot tower on Aomon. At 0700, the ship got underway for a berth

off Aornon. It anchored about 6,000 yards (5.5 km) south-southwest

of the southern tip of the island at 0825. It was preceded during

the entire trip by four small boats checking for radioactivity

(Reference C.3, p. VII-72; Reference C.43, p. 63). Two days after

YOKE, Bairoko was still anchored In the same location. About 1000,

apparently as the result of fallout, the background count on the

ship's flight and hangar decks began to rise, reaching '.0017 R/hr.

The fallout ceased in the early afternoon (Reference C.43, Annex I,

p. 6).

* ZEBRA (15 May). At shot time, anchored about 4,600 yards (4.2 km)

west of Parry and 8.5 nmi (15.8 km) from the shot tower on Runit

(Reference C.3, pp. VII-73 and VII-74). At 0703, the ship was

undetway for a location off Runit, At 0815, the ship anchored

about 6,330 yards (5.8 km) south-southeast of Runit's northern tip

to support recovery operations.

132

II.
Radsafe monitors checked Bairoko on 20 May. The highest radiation

level detected was 0.0014 R/hr. probably at an air intake on the portside

(Reference D.4, p. 5). Badges were issued to 56 crewmembers.

USS Comstock (LSD-19). This dock landing ship arrived at the proving ground on

29 November 1947, left on 12 January 1948, and returned on 1 February

(Reference C.3, pp. VII-14 and VII-19). It served as the flagship for TU

7.3.7, the Boat Pool Unit. The ship's large well provided a protected

environment for loading, unloading, and repairing boat pool vessels.

* X-RAY (15 April). At shot time, steaming in formation with TU

7.3.8 In the open sea between 18 and 23 nmI (33 and 43 km) south- V

southeast of the shot island. At 0916, the ship anchored in Enewe- Lagoon. S~tak 

YOKE (I May). At shot time, steaming in formation with TU 7.3.8

between 15 and 20 nml (28 and 37 kin) southeast of Aomon, the shot

island. The ship anchored in tne lagoon at 1032.

* ZEBRA (15 May). At shot time, underway with TU 7.3.8 between 25

and 30 nmi (46 and 56 kin) southeast of the shot isiand. At 1019,

the ship anchored in the lagoon.

A radiation check of the ship on 20 May showed a maximum reading of IL

0.0015 R/hr on two vent screens. Comstock boat contamination is discussed

under Boat Pool (see below) (Reference D.4, pp. 2 and 5). In late May,

Comstock left Enewetak Atoll for Kwajalein Atoll, returning a few days later. On 31 May, the ship left Enewetak Atoll bound for Pearl Harbor.

Badges were issued to 2 of its 152 crewmembers.

Boat Pool. This unit was augmented by an Army unit, the Boat Detachment of the

2nd Engineer Special Brigade (discussed in Chapter 5). Both units were

based on Comstock, and they provided water transportation in the lagoon

for JTF 7 elements, Between them, there were approximately 80 boats (Reference C.4, XVII-34). During the radsafe check of 20 May, 12 boats were

found to be radioactive and 15 boats had no significant readings. The

highest level of contamination was 0.0013 R/hr on LCVP No. 3. Eight of the

boats had readings less than 0.001 R/hr. Information is lacking, however,

on which boats belonged to each of the two units (Reference D.4, pp. 5-6).

The Navy component was made up of 184 officers and enlisted men, of whom

34 were badged (Reference E.2.3.3, p. 23).

USS Currier (DE-700). This destroyer escort arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 30

March, where it served as part of TU 7.3.3, the Off-Shore Patrol Unit,

which was to prevent intrusion Into the test area by unauthorized planes

or vessels. Badges were Assued to 105 of its 136 crewmembers.

o X-RAY (15 April). At shot time, underway with TU 7.3.8 a few miles

east of Parry and between 18 and 23 nmi (33 and 43 km) southsoutheast of the shot island. At 0805, the ship began steaming

independently for patrol duty.

e YOKE (1 May). At shot time, screening for TU 7.3.8 between 15 and

20 runi (28 and 37 kin) east-southeast of the shot island. At 0826.

the task unit entered the lagoon. By 1308. the ship had left the

lagoon for patrol.

133
ZEBRA (15 May). At shot time, underway with TU 7.3.8 between 25

and 30 nmi (46 and 56 kin) southeast of the shot island. By about

0930, the ship was near the lagoon entrance between Parry and

Japtan. The ship entered the lagoon at 1225 and departed at 1330.

The radiation check of 20 May revealed no radioactivity (Reference D.4,

p. 6). Currier sailed for Pearl Harbor on 31 May.

USS Curtiss (AV-4). This seaplane tender arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 16 March

with the nuclear devices, less the nuclear material. It was part of TU

7.3.2, the Main Naval Task Unit. Before each test, the device was assembled on Curtiss and then moved ashore (Reference C.5, p, 3).

"* X-RAY (15 April). At shot time, anchored in Entwetak Lagoon about

1,360 yards (1.2 kin) west of Parry and about 17 nmi (32 kin) from

the shot island. At 0745, Curtiss was underway for a berth off

Aomon. At 0920, the ship anchored about 2,200 yards (2 km) southsouthwest of Aomon.

"• YOKE (1 May). At shot time, anchored 1,360 yards (1.2 km) west of

Parry in Enewetak Lagoon about 13.5 nnii (25 km) from the shot

island. At 0838 the ship proceeded to Runit and anchored about

1,740 yards (1.6 kmn) south-southwest of the northern tip of Runit

at 1020.

"* ZEBRA (15 May). At shot time, anchored 1,360 yards (1.2 kin) west

of Parry in Enewetak Lagoon, 8.5 niri (15.8 km) from the shot

island. At 0903, the ship moved to an anchorage about 3,550 yards

(3.2 kin) west of the northern tip of Enewetak Island,

On 20 May, Curtiss was checked for contamination. The highest readings

were 0.006 and 0.0055 R/hr on two vent duct screens amidships on the boat

deck. These screens were removed. Othet duct screens read from 0.00025 to

0.0013 R/hr (Reference D.4, p. 3). Curtiss departed for Pearl Harbor on 21

May. Of the 555 crewmembers, 39 were badged.

USS Davison (DMS-37). This high-speed minesweeper arrived at Kwajalein on 24

March from Pearl Harbor. It was under the operational control of CTG 7.3

for support of a balloon-launching team from NRL (Reference C.3, pp. VII-58

and VII-81). Davison arrived at Enewetak Island on 10 April and left on 12

April to take up its station for X-RAY.

* X-RAY (15 April). On station at approximately 120 25'N, 172025'2

about 600 nmi (1,112 kin) east of the test site. At 0802 on 19

April It moored In Kwajalein Lagoon. On 27 April it was underway

to take up its station foc YOKE.

* YOKE (I May). On station at 140 40'N, 1710 61'E, about 660 nmi

(1,223 kin) east of the detonation. On 3 May It anchored at Kwajalein. On 12 May it was underway to take up its station for ZEBRA.

* ZEBRA (15 May). On station at 110 25'N, 172 0 54'E. Later the same

day, the ship headed for Majuro Atoll to pick up an NRL group.

This ship was back at Kwaialein on 19 May, and it left for Pearl

Harbor on 21 May.

134

1% 17" " " " " "" -" "' "' . ' " '" .. .. 
Davison was not exposed to radiological contamination and none of its

170-man crew was badged.

USS Gardiners Bay (AVP-39_. This small seaplane tender arrived at the proving

ground with a crew of 265 on 29 January. It served as flagship of TU

7.3.3, the Off-Shore Patrol Unit, and acted as tender for its seaplanes.

Gardiners Bay provided the eight personnel of the Sonobuoy Monitor unit.

In Table 11, these are shown separately.

* X-RAY (15 April). Underway with TU 7.3.8 in the open sea just east

of Jinini, between 18 and 23 nmi (33 and 43 km) south-southeast of

the shot island. At 0933, the ship anchored in Enewetak Lagoon

west of Parry Island.

_. • YOKE (1 May). Underway between 15 and 20 nmi (28 and 37 km) southeast of the shot Island with TU 7.3.8. At 1011, th? ship anchored

in the lagoon west of Parry.

- ZEBRA (15 May). Steaming as part of TU 7.3.8 between about 25 and

30 nmi (46 and 56 k1m) southeast of the shot island. The ship

anchored In the lagoon west of Parry at 0959.

GaclIners Bay was checked for radiological contamination on 20 May.

The highest level, 0.001 R!hr, was detected on the portside main air intake

(Reference D.4, p. 1). On 22 May, the ship left the proving ground for

Pearl Harbor.

Sonobuoy_ Monitor Unit No. I. By 24 April, strings of sonobuoys had been laid

across both Deep Entrance and Wide Entrance at Enewetak Atoll. Stations to

monitor the buoys on Parry and Enewetak islands were manned continuously

during the rest of the operation (Reference C.3, p. VII-68). Eight men from Gardiners Bay were assigned to man this temporary unit.

,USS Geore (DE-697). On 2 April, this destroyer escort reached Enewetak Atoll

for duty as part of TU 7.3.3, the Off-Shore Patrol Unit.

* X-RAY (15 April). on patrol roughly northeast of the atoll. At 1200, the ship was about 34 nmi (63 km) east-northeast of the shot

island.

*.YOKE (I May). Steaming Independently about 2.2 nmi (4 km) southsoutheast of the southern end of Enewetak Island, 19 nmi (35 km)

south of the shot island.

. ZEBRA (15 May). On patrol about 19 nmi (35 kin) east-southeast of

the shot island,

The radiation check of 20 May revealed no significant contamination on

George. The ship left for Pearl Harbor on 25 May. None of its 141 crewmembers was badged.

USS Gull (AMS-16). This small minesweeper was under the operational control of

CTG 7.3. On 16 March, the ship arrived under escort at Kwajalein. After

replenishment there, it sailed, again under escort by USS LST-219, to

Mill, about 660 nmi (1,223 km) southeast of Enewetak Atoll, to act as

135

, "" ".% "•-*,* " ,.. •'" ,." ?"R A. S
support ship for the balloon station there. It arrived at Mill on 3 April.

On 15 May, it departed Mill bound for Ailinglapalap (Reference C.3, pp. VII-80, VII-81, and VII-85; LST-45 deck log). on 26 May, the ship left the

area bound for Pearl Harbor. Gull was not exposed to radiological contamination and none of its 24-man crew was badged.

USS Henry W. Tucker (DDR-875). On 18 March, this radar picket destroyer arrived

at Enewetak Atoll, where it became part of TU 7.3.3, the Off-Shore Patrol

Uni t.

X-RAY (15 April). On patrol about 14.5 nmi (27 kin) southeast of

the shot Island. At 1735 on 16 April, It moored In Enewetak Lagoon

off Enewetak Island.

* YOKE (1 May). On patrol about 14.5 nml (27 kin) northwest of the

shot island. It returned to Enewetak Lagoon In the late afternoon of 4 May and moored off Enewetak Island.

* ZEBRA (15 May). On patrol about 15 nmi (28 kW) southeast of the

southern tip of Runit. At 1447, the ship anchored In Enewetak

Lagoon about 5,040 yards (4.6 km) west-southwest of the southern

tip of Parry.

A radiation check on 20 May revealed a maximum level of 0.0001 R/hr at

three locations (Reference D.4, p. 1). Of its 233 crewmembers, 22 were

badged. Tucker left the proving ground for Pearl Harbor on 21 March.

LCI(L)-549. This large Infantry landing craft arrived at Enewetak Atoll on

I January 1948 to serve as part of TU 7.3.7, the Boat Pool Unit.

* X-RAY (15 April). On station as a point of reference for drone

aircraft operations, about 4.3 nmi (8 km) roughly west-southwest

of Enewetak Island and 22 nmi (41 km) south of the shot island. At

1236 on 15 April it anchored in the lagoon, apparently off Enewetak

Island.

•YOKE (U May). On station as a drone aircraft reference vessel,

positioned about as it had been for X-RAY and about 20 nmi (37 km)

south of the shot island. At 1403 the same day, it anchored in

Enewetak Lagoon.

e ZEBRA (15 May). On station as drone aircraft reference vessel,

about 4.5 nmi (8.3 km) southwest of the southern end of Enewetak

Island and 16 nmi (30 km) from the shot island. At 1305, it

anchored in the lagoon about 2,690 yards (2.5 km) west of the

northern tip of Enewetak Island.

The report of the radsafe inspection of 20 May indicates no radioactivity on LCI(L)-549 (Reference D.A, p. 6). None of Its 18 crewmembers

was bidged. On 24 May, it sailed for Kwajaleln Atoll and then to Pearl

Harbor.

LCIML)-1054. Thu.. large Infantry landing craft arrived at Enewetak Atoll on

18 January. It became part of TU 7.3.7, the Boat Pool Unit.

136
X-RAY (15 April). Steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50

and 59 km) southeast of the shot Island. At 1144, it anchored in

Anchorage A In Enewetak Lagoon west of Parry and Enewetak Island.

"* YOKE (1 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and

41 kim) southeast of the shot island. At 0615, it left the formation

to return to the lagoon, anchoring west of Parry and Enewetak at

Anchorage A at 1205. It began a ferry run to Runit at 1603. It

anchored off Runit at 1709, and remained there overnight.

"* ZEBRA (15 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 about 20 nimi (37 km) south

of the shot island. At 0610, it left the formation to proceed to

the vicinity of Wide Entrance. It left the vicinity of Wide Entrance at 1230 to reenter the lagoon through Deep Entrance. It

anchored in Anchorage A In the lagoon west of Enewetak and Parry

Island at 1405.

During the inspection on 20 May, a 0.0014 R/hr reading was found on

one air vent (Reference D.4, p. 4). LCI(L)-1054 left Enewetak Atoll on 24

May and visited various islands and atolls in the area, returning to Enewetak briefly in July and September. None of its 2i crewmembers was badged.

On 20 November, it left KwaJalein Atoll bound for Pearl Harbor and Long

Beach, California.

LCI(L)-1090. On I March, this large infantry landing craft reached Enewetak

Atoll, where it was assigned to TU 7.3.7, the Boat Pool Unit.

" X-RAY (15 April). Underway with TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50

and 59 km) southeast of the shot island. It anchored in Enewetak

Lagoon at 1126, and at 1525 it got underway for a ferry run first

to Runit and then to Aomon. It anchored off Aomon at 1702. The next morning the vessel was at Enjebl, the shot island, for about.

15 minutes. It spent the rest of the day on ferry runs between

Aomon and Runit.

"* YOKE (I May). Steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and

41 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1209, it anchored in the

southeast portion of the lagoon.

"• ZEBRA (15 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 km) south

of the shot island, At 1405, it anchored In the southeast portion

of Enewetak Lagoon.

The radsafe monitor checked LCI(L)-1090 for about an hour on 20 May,

but found no contamination (Reference D.4, p. 6). Sixteen of Its twenty-one

crewmembers were badged. On 24 May, it left Enewetak bound for Kwajalein

Atoll.

LCTS 472, 494, 1194. and 1345. All were assigned to TU 7.3.7, the Boat Pool

Unit. No other information is available.

LSM-250. This medium landing ship arrived In the proving ground on I January

1948. It was assigned to TU 7.3.6, the Cable Unit and helped lay and

maintain the extensive system of underwater cables required during the

operation.

137
"* X-RAY (15 April). Steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nnii (50

and 59 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1125, it anchored

about 2,220 yards (2 kin) west-northwest of the ncrthern end of

Enewetak Island.

"* YOKE (1 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and

41 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1219, It anchored in its

post-X-RAY location.

"* ZEBRA (15 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5, about 20 nmi (37 km) south

of the shot island. At 1352 It anchored In its post-X-RAY location.

On 20 May, LSM-250 was found to have slight contamination in three

locations, with the highest level being less than 0.001 R/hr on the aft

weather deck (Reference D.4, p. 4). One of Its sixty-one crewmembers was

badged. On 24 May, it left for Pearl Harbor.

LSM-378. This vessel was part of TU 7.3.6, the Cable Unit, which laid and

maintained the cable network. It arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 1 January

1948 and departed for Kwajalein on 30 March, arriving there on I April. On

14 April it began the return trip to Enewetak.

"* X-RAY (15 April). Underway from Kwajalein to Enewetak; at 0800 it

was about 200 nmi (370 kW) east-southeast of Enewetak Island. It

reached Enewetak the next day, anchoring at 0811 about 2,200 yards

(2 km) northwest of the northern tip of Enewetak island.

"* YOKE (I May). Underway less than 1 nmi (1.9 km) south-southeast of

the northern portion of Enewetak Island about 16.5 nmi (31 kin)

from the detonation. At 1220, it anchored about 2,040 yards (1.9

km) north of the southern end of Enewetak Island.

"* ZEBRA (15 May). Underway about 12 nm! (22 km) east-southeast of

the northern end of Parry Island and about 16.5 nrni (31 km) from

the detonation. At 1222, .t anchored In its post-YOKE location.

On 20 May, LSM-378 was monitored and found to have a reading of 0.0017

R/hr on one air intake amidships on the starboard side (Reference D.4,

p. 4). Three of the forty-three crewmembers were badged. It left the proving ground for Pearl Harbor on 24 May.

USS LST-45. This tank landing ship arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 29 November

1947, part of the first group of TG 7.3 ships. It joined TU 7.3.2, the

Main Naval Task Unit (Reference C.3, pp. VII-4 and VII-14). Before X-RAY

and after X-RAY and YOKE the ship provided forward logistical support for

operations on the shot islands.

o X-RAY (15 April). Steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 36 nmi (50

and 67 km) from the shot island. At 1152, the ship anchored about

4,150 yards (3.8 kin) south-southwest of the southern tip of Aomon

Island.

o YOKE (1 May). Steaming in formation with Tu 7.3.5 between 17 and

22 nmi (32 and 41 km) southeast of the shot island. The ship

anchored about 3,150 yards (2.9 km) south-southwest of the northern

end of Runit at 1320.

138
.4'.

.'.

0 ZEBRA (15 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 km) south

of the shot island. At 1213, the ship anchored about 1,260 yards (1.2 km) north of the southern end of Enewetak Island.

Contamination of 0.0012 R/hr was detected in the generator room escape

trunk vent set on 20 May (Reference D.4, p. 4). Four of its sixty-six

crewmembers were badged. LST-45 left the proving ground for Pearl Harbor

on 24 May.

USS LST-219. This tank landing ship arrived at Enewetak Atoll with its 60-man

crew on 29 November 1947 arid left for Pearl Harbor on 2 February 1948. It

returned to Enewetak on 21 March after stopovers at Pearl Harbor and

Kwajalein Atoll. At the proving ground, it was part of TU 7.3.2, the Main

Naval Task Unit.

Under orders from CTG 7.3. the ship left Enewetak Atoll on 6 Apr11 for

Ujelang Atoll, to stand by for evacuation of the Inhabitants if fallout

occurred on the Island. Evacuation was not required. It remained there

through all three tests and departed on 16 May for Kwajalein.

After leaving Kwajalein, LST-219 sailed to Rongerik Atoll, arriving on

19 May, back to KwaJalein Atoll, arriving 22 May, to Majuro, arriving 24

May, then back to Kwajalein Atoll, arriving 27 May, and on 30 May it

reached Enewetak Atoll. It left for Pearl Harbor on 31 May.

USS LST-611. This tank landing ship was among the first group of ships to arrive at Enewetak (29 November 1947) in support of the SANDSTONE test

series. Thereafter, it made several trips between Enewetak Atoll and Pearl

Harbor. It served as part of TU 7.3.2, the Main Naval Task Unit, but it

does not appear to have been in the vicinity of Enewetak Atoll for any of

the detonations. On 10 April, It left Pearl Harbor for Enewetak, but it

probably had not reached the atoll by 15 April, the day of X-RAY. On 26

April, the ship left Enewetak for Hawaii, arriving there on 7 May; hence

It was not In the proving ground for YOKE on 1 May. The ship left Hawaii

for Enewetak on 12 May, but probably would not have reached the atoll in

time for ZEBRA (Reference C.3, pp. VII-4, -14 and -15, -18 and -19, -21, --23, -80, and -84). The ship's log are unavailable, so its movements cannot be followed in detail. Its crew numbered 53.

USS Marsh (DE-699_. This destroyer escort arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 30

March. It served as part of TU 7.3.3, the Off-Shore Patrol Unit.

* X-RAY (15 April). Underway as antisubmarine screening vessel for

TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50 and 59 km) southeast of the

shot island.

* YOKE (G May). Underway as antisubmarine screening vessel for TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nnmi (32 and 41 kin) southeast of the shot "'

island. On 7 May at 1528, it anchored about 3 nmi (5.6 km) southwest of the south end of Runit. A radsafe monitor boarded Marsh on

the afternoon of 2 May and remained aboard until the afternoon of

5 May.

* ZEBRA (15 May). Underway as antisubmarine screening vessel for TU

7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 km) south of the shot island. Shortly after

'39
1245, the ship entered the lagoon to pick up a radsafe monitor,

who came aboard from Tucker. After the monitor boarded Marsh at

1309, the ship left the lagoon for antisubmarine patrol around

Enewetak Atoll. At 1028 on 18 May, the ship reentered the lagoon

and then lay to, awaiting a radsafe party. The party came aboard

at 1130. The ship then anchored about 3,960 yards (3.6 km) west of

the northern end of Enewetak Island. The monitor, who had come

aboard on 15 May, and the radsafe party left the ship at 1343.

There is no Information on the radiation levels detected.

No contamination was found during a check by radsafe monitors on 20 May

(Reference D.4, p. 6). Only 1 of its 138 crewmembers was badged. Marsh

left for Pearl Harbor on 3 June.

USS Mispillion (AO-105). This oiler arrived at Enewetak on 10 April. It belonged to TU 7.3.5, the Service Unit, and served as tanker to the task

group.

"* X-RAY (15 April). Steaming as part of TU 7.3.8 between 18 and 23

nmi (33 and 43 km) south-southeast of the shot island. At 0858,

M4spillion anchored in the lagoon about 3,960 yards (3.6 km) west

of the northern end of Enewetak Island. I

"* YOKE (1 May). Underway with TU 7.3.8 between 15 and 20 nuni (28 and

37 km) east-southeast of the shot island. At 1019, the ship anchored in its post-X-RAY location. On 5 May, the ship left for

Guam, returning to Enewetak Atoll on 12 May.

"* ZEBRA (15 May). Underway with TU 7.3.8 between 25 and 30 nmi (46

and 56 kin) southeast of the shot Island. At 1015, the ship anchored

in its post-X-RAY location.

On 20 May, Mispillion was found slightly contaminated at several loca- b.

tions. The highest level was 0.002 R/hr in the portside engine-room supply

vents (Reference D.4, p. 3). All other readings were less than 0.001 R/hr.

Its crew totaled 173. The next day the ship left Enewetak Atoll for Kwajalein Atoll en route to the U.S. mainland.

USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7). On 16 March, this amphibious force flagship with a

crew of 578 arrived at Enewetak. It was the only ship in TU 7.3.1, the

Flagship Unit.

"* X-RAY (15 April). Anchored in the lagoon about 2,400 yards (2.2

km) west of Parry, about 17 nmi (32 km) from surface zero. At

0730, the ship got underway to an anchorage about 3,260 yards

(3 km) southwest of Aomon Island. It arriv.d there at 0937.

"* YOKE (1 May). Anchored in Its pre-X-RA. location, about 13.5 nmii

(25 k-m) from the shot island. The ship got underway at 0825, and

at 0946 it anchored about 2,480 yards (2.3 kin) southwest of the

northern end of Runit.

"* ZEBRA (15 May). Anchored as for the first two shots and about 8.5

nmi (15.8 km) south of surface zero on Runit. At 0939, moved to a

berth about 2,400 yards (2.2 km) west of the northern end of

Enewetak Island.

140

r,,
1

On 20 May, radsafe monitors found slight contamination at two locations on the ship. The readings were 0.0006 R/hr and 0.0003 R/hr (Reference

D.4, p. 2). Mount McKinley left the proving ground for Pearl Harbor on

21 May.

USS Pasig (AW-3). This water distillation ship was in the proving ground twice

in February and twice in March, arriving the second time on 28 March.

During this 2-month period, it also was at Kwajalein, Rongerik, and Bikini

atolls. Pasig served as flagship for TU 7.3.5 and provided freshwater.

"* X-RAY (15 April). Leading TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50 and

59 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1257, the ship anchored in

the southeast portion of Enewetak Lagoon.

"* YOKE (1 May). Leading TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and 41

km) southeast of the shot island. At 1206, the ship anchored in

the lagoon about 2,740 yards (2.5 km) west-northwest of the

northern end of Enewetak Island.

" ZEBRA (15 May). Leading TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 km) south of the

shot island. At 1140, the ship anchored in its post-YOKE location.

At 1502, Pasig departed for Bikini Atoll and then Kwajalein Atoll,

returning to Enewetat Atoll on 19 May.

On 20 May, Pasig was found to have radioactive contamination at several locations. The highest radiation level was 0.0017 R/hr in one of the

intakes on the starboard side (Reference D.4, p. 4). Of its 164 crewmembers, 11 were badged. On 24 May, the ship departed for Pearl Harbor.

USS Pelican (AMS-32). This motor minesweeper was under operational control of

TG 7.3. On 3 March, Pelican sailed under escort to KwaJalein Atoll. After

replenishment there, it was escorted to Ailinglapalap about 470 nmi (870

km) southeast of Enewetak Atoll. Apparently it was there for all three

shots. It departed Ailinglapalap for Kwajalein Atoll on 16 May (Reference

C.5, pp. VII-58, 84&85). Pelican was not exposed to radiological contamination, and none of its 25-man crew was badged.

USS Perkins (DDR-877). On 29 January, this radar picket destroyer arrived at Enewetak Atoll, where it served as part of TU 7.3.3, the Off-Shore Patrol Unit. Its crew size was 223.

"* X-RAY (15 April). Patrolling south of Wide Entrance, about 3.8 nmi

(7 km) southwest of the southern end of Enewetak Island and 21.25

nimi (39.4 km) south-southeast of the shot island. On 27 April at

1500, as the ship continued to patrol south of Wide Entrance, a

radsafe monitor came aboard. About an hour later he transferred to

George.

"* YOKE (G May). Patrolling in approximately the same location as for

X-RAY, about 20 nmi (37 km) from surface zero. On 3 May at 1751 it

moored beside Mispillion to take on fuel; at 2015 it anchored west

of Enewetak Island.

"* ZEBRA (15 May). Patrolling south of Wide Entrance, about 6 nmi (11

km) southwest of the southern end of Enewetak Island and about 18.5

141
nmi (34.3 kIn) south-southwest of surface zero on Runit. On 15 May

at 1418 it returned to Enewetak Lagoon: at 1736, after refueling

from Mispillion, it anchored about 3,300 yards (3 km) northwest of the northern end of Enewetak Island.

During the radsafe inspection on 20 May, no contamination was found on

Perkins (Reference D.4, p. 6). The ship left for Pearl Harbor on 21 May.

USS Pickaway (APA-222). This attack transport ship served as a troop evacuation

vessel. Dates of arrival at and departure from Enewetak Atoll before

SANDSTONE by this ship are:

Arrival Departure

28 December 1947 1 January 1948

26 February 1948 14 March 1948

1 April 1948

During SANDSTONE the ship was part of TU 7.3.2, the Main Naval Task Unit.

* X-RAY (15 April). Steaming with TU 7.3.8 a few miles east of Parry

and between 18 and 23 nmi (33 and 43 km) south-southeast of the

shot island. At 0834, the ship anchored in the lagoon about 2,370

yards (2.2 km) west of the northern end of Enewetak Island.

e YOKE (I May). Underway with TU 7.3.8 between 15 and 20 nmi (28 and

37 km) southeast of the shot island. The ship anchored in the

lagoon at 1005 at its post-X-RAY location.

* ZEBRA (15 May). Underway with TU 7.3.8 between 25 and 30 nmi (46

and 56 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1019, the ship anchored

about 3,070 yards (2.8 km) west-southwest of the northern end of

Enewetak Island.

The radsafe inspection on 20 May revealed several contaminated locations on Pickaway. The highest level of radioactivity was 0.0015 R/hr in

the main engine-room blower at Frame 86 and in a porthole fan in the officer's mess (Reference D.4, p. 2). Badges were issued to 12 of its 290

crewinembers. On 27 May, the ship left Enewetak Atoll for Pearl Harbor via

Kwajalein Atoll.

USS Quick (DMS-371. On 24 March, this high-speed minesweeper arrived at Kwajalein. It was under the operational control of CTG 7.3. On 10 April it

arrived at Enewetak Atoll and departed for its station on 12 April.

0 X-RAY (15 April). On station within a 50-nmi (93-km) radius of

1500'N, 171 0 45'E. On 18 April the ship anchored at Kwajalein.

On 27 April It left Kwajalein for Its station.

* YOKE (I May). On station In the area of 1300'W, 172 020'E. On 3

May the ship moored at Kwajalein Atoll. On 12 May the ship left to

take up its station for ZEBRA.

e ZEBRA (15 May). On station in the area of 120 30'N, 172 0 20'E.

The ship returned to Kwajalein on 16 May and left for Pearl Harbor

on 21 May.

142
-=.

For each shot the ship was about 600 nmi (1,112 kin) from Enewetak

Atoll. The ship arrived at Kwajalein on the morning of 3 May, approximately

4 hours after the radiological rainout from YOKE had fallen on the atoll

for 10 hours. The ship was not exposed to radiological contamination, and

none of its 167 crewmembers was badged.

USS Raby (DE-698). For SANDSTONE, destLoyer escort was part of TU 7.3.3, the

Off-Shore Patrol Unit. It arrived at Enewetak Atoll with its 143 crewmembers on 1 January.

* X-RAY (15 April). Steaming near the southern end of Parry, about

19.5 nmi (36.1 km) south-southeast of the shot island. On 18 April

at 1848 it entered Enewetak Lagoon; at 1904 moored to Mispillion.

iOn 19 April at 0710 it anchored An the lagoon west of Enewetak Island.

* YOKE (1 May). Steaming In the open sea off Enewetak Atoll, about 7

nani (13 km) southeast of the shot island. At 0846, the ship entered

the lagoon through Deep Entrance and then steamed to Northern

Anchorage near Mount McKinley, which was anchored about 2,480 yards

(2.3 km) southwest of the northern end of Runit. By 0955, Raby

hove to near Mount McKinley. From Mount McKinley, Raby took aboard

two officers and a ten-man U.S. Marine Corps detachment for transportation to Bikini Atoll where it was to investigate a report of

footprints and tampering with experimental equipment on Enidrik

Island (Reterence C.3, p. VII--3). Raby was underway for Bikini

Atoll at 1022. It returned to Enewetak Atoll on 3 May, following

the investigation at Bikini Atoll.

0 ZEBRA (15 May). Underway about 1.8 nmi (3.3 km) southeast of the

southern end of Parry and about 10 rnmi (18.5 km) south-southeast

of the shot island. At 1443, the ship moored alongside Spangler,

about 4,630 yards (4.2 km) west of the northern end of Parry, for

refueling. At 1650, it anchored about 8,070 yards (7.4 km) west of

the northern end of Enewetak Island.

The radsafe check on 20 May indicated slight contamination at less

than 0.001 R/hr on two air intakes on Raby (Reference D.4, p. 5). The ship

left for Pearl Harbor on 21 May.

USS Rogers (DDR-876). This radar picket destroyer reached Enewetak Atoll on

8 March, where it became part of TU 7.3.3, the Off-Shore Patrol Unit.

* X-RAY (15 April). on patrol about 2.1 nimn (3.9 km) east-southeast

of the northern tip of Enewetak Island, about 19 nmi (35 km) from

surface zero.

9 YOKE (I May), On patrol about 5.3 nmi (9.8 km) east of Japtan and

about 15 niml (28 km) southeast of the shot island. Between 0844

and 0855, the ship first entered and then left Deep Entrance channel. on 2 May at 1030 anchored about 3 nmi (5.6 km) southwest of

the southern tip of Runit.

• ZEBRA (15 May). On patrol about 8 nmi (15 km) southeast of the shot

Island and about 4.7 nmi (8.7 km) east-northeast of the northern

143

I 1 -] ] " 7 "I Tqq 1 ! 3-E1-1 I T
end of Enewetak Island. At 1643, the ship anchored in the lagoon

about 2,370 yards (2.2 km) northwest of the southern tip of Enewetak Island. Between 1315 and 1345 on 18 May, a radsafe party

checked the ship for radioactivity. The radsafe party left the

ship at 1345 after finding various items excessively radioactive.

Between 0915 and 0945 on 20 May, a radiological party again came aboard

and found contamination in 18 vent-duct screens. The highest level of

radioactivity was 0.0039 R/hr in the vent duct at Frame 150 on the starboard side (Reference D.4, p. 4). Later the same day, the ship left Enewetak Atoll for Rongerik Atoll en route to Pearl Harbor. Rog was again

inspected by radsafe personnel when it arrived at San Diego on 4 June and

was declared safe. Of its 234 crewmembers, 178 were badged -- all with

zero exposure.

USS Spangler (DE-696). This destroyer escort arrived in the proving ground on

15 January. It participated in operations as part of TU 7.3.3, the OffShore Patrol Unit.

"0 X-RAY (15 April). Anchored in the lagoon about 4,630 yards (4.2

km) west of the northern end of Parry about 16 nmi (30 km) southsoutheast of surface zero. Assigned as plane guard for Bairoko,

Spangler steamed toward the northern part of the lagoon at 0705.

It was released from plane guard duty at 0802 and returned to the

southeast portion of the lagoon, where it anchored about 2,330

yards (2.1 km) northwest of the northern end of Enewetak Island at

0915.

"* YOKE (G May). Anchored as for X-RAY, 13 nmi (24 km) south of the

shot island. At 0710, the ship was underway as plane guard for

Bairoko. Released from plane guard duty at 0805, spangler anchored

2.4 nmni (4.4 km) west of the northern end of Parry Island. At 1405

the ship got underway for patrol off the atoll. On 4 May the ship

returned to the lagoon for refueling from Mispillion, resuming

patrol the same day. On 8 May, after refueling from Comstock,

Spangler anchored 2,860 (2.6 km) west-northwest of the northern

end of Enewetak Island. At 0653 on 12 May, the ship was underway

to patrol the Wide Passage. At 1412, a radsafe monitor came aboard

the ship. On 14 May it anchored 2.4 nmi (4.4 km) west of the

northern end of Parry Island.

"* ZEBRA (15 May). Anchored in the same postshot location as for the

two previous detonations, about 8 nmi (15 km) south of the ZEBRA

surface zero. At 1320, the radsafe monitor transferred to Currier.

The radiation check of 20 May revealed contamination of 0.0055 R/hr in

the starboard vent duct screen at Frame 70 on the port side. The screen

was jettisoned. This left the highest reading as 0.004 R/hr on the starboard vent duct screen at Frame 50 (Reference D.4, p. 4). Of its 135 crewmembers, 9 were badged. Spangler left for Pearl Harbor on 21 May.

USS Swallow (AMS-36). This motor minesweeper arrived at Kwajalein Atoll with

23 crewmewbers sometime after 5 March. It was under the operational control of CTG 7.3. Its crew was 23. On 23 March, it left Kwajalein Atoll to

144
take up its station at Bikini Atoll, where it arrived on 27 March. Ap- j

parently it was at Bikini Atoll for all three detonations of Operation

SANDSTONE, arriving back at Kwajalein Atoll on 17 May (Reference C.3, pp.

VII-58, -73, -81, and -85; Raby deck log, Pasis deck log).

USS Warrick (AKA-89). This attack transport first arrived at Enewetak Atoll in

connection with SANDSTONE on 28 December 1947. It departed for Pearl Harbor

on 25 January and returned to Enewetak Atoll on 29 March. It evacuated

troops before the shots. During the test series, the ship was part of TU

7.3.2, the Main Naval Task Unit. Badges were issued to 40 of its 167

crewmembers.

"* X-RAY (15 April). Steaming with TU 7.3.8 In the open sea a few

miles east of Parry, between 18 and 23 nmi (33 and 43 km) southsoutheast of the shot island. At 0842, it anchored about 3,900

yards (3.6 km) west of the northern end of Enewetak Island.

" YOKE (G May). Underway with TU 7.3.8 between 15 and 20 nimi (28 and

37 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1014, the ship anchored at

its post-X-RAY location. On 9 May, the ship left Enewetak Atoll

for Kwajalein Atoll.

"* ZEBRA (15 May). Anchored at Kwajalein Atoll.

After a trip to Wake Island between 18 and 22 May, Warrick left Kwajalein Atoll for Pearl Harbor on I June.

USS Yancey (AKA-93). This attack transport, with 148 crewmnembers, was part of

TU 7.3.2, the Main Naval Task Unit. The ship was present at Enewetak Atoll

from 24 December 1947 to 6 January 1948, from 4 to 30 March 1948, and from

16 to 26 May 1948. It was not, however, in the proving ground for any of

the detonations, being In Pearl Harbor for X-RAY, en route to Pearl Harbor

from San Francisco for YOKE, and en route to Enewetak Atoll for ZEBRA. On

16 May it anchored In the lagoon a short distance west of Enewetak Island.

Nevertheless, during the radsafe inspection of 20 May, contamination of

0.001 R/hr was found In the deck vent at Frame 92 (Reference D.4, p. 5).

YOG-64. No information is available on when this gasoline barge arrived in the

proving ground. During the test series it served as part of TU 7.3.5. the

Service Unit (Reference C.3, p. VII-4). Its crew numbered II.

"* X-RAY (15 April). Underway as part of TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32

nmi (50 and 59 kim) southeast of the shot island. It returned to

Enewetak Lagoon at 1233 on 15 April.

"* YOKE (1 May). The barge was probably moored in Enewetak Lagoon

during YOKE. Its crew was transferred to Askari on 30 April. YOG-64

was reboarded about 9 hours after YOKE.

"* ZEBRA (15 May). Underway as part of TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 km)

south of surface zero on Runit.

During the radsafe inspection on 20 May, no contamination was detected

on YOG-64 (Reference D.4, p. 6). The date of its departure from the proving ground is not known.

145
- . °

YW-94. This water barge arrived in the proving ground on 29 November 1947. It

became part of TU 7.3.5, the Service Unit (Reference C.3, pp. VII-4 and -14).

X-RAY (15 April). Steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50

and 59 kin) southeast of the shot island. It returned to Enewetak

Lagoon on 15 April. On 16 April it moored by Pasig 2,860 yards

(2.6 km) west-northwest of the northern end of Enewetak Island.

9 YOKE (1 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and

41 km) southeast of surface zero on Aomon. It returned to Enewetak

Lagoon on 1 May by 1230, when it was alongside the PasAg in the

same location as following X-RAY.

9 ZEBRA (15 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 kin) south

of the shot island. It returned to Enewetak Lagoon by 1243. when

it came alongside Pasio to take on water. It was located as followIng X-RAY.

The radsafe inspection on 20 May found YW-94 free of contamination

(Reference D.4, 6). No record of its departure from Enewetak has been

located.

Air Units

Air Development Squadron 4 (VX-4) Detachment. Assigned to TU 7.3.3 (Off-Shore

Patrol), the VX-4 Detachment reported for duty on 20 March and was based

on KwaJalein. The detachment had 54 personnel, none badged. It flew nightly

patrols using one of its three PB-lW (B-17G) patrol aircraft (Reference

E.2.3.3, p. 24; Reference C.3, p. VIII-67). Aircraft and personnel were

detached from VX-4 on 1 April and reassigned to Air Early Warning Squadron 1 (VPW-l). Its SANDSTONE mission was not affected by this change.

Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron 119 Detachment (FASRON-119). This unit was stationed aboard Gardiners Bay and maintained the six PBM-5 patrol planes of

the Medium Seaplane Patrol Squadron 6 (VS[MS]-6) Detachment in the proving

ground. FASRON-119 had 33 personnel, none of whom appear to have been

badged (Reference E..

Medium Seaplane Patrol Squadron 6 (VP[MS]-6) Detachment. The detachment reported for operational control on 21 January 1948. Equipped with six PBM-5

* .patrol aircraft, the detachment had 153 personnel, 11 of whom were badged.

It began patrolling the proving ground on 1 February 1948. Single aircraft

daylight searches were flown six days per week; the seventh day a five

aircraft search was flown. Gardiners Bay was the detachment seaplane tender

(Reference C.3, p. VII-4: E.2.3.3, p. 24). During a radsafe check on 20

May, PBM-59250 was found to have radioactivity levels between 0.0003 and

0.0013 R/hr on the top of the wing (Reference D.4, p. 1). PBMs 50155,

84602, and 84623 did not show significant readings (Reference D.1, pp. 1

and 4). Records are lacking on the two other aircraft.

TASK GROUP 7.4 (AIR FORCE)

Staff of the Air Force Commander. One badged Navy officer served in this

"F organization.

S• 146
Task Unit 7.4.3 (Photography Unit). Five Navy personniel participated in the

several photographic teams. All were badged with a high of 0.1 R.

IASK GROUP 7.5 (JOINT SECURITY GROUP)

A manning report dated 31 March 1948 indicates 116 Navy personnel were in

TG 7.5, but the monthly roster of TG 7.5 personnel of the same date (Reference

E.2.0.2, p. 15) lists only one Navy man, an officer who was badged, working in

task group headquarters (Reference E.2.5.2, p. 1). In the manning report, the

figures are divided into three categories: Army, Navy, and Air Force. No Marines were enumerated. However, there were 115 Marines In TG 7.5 (see Chapter

8), and therefore 115 of the 116 Navy personnel referred to in the manning

report are these Marines.

TASK GROUP 7.6 'JOINT RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY GROUP)

Fifty Navy personnel were in this task group including its commander, a

badged Navy officer.

Bureau of Medicine and Surgery (BuMed). In conjunction with Bureau of Ships.

this organization led the service tests of biological material, pocket

dosimeters, samples of cloth and other material, and animal containers at

various distances from the detonations. These activities Involved exposure

to radioactivity (Reference C.5, p. 3-10). Three Navy officers from BuMed

can te identified with this test. During the operation they worked as part

of TU 7.6.6 (Reference E.2.6; Reference C.3, pp. VIII-1l and IX-55).

Bureau of Ships (BuShips). A Navy officer from BuShips, working as part of TU

7.6.6, conducted the material sample exposure tests at stations on Enjebi,

Aomon, Bijire, and LoJwa. In addition, radiation detection and exposure

reý:ording instruments were tested during radsafe operations (Reference

C.5, pp. 3-10 and -il). The officer was badged (Reference C.3, p. IX-54).

Bureau of Yards and Docks (BuDocks). This organization led the service test of

prefabricated structures set out on Enjebi for X-RAY and on Aomon, Bijire,

and Lojwa for YOKE. Men from TO 7.3 apparently did most of that work (Reference C.5, p. 3-4). only one officer from BuDocks, a badged Navy commander, can be Identified with this effort. On 24 April, following X-RAY, he

inspected the structures on Enjebi and gathered data. On 7 May, following

YOKE, he inspected the structures on Aomon, Bijire, and Lojwa and gathered

data (Reference C.3, p. VII-78).

Thirty-seven Navy personnel whose home stations are not known were also in

TG 7.6, having the following assignments.

Task Unit 7.6.2 (Staff Unit). Eight Navy enlisted men, all badged, served in

this unit (Reference C.43, Special Order No. 1, p. 1: Reference E.2.3.3,

p. 2596).

Task Unit 7.6.3 (Operations Unit). Three badged Navy officers were In this task

unit (Reference C.43, Specia] Order No. 1, p. I1 Reference E.2.3.3, p.

2596).

147
Task Unit 7.6.4 (Laboratory Unit). Eight badged Navy enlisted men were in this

unit (Reference C.43, Special Order No. 2, p. 1: Reference E.2.3.3, p.

2596).

Task Unit 7.6.5 (Radiological Records Unit). One badged Navy enlisted man was

in this unit (Reference C.43, Special Order No. 2, p. 2; reference E.2.3.3,

p. 2597).

Task Unit 7.6.6 (Technical Measurements Unit). Five Navy officers and four enlisted men, all badged, served in this unit (Reference C.43, Special Order

No. 2. p. 2; Reference E.2,3.3, pp. 2596-97). Four of the officers were

from BuM and BuShips (above).

Task Unit 7.6.7 (Monitor Unit). Including Its commander, the unit had eleven

Navy officers, all of whom were badged (Reference C.43, Special Order No.

2, p. 2; Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2596-7).

Task Unit 7.6.9 (Rear Echelon Unit). Based in Washington, D.C., this unit was

headed by a Navy officer. He was badged, probably when he visited the proving ground as a TG 7.8 observer. No other information is available on Navy

participation in this unit (Reference C.43, Special Order No. 2, p. 3).

Seven other Navy personnel have been identified as serving with TG 7.6,

but their home stations and task unit affiliation are unknown. Three were

badged: four were not. (Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2596-97).

TASK GROUP 7.7 (KWAJALUIN ISLAND COMMAND)

Nine hundred seventy-one Navy personnel have been identified with this

task group. The following organizations contributed.

Amphibious Patrol Squadron 2 (VPAM-2) Detachment. This unit had 18 officers

and men, none badged (Reference E.2.3.3, p. 2180).

Civil Administration Unit, Kwalalein. This unit had 34 Navy personnel, none

badged (Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2588-2589).

Construction Battalion 1509 Detachment. Badges were issued to 5 of the 215

officers and men of this detachment (Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2589-2594;

Reference E.2.3.2).

Heavy Lift Patrol Squadron 8 (VPHL-8) Detachment. Two officers and six enlisted

men made up this unit, none badged (Reference E.2.3.3, p. 2680; Reference

E.2.3.4).

Naval Air Station, Kwalalein. This unit had 427 personnel, of whom 13 were

badged (Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2664-2674).

Naval Station, Kwajalein. One hundred and fifteen personnel were In this unit;

four were badged (Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2674-6).

Naval Station, Kwajalein, In-Service Craft. This served as the Kwajalein Boat

Pool. Twenty-eight personnel have been identified with this unit (Reference

148

-•.•.•, . . " • • ,".. . • • ,, • -'-... . _ .I -. ,. .. ,. -•.,. %'I''''• '•• '
E.2.3,3, p. 2676). Enlisted personnel in the four lowest ranks have not - been identified.

Naval Station, Kwalaleln, Ship Security Detachment. This unit had a total of

93 officers and men; 18 were badged (Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2676-2678).

The unit was the responsible for maintaining the target ships towed to

Kwajalein Atoll from Bikini Atoll after Operation CROSSROADS in 1946.

Transport Squadron 8 (VR-8) Detachment. The 26 personnel of this detachment

were unbadged (Reference E.2.3.3, p. 24).

Utility Transport Squadron 3 (VRU-3) Detachment. The seven personnel in this

detachment were not badged (Reference E.2.3.3, p. 2687).

TASK GROUP 7.8 (OBSERVER ESCORT GROUP)

Individuals escorting observers typically were drawn from other task

groups. Assignments to this duty were temporary and in addition to other

duties. No information is available on Navy participation in escort work.

Seven Navy officers visited the proving ground as observers. Three were

attached to the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP): one of the three

also served as commander of TU 7.6.9. Two of the officers were from the staff

of Commander-in-Chief, Pacific. One was from AEC, and one had no recorded

affiliation beyond the Navy. Five were badged (Reference C.1, pp. 147-148).

NON-TASK-FORCE SHIPS

A number of other ships were in the area of the proving ground during the

operational or rollup stages of Operation SANDSTONE. They were not part of

JTF 7, and their operations did not take them Into radioactive areas.

USS Ashtabula (AO-51). On 1 April, this oiler was at Enewetak Atoll, and on

2 April, it was at Kwajalein Atoll. On 3 April at 0745 it left Kwajalein

" Atoll (Curtiss deck log, Yangey deck log).

USS Chehalis (AOG-48). This gasoline tanker arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 3 May

and departed on 7 May (Reference C.3, p. VII-83).

USS Cimarron (AO-22). On I May, this oiler was underway from Kwajalein Atoll

on a southwesterly course (Paslg deck log). It was also present at KwaJalein from 15 May to 17 May (Warrick log).

USS Kerstin (AF-34). On I April, this reefer was at Enewetak Atoll (Gardiners ..

Bay deck log). It left on I April at 1815.

USS Klckitat (AOG-64). This gasoline tanker was at Enewetak Atoll on 19 May

and refueled from Mispillion (Curtiss deck log). It left that day.

USS Latona (AF-35). This reefer arrived in the area on 9 April 1948. No Jnformation on its location at the time of X-RAY has been found, but the ship

does not appear to have been at Enewetak Atoll. For YOKE, Latona was at

149
Kwajaleln Atoll and left for Enewetak Atoll that day to reprovision yessels there, arriving on 3 May. The ship left Enewetak Atoll on 12 May 4

(Reference C.3, pp. VII-83 and -85).

LCI-615. For all three shots this infantry landing craft was at Ujelang Atoll

(LST-219 deck log), acting as tender vessel for a Navy detachment putting

up buildings on the island (Reference C.3, p. VII-64).

USS Nemasket (AOG-10). On 1 December 1947 this gasoline tanker was at Enewetak

as a station tanker. In February it delivered aviation gasoline to Enewetak.

USS Ryer (AG-138). On I April, this ship was in the vicinity Kwajalein Atoll

(Yancey deck log). On 17 April, two days after X-RAY, it was at Ujelang U

Atoll (LST-219 deck log).

150

d I
CHAPTER 7

U. S. AIR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDS1ONE

SANDSTONE was the first test series in which the newly created U.S. Air

Force played a role. Over 2,000 Air Force personnel with approximately 60 aircraft participated in the operation. Most Air Force personnel were stationed

on Kwadalein, however, others were stationed on ships, on Enewetak, Rongerik,

and Majuro atolls, and on Wake Island.

Air Force personnel for SANDSTONE were in several task force organizations.

In addition to Task Group (TO) 7.4, 55 Air Force personnel served in Hq Joint

Task Force 7 (JTF 7) (22 on the JTF 7 staff and 33 on the staff of Commander

Air Forces, who was a Deputy to Commander JTF 7 [CJTF 7]). Commander Air Forces

had command authority over CTG 7.4. Although the entire airbase operation at

Enewetak Island was under the control of CTG 7.2, several Alr Force personnel

at Enewetak provided essential runway control, commmtunications, and navigation

services for aircraft using the Enewetak airbase. Over 200 Air Force personnel

in the 1535th Air Force Base Unit, permanently based on KwaJalein Atoll, were

assigned to TG 7.7. An Air Force security unit, the 700-X Counter Intelligence

Corps (CIC) Detachment, was also assigned to TO 7.5.

TG 7.4 established weather stations on Enewetak, Rongerik, and Majuro

atolls and supplemented existing weather facilities at Kwajalein Atoll and

Wake Island as part of Task Unit (TU) 7.4.4. Few. if any, weather and communications personnel at these weather stations were badged. Authorized strength

was 35 for Enewetak, 20 each for Rongerik and Majuro, and 15 for Wake including

5 permanent U.S. Weather Bureau personnel. The remaining 155 persons authorized

for TU 7.4.4 were stationed on KwaJalein (Reference B.4.1, Annex K).

Of the 2,012 Air Force participants, only 350 were badged. The exposure recording program was In its infancy, and no comprehensive program existed for

badging all participants for the duration of the series. Information on those

who were badged is very limited. Normally only the individual's name and rank

were posted to badge records. In some cases the first name (or initial) is not

available, and In some cases the rank Is not available. Some orders for Air

Force personnel have been locatei that, along with clearance rosters, have

allowed identification of most Air Force participants. Only personnel who

entered potentially radioactive areas were issued badges. Generally, badges

were issued and turned in daily during this series. Within TG 7.4 this included

most aircrews and photographers. Winds were favorable for all three shots, and

fallout drifted away from TG 7.3 ships and the inhabited islands of Parry and

Enewetak at Enewetak Atoll. Fallout from shot YOKE on 1 May 1948, however,

drifted over Kwajalein on 3 May. Calculations indicate that the total exposure

for persons remaining in the open would have been 0.770 R from this fallout

(Reference D.6). Table 12 reflects personnel exposure for Air Force personnel

by task force functional organization and Is derived from film badge readings.

Overall exposures were low and only one persoii (in the Drone Unit) exceeded

3 R. Discussion of each organization listed Table 12 follows.

151
:..1

Table 12. SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Air Force organizations.

No. of Exposure Ranges (roentgens)

Per sons

Organization Badged 0 0.001-0.5 0.5-1 1-1.5 1.5-2 2-2.5 2.5-3 3-4 High

Hq Joint Task Force 7 6 4 2 0 0i 1I 11 1 0 O.3HOCommander Air 'orc-es 31 lu 13 0 0 0I 0 I ( II 0 41)',

Task Group 7.1 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.890

Task Group 7.4

Task Unit 7.4.1 4 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1.052

Task Unit 7.4.2 99 21 57 14 3 2 0 1 1 3.060

Task Unit 7.4.3 148 110 37 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.530

Task Unit 7.4.4

Reconnaissance 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Task Unit 7.4.4

Report i ng 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Task Unit 7.4.9 5 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.060

TaskGroup 7.5 15 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Task Group 7.6 13 3 7 3 0 0 0 0 0 0.880

3._

Task Group 7.7

1535th Air Force

Base Unit 16 11 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 2.29

Official Observers 6 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.290

Total Air Force personnel 350a 195 124 20 5 3 1 1 1 3.060

Note:

aMean exposure was 0.187 R.

HEADQUARTERS JOINT TASK FORCE 7

Altogether, 22 Air Force personnel have been identified as working in Hq

JTF 7 within the various staff sections. Six of these individuals were badged

and their exposures are listed in Table 12.

HEADQUARTERS AIR FORCES JOINT TASK FORCE 7

This special command organization in Hq JTF 7 was formed to manage air

operations within the test area. This headquarters had a staff of 35 personnel,

all of whom were located aboard USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7). One Navy, one Army,

and 33 Air Force personnel made up this staff. Exposures for the 31 badged Air

Force personnel are given in Table 12.

1ASK GROUP 7.1 (ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION PROVING GROUND GROUP)

TG 7.1 rosters show one Air Force colonel and one Air Force major assigned

during SANDSTONE. The colonel was Deputy Director, TG 7.1; the major's duties

are Pot specified. Both were badged (see Table 12).

152
TASK GROUP 7.4 (AIR FORCE)

Most Air Force personnel in SANDSTONE served in this task group. Personnel

identified with this group total 1,699.

Task Unit 7.4.1 (Hq and Service Unit)

This unit staffed Hq TG 7.4, provided third echelon supply and maintenance

to TG 7.4 units, and was responsible for base housekeeping on Kwajalein for

Air Force personnel and equipment. It operated a dispensary on Kwajalein Island

and had 12 medical specialists assigned to the hospital on Kwajalein. All were

stationed on Kwajalein, although some certainly traveled to Enewetak. Only 4

of 605 personnel assigned to Task Unit (TU) 7.4.1 were badged (see Table 12).

The 605 assigned to this unit included 23 Army personnel and 4 commissioned

women Air Force nurses who were on Kwajalein. The Army personnel and nurses

were not badged (Reference C.3, p. Vll1-5) (Reference C.4, p. IV-7).

Task Unit 7.4.2 (Drone Unit)

This unit consisted of personnel from the ist Experimental Guided Missiles

Group at Eglin Field, Florida. They operated 24 B-17s, of which 12 were un--

manned drones used for cloud sampling and 12 were manned drone control aircraft. The manned B-17 control aircraft flew close to the radioactive cloud to

control the drones, but only the drones penetrated the cloud. The radioactive

drones were landed at Enewetak where the samples were removed by LASL personnel. Drones were decontaminated while at Enewetak and returned to Kwajalein.

Table 12 shows exposures for TU 7.4.2. The 460 participants Included five Army

personnel (one of whom was badged and and whose exposure was 0.050 R) as well

as five civilians (all of whom were badged). The Army personnel are not included in Table 12, but are in Table 10. The one person who received an exposure greater than 3 R was a staff sergeant In this task unit. His exposure was

3.060 R, almost all of which was received in the 7 days following shot ZEBRA.

He probably was Involved in decontamination or maintenance of the radioactive

B-17 drones. This unit was stationed on Kwajalein Island, but unit personnel

frequently traveled to Enewetak Atoll in support of drone operations (Reference

C.3, pp. VIII-5, -73, and -75).

Task Unit 7.4.3 (Photography Unit)

This unit with 173 Air Force personnel had separate suborganlzations to

conduct its several diverse missions. Aerial photography was done by the 311th

Air Division using C-54s and F-13s. Documentary photography was done by seven

teams on varLus ships and ashore at Enewetak and Kwajalein. Tower photography,

using four specially constructed photo towers, was done by yet anothur team.

Also, a film-processing laboratory was set up on USS Curtiss (AV-4) (Reference

C.3. p. VIII-5&3]: Reference C.4, p. XVIII-5). Personnel for TU 7.4.3 came from

several organizations in addition to the 311th Air Division. Lookout Mountain

Laboratory and Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) furnished some personnel, and LASL hired 19 civilian photographers for the SANDSTONE tests. In

addition, 12 Army, 5 Navy, and I Marine Corps personnel were assigned to TU

7.4.3. All except nine personnel In this unit were badged at one time or

another during SANDSTONE. All exposures were low (see Table 12). The exposures

of the non-Air-Force personnel In this unit are shown in Table 10 for Army personnel, Table 11 for Navy personnel, and Table 13 for Marine Corps personnel.

153
Task Unit 7.4.4 (Weather Unit) r

This unit contained two separate groups that collected weather data: weather reconnaissance (173 personnel) and weather reporting (112 personnel).

The 514th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron operated eight weather reconnaissance WB-29s out of Kwajalein. These aircraft were also used to track the

nuclear cloud for up to 5 days after each detonation. For cloud-tracking operations, a monitor from CTG 7.6 was aboard. A dispatch from TG 7.6 to TU 7.6.1

(Air Monitor Unit) on 11 April 1948 allowed contact with the cloud during tracking as long as total exposure did not exceed 0.100 R. Cloud-tracking aircraft returned after shot X-RAY with exterior contamination that required aircraft monitoring and personnel decontamination operations (Reference C.43,

p. 91). Reconnaissance personnel in TU 7.4.4 are reported separately from TU

7.4.4 weather reporting personnel in Table 12. Even though cloud-tracking aircraft flew through radioactive material, records reflect badge readings for

only four persons in the 514th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron. A check of TG

7.6 air monitors who flew with crews of the WB-29s shows that none received an

exposure In excess of 1 R during SANDSTONE.

Weather reporting personnel were trained at Tinker AFB, Oklahoma, which

was probably home station for many of these individuals. During SANDSTONE they

were stationed at several locations in the Pacific test area. Two were aboard

Mount McKinley and staffed JTF 7 Weather Central; 27 on Enewetak, 7 on Kwajalein, 27 on Majuro, 30 on Rongerik, and 19 on Wake furnished daily weather

reports to Weather Central. Only one person in this group was badged and his

exposure was zero (see Table 12) (Reference C.3, pp. VIII-b and -58: Reference

C.4, p. XII-7).

Task Unit 7.4.5 (Air Rescue Unit)

This task unit consisted ot 33 personnel primarily from the 5th Air Rescue

Squadron at MacDill AFB, Florida. It operated two OA-10 and two SB-17 rescue

aircraft. Stationed on KwajaleJn, its rescue aircraft were in the Enewetak

area on test days. None of the 33 was badged. Its personnel approached the

detonations no closer than 10 nml (18.5 km).

Task Unit 7.4.6 (Airways and Air Communications Services Unit)

This unit with 127 personnel was responsible for TG 7.4 communications and

alrbase navigational aids at Enewetak and Kwajalein. The 71st Airways and Air

Communications Services (AACS) Group, Hickam Field, Hawaii, provided 25 personnel and the remaining 102 came from several units In the United States.

Seventy-nine personnel from this task unit were on Enewetak, 20 on Kwajalein,

10 each on Rongerik and Majuro, and 8 on Wake. All were unbadged (Reference C.44, p. V-15). Of these locations, only Kwajalein received any fallout.

Task Unit 7.4.7 (Interisland Transport Unit)

This unit operated eleven C-54 and three C-47 aircraft from Kwajalein Air Base. It ferried personnel and equipment to and from Enewetak and conducted

aerial radiological surveys of ground-level radiation at shot sites. The C-54s

were used for returning radioactive cloud samples and exposed film to the

154

A-a ." % 1 _N . _Z. -A . .% U 2. . . . . . . .
United States. The 47 individuals In this task unit were assisted by personnel

and equipment of the 1535th Air Force Base Unit (AFBU) permanently assigned to

Kwajalein Island. The 1535th AFBU activities are discussed under TG 7.7. None

of the 47 assigned to TU 7.4.7 was badged during SANDSTONE (Reference C.2, p.

V-63; Reference C.3, pp. VIII-5 and -26).

Task Unit 7.4.9 (Liaison Unit)

This unit operated 13 fixed-wing light aircraft to transport men and equipment to the various islands at Enewetak Atoll. Of the 13 assigned Air Force

personnel, 5 were badged (see Table 12). According to historical references,

Army and Navy personnel were in this unit also, but specific numbers or names

could not be identified (Reference C.3, p. VIII-7).

TASK GROUP 7.5 (JOINT SECURITY GROUP)

Among other duties, TG 7.5 guarded the TI 7.4.2 drones when they were

landed at Enewetak Island and used five courier teams to escort the radioactive

cloud samples and film back to the United States from Enewetak. The 700-X CIC

Detachment with 14 Air Force personnel was assigned to TG 7.5. One Air Force

man was assigned to the 369th CIC Detachment, an Army security unit. All 15

were badged and all badges recorded zero (see Table 12) (Reference C.2, p.

11-52; Reference E.2.0.3).

TASK GROUP 7.6 (JOINT RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY GROUP)

This group of 103 men provided qualified monitors to accompany personnel

and aircraft on missions where radiation exposure was possible. It also conducted several experiments (described in Chapter 3). The Air Force assigned 13

to this task group, all badged. Of the 13, 12 were assigned to TU 7.6.1 (Air

Monitor Unit), whichprovided one monitor for each manned T7 1.4 aircraft on

shot days and on postshot cloud-tracking missions. None of the 13 Air Force

personnel in TO 7.6 received more than 1 R exposure (see Table 12) (Reference

C.43, Annex H).

TASK GROUP 7.7 (KWAJALEIN ISLAND COMMAND)

The commander of Kwajalein Island was also designated Commander TG 7.7 for

SANDSTONE. His SANDSTONE missions are described in Chapter 1. Substantial engineering work was done on Kwajalein from December 1947 to March 1948 in preparation for the arrival of TO 7.4. The 2307th Aviation Engineer Company from

Wheeler Field, Oahu, Hawaii, assisted the 2308th Aviation Engineer Company that

was permanently stationed on Kwajalein. The 2307th returned to Oahu before the

first SANDSTONE shot. The population on Kwajalein increased from 320 on 1 December 1947 to 1,988 on 1 May 1948. Two Air Force units assigned to Kwajalein

to assist in SANDSTONE, but not part of TO 7.4, were the 1535th Air Force Base

Unit and the 31-8 Air Weather Service Detachment. Discussions of units follow.

1535th Air Force Base Unit

This unit was the Air Transport Command (ATC) Unit stationed on Kwajalein

to support normal ATC trans-Paclfic operations. During SANDSTONE It also

155
supported test operations. A roster of personnel supporting SANDSTONE exists

with the names of 190 officers and senior noncommissioned officers. Enlisted p personnel in the lower grades probably supported SANDSTONE as well, but no

data are available for them. This unit supported TU 7.4.7 (Interisland Transport Unit) in operating eleven C-54s and three C-47s. Sixteen of the 190 per- sonnel who can be identified were badged. Five crewmembers received measurable

exposures, the highest of which was 2.29 R. Table 12 lists the exposures (Reference E.2.0.3, 1535th Roster).

31-8 Air Weather Service Detachment ,-

This Air Force detachment was also stationed on Kwajalein at the time of

the SANDSTONE tests. Its mission was to provide weather data for the Kwajalein

area. A roster of 23 personnel in the unit who supported test operations

q exists, but total strength of the unit is not known. None of these 23 were

badged (Reference E.2.0.3, 31-8 Det. Roster).

OFFICIAL OBSERVERS

Fifteen Air Force officers have been identified from the official observer

rosters for X-RAY, YOKE, and ZEBRA. Six were badged; one had an exposure of

0.290 R (see Table 12).

156

L2 q•

iq

4.-

Ptt

9%

4 156

. . . . . . . . -".. 
CHAPTER 8

U.S. MARINE CORPS PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE

.4

S|

Participation of U.S. Marine Corps personnel in SANDSTONE primarily involved security responsibilities, although some of the 224 Marine personnel

also contributed to JTF 7 communications, radiological safety (radsafe) actlvities, and photography. Marines were assigned to JTF 7 staff and Task Groups

(TG) 7.3. 7.4, 7.5, 7.6. and 7.7. Each task force element with Marine participation is discussed below and Table 13 lists the exposures for Marine Corps

participants in SANDSTONE.

JOINT TASK FORCE 7 STAFF

Four marines were assigned to the communications section. Two were badged; one had zero exposure and and the other had 0.020 R (Reference E.2.0.6, p. 4).

TASK GROUP 7.3 (NAVY)

Marines were aboard several TG 7.3 ships as the Marine Detachment of the

ship's company or in other capacities.

USS Albemarle (AV-5). Twenty-nine Marines assigned to TG 7.5 provided security

aboard this ship. All were badged, but only two had exposures, neither of

which exceeded 0.1 R.

USS Bairoko (CVE-1154). The Marine Detachment on this ship had 24 Marines, one

of whom was badged with a reading of 0.020 R. In addition to the Marine

Detaczhment there were two Marines aboard who appear on the TG 7.5 roster.

Both sere badged, one recording zero exposure and the other less than

0.1 R.

USS Curtiss (AV-4). The security of the weapon assembly work done on this ship

was assumed by 29 Marines assigned to TG 7.5. All were badged with zero

exposure.

USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7). Muster rolls show that 25 Marines made up the 2

Marine Detachment on Mount McKinley. Nine of these were badged and all of

these had zero exposure. There was also a Marine Security Detachment (MSD)

of 18 personnel aboard Mount McKinley, none of whom were badged. An MSD is

consAtdered an expeditionary force and is not expected to function aboard

ship as the regular Marine Detachment does. No documentation has been

located indicating the assignment of this MSD on Mount McKinley. In addition tu the regular Marine Detachment anu the MSD, there were four badged

Marines from TG 7.5 aboard Mount McKinley. All had zero exposures.

USS Pickaway (APA-222). There was a two-man Marine Detachment aboard Pickaway. One of these Marines was badged with a zero exposure.

157
A(

Table 13. SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Marine Corps organizations.

Exposure Ranges (roentgens) No. of

Persons Over

Organization Badged 0 0.001-0.5 0.5-1 3 High

Hq Joint Task Force 7 2 1 1 0 0 0.020

Task Group 7.3

USS Albemarle (AV-5)

TG 7.4 Detachment 29 27 2 0 0 0.090

USS Bairoko (CVE-115)

Marine Detachment 1 0 1 0 0 0.02

TG 7.5 Detachment 2 1 1 0 0 0.90

USS Curtiss (AV-4)

TG 7.5 Detachment 29 29 0 0 0 0

USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7)

Marine Detachment 9 9 0 0 0 0

TG 7.5 Detachment 4 4 0 0 0 0

USS Pickaway (APA-222)

TG 7.5 Detachment 1 1 0 0 0 0

Task Group 7.4 1 1 0 0 0 0

Task Group 7.5 (see also TG 7.3

for shipboard detachments)

Enewetak Detachment 32 30 2 0 0 0.90

Task Group 7.6 2 0 0 1 1 1.04

Task Group 7.7 1 1 0 0 0 0

Totals 112a 102 8 1 1 1.04

Note:

Mean exposure was 0.018 R.

TASK GROUP 7.4 (AIR FORCE)

A Marine NCO was in one of the photo teams of TU 7.4.3. He was badged with

a zero exposure.

138
TASK GROUP 7.5 (JOINT SECURITY GROUP) 4

TG 7.5 had 115 personnel including detachments on four ships (above) and

at Enewetak Atoll (Reference E.2.0.3, pp. 4-6; Reference C.2, pp. 69 and 70).

The Enewetak detachment had 51 of the 115, 32 of which were badged. Of the 32"

badged only two showed exposures and these were less than 0.1 R.

TASK GROUP 7.6 (JOINT RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY GROUP)

Two Marines participated and were badged In this unit. Responsibilities

are unknown. The high reading was 1.04 R and the low was 0.559 R. The person

with the higher reading was scheduled to by on USS Gardiners Bay (AVP-39) at

"Kwajalein on ZEBRA D-1. The other person was scheduled to be on Parry Island

(Reference E.2.6)

TASK GROUP 7.7 (KWAJALEIN ISLAND COMMAND)

Out of a total of 89 Marines assigned to the Marine Barracks, Kwajalein,

one Marine appears on the exposure list under TG 7.7. His responsibilities are

unknown. It is not known whether the Marine Barracks formally was part of TG

7.7, or Just this one individual.

159

I il
CHAPTER 9

JOINT DEFENSE, ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, OTHER GOVERNMENT

AGENCIES, AND CONTRACTOR PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE

JOINT DEFENSE AGENCIES

Joint defense agencies were a new type of organization in 1948. The Department of Defense (DOD) was created in 1947, absorbing the War Department, which

became the Department of the Army, and the Navy Department, which became the

Department of the Navy. Created also as a branch of the DOD was the Department of the Air Force. This was the executive agent for a new service, the United

States Air Force, which consisted of men and materiel of the former Army Air

Forces.

Triservice agencies of DOD were few In number In 1947, but two were involved In SANDSTONE activities.

Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS). This organization was one of the most important and controversial organizations resulting from the 1947 military reorganization. JCS was active in outlining the requirements for the military development of atomic energy in general and the proposed SANDSTONE testing

in particular.

The joint task force conducting SANDSTONE was a subordinate command of

JCS. The early stages of planning were done by the Joint Proof Test Committee established by JCS. Personnel of this committee were military officers who later became the leadership of Joint Task Force 7 (JTF 7). Except for the command relationship, direct JCS participation in SANDSTONE was

limited to a field-grade officer who acted as an observer and was not

badged (Reference C.l. p. 47).

Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP). AFSWP was created in 1946 to be

the military successor to the Manhattan Engineering District, which had

developed the atomic bomb for the War Department during World War II. In

1947, its commanding officer was the same Army general officer who had

commanded the Manhattan District throughout its life. AFSWP was to handle

military aspects of atomic energy not handled by the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), which was activated at the same time as AFSWP. AFSWP (and its

successors) is probably the oldest of the joint defense agencies, predat- Ing formation of the DOD Itself.

AFSWP was anxious to have as many of its technical personnel participate In SANDSTONE as was possible in order to increase their knowledge and

background in the development and use of atomic weapons. Because of this,

AFSWP made available to the task force about 130 of its personnel, primarily from Sandia Base with a few from Washington, D.C. The unit providing

most of these was the 38th Engineering Battalion (SP), an AFSWP unit made

up of Army personnel. As befits the objective of their participation,

AFSWP personnel were in almost all areas in the scientific measurements

program described ir. Chapter 3 of this report, although AFSWP also provided

160
guard personnel (apparently as an additional duty assignment), clerical

support, labor, and "working observers." Rotation of teams for separate

shots was also used to increase the number of AFSWP participants and the.

collective AFSWP experience.

Although the AFSWP contingent was primarily Army personnel, there were

several Navy officers from AFSWP who served In Hq JTF 7 or Hq Task Group

(TG) 7.1 and one civilian who headed the Terhnical Measurements Unit (TU

7.6.6). Exposure Information for badged AFSWP personnel from the military

services Is included In Tables 10 and 11. Table 14 shows only the exposure

of thp civilian CTU 7.6.6.

lable 14. SANDSTONE personnel exposures, civilians from joint defense

and other government agencies and contractors.

Exposure Ranges (roentgens)

No. of

Persons Over

Orginization Badged 0 0.001-0.5 0.5-1 1-1.5 1.5-2 2-2.5 2.5-j 3 High

Joint Defense Agency

Armed Forces Special

Weapons Project 1 0 0 0 1 U 0 0 0 1.23

Atomic Energy Commission 62 4 44 3 2 2 3 C 5.215

"ntractors to Atomic

.,ergy Commission R

Argonne National

Laboratory 4 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.035

Edgerton. Germeshausen

& Grier, Inc, 12 9 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.070

Los Alamos Scientific

Laboratory 26 1 18 1 0 2 1 0 3 17

Los Alamos Z-Division

(Sandia) 3 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,140

Oak Ridge National

Laboratory 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

University of

California 7 1 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.26

Other Government Agencies

U.S. Publ'c Health

Service 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0,949

Department of Defense

Contractors

PhIlco Technology

Corporation 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

lotal 119 18 77 6 3 3 3 3 6 17

ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

This federal executive agency was charged with the development and control

of atomilc energy by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946. The AEC operated a

161
laboratory (Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory [LASL]) at Los Alamos, New Mexico,

with a branch at Sandia Base in Albuquerque, whose function was the design and

development of atomic weapons. LASL developed the first atomic bombs. It had

been operated since its inception by the University of California, first under

contract with the Manhattan Engineer District of the War Department, and then with the newly formed AEC. The AEC also contracted for operation of a laboratory at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, where uranium was processed. This laboratory had

been operated by the Manhattan Engineering District during World War II as the

Clinton Engineer Works. The University of Chicago operated the Argonne National

Laboratory for the AEC. All these laboratories had personnel at SANDSTONE.

Liaison between the AEC and the JCS was handled by the Military Liaison

Committee (MLC). The MLC sent six military officers as observers to increase

their knowledge and background in the development and use of atomic weapons by working with civilians and scientists (Reference C.5, p. 5-1; Reference C.l,

p. 147). None of these was badged.

The total number of AEC participants (as opposed to contractor personnel)

was 111. This total, however, may have included University of California contract personnel from LASL, as some of the observers listed as "AEC from Los

Alamos" in Reference C.l (p. 147) were clearly scientific observers from the

laboratory itself. The 11 participants included 104 civilians, 4 Navy officers, 2 Army officers, and 1 officer with an unknown military affiliation. The

military officers were from the AEC Division of Military Application. AEC per- sonnel participated in various parts of the task group organization, including

Hq JTF 7 (6 men), TG 7.1 (74 men), and TG 7.6 (24 men) and included 17 official

observers (Reference C.l, p. 1; Reference C.3; and Reference C.40).

The individual exposure records (Reference E.1) show that out of the AEC

total of 111, 69 were badged (63 civilians, 4 Navy officers, and 2 Army officers). The distribution of the badge readings for the AEC civilians is shown

in Table 14, The military exposures are included in tables in their respective

chapters.

CONTRACTORS TO THE ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

Argonne National Laboratory. This laboratory participated mostly in the gammaray experiments. Four were badged.

Edgerton, Germeshausen, and Grier, Inc. (EG&G). This organization worked for

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory in the establishment of timing and firing.

Twelve were badged.

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL), Los Alamos, New Mexico. A total of 30

LASL personnel participated in SANDSTONE, including I Army major from the

Health Division of LASL (Reference C.l, p. 147, Reference C.3, pp. 18, 40).

The individual exposure records show 26 badged personnel, including the Army officer who worked in TG 7.6 and whose exposure was 1.7 R. The

highest LASL exposure was 17 R, the highest experienced during SANDSTONE.

This exposure involved contact with radioactive filters (discussed in

Chapter 4) extracted from the B-17 drone samplers.

162

...........-...
LASL operations at Sandia Base were conducted by its Z-Division (Reference A.8), which soon after SANDSTONE emerged as a separate laboratory,

the Sandia Laboratory, operated under contract by the Sandia Corporation,

a subsidiary of Western Electric. Sandia participation in SANDSTONE involved two Army officers and four civilians (Reference C.3).

Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), Oak Ridge, Tennessee. One badged civilian

from ORNL participated.

University of California. Seven were badged. Their role in SANDSTONE has not

been determined. The University operated LASL and it is likely that these

personnel were at the test site because of this connection.

Exposure for the badged civilians from the AEC contractors is shown in Table

14.

OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

Other Federal government groups participated'directly or indirectly.

Department of Agriculture (DOA). DOA handled biological materials from the

atoll area.

National Bureau of Standards (NBS). NBS calibrated and read film badges (Reference C.30, p. 22: Reference C.31, p. IX-4).

U.S. coast and Geodetic SurVey (C&GS). C&GS- took part in the seismic measurements after each shot (Reference C.5, p. 3-10). C&GS also sent a party to

survey the general layout of the islands before Operation SANDSTONE. One

Navy lieutenant commander, one lieutenant colonel (either Army or Air

Force), and seven civilians were involved. None of them appear on the

individual exposure records.

U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). USCG participated in task force communications. Two

military personnel are listed in Hq JTF 7. Neither appears on the individual exposure records.

U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS). Two badged officers from USPHS participated

in the neutron absorption measurements, the residual contamination in

craters measurements, particle size of material in the cloud, evaluation

of radioactivity survey, and field collective protector instruments as

part of TG 7.6 (Reference C.43).

U.S. House of Representatives. Two unbadged congressmen were present at SANDSTONE as observers (Reference C.1, p. 147).

DEPARTMEN1 OF DEFENSE CONTRACTORS

Philco Technology Corporation. This corporation worked on the radio-link telephone and teletype equipment. Of five civilians identified, one appears to

have been badged.

163
A large group of contractors manufactured Instrumentation used during the

tests. It is possible, but not likely, that some may have had representatives

at Enewetak during the testing period. Other contractors apparently did offsite analytical work for the testing agencies. Contractors in these categories

include:

Air Reduction and Sales Company Mine Safety Appliance Company

A.O. Beckman Company Mole Richardson Company

Cambridge Instrument Company MSA Company

Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory National Technical Laboratories

Designers for Industry North American Philips Company

Dumont Company Nuclear Instrument and Chemical Company

Eastman-Kodak Company Rauland Radio Company

Electronics Company, Inc. RCA

Esterline-Angus Simpson

General Radio Spencer

Geophysical Instrument Company Sun Company

Instrument Development Labs Sylvania Electric Products

Kelly-Koett Manufacturing Company Tracer Laboratory

Lansverk Electrometer Company Victoreen Instrument Company

Lear Company Watson Laboratories

Massachusetts Institute of Weston

Technology

j

164

.V . . • . . . , ° . - . . . . - . .. • . • . . . ° - - - • . . ° - .
CHAPTER 10

SUMMARY OF PERSONNEL EXPOSURES

In SANDSTONE, fewer that one in five participants was badged. Those selected to be badged were personnel whose activities were expected to bring

them into areas of radioactivity. Some badges, however, may have been issued

to individuals on a ship, for example, to represent larger groups of personnel.

Results of the badging are shown in Table 15. The distribution of exposures

for Department of Defense (DOD) personnel, uniformed and civilian, is arranged

by task group. Shown separately in Table 15 are non-DOD exposures. These were

almost exclusively Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) personnel and their contractors, and their exposures would primarily be associated with Task Group (TG)

7.1 and secondarily with TO 7.6 activities.

Table 15. Exposures by task group for the entire SANDSTONE series.

Exposure Ranges (roentgens)

Number Over High

Organization Badged 0 0-0.5 0.5-1.0 1.0-1.5 1.5-2 2 (R)

Hq Joint Task Force 7 32 17 14 1 0 0 0 0.120

Task Group 7.1 143 74 59 4 3 1 2 5.085

Task Group 7.2 122 51 71 0 0 0 0 0.443

Task Group 7.3 796 675 118 3 0 0 0 0.826

Task Group 7.4 312 170 119 15 4 2 2 3.06

Task Group 7.5 165 139 25 1 0 0 0 0.580

Task Group 7.6 97 13 40 20 11 5 8 6.050

Task Group 7.7 57 24 29 1 1 1 1 2.29

Task Group 7.8 11 5 5 1 0 0 0 0.76

Non-DOD 119 18 77 6 3 3 12 17.0

Table 15 indicates that task force personnel exposed to nuclear radiation

during the SANDSTONE series were primarily involved in operations such as

handling radioactive cloud samples, data recovery (TG 7.1), and radiological

safety (radsafe) monitoring and technical measurements (TG 7.6), where exposures were expected to occur. Only low-level exposure of support personnel

appears to have occurred.

Only 25 men exceeded an exposure of 2 R. Five of these were LASL personnel

who were exposed while handling cloud sampling filter papers covered with

radioactive cloud particulates. One of these incidents resulted in the highest

SANDSTONE reading for whole-body exposure (17 R).

165
The single incident in which unbadged personnel came into contact with

radioactivity was an incident at Kwajaleirt, which affected TG 7.4 and TG 7.7. pg

Two days after YOKE shot, fallout occurred at KwaJalein. The maximum estimated .v

total lifetime dose from this fallout for personnel who were on Kwajalein for

the entire test series was calculated to be 0.770 R. This figure assumes that

personnel were in the open 24 hours a day (Reference D.6).

The Kwajalein exposures (TG 7.7) also contain a small group of personnel RI .. who were apparently badged because of their potential exposure to radioactivity

in their activities in pumping and otherwise maintaining target ships from the

1946 nuclear test series, CROSSROADS, and not from any SANDSTONE activities

(see Table 11, "Ship Security Detachment" under "Naval Station Kwajalein"). The

* exposures of two-thirds of this 18-man group were zero; the high was 0.180 R.

* 

-4

T7

1661

.

-

.5.

' 4-

mLI

166
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES

The sources consulted for this report are listed on the following pages.

They are organized into sections based upon their relationship to the body of

nuclear testing information.

The first section (A) contains basic references pertinent to nuclear weapons development and effects and to all or several atmospheric nuclear tests.

These are generally monographs published and distributed through regular trade OI

channels and are available in bookstores and libraries with the exceptions noted.

The second and third sections are documents generated by Joint Task

Force 7 (JTF 7) and its subordinate organizations. The second section (B)

contains planning and related documents for SANDSTONE, and the third (C)

after-action reports. These JTF 7 references are arranged in order of their

SANDSTONE report number (styled either SS, OS, or SR. depending upon a

particular library's bibliographic practices).

The fourth section (D) lists other reports concerning SANDSTONE by

non-task-force organizations concerning SANDSTONE.

The fifth section (E) consists of various rosters and personnel lists used.

Footnoted availability codes appear at the end of many reference citations

for those who wish to read or obtain copies. Availability status was correct

at the time the reference list was prepared. Many documents Indicated as unavailable will become available during the declassification review process.

The Dep-rtment of Energy Coordination and Information Center (DOE CIC) and

NTIS will be provided future DNA-WT documents bearing an EX" after the report

number.

Source documents with an availability code of DOE CIC may be reviewed at

the following address:

Department of Energy

Coordination and Information Center

(Operated by Reynolds Elect-ical & Engineering Co., Inc)

2753 S. Highland

P.O. Box 14100

Las Vegas, Nevada 89114

Telephone: (702) 734-3194; FTS: 598-3194.

Source documents bearing an NTIS availability code may be purchased at the

following address:

167

..
National Technical Information Service

(Sales Office)

5285 Port Royal Road

Springfield, Virginia 22161

Telephone: (703) 787-4650.

When ordering by mail or phone, please include both the price code and the

NTIS number. The price code appears in parentheses before the NTIS order number; e.g., (A07) AD 000 000.

Additional ordering Information or assistance may be obtained by writing

to the NTIS, Attention: Customer Service, or by calling (703) 487-4660.

Reference citations with no availability codes may be available at the

location cited or in a library.

A. BASIC REFERENCES

A.1 Effects of Nuclear Weapons

S. Glasstone, and P.J. Doian, ed.

U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO Stock No. 008-046-000-93-0)

1977

NTIS (A99/MF A01) AD A087 568*

A.2 Compilation of Local Fallout Data from Test Detonations 1945-1962 Extracted from DASA 1251; Vol. 2, Oceanic U.S. Tests

H.A. Hawthorne, ed.

GE-TEMPO

June 1979 DNA 1251 EX2

NTIS (PC A16/MF 01) AD A079 310*

A.3 Trip_Report of Field Search for Exercise Desert Rock Documentation Conducted by Representatives of the Adjutant General 18 June to 14 July 1978

J.H. Hatcher

Adjutant General Center, U.S. Army

NTIS (A21/MF A01) AD 070 933*

A.4 History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Sampling "

AF System:- Command Publication Series 61-142-1

January 1963

*Available from NTIS: order number appears before the asterisk.

**Available at DOE CIC.

***Not available.

]68
A.5 Provinq Ground: An Account of Radlobloloclcal Studies in the Pacific

1946-1961

N.O. Hines

University of Washington Press, Seattle

1962

A.6 Environmental Radioactivity, Second Edition

M. Elsenbud

Academic Press, New York

1973

A.7 Radiological Safety Regulation

NavMed P-1325

1951

A.8 Atomic Shield 1947/1952. Volume 2 of a history of the Atomic Energy

Commission.

R.G. Hewlett, Francis Duncan

Pennsylvania State Press

University Park, Pennsylvania

1969

A.9 Cleanup, Rehabiiltation, Resettlement of Enewetak Atoll -- Marshall

Islands. An Environmental Impact Statement (4 volumes)

Defense Nuclear Agency

April 1975

A,1O The Radiological Cleanup of Enewetak Atoll

Defense Nuclear Agency

1981

NTIS ( ) AD A107-977*

B. SANDSTONE PLANNING DOCUMENTS

B.l.1 Operations Order 1-48***

Test Directorate

12 February 1948

B.2 Training In Protection Against Radloactivlty***

Memo for the Director of Organization and Training

Maj. Gen. L.R. Groves (Army)

21 May 1947 374-21-11

i.•

*Available from NTIS; order number appears before the asterisk.

"**Available at DOE CIC.

***Not available.

169
B.3.0.1 Establishment of a Radiological Safety Program for the Navy***

Op-602

27 August 1946 38 76-0081

B.3.0.2 Radiological Safety Program (Letter to Director of Training, from

Special Committee, Navy Department)***

Bureau of Naval Personnel

3 December 1946 38 76-0081

B.3.0.3 Report on Opening of Radiological Safety School, Treasure Island***

(Memo to RADM W.S. Parsons)

LCDR H.L. Andrews

USPHS

7 April 1947 38 76-0081, 24

B.3.0.4 AN/PDR-l (Memo for CNO Op-3 6 )***

3 November 1948 39 76-0081, 24

B.3.1 Operations Order 1-48***

Commander Task Group 3

21 January 1948 38 76-0081, 22

B.3.2 -Operations Order 2-48***

Commander Task Unit 7.3.3

20 March 1948 38 76-0081, 22

B.4.1 Operations Plan 1-48***

Hq U.S. Air Force

1948

B.6.1 Operations Plan 1-48***

Commander Task Group 7.6

6 March 1948

B.6.2 Third Interim Report of the Joint Radiological Safety Training Committee Radiological Safety Indoctrination in Long Term Schools,***

(Frank I. Winant, Jr., to Chief, AFSWP)

16 January 1948

C. SANDSTONE AFTER-ACTION REPORTS

C.1 Atomic Weapons Tests. Operation SANDSTONE. 1948. Report to the Joint

Chiefs of Staff, Volume 1

J.W. Hull

Joint Task Force 7

June 1948 SANDSTONE Report 1 NTIS AD A078 563*

*Available from NTIS; order number appears before the asterisk.

**Available at DOE CIC.

***Not available.

170
C.2 Atomic Weapons Tests. Operation SANDSTONE. 1948. Report to the Joint

Chiefs of Staff. Part 1 of Annex 1 to Volume 1

J.W. Hull

JTF 7

1948 SANDSTONE Report 2

NTIS AD A078 571*

C.3 Atomic Weapons Tests. Operation SANDSTONE. 1948. Report to the Joint

Chiefs of Staff. Part 2 of Annex I to Volume 1

J.W. Hull JTF 7 1948 SANDSTONE Report 3

NTIS AD A078 545*

c.4 Atomic Weapons Tests. 0pration SANDSTONE. 1948. Report to the Joint

Chiefs of Staff. Part 3 of Annex 1 to Volume 1

J.W. Hull

JTF 7

1948 SANDSTONE Report 4

NTIS AD A078 542*

C.5 Report to the United States Atomic Energy Commission on Operation SANDSTONE, Atomic Weapon Proof Test. 1948. Part 1, Vol. I of the Test

Directors Report to the Commission (extracted version)

J.S. Russell

JTF 7

1948 SANDSTONE Report 5 EX

NTIS AD A995 107*

C.6 Report to the United States Atomic Enerqy Commission on Operation

SANDSTONE, Atomic Weapon Proof Test. 1948. Part 1. Vol. II of the Test

Directors Report to the Commission

J.S. Russell

JTF 7

1948 SANDSTONE Report 6

NTIS AD B951 727*

C.7 Scientific Directors Report of Atomic Weapon Tests at Eniwetok 1948.

General Report. Volume I (extracted version)

D. Froman. A.C. Graves

JTF 7

1948 SANDSTONE Report 7-EX

NTIS AD 995 094*

*Available from NTIS; order number appears before the asterisk.

**Available at DOE CIC.

***Not available.

171
pJ

C.8 Scientific Directors Report of Atomic Weapon Tests at Eniwetok 1948.

Analysis of Experimental Results. Volume II***

JTF 7

1948 SANDSTONE Report 8

C.9 Scientific Directors Report of Atomic Weapon Tests at Eniwetok. 1948.

SANDSTONE Handbook of Nuclear Explosions***

JTF 7

1948 SANDSTONE Report 9

"C.10 Radiochemical Methods. Annex I to Scientific Directors Report***

JTF 7 2

Sn.d. SANDSTONE Report 10

C.11 Operation SANDSTONE Measurements by the Naval Research Laboratory,

Annex 2, Part I***

Naval Research Laboratory n.d. SANDSTONE Report 11

S0C.12 Operation SANDSTONE Measurements by the Naval Research Laboratory.

Annex 2, Part II***9 Naval Research Laboratory

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 12

C.13 Operation SANDSTONE Measurements by the Naval Research Laboratory,_

Annex 2, Part III***

Naval Research Laboratory

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 13

"0C14 Slowly Varying Light from an Atomic Explosion as Measured with a Photocell, Annex 2, Part IV of the Scientific Directors Report***

II JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 14

C.15 Operation SANDSTONE Report by Groups LAJ-4Bo LAJ-12A, Annex 3. Part I

of the Scientific Directors Report*** JTF 7

IF n~d. SANDSTONE Report 15

C.16 Operation SANDSTONE Report by Groups LAJ-4B, LAJ-12A, Annex 3, Part II

of the Scientific Directors Report, Addenda to Part I***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 16

•*Avallable from NTIS: order number appears before the asterisk.

"" *Available at DOE CIC.

S***Not available.

172

S. S. . . .. "
C.17 Operation SANDSTONE Report by Groups LAJ-4B, LAJ-12A, Annex 3, Part III

of the Scientific Directors Report, Addenda to Part I***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 17

C.18 Threshold Detector Measurement of High Energy Neutrons***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 18

C.19 Neutron Absorption Measurements During Operation SANDSTONE***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 19

C.20 Blast Measurements Summary Report, Annex 5, Part I of the Scientific

Directors Report***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 20

C.21 Blast -- Measurement of Peak Pressure, Annex 5. Part II of the Scientific Directors Report***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 21

C.22 Blast Measurements of Pressure as a Function of Time***

JTF 7

June 1948 SANDSTONE Report 22

C.23 Blast -- Airplane Shock Wave Measurements (Service Test No. 5)*** JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 23

C.24 Blast Protection Afforded by Structures -- OCE (Service Tests Nos. 1,

2. and 3). Annex b***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 24

C.25 Blast Resistance of Structures -- Bureau of Yards and Docks (Service

Test No. 4)***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 25

C.26 Blast Resistance of Structures -- Bureau of Yards and Docks (Service

Test No. 4), Annex b, Part II***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 26

*Available from NTIS; order number appears before the asterisk.

**Available at DOE CIC.

***Not available.

173

Lai WO"
C.27 Technical Photography, Annex 7, Part I of the Scientific Directors

Regort***

JTF 7

n. d. SANDSTONE Report 27

C.28 Technical Photography Measurements***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 28

C.29 Gamma Ray Measurements, Annex 8, Parts I, II, III, IV, and V of the

Scientific Directors Report***

JTF 7

April 1949 SANDSTONE Report 29

C.30 Contamination Studies, Annex 9, Parts I, II, III, IV, and V of the

Scientific Directors Report***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 30

C.31 Radiological Safety Instruments, Annex 10, Parts I, II, and III of th'-

Scientific Directors Report

H.L. Andrews, R.E. Murphy

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 31

NTIS AD A078 554*

C.32 Thermal Effects and Decontamination Studies, Annex 11, Parts I, II,

and III of the Scientific Directors Report***

JTF 7 SANDSTONE Report 32

C.33 Biological and Animal Container Studies (Service Test No. 7), Annex 12,

Parts I and II of the Scientific Directors Report***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 33

C.34 Studies of Miscellaneous Phenomena, Annex 13, Parts I, II, and III of

the Scientific Directors Report***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 34

c.35 Scientific Meteorology Information, Annex 14 of the Scientific Directors Report***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 35

*Available from NTIS; order number appears before the asterisk.

**Available at DOE CIC.

***Not available.

174

104 .-rd %1 4% -r
C.36 LAJ-9A Activities, Annex 15, Part I of the Scientific Directors

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

1948 SANDSTONE Report 36

C.37 LAJ-gB Activities, Annex 15, Part II of the Scientific Directors Repoj~t***

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

1948 SANDSTONE Report 37

C.38-. LAJ-12B Activities, Annex 15, Part III of the Scientific Directors

Report***

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

1948 SANDSTONE Report 38

C.39 Planning and Construction, Annex 16, Parts I and II of the Scientific

Directors Report***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 39

C.40 Operation SANDSTONE -- J-Division History, Annex 17, Part I of the

Scientific Directors Report (extracted version)

L. Lemons

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

NTIS AD A995 093* SANDSTONE Report 40-EX

C.41 Sandia Laboratory Group and Forward Area Administration, Annex 17,

Parts II and III of the Scientific Directors Report

J.C. Clark

Sandia Laboratory

NTIS AD A078 550* SANDSTONE Report 41

C.42 Report of the Engineer, JTF 7. Part II of the Engineers Report***

JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 42

C.43 TG 7.6 Operations, Operational Report Phases A, B, C, D, E

F. Winant, J. Cooney

JTF 7

NTIS AD A078 570* SANDSTONE Report 43

C.44 Technical Report of the Communications and Electronics Section of the

Special Staff of the Commander, Joint Task Force Seven*** JTF 7

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 44

*Available from NTIS; order number appears before the asterisk.

**Availabie at DOE CIC.

***Not available.

175

*POOR*%
D. OTHER PERTINENT DOCUMENTS

D.1 "U.S. Nuclear Stockpile, 1945 to 1950" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol 38, No. 5, p. 25

-David A. Rosenberg

May 1982

D.2 Operation SANDSTONE Radiation Injuries***

Memo

LASL

27 July 1948

D.3 Interview with John Balagna, LASL***

Kaman Tempo memorandum, F.W. McMullan

30 March 1982

D.4 Monitor Reports of SANDSTONE Vessels***

10 June 1948 374-75-82

D.5 Reconstruction of Dose Received by J. Knights at SANDSTONE (X-RAY)***

Science Application, Inc. Memorandum,

10 September 1979.

D.6 Radiation Dose for an Individual on Kwajalein Following SANDSTONE,

YOKE.***

Science Applications, Inc. Memorandum

24 August 1981

D.7 Phone Interview with M.G. Bowman

Kaman Tempo Memorandum, F.W. McMullan

16 March 1983

E. ROSTERS

E.1 Individual Exposure Records***-

(File of cards arranged alphabetically by name and microfilmed. A

list summarizing the total exposures from this file was prepared by

Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Co., Inc. (REECo) in 1967. REECO

also prepared the microfilm in 1978. The pertinent cartridge for

SANDSTONE is Roll 2)

JTG 7.6

1948

E.2.0.1 JTF 7 Personnel Roster***

19 December 1947

*Available from NTIS: order number appears before the asterisk.

**Available at DOE CIC.

***NOt available.

176

11
Vi

E.2.0.2 Strength Report by Task Group***

JTF 7

31 March 1948 374-70A-56

E.2.0.3 Roster of Personnel Attached to TG 7.6*4* j 2 April 1948 374-70A-45

E.2.04 Monthly Roster of Task Group 7.5 Personnel***

31 March 1948 374-70A-45

E.2.0.5 Request for Issudnce of U.S. Navy Identification Cards (M. Nay 546)

to Certain Civilians Traveling to Central Pacific Areas in Connection " with Operation SANDSTONE*** :.---

JTF 7

15 January 1948 374-70A-15

E.2.0.6 "T Clearance Roster***

JTF 7

15 June 1948 374-70A-49

E.2.2.1 Personnel Roster***

TG 7.2

31 March 1948

E.2.2.2 Roster Photo Team 7***

31 March 1948

. E.2.2.3 Roster Enewetak Shore Detachment with Signal Unit l***

31 March 1948

E.2.3.1 Roster USS Pelican (AMS-32)***

7 April 1948

E.2.3.2 Roster Cnnstruction Battalion Det. 1509***

n.d,

E.2.3.3 Rosters, Dose Averages, and Summacies***

CNO IP 982-TD

10 March -10 June 1982

E.2.3.4 Roster of Officers and Men Attached***

VPHL-8 Detachment

1948

E.2.5.1 Monthly Roster TG 7.5***

31 March 1948 374-70A-45

*Available from NTIS; order number appears before the asterisk.

"&kAvailable at DOE CIC.

**kNot available,

177
E.2.5.2 Monthly Roster TG 7.5***

30 April 1948 374-70A-45

E.2.6 Roster of Personnel attached to TG 7.6***

Hq TG 7.6

2 April 1948 374-70A-45

10-

*Avallablc from NTIS; order n~mwber appe~ars before the asterisk.

**Avaliable at DOE CIC.

***Not available. -

A7
APPENDIX A

RADIOLOGICAL STATUS REPORT OF ENEWETAK ATOLL

20 May 1948 1

bW-

-79

j"79
Jhk

ft.

I 180
APPENC:X A

JOINT TASK FORCE SEVEN

USS MT McKINLEY (AGC-7)

Fleet Post Office

San Francisco, California

20 May 1948

SUBJECT: Eniwetok Atoll - Radiological Status Report.

TO: Commander, Joint Task Force SEVEN.

1. All islands of Eniwetok Atoll were surveyed for radioactivity during

the period 17 to 19 May 1948. During Operation SANDSTONE much of the land mass

of the Atoll was contaminated with significant amount of radioactivity, For

practical purposes the degree of contamination Is divided into four classes,

A. Class I - Zero Islands.

These are islands on which tests were conducted and consequently

have highly contaminated craters. The crater Is defined as a disk shaped area,

radius 400 yards, centered at the zero tower base. The three islands should be

considered as uninhabitable for a period of years. Radiochemical analyses of

dirt samples would be required before considering any extensive re-use of

these islands. Monitors should accompany any parties working in these craters. 1

Class I Islands are as follows: Engebl, Aoman, Runit.

B. Class II - Islands Heavily Contaminated from Fall-out.

Several Islands downwind of the zero islands were heavily contaminated by fall-out of radioactive materials following the various tests. Until

final clearance, every group re-entering these islands should be accompanied

by a monitor. There should be no extensive re-use or occupation until a thorough and satisfactory re-survey and radiochemical analysis has been conducted.

Class II Islands:

PiIraaL Yeiri

Aaraanbi ru Bokonaarappu

Rojoa Kirinian

Blijirl Muziribaarikku

Eberiru Bogon

Rujoru Engebi (outside of crater)

Altsu Aoman (outside of crater)

C. Class III - Islands lightly Contaminated from Fall-out.

Several Islands In the northwest section of the atoll were

contaminated from fall-out to a sesser degree than those listed under Class

II. Only limited operations should be permitted for the next few weeks. For

181
such operations a monitor would not be necessary unless dust producing operations were conducted. Extensive re-survey and radiochemical analysis should be

conducted before any of these islands were opened for permanent occupancy.

Class III Islands:

Bogairikk Ruchi

Teiteiripucchi Bogombogo

Elugelab Bogallum

Beacon "N" Runit (outside of crater)

D. Class IV - Uncontaminated Islands.

The islands of the southern half of Eniwetok Atoll received no

fall-out or other contamination and should be considered as cleared foc all

types of operations and permanent occupancy If desired.

Class IV Islands:

Chinicero Igurin

Aniyaanil Mul

Chinimi Pokon

Japtan Ribalon

Parry GirliJnian

Eniwetok Rigili

2. For the use of the radiological safety officer of the Eniwetok Garrison Command, AEC material was transferred on 17 May 1948 to Supply Officer,

Task Group 7.2 as follows:

Silica Gel Bags I Box

Personnel Film Badges 216 Each

Instruction Books for:

263A counters

Dosimeters 2 Each

Vacuum Tubes:

VX-41A 10 Each

2E35 4 Each

2532 4 Each

GM Tubes 15 Each

Flashlite Batteries 1.5 v 96 each

No. 467 67.5 v batteries 50 each

No. 493 300 v batteries 50 each

No. 4F 1.5 v batteries 20 each

Minlimax, 22.5 v batteries 96 each

B2BP 3 v batteries 18 each

Charging Kit batteries

Minimax 9 each

Simpson Test Meter

plus leads (Model 260) 1 each

Radium buttons 2 each

Crystal headsets 5 each

182
Keleket Charging Units 2 each

Keleket .2 r dosimeters 20 each

MX-6 Ion Chambers 2 each

263A survey instruments 5 each

4X-6 (Zeus) covers 6 each

263A covers 15 each

One calibration source (Cobalt) will be delivered prior to departure of U.S.S.

BAIROKO. This should be kept in a safe and should be shielded by three inches

of lead.

3. Captain Meredith Mallory, Jr., MC, USA, of TF-7.6 will remain at Eniwetok on temporary duty until 1 June 1948 to monitor any necessary operations

during the turn-over period. Major Butkus, MC, USA, has been ordered from

AFSWP to Eniwetok as Radiological Safety Officer and Post Surgeon to arrive

about 1 June 1948.

4. It Is recommended that gas masks be worn for all dust producing operaticns on all islands listed under Classes I. II and III.

5. It is further recommended that upon completion of any operations or

visit to any island except those listed under Class IV all personnel and

equipment involved be monitored for contamination.

JAMES P. COONEY

Colonel, MC

Radiological Safety Officer

Joint Task Force SEVEN

Copies to:

Eniwetok Garrison Commander

Garrison RadSafe Officer

TG-7.6 file (2)

183
4..•

"*0

'p

•.- 18

-..p
*1..

J

APPENDIX B

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

M4any of the definitions in this glossary relating to nuclear device and

radiation phenomena have been quoted or extracted from The Effects of Nuclear

Weapons (3rd edition), S. Glasstone and P.J. Dolan, 1977.

ACS. Airways and Air Communication Service (Air alpha emitter. A radlonuclide that undergoes

Force). transformation by alpha-particle emission.

AC&W. Aircraft Control and Warning (Air Force). alpha particle. A cha-ged particle emitted spontaneously from the nuclei of some radioactive

AAU. Administrative Area Unit (Army). elements. It Is identical with a helium nucleus, having a mass of 4 units and an elecACC. Army Chemical Center, Edgewood Arsenal. tric charge of 2 positive units. See also

Maryland. radioactivity.

accelerometer. An Instrument for determining the alpna rays. A stream of alpha particles.

accel-ration of the system with which it moves. Loosely. a synonym for alpha particles.

activation products. Radioactive nuclides pro- AMN. Airman; enlisted Air Force personnel.

duced by the irradiation of a stable nuclide.

usually with neutrons. AMS. Army Map Service. Washington, D.C.

AD. Destroyer tender (Navy). AMS. Small minesweeper (wooden hull) (Navy).

ABC. Atomic Energy Commission. Washington. D.C. AO. Oiler (Navy).

Independent agency of the Federal government

with statutory responsibilities for atomic en- AOC. Air Operations Center.

ergy matters. No longer exists; its functions

have been assumed by the Department of Energy AOG. Gasoline tanker (Navy).

and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

AP. Transport ship (Navy).

AF. Store ship (Navy): also Air Force.

APA. Attack transport (Navy).

APB. Air Force Base.

APG. Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland.

AFBU. Air Force Base Unit.

APO. Army Post Office. A___C. Air Force Speclal Weapons Center, Kirtland

AFSWP. Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, arm~nq. The changing of a nuclear device from a

safe condition (that is. a condition in which

AXC. Amphibious force flagship (Navy). it cannot be accidentelly detonated) to a state

of readiness for detonation.

airburst. The detonation of a nuclear device in

the air at a height such that the expanding AS. Salvage snip (Navy).

fireball does not touch the Earth's surface

when the luminosity (emission of light) is at ARSD. Salvage lifting ship (Navy). a maximum.

iASA. Army Security Agency.

air particle tr~iectory. The velocity and rate of

descent of windblown radioactive particles. A3U. Army Support Unit.

AK. Cargo ship (Navy). ASW. Anti-Submarine Warfare.

AKA. Attack cargo ship (Navy). ATA. Auxiliary ocean tug (Navy).

allowable dose. See MPL. ATC. Air Transport Command.

185
..

ATF cathode-ray tube

%TF. Fleet ocean tug (Navy). appreciable time can cause a form of radiation

t A o o ei injury sometimes referred to as "beta burn."

_toll. A ring of coral reefs. usually with small In an area of extensive early fallout, the

islets. that surrounds a lagoon. Most are Iso- whole surface of the body may be exposed to

latrd reefs rising from the deep sea that have beta particles.

built up on submerged volcanoes. They vary considerably in size: the largest atoll. Kwajalein beta emitter. A radionuclide that disintegrates

In the Marshall Islands, has an irregular shape by beta particle emission. All beta-active

that extends for 84 miles (135 kI). See also elements existing In nature expel negative parcoral reef. ticles. I.e.. electrons or, more exactly. negatrons. Beta-emitting particles are harmful If

atomic bomb (or weapon). A term sometimes applied Inhaled or Ingested or remain on the skin.

to a nuclear weapon utilizing fission energy

only. See also fission, nuclear device, beta particle (ray). A charged particle of very

small mass emltted spontaneously from the nuatomic explosion. See nuclear explosion. clel of certain radioactive elemerts. Most. if

not all, of the direct fission products emit

attenuaticn. The process by which radiation Is negative beta particles (negatrons). Physi- reduced In Intensity when passing through some cally, the beta particle is identical to an material. It is due to absorption or scatter- electron moving at high velocity. Ing or both. but it excludes the decrease of

Intensity with distance from the source (in- bhanqteter. A device that measures bomb yield

verse square law. which see). based on light generated by the explosion.

AU. Army Unit. blast. The detonation of a nuclear device, like

the detonation of a high explosive such as TNT,

AV. Seaplane tender (Navy). results in the sudden formation of a pressure or shock wave, called a blast wave in the air

AVP. Small seaplane tender (Navy). and a shock wave when the energy is imparted

to water or Earth.

AVR. Aircraft rescue vessel (Navy).

blast wave. An air pulse In which the pressure

AW. Distilling ship (Navy). increases sharply at the front followed by winds propagated from an explosion.

B-17. Four-engine, propeller-driven bomber devel- bt

oped by Boeing Airplane Company and widely used blast yield. That portion of the total erergy of

in World War II. Used as radio-controlled, a nuclear explosion that manifests itself as

unmanned drone cloud sampler In atmospheric blast and shock waves. nuclear weapon tests.

bomb debris. See weapon debris.

B-29. A 4-engine, propeller-driven bomber developed by Boeing, used for weather reconnals- BRL. Ballistic Research Laboratories, Aberdeen

sance, cloud tracking, aerial sampling and Proving Ground. Maryland (Army).

photography. and aerial refueling at the PiP.

These versions designated RB-29, WB-29, and BuAer. Bureau of Aeronautics (Navy).

I-29.

BuDocks. Bureau of Yards and Docks (Navy).

background radiation. The radiation of man's natural environment, consisting of that which BuMed. Bureau of Medicine and Surgery (Navy).

comes from cosmic rays and from the naturally

radioactive elements of the Earth, including btrs._. Explosion; or detonation. See also airthat from within man's body. The term may also burst, thih-altitude burst, surface burst. mean radiation extraneous to an experiment.

BuShips. Bureau of Ships (Navy).

base surge. The particulate dust cloud that rolls

out from the bottom of the cloud column pro- C-47. A twin-engipe transport aircraft manufacduced by the detonation of a nuclear device. tured by Douglas Aircraft Company (Air Force 01

For underwater bursts. the base surge is a version of the DC-3).

cloud of water droplets, and the flowing properties are those of a homogeneous liquid. c-54. A 4-engine military cargo and personnel

transport manufactured by Douglas Aircraft

bathythermograph (B/T). A device for obtaining a Company (Air Force version of the DC-4).

record of temperature with depth In the upper

1.000 feet (300 meters) of the ocean from a cab. The shelter that covers a nuclear device

ship underway. being prepared for test. May be located on a

becquerel (N), See curie (C). tower, on the Earth's surface, or on a barge.

cathode-ray tube. A vacuum tube in which cathode

beta burns. Beta-emitting particles that come rays (electrons) are beamed upon a fluorescent

into contact with the skin and rpmain for an

186
cave D-day

screen to produce a luminous Image. The charac- objects, and personnel following a nuclear

ter of this image is related to, and controlled detonation. This material generally- consists

by, one or more electrical signals applied to of fallout in which fission products and other

the cathode-ray beam as input information. The device debris have become incorporated with

tubes are used in measuring instruments such particles of dust, vaporized components of

as oscilloscopes and in radar and television device platforms, etc. Contamination can also

displays. arise from the radioactivity induced In certain

substances by the action of neutrons from a cave. A heavily shielded enclosure in which nuclear explosion. See also decontamination,

radioactive materials can be remotely manipu- fallout, weapon debris.

lated to avoid radiation exposure of personnel.

coral reef. A complex ecological association of

CDC. Center for Disease Control. bottom-living and attached shelled marine animal fossils. that form fringing reefs, barrier

Ci; c. Abbreviation for curie, which see. Ci is reefs, and atolls. The lagoons of barrier

preferred now but c was the abbreviation used reefs and atolls are important places for the

in the 1950s. deposition of fine-grained calcium carbonate

mud.

CIC. Counter-Intelligence Corps (Army); Combat

Information Center (Navy). CPM. Counts per minute, a medsure of radioactive

material disintegration.

CINCPAC. Commander in Chief, Pacific.

crater. The depression formed on the surface of

Circle William fittings. The closing of certain the Earth by a surface or underground exploclosures, designated "Circle William" fittings, sion. Crater formation can occur by vaporizahinders the movement of outside air into the tion of the surface material, by the scouring

interior spaces of naval ships. This sealed effect of airblast, by throwout of disturbed

state is also called Circle William condition. material, or by subsidence.

CJTF 7. Commander, Joint Task Force 7. Cs. Chemical symbol for cesium.

closed area. The land areas of Bikini and Enewe- C/S. Chief of Staff.

tak and the water areas within 3 miles of them

that the United States closed to unauthorized CTG. Commander, Task Group.

persons.

curie (CI). A unit of radioactivity; it is the

cloud chamber effect. See Wilson cloud, activity of a quantity of any radioactive species in which 3.700 x 1010 (37 billion) nu- cloud column (funnel). The visible column of clear disintegrations occur per second (approxweapon debris (and possibly dust or water drop- Imately the radioactivity of I gram of radium).

lets) extending upward from the point of a The gamma curie is sometimes defined corre- nuclear burst. spondingly as the activity of material in which

this number of gamma-ray photons is emitted

cloud phenomena. See fallout, fireball, radio- per second. This unit is being replaced by the

active cloud. becquerel (Bq), which is equal to one disintegration per second.

CNO. Chief of Naval Operations.

cutle pie. A portable beta-gamma survey meter

collimate. To align nuclear weapon radiant out- using an ionization chamber as the detector

puts within an assigned solid angle through volume to measure radiation exposure rates.

the use of baffles in order to enhance Usually used at higher radiation levels for

measurements, both detecting and, measuring Ionizing. radiation. A removable end-cap acts as a shield for

Co. Chemical symbol for cobalt, the detector, allowing the instrument to indicate combined beta and gamma radiation when

cobalt. Metallic element with radionuclide the cap is removed, or ga&nma radiation only

Sused as a calibration source for gamma when the cap is in place.

instruments,

CVE. Escort aircraft carrier (Navy).

ComAirPac. Commander Naval Air Forces Pacific

(Navy). CW net. Continuous wave network. An organization

of stations capable of direct radio comnunicaComServPac. Commander Service Forces Pacific tions on a common channel or frequency, (Navy).

D-day. The term used to designate the unnamed

Condition "Purple". See Purple conditions, day on which a test takes place. The equivalent rule applies to H-hou: (which see). Timor

contamination. The deposit of radioactive mate- in plans Is indicated by a lett'r whic), show:,

rial on the surfaces of structures, areas, the unit of time employed ffilures. wl'h ,•

187
DDE fallout

minus or plus sign to indicate the, amount of dosimeter. An instrument for measuring and regtime before or after the reference event, e.g.. istering the total accumulated dose of (or

D+7 means 7 days after D-day, H+2 means 2 hours exposure to) Ionizing radiation. Instruments

after H-hour. worn or carried by individuals are called

personnel dosimeters.

DDE. Escort destroyer (Navy).

doslmetry. The measurement and recording of ra- "DE. Destroyer escort (Navy). diation doses and dose rates. It Is concerned

wi-.h the use of various types of radiation

debris (radioactive). See weapon debris, instruments with which measurements are made.

See also dosimeter, survey meter.

decay (radioactive). The decrease in activity of

any radioactive material with the passage of DPM. Disintegrations per minute, a measure of 4 . time due to the spontaneous emission from the radioactivity, literally atoms disintegrating

"%1 atomic nuclei of either alpha or beta parti- per minute. Difficult to directly compare with

cles. sometimes accompanied by gamma radiation, roentgens per hour for mixtures of radio- or by gamma photons alone. Every decay process nuclides.

has a definite half-life.

decontamination. The reduction or removal of con- Maryland (Navy).

taminating radioactive material from a structure, area, object, or person. Decontamination DUKW. Two-and-one-half-ton amphibious truck

may be accomplished by (1) treating the sur- (Navy).

face to remove or decrease the contamination;

(2) letting the material stand so that the dynamic pressure. Air pressure that results from

radioactivity Is decreased as a result of nat- the mass air flow (or wind) behind the shock

ural decay; and (3) covering the contamination front of a blast wave.

in order to attenuate the radiation emitted.

effects measurements or experiments. Experiments

device. Nuclear fission and fusion materials, whose purpose is to study what a nuclear ex- together with their arming, fuzing, firing, plosion does to material, equipment and sys- "chemical-explosive, and effects-measuring com- tems. Includes also measurement of the changes

ponents, that have not reached the development in the environment caused by the detonation

status of an operational weapon. such as increased air pressures (blast), thermal and nuclear radiation, cratering, water

diaqnostic measurements or experiments. Experi- waves, etc.

ments whose purpose Is to study the explosive

disassembly of a nuclear device as opposed to EG&G. Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grier, Boston,

effects measurements (which see). Massachusetts (now EG&G, Inc.). An AEC contractor. Provided timing and firing electronics.

DMS. Minesweeper destroyer (Navy). Converted destroyer designed to conduct high-speed mine- electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiasweeping operations. tions range from X-rays and gamma rays of short

wavelength (high frequency), through the ultra2" DOD. Department of Defense. The Federal executive violet, visible, and infrared regions, to radar

-agency responsible for the defense of the and radio waves of relatively long wavelength.

United States. Includes the four services and

special joint defense agencies. Reports to the electron. A particle of very small mass and elecPresident through the Secretary of Defense. trically charged. As usually defined, the electron's charge is negative. The term negatron

dose. A general term denoting the quantity of is also used for the negative electron and the

ionizing radiation absorbed. The unit of ab- positively charged form is called a positron.

sorbed dose Is the rad (which see). In soft See also beta particles.

body tissue the absorbed dose In rads is essen- tially equal to the exposure In roentgens. The exposure. A measure expressed in roentgens of the

"biological dose (also called the RBE dose) in ionization produced by gamma rays (or X-rays)

reams is a measure of biological effectiveness In air. The exposure rate Is the exposure per of the absorbed radiation. Dosage is used in unit time (e.g., roentgens per hour). See

older literature as well as exposure dose and dose, dose rate, roentgen.

simply exposure. and care should be exercised

in their use. See also exposure. exposure rate contours. Lines joining points that

have the same radiation intensity that define

dose rate. As a general rule, the amount of Ion- a fallout pattern, represented In terms of

izing (or nuclear) radiation that an individual roentgens per hour.

or material would receive per unit of time. It

is usually expressed as rads (or rems) per hour fallout. The process or phenomenon of the descent

or multiples or divisions of these units such to the Earth's surface of particles contami-

'V as mlllirads per hour. The dose rate is common- nated with radioactive material from the radioly used to indicate the level of radioactivity active cloud. The term is also applied In a In a radioactive area. See survey meter.

188

I -- Lk
fathometer HE

collective sense to the contaminated partic- fixd alpha. Alpha radioactivity that cannot be

ulate matter Itself. The early (or local) easily removed as evidenced by no activity

fallout Is defined. somewhat arbitrarily, as removed on a swipe of a 100-cm2 area.

particles reaching the Earth within 24 hours

after a nuciear explosion. The delayed (or fluorescence.. The emission of light (electromagworldwide) fallout consists of the smaller netic radiation) by a material as a result of

particles, w•Ich ascend Into the upper tropo- the absorption of energy from radiation. The

sphere and stratosphere and are carried by term may refer to the radiation emitted, as

winds to all parts of the Earth. The delayed well as to the emission process.

fallout Is trought to Earth. mainly by rain

and snow. over extended periods ranging from forward area. The PPG and adjoining areas (e.g..

months to years. Kwajalein).

fathometer. A depth-sounding instrument. The FPO. Fleet Post Office (Navy).

depth of water is measured by noting the time

the echo of a sound takes to return from the fusion. The combination of two light nuclei to

bottom. form'a heavier nucleus, with the release of the

difference of the nuclear binding energy of the

film badges. Us=•d for the Indirect measurement of fusion products and the sum of the binding enionizing rad'ation. Generally contain two or ergies of the two light nuclei.

three pieces of film of different radiation

sensitivities. They are wrapped in paper (or gamma rays. Electromagnetic radiations of high

other thin material) that blocks light but is photon energy originating In atomic nuclei and

readily penetrated by gamma rays. The films accompanying many nuclear reactions (e.g., fisare developed and the degree of fogging (or sion. radioactivity, and neutron capture).

blackening) observed Is a measure of the gamma- Physically. gamma rays are identical with

ray exposure. from which the absorbed dose is X-rays of high energy: the only essential difcalculated. Film badges can also measure beta ference is that X-rays do not originate from

and neutron radiation, atomic nuclei of high energy. Gamma rays can

travel great distances through air and can

fireball. The luminous sphere of hot gases that penetrate considerable thickness of material.

forms a few millionths of a second after a nu- although they can neither be seen nor felt by

clear explosion as the result of the absorption human beings except at very high intensities,

by the surrounding medium of the thermal X-rays which cause an It'-Ing and tingling sensation

emitted by the extremely hot (several tens of of the skin. They can produce harmful effects

millions of degrees) device residues. The ex- even at a long distance from their source.

terior of the fireball In air Is Initially

sharply defined by the luminous shock front Geiger-Mueller (GM) counter. A gas discharge

and later by the limits of the hot gases pulse counter for ionizing radiation. See also

themselves, ion-chamber-type survey meter.

fission. The process of the nucleus of a particu- GMT. Greenwich Mean Time.

lar heavy element splitting into two nuclei of

lighter elements, with the release of substan- gray (Gy). A recently introduced ICRP term: I Gy

tial amounts of energy. The most Important fis- equals 100 rad.

sionable materials are uranium-235 and plutonIum-239. fission Is caused by the absorption ground zero (GZ). See surface zero.

of neutrons.

gunk. A viscous commercial preparation that is

fission detectors. Radiation pulse detector of soluble both in water and petroleum derivathe proportional counter type In which a foil tives. It acts as a wetting agent in removing

or film of fissionable materials Is incorpor- grease and particulate matter from metal and

ated to make it respond to neutrons. other nonporous surfaces.

fission products. A general term for the complex H-hour. Time zero, or time of detonation. When

mixture of substances produced as a result of used In connection with planning operations it

nuclear fisslon. A distinction should be made is the specific time at which the operation

between these and the direct fission products event commences. H-1 indicates I hour before

or fission fragments that are formed by the the detonation, and H+1 indicates 1 hour after

actual splitting of the heavy-element nuclei detonation. etc. Minutes and seconds may also

into nuclei of medium atomic weight. Approxi- be indicated using this system, but the units

mately 80 d,fferent fission fragments result used must then be shown, e.g., H-30 minutes.

from roughly 40 different modes of fission of H+55 seconds. See also D-day.

a qiven nuclear species (e.g.. uranium-235 or

plutonium-239). The fission fragments, being half-life. The time required for a radioactive

radioactive, immediately begin to decay, form- mater3l'l to lo!.v T,'.,lf of its radioactivity due

lIg additional (daughter) products, -with the to decay. Each radionuclide has a unique

result that the complex mixture of fission half-life.

products so formed contains over 300 different

radionuclides of 36 elements. HE. High explosive.

!189
high-altl tude ourst megaton (energy)

hlaýLh-altitude burý,t. Defined. somewhat arbitrar- Isodose lines. Dose or dose-rate contours. In

ily. as a detonation In or above the strato- fallout, contours plotted on a radiation field

sphere. The distribution of the energy of the at which the dose rate or the total accumulated

explosion between blast and thermal radiation dose Is the same.

changes appreciably with increasing altitude.

isotopes. Atoms with the same atomic number (same

"h aph. A conurcn hodograph In meteorology rep- chemical element) but different atomic weight:

resents the spýed and direction of winds at i.e., the nuclei have the same number of prodifferent altitAde increments, tons but a different number of neutrons.

hot; hot spot. Commonly used colloquial term JCS. Joint Chiefs of Staff.

meaning a spot or area relatively more radioactive than some adjacent area. JTF 7. Joint Task Force 7 was a combined force

of personnel of the Department of Defense (Air

ICRP. International Commission on Radiological Force, Army. Marine Corps. Navy), the AEC. and

Protection. their contractors. JTF 7 was responsible for

all aspects of nuclear weapon tests in the

initial radiation. Electromagnetic radiations of Pacific during 1948.

high energy emitted from both the fireball and 4

the radioactive cloud within the first minute kiloton convention. Relates nuclear explosion

after a detonation. It includes neutrons and eneymy to TNT explosion energy by using the

gamma rays given off almost instantaneously approximate energy releast of 1.000 tons of

(usually defined as prompt radiation, which TNT as the measuring unit.

see), as well as the gamma rays emitted by the

fission products and other radioactive species kinetic energy. Energy associated with the

in the rising cloud. Initial neutrons from motion of matter.

ground or near-ground bursts react with both

earth materials and device debris to create L-5. L-13. Single-engine. propeller-driven light

activation products. planes.

inverse square law. The decrease in radiation LASL. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. Los

intensity with distance from a single-point Alamos. New Mexico.

source Is proportional to the square of the

distance removed. LCI(L). Infantry landing craft (large) (Navy).

Ion-chamber-type survey meter. A device for meas- LCM. Mechanized landing craft (Navy).

uring the amount of Ionizing radiation. Consists of a gas-filled chamber containing two LCP(L). Personnel landing craft (large) (Navy).

electrodes (one of which may be the chamber

wall) between which a potential difference Is LCP(R). Personnel landing craft (ramp) (Navy).

maintained. The radiation ionizes gas In the

chamber and an instrument connected to one LCT. Tank landing craft (Navy).

electrode measures the ionization current

produced. LCU. Utility landing craft (Navy).

ionization. The process of addirig electrons to, LCVP. Vehicle and personnel landing craft (Navy).

or knocking electrons from. atoms or molecules.

thereby creating ions. High temperatures. elec- LML. Lookout Mountain Laboratory. Hollywood.

trical discharges. and nuclear radiation can California (Air Force).

cause ionization.

Loran. Long-range aid to navigation system.

ionizing radiation. Any particulate or electro- Loran stations were maintained by the U.S.

magnetic radiation capable of producing ions. Coast Guard Station on Enewetak Island and

directly or indirectly, in its passage through Johnston Atoll.

matter. Alpha and beta particles produce Ion

pairs..directly. while gamma rays and X-rays LSD. Dock landing ship (Navy).

liberate electrcns as they traverse matter.

which in turn produce ionization in their LSIL. Infantry landing ship (large) (Navy).

paths.

LST. Tank landing ship (Navy).

Ionosphere. The region of the atmosphere, extending from roughly 40 to 250 miles (about 64 to LSU. Utility landing ship (Navy).

400 ki) above the Earth, In which there Is appreciable Ionization. The presence of charged magnetometer. An instrument for measuring

particles In this region profoundly affects changes In the geomagnetic field.

the propagation of radio and radar waves. megaton (energy). Approximately the amount of

irradiation. Exposure of matter to radiation. energy that would be released by the explosion

of one million tons of TNT.

190
, .L

microcurie ONR ,

microcurie. One--millionth of a curie. nuclear devlce (or weapon or bomb). Any device in

which the explosion results from the energy

micron. One-millionth of a meter (i.e.. 10-6 released by reactions involving atomic nuclei. .4

meter or 10-4 centimeter); It is roughly either fission or fusion, or both. Thus. the

four one-hundred-thousandths (4 x 10-) of A- (or atomic) bomb and the H- (or hydrogen)

an inch. bomb are both nuclear weapons. It would be

equally true to call them atomic weaponS.

milliroentgen. One-thousandth of a roentgen. since the energy of atomic nuclei is involved

in each case. However, It has become- more or

MPL. Maximum Permissible Limit. That amount of less customary. although It Is not strictly 6

radioactive material in air, water, foodstuffs. accurate, to refer to weapons In which all the

etc. that Is established by authorities as the energy results from fission as A-bombs. In

maximum that would not create undue risk to order to make a distinction, those weapons in

human health. which part of the energy results from. thenmonuclear (fusion) reactions cf the Isotopes of

MR; mr. Abbreviation for millicoentgen. hydrogen have been cailed H-bombs or hydrogen

bombs. -

mushroom cap. Top of the cloud formed from the

fireball of a nuclear detonation. nuclear explosion. Explosive release of energy

due to the splitting, or Joining, of atoms.

Mv. Motor vessel. The explosion Is observable by a violent emission of ultraviolet, visible, and infrared

NAIC. Naval Air Development Center. (heat) radiation, gamma rays, neutrons, and

"other particles. This Is accompanied by the

NAS. Naval Air Station. formation of a fireball. A large part of the

energy from the explosion I!- emitted as blast

MS. National Bureau of Standards. and shock waves when detonated at the Earth's

surface or In the atmosphere. The fireball

WO. Noncommissioned officer. produces a mushroom-shaped mass of hot gases

10 and debris, th, top of which rises rapidly.

NCRP. National Committe; on Radiation Protection See also radiation, gamma rays. fireball,

and Measurements. Before 1956 simply the Na- nuclear weapon, fission, fusion, blast.

tionai Committee on Radiation Protection.

nuclear fusion. See thermonuclear fusion.

MEL. Naval ElectronIc.• Laboratory.

nuclear radlarlon. Particulate and electroriagneneutron. A neutral elementary particle (i.e., tic radiation emitted from atomic nuclei In

with neutral electrical charge) of approxi- various nuclear processes. The Important numately unit mass (I.e.. the mass of a proton) clear radiations, from the weapons standpoint.

that Is present Ir, all atomic nuclei, except are alpha and beta particles, gamma rays, and

those of ordinary (light) hydrogen. Neutrons neutrons. All nuclear radiations are ionizing

are required to initiate the fission process radiations, but the reverse is not true;

and large numbers of neutr'.ns are produced by X-rays. for example, are included among Ionizboth fission and fusion reactions in nuclear ing radiations, but they are not nuclear radiaexplosions, tions since they do not oLiginate from atomic

0 nuclei.

neutron flux. The intensity of neutron radiation.

It is expressed as the number of neutrons pass- nuclear tests. Tests carried out to supply Inforing through I cm2 In 1 second. matton required for the design and improvement

of nuclear weapons and to study the phenomena

N-HL. Naval Materials Laboratory. and effects associated with nuclear expiosions.

NIRI. Naval Medical Research Institute. nuclide. Any species of atom that exists for a

measurable length of time. The term nuclido Is

NOB. Naval Operating Base. used to describe any atomic species distinguished by the composition of its nucleus;

NOL. Naval Ordnance Laboratory. I.e.. by the number of protons and the number

of neutrons. Isotopes of a glivn element are

HPC. Nevada Proving Ground, now the Nevada Test nuclides having the normal number of protons

Site (NTS). but different numbers of neutrons nr, tlhbs.

nuclei. A radionuclide is a radioactive

NRDL. Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory. nuclIde.

NRL. Naval Research Laboratory. off-scale. Radiation (or other physical phenomýna) greater than the capacity of a measuring

NTPR. Nuclear Test Personnel Review. device to measure.

NTS. Nevada Test Site. 0*R. office of Naval Research, Washington. D.C.

191
ORNL radiation intensity

ORNL. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee. R; r. Symbol for roentgen.

oscilloscoe. The name generally applied to a Ra. Chemical symbol for radium.

cathode-ray device.

rad. Radiation absorbed dose. A unit of absorbed

overpressure. The transient pressure. usually ex- dose of radiation; It represents the absorption

pressed in pounds per square Inch, exceeding of 100 ergs of Ionizing radiation per gram (or

the ambient pressure. manifested In the shock 0.01 J/kg) of absorbing material, such as body

(or blast) wave from an explosion, tissue. This unit is presently being replaced

in scientific literature by the Grev (ry), nuPBoh. TwIn-entyIne. patrol-bomlr flying boat, dc .-ercl~ equ., to the absorption of I joule of

veloped by Martin Wo tne U.S. Navy, energy per kilogram of matter.

PC. Patrol craft (Navy). RadDefense. Radiological defense. Defense against

the effects of radioactivity from atomic weappeak overpressure. The maximum value of the over- ons. It Includes the detection and measurement

pressure (which see) at a given location, of rad!oactivity, the protection of persons

from radioactivity, and decontamination of

Permissible dose, That dose of Ionizing radiation areas, places. and equipment. See also rads3fe.

that is not expected to cause appreciable

bodily injury to a person at any time during radex area. Radiological exclusion area. Followhis llfr:ime. See also MPL. ing each dctonation there were areas of surface

radioactivity and areas of air radioactivity.

phant o. A volume of material closely approxi- These areas were designated as radex areas.

mating the density and effective atomic number Radex areas were used to chart actual or preof tissue. The phantom abscrbs ionizing radia- dicted fallout and also used for control of

tion In the same manner as tissue. thus radia- entry and exit.

tlon dose neasurements made within the phantom ,9

provide a means of approximating the radiation radiac. Radiation detection, indication, and comdose w~thIn a human or animal body under simi- putatlon.

lar exposure conditions. Materials commonly

used for phantoms are water, masonite, pressed radiation. The emission of any rays, electromagwood. beeswax, and plexiglas. noetc waves. or particles (e.g.. gamma rays,

alpha particles. beta particles, neutrons)

pig. A heavily shielded container (usually lead) from a source.

used to ship or store radioactive materials.

radiation decay. See decay (radioactive).

POL. Petroleum, oil, and lubricants. The storage

area for these products is referred to as a radiation detectors. Any of a wide variety of

POL farm. materials or instruments that provide a signal

or indication when stimulated by the passage

PPG. Pacific Proving Ground (after 1956 desig- of Ionizing radiation: the sensitive element

nated the Eniwetok Proving Ground, or EPG). in radiation detection instruments. The most

widely used media for the detection of ionizing

prompt radiation. Neutrons and gamma rays emitted radiation are photographic film and ionization J

almost instantaneously following a nuclear fis- of gases In detectors (e.g., Geiger counters),

slon or fusion, followed by materials in which radiation induces scintillation.

proton. A particle carrying a positive charge

and physically Identical to the nucleus of the radiation exposure. Exposure to radiation may be

ordinary hydrogen atom. described and modified by a number of terms.

The type of radiation Is Important: alpha and

Purple conditions. A shipboard warning system beta particles, neutrons, gamma rays and

used in radiological defense. Various numbered X-rays, and cosmic radiation. Radiation expo- p,

conditions were sounded when radioactive fali- sure may be from an external radiation source.

out was to be encountered. Responses to the such as gamma rays. X-rays, or neutrons, or It

sounded warnings included closing of various may be from rad!onuclides retained within the

hatches and fittings. turning off parts of the body emitting alpha, beta, or gamma radiation.

ventilation system, and removing personnel The exposure may result from penetrating or . from a ship's open decks. The higher the Purple nonpenetrating radiation in relation to its

condition number, the more severe the radio- ability to enter and pass through mattei

logical situation. -- alpha and beta particles being considered

as nonpenetrating c-d other types of radiation

•-l7. Radio-controlled version of the B-17. as penetrating. Exposure may be related to a

part of the body or to the whole body. See

"Q-clearance. A security clearance qranted by also wholp body irradiation.

the Atomic Energy Commission, based upon a

background Investigation. radiation intensity. Radiation rate. Measured

and reported In roentgens 1R), rads, remis. and

multiples and divisions of these units as a

192 S
radioactive cloud scattering

function of exposure time (per hour. day. rawinsonde. Radar wind sounding and radiosonde

etc.). (combined).

radioactive cloud. An all-inclusive term for the RS-29. Reconnaissance version of the B-29.

cloud of hot gases. smoke, dust, and other particulate matter from the weapon itself and from RBE, Relative biological effectiveness. A factor

the environment, which is carried aloft in con- used to compare the biological effectiveness

junction with the rising fireball produced by of absorbed radiation doses (i.e.. rads) due

the detonation of a nuclear device, to different types of ionizing radiation. For

radiation protection the term has been

radioactive nuclide. See radionuclide. superseded by Quality Factor.

radioactive particles. See radioactivity, rem. A special unit of biological radiation dose

equivalent: the name Is derived from the Inlradioactivity. The spontaneous emission of radia- tial letters of the term "roentgen equivalent

tion. generally alpha or beta particles, often man (or mammal)." The nur-ber of remns of radiaaccompanied by gamma rays. from the nuclei of tion Is equal to the number of rads absorbed

an (unstable) nuclide. As a result of this multiplied by the RBE of the given radiation

emission the radioactive nuclide is converted (for a specified effect). The rem Is a'so the

(decays) into the isotope of a different unit of dose equivalent, which Is equal to the

(daughter) element, which may (or may not) product of the number of rads absorbed multialso be radioactive. Ultimately, as a result plied by the "quality factor" and distribution

of one or more stages of radioactive decay. a factor for the radiation. The uni. Is presently

stable (nonradioactive) end product Is formed, being replaced by the slevert (Sv).

radloloqlcal survey. The directed effort to de- re2. An obsolete special unit of absorbed dose.

termine the distribution and exposure rate of

radiation In an area. residual nuclear radiation. Nuclear radiation.

chiefly beta particles and gamma rays. that

radionuclide. A radioactive nuclide (or radio- persists after I minute following a nuclear

active atomic species), explosion. The radiation is emitted mainly by

the flsnion p-oducts and other bomb residues

radiosonde. A balloon-borne instrument for the in the fallout, and to some extent by Earth

simultaneous measurement and transmission of and water constituents, and other materials,

meteorological data, consisting of transducers In which Lodloactivity has been induced by the

for the measurement of pressure, temperature, capture of neutrons.

and humidity; a modulator for the conversion

of the output of the transducers to a quantity R-hour. Recovery or reentry hour.

that controls a property of the radiofrequency

signal; a selector switch, which determines roentqen. (R; r) A special unit of exposure to

the sequence in which the parameters are to be gamma (or X-) radiation. It is defined pretransmitted; and a transmitter, which generates cisely as the quantity of gamma (or X-) rays

the radiofrequency carrier, that will produce electrons (in ion pairs)

with a total charge of 2.58 x 10-4 coulomb in

radiosonde balloon. A balloon used to carry a i kilogram of dry air under standard condiradiosonde aloft. These balloons have daytime tions. An exposure of 1 roentgen results in

bursting altitudes of about 80,000 feet (25 the deposition of about 94 ergs of energy in

km) Above sea level. The balloon measures about I gram of soft body tissue. Hence. an exposure

5 feet (1.5 meters) in dlameter when first in- of 1 roentgen Is approximately equivalent to

flated and may expand to 20 feet (6 meters) or an absorbed dose of 1 rad In soft tissue.

more before bursting at high altitude.

roll-up. The process for orderly dismantling of

radium. An Intensely radioactive metallic ele- facilities no longer required for nuclear test

ment. in nature, radium is found associated operdtions and their transfer to other areas.

with uranium, which decays to radium by a se- ries of alpha and beta emissions. Radium Is sampler aircraft. Aircraft used for collection of

used as a radiation source for Instrument gaseous and particulate samples from nuclear

calibration. clouds to determine the level of radioactivity

or the presence of radioactive substances.

radsafe. Radiological safety. General term used

to cover the training. operations, and equip- SAR. Search and rescue operations.

ment used to protect personnel from unnecessary

exposures to ionizing radlation. S-1.7. SAR version of the B-17.

ralnout. Removal of radioactive particles from a SC. sandia Corporation. Albuquerque, New Mexico.

nuclear cloud by rain.

scatterin . The diversion of radiation (thermal.

rawin. Radar wind sounding tests that determine electromagnetic and nuclear) from its origlthe winds aloft patterns by tadar observation nal path as a result of Interactions (or colof a balloon. lislons) with atoms, molecules. or larger

193
SCEL trapped radiation

particles in the atmosphere or other media be- surface burst. A nuclear explosion on the land

tween the source of the radiations (e.g.. a surface, an island surface or reef. or on a

nuclear explosion) and a point some distance barge.

away. As a result of scattering, radiations

(especially gamma rays and neutrons) will be sucfece zero. The point on the ground or water

received at such a point from many directions surface directly above or below the detonation

instead of only from the direction of the point of a nuclear device.

source. See also skyshine. survey meters. Portable radiation detection InSCEL. Signal Corps Engineering Laboratories. Ft. struments especially adapted for surveying or

Monmouth. New Jersey (Army). inspecting an area to establish the existence

and amount of radiation present, usually from

scintillation. A flash of light produced by ion- the standpoint of radiological protection. I

izing radiation in a fluor or a phosphor. which Survey Instruments are customarily powered by may be crystal. plastic. gas. or liquid, self-contained batteries and are designed to

respond quickly and to indicate directly the

seamount. A submarine mountain rising above the exposure rate conditions at the point of indeep sea floor. ccmonly from 3.000 to 10.000 terest. See Geiger-Mueller counter. and ionfeet (1 to 3 k1) and having the summit 1.000 chamber-type survey meter.

to 6.000 feet (0.3 to 1.8 kIn) below sea level.

survey, radiation. Evaluation of the radiation

shear (wind). Refers to differences in direction levels associated with radioactive materials

(directional shear) of wind at different or areas.

altitudes.

MXA. Temporary duty assignment.

shielding. Any material or oLstruction that absorbs (or attenuates) radiation and thus tends TG. Task Group. Subordinate unit of Task Force.

to protect personnel or equipment from the effects of a nuclear explosion. A moderately TD. Task Detachment. thick layer of any opaque material will providesatisfactory shielding from thermal radiation, thermal radiation. Electromagnetic radiation

but a considerable thickness of material of emitted in two pulses from a surface or airhigh density may be needed for gamma radiation burst from the fireball as a consequence of

shielding. See also attenuation. its very high temperature; It consists essen- tially of ultraviolet, visible, and infrared

shock. Term used to describe a destructive force radiation. In the first pulse, when the temmoving In air. water, or earth caused by deto- perature of the fireball is extremely high.

nation of a nuclear detonation. ultraviolet radiation predominates; In the

second pulse. the temperatures are lower and

shock wave. A continuously propagated pressure most of the thermal radiation lies in the vispulse. (or wave) in the surrounding medium. ible and infrared regions of the spectrum.

which may be air. water. or earth. initiated

by the expansion of the hot gases produced in thermonuclear fusion. Refers to the processes in an explosion, which a very high temperature and pressure is

used to bring about the fusion of light nuclei,

slevert (Sv). A recently Introduced ICRP measure such as those of the hydrogen isotopes (deuterof "dose equiva!ent" that takes Into account Ium and tritium). with the accompanying liberathe "quality factor' of different sources of tion of energy. The high temperature and presIonizing radiation. One sievert equals 100 rem. sure required to Initiate the fusion reaction

are obtained by means of a fission explosion.

s . Radiation. particularly game. rays from See also fusion.

a nuclear detonation, reaching a target from

many directions as a result of scattering by TNT equivalent. A measure of the energy released

the oxygen and nitrogen In the intervening as the result of the detonation of a nuclear

atmosphere. device or weapon, expressed in terms of the mass of TNT that would release the same amount

slant range. The straight-line distance of an of energy when exploded. The TNT equivalent is

aircraft at any altitude from ground zero or usually stated in kilotons (1.000 tons) or the distance from an alrburst to a locatlon on megatons Ql million tons). The basis of the

the ground. TNT equivalence is that the explosion of I ton

of TNT Is assumed to release I billion calorstratosphere. Upper portion of the atmosphere. ies of energy. See also megaton. yield.

approximately 7 to 40 miles (I1 to 64 k1) above

the Earth's surface, in which temperature trapped radiation. Electrically charged particles

changes but little with altitude and cloud moving back and forth in spirals along the

formations are rare. north-south orientation of the Earth's magnetic

field between mirror points. called conjugate

s:.readlinp. It, reteorology, the dlrectlon of the points. Negatively chargeJ particle: drift

wind at any giver, tA.-4e, eastward as they bounco, L.twtoM north;.ro ,.6 southern conjugate point :, and po:;!tdvely

194

. . ,...~~~~~~. . ............ ... •....,....-...-.....-,....-..-.-.....-..'.A. .; ." - ... ,.,...,,,.:''
tropopause Z1

charged particles drift westward, thus forming weapon debris. The radioactive residue of a nu- -

shells or belts of radiaticon above the Earth. clear device after It has been detonated, con- 9

The source of the charged particles may be sisting of fission products. various products N.ý

natural, from solar activity (often called Van nf neutron capture. weapon casing and other

Allen belts). or artifical. resulting from components. and uranium or plutonium that has

high-dltltude nuclear detonations, escaped fission.

*ttopwause. The boundary dividing the strato- whole body irradiation. Exposure of the body to

sphere from the lower part of the atmosphere. ionizing radiation from external radiation

the troposphere. The tropopause normally occurs sources. Critical organs for the whole body

at an altitude of about 25.000 to 45.000 feet are the lens of the eye. the gonads, and the

0(6 to 13.7 kcm) in polar and temperate zones, red-blood-forming marrow. As little as only I

and at 55.000 feet (16.8 kim) in the tropics. cm3 of bone marrow constitutes a whole-body

See also stratosphere, trpolp•iere. exposure. Thus, the entire body need not be

exposed to be classed as a whole-body exsposure.

troposphere. The region of the atmosphere. immediately above the Earth's surface and up to Wilson cloud. A mist or fog of minute water dropthe tropopause, in which the temperature falls lets that temporarily surrounds a fireball 9W

fairly regularly with increasing altitude, following a nuclear detonation In a humid

clouds form, convection is active, and mixing atmosphere. This Is caused by a sudden lowe-

% Is continuous and more or less complete. Ing of the pressure (and temperature) after

the passing of the shock wave (cloud chamber

Trust Territory. The Marshall Islands were in- effect) and quickly dissipates as temperatures

cluded In the Trust Territory of the Pacific and pressures return to normal.

Islands under the jurisdiction of the United

Nations. Assigned by the United Nations to the worldwide fallout. Consists of the smaller radio- United St,%tes in trust for administration, de- active nuclear detonation particles that as- .. •

velopment, and training. cend into the upper troposphere and the stratosphere and are carried by winds to all parts

T7. Task Unit. Subordinate unit of Task Group. of the Earth. The delayed (or worldwide) fallout Is brought to Earth. mainly by rain and

_pe commander. The officer or agency having cog- snow, over extended periods ranging frnm

nizance over all Navy ships of a given type. months to years.

This Is in addition to the particular ship's

operational assignment in a task force. fleet. YC. Open lighter (nonself-propelled; Navy).

or other tactical subdivision.

YFN. Covered )Ighter (nonself-propelled: Navy). UXLA• University of California, Los Anqeles.., yield. The total effective energy released In a _N

UCRL_ University of California Radiation Labora- nuclear detonation. It Is usually expressed in

tory. Livermore. California. terms of the equivalent tonnage of TNT required 4'

to produce the same energy release in an explo- ' ultraviolet. Electromagnetic radiation of wave- sion. The total energy yield is manifested as lengths between the shortest visible violet nuclear radiation (including

(about 3.850 angstroms) and soft X-rays (about tion). thermal radiation, and blast and shock

100 angstroms). energy. the actual distribution depending upon

the medium in which the explosion occurs and

US•S. U.S. Forest Service. also upon the type of weapon. See TNT eguiva- N

lent.

USNS. United States Navy Sh!p: vessels of this _

designation are manned by civilian crws,. yield (blast). That portion of the total energy of a nuclear detonation that Is identified as "-

VA. Veterans' Administration. the blast or shock wave.

VC. Fleet composite squadron (formerly VU). yield (fission). That portion of the total energy

released by a nuclear explosion attributable

Versene. A detergent. to nuclear fission. as opposed to fusion. The

Interest In fission yield stems from the interVR. Naval air transport squadron. est In fission product formation and its relationship to radioactive fallout.

WAX. Wright Air Development Center, WrightPatterson AFB. Ohio (Air Force). YO. Fuel oil barge; self-propelled (Navy).

warhead. The portion of the missile or bomb con- YOG. Gasoline barge: self-propelled (Navy).

taining the nuclear device.

y'ON. Gasoline barge; nonself-propelled (Navy).

WB-29. Weather reconnaissance version of B-29

used for cloud tracking and sampling. XW. Self-propelled water barge (Navy).

ZI. Zone of Interior (conterminous United

States).

195
I :• -, , -, • ,.. • • -o -,,- , i ', .. ".. •.•• . .: ,,,. .t, , , ,- • •. • , • , . ,. , .• . -• .. :q , .•.• -o -, , . • ., ..

i9
APPENDIX C

ISLAND SYNONYMS

ENEWETAK ATOLL

CAPITALIZED entries are the code names used by the joint task force for

the islands. Underscored entries are the names of the islands as used in this

report. All other entries are spellings of the Islands that may appear in

other literature.

Aaraanbiru VERA - Alembel - Arambiru S

" Ae OLIVE - Aitsu

Aitsu OLIVE -Ae

Alembel VERA - Aaraanbiru - Arambiru

ALICE Bokoluo - Bogallua

ALVIN Jinedrol - Chinieero

Ananlj BRUCE - Anlyaanii

Anerowij TOM - Munlor - Munjur

* Aniyaanll BRUCE - Ananil

Aomon SALLY

VERA - Alemb& - Aaraanbirli 

BELLE Bokombako - Bogombogo

Blijiri TILDA - Bilire - Bijile - Bikile

Bijile TILDA - Biiire - Blijiri Bikile

Dilj4e TILDA - Bille - BiJiri - Bikile

Biken LEROY - Rigile - Rigili

Bikile TILDA - Bil1re - BtJile - Blijiri

Billae WILMA - Pi1raai - Ptirai

Billee LUCY - Kidrinen - Kirinian

Bogairikk HELEN - Bokaidrikdrik - Bogeirik - Bokaidrik

Bogallua ALICE - Bokoluo

Bogan IRWIN - Boken - Pokon

Bogeirik HELEN - Bokaidrikdrik - Bogairikk - Bokaidrik

Bogen REX - Jedrol - Jieroru

Bogombogo BELLE - Bokombako

Bogon IRENE - Boken

Bokaidrik HELEN - Bokaidrikdrik - Bogairikk - BogeIrik

Bokaldrikdrik HELEN - Bogairikk - Bogeirik - Bokaidrik

Bokandretok WALT

Boken IRENE - Bogon

Boken IRWIN - Pokon - Bogan

Bokenelab MARY - Bokonaarappu - Bokonarppu

Bokinwotme EDNA - Sanildefonso

Boko SAM

Bokoluo ALICE - Bogallua

Bokombako BELLE - Bogombogo

Bokonaarappu MARY - Bokenelab - Bokonarppu

Bokonarppu MARY - Bokenelab - Bokonaarappu

BRUCE Ananil - Aniyaani1

Buganegan HENRY - Mut - Mul

197
"I,

Chinleero ALVIN - Jine-drol

Chiniml CLYDE - Jinimlq

CLARA Kirunu - Eybbiyae - Ruchi ,CLYDE Jlnimi Chinili

Cochita DAISY Loul - Lidilbut

DAISY Louj - Cochita - Lidilbut

DAVID Japtan - Muti

Drekatimon OSCAR

Dridrilbwili GENE - Teiteiripucchl

Eberlru RUBY - Eleleron

EDNA Bokinwotme - Sanildefonso

Eleleron RUBY - Eberiru

Elle NANCY - Yeri%

ELMER Parry - Medren

Elugelab FLORA - Eluklab

Eluklab FLORA - Elugelab

Enewetak FRED - Eniwetok

Engebi JANET - Enlebi

Eniwetok FRED - Enewetak

Enlebl JANET - Engebi Eybblyae CLARA - Kirunu - Ruchl

FLORA Eluklab - Elugelab

FRED Enewetak - Eniwetok

GENE Dridrilbwil - Telteiripucchi

Girilnien KEITH - Kidrenen - Grinem

GLENN Ikuren - Igurin

Gtinem K6ITH - Kidrenen - Girlinien

HELEN Bokaidrlkdrik - Bogairikk - Bogeirik - Bokaidrik

HENRY Mut - Buganegan - Mul

Igurin GLENN - Ikuren

Ikuren GL.FNN - Igurin Inedral URIAH

IRENE Boken - Bogon

IRWIN Boken - Bogan - Pokon

JAMES Ribewon - Libiron - Ribalon

JANET Eniebi - Engebl

Japtan DAVTI) - Muti

Jedrol REX - Jieroru - Bogen Jieroru REX - Jedrol - Bogen

Jinedrol ALVIN - Chinleero

Jinimi CLYDE - Chinimi

KATE Mllikadrek - MuJinkarikku - Muzinbaarikku

KEITH Kidrenen - Girlinien - Grinem

Kidrenen KEITH - Girilnien - Grinem

198
"Kidrinen LUCY 

- Billee 

- Kirinlan

Kirinlan LUCY 

- Kidrinen 

- Billee Kirunu CLARA - Eybbiyae - Ruchi

"LEROY Biken 

- R1gile 

- Rlg91

Libiron JAMFS 

- Ribewon 

- Ribalon

"Lidilbut DAISY 

- Loul 

- Cochita

Lolwa URSULA 

- Rojoa

Loul DAISY 

- Cochita 

- Lldlibut

LUCY Kidrinen 

- Billee 

- Kirinian .Lulor PEARL - Rujlyoru - Rujoru

MACK Unibor

MARY Bokenelab 

- Bokonaarappu 

- Bokonarppu

Medren ELMER 

- Parry

Milikadrek KATE 

- Mullnkarikku 

- Muzlnbaarikku

Mul HENRY 

- Mut 

- Buganegan

Mujinkarikku KATE 

- Milikadrek 

- Muzinbaarikku

Munjor TOM 

- Atierowij 

- Munjur

Munjur TOM 

- Munqjor 

- AnerowliJ

-. Mut HENRY 

- Buganegan 

- Mul

Muti DAVID 

- Japtan

Muzinbaarikku KATE 

- Millkadrek 

- Mujinkarlkku

"NANCY Elle 

- Yeirl

1 OLIVE Ae 

- Altsu

"OSCAR Drekatimon

Parry ELMER 

- Medren 

z

PEARL Lujor 

- Rujiyoru 

- Rujoru

PERCY Taiwel

Pitraai WILMA 

- Billae 

- Pliral

"Pliral WILMA 

- Billae 

- Pllraal

Pokon IRWIN 

- Boken 

- Bogan

REX Jedrol 

- Bogen 

- Jleroru

Ribaion JAMES 

- Ribewon 

- Libiron

Ribewon JAMES 

- Libiron 

- Ribalon

Rigile LEROY 

- Biken 

- Rigill

Rigill LEROY 

- Biken 

- Riglle

"Rojoa URSULA 

- Loiwa

"RUBY Eleleron 

- Eberiru

Ruchl CLARA 

- Kirunu 

- Eybbiyae

Rujlyoru PEARL 

- Lujor Rojoru

Rujoru PEARL 

- Lujor Rujlyoru

Runit YVOWNJE

SALLY Aomon

SAM Boko

Sanildefonso EDNA 

- Bokinwotme

199
Taiwel pERCY

Teiteiripucchl GENE - Drldrilbwlj

TIL.DA Bilire - Bijile - Blijirl - Bikile

TOM Munjor - Anerowlj - Munjur

Unibor MACK

URIAH Inedral

URSULA iwa- Rojoa

VAN Enewetak Atoll

VERA Alembel - Aaraanbiru - Arambiru

WALT Rokandretok

WILMA Blllae - Pliral - Piiraal

Yeirl NANCY- Elle

YVONNE Runit

200
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Veterans Administration - RO ATTN: Director

Montgomery. AL

ATTN: Director Veterans Administration - RO

Louisville, KY

Veterans Administration - RO ATTN: Director

Anchorage. AK

ATTN: Director Veterans Administration - RO

New Orleans, LA

Veterans Administration - RO ATTN: Director

Phoenix, AZ

ATTN: Director Veterans Administration - RO

Togus, ME

Veterans Administration - RO ATTN: Director

Little Rock, AR

ATTN: Director Veterans Administration RO

Baltimore, MD

Veterans Administration -RO ATTN: Director

Los Angeles, CA

ATTN: Director Veterans Administration - RO

Boston, MA "ATTN: Director

203
.- M- -• F. - - ". v

OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES (Continued) OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES (Continued)

Veterans Administration - RO Veterans Administration - RO

St. Paul, MN Portland. OR

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

Veterans Administration - RO Veterans Administration - RO

Jackson, MS Pittsburgh. PA

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

Veterans Administration - RO Veterans Administration - RO

Huntington, WV Philadelphia, PA

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

Veterans Administration - RO Veterans Administration - RO

"St. Louis, MO APO San Francisco

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

Veterans Administration - RO Veterans Administration - RO

Fort Harrison, MT San Juan, Puerto Rico

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

Veterans Administration - RO Veterans Administration - RO

Lincoln, NE Columbia, SC

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

Veterans Administration - RO Veterans Administration - RO

Reno. NV Sioux Falls, SO

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

iVeterans Administration - RO Veterans Administration - RO

Manchester. NH Houston, TX

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

Veterans Administration - RO Veterans Administration - RO

Newark, NJ Waco, TX

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

Veterans Administration - RO Veterans Administration - RO

Milwaukee, WI Salt Lake City. UT

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

Veterans Administration - RO Veterans Administration - RO

Albuquerque, NM White River Junction, VT

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

-Veterans Administration - RO Veterans Administration - RO

Buffalo, NY Roanoke. VA

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

Veterans Administration -RO Veterans Administration - RD .New York, NY Cheyennej WY

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

Veterans Administration -RO Veterans Administration - RO

Winston Salem, NC San Diego. CA

ATTN: Director ATTN: Director

Veterans Administration - RO Veterans Administration - RO

Fargo, ND ATTN: D c ATIN: Director AIIM: Director

Veterans Administration - RO

Veterans Administration -RO Detroit. MI

Cleveland, OH ATTN: Director

ATTN: Director

Veterans Administration - RO

SMuskogee, OK

ATTN: Director

204 (S
OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES (Continuedj OTHER (Continued)

Veterans Administration 

- RD Albany Public Library

Nashville, TN ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Director

Alexander City State Jr College

The White House ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Domestic Policy Staff

Allegheny College

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE CONTRACTORS ATTN: Librarian

Advanced Research & Applications Corp Allen County Public Library

."I ATTN: H. Lee ATTN; Librarian

JAYCOR ATTN: A. Nelson Altoona ATTN: Area Librarian Public Library

10 cy ATTN: Health & Environment Div

American Statistics Index

Kaman Tempo AITN: Cathy Jarvey

ATTN: UASIAC

6 cy ATTN: E. Martin Anaheir Public Library

ATTN: Librarian kAf,-An Tempo 

.

A'TT: R. Miller Andrews Library, College of Wooster

ATTN: Government Documents

Kaman Tenpo

NO ATTN: DASIAC Angelo State University Library

oSeeATTN: Librarian

p National Academy of Sciences

ATTN: C. Robinette Angelo Idc.oboni Pub Lib

ATTN: Medical Follow-up Agency ATTN: Librarian "ATTN: Natlonai Materials Advisory Board

Anoka County Library

Pacific-Sierra Research Corp ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: N. Brode, Crairman SAGE

Appalachian State University

R & D Associates ATTN: Library Documents

ATTN: P. Haas

Arizona State University Library

Rand Corp ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: P. Davis

University of Arizona

Rand Corp ATTN: Gov Doc Dept, C. Bower

ATTN; B. Bennett

Arkansas College Library

Science Applications, Inc ATTN: Library

ATTN: Tech Library Arkansas Library Comm

Science Applications, Inc ATTN: Library

10 cy ATTN: L. Novotney

Arkansas State University

OTHER ATTN: Library

Adams State College University of Arkansas

ATTN: Govt Publication Lib ATTN: Government Documents Div

Akron Public Library Austin College

ATTN: Govt Publication Librarian Arthur Hopkins Library

ATTN: Librarian

University of Alabama

ATTN: Reference Dept/Documents Atlanta Public Library

ATTN: Ivan Allen Dept

University of Alaska

ATTN: Director of Libraries Atlanta University Center

ATTN: Librarian

University of AlAska

ATTN: Govt Publication Librarian

4 Iw %~~*

* -.- - , a* . - .

205
OTHER (Continued) OTHER (Continued)

Auburn bniv a: Xontgorery LA Buffalo & Erie Co Pub Lib

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

B. Davis Schwartz Hem Lib Burlington Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Bangor Public Jbrary California at Fresno State Univ Lib

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Library

Bates College Library California at San Diego University

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents Department

Baylor University Library California at Stanislavs St Clg Lib

ATTN: Docs Dept ATTN: Library

SBeloit College Libraries California St Polytechnic Univ Lib

ATTN: Serials Docs Dept ATTN: Librarian

Bemidji State College California St Univ at Northridge

ATTN: Library ATTN: Gov Doc

Benjamin F. Feinberg Library California State Library

State University College ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Government Documents California State Univ at Long Beach Lib

Bierce Library, Akron University ATIN: Librarian. Govt Pubs

, ATTN: Government Documents T e oCalifornia State University

Boston Public Library ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Documents Department California State University

Bowdoin College ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Librarian California Univ Library

Bowling Green State Univ ATTN: Govt Publications Dept

SATTN: Govt Docs •ervice5 California Univ Library

Bradley University ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Govt Publication Librarian

California University Library

Brandeis University Lib ATTN: Govt Documents Dept

ATTN: D~cumentS Section California University Library

Brigham Young University AfN: Documents Se

ATTN: AN Librarian California University

Brigham Young University ATTN: Government Documents Dept

ATTN: Documents Collection Calvin College Library

Brookhaven National Laboratory ATTN: Librarian

"ATTN: Technical Library Calvin T. Ryan Library

SBrooklyn College Kearney State College B ATTN: Documents Dgeision ATTN: Govt Documents Dept

Broward County Library Sys Carleton College Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Brown University Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

SBucknell University Carnegie Mellon University ATTN: Reference Dept ATTN: Director of Libraries

2.

•" 206
. . . . '-u.. *, \

OTHER (C.ntinued) CTHEER (Continued)

Carson Reional Library Colgate Univ Library

ATTN: Gay Publications Unit ATT%: Reference Library

Case Western ATT4: Reserve Librarian University Colorado ATT14: State Librarian Univ Libs

riani Colorad Unibrsty 

University of Central Florida Colorado University Librarie s

ATTI: Library Doc! Dept ATh: Director of Libraries

Central Mchign Univerlit., Columbia University Library

ATTI: Library Documents Section ATIN: Doctts Service Center

Central Missouri State tniv Colmbus & Franklin Cty Public Lib

ATT%: Government Documnt ATTN: Gen Rec Dlv

Central State University C Atofl Library

ATT',: Library Documents Dept ATTN: Librarian

Connecticut State Library

Central Washington University ATTN: Librarian

ATT'I: Library 0ocs Section

Central Wiyoming College Library University of Co nnecticut

ATTI: Librarian 

ATTE: Govt of COnnecticut

Char~esto• County Library Connecticut University

ATTeot Librarian ATTN: Director of Libraries

Charlotte & Mechlenburg County Pub Lib Cornell University Lib

ATTN: E. Correll 

ATT1: Librarian

Chattano'• HamEilton Co Corpus Christi State University Lib

AT-'4: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

"" ' CSIA Library

Chesapeahe Pub Lib SysteS ATTN: Librarian

ATMi: Librarian Culver City Library

Chicago F-blic Library ATTN: Librarian

ATTi: Governments Publications Dept

State University of Chicago Curry College Library AT~: LbraianATTN: Librarian

Dallas County Public Library

Chicago University Library ATTN: Librarian

ATTN4: Director of Libraries

ATTN: Documents Processing Dallas Public Library

ATTN: Librarian

Cincinnati University Library

ATTN: Librarian Dalton Jr College Library

ATTN: Librarian

Claremont Colleges Libs

ATTN: Doc Collection Dartmouth College

ATTN: Librarian

Clemson university

ATTN: Director of Libraries Davenport Public Library

Cleveland Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Documents Collection Davidson College ATTN: Librarian

Cleveland State Univ Lib

ATTN: Librarian Dayton & Montgomery City Pub Lib

ATTN: Librarian

Coe Library

ATTN: Documents Division University Of Dayton

ATTN: Librarian

207
OTHER (Continue, OTHER (Continued)

Decatur Public Library East Texas State University

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Library

Dekalb Conn Coll So Cpus Eastern Branch

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

-Delaware Paum University Eastern Illinois University

ATTN: Litrarian ATTN: Librarian

University of Delaware Eastern Kentucky University

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Delta College Lvirary Eastern Michigan University Lib

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents Libn

Delta State University Eastern Montana College Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents Dept

Denison Univ Lit'ary Eastern New Mexico Univ

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Denver Public Library Eastern Oregon College Library .. ATTN:. Doczients Div ATTN: Librarian

Dept Of Lib & Archives Eastern Washington Univ

ATTN: Lib-arian ATTN: Librarian

Detroit Public Library El Paso Public Library

ATTN: Lib-arian ATTN: Documents & Geneology Dept

Dickinson State College Elko County Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Drake Memorial Learning Resource Ctr Elmira College

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Drake University Elon College Library

ATTN: Cowles Library ATTN: Librarian

Drew University Enoch Pratt Free Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents Office

Duke University Emory University

ATTN: Public DOcs Dept ATTN: Librarian

Duluth Public Library Evansville & Vanderburgh County Pub Lib

ATTN: Documents Section ATTN: Librarian

Earlham College Everett Public Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

East Carolina University Fairleigh Dickinson Univ

ATTN: Library Docs Dept ATTN: Depository Dept

East Central University Florida A & M Univ

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

East Islip Public Library Florida Atlantic Univ Lib

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Div of Public Documents

East Orange Public Lib Florida Institute of Tech Lib

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Federal Documents Dept

East Tennessee State Univ Sherrod Lib Florida Intl Univ Library

ATTN: Doc.7-nts Dept ATTN: Docs Section

208

. . ,* .
OTHER (Continued) OTHER (Continued)

Florida State Library Government Publications Library-M

ATTN: Documents Section ATTN: Director of Libraries

Florida State University Graceland College

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Fond Du Lac Public Lib Grand Forks Public City-County Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Fort Hays State University Grand Rapids Public Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Director of Libraries

Fort Worth Public Library Greenville County Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Free Pub Lib of Elizabeth Guam RFK Memorial University Lib

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Fed Depository Collection

University of Guam

Free Public Library ATTN: Librarian ATTN¢: Librarian

Freeport Public Library Gustavus Adolphus College

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Library

Fresno County Free Library Hardin-Simmons University Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Gadsden Public Library Hartford Public Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

'Garden Public Library Harvard College Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Director of Libraries

Gardner Webb College University of Hawaii

ATTN: Documents Librn ATTN: Government Docs Collection

Hawaii State Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Federal Documents Unit

G eToN:U Libraryn University of Hawaii at Monoa

Georgetown Univ Library ATTN: Director of Libraries ATTN: Govt Does Room

"Georgia Inst of Tech University of Hawaii

ATTN: Librarian 

ATTN: Librarian

Georgia Southern College Haydon Burns Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Georgia Southwestern College Henry Ford Comm College Lib

ATTN: Director of Libraries ATTN: Librarian

Georgia State Univ Lib Herbert H. Lehman College

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Library Documents Division

University of Georgia Hofstra Univ Library

ATTN: Dir of Libraries ATTN: Documents Dept

Glassboro State College HollTns College

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Hoover Institution

Gleeson Library ATTN: J. Bingham

ATTN.2 Librarian

209
.I.

OTHER Continued)I OTHER (Continued)

•Hopkinsville Com-i College Butler University. Irwin Library

ATTN: Lib-arian ATTN: Librarian

University of Houston. Library Isaac Delchdo College

ATTN: Docu.ents Div ATTN: Librarian

Houston Public 'irary James Madison University ATTN: Librarian '%TTN: Librarian

Hoyt Public Library Jefferson County Public Lib

ATTN: Librarian Aii": Librarian

Humboldt State College Library Jersey City State College

ATTN: Doc.-.ents Dept ATTN: Librarian

tfuntlnqton Park I brary Johns Hopkins University .--ATtN: LlbTlrian ATIN: Documents Library

,utfthl"nUfl Publi Ltbedrv juh J. Wriqht I. rlrdry. to Roth# culoleq@

Arth; !h Ih*1an AIfN; Librarian

Idasho Pubi iL. LIb A Info Center Johnton Or** PublIc Llb

AIYN: t~twarIan ATYM: Librarian

Idaho State Library Kahului Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Idaho State University Library Kalamazoo Public Library ATTN: Documents Dept ATTN: Librarian

University of Idaho Kansas City Public Library

ATTN: Docu.ments Sect ATTN: Documents Div

ATTN: Dir of Libraries

Kansas State Library

University of Illinois. Library ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Documents Section

Kansas State Univ Library

Illinois State Library ATTN: Documents Dept ATTN: Government Documents Branch

University of Kansas

Illinois Univ at Urbana Champaign ATTN: Director of Libraries

ATTN: P. Watson, Documents Library

Kent State University Library Illinois Valley Comm Coll ATTN: Documents Div

ATTN: Library

Kentucky Dept of Library & Archives

Indiana State Library ATTN: Documents Section AIIM: Serial Section University of Kentucky

Indiana State University AIIN: Goverrwvents Publication Dept

ATTN: Documents Libraries ATTN: Director of Libraries

Indiana University Library Kenyon College Library

ATTN: Documents Department AITN: Librarian

Indianapolis Marion Cty Pub Library Lake Forest College

ATTN: Social Science Div AITN: Librarian

Iowa State University Library Lake Sumter Comw Coil Lib

ATTN: Govt Documents Dept ATTN: Librarian

Iowa University Library Lakeland Public Library

ATTN: Government Documents Dept ATTN: Librarian

210 N
OTHER (zinued OTHER (Continued)

Ladcnster qegional Library University of Massachusetts

*At%: Librarian ATTN: Government Docs College

Lawrencýr iniversity McNeese State Univ

A-714: Documents Dept ATTN: Librarian

Lee Liary. Brigham•! oung University Met-his Shelby County Pub Lib & Info Ctr

A--,%: Docur.WtS & Map Section ATTN: Librarian

Library ý Statutory Distribution & Svc Memphis State University

2cy AiT%: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Little -xk Public Library Mercer University

A",%: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

LorM Be:ýh Publ Library Mesa County Public Library

A--,: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Los Ari;.?Ies Public Library University of Miami. Library

-NT: Serials Div U.S. Oocuments ATTN: Government Publications

Louisiana State University Miami Public Library

ATTN: Government Doc Dept ATTN: Documents Division

A.T".: Director of Libraries

Miami Univ Library

Louisvi'le Free Pub Lib ATTN: Documents Dept

ATTI: Librarian

Michel Orradre Library

Louisville Univ Library University of Santa Clara

A-T': Librarian ATTN: Documents Div

Lyndon i. Johnson Sch of Pub Affairs Lib Michigan State Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Maine Kritime Academy Michigan State University Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Maine Lniversity at Oreno Michigan Tech University

ATT1: Librarian ATTN: Library Documents Dept

University of Maine University of Michigan

A7IT: Librarian ATTN: Acq Sec Documents Unit

Pancheiter City Library Middlebury College Library

A'TN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Mankato State College Millersville State Coil

ATTN: Govt Publications ATTN: Librarian

Mantor Library Milne Library

Univ of Maine at Farmington State University of New York

ui1TN: Director of Libraries ATTN: Docs Librn

Marathcn County Public Library Milwaukee Pub Lib

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Marshall Brooks Library Minneapolis Public Lib

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

University of Maryland Minnesota Div of Emergency Svcs

ATTN: McKeldin Libr DOcs Div ATTN: Librarian

University of Maryland Minot State College

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Mississippi State University

ATTN: Librarian

211
* -*-- ------. ~ ~ -..- m-.-....*. 

.•>•.%. •-.....-=:• •. =.

OTHER (Continuec) OTHER (Continued)

University of Mississippi New Mexico State Library

ATTN: Director of Libraries ATTN: Librarian

Missouri Univ at Kansas City Gen New Mexico State University

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Lib Documents Div

Missouri University Library University of New Mexico

ATTN: Govornrent Documents ATTN: Director el Libraries

M.I.T. Libraries University of New Orleans Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Govt Documents Div

YoUbile Public Library New Orleans Public Lib

ATTN: Governmental Info Division ATTN: Library 10

Moffett Library New York Public Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Montana State Litrary New York State Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Doc Control, Cultural Ed Ctr

Montana State Univ, -sity, Library New York State Univ at Stony Brook

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Main Lib Doc Sect

University of Montan,. New York State Univ Col at Cortland

ATTN: Document- Div ATTN: Librarian

Moorhead State College State Univ of New York

ATTN: Library ATTN: Library Documents Sec

Mt Prospect Public Lib State Univ of New York

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian q

Murray State Univ Lib New York State University

ATTN: Library ATTN: Documents Center

Nassau Library SystceM State University of New York

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents Dept

Natrona County Public Library New York University Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents Dept

Nebraska Library Comm Newark Free Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Univ of Nebraska at Omaha Newark Public Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Nebraska Western Lollege Library Niagara Falls Pub Lib

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Univ of Nebraska at Lincoln Nicholls State Univ Library

AITN: Acquisitions Dept ATTN: Docs Div

Univ of Nevada at Reno Nieves M. Flores Memorial Lib

ATTN: Governments Pub Dept ATTN: Librarian

Univ of-Nevada at Las Vegas , Norfolk Public Library

ATTN: Director of Libraries ATTN: R. Parker

New Hampshire University Lib North Carolina Agri & Tech State Univ

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

New Hanover County Public Library Univ of North Carolina at Charlotte

ATTNJ: Librarian ATTN: Atkins Library Documents Dept

Nebraska University Univ of North Carolina at Greensboro, Library

ATTN: Director of Libraries ATTN: Librarian

212
* OTHER (Continued) OTHERj._Continued)

"North Carolina Central University University of Notre Dame "ACTN: Librarian ATTN: Document Center

"North Carolina State University Oakland Comm College A7TN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

North Carolina University at Wilmington Oakland Public Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

University of North Carolina Oberlin College Library

ATTN: BA SS Division Documents ATTN: Librarian

* North Dakota State University Lib Ocean County College * ATTN: Docs Librarian ATTN: Librarian

University of North Dakota Ohio State University "ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Libraries Documents Division

North Georgia College Ohio University Library A ,ATN: Librarian ATTN: Docs Dept

North Texas State University Library Oklahoma City University Library AT TN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Northeast Missouri State University Oklahoma City University Library ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Northeastern Illinois University Oklahoma Dept of Libraries

ATTN: Library ATTN: U.S. Govt Documents

Northeastern Oklahoma State Univ University of Oklahoma, Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Govt Doc Collection

Northeastern University Old Dominion University ATTN: Dodge Library ATTN: Doc Dept Univ Library

Northern Arizona University Lib Olivet College Library

ATTN: - Government Documents Dept ATTN: Librarian

Northern Illinois University Omaha Pub Lib Clark Branch

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Northern Iowa University Oregon State Library SATTN: Library ATTN: Librarian

SNorthern Michigan Univ University of Oregon ATTN: Documents ATTN: Documents Section

Northern Montana College Library Ouachita Baptist University ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

"Northwestern Michigan College Pan American University Library ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

"Northwestern State Univ Passaic Public Library "ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Northwestern State Univ Library Paul Klapper Library ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents Dept

Northwestern University Library Pennsylvania State Library , ATTN: Govt Publications Dept ATTN: Government Publications Section

Norwalk Public Library 4 ATTN: Librarian

213

I . . . .
OTHER (Continuedj OTHER (Continued)

Pennsylvania State University Qulnebaug Valley Community Col

ATTN: Library Document Sec ATTN: Librarian

"University of Pennsylvania Ralph Brown Draughon Lib

ATTN: Director of Libraries Auburn University "ATTN: Microforms & Documents Dept

Penrose Library

University of Denver Rapid City Public Library

ATTN: Penrose Library ATTN: Librarian

PhlPeoria Public Library Reading Public Library ATTN: Business, Science A Tech Dept ATTN: Librarian

%•'•Free Library of Philadelphia Reed College Library

ATTN: Govt Puolications Dept ATTN: Librarian

Philipsburg Frec Public Library Reese Library ATTN: L,brary Augusta College ATTN: Librarian

Phoenix Public Library

ATTN: Librarian University of Rhode Island Library

ATTN: Govt Publications Office

University of Pittsburg

ATTN: Documents Office G 8 university of Rhode Island

ATTN: Director of Libraries

Plainfield Public Library

ATTN: Librarian Rice University

% ATTN: Director of Libraries

Popular Creek Public Lib District

ATTN: Librarian Richard W. Norton Mem.Lib

Louisiana College

Association of Portland Lib ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Librarian ! Richland County Pub Lib

Portland Public Library ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Librarian

N• University of Richmond

Portland State University Library ATTN: Library

"ATTN: Librarian "Riverside Public Library

Prescott Memorial Lib ATTN: Librarian

" 4.t,. Louisiana Tech Univ

ATTN: Librarian University of Rochester Library

ATTN: Documents Section

Princeton University Library

ATTN: Documents Division Rutgers University. Camden Library ATTN: Librarian

Providence College

ATTN: Librarian Rutgers State University

ATTN: Librarian

"Providence Public Library

* ATTN: Librarian Rutgers University. Library of Sci & Medicine

ATTN: Govt Docs Dept

* Cincinnati & Hamilton County Public Library

ATTN: Librarian Rutgers University Law Library

ATTN: Federal Documents Dept

Public Library of Nashville and Davidson County

ATTN: Library Salem College Library

ATTN: Librarian

University of Puerto Rico

ATTN: Doc & Maps Room Samford University

ATTN: Librarian

Purdue University Library

ATTN: Librarian San Antonio Public Library

ATTN: Bus Science & Tech Dept

4 214
OTHER (Continued) OTHER (Continued)

San Diego County Library University of South Carolina

ATTN: C. Jones, Acquisitions ATTN: Government Documents

San Diego Public Library South Dakota Sch of Mines & Tech

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

San Diego State University Library South Oaknta State Library

ATTN: Govt Pubs Dept ATTN: Federal Documents Department

San Francisco Public Library University of South Dakota

ATTN: Govt Documents Dept ATTN: Documents Librarian

San Francisco State College South Florida University Library

ATTN: Govt Pub Collection ATTN: Librariin

San Jose State College Library Southdale-Hennepin Area Library

ATTN: Documents Dept ATTN: Government Documents

San Luis Obispo City-County Library Southeast Missouri State University

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Savannah Pub & Effingham Libty Reg Lib Southeastern Massachusetts University Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents Sec

Scottsbluff Public Library University of Southern Alabama

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Scranton Public Library Southern California University Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents Dept

Seattle Public Library Southern Connecticut State College

ATTN: Ref Doc Asst ATTN: Library

Selby Public Library Southern Illinois University

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

. Shawnee Library System Southern Illinois University

ATTN: Librarian, ATTN: Documents Ctr

Shreve Memorial Library Southern Methodist University

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Silas Bronson Public Library University of Southern Mississippi

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Library

Simon Schwob Mem Lib Southern Oregon College

Columbus College ATTN: Library

ATTN: Librarian

Southern University in New Orleans, Library

Sioux City Public Library ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Librarian

Southern Utah State College Library

Skidmore College ATTN: Documents Department ATTN: Librarian Southwest Missouri State College

Slippery Rock State College Library ATTN: Library ATTN: Librarian Southwestern University of Louisiana, Libraries

South Carolina State Library ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Librarian Southwestern University School of Law Library

University of South Carolina ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Librarian

215

%, .
OTHER (Continued) OTHER (Continued)

Spokane Public Library University of Tennessee

ATTN: Reference Dept ATTN: Dir of Libraries

Springfield City Library Terteling Library

ATTN: Documents Section College of Idaho ATTN: Librarian

St. Bonaventure University

ATTN: Librarian Texas A & M University Library ATTN: Librarian

St. Joseph Public Library

ATTN: Librarian University of Texas at Arlington

ATTN: Library Documents

St. Lawrence University

ATTN: Librarian University of Texas at San Antonio

ATTN: Library

St. Louis Public Library

ATIN: Librarian Texas Christian Unlverslty ATTN: Librarian

St. Paul Public Library Texas State Library ATTN: LibrarianTesSte iry

ATTN: U.S. Documents Sect

Stanford University Library

ATTN: Govt Documents Dept Texas Tech University Library

ATTN: Govt Docs Dept

State Historical Soc Lib

ATTN: Docs Serials Section Texas University at Austin

ATTN: Documents Coll

State Library of Massachusetts

ATTN: Librarian Texas University at El Paso

ATTN: Documents and Maps Lib

St4Xe University. of New York SATTN: Librarian ..... University of Toledo Library

ATTN: Librarian

Stetson Univ

ATTN: Librarian Toledo Public Library

ATTN: Social Science Dept

University of Steubenville ATTN: Librarian Torrance Civic Center Library

ATTN: Librarian

Stockton & San Joaquin Public Lib

ATTN: Librarian Traverse City Public Library

ATTN: Librarian

Stockton State College Library Trenton Free Public Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librar y ATTN: Librarian

Superior Public Library ATTN: Librarian Trinity College Library ATTN: Librarian

Swarthmore College Lib

ATTN: Reference Dept Trinity University Library

ATTN: Documents Collection

Syracuse University Library

ATTN: Documents Div Tufts University Library

ATTN: Documents Dept

Tacoma Public Library ATTN: Librarian Tulane University

ATTN: Documents Dept

Tampa, Hillsborough County Public Lib University of Tulsa

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Temple University

ATTN: Librarian UCLA Research Library ATTN: Public Affairs Svc/US Dots

Tennessee Technological University

ATTN: Librarian

216
OTHER (Continued) OTHER (Continued)

Uniformed Svcs Univ of the HIth Sci Wesleyan University

ATTN: LRC Library ATTN: Documents Librarian

University Libraries West Chester State Coll

ATTN: Dir of Libraries ATTN: Documents Dept

Upper Iowa College West Covina Library

ATTN: Documents Collection ATTN: Librarian

Utah State University University of West Florida

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

University of Utah West Hills Community Coil

ATTN: Special Collections ATTN: Library

University of Utah West Texas State University

ATTN: Dept of Pharmacology ATTN: Library ATTN: Director of Libraries

West Virginia Coil of Grad Studies Lib

Valencia Library ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Librarian University of West Virginia

Vanderbilt University Library ATTN: Dir of Libraries

ATTN: Govt Docs Sect

westerly Public Library

ATTN: Director of Libraries

Western Carolina University

Virginia Cý-,onwealth University ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Librarian

Western Illinois University Lib

Virginia Military Institute ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Librarian

Western Washington Univ

Virginia Polytechnic Inst Lib ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: DOes Dept Western Wyoming Community College Lib

Virginia State Library ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Serials Section Westmoreland Cty Comm Coil

University of Virginia ATTN: Learning Resource Ctr

ATTN: Public Documents

Whitman College

Volusia County Public Libraries ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Librarian Wichita State Univ Library

Washington State Library ATTN: Librarian

ATTN: Documents Section

William & Mary College

Washington State University ATTN: Docs Dept

ATTN: Lib Documents Section

William Allen White Library

Washington University Libraries Emporia Kansas State College

ATTN: Dir of Libraries ATTN: Govt Documents Dav

University of Washington William College Library

ATTN: Documents Div ATTN: Librarian

Wayne State University Library Willimantic Public Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Wayne State University Law Library Winthrop College

ATTr: Documents Dept ATTN: Documents Dept

Weber State College Library University of Wisconsin at Whitewater

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Government Documents Library

Wagner College

ATTN: Librarian

217
SOTPER (Continted) OTHEn (Continued)

Wisconsin Pi.!wikee University Yale University

ATTM: Librarian ATTN: Director of Libraries

Wisconsin Oskosn University Yeshiva University

"ATTM: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Wisconsin Pl-tteville University Yuma City County Library

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian

Wisconsin Ur.,ersity at Stewens Point Wright State Univ Library

"ATT4: ;ocs Section ATT1: Govts Documents Dept

University a- Wisccnstn Wyoming State Library

ATT.%: Gavt Pubs Dept ATTN: Librarian

JUniversity o' Wisconsin University of Wyoming

ATTN: ýzquisitions Dept ATTN: Documents Div

"Worcester P-lic Libriry State Library of Ohio

ATTnI: Librarian ATIN: Librarian

2

I

'J

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