A national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy 

Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

Innovation for Our Energy Future 

Analysis of the Use of Wind Technical Report

NREL/TP-500-37504 Energy to Supplement the May 2005 

Power Needs at McMurdo 

Station and Amundsen-Scott 

South Pole Station, 

Antarctica 

I. Baring-Gould, R. Robichaud 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

Kevin McLain 

Accurate Engineering 

NREL is operated by Midwest Research Institute ● Battelle Contract No. DE-AC36-99-GO10337 
Analysis of the Use of Wind Technical Report

NREL/TP-500-37504 Energy to Supplement the May 2005 

Power Needs at McMurdo 

Station and Amundsen-Scott 

South Pole Station, 

Antarctica 

I. Baring-Gould, R. Robichaud 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

Kevin McLain 

Accurate Engineering 

Prepared under Task No. WER5.7202 

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by Midwest Research Institute • Battelle 

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Fax: 303-275-4830 

randy.jones@ee.doe.gov 

iii 
Executive Summary 

This report summarizes an analysis of the inclusion of wind-driven power generation 

technology into the existing diesel power plants at two U.S. Antarctic research stations, 

McMurdo and Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. Staff at the U.S. Department of 

Energy’s National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) conducted the analysis. 

Raytheon Polar Services, which currently holds the private sector support contract for the 

two research stations, was a major contributor to this report. Wind energy potential was 

not analyzed for Palmer Station or the various U.S. Antarctic field camps. 

To conduct the analysis, available data were obtained on the wind resources, power plant 

conditions, load, and component cost. Whenever possible, we validated the information. 

We then used NREL’s Hybrid2 power system modeling software to analyze the potential 

and cost of using wind turbine generators at the two aforementioned facilities. 

Unfortunately, the power systems and energy allocations at McMurdo and South Pole 

Station are being redeveloped, so it is not possible to validate future fuel use. 

Additionally, a new primary community/science facility at South Pole Station is under 

construction; thus only estimates of its expected power consumption are available. This 

report is an initial assessment of the potential use of wind energy and should be followed 

by further, more detailed analysis if this option is to be considered further. 

McMurdo Station 

We began wind speed measurement programs in late January 2003 at Twin Craters 

(NASA Dome Area), Crater Hill, and the Snow Dump, potential locations in close 

proximity to McMurdo Station. We experienced numerous anemometer failures (mainly 

broken cups) because of the harsh environment, but analysis of more than 6 months of 

reliable data from the three sites indicated that Twin Craters (near the explosives yard) 

has the most favorable wind speeds and persistence for wind-generating equipment. This 

area also has suitable road access for wind farm construction and maintenance. Because 

of the relatively small area available for towers at Twin Craters and the limited lift 

capacity of the existing crane a small number of different medium sized wind turbines 

were considered in the analysis. 

Results indicated that capturing wind energy at McMurdo could reduce the total cost of 

generating power by between half a cent and 2 cents for each kilowatt-hour (kWh) 

produced by the power plant and reduce total fuel consumption by between 158,000 and 

317,000 gallons/year (600,000 to 1,200,000 liters/year). Total net present savings for the 

use of wind, including all costs associated with the wind system installation, would be 

between $1 million and $4 million over a 20-year project life. The cost of the project was 

modeled to be between $2 million and $3 million. 

Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station 

The analysis for South Pole Station was conducted differently because of the limited 

availability of wind turbines that are suited for the extreme cold at the South Pole. The 

iv 
only existing large-scale wind turbine that fulfils the temperature requirements is 

Northern Power Systems’ NorthWind 100 model, and it will require some development 

and retrofit work to allow reliable, long-term operation at the South Pole. 

The analysis consisted of determining the cost savings based on installing between one 

and 10 NorthWind 100-kW turbines at the South Pole. Based on wind speed data 

collected at the South Pole metrological station, it appears that significant cost savings 

can be achieved by using wind energy. Although the wind speeds measured at the site are 

considered low, the avoided cost of fuel is so high that the installation of nine 100-kW 

wind turbines would result in a net savings of almost $18 million over a 20-year project 

life. Annual fuel consumption would be reduced by almost 23%, or 116,500 gallons 

(440,783 liters). The cost of installing nine turbines at the South Pole is expected to be 

approximately $4.3 million. Further analysis could be conducted to consider a heavier 

reliance on wind technology but as an initial stage 10 turbines was considered 

appropriate. 

Conclusion 

This initial analysis indicates that a large potential savings could be realized by 

incorporating wind energy into the existing diesel plants at the South Pole Station. The 

economic impact of using wind power at McMurdo is not as extreme, but it is cost 

effective and would significantly reduce diesel fuel consumption. Given the amount of 

wind energy that could be included in the systems at McMurdo and South Pole Station, 

the current diesel plants will continue to operate, at least initially, as they currently are. 

Any savings will result from a reduction in fuel consumption and subsequent reduced 

fuel storage requirements. 

Both of these analyses are based on data that are generally out of date or limited in 

nature; thus the results should be considered preliminary. However, even with the 

limitations of the data used in the analysis, the increasing electric demand (which leads to 

increased fuel storage and transportation needs) and the growing cost of diesel fuel will 

only make wind more financially attractive in any further analysis. 

To advance the assessment of these opportunities, several steps should be taken at the 

McMurdo and South Pole stations. These include obtaining better load and power system 

data following a detailed energy audit of each station; more advanced wind measurement 

at McMurdo and initiating a wind site-specific measurement program at South Pole. 

Additionally, further analysis is required to quantify the impact of reducing the available 

‘waste’ heat from the generators due to the reduction of diesel generator electrical output. 

Based on the results of this analysis, there is clear potential to use wind energy to reduce 

the power generation costs, harmful air emissions, and fuel needs at both stations. The 

next step would be to conduct more detailed assessment of potential options, turbines, 

and systems specifications. 

v 
Abstract 

This report describes the analysis and investigation of wind energy’s potential to reduce 

the quantity of diesel fuel consumed to provide power and heat to the two U.S. Antarctica 

facilities at McMurdo and the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. Staff from the 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory prepared this report with significant support from 

Raytheon Polar Services. 

The analysis examined wind and load data from both stations and provides an initial 

estimate of the options for retrofitting these systems. The report also describes the next 

steps in the development of this project. 

vi 
Table of Contents 

Executive Summary iv 

McMurdo Station iv 

Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station iv 

Conclusion v 

Abstract vi 

Table of Contents vii 

Table of Figures viii 

Table of Tables viii 

Introduction 1 

McMurdo Station 2 

Existing Conditions 2 

Potential Wind Turbine Sites 2 

Energy Consumption 3 

Diesel Power Plant 3 

Shipping Information 4 

Analysis of McMurdo Wind Power Options 4 

Turbines Used in the Analysis 4 

Wind Data 5 

Load Data 9 

Diesel Plant 10 

Retrofitting Constraints 10 

Results of McMurdo Station Options Analysis 11 

Further Data Needed to Refine the McMurdo Analysis 14 

Load 14 

Diesel Plant 14 

Wind Data 14 

Constraints 14 

Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station 15 

Existing Conditions 15 

Wind Speed Data 15 

Energy Consumption 16 

Diesel Power Plant 16 

Local Information 16 

Analysis of South Pole Station Wind Power Options 16 

Turbines Used in the Analysis 17 

Wind Data 17 

Load Data 17 

Temperature Data 18 

Diesel Plant 19 

Results of South Pole Station Options Analysis 19 

Further Data Needed to Refine the South Pole Station Analysis 22 

Load 22 

Diesel Plant 22 

Wind Data 22 

vii 
Constraints 22 

Conclusion 23 

References 24 

Appendix A: Primer on Diesel Retrofit Opportunities 25 

Resize Diesel Generators 25 

Apply Advanced Diesel Control 25 

Install Batteries and a Power Converter to Cover Low-Load Periods 25 

Install Renewable Technology to Reduce Diesel Operation 26 

Wind/Diesel Applications 26 

Renewable Penetration 27 

Wind/Diesel Power System Configurations 28 

Appendix References 33 

Table of Figures 

Figure 1. Wind speed data from Twin Craters (2003) and historical wind speed data from

McMurdo Station ........................................................................................................ 6 

Figure 2: Wind speed data used in the analysis for McMurdo Station ............................... 8 

Figure 3: Historical load data for McMurdo Station .......................................................... 9 

Figure 4: Load data used in the McMurdo Station analysis ............................................. 10 

Figure 5: Twin Craters overlooking the McMurdo Station .............................................. 11 

Figure 6: Wind speed measurements taken at the South Pole metrological station for 2003

................................................................................................................................... 18 

Figure 7: Energy output of the new South Pole Station diesel plant from October 1, 2001 

to October 6, 2002..................................................................................................... 18 

Figure 8: Temperature measurements taken at the South Pole metrological station for 

2003........................................................................................................................... 19 

Figure 9: Results of the wind energy use analysis at the South Pole Station ................... 20 

Figure A.1: Schematic of low-penetration wind/diesel hybrid ......................................... 29 

Figure A.2: Schematic of high-penetration wind/diesel power system using a rotary 

power converter ........................................................................................................ 31 

Table of Tables 

Table 1: Various Wind Turbines Considered in Analysis .................................................. 5 

Table 2: Summary of Collected 20-m Wind Speed Data from Three McMurdo Station 

Sites............................................................................................................................. 7 

Table 3: Performance Impact of Using Wind Energy at McMurdo Station ..................... 12 

Table 4: Economic Impact of Using Wind Energy at McMurdo Station ......................... 13 

Table 5: Economic Impact of Using Wind Energy at South Pole Station ........................ 21 

Table A.1: Penetration Class of Wind-Diesel Systems (Proposed by Steve Drouilhet)... 28 

viii
Introduction 

The initial investigation of the use of large-scale renewable technologies to support the 

power needs of the two major U.S. Antarctic research stations, McMurdo and the South 

Pole, began in 1999 with a visit of staff from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

(NREL). During this visit, it was determined that one of the main applications of 

renewable power would be the retooling of the diesel power plants that supply electric 

and thermal energy to these facilities. 

Three basic areas of improvement were identified: 

1) Use of thermal energy from the diesel plant for heating and process needs 

2) Application of energy-efficient technologies throughout the stations 

3) Use of renewable energy technologies to reduce diesel-produced power. 

Raytheon Polar Services has aggressively pursued improvements for areas 1 and 2, while 

NREL has considered the application of renewable power technologies. 

Because of the current high cost of photovoltaic power and the seasonal availability of 

sunshine, wind energy was considered the most feasible option for renewable power 

generation, especially given the significant size of the stations’ power needs. The use of 

solar thermal building technologies and photovoltaics for small remote loads are viable 

options to supply energy needs in Antarctica, but they are not addressed in this report. 

During a follow-up visit to the Antarctic facilities in 2002, several wind-monitoring sites 

were identified at McMurdo, and other data were collected from McMurdo and South 

Pole. In early 2003, monitoring stations were installed at three potential wind-generating 

sites at McMurdo, which has allowed the true assessment of the retrofitting potential at 

this station. Such measurement stations have not been installed at the South Pole. 

The resulting analysis described in this report examines wind and load data from both 

stations, shows a comparative analysis of various wind-diesel power system 

combinations, provides an initial estimate of available options for retrofitting these power 

systems, and produces an initial economic assessment of these options. The comparative 

and financial analysis was primarily conducted using the Hybrid2 software (BaringGould, Hybrid2), which was developed by the University of Massachusetts and NREL. 

This tool provides a method to analyze the performance of different wind diesel power 

system combinations and produces an initial economic assessment of these options. 

This report summarizes the current conditions and describes the data used in the analysis 

and the results of the analysis for each station. At the end of each section is a list of data 

requirements needed for further analysis. A primer on wind-diesel power system 

technology is also provided in the appendix of this document. 

Most of the information contained from this report was obtained by personal 

communication and experience of the authors, specifically with Peter Somers at Raytheon 

1 
Polar Services. Additional information was obtained from unpublished reports: John 

Rand’s Considerations of Renewable Energy Resources for the South Pole and several 

field reports filed by Ed Cannon following survey trips to McMurdo and the South Pole 

Station. Cost information for different turbine technologies was also obtained as part of 

similar wind diesel system assessments being carried out for communities in Alaska. 

McMurdo Station 

Existing Conditions 

McMurdo is located on a volcanic island about 20 miles from the mainland of Antarctica 

and 2400 miles due south from New Zealand. The town site (population 1000+) sits on a 

southwest-facing beach area at the foot of several large hills, including Arrival 

Heights/Twin Craters and Crater Hill. The station consists of many buildings and is more 

similar to a small town than a field station. The buildings, of many different construction 

styles and ages, are maintained to provide the primary hub of research facilities, housing, 

and services to all U.S. (and some international) activities in Antarctica. The site has a 

seasonally active harbor where supply and fuel vessels can dock and unload cargo after a 

channel is created by an icebreaker. Power requirements for the stations infrastructure, 

laboratories, and science experiments are quite large ―16,000 megawatts (MW)/year―, 

and reliable, high-quality power is essential. 

Potential Wind Turbine Sites 

Data were initially collected in mid-January 2003 at three sites in the area of the 

McMurdo facility: Snow Dump, situated in “The Gap” near Scott Base; Twin Craters, a 

location immediately above and a little to the north of the McMurdo station; and Crater 

Hill, which is to the northeast of McMurdo station. The Snow Dump and Twin Craters 

sites are accessible by road, but Crater Hill currently does not have road access. Twentymeter towers were installed at each site and outfitted with NRG Systems data-logging 

equipment to record wind speed and direction information. Wind data collected at 

McMurdo’s main facilities and at a nearby NASA radar site were not considered reliable 

or appropriate for wind power assessment. 

High winds and extreme temperatures have caused problems with the reliability of the 

anemometers. Therefore, a clear and long-term description of the wind speeds at the sites 

is not available. 

Based on these data, for the periods of concurrent measurements, the Twin Craters site 

has a better wind resource than either Crater Hill or the Snow Dump site. Because 

uninterrupted data are not available for the whole year, it is unclear if this is always the 

case, especially during the months of high and low wind velocity: May and January, 

respectively. Beyond the incomplete wind assessment, however, Twin Craters is 

accessible by road and is located only about 0.5 miles from a 4160-V transmission line, 

making it a strong preliminary first choice for wind tower placement. Further analysis 

considering other siting issues, such as the impact on scientific research, historic 

preservation, and environmental impact, will also have to be addressed. 

2 
Energy Consumption 

Two types of loads are described for the McMurdo station: electric and thermal. The 

electric loads provide all electrical needs and a good amount of electrically based heating. 

Electrical-load data from December 2001 through March 2003 were obtained from the 

plant. For the full year of 2002, the electrical consumption for McMurdo was 15,823 

megawatt-hours (MWh). 

Presently, heat is removed from the diesel generator’s engine jacket coolant loop and is 

used to heat specified buildings, with an expected JP-5 fuel oil savings of 470,000 

gallons/year (1,779,000 liters/year). Furthermore, with an upcoming redesign of the 

diesel power plant, additional waste heat will be available from the exhaust stacks to 

preheat ocean water for the reverse osmosis desalination equipment and for heating other 

appropriate buildings at McMurdo. However, this thermal energy usage is not tabulated 

and thus was hard to determine as part of the analysis. 

Diesel Power Plant 

The diesel power plant is currently being redeveloped to replace outdated diesel 

generating and control systems and technology. The new diesel plant will be made up of 

six Caterpillar diesel generator sets: four model 3516B for base load and two model 

3512B to satisfy peaking demands. 

The soon-to-be-renovated power plant consumes approximately 1,300,000 gallons/year 

(4,921,000 liters/year) with an average efficiency of approximately 11.5 kWh/gallons 

(3.04 kWh/liter) in 1999. Cost of delivered fuel used in the analysis was $1.30/gallon 

(0.343/liter), which represents the cost in 1999. Costs in late 2003 were $1.48/gallon 

(0.390/liters) and increased to $1.71/gallon for 2005. This results in a 1999 cost of 11.3 

cents/kWh for fuel alone. The cost of diesel generator operation (maintenance, 

lubrication oil, equipment overhaul including labor) is approximately $15/hour, which in 

most cases would add an additional 2 to 3 cents per kWh produced. This savings, 

however, is only achieved if the diesel engine can be shut off completely and thus does 

not impact the economics in this analysis. 

The diesels also support thermal loops running from the jacket and engine exhaust that is 

used for space or water heating. Of the total caloric energy of the diesel fuel, energy 

output from the diesel generators is expected to be divided as follows: 

• 31% to useful electric power 

• 30% is consumed by the jacket (part of which is used to heat buildings through a 

glycol loop) 

• 39% is lost in the exhaust, although plans are underway to recapture some of this 

energy as well. 

Because the engines’ residual heat is used extensively, any system modeling that reduces 

the heat generation from the diesel engines must include the economic impact of this loss, 

either by generating more energy through renewable technology or through the burning 

3 
of more heating oil. At the time of this analysis, the impact of this loss of heating has not 

been taken into account, although its impact will not be too great. 

Shipping Information 

In 1999, the estimated cost of shipping equipment to McMurdo was $1.4/lb ($3.09/kg) by 

air and $0.17/lb ($0.37kg) by ship. 

Analysis of McMurdo Wind Power Options 

This section describes the data used in the analysis for McMurdo Station, as well as the 

assumptions regarding installation and the operation of the diesel power station. This 

initial analysis primarily examines the amount of wind energy that could easily be 

absorbed into the diesel grid at McMurdo station. The report also describes wind energy 

equipment options and further information that is needed to allow refinement of the 

analysis. 

Three types of data are important for the analysis of wind co-powering options. The first 

relates to the technology that can be used to provide power at each of the sites, the second 

is the energy consumption at each site, and the third is the available wind resource. These 

data must then be analyzed based on an understanding of the current plant structure and 

other limitations that each site may present. 

Turbines Used in the Analysis 

Turbines analyzed for use at McMurdo were selected primarily to reflect different size 

categories or classifications, not to represent specific turbines or manufacturers. A sample 

of possible turbines is provided in Table 1, although other options are certainly available. 

Although there are differences between specific turbines, at this level, issues of basic 

cost, generation capacity, weight, and size are most critical. Once a turbine class is 

selected, further analysis will be required to determine which turbine manufacturer and 

model may be the most appropriate. 

A number of horizontal-axis wind turbines may be appropriate for use at McMurdo 

station. Turbines most used in arctic environments include units from Bonus Wind 

Systems and ENERCON. Three ENERCON wind turbines were used with success to repower Australia’s Mawson Research Station on the Antarctic coast south of Australia. 

U.S. patent issues may eliminate the possibility of using ENERCON wind turbines in any 

U.S. project, but more research is needed on this issue. 

4 
Country Turbine (kW) 

Temperature 

Rating 

50 -40 

18/80 80 -35 

USA 100 -50 

GEV 26/220 220 Not Available 

FL 250 250 Not Available 

E-30 300 -35 

j

Wind Data 

were not used in this analysis. 

Table 1: Various Wind Turbines Considered in Analysis 

Company Power 

Entegrity Wind Systems Inc. Canada/USA EW15 

Lagerwey Windturbines Netherlands 

Northern Power Systems NW100/19 

Vergnet WE Development France 

Fuhrlander Wind Turbines Germany 

ENERCON GmbH Germany 

At this point in the analysis, two wind turbines were considered for McMurdo: the 

Northern Power Northwind 100/19 (the standard form of the 100-kW Northwind turbine) 

and the Furlander FL 250, a standard 250-kW wind turbine. The Northern Power wind 

turbine represents a smaller, more rugged “specialty” turbine, while the Furlander 

represents a larger mainstream turbine. These two turbines were chosen to represent 

different classes of turbine choices and NREL makes no recommendation on either 

turbine choice. If the pro ect were to move forward, different wind turbine companies 

would be contacted to provide specific information regarding the technical specification 

and availability of turbines for McMurdo. 

The McMurdo analysis examined the installation of a number of different wind turbines 

to be directly connected into the diesel grid of the station. As described previously, the 

site at Twin Craters was selected as the most likely location for the installation of the 

turbines. 

The wind data set that was used for the analysis was created using data collected from the 

three wind measurement locations. Historical wind speed data from McMurdo were used 

to evaluate long-term trends compared to the data recorded at the site. It should be noted 

that the historical wind speed data are from a location down in the community and were 

not used to predict wind speed, just to verify seasonal variation. A summary of the data 

collected through April 2004 is provided in Table 2, and data for Twin Craters are 

summarized in Figure 1. More data have been collected at Twin Craters since April but 

To the extent possible, all recorded data from the measurement sites were used in the 

creation of the wind data file used in the analysis. The wind data for Twin Craters is not 

continuous and does not cover an entire year, indicating that more data collection is 

5 
Month of year

needed. However, for the purposes of an initial scoping and recommendation report, 

stitching together various wind data reports from nearby sites has provided a rough (but 

reasonable) estimate of wind profiles and characteristics. 

0 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

Jul 

/s) 

i l Hi i ll i i

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 

Wind Speed (m

Arr va ht 03 stor cal Gap fi ed data Analys s w nd speed 

Figure 1. Wind speed data from Twin Craters (2003) and historical wind speed data 

from McMurdo Station 

6 
Table 2: Summary of Collected 20-m Wind Speed Data from Three McMurdo Station Sites 

Crater Hill Twin Craters Snow Dump 

Average Gust Direction Average Gust Direction Average Gust Direction 

Date mph mph Polar Date mph mph Polar Date mph mph Polar 

1/25/03 

Sensor 

Installed 1/24/03 

Sensor 

Installed 1/29/03 

Sensor 

Installed 

to 2/20 14.9 56 146 to 2/18 16.7 108 200 to 2/3 Bad Data 

3/19/03 16 71 174 3/20/03 17.04 71 204 2/18/03 11.1 40 219 

4/19/03 14.9 90 158 4/19/03 15.9 84 180 3/19/03 11.2 55 225 

5/20/03 23.88 98 146 5/23/03 Missing 4/19/03 11.3 63 221 

6/19/03 20.05 99 174 6/20/03 Bad Data 5/20/03 15.85 72 226 

7/5/03 19.95 69 148 7/25/03 Bad Data 6/19/03 13.28 85 229 

7/24/03 Bad Data 7/26/03 Missing 7/12/03 12.5 50 228 

8/22/03 Bad Data 8/22/03 17.44 108 200 Removed 

10/1/03 Bad Data 9/23/03 17.81 95 159 

Removed 10/13/03 23.14 85 187 

12/9/03 Bad Data 

12/23/03 Missing 

1/8/2004 15.74 55 159 

2/5/2004 14.78 44 72 

3/4/2004 15.35 62 56 

4/6/2004 16.69 56 72 

Average 18.28 mph Average 17.65 mph Average 12.538 mph 

Maximum gust 99 mph Maximum gust 108 mph Maximum gust 85 mph 

It should be noted that the Crater Hill site experienced extremely high winds during May 

2004, which is also reflected in data from the Snow Dump site. It appears that this was a 

singular event, so the wind speed for this month was scaled down to more accurately 

reflect the historical data. All data collection was completed at a 10-minute interval and 

7 
averaged to 1 hour to use in the first level of system analysis. All measurements were 

conducted at 20 meters. 

To conduct the analysis, available data from Twin Craters were used, which accounted 

for data from February 24 to April 19, September 22 to October 13, and December 23 to 

the end of the year. From April 19 to July 5, data from Crater Hill were used in the place 

of Twin Craters, except for a short period of absence of data in July. A scatter plot of 

concurrent wind speeds from February 25 to April 19 shows good correlation between 

the two data sets with Twin Craters from most directions. From July 5 to 13, data from 

Snow Dump were used with an appropriate scale factor, again based on comparisons 

between Twin Craters and Snow Dump. For the rest of the year, from December 1 to 

February 24 and from October 13 to December 23, no detailed time-series data exist. To 

assess the resources during these times, long-term historical data from McMurdo were 

used. A time series of the wind data used in the analysis is provided in Figure 2. 

At the time of the analysis, approximately 8 months of actual site-related data were 

available, which is not sufficient to finalize the analysis for this system. It is critical that 

more data be obtained for the site to clarify the fall and winter wind profile and that the 

data be taken at a height of between 20 and 30 meters to more closely match the wind 

turbine’s hub height. 

0 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

/s) 

31-Dec 

31-Jan 

28-Feb 

31-Mar 

30-Apr 

31-May 

30-Jun 

31-Jul 

31-Aug 

30-Sep 

31-Oct 

30-Nov 

31-Dec 

Date 

Wind Speed (m

Figure 2: Wind speed data used in the analysis for McMurdo Station 

8 
The maximum recorded wind speed at the sites for the year was more than 107 mph (48 

m/s), which is near the maximum range for a number of the turbines under consideration. 

Additionally, in March 2004, sustained wind speeds of 140 mph (62.8 m/s), with gusts up 

to 188 mph (84 m/s), were recorded at the NASA radar site located about 0.25 miles (0.4 

km) from the Twin Craters. This will be a critical issue in determining which turbine may 

be the most appropriate for the application. 

Load Data 

Raytheon Polar Services provided load data in the form of general plant output power 

every 10 minutes between December 2001 and March 2003. The monthly averages for 

these data are provided in Figure 3. Because of problems with the time step of the data 

files, we decided to use the full year of data from 2002. Year-to-year load growth varies 

between less than 1% to slightly more than 4%, so although this will be considered in 

future analysis, we expect that the impact will be small. 

Figure 4 depicts a plot of the time-series data used for the analysis. 

0 

500 

1000 

1500 

2000 

2500 

Total load (kW) 

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 

2001 2002 2003 

Month of year 

Figure 3: Historical load data for McMurdo Station 

9 
0 

500 

1000 

1500 

2000 

2500 

Diesel Power Production (kW) 

31-Dec 

31-Jan 

28-Feb 31-Mar 

30-Apr 

31-May 

30-Jun 

31-Jul

31-Aug 30-Sep 

31-Oct 30-Nov 

31-Dec 

Month of year 

Figure 4: Load data used in the McMurdo Station analysis 

Diesel Plant 

The diesel plant was modeled using six Caterpillar 1418 kVA (1135-kW) prime power 

diesel gensets driven by 3512B diesel engines. This model was completed because of an 

inability to access data on gensets based on the Caterpillar 3516B diesel. Additionally, 

the specific size and ranking of the diesels to be used in the new McMurdo power house 

were not known. Once the size of the diesels is known, data can be obtained on the 

specific diesel engines to be used. Typically three diesels are operational to allow reserve 

capacity. 

One additional simulation was completed, including a smaller 600-kW (750-kVA) 

Caterpillar generator based on a 3508B diesel engine to determine whether allowing more 

refined sizing would impact system costs. 

Retrofitting Constraints 

Several constraints need to be defined before further analysis can be conducted. The site 

at Twin Craters is constrained in size, which will limit the number of wind turbines that 

could be installed at this location. The ridge, which fortunately lies perpendicular to the 

pervading wind direction (Figure 5), measures about 700 ft (230 m) long and 150 ft (50 

m) wide. The crane at McMurdo that could be used to install the turbine has a maximum 

lift height of 135 feet (44.3 m) and has a maximum lift capability of 10,500 lb (4762 kg). 

The capacity of the crane will limit the size of the wind turbine that could be installed. 

10 
Figure 5: Twin Craters overlooking the McMurdo Station 

Results of McMurdo Station Options Analysis 

McMurdo has a large energy demand and is constrained by space limitations at Twin 

Craters. This means that only a limited number of wind turbines could be installed at this 

site, limiting the potential installed wind capacity. 

Based on the assumed diesel power station configuration, manufacturer’s fuel 

consumption information, and the measured load, a fuel consumption of 4,878,225 liters 

was estimated using the Hybrid2 software. This can be compared to the 4,921,000 liters 

that was consumed by the old diesel plant in 1999. The new diesel plant will have higher 

efficiency, but the load has also increased, and the close proximity of these numbers adds 

some credence to the analysis methodology. Based on this consumption, the cost of 

energy based only on diesel fuel is $0.1589/kWh. 

For this first level of analysis, two turbines were considered: the Northwind 100/19 (the 

standard form of the 100-kW Northwind turbine) and the Furlander FL 250 (a standard 

250-kW wind turbine). Both of the turbines used in the analysis meet the requirements of 

the crane at McMurdo station. 

The minimum spacing of a wind turbine is two rotor diameters, but this is highly 

dependent on a wind rose for the site, which has not been completed because of the lack 

of reliable wind direction data. Based on the dimensions of the Twin Crater site, which is 

700 ft (230 m) long, it would be possible to place as many as five ~250-kW wind 

turbines, although four would be more likely. If smaller turbines were used, a total 

installed capacity would likely be smaller, although more turbines would be used. The 

analysis examined using seven Northwind turbines with a total installed capacity of 700 

kW and then two installations of the Furlander FL 250, five turbines with a nominal 

11 
installed capacity of 1250 kW and four turbines with nominal installed capacity of 1000 

kW. It should be noted that the actual maximum performance of the Furlander FL 250 is 

actually 300 kW at a wind speed of 21 m/s (~ 47 mph). 

Based on simulations using the Hybrid2 software, the amount of fuel consumed and the 

overall cost of energy decreases with the inclusion of wind energy. Table 3 shows the 

results of several different power system configurations using different wind turbines. 

The potential fuel savings depends on the system selected, but ranges from 13% to 

24.9%, with a maximum fuel savings of more than 320,700 gallons/year (1,214,000 

liters/year). Based on the 2002 electrical energy use, which averages between 1.5 and 2.0 

MW, up to 25% of the station’s electrical energy would be generated by wind. 

Table 4 provides on overview of expected project economics based on the analysis of the 

same system configurations introduced in Table 3. In this table, the capital cost of several 

different options is provided, along with the systems 20-year net present cost (NPC), or 

the total cost of the power system for the next 20 years. A reduced NPC indicates that this 

option is less expensive on a life-cycle basis. Cost of energy (COE) is also provided, 

though care should be used when looking at these numbers because not all power system 

costs, such as operators and other infrastructure expenses, have been included in the 

analysis as the use of wind power is not likely to change these costs. A number that 

provides more information is the figure representing the difference in COE produced. 

This number shows, based on the items that were included in this analysis (primarily 

diesel fuel, system operation, maintenance, and capital costs), the expected reduction in 

costs using different system configurations. 

Table 3: Performance Impact of Using Wind Energy at McMurdo Station 

Input 

Performance 

Type of # of 

Installed 

Nominal 

Engine Fuel used 

l/yr 

Fuel 

% 

Fuel 

Savings 

l/yr 

All diesel system n/a n/a 

7 700 13 

FL 250 4 1000 20.5 

FL 250 4 1000 Small Dsl 24.2 

FL 250 5 1250 24.9 

Results 

Turbine Turbines 

Capacity 

(kW) Size (kW) 

Savings 

4878225 

NW 100 6x1135 kW 4243632 634593 

6x1135 kW 3876228 1001997 

3696438 1181787 

6x1135 kW 3664099 1214126 

12 
Input Economic Results 

Type of 

turbine # 

Engine COE 

$/kWh $/kWh prod $ 

Capital 

$ 0.1589 $ - $ -

7 $ 0.1542 $ 0.0047 

FL 250 4 $ 0.1423 $ 0.0166 

FL 250 4 Small Dsl $ 0.1377 $ 0.0212 

FL 250 5 $ 0.1383 $ 0.0206 

Table 4: Economic Impact of Using Wind Energy at McMurdo Station 

Turbine 

Size (kW) 

Difference 20-Year NPC 

Cost, $ 

All diesel system $ 30,809,210 

NW 100 6x1135 kW $ 29,889,266 $2,302,886 

6x1135 kW $ 27,589,012 $2,140,400 

$ 26,693,168 $2,140,400 

6x1135 kW $ 26,824,676 $2,675,500 

Given these cases, the use of wind energy at McMurdo could reduce the total cost of 

generating power by between 1/2 a cent to 2 cents per kWh. Over a 20-year expected life 

of the equipment, the total savings, including all capital costs, ranges between $1 million 

and $4 million, although most wind turbines have a design life of 30 years. 

The analysis also demonstrated that the inclusion of a smaller peaking diesel also makes 

economic sense, resulting in almost a 4% reduction in fuel consumption. The new diesel 

plant at McMurdo will include two smaller peaking diesels, but some analysis might be 

warranted to determine their optimal size, even if wind energy is not to be included in the 

power system redesign. 

As stated previously, this analysis does not include the impact of the reduced waste heat 

from the generators based on the reduction in fuel consumption. Because the diesel 

engines will continue to be used even while the turbines are operating, thermal energy 

from these units will still be available to provide existing heating loads. However, a 

reduction in the amount of fuel consumption will have an impact on the amount of heat 

available for other loads. A technical and economic assessment will have to be conducted 

to determine the impact of the loss of waste heat from the diesel plant. 

Costs associated with reducing the need for fuel storage at McMurdo has not been 

included in this analysis but will add additional savings. 

13 
Further Data Needed to Refine the McMurdo Analysis 

The following data should be obtained to refine the analysis conducted as the basis of this 

report. 

Load 

• Better understanding of the thermal loading systems 

• Information on the Reverse Osmoses (RO) water desalination unit, power rating, 

fresh water storage capacity, and usage 

• Temperature data for the site (to determine thermal energy requirements) 

• Temperature setting for the buildings (to determine temperature coefficient) 

• Updated station electrical energy requirements. 

• Conduct a detailed energy audit of current and planned buildings 

Diesel Plant 

• Clarification of the current diesel configuration, unit specification, and size 

• Fuel-use curves of the diesel engines on site 

• Updated information on fuel price, usage, and storage availability 

• Costs of expected fuel storage expansion. 

Wind Data 

• Additional wind speed data from Twin Craters at a height of 20m to 30m 

• Historical wind data from McMurdo Station 

• Wind rose for Twin Craters anemometry. 

Constraints 

• Further analysis of Twin Craters site, including soil type, road rating, power line 

extension, etc. 

• Analysis of potential impact of wind turbines on any ongoing or planned scientific 

experiments 

14 
Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station 

Existing Conditions 

At a 9,400-ft physical elevation (11,000-ft physiological elevation) and with temperatures 

ranging from -115°F to +6°F (-82°C to -14°C), South Pole Station sits on a slowly 

moving Polar Plateau ice field at the earth’s geophysical south pole spin axis. The station 

supports year-round scientific activity, and the original dome facility is currently being 

replaced by a new above-snow facility that will greatly expand the services and living 

conditions at the Pole. As part of this major redevelopment activity, the power plant was 

completely redesigned, and the primary generator waste heat (engine jacket and exhaust) 

is fully captured and distributed to various buildings. 

One limiting factor at South Pole is that all supplies, equipment, and personnel must be 

flown into the site during a short, 4-month summer season. The large amount of diesel 

fuel needed to power and heat the station continues to constrain the cargo capacity and 

places extreme logistics and performance pressure on support personnel, scientific 

research, and station services. As the electrical needs at the site grow, this problem 

continues to worsen. Additionally, the cost of transporting fuel by air raises the price of 

the fuel to well over $10/gallon. The utilization of wind power to replace some amount of 

diesel consumption is one option to reduce the required import costs. Other options, such 

as developing a land-based supply train, are also being investigated. 

The energy requirements of the South Pole station are difficult to obtain, primarily 

because the station is in the process of receiving a major upgrade. In the 1999 to 2000 

year, fuel consumption for power generation was 258,284 gallons (977,708 liters) per 

year, which makes up approximately 71% of the fuel consumption at the site. These 

numbers apply to the operation of the older diesel power plant, which was replaced in 

2001 and 2002, and the older facilities. Yearly fuel usage for the new diesel power plant 

at the new facility is projected to be 341,000 gallons (1,290,821 liters). Based on current 

consumption, power generation requires the importation of 1,160 short tons (1,052 metric 

tons) of fuel to the station. 

Research and installation of small-scale towers and wind turbines at the South Pole has 

provided valuable hands-on experience with some of the critical issues. Challenges to be 

overcome are many, including efficient transport of materials to the site; snow foundation 

design; improvements to cold-hardened equipment; operation, maintenance, and repair 

issues; and mitigation of possible electromagnetic interference. Each of these issues will 

have to be considered as part of any project-development or detailed analysis process. 

Wind Speed Data 

Almanac data state that the average wind speed for 2000 was 11.5 mph (5.14 m/s) with a 

maximum wind speed of 45 mph (20.1 m/s), whereas the average for 2001 was 12.4 mph 

(5.54 m/s) with a maximum wind speed of 44 mph (19.7 m/s). It is also reported that the 

15 
wind speed is in excess of 5.0 m/s approximately 70% of the time, although this cannot 

be confirmed. 

Energy Consumption 

Load data are available for the existing South Pole station and averages 384 kilovolt 

amperes (kVA). Thermal energy from the generator’s water and jacket heat will be used 

for space heating of the primary station buildings and to melt ice for water. Energy 

estimates for this new facility places usage at around 500 kW, ranging from 467 kW 

during the summer and 510 kW during the winter, although this has not been confirmed. 

Using John Rand’s analysis, every extra MWh of supplanted diesel power will require the 

import of 48 gallons (181 liters) of fuel for heating. 

Diesel Power Plant 

The current power plant, installed in 2001 as part of the station retrofit, is made up of 

three Caterpillar 3512 diesels with 750-kW generators and one Caterpillar 3412, 250-kW 

generator. One of the larger generators operates continuously, alternating operation, 

while an additional large unit is on standby. The 250-kW diesel is used for peaking. 

Local Information 

The cost of shipping equipment to the South Pole from McMurdo is about $1.57/lb 

($3.47/kg). This results in a total cost of shipping equipment from the United States by 

air and ship at $2.97/lb ($6.55/kg) and $1.74/lb ($3.83/kg), respectively. Delivered diesel 

fuel at the South Pole cost is projected to be between $12.00 ($3.17/l) and $15.70 

($3.78/liter) per gallon (John Rand report). 

Analysis of South Pole Station Wind Power Options 

This section describes the data used in the analysis for South Pole Station, as well as the 

assumptions regarding installation and the operation of the current diesel power stations. 

This initial analysis primarily examines the amount of wind energy that could easily be 

absorbed into the diesel grid at the South Pole Station. It also describes wind energy 

equipment options and further information needed to allow refinement of the analysis. 

The analysis of the retrofit potential as a high-penetration power system of the South Pole 

Station was more expansive than the analysis of McMurdo. Given the energy 

consumption and space limitations at McMurdo, this station would not have been suitable 

for such a power system. It is assumed that the implementation of a high-penetration 

power system at the South Pole would be a slow process, which would likely start with 

the installation of a small number of wind turbines with the appropriate control 

equipment to gain operation experience before more turbines were installed. Assuming 

the wind turbine operation was satisfactory, it would be expected that the implementation 

of the complete system would take place over 3 to 5 years. This report discusses the 

initial stage of this activity only, leaving analysis of more extravagant options, such as a 

no-diesel wind and stored hydrogen power system, for another time. 

16 
Turbines Used in the Analysis 

Currently, no utility-scale wind turbines are available that have a low enough temperature 

rating to enable operation at the extreme temperatures found at South Pole. The only 

turbine that comes close to fulfilling the temperature requirements is the NorthWind 100 

by Northern Power Systems, although some cold-related development work is still 

needed on this product. One of the modifications for this turbine will likely include the 

use of an enlarged rotor (20-m diameter instead of the standard 19.1-m rotor) to improve 

power capture in the lower wind speed environment of the South Pole. The standard 

NorthWind 100 was used for this analysis although additional costs have been added to 

the base cost of the turbine to account for the additional modifications required for an 

Antarctic version. The costs do not include development expenses to lower the operating 

temperature of the turbine below -100°F (-73°C). 

Low-maintenance, high-durability vertical-axis turbines from Finland’s Oy Windside are 

also presently used successfully at Finland’s Antarctic research station. The largest 

Windside presently available is rated at 22 kW, which is small for such applications, but 

demonstrates that as part of further analysis, more research on available technologies 

should be conducted (Windside). 

A Mantis 6610 crane manufactured by Spandek is available at the South Pole Station that 

can be used to install wind turbines. It is rated at 33 tons ( 29.9 metric tons ) and, with the 

jib installed, it has a max boom of 110 feet ( 33.5 meters ). 

Wind Data 

Wind data for 2003 were used for the analysis of wind potential at the South Pole Station. 

In this initial analysis, hourly wind speed values taken at the South Pole Metrological 

Station were used, although no specific information is available regarding the exact 

placement and height of this measurement. Figure 6 shows the time series used for the 

analysis. A histogram of the data indicates that the wind was below 5 m/s only 23% of 

the time for 2003 and had an average value of 5.3 m/s, in the range expected from 

historical data. 

Load Data 

The time-series data used for this analysis are based on plant output from October 2001 

to October 2002, which represents the use of the old facility. The data do not show a 

strong diurnal or seasonal variation, which is similar to other summary data for the site. 

Little information is available on the energy consumption of the new facility currently 

being constructed, other than the range provided in the earlier section of this report. To 

allow analysis of the new facility, the load time series from the old station was scaled to 

represent the expected loads for the new station. The yearly load profile used in the 

analysis is shown in Figure 7. 

17 
 

 18 

Temperature Data 

Temperature data from the South Pole for 2003 show the characteristic, highly seasonal, 

low temperatures (Figure 8). The lowest hourly temperature recorded for 2003 was 

negative 73°C. 

-1.0

4.0

9.0

14.0

19.0

24.0

1-

Jan

12-

Sep

25-

May

3-

Feb

16-

Oct

27-

Jun

9-

Mar

19-

Nov

31-

Jul

12-

Apr

22-

Dec

3-

Sep

15-

May

25-

Jan

7-

Oct

Day of year

Wind Speed (m/s)

Figure 6: Wind speed measurements taken at the South Pole metrological station 

for 2003 

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

 10/20/01

 11/9/01

 11/30/01 12/21/01

 1/11/02

 2/1/02

 1/24/02 1/10/02 4/18/02 4/25/02 5/16/02

 6/5/02

 6/26/02 7/17/02

 8/7/02

 8/27/02 9/17/02 10/8/02

Date

Plant Output (kW)

Figure 7: Energy output of the new South Pole Station diesel plant from October 1, 

2001 to October 6, 2002 
n 

y 

n

l 

g

p

t

ar 

ov

e

n 

a

c

pr

a

3-

a

-J

M

M

Ju

Oc

u

A

N

D

u

J

A

J

Se

1-

31

2-

2-

3-

4-

4-

4-

6-

6-

7-

Temperature (C) 

0 

-10 

-20 

-30 

-40 

-50 

-60 

-70 

-80 

Day of year 

Figure 8: Temperature measurements taken at the South Pole metrological station 

for 2003 

Diesel Plant 

The report produced by John Rand stated that the new diesel plant would consist of three 

Caterpillar 3512 generators (750 kW) and one Caterpillar 3412 diesel generator (250 

kW). In conducting research for the plant, it was determined that the Cat 3512 is usually 

matched with a 1135-kW generator and the 3412 with a 725-kW generator. In this 

analysis, the fuel curves for the Cat 3412C and 3512B were used, assuming a maximum 

rated power as provided by the Rand report: 250 and 750 kW, respectively. This results 

in much higher annual fuel consumption (1,978,231 liters/year) compared to the amount 

predicted in the Rand report (1,298,800 liters/year). This should be clarified in further 

analysis. 

Costs associated with reducing the need for fuel storage at the South Pole have not been 

included in this analysis but should be assessed in any further investigation. 

Results of South Pole Station Options Analysis 

Because any wind energy project at the South Pole will start small, the analysis of this 

option is quite simple. The Hybrid2 software was used to determine the power 

performance and economic cost of installing an increasing number of wind turbines. 

Performance is based primarily on the known wind speed, load, and performance of the 

wind turbine and diesel plant. 

As stated previously, there is a large discrepancy in the expected fuel consumption 

between the estimations in John Rand’s report and those achieved in modeling the 

system. This difference should be clarified because it will clearly impact the overall cost 

19 
effectiveness of installing wind power. Based on the load, the expected diesel fuel 

consumption for the new South Pole station is estimated to be 341,000 gallons/year 

(1,298,800 liters/year) 

As a result of the relatively low wind speeds assumed at the site, the impact of installing 

wind turbines is limited, but it is still quite cost advantageous. Figure 9 displays the 

results of simulating between one and 10 100-kW wind turbines at the South Pole. 

Additional results are included in Table 5. The upper limit of 10 wind turbines was used 

because of the issues of penetration and simply the sheer number of wind turbines. This 

system would constitute a low- to medium-penetration power system (see appendix); thus 

few additional systems controls would be required. The installation of nine 100-kW wind 

turbines at the site would provide about 50% of the station’s annual power demand in 

addition to 960 MWh of energy that could be used for heating or other direct-process 

applications. The use of nine turbines would reduce fuel consumption by almost 23% 

(440,783 liters/year). The investigation of a power system using more wind, although 

likely to be economic, would require the installation of many more wind turbines with 

diminishing returns for the installation of each additional turbine. However, the 

installation of more wind turbines could reduce diesel fuel consumption significantly and 

should be investigated once more experience has been gained in using wind power at the 

Pole. The total capital cost of installing nine turbines would be approximately $4.3 

million. 

0 

0 2 4 6 8 

l 

pl

i i l i

Diesel fuel saving by the incorporation of 

increasing number of 100 kW wind turbines. 

100 

200 

300 

400 

500 

10 

Number of Wind Turbines 

Annual Fuel 

Savings, 1000 

l/year 

0.000 

0.100 

0.200 

0.300 

0.400 

0.500 

Operationa

savings over 

diesel only 

ant, $/kWh 

Fuel Savngs Operat ona Savngs 

Figure 9: Results of the wind energy use analysis at the South Pole Station 

20 
Table 5: Economic Impact of Using Wind Energy at South Pole Station 

Input Performance Results Economic Results 

Turbine 

# 

Fuel Savings Energy from 

Wind 

Extra 

Energy* 

1000 l/year % MWh/yr 

Savings Simple 

Payback 

$/kWh yr 

Capital Cost 

M$ 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

0.0 0.0 0 0 0 0 

82.0 5.9 1.6 0.055 1.84 0.468 

159.0 11.7 27.5 0.115 1.77 0.935 

216.7 17.6 110.2 0.158 1.91 1.403 

258.5 23.5 240.3 0.187 2.11 1.870 

290.1 29.4 400.6 0.206 2.34 2.338 

334.6 35.2 517.6 0.237 2.42 2.805 

376.4 41.1 645.9 0.386 2.45 3.293 

411.4 47.0 795.6 0.288 2.61 3.740 

440.8 52.9 961.2 0.305 2.74 4.208 

468.1 58.7 1131.1 0.320 2.86 4.675 

* Extra energy could be used for heating or melting ice for drinking water 

21 
Further Data Needed to Refine the South Pole Station Analysis 

The following data should be obtained to refine the analysis conducted as the basis of this 

report. 

Load 

• Conduct a detailed energy audit of current and planned buildings 

• Updated estimates of the expected load for the new South Pole facility 

• Estimate of the total thermal energy loads for the building and auxiliary energy needs, 

such as melting ice for water. 

Diesel Plant 

• Clarification of the current diesel configuration, unit specification, and size 

• Fuel-use curves of the diesel engines on site 

• Updated information on fuel price, usage, and storage availability 

• Costs of expected fuel storage expansion. 

Wind Data 

• Measurement of free-stream airflow at a height of 20m or 30m, upwind of the station 

in a location where turbine installation would be possible. 

Constraints 

• Specification of available area for a proposed wind farm in proximity to the South 

Pole station 

• Analysis of potential impact of wind turbines on any ongoing or planned scientific 

experiments 

• Specification of maximum transport and pull force available at the South Pole. 

22 
Conclusion 

Based on the results of this analysis, there is clear potential to use wind energy to reduce 

the power generation costs, harmful air emissions, and fuel needs at both stations. 

This initial analysis indicates that a large potential savings could be realized by 

incorporating wind energy into the existing diesel plants at the South Pole Station. The 

economic impact of using wind power at McMurdo is not as extreme, but it is cost 

effective and would significantly reduce diesel fuel consumption. Given the amount of 

wind energy that could be included in the systems at McMurdo and South Pole Station, 

the current diesel plants will continue to operate, at least initially, as they currently are. 

Any savings will result from a reduction in fuel consumption and subsequent reduced 

fuel storage requirements. 

Both of these analyses are based on data that are generally out of date or limited in 

nature; thus the results should be considered preliminary. However, even with the 

limitations of the data used in the analysis, the increasing electric demand (which leads to 

increased fuel storage and transportation needs) and the growing cost of diesel fuel will 

only make wind more financially attractive in any further analysis. The study did not 

assess the impact of reduced heat availability from the diesel plants or the economic 

impact of reducing the size of diesel fuel storage expansion. 

To advance the assessment of these opportunities, several steps should be taken at the 

McMurdo and South Pole stations. These include obtaining better load and power system 

data following a detailed energy audit of each station; more advanced wind measurement 

at McMurdo and initiating a wind site-specific measurement program at South Pole. 

Additionally, further analysis is required to quantify the impact of reducing the available 

‘waste’ heat from the generators due to the reduction of diesel generator electrical output. 

If it were determined that this opportunity was to be pursued, the next step would be to 

collect the data called for in this report and then conduct a more detailed assessment of 

potential options, turbines, and systems specifications. 

23 
References 

As mentioned in the introduction, information used in the report was largely obtained 

from unpublished reports: John Rand’s Considerations of Renewable Energy Resources 

for the South Pole and several field reports filed by Ed Cannon following survey trips to 

McMurdo and the South Pole. The following references have also been cited in the text. 

Baring-Gould, E. I. (1996). Hybrid2: The Hybrid System Simulation Model Version 1.0 

User Manual. 62 pp.; NREL Report No. TP-440-21272. 

ENERCON GmbH, E-30 Product Brochure, www.wind.enron.com/index.html 

Entegrity Wind Systems Inc, EW15 product brochure, www.entegritywind.com 

Fuhrlander Wind Turbines, FL250 product brochure, www.lorax-energy.com 

Northern Power Systems, NorthWind NW100/19 product brochure, 

www.northernpower.com/ 

Oy Windside, www.windside.com/ 

Vergnet WE Development, GEV 26/220 product brochure, www.vergnet.fr 

24 
Appendix A: Primer on Diesel Retrofit Opportunities 

The following background information provides an overview of the technology options 

available to retrofit a diesel power system. This is not meant to be all-inclusive and only 

covers internal changes to the power station. This does not address external efficiency 

measures that may also improve the performance of the power station. 

The amount of wind at McMurdo and the South Pole Station discussed in this report is 

limited. It may be possible to install more wind at the South Pole, but this was not 

considered at this time. 

There is a ranking of options for retooling a diesel power station, ranging from simply 

ensuring that the diesels installed at the plant are appropriately sized for the expected 

loads through the implementation of advanced renewable-based power systems (BaringGould 1997). 

Resize Diesel Generators 

The first opportunity to reduce the fuel consumption of a diesel power plant is to consider 

the size of engines that make up the plant. In many cases, diesel engines are oversized for 

the expected load because they are usually sized for the maximum possible load, not the 

normal or early morning load. Although this may seem like a safe procedure that lowers 

the risk of improper sizing, it may increase the fuel consumption of the plant. The impact 

of this will depend greatly on the size and age of the diesels under consideration because 

newer diesel engines have much better low-power efficiency. 

Apply Advanced Diesel Control 

Larger diesel plants often contain multiple diesel engines of various sizes. In these 

systems, it is more likely that the diesels will be the appropriate size; however, the diesels 

operating at any given point may not be the most efficient combination to cover that load. 

In these systems, controls can be placed on the diesel generators to enable automated 

dispatch and more efficient operation. Each genset is provided with controls for auto 

starting, synchronization, and load matching while a master control is used to coordinate 

diesel dispatching and load sharing. Automated systems have the additional advantage of 

detailed operational data collection and monitoring. Fuel savings depend on the current 

system design and dispatch strategy but tend to be cost effective in larger systems in 

which the current dispatch strategy is either inefficient or labor intensive. The use of 

advanced controls may add a level of technical sophistication that will only be 

appropriate in larger communities. 

Install Batteries and a Power Converter to Cover Low-Load Periods 

This approach is applicable in a single-diesel system if the community experiences 

periods of very light loading compared to the peak load. In these cases, the existing diesel 

is generally oversized for the low load period; thus it operates with poor efficiency. A 

retrofit battery bank and power converter, in which stored energy from the battery is used 

25 
to power the converter and cover the load, allows the generator to be turned off during 

periods of light loading. The batteries are then recharged when the generator is operating 

at higher efficiency. This approach may also be used to expand the hours of service of a 

particular plant without greatly increasing the system operation costs. In multiple-diesel 

systems, the addition of batteries can preclude the need to start an additional generator 

that must run at low loading to cover power fluctuations over the rating of the primary 

generator. In either case, the generator recharges the batteries during other periods of the 

day. The decision of whether to install a converter/battery bank or a smaller diesel to 

cover these low-load periods is dependent on the ratio of low load to diesel size and 

should be considered carefully. The potential cost savings depend on the load profile and 

the sizes of the diesel generators. The size of the battery bank depends on the energy 

requirements of the low-load period. The size of the inverter depends on the magnitude of 

the load during the low-load period. Both the initial cost and the periodic replacement 

cost of the batteries must be weighed against the reduction in operation and maintenance 

expenses. In this system, the batteries cover the load in the early morning and then are 

recharged by the diesel later. 

Install Renewable Technology to Reduce Diesel Operation 

Retrofitting diesel power plants to incorporate renewable-based power generation allows 

for a potentially less expensive generation source to be used. In plants with many large 

diesels, where there is always a demand for power, the renewable-based energy is used to 

offset power production by the generators, potentially to the point at which all generators 

can be shut off. The addition of renewable-based power may also reduce the number of 

generators operating at any given time, thus reducing the diesel maintenance 

requirements. Because system dynamics and power stability are of primary concern, the 

power system must be designed to ensure that the inclusion of the renewable-based 

generation does not degrade overall power quality. 

This approach can be very cost effective but is capital intensive because of the cost of the 

new generation and system controls. The potential cost savings depend on the renewable 

resource, component maintenance costs, equipment capital costs, and the fuel price. 

Based on current prices, photovoltaics (PV) is usually not cost effective in large systems 

when compared to the marginal cost of diesel fuel. Plants with access to reasonable wind 

resources, generally greater than Class 1 (5.9 m/s annual average), could significantly 

reduce operating costs by the inclusion of some amount of wind generation (Allderdice 

and Rogers 2000; Baring-Gould et. al. 2000, 2001; Jimenez and Lawand 2000; Jimenez 

and Olson 1998). 

The next sections describe considerations and configurations of wind/diesel power 

stations. 

Wind/Diesel Applications 

Wind/diesel power systems can vary from simple designs in which wind turbines are 

connected directly to the diesel grid with a minimum of additional features to more 

complex systems. Two overlapping concepts depict the system design and required 

26 
------------------------------------ 

-------------------------------------------- 

components: the amount of energy that is expected from the renewable sources (system 

penetration) and the decision to use a storage device to remedy system energy 

fluctuations. Given today’s technology, these issues are usually selected by the system 

designers as a starting point for system design (Ackermann et. al. 2005; Baring-Gould et. 

al. 2003; Hunter and Elliot 1994). These concepts are described in the following section. 

Renewable Penetration 

When incorporating renewable-based technologies into large power systems, the amount 

of energy that will be obtained from the renewable sources must be determined because 

this will dictate which components will be used. Steve Drouilhet developed the following 

classification and definitions of system penetration that characterize the levels of system 

complexity: 

 Wind Power Output (kW) 

Instantaneous Penetration = 

 Primary Electrical Load (kW) 

and 

Wind Turbine Energy Output (kWh) 

Average Penetration = 

 Primary Electrical Load (kWh) 

The difference in these equations is the units. Instantaneous penetration is in terms of 

power; thus, it is the ratio of how much power is being produced by the renewable 

resources at any specific instant. The average penetration is in terms of energy; it 

includes a time domain and is thus measured over days, months, or even years. In some 

sense, average penetration is in the domain of the economist and instantaneous 

penetration falls in the realm of the engineer. Drouilhet also proposed a three-level 

classification system based on system penetration that separates systems along power and 

system control needs (Table A.1). There are no references that can be attributed to Steve 

Drouilhet on this topic; however, the methodologies are discussed further in Ackermann 

2005 and Baring-Gould et. al. 2003. 

27 
Table A.1: Penetration Class of Wind-Diesel Systems 

(Proposed by Steve Drouilhet) 

PENETRATION 

CLASS OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS 

PENETRATION 

PEAK 

INSTANTANEOUS 

ANNUAL 

AVERAGE 

LOW 

 Diesel runs full-time 

 Wind power reduces net load on 

diesel 

 All wind energy goes to primary 

load 

 No supervisory control system 

< 50% < 20% 

MEDIUM 

 Diesel runs full-time 

 At high wind power levels, 

secondary loads dispatched to 

ensure sufficient diesel loading or 

wind generation is curtailed 

 Requires relatively simple control 

system 

50% – 100% 20% – 50% 

HIGH 

 Diesels may be shut down during 

high wind availability 

 Auxiliary components required to 

regulate voltage and frequency 

 Requires sophisticated control 

system 

100% – 400% 50% – 150% 

Wind/Diesel Power System Configurations 

Low-Penetration Systems: Many low-penetration systems have been installed 

worldwide. These vary from small to relatively large isolated grids, such as those found 

on several Greek islands. In fact, some large grids, such as those found in certain areas of 

the United States and Europe, reach a wind power penetration that would classify them in 

the same category as low-penetration systems. Basically, low-penetration systems are 

those in which the renewable generation source is just another source, requiring no 

special arrangements. The control technology required at this level of generation is 

trivial, especially given the control, flexibility, and speed of modern diesel and wind 

systems. In many systems, no form of automated control is required—the wind turbines 

act under their commercial controllers and an operator monitors all system functions. 

Because the diesel engines are designed to allow for rapid fluctuations in power 

requirements from the load, the addition of wind has very limited impact, if any, on the 

28 
 

 29 

ability of the diesel control to provide the remaining difference. Issues of spinning 

reserve, a term used to represent the availability of instantaneous system capacity to 

cover rapid changes in system load or energy production, are addressed by the allowable 

capacity of the diesel engines, which in many cases can run at 125% rated power for 

short periods of time with no adverse impact on the diesel or generator. A generic 

schematic of a low-penetration system is shown in Figure A.1 (Lundsager and Madsen 

1995 and Lundsager et. al. 2001). 

Figure A.1: Schematic of low-penetration wind/diesel hybrid 

AC Wind Turbines

AC Bus

Control

System

AC Diesels
Medium-Penetration Systems: Systems with larger ratios of renewable energy 

contribution fall into this category. Allowing power penetrations of up to 50% will allow 

any under-loaded diesel generators in multiple diesel plants to be shut off or to be 

switched to a smaller unit for production. This, in turn, will reduce plant diesel 

consumption and reduce diesel engine operation. However, this may also open the power 

system to potential shortfalls, assuming the loss of one or more of the wind generators or 

diesel engines. In addition, with a large penetration of energy being produced by the 

variable renewable source, it will become harder for the operating diesel units to tightly 

regulate system voltage and maintain an adequate power balance. There are options to 

ensure that the high-power-quality requirements of the power system are maintained, 

even with half of the energy provided by renewable sources. Some of the options include 

power reduction capabilities within the wind turbine controller, the inclusion of a 

secondary load to ensure that no more than a specified amount of energy will be 

generated by the wind, installation of capacitor banks to correct power factor, or even the 

use of advanced power electronics to allow real-time power specification. 

Spinning reserve on medium-penetration power systems requires experience in regard to 

proper power levels and system commitments but is not considered technically complex. 

Such spinning reserve questions should be handled on a case-by-case basis but can be 

partially solved by using options, including the use of advanced diesel controls, the 

installation of a modern diesel engine with fast start and low-loading capabilities, 

controlled load shedding or reduction, power forecasting, and proper system oversight. 

Combined with the use of variable-speed or advanced-power conditioning available on 

many modern wind turbines, the control requirements of medium-penetration systems are 

quite simple. The ability to provide high power quality in medium-penetration power 

systems has been demonstrated for years in a number of highly important locations. The 

most notable examples are the military diesel plants on San Clemente Island and 

Ascension Island and the power system in Kotzebue, Alaska. All of these systems have 

experienced power penetration at or above these guidelines set for medium-penetration 

systems (McKenna and Olsen 1999). 

High-Penetration Systems: Although this technology has been demonstrated on a 

commercial basis, high-penetration wind-diesel power stations require a much higher 

level of system integration, technology complexity, and advanced control. The principle 

of operation of high-penetration systems is that the required equipment is installed in 

addition to the wind turbine so that the diesel can be shut off completely when there is an 

abundance of renewable-power production. Any instantaneous power production over the 

required electrical load, an instantaneous penetration over 100%, is supplied to a variety 

of controllable secondary loads. In these systems, synchronous condensers, load banks, 

dispatchable loads (and possibly storage in the form of batteries or flywheel systems), 

power converters, and advanced system controls are used to ensure power quality and 

system integrity. Spinning reserve is created through the use of short-term storage or the 

maintenance of a consistent oversupply of renewable energy. Although these systems are 

demonstrated commercially, they are not yet considered a mature technology and have 

not been demonstrated on systems larger than approximately 200-kW average load. A 

30 
 

 31 

generic schematic of a high penetration with storage is shown in Figure A.2 (Drouilhet 

2001). 

Systems Storage: Until recently, it was assumed that wind-diesel systems without 

storage were theoretical, possibly born out of short-term testing in test-stand-based power 

systems. This is no longer the case. Commercially operating short-term and no storage 

systems have been installed in recent years, demonstrating that both technology choices 

are viable. 

In systems incorporating storage, the storage is used to cover short-term fluctuations in 

renewable power. The premise of this system design is that a large penetration of 

renewables is used (up to 300% of the average power requirements). When the 

renewable-based generators supply more power than is needed by the load, the engine 

generators can be shut down. During lulls in the renewable power generation, discharging 

the battery bank or other storage device supplies any needed power. If the lulls are 

prolonged or the storage becomes discharged, an engine generator is started and takes 

over supplying the load. Studies have indicated that most lulls in power from the wind are 

of limited duration, and using storage to cover these short time periods can lead to 

significant reductions in the consumption of fuel, generator operational hours, and 

reduced generator starts. 

Figure A.2: Schematic of high-penetration wind/diesel power system using a 

rotary power converter 

AC Wind Turbines

AC Bus

DC

Rotary Converter

Battery

DC Bus

Control

System

Thermal

Loads

AC

AC Diesels
In large power systems, the installation of a battery bank to cover shortfalls in renewable 

production may not be feasible, mainly because of cost. However, without storage it is 

very difficult to control the stability of a conventional power grid with large quantities of 

renewable power—thus the challenge of hybrid systems without storage. This 

configuration is based on the AC bus and does not use batteries to provide grid 

stabilization. The basic premise of these systems is that the installed capacity of the 

renewable technology is much larger than the load. When the renewable devices are 

operating and producing more energy than is needed by the load by some margin, usually 

between 125% and 150%, the dispatchable generators can be turned off. External control 

devices, such as dispatchable secondary loads, fast-acting dump loads, synchronous 

condensers, and advanced diesel control are used to maintain system stability and control. 

If the renewable energy dips below a specified threshold, a generator is started to ensure 

power security or some of the dispensable loads can be disconnected to increase the 

systems headroom. This type of system produces a large amount of extra energy that 

must be used if the project is to be economical. This is completed with a large thermal 

storage tank that acts as a buffer for the electrical load, allowing the smoothing of the 

variable wind energy and dispatching a diesel generator when there is not enough energy 

to cover the loads or if the thermal storage tank temperature drops below a specified 

limit. The control system and hardware requirements are less complex than a system 

using battery storage; however, the facility must have a large and expensive heating 

requirement to cover the cost of the additional infrastructure, which is the case for 

Antarctica. 

All high-penetration systems, with and without storage, have been installed in northern 

climates where the extra energy can be used for heating buildings or water, displacing 

other fuels. In these systems, it may be wise to install uninterruptible power supplies 

(UPSs) on critical loads. Although only a limited number of systems have been installed, 

the concept is economically attractive and can drastically reduce fuel consumption in 

remote communities (Beyer et. al. 1987; Shirazi and Drouilhet 1997). 

32 
Appendix References 

Ackermann, T. (2005). Wind Power in Power Systems. West Sussex, England: John 

Wiley and Sons. 

Allderdice, A.; Rogers, J. H. (2000). Renewable Energy for Microenterprise (Booklet). 

80 pp.; NREL Report No. BK-500-26188. 

Baring-Gould, E.I.; Barley, C.D.; Drouilhet, S.; Flowers, L.; Jimenez T.; Lilienthal, P.; 

Weingart, J. (1997). Diesel Plant Retrofitting Options to Enhance Decentralized 

Electricity Supply in Indonesia. Proceedings of the 1997 AWEA Conference, Austin,

TX. June 1997. 

Baring-Gould, E.I.; Flowers, L.; Jimenez, A. C.; Lilienthal, P. (2000). Opportunities for

Regional Rural Electrification Using Hybrid Power Systems. Proceedings of the 2000 

Wind Energy for the 21st Century Technical Symposium, Kassel, Germany. 

Baring-Gould, E.I.; Flowers, L.; Lundsager, P.; Mott, L.; Shirazi, M.; Zimmermann, J. 

(2003). World Status of Wind Diesel Applications. Proceedings of the 2003 AWEA 

Conference, Austin, TX. 

Baring-Gould, E.I.; Newcomb, C.; Corbus, D.; Kalidas, R. (2001). Field Performance of 

Hybrid Power Systems. 13 pp.; NREL Report No. CP-500-30566. 

Beyer, H.G.; Gabler, H.; Gerdes, G.J.; Heinemann, D.; Luther, J.; Schumacher-Gröhn, J.; 

Steinberger-Willms, R. (1987). Wind/Solar Hybrid Electricity Generation for Stand 

Alone Systems with Battery and Hydrogen Storage. Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Energy 

Options - The Role of Alternatives in the World Energy Scene, Reading, 7-9 April 

1987, 132-135. 

Drouilhet, S. (2001). Preparing an Existing Diesel Power Plant for a Wind Hybrid 

Retrofit: Lessons Learned in the Wales, Alaska, Wind-Diesel Hybrid Power Project. 13 

pp.; NREL Report No. CP-500-30586. 

Hunter, R.; Elliot, G. (Eds). (1994). Wind-Diesel Systems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge 

University Press. 

Jimenez, A. C.; Lawand, T. (2000). Renewable Energy for Rural Schools (Booklet). 64 

pp.; NREL Report No. BK-500-26222. 

Jimenez, A. C.; Olson, K. (1998). Renewable Energy for Rural Health Clinics. 52 pp.; 

NREL Report No. BK-500-25233. 

Lundsager, P.; Bindner, H.; Clausen, Niels-Erik; Frandsen, Sten; Hansen, Lars Henrik; 

Hansenet, Jens Carsten. (2001). Isolated Systems with Wind Power – Main Report. 

Risø-R-1256 (EN). Riso National Laboratory. 

Lundsager, P.; Madsen, B.T. (1995). Wind Diesel and Stand Alone Wind Power Systems. 

Final Report May 1995, BTM Consult and Darup Associates ApS. 

33 
McKenna, E.; Olsen, T. (1999). Performance and Economics of a Wind-Diesel Hybrid 

Energy System: Naval Air Landing Field, San Clemente Island, California. 109 pp.; 

NREL Report No. SR-500-24663. 

Shirazi, M.; Drouilhet, S. (1997). Analysis of the Performance Benefits of Short-Term 

Energy Storage in Wind-Diesel Hybrid Power Systems. 13 pp.; NREL Report No. CP440-22108. 

34 
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Analysis of the Use of Wind Energy to Supplement the Power 

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This report summarizes an analysis of the inclusion of wind-driven power generation technology into the existing 

diesel power plants at two U.S. Antarctic research stations, McMurdo and Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. Staff 

at the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) conducted the analysis. 

Raytheon Polar Services, which currently holds the private sector support contract for the two research stations, was 

a major contributor to this report. To conduct the analysis, available data were obtained on the wind resources, power 

plant conditions, load, and component cost. Whenever possible, we validated the information. We then used NREL’s 

Hybrid2 power system modeling software to analyze the potential and cost of using wind turbine generators at the 

two aforementioned facilities. Unfortunately, the power systems and energy allocations at McMurdo and South Pole 

Station are being redeveloped, so it is not possible to validate future fuel use. This report is an initial assessment of 

the potential use of wind energy and should be followed by further, more detailed analysis if this option is to be 

considered further. 

15. SUBJECT TERMS 

wind energy; wind turbine; McMurdo Station; Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station; diesel; Antarctica; Hybrid2; power 

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