**Traffic Safety ProgramsCompendium ofTraffic Safety Research Projects1987 - 1997Updated Annotated Bibliography of Traffic Safety Research Projects**

Our office has changed names, but our focus has remained the same. The "new" *Research andEvaluation Division* in NHTSA's Office of Research and Traffic Records continues to conductresearch and evaluation projects dealing with human attitudes, behaviors and failures (motorvehicle crashes). Our focus is on drivers, passengers, pedestrians, bicyclists, and motorcyclistsand their role in traffic safety. We conduct basic problem identification research to identify andmeasure the importance of behaviors that cause crashes or increase the severity of injuries. Weconduct laboratory and field studies to develop and refine countermeasures that can deterunsafe behaviors and promote safe alternatives. We design and implement evaluation projectsto test countermeasure effectiveness in the real world. We also conduct scientific evaluations oflarge scale, on-going projects to measure the impact of public information and education,legislation, and enforcement, and their long-term effects.
This 1997 Compendium updates the original Compendium that we published in April 1996.   Itlists our most recent (the previous ten years) and on-going research activities.
***NEW!***Look for this icon next to project listings.  This indicates either a newly published reportor a new research report.
Many of our completed projects resulted in products that have significantly enhanced theeffectiveness of police traffic services, community traffic safety programs, driver licensingagencies, and public interest groups concerned with traffic safety.  We hope that current andfuture projects will prove equally useful.
Copies of most of the reports included in this Compendium are available from NHTSA inlimited quantities.  A few of the reports are out of print, but it may be possible to obtain acopy from the National Technical Information Service at 703-487-4650.
To request a report from NHTSA, please write to:
Research and Evaluation DivisionNTS-31400 7th Street, S.W.Washington, D.C.  20590 
Or send a fax to:
Research and Evaluation Division202-366-7096
*Printed copies of this report are also available from the National Technical Information Service in Springfield,Virginia   703-487-4650.  Request report number DOT  HS 808 599.*
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.   Alcohol-Impaired Driving
A)  Alcohol ImpairmentB)  Drinking-Driving LegislationC)  DWI Detection, Investigation, and EnforcementD)  DWI Prosecution and AdjudicationE)  Countermeasures and SanctionsF)  Drinking-Driving Attitudes and BehaviorsG)  PreventionH)  Miscellaneous Alcohol Research
II.   Drug-Impaired Driving
A)  Drug Use and ImpairmentB)  The Drug Evaluation and Classification (DEC) Program
III.   Occupant Protection
A)   Crash InjuryB)   SurveysC)   Impact of Occupant Protection LawsD)   Enforcement of Occupant Protection LawsE)   Barriers to Safety Belt and Child Safety Seat UseF)   Incentives for Safety Belt and Child Safety Seat UseG)   Education
IV.  Speed and Other Unsafe Driving Actions
A)   Problem IdentificationB)   Enforcement
V.  Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety
A)   Problem IdentificationB)   Public Information and Education ProgramsC)   Countermeasures
VI.   Older Drivers
A)    Program PlanningB)    Problem IdentificationC)    Program Development
VII.  Novice and Young Drivers
VIII.   Fatigue
IX.  Emergency Medical Services
X.    MiscellaneousI.  Alcohol-Impaired Driving
A)  Alcohol Impairment
**Effects of Low Doses of Alcohol on Driving Related Skills:  A Review of the Evidence***July 1988, DOT HS 807 280*A large scale literature review was conducted on the effects of alcohol on driving skills. Evidence of impairment at blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) of .05 and higher was foundwith respect to reaction time, tracking, concentrated attention, divided attention, informationprocessing, vision, perception, psychomotor performance and on various driver performancemeasures.  In many of these functional areas, impairment was found to appear at BACs of .02 or.03.  The study concluded that no "safe" limit of BAC, other than zero, can be placed on alcoholimpairment of driving-related skills. 
**Improving Understanding of Alcohol Impairment and BAC Levels and their Relationship to Highway Accidents***May 1989, DOT HS 807 433*This study analyzed attitudes of the judicial community, including judges, prosecutors andpotential jurors, concerning alcohol's impairment of driving abilities.  Based on the analyses,educational materials were developed to improve the judicial community's perceptions of thesematters. 
**Alcohol and Highway Safety 1989: A Review  of the State of Knowledge***March 1990, DOT HS 807 557*This report is the fourth in a series of NHTSA-sponsored reviews of this field, beginning in 1968with a report to Congress and subsequently updated in 1978 and 1985.  The focus of this report ison new developments and trends in the field since the last review and covers documentspublished from January, 1983 through November, 1989.  It deals with the entire spectrum ofalcohol safety topics, from problem definition to problem solution.  The report contains fourchapters that deal respectively with the magnitude of the crash problem, the effects of alcohol onthe human body and driving performance, characteristics of persons who drink and drive, andprograms directed at reducing the incidence or consequences of drinking driving.  The report'smajor conclusions and its recommendations for research are provided in an additional chapter. As part of the review, over 2,000 documents were identified and 756 were retained as references. Citations for these references are provided in two separate bibliographies. 
**Alcohol Limits for Drivers:  A Report on the Effects of Alcohol and Expected InstitutionalResponses to New Limits***February 1991, DOT HS 807 692***Driving Under the Influence:  A Report to Congress on Alcohol Limits***October 1992, DOT HS 807 879*These two reports were prepared in response to a Congressional mandate to conduct a study todetermine the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) at or above which an individual who isoperating a motor vehicle should be considered to be driving under the influence. The reportsdiscuss scientific literature on the influence of BAC on driver performance and crashes, reviewthe existing BAC legislation, and discuss data on the expected institutional responses toalternative limits such as .08, .04., and 00.  The reports conclude that all states should consideradopting illegal per se laws at the .08 level for drivers aged 21 and older.
**The BAC Estimator***1994, NTIS PB95-501938*"The BAC Estimator" is a computer program developed by NHTSA.  The program estimatesblood alcohol concentration (BAC) based on a person's weight, gender, number of drinksconsumed, and time over which drinking occurred.  The program can be used by anyone withaccess to an IBM-compatible personal computer.  The program is available on disk from theNational Technical Information Service at 703-487-4650.

***NEW!*****National Roadside Breath Test Survey-1996***March 1997 Traffic Tech, Report in press*This was a jointly sponsored study with the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) todetermine the proportion of drivers on the roads on Friday and Saturday nights who are impairedby alcohol.  Previous national surveys were conducted in 1973 and 1986.  In 1973, a full 13.7%of the drivers on roads on Friday and Saturday nights had blood alcohol concentrations (BACs)exceeding .05, with 5.1% at BACs greater than or equal to .10 BAC.  In 1986, these proportionsdropped significantly to 8.4% (BAC= .05+) and 3.2% (BAC = .10+).  The 1996 survey showedfurther deceases to 7.7% (BAC = .05+) and 2.8% (BAC = .10+), but these were not significantlydifferent from 1986.  The proportion of drivers with any alcohol (BAC = .01+) decreasedsignificantly from 36.1% in 1973 to 25.9% in 1986 to 16.9% in 1996.  The proportion of womenwith high BACs increased between 1986 and 1996, as did the proportion of Hispanic drivers. There was a marked decreased in the percent of young (under age 21) drivers with high BACs,but no change among the 21 to 34 year old group.  More published reports on this survey areexpected in Fall 1997.
**Alcohol Highway Safety Update***In press*This study is critically examining recent highway safety literature in the U.S. and abroad todetermine whether information is available that can be used to better identify target groups orproblems.  Topical areas include the effects of different BAC levels on driver behavior, driverand vehicle characteristics associated with or leading to driving after drinking, alcohol-relatedcrashes and violations, and environmental situations associated with or leading to drinking anddriving behavior.  The findings suggest that the current literature does not provide sufficientinformation to assist in specific target group or problem identification and that more research isneeded to accomplish target group identification.
**Crash Risk of Alcohol-Involved Driving***In progress*This project will obtain blood alcohol concentration (BAC) measurements and other informationfrom nearly 3,000 drivers involved in motor vehicle crashes, and from twice as many non-crashinvolved drivers.  A case-control approach will be used:  the non-crash drivers will be sampled atthe scenes of crashes, typically one week after the crash occurred.  Data will be analyzed todetermine how crash risk increases with BAC, and also to determine how the BAC-riskrelationship varies as a function of driver's age, gender, drinking experience, etc. 
**Driver Characteristics and Impairment at Various BACs***In progress*This project is using alcohol-dosed subjects to experimentally determine the extent to whichgender, age, and drinking frequency are associated with driving impairment.  The extent ofindividual differences in driving impairment, and the relationship of driving impairment to theblood alcohol concentration (BAC) for each group tested will also be determined. Countermeasure approaches based on these findings will be identified.
B)  Drinking-Driving Legislation
**The Effects Following Implementation of .08 BAC Limit and Administrative Per Se in California***August 1991, DOT HS 807 777*This project examined the effects of lowering the legal BAC limit from .10 to .08, andimplementing an administrative per se law in California.  The two new laws, and the associatedpublicity, reduced the number of expected alcohol-related fatalities by 12% in 1990.  The policeand courts required only minimal changes to accommodate the .08 law.
**Implied Consent Refusal Impact***September 1991, DOT HS 807 765*The study examined the rates at which DWI arrestees in all states refuse to submit to a chemicaltest to determine how effective the implied consent laws are in encouraging test submissions, andto assess the impact of refusals on DWI enforcement and adjudication.  The study concluded thatthere is a potential test refusal problem in much of the nation.  On average, about one arrestee infive (19%) refuses the test.  But refusal rate varies widely among states, from a low of 2%  (inHawaii) to a high of 71% (Rhode Island).  The study recommends strong traffic law systemaction against refusers to include criminal sanctions for some "hard core" refusers.  
**Lower BAC Limits for Youth: Evaluation of the Maryland .02 Law***March 1992, DOT HS 807 860*The project studied the impact of new low-BAC limit legislation for drivers under 21, coupledwith special publicity emphasizing penalties.  Implementation of the law was associated with asignificant reduction in young crash-involved drivers judged to have been drinking.  The studyfurther found that the public information and education campaign enhanced the effect.
***NEW!*****Setting Limits, Saving Lives.  The Case for .08 BAC Laws***January 1997, DOT HS 808 524*NHTSA, in conjunction with the National Safety Council, developed an informative, easy-to-understand handbook on .08 blood alcohol concentration (BAC).  This handbook, entitled"Setting Limits, Saving Lives. The Case for .08 Laws" presents information that safety advocatesat the local level can use to encourage passage of .08 laws in their legislatures.  It includes inconcise, easy-to-read language with graphics, an overview of the impaired driving problem, adescription of the .08 law, the rationale behind .08, the effect of various BACs on crash risk,myths about .08, consumer education and public support, law enforcement aspects, and asummary of the effects of the law in terms of crash reductions.  It can be used by state legislativeaides to educate state legislators, by citizen activist groups and national organizations, and by thegeneral public interested in doing something about impaired driving.****
**Evaluation of New Mexico's DWI Laws***In progress*New Mexico recently passed a package of new DWI laws which included:  1) 0.08 blood alcoholconcentration (BAC); 2) 0.02 BAC for minors; 3) expedited license suspension; 4) mandatorysentencing for multiple offenders; 5) programs to prevent alcohol sales to minors; 6) mandatorytraining for alcohol retailers and servers; 7) mandatory alcohol abuse screening; and 8) alcoholtreatment programs for problem drinkers.  The project will determine the impact of NewMexico's new DWI legislation on alcohol-related crashes, recidivism rates for multiple offenders,and the availability of alcohol to minors and other intoxicated persons.  In addition, the projectwill determine whether there are changes in alcohol-related crashes (fatal, injury, and propertydamage), attitudes, knowledge, and awareness of DWI. 
***NEW!*****Evaluation of Zero Tolerance Laws***In progress*Zero tolerance laws prohibit any level of alcohol in a driver under the age of 21.  Thirty-sixstates plus the District of Columbia currently have zero tolerance laws (i.e., .00 BAC or .02BAC). This project will examine the effect of zero tolerance laws on alcohol-related crashesand fatalities.  The project will also examine obstacles in implementing and enforcing the lawsand identify possible solutions and strategies for improvement.
C)  DWI Detection, Investigation, and Enforcement
**Potential for Application of Corneal Retinal Potential Measurements to Detect Alcohol andDrug Use: A Report to Congress***1988, DOT HS 807 282*In response to Congress, NHTSA undertook a test of a new alcohol and drug testing technology -- one which measures and interprets the "corneal retinal potential," an electrical field created bythe body's visual system. These electrical signals had been suggested as a tool for identifyingpersons who are under the influence of alcohol and drugs -- the rationale being that thesesubstances affect the balance system and this upset might be reflected in corneal retinal potentialswhich have been used for decades to diagnose balance disorder by the medical profession. Thenew technology resided in a single commercial device which experienced a lapse in itsdevelopmental schedule during the NHTSA review, thus preventing actual testing in time for thereport. Review of existing evidence suggests that the device can be developed to perform as anindicator of drug use, although many hurdles exist before it could be a useful tool for traffic lawenforcement. 
**Second Workshop on In-Vehicle Alcohol Test Devices***April 1988, DOT HS 807 299*This brief technical report describes a second one-day workshop on new developments in thestate of the art of in-vehicle alcohol test devices.  The workshop was held in Washington, D.C.on October 14, 1987.  The purpose of the workshop was to serve as an opportunity forinformation exchange about recent developments in State and local applications of thistechnology.  More than seventy people from outside the Federal government attended,representing a wide range of interests, perspectives and knowledge.  The workshop covered fivetopic areas: legislation and on-going programs, recent and new developments in devices,certification testing for new devices, on-going and planned field evaluation research, andinformation needs and methods for exchange.  The report highlighted the one-day workshop andincludes a list of the attendees.  	
**Laboratory Evaluation of Two Passive Alcohol Sensor Devices***1988, DOT HS 807 394*"Passive" alcohol sensing devices are designed to detect the presence of alcohol in a person'snormally-expelled breath, that is, one is not required to blow into a mouthpiece as withconventional breath test devices.  NHTSA tested two such devices (Lion Alcolmeter PAS, and amodified version of the Alcolmeter, the P.A.S.) in two laboratory studies. Each device was ableto discriminate among differing alcohol air samples to a useful degree under laboratoryconditions. Testing confirmed the need for strict adherence to recommended operatingprocedures regarding storage temperatures, avoidance of crosswinds, and proper measurementdistance. However, the laboratory conditions do not reflect all the factors relevant to use of thesedevices under operational conditions.
**Enforcement and Public Information Strategies for DWI Deterrence:  The Indianapolis, Indiana Experience***July 1988, DOT HS 807 434*This report summarizes a field test in Indianapolis, Indiana to achieve DWI general deterrence bycombining enforcement efforts with PI&E.  The goal of the project was to increase the public'sperceived risk of arrest for DWI, deter them from DWI, and decrease alcohol-related crashes. Data indicated heightened awareness of DWI enforcement, increased perceived risk of arrest, anda reduction in reported drinking and driving.  However, the data did not show a reduction inpolice reported alcohol-related crashes attributable to the program.
**The Accuracy of Evidentiary Breath Testers at Low BACs***1989, DOT HS 807 415*Seven evidentiary breath testers widely used by law enforcement were subjected to laboratorytesting.  The study found the devices were just as accurate in the blood alcohol concentration(BAC) range from .02 to .04 as they were when tested at .05, .10 and .15.
**Assessment of Changes in DWI  Enforcement Level***January 1991, DOT HS 807 690*This report summarizes the long-term experience of six law enforcement agencies withenforcement programs coupled with public information and education (PI&E) designed to deterDWI.  In each community, DWI enforcement activity increased greatly with the advent ofspecially funded programs.  In three sites, arrests went down after funding ceased but remainedwell above pre-program levels; in one site, arrest volume regressed to below pre-program levels. The other two sites sought and received additional enforcement funding and were able tomaintain a high arrest rate.  ****
**Laboratory Testing of a Saliva-Alcohol Test Device by Enzymatics, Inc.***December 1992, DOT HS 807 893*This study examined the accuracy of a new saliva-alcohol test device (Enzymatics, Inc.    "Q.E.D.-A150") at nine different blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels under threetemperature conditions.  The findings indicated that this device appears to provide a usefulmeans for estimating BACs from saliva samples for screening purposes.  The report did notaddress issues related to collection of saliva samples or police field use of the devices, such ashow much saliva is sufficient for a test, possible health and safety concerns for a suspect or anofficer, or liability concerns for an agency using the device and police training requirements. Such issues must be considered prior to reaching a conclusion regarding the practical utility andapplication of the device.  [Subsequent to publication of this report, the device was retested byNHTSA and was listed on the Conforming Products List of devices meeting NHTSA's 1993model specifications for alcohol screening devices.]
**Detection of DWI Motorcyclists***March 1993, DOT HS 807 839*The project identified and validated fourteen good (probability 30-49%) and excellent (50% ormore) visual cues of DWI motorcyclists.  Among the best cues are "drifting during a curve orturn," "having trouble with dismount," and "having trouble with balance at a stop." 
**Experimental Evaluation of Sobriety Checkpoint Programs***August 1995, DOT HS 808 287*The project studied the comparative effectiveness of well-publicized sobriety checkpointprograms differing in assigned staffing levels, and deployment strategies, and compared thesecheckpoint programs with a program of publicized roving patrols and with a control site.  Thecheckpoint programs as a whole reduced alcohol-involved crashes, compared to the roving patrolprogram and compared to the control site.  However, checkpoint program effectiveness did notappear to vary with staff size or deployment strategy (mobility) within the ranges tested in thestudy.  
***NEW!*****Effectiveness of Passive Alcohol Sensors***March 1996, DOT HS 808 381*A field study was conducted to evaluate three Passive Alcohol Sensor models in both routinepolice and special DWI patrols to detect youthful drinking drivers.  The study documentedoperational strengths and weaknesses of each model, law enforcement officer attitudes towardtheir use, and differences in DWI adjudication rates that result from their use.  Sites wereselected in three states (Arizona, New Jersey, Tennessee) that have low or zero blood alcoholconcentration (BAC) laws for under 21 age drivers.  Each law enforcement agency used eachpassive sensor for 2 months, for a total of 6 months of field data collection. 
***NEW!*****In-Vehicle Videotaping of DWI Suspects (Driving While Intoxicated)***July 1996, DOT HS 808 427*This 13-page booklet summarizes information collected from 68 police departments in 13 statesthat have used in-vehicle videotaping in their impaired driving enforcement efforts.  It describesthe different types of equipment used in police vehicles and documents the most frequentlyencountered equipment problems.  From a law enforcement officer's point of view, it ranks theadvantages and disadvantages of videotaping and ties these into advice offered by prosecutors.
**Assessment of DWI Enforcement "Loopholes"***In press*This study is examining the DWI enforcement process from on-road detection, through the arrestprocess, to court proceedings, and sanctioning.  The study includes interviews with lawenforcement officers, prosecutors, and judges across the country, and in-depth site visits todocument various enforcement strategies. The purpose of the study is to identify loopholes in theenforcement system where offenders escape detection, arrest, conviction, or punishment, and toidentify possible solutions. A follow-on project will implement suggested improvements anddetermine their effectiveness.
**Model Specifications for Alcohol Test Devices and Product Testing***Continuing program*NHTSA has developed model specifications for evidential breath testers, as well as alcoholscreening devices and calibrating units.  At its laboratory at the Transportation Systems Center(TSC) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, new equipment is tested against our model specifications. Conforming Products Lists (CPLs) are maintained for each class of device, so that users can beassured that the equipment they buy and use meets the NHTSA model specifications.  For a copyof the current CPL or other related information, contact Jim Frank in NHTSA's Impaired DrivingDivision at (202) 366-9581.
**Laser Alcohol Detection***In progress*This project developed and tested (under laboratory conditions) a prototype instrument that usesan infrared laser beam that can be used to screen vehicles at checkpoints, stop signs and othertraffic environments. The instrument detects alcohol vapor within the passenger compartment ofthe vehicle.  To date, the findings indicate that the device can be operated only when both driverand passenger side windows are rolled down.
**DWI Detection at BACs Below .10***In progress*This project is identifying and validating visual cues that police can use to detect drivers at bloodalcohol concentrations (BACs) below .10 (i.e., .08, and if possible, .04), both on-the-road andafter traffic stops. The project includes a large field validation in which drivers are being asked tosubmit to voluntary breath tests to determine their BACs.  This validation provides data on howwell particular driving cues predict DWI at lower BACs, thereby providing police with a basisfor making alcohol-related traffic stops at the lower level of .08.
**SFST Validation at Lower BAC Limits***In progress*Current Standardized Field Sobriety Tests (SFST) used by law enforcement at roadside werevalidated at .10 BAC (blood alcohol concentration). As many states have reduced their legal limitto .08, this project is validating the same SFST at this lower BAC level.  
**Automated Procedures for Identifying Alcohol-Impaired Drivers at Checkpoints***In progress*This project is developing high-technology sensors capable of measuring driving approachbehaviors as vehicles enter checkpoints.  Sensors that appear potentially effective will be testedunder closed-course controlled conditions.  If those test results are positive, a system thatincludes those sensors will be developed and field tested (in a subsequent study) to assesswhether it improves police detection of drinking drivers at actual checkpoints.
**Improved Checkpoint Screening Protocol***In progress*This project is developing and field testing improved means of rapidly screening drivers stoppedat checkpoints to identify those drivers who may be impaired.  The improved protocol mayinclude visual cues, effective interview procedures, and tests that can be administered while thedriver is seated in the vehicle.  
***NEW!*****Development and Field Test of a "Problem Driver Detection System"***In progress*This study will determine the feasibility of using high technology sensors as part of a system thatcan permit police to identify and apprehend  passing motorists who are driving on a suspendedlicense.  If feasible, a field test will be conducted to determine the system's effects on reducingviolations and crashes for driving while suspended offenders.
D)  DWI Prosecution and Adjudication
**Assessment of Citizen Group Court Monitoring Programs***March 1987, DOT HS 807 113 (Report)**March 1987, DOT HS 807 112 (Manual -- Planning for Court Monitoring)*This was a study of two well-organized citizen group court monitoring programs.  The twoprograms were the Oak Ridge, Tennessee RID program and the Douglas County (Omaha),Nebraska MADD program.  The results showed that a well-organized court monitoring programimplemented by an organized group can affect the handling of DWI offenders by both theprosecution and judges hearing these cases.  In both sites the presence of a court monitor led tosomewhat stricter treatment of DWI offenders.
**An Evaluation of the Elimination of Plea Bargaining for DWI Offenders***November 1989, DOT HS 807 435*This was a study of the effects of eliminating plea bargaining for DWI on the adjudication systemto determine if it hindered court operations (e.g., increased delays, court processing time,requests for jury trials).  Two case study sites were used, Fort Smith, Arkansas and Louisville,Kentucky. The results showed that it was feasible to greatly reduce plea bargaining for DWIwithout causing major disruption of the courts.  The reduction in plea bargaining was associatedwith more severe sanctions imposed on the convicted offenders.
**Impact of Court Monitoring on DWI Adjudication***December 1990, DOT HS 807 678*This was a study of the impact of court monitoring on court dispositions (guilty, not guilty, anddismissed) and case outcomes (jail, fine and license suspension) between monitored cases andnon-monitored cases in Maine during 1987 (9,137 cases).  The results demonstrated that courtmonitoring is an effective tool in affecting the adjudication process.  In the presence of courtmonitors the conviction rates of DWI offenders are higher and their case dismissal rates arelower than those of drivers not court-monitored.  Furthermore, once convicted, the likelihood ofa jail sentence is higher and the length of the jail sentence is longer for court-monitored DWIdrivers than for non-monitored drivers. 
**Evaluation of Two Prosecution Training Programs***In press*Two NHTSA training courses, "Prosecution of Driving While Under the Influence (DWI)" and"Prosecuting the Drugged Driver"**are intended to help inexperienced prosecutors prepare andconduct more effective trials.  Six months after prosecutors attended one of these courses, theyand their supervisors reported more improvement in skills than shown by comparison prosecutors(who did not attend the courses).  Most improvement occurred in the trial areas covered duringworkshop sessions.  Court record data on actual case outcomes were obtained for three states. Two states showed changes consistent with improved performance of prosecutors after theyattended the course.
E)  Countermeasures and Sanctions
**Deterrent Effects of Mandatory License Suspension for DWI***June 1987, DOT HS 807 138*The study examined Wisconsin's 1982 law mandating three to six month license suspension forfirst offense DWI.  Results showed reductions in subsequent convictions and crashes amongdrivers convicted after the law went into effect  (i.e., specific deterrent effect), and also asubstantial reduction in alcohol-related crashes among the total driving population (generaldeterrent effect).  The study concluded that mandatory license suspension is an effective legalsanction against drinking and driving.  Also, a substantial reduction in alcohol-related crashesoccurred following passage of the law.
**An Evaluation of Community Service as a Sanction for DWI: The Baton RougeCommunity Service Work Program***October 1987, DOT HS 807 200 (Volume I:  Executive Summary); DOT HS 807 201 (Volume II:   Final Report)*This study examined the general and specific deterrence effects of the use of community serviceas a sanction for DWI and its impact on the adjudication system (i.e., enforcement, prosecutionand judicial) in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.  There was little evidence that community serviceserved as an effective deterrent to drinking and driving, or reduced recidivism of convictedoffenders, nor was it perceived by the driving public as a strong deterrent to drinking and driving. It was concluded that community service should not be used in lieu of more effective sanctions(e.g., license suspension).
**Field Evaluation of Jail Sanctions for DWI***April 1988, DOT HS 807 325*This study evaluated Tennessee's's two-day mandatory jail sanction for first-offense DWI ongeneral deterrence, special deterrence and the operation of the drinking-driver control system. The major finding of this study was that the jail sanction had an initial effect on drunk-drivingrecidivism in Tennessee, but no measurable effect on alcohol-related crashes.
**Potential for Application of Ignition Interlock Devices to Prohibit Operation of MotorVehicles By Intoxicated Individuals: A Report to Congress***May 1988, DOT HS 807 281*This report contains a historical overview of the interest in ignition interlock devices and of theearly development and research on different types of devices.  It provides a description of currenttechnology, its use, the results of laboratory testing of current devices, a description of currentstate legislative and judicial activity, a discussion of the problems this technology mustovercome, and an assessment of the effectiveness and potential for application in preventingalcohol-impaired driving.
**Follow-Up Evaluation of Wisconsin's 1982 Drinking and Driving Law***September 1988, DOT HS 807 377*A prior study showed that Wisconsin's 1982 law mandating short-term license suspensions forfirst offense DWI resulted in a substantial reduction in alcohol-related crashes and a reduction inrepeat DWI offenses by convicted offenders.  This study was designed to extend the datacollection beyond the time frame of the earlier study and found that the previously reportedeffects had not diminished over the longer time period.
**Assessment of Multiple DWI Offender Restrictions***December 1989, DOT HS 807 615*The study examined innovative approaches for reducing recidivism among repeat offenders,including special detention centers, diversion programs, electronic monitoring, ignition interlocksystems, intensive supervised probation, publishing offenders' names, special license tags, victimrestitution and weekend intervention.  The study found that these approaches had many appealingfeatures from a procedural or administrative perspective.  However, adequate information onprogram effectiveness in reducing recidivism was not available.  
**Users' Guide to New Approaches and Sanctions for Multiple DWI Offenders***December 1989, DOT HS 807 571*This guide describes nine non-traditional approaches for reducing recidivism among multipleDWI offenders: dedicated detention facilities, diversion programs, electronic monitoring, ignitioninterlock systems, intensive probation supervision, publishing offenders' names, special licensetags, victim restitution, and weekend intervention programs.  Information was presented on 33programs that use these approaches including the number and types of offenders served, staffingrequirements, costs, funding sources, program requirements, and effectiveness.  Findingsindicated that many of these programs have appealing features, for example, many cost less thanjail, and can relieve jail overcrowding, but reliable data on post-program recidivism is rarelyavailable.  
**The Effects of Implementing and Publicizing Administrative License Revocation in Nevada***April 1990, DOT HS 807 600*Nevada law calls for confiscating the driver's licenses of DWI arrestees who either refuse thechemical test or have blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) of .10 or more.  In this study, a publicinformation campaign was designed and implemented to emphasize the law and its strictenforcement.  A subsequent survey revealed increased awareness of the sanction and reduced(self-reported) drinking-driving behavior.  Alcohol-related crashes were also found to havedropped by 12% during the study period.
**Cost-Benefit Analysis of Administrative License Suspensions***January 1991, DOT HS 807 689*Cost outlays and economic benefits associated with Administrative License Suspension lawswere studied in Nevada, Mississippi, and Illinois.  In all three states, increased revenues fromlicense reinstatement fees more than offset costs associated with implementing the law. Moreover, reductions in crash-related costs were well over 100 times the cost of implementation. 
**Review of the Literature Evaluating the Effect of Countermeasures to Reduce Alcohol-Impaired Driving***October 1991, DOT HS 808 023  (Volume I - Synthesis)**October 1991, DOT HS 808 024  (Volume II - Individual Analyses and Assessments)*This two-volume report documents the results of an extensive review and analysis of impactevaluations of alcohol-traffic crash countermeasures.  Evaluations published since 1980 arecovered by the review.  Volume I presents a synthesis of the findings on the impact of threemajor classes of countermeasures: 1) restricting alcohol availability, 2) deterring andincapacitating drunk drivers, and 3) treating and rehabilitating drunk drivers.  Volume II containssummaries of the assessments of individual evaluations.
**Alcohol Ignition Interlock Service Support***December 1992, DOT HS 807 923*This brief technical report was produced as a companion to "Model Specifications for BreathAlcohol Ignition Interlock Devices" (BAIIDs) separately published in the Federal Register onApril 7, 1992 (57 FR 11772-11787).  The report provides the authors' recommendations forestablishment of a comprehensive State BAIID program including suggested procedures forensuring the quality control of BAIID instruments in the field.  It concluded that once a programhas been implemented, detailed management procedures and careful record keeping are requiredto ensure that BAIID devices accomplish their objective of preventing impaired driving bydrivers required to install BAIIDs on their vehicle.    ****
**Assessment of Publicized Insurance Sanctions as a DWI Countermeasure***1994, DOT HS 808 119*The objective of this project was to determine the effectiveness of a well-publicized insurancesanctions program focussing on heavy insurance penalties for DWI conviction.  Findingsindicated the test program, conducted in New Hanover County, North Carolina, did not make asignificant number of drivers aware of the insurance penalties.  Many of those who were aware ofthe insurance sanctions program reported they drove less after implementation of the program,but the sample size was too small to draw definitive conclusions.  If more effective ways couldbe implemented for publicizing information about this sanction, the results from this studyindicate that it might prove to be an effective deterrent.
**Assessment of Impoundment and Forfeiture Laws for Drivers Convicted of DUI -- Phase II Report: Evaluation of Oregon and Washington Vehicle Plate Zebra Sticker Laws***April 1994, DOT HS 808 136*This study assessed the impact of vehicle plate sticker laws on drivers convicted of DUI in Oregon and Washington.  In these states, upon arresting a motorist for Driving on a SuspendedLicense (DWS), officers could place a zebra sticker over the annual portion of the license plate ofthe offender's vehicle on the spot.  Subsequently, any officer could stop these stickered vehiclesand request that the driver produce a valid license.  Drivers whose licenses were suspended, andat risk of getting a zebra sticker if caught driving, showed a 33% reduction in moving violationsand a 23% reduction in crashes after the zebra law implemented in Oregon.  The study suggeststhat if publicized and enforced, the zebra sticker law can have positive traffic safety effects (interms of reduced or more careful driving) on suspended DUIs and suspended DUI driversconvicted of DWS who receive a zebra sticker.
***NEW!*****Effects of Administrative License Revocation on Employment***May 1996, DOT HS 808 462*This project addressed the impact of administrative license revocation (ALR) on the employmentof first and multiple DUI offenders, and the impact of alcohol-related crashes on the employmentof crash-involved persons (i.e., innocent drivers, passengers, and pedestrians). The data indicatethat ALR does not have a pronounced impact on the DUI offender's job and income. Alcohol-involved crashes have a great impact on seriously injured victims, but the proportion of DUIcrashes producing serious injury is low.  
***NEW!*****Determine Reasons for Repeat Drinking and Driving***May 1996, DOT HS 808 401*Repeat DWI offenders are a continuing traffic safety problem. This study involved in-depthinterviews with repeat offenders in Arizona, Pittsburgh, and Colorado to determine why theycontinue to drink and drive, even after being convicted one or more times.****The interviewswere taped and later analyzed to identify reasons for repeat drinking and driving, situations underwhich the drinking and driving occurred, situations where drinking but not driving occurred, andto learn which countermeasures or sanctions affected the repeat offenders.
***NEW!*****Evaluation of Alternative Programs for Repeat DWI Offenders***October 1996, DOT HS 808 493*Jail overcrowding is a serious concern in many jurisdictions.  This study examined theeffectiveness of two alternative sanctions for repeat offenders -- an intensive supervisionprobation (ISP) program in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and an electronic monitoring program (homedetention) in Los Angeles County, California.  The recidivism rates of offenders in each programwere compared with other groups of repeat offenders who did not participate in the programs.One year after entering the ISP program, the rearrest recidivism of participants was only abouthalf that of the comparison group, and the reconviction rate of electronic participants was about athird less than that of the comparison group.
**Develop and Test Countermeasures for Repeat DWI Offenders***In progress*This study will evaluate one or more promising alternative sanctions for repeat DWI offenders. The project will examine recidivism rates as well as program cost effectiveness.
**Evaluation of Community Service as a DWI Deterrent***In progress*Community service sentencing has been and is used as an alternative to jail in the punishment ofDWI.  But little is known about what kinds of community sentencing programs are being usedthroughout the states and about the effectiveness of community service sentencing as a deterrentto DWI.  A previous NHTSA study showed that community service should not be used in lieu ofmore effective sanctions such as license suspension. This project will determine what communityservice sentencing programs for DWI are being conducted in each of the states. In addition, theproject will determine how effective selective community service sentencing programs are as adeterrent to DWI.
**Field Test of Impoundment and Forfeiture Laws***In Progress*This study will provide information on the effectiveness of impoundment, immobilization, andvehicle forfeiture for reducing recidivism rates of those convicted of Driving While Suspended orDriving While Intoxicated.  The study also assesses practical issues associated with setting upand implementing these types of sanctioning programs in the field.
F)  Drinking Driver Attitudes and Behavior
**Feasibility Planning Study for a Behavior Database Volume II:  Appendix A:  Summary Information on the Drinking and Driving and Occupant Restraint Surveys***April 1987, DOT HS 807 122*The objective of this project was to determine the feasibility of, and the general requirements for,a centralized database on driver behavior and attitudes related to drunk driving and occupantrestraints.  This volume contains descriptive information about each of the surveys collected inthe project.
**National Survey of Drinking and Driving Decision Making***1992*A national telephone survey was conducted to determine the basis upon which persons makedrinking and driving decisions, and assess how the BAC limit fits into this framework.  Coresections of the survey collected information on specific instances where subjects drank awayfrom home, drove impaired, and avoided driving impaired.  Key findings included the centralrole of pre-planning in avoiding impaired driving, and the disproportionately high involvement ofproblem drinkers in impaired driving.  Data from the survey provided key input to "DrivingUnder the Influence: A Report to Congress on Alcohol Limits" (October 1992, DOT HS 807 879).
**National Survey of Drinking and Driving Attitudes and Behavior: 1993***1995, DOT HS 808 202*This report covers the first two national surveys (1991 and 1993) conducted by NHTSA to trackchanges in drinking and driving attitudes and behaviors.  The surveys showed small changesfrom 1991 to 1993.  The proportions of the public that drive after drinking (28%) and that placethemselves at risk by riding with an impaired driver (15%) remained constant in the two surveys. The large majority of the public remained concerned about drinking and driving, although therewas a slight decline in the perception of the need to do something about the problem.  Themajority of the public continues to support more severe penalties and strongly favors the use ofsobriety checkpoints.
**Why People Drink and Drive:  The Bases of Drinking and Driving Decisions***March 1995, DOT HS 808 251*****This project examined the decision process that individuals go through when deciding whether todrive after drinking.  Six hundred individuals who admitted to driving while impaired wereinterviewed about their most recent drinking-driving experience.  The study revealed that heavydrinking often arises in response to subtle encouragement from friends.  For example, hosts maygive the impression that they expect consumption and do not appreciate moderation.  Or friendsmay promote heavy drinking to feel more comfortable in their own over-consumption.  Inaddition, the study found that a willingness to allow impaired friends to drive often arises fromthe need for a ride in the absence of an available designated driver.
**Lessons Learned from Public Health Campaigns and Applied to Anti-DWI Norms Development***May 1995, DOT HS 808 273*The objective of this study was to learn how social norms can be established for anti-DWIbehavior.  Experts from several health fields (such as anti-smoking and anti-substance abuse)were interviewed to learn about the norms-change process in their areas.  The discussionsfocused on how and why health behaviors change, and which approaches are applicable fordeterring drinking and driving behavior.  For example, the experts noted that health campaignswere effective when their messages were publicized in a varied and sustained manner. Legislation and enforcement activities also emphasize the seriousness of specific issues.  
**Motivating Anti-DWI Behavior Using Existing Values***October 1995, DOT HS 808 321*This project examined individuals' existing values and how they can be used to deter drinkingand driving behavior.  Data was collected through interviews and focus groups with 18-29 year-old drivers.  The objective was to learn what is important to individuals in this age group, and usethat information when developing anti-DWI countermeasures.  Family and friends topped the listof things most valued in life. The study also showed that participants had well developedattitudes towards impaired driving  -- they said that drinking and driving is dangerous and wrong. However, most admitted to driving while impaired on occasion, and appeared to feel that this ismorally different than driving drunk habitually.   
***NEW!*****National Survey of Drinking and Driving Attitudes and Behavior: 1995***July 1996,  DOT HS 808 438*This was the third biennial survey conducted by NHTSA since the series begun in 1991.       These surveys enable NHTSA to track trends in the nature and extent of drinking and driving byproviding data on topics relevant to the problem including: frequency of drinking and driving,frequency of riding with an impaired driver, support for taking action to reduce the problem,opinions about current enforcement and penalties, expectations of consequences, interventionbehavior, and efforts by hosts to prevent guests from drinking and driving.  The 1995 surveyfindings show a decline in the proportion of the population (16-64 years) who report driving afterdrinking in the past year from 28% in 1991 to 24% in 1995.  Those reporting having ridden withan impaired driver declined from 15% to 11%.  Over two thirds of respondents thought sobrietycheckpoints should be used more frequently (up slightly from 1993) and the percentage of thepublic who thought penalties for drinking for drinking and driving violations should be muchmore severe was up substantially, from 37% in 1993 to 46% in 1995.
***NEW!*****National Survey of Drinking and Driving Attitudes and Behavior: 1997***In progress*This is the fourth NHTSA biennial tracking survey to be conducted since 1991.  Topics in thesurvey parallel those described in 1995 survey (see above).
**Develop and Test Norms Programs***In progress*Further reductions in alcohol-related crashes and fatalities require changes in those areas thatare the heart of the problem -- society's values, attitudes, and behavior regarding the use, andabuse, of alcohol. Social norms are the standards of behavior that members of a group acceptand follow. Changing social norms would alleviate the current reliance on enforcementapproaches and the costs associated with police and court intervention. This study will use datacollected in previous NHTSA norms research and will develop and field test a program designedto change people's norms regarding drinking and driving.
***NEW!*****Develop and Pilot Test Norms Messages***In progress*****Based on previous NHTSA research, this project is developing norms-based messages toencourage sober driving.  The developed messages will be tested with focus groups to determinetheir believability, persuasiveness, and effectiveness.
G)  Prevention
**Review and Assessment of Designated Driver Programs***February 1987, DOT HS 807 108*This study surveyed more than forty public drinking establishments and private membershiporganizations known to have designated driver programs.  Results indicated that relatively fewpatrons participated in the programs in most of the establishments.  However, the study alsofound that there are some simple and inexpensive actions that establishments can take to increaseparticipation.
**Development and Field Test of a Responsible Alcohol Service Program***1987, DOT HS 807 221 (Volume I:  Research Findings)**1987, DOT HS 807 222 (Volume II:  Server Education Program Materials)**1989, DOT HS 807 449 (Volume III: Final Results)*A Program of Responsible Alcohol Service was developed to enable servers and managers inestablishments selling alcohol to exercise responsibility  in order to prevent injury to, and by,intoxicated patrons. The Program deals with the need for responsible alcohol service, preventingintoxication, identifying signs of intoxication, and preventing driving by intoxicated patrons(Volume I). The program materials include training modules for servers (3 hours) and managers(6 hours).  A training session is provided for those who wish to administer the program to othergroups.  Four video presentations, totaling 62 minutes, are part of the program (Volume II). TheProgram was field tested with 1,079 servers and managers from 100 different establishments ineight different sites across the U.S.  The Program yielded improvement in knowledge andattitudes as well as self-reported serving practices and policies at all sites.  However, increases inobserved intervention with patrons feigning intoxications (shills) were confined to 5 out of 8sites (Volume III).  
**A Directory of Ride Service Programs***July 1987, DOT HS 807 146**January 1988, DOT HS 807 291 (Users' Guide)*This directory lists 325 Ride Service Programs (RSPs) from 44 States and the District ofColumbia that provide intoxicated drivers with a safe alternative ride home.  Many of the entriessummarize key program features such as who sponsors the program, whether the programoperates on holidays versus year-round, whether the rider's car is transported, and the type oftransport used (cab, bus, tow truck, etc.)  All the entries provide the information needed tocontact program representatives for additional information. A companion document called "AUser's Guide to Ride Service Programs" describes 52 ride service programs in detail, includinginformation regarding their staffing and operation, procedures for delivering rides, funding, andthe kinds of problems that may be encountered along with possible solutions for them.
**The Assessment of Ride Service Programs as an Alcohol Countermeasure***January 1988, DOT HS 807 290*From the 325 Ride Service Programs (RSPs) identified in the 1987 NHTSA study, fifty-twoprograms were selected for in-depth examination.  The study concluded that such programs arewidely available, relatively easy to operate and frequently used. However, the study was not ableto reach conclusions regarding program effectiveness in reducing DWI.
**Evaluation of the Host Responsibility Program***September 1988, DOT HS 807 380*A brief (less than two hours) instructional program was developed to encourage and assist hoststo provide responsible service of alcohol.  The program was evaluated through pre- and post-program administrations of knowledge, attitude and self-reported behavior questionnaires.  Smallbut significant improvements in all three areas were found.  With regard to improvements inreported behaviors, most involved better alcohol service and party-giving practices, rather thanimproved actions in dealing with intoxicated guests.
**Identification of Parental Program Structures for Deterring Adolescent Drinking and Driving***November 1989, DOT HS 807 555 (Volume 1: Report of Focus Groups with Parents)DOT HS 807 556 (Volume II: Identification of Parental Program Structures for Deterring Adolescent Drinking and Driving -- LiteratureReview)*The objective of this study was to determine the feasibility of developing programs to assistparents in preventing driving after drinking among their children.  To determine the extent towhich information was already available on developing prevention programs for parents, aliterature review was conducted.  This activity was followed by a series of focus groups withparents of adolescents to fill in information gaps.  The results from these activities were used togenerate a list of possible topics and delivery systems for parent prevention programs, andopinions about these options were obtained from parents in an additional focus group.  Focusgroup findings were not encouraging: although parents indicated youth drinking-driving is a veryserious problem, they did not appear willing to spend much time participating in preventionefforts for their children.  Details about the literature review appear in the companion Volume IIreport.
**Host and Server Determination of Alcohol Intoxication Level***1990, DOT HS 807 639*The goal of this project was to identify a set of visible impairment cues that could be used togenerate accurate estimates of blood alcohol level. An Impairment Estimation Procedure (IEP)was developed from a set of alcohol impairment cues found to be associated with measuredblood alcohol concentrations (BACs).  Twenty-four cues, representing social behavior, physicalappearance, and motor coordination, obtained by observing 149 drinkers in social situations,were divided into two categories: those corresponding to moderate impairment (BAC=.04-.08)and those corresponding to severe impairment (BAC>.08).  Observers using the IEP estimatedimpairment more accurately than those not using it, when impairment was manifest in bothbreath tests and field sobriety measures.  The improved accuracy lay mainly in identifyingmoderately-impaired drinkers.
**Alcohol Beverage Server Liability and the Reduction of Alcohol-Related Problems:Evaluation of Dram Shop Laws***June 1990, DOT HS 807 628 (Summary Report)**June 1990, DOT HS 807 629 (Final Report)*This project was an evaluation of the potential for legal liability of alcoholic beverage servers tostimulate preventative serving practices and thus reduce alcohol-related traffic crashes.  Thestudy found that in states with higher liability exposure for servers there was more publicityabout such liability, greater awareness and concern among licensed establishmentowner/managers, and differential serving practices in comparison to states with low liability.  Atime series analysis in one state, Texas, which had experienced a dramatic change in serverliability (from relatively little to very high) and significant accompanying publicity, had asignificant drop in alcohol-related crashes.
**Determine Feasible and Acceptable Age 21 Support Programs***September 1990, DOT HS 807 667*****This project identified programs which are feasible, acceptable, and effective in deterringadolescent drinking.  Information was collected on 22 prevention programs.  The data was thenexamined by a panel of experts, and by focus groups consisting of 11- through 20-year olds.  Thepanel and youth agreed that the following programs would be most effective: 1) programs thatpunish youth who drink by suspending their driver's license or postponing the age at which theybecome eligible to receive a license, and 2) improvements in the design and distribution of driverlicenses in order to reduce the use of fraudulent identification to obtain alcohol.
**Responsible Alcohol Service Programs Evaluation***June 1991, DOT HS 807 779*TEAM (Techniques for Effective Alcohol Management) is a responsible alcohol service programdeveloped for public assembly facilities.  Case studies were conducted of TEAM  programs inseven Major League Baseball facilities.  Results of the study showed that the program wasrelatively easy to implement and appeared to have contributed to a decline in alcoholconsumption and alcohol-related problem behavior.  TEAM also produced improvements in thegeneral climate within the facilities.
**Evaluation of the TEAM Train-the-Trainer Program***May 1992, DOT HS 808 057*This study evaluated the effectiveness of Techniques for Effective Alcohol Management(TEAM) Train-the-Trainer workshops.  The major findings were that 79% of the workshopparticipants were able to establish various components of the TEAM program at their facility; 75% reported that important alcohol service policies and procedures had been identified andchanged; 58% said that some that some level of TEAM training for facility employees had beenimplemented; and 45% said the public information and education (PI&E) efforts regardingdrinking and driving behavior had been expanded.
**Assessment of Year-Round and Holiday Ride Service Programs***January 1995, DOT HS 808 203*Ride Service Programs (RSPs) are used across the country to provide rides home to impaireddrivers.  These programs typically operate on holidays and transport drivers from bars back totheir homes.  This project examined the effectiveness of two RSPs, one year-round program andone holiday (Christmas-New Year's program).  Large proportions of the general publicrecognized each of the RSPs. And although the data indicated that individuals tend to use otheralternatives more often (such as designated drivers and asking others for a ride), RSPs do appearto prevent some individuals from driving after drinking.
**Evaluation of Youth Peer-to-Peer Impaired Driving Programs***August 1995, DOT HS 808 309*This study evaluated youth peer-to-peer programs (Students Against Driving Drunk {SADD}) toassess the programs' impact on reducing youthful impaired driving and underage drinkingbehaviors. Twelve high schools in Arizona, Ohio, and Wisconsin participated.  Results indicatedthat students attending schools with active programs were exposed to substantially moreactivities against drinking and driving and were more likely to hold attitudes reflecting positivereasons not to use alcohol.
**Designated Driver Program Field Test***In progress*A field test of a community-based designated driver program (DDP) in Haverhill, Massachusettswas conducted.  In addition to developing a Users' Guide for how to set up a community-basedprogram, a full-scale evaluation was completed, including a before and after questionnaireadministered in both the test community and a control community.  Preliminary findings indicatethat more than half of the test community was aware of the program; self-reported usage ratesamong service establishment patrons was 54%, and the community's citizens reported usingdesignated drivers about 50% of the time in the past year.  
***NEW!*****Evaluation of a Safe Ride Program***In progress*Safe Ride Programs (also called Ride Service Programs) offer free or reduced cab rides home forimpaired drivers. This project will examine the "Tipsy Taxi" program in Aspen, Colorado. Thestudy will examine how often the program is used, and how many impaired driving trips aresaved each year.
***NEW!*****Evaluation of Youth Alcohol Programs***In progress*The "Washington Regional Alcohol Program" (WRAP) in Washington, D.C. has received manyaccolades for its innovative and comprehensive approach towards deterring youth impaireddriving.  This project is assessing the effectiveness of several programs across the countrymodeled after WRAP.  The study examines program implementation issues, program awareness,and DWI behavior change.
H)  Miscellaneous Alcohol Research
**Assessment of Classification Instruments Designed to Detect Alcohol Abuse***December 1988, DOT HS 807 475*This report identified and evaluated instruments which assessed substance abuse problems inDWI offenders. The study indicated that of the reviewed available instruments, few weredeveloped in a methodologically sound way, and some of these were older instruments whichhad not been modified to accommodate changes in the population served.  Other, newer,instruments were not adequately validated.
**Anti-Drunk Driving Program Initiatives: A Perspective Assessment of Future Program Needs***March 1990, DOT HS 807 643*This study sought to determine whether the various recommendations of a 1983 PresidentialCommission on Drunk Driving had been implemented.  The results indicated that substantialprogress had been made in implementing many of the legislative changes (raising the minimumdrinking age, victim compensation legislation, administrative license revocation, mandatorysafety belt laws, increasing public awareness of the problem, etc.)  The study cautions that whileconsiderable progress has been made, much remains to be done.
**Evaluation of the 410 Alcohol Countermeasure Grant Program***In progress*The goal of this project is to determine how the 410 qualifying process is accomplished, andwhich governmental and private organizations that participate and are essential to this process. In addition, the project will determine the impact of the 410 qualifying process on the incidenceof impaired driving. The study will involve an administrative evaluation of the qualifying processand will determine the impact of the program on alcohol-related crashes.  
**Problem Drinker Assessment Instrument Validation***In progress*This study is validating five commercially available problem-drinker assessment instrumentswidely used by the courts for DUI offenders. The validation criteria used were a set ofcharacteristics of people that an expert panel agreed identified problem drinkers who should bereferred for treatment.  Data from 609 subjects were collected in Boston and Pittsburgh.  Theinstruments include the Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST); the Driver Risk Inventory(DRI); the Mortimer-Filkens (MF); and Cut Down, Annoyed, Guilty, Eye Opener (CAGE), andthe Substance Abuse Life Circumstances Evaluation (SALCE).
II.  Drug-Impaired Driving
A)  Drug Use And Impairment 
**Use of Controlled Substances and Highway Safety:  A Report to Congress***March 1988, DOT HS 807 261*The report reviewed the literature on the relationship of drug use to highway safety.  It was foundthat substantial numbers of people sometimes drive after using drugs other than alcohol, andbetween 10 and 22% of crash-involved drivers may have used drugs, often in combination withalcohol.  Drugs appearing to have the greatest potential to be serious highway safety hazardswere tranquilizers, sedative hypnotics, and marijuana.
**Test Drivers in the Daimler-Benz Driving Simulator with Drivers Under Diphenhydramine***January 1991, DOT HS 807 668*This study investigated the influence of diphenhydramine on driving performance as measured inthe Daimler-Benz Driving Simulator.  Subjects received either a placebo, medium, or highdosage of diphenhydramine.  The test drive involved standardized driving tasks which eitherrequired a normal response or represented an emergency situation.  No significant differenceswere found between the three groups.  For all tasks, the individual differences within groupswere higher than differences between the groups.  Based on the results, the hypothesis wasderived that compensatory mechanisms may take effect in particular dosage ranges. 
**The Incidence and Role of Drugs in Fatally Injured Drivers***1992, DOT HS 808 065*This study examined drug presence in blood specimens from nearly 2,000 drivers killed in motorvehicle crashes.  Alcohol was found in slightly more than half of the specimens, other drugs inabout 18% of the specimens.  In about two-thirds of the drug cases, alcohol (usually at highlevels), was also present.  Analysis of crash responsibility suggested that drugs other than alcoholare most likely to present a hazard when combined with alcohol or other drugs. 
**Marijuana and Actual Driving Performance***1993, DOT HS 808 078*Volunteer subjects participated in several sessions in which they were dosed on alcohol,marijuana, or a placebo, then drove motor vehicles in various controlled on-road traffic situations(e.g., closed interstate highway).  Dual-controlled vehicles were used, and a researcher wasalways along to take control if  warranted.  Marijuana was found to have a performanceimpairment effect equivalent to an alcohol blood alcohol concentration (BAC) level between .04and .08 only in lane maintenance performance measures.
**Update of the Literature on Drugs and Highway Safety***In press*This study focuses on recently published and ongoing work related to drug involvement in motorvehicle crashes and impaired driving arrests.  A considerable body of such work has beeninitiated since the publication of the NHTSA Report to Congress in 1988.
**Drug Involvement in Non-fatal Injury Crashes***In progress*This study is analyzing blood specimens from approximately 1,000 drivers injured in crashes inand near Rochester, New York.  Responsibility analysis will be employed to assess the causalrole of drugs in those crashes.  The results will be compared to a similar study conducted in 1982at a Rochester hospital.
**Laboratory Testing of Drug Screening Devices***In progress*This study is assessing the accuracy of three disposable  "on-site" urine drug screening devices.The drug categories these devices test for include marijuana, cocaine, amphetamines,benzodiazepines, and opiates.
**National Survey of Drug Use and Driving: 1996***In progress*This project will determine the reported incidence of drug taking followed by driving and willobtain data on the specific characteristics of people and situations associated with episodes ofdrugged driving.  A survey module of 56 questions was attached to the 1996 National HouseholdSurvey on Drug Abuse under an interagency agreement with the Substance Abuse and MentalHealth Services Administration.  The survey was administered in-person to a national probabilitysample of approximately 14,000 drivers.  Data will be used to establish the extent of the druggeddriving problem and to provide information that can be used to guide development ofcountermeasures appropriately targeted toward drugged driving. 
***NEW!*****Pre-Licensure Drug Testing Demonstration***In progress*A two- to four-state demonstration and evaluation of pre-licensure drug testing will beconducted.  The demonstration program will allow various approaches to be evaluated for theirefficiency and effectiveness. The participating states will become laboratories forexperimentation and innovation.  At a minimum, all first-time driver's license applicants under18 will be tested for evidence of marijuana use (and possibly other drugs).  Each statedemonstration will be evaluated and reported on its operations and results.  In addition, theDepartment of Transportation will conduct a single independent evaluation which will compareand report on all the demonstrations.
B)  The Drug Evaluation and Classification (DEC) Program
**Evaluation of the Impact of the Drug Evaluation and Classification Program onEnforcement and Adjudication***December 1992, DOT HS 808 058*This study examined the effect of the drug evaluation and classification (DEC) Program onimpaired driving enforcement and adjudication.  Eleven police agencies in five states withDEC programs were compared with similar police agencies without DEC.  Prior to DECimplementation, arrests for drugged driving were very rare.  After initiating the program,DEC sites showed increased drugged driving arrests and convictions while there were nosimilar increases in the comparison communities.  In the DEC sites, drugged driving arrestswere 1-2% of all impaired driving arrests.  Overall, 1,842 suspects were evaluated in the DECsites; drug presence was confirmed by chemical tests for most of the suspects accused of druguse; and most of the confirmed suspects were convicted.
**Drug Evaluation and Classification (DEC) Site Experience***In progress*This project will involve an in-depth examination of representative drug evaluation andclassification (DEC) sites to identify characteristics that distinguish successful active programsfrom those that are less successful.  Key characteristics will be incorporated into a programmodel that can be emulated in other communities. 
**Development of Improved Drug Evaluation and Classification (DEC) Interview Procedures***In progress*
This project will assess protocols used by drug recognition experts (DREs) to interviewarresting officers, suspects and other witnesses to identify those most effective in elicitinguseful evidence and other information.  A field test of the more promising protocols will beconducted to demonstrate their effectiveness.
**Identifying Types of Drug Intoxication:  Laboratory Evaluation of Components of theDrug Evaluation and Classification Procedure***In progress*This is a joint effort of NHTSA and the National Institute on Drug Abuse to assess the reliabilityand relative importance of each cue employed by drug recognition experts (DREs) to diagnosesuspects' drug impairment.  Dosed subjects are examined by representative DREs undercontrolled laboratory conditions.  Measurements and observations of clinical and psychophysicalcues are recorded and compared with the drugs administered.
III. Occupant Protection
A)  Crash Injury
**Evaluation of The Effectiveness of Child Safety Restraints***1987, DOT HS 807 141*The results of this study showed that half of crashes happened within 5 miles of home and 70%occurred within 10 miles.  Severe crashes were just as likely to occur close to home as theywere farther from home.  Child safety seats with easy-to-use designs were more frequentlyused correctly.  Serious injuries that were received by children who were properly restrainedwere most often caused by intrusion or flying objects.  Lap-held children were very vulnerableto serious and fatal injuries.  Lap-belted children had fewer injuries than did unrestrainedchildren. 
**Over-Representation of Seat Belt Non-Users in Traffic Crashes***1988, DOT HS 807 326*Observations of driver belt use were linked with driver history records.  During a 4-yearperiod, unbelted drivers had 35% more crashes and 69% more violations than did belteddrivers.  Belt non-users had significantly more single vehicle crashes, rollover crashes, andcrashes in which the driver was charged with a violation. Crash severity, vehicle deformation,and crash speed did not vary by belt use group.  No significant relationships were found bybelt use for reckless driving, alcohol violations, and reckless and alcohol combined.  Atelephone survey examined reasons for using and not using belts and reviewed ideas to increaseuse.
**Epidemiology of Motor Vehicle Injuries in Suffolk County, New York Before And AfterEnactment of a Seat Belt Use Law***1990, DOT HS 807 638*This population-based study of hospital and medical examiner reported vehicular trauma wasconducted in Suffolk County.  During the first year following enactment of the law, an 18%reduction in head and brain injury, 17% decrease in facial injuries, and a 20% decrease inforehead injuries were seen.  However, a 35% increase in cervical strain was found.  Thefindings show a clear shift in the pattern of injuries resulting from vehicle crashes, and asignificant reduction in the more serious injuries after the safety belt use law was enacted. 
**Exploration of Impact Measures of Safety Belt Use Laws***1990, DOT HS 807 588 (Final Report)**1990, DOT HS 807 589 (Literature Review, Expert Team Comments, Indicator Catalog)*The National Safety Council recommended three indicators of safety belt use law impact andinstitutional data sources based on a literature review, experts' input, and a survey of datasources.  The three are: 1) the "KABC" injury scale used on police crash reports, 2) theAbbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) used on Medical records, and 3) head and face injuries.  Twosources satisfied most of the project's 13 evaluation criteria: A) the multi-state, before-and-after Major Trauma Outcome Study and B) the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System. The most promising approach would link police crash data with injury data in hospital medicalrecords and trauma registries.
B)   Surveys
**Guidelines for Observing Child Safety Seat Use***1987, DOT HS 807 128*This manual provided guidelines for collecting observational data needed to assess the use ofchild safety seats (CSS).  Directions included observing CSS use, determining the extent ofcorrect and incorrect installation of CSSs, and use of data forms.
**Restraint System Use in 19 U.S. Cities***1991, DOT HS 808 147; 1992, DOT HS 808 148*This series of annual reports provides detailed observational data on use rates for manual andautomatic safety belts, child safety seats, and motorcycle helmets.  Data include belt use bymake and year of automobile; belt use by city; belt use by age, seat position, and gender;safety seat use and misuse by manufacturer and model; and helmet use by law/non-law statusand by driver/passenger.  Driver belt use rose from 23% in 1985 to 51% in 1991; child safetyseat use rose from 56% to 82%.  In cities covered by state helmet use laws, driver helmet usewas stable at 98 to 99%.  Driver helmet use in non-law cities rose from 32% in 1985 to 40%in 1991.
***NEW!*****Motor Vehicle Occupant Safety Survey***September 1995, DOT HS 808 334*This report presents findings from the first Motor Vehicle Occupant Safety Survey.  This was anational telephone survey administered to 8,000 persons in Fall 1994 to collect information onthe public's attitudes, knowledge, and behavior in key occupant protection areas. Among thetopics covered are safety belts, child safety seats, airbags, bicycle and motorcycle helmet use, andcrash and injury experience. 
***NEW!*****1996 Motor Vehicle Occupant Safety Survey***In progress*This is the second administration of the Motor Vehicle Occupant Safety Survey, which is beingconducted on a biennial basis.  The survey consists of two questionnaires, each administered bytelephone to a randomly selected national sample of approximately 4,000 persons.  Content areascovered by the survey include safety belts, child safety seats, air bags, bicycle and motorcyclehelmet use, emergency medical services, and crash injury experience.
C)  Impact of Occupant Protection Laws
**Evaluation of New York State's Mandatory Occupant Restraint Law***1985-1987*This was a comprehensive study of the first year of a belt law in the State of New York, the firststate to adopt such a law.  Belt use increased from 16 to 57%, then declined somewhat.  It wasestimated that 220 lives were saved and 3,500 serious injuries were avoided.  Child restraintincreased and the majority of surveyed adults favored the law.  Of 30,000 belt convictions, 80%were for unrestrained drivers, 75% were men, and 90% of the fines were $25 or less.  Two thirdsof tickets for unrestrained travel were written on routine patrol and 20% during crashinvestigations.  Results of primary versus secondary enforcement could not be differentiated. The following reports document the study's findings:    Volume  I:	Observational Surveys of Safety Restraint Use in New York State, *1985, DOT HS 806 950*Volume II:	Attitudinal Surveys of Licensed Drivers In New York State, *1985, DOT HS 806 951*Volume III:	Observational Surveys of Safety Restraint Use by Children in New York State, *1986, DOT HS 806 972*Volume IV:	Enforcement and Adjudication of Violations of the Law, 		*1987, DOT HS 807 077*Volume  V:	Fatalities and Injuries among Motor Vehicle Occupants Covered by the Law, *1987, DOT HS 807 078*Volume VI:	Final Summary Report, *1987, DOT HS 807 079*
**Program Activities Associated with Safety Belt Use***1987, DOT HS 807 382 (Volume I: User's Summery)**1987, DOT HS 807 383 (Volume II:  Research Report)*This effort summarizes the program activities of the 26 States and the District of Columbia thathad active safety belt use laws by the end of 1986.  Program activities were grouped intocommunity support, employer support, public information and education (PI&E), mediaefforts, enforcement, and adjudication.  Case studies of 8 communities (four with use above50% and four with use below 50%) were done.  Higher use communities had better mediapenetration, tailored messages, and higher levels of enforcement of belt violations.
**Report to Congress:  Provisions of State Safety Belt Use Laws and Other Programmatic Factors Related to Increasing Safety Belt Use Levels***1988*This report reviewed reports of successful belt-use promotion experiences from the U.S. andCanada and provides information on why some states have higher belt use rates than do othersand what needs to be done to increase usage rates.  The report recommends well-publicizedlaw enforcement as the key to increasing belt use.
**Reports to Congress:  Factors Related to Increasing Safety Belt Use in States With Safety Belt Use Laws***1989, DOT HS 807 409; 1990, DOT HS 807 529*These reports describe actions NHTSA took to identify the factors related to increasing beltuse.  The major finding was that enforcement coupled with active public information andeducation (PI&E) efforts continue to see increases in belt use rates, while programs that onlyhave one or the other alone generally do not.
**Safety Belt Usage Before and After Enactment of a Mandatory Usage Ordinance***1990, DOT HS 807 732*This study evaluated the impact of a local municipal ordinance in Lexington-Fayette, Kentuckyrequiring safety belt usage.  The results indicated there was a substantial increase in safety beltuse associated with passage and implementation of the ordinance.  For example, driver beltusage increased from 36% to 76%.
**Evaluation of Louisiana's Safety Belt Law Change to Primary Enforcement***In press*On November 1, 1995, Louisiana became the second state to implement an uninterrupted changefrom secondary to primary enforcement.  In the five study communities, belt use rose from 52%to 68% in the spring of 1996.  Statewide belt use observations also showed a 68% use rate. Louisiana motorists received the new law favorably, and police officers felt the lawcommunicated the importance of buckling up and reported no negative public reactions. Citations remained about the same for different racial and ethnic groups.  These findings mirrorthe impressive belt use gained in California when it changed its law to primary enforcement.
**Evaluation of Georgia's Safety Belt Law Change to Primary Enforcement***In progress*This evaluation is assessing the impact of passing a new law on safety belt use, perception ofrisk of getting a citation from the police, and police enforcement strategies. Georgia was thethird state to upgrade their safety belt law and achieved impressive gains in safety belt usagerates across the state.
D)  Enforcement of Occupant Protection Laws
**Selective Traffic Enforcement Program For Occupant Restraints***1987, DOT HS 807 120*This study evaluated two enforcement strategies.  The first, based on the Canadian model, hadwaves of intense enforcement activities (blitz) preceded by a public information campaign tocall attention to the enforcement.  The second strategy implemented public information inwaves, but the enforcement was integrated into regular traffic enforcement.  Blitz enforcementresulted in a substantial increase in belt usage followed by a decay over time.  The integratedenforcement increased belt use about the same amount but the effect was sustained over time. A third site was intended as a non-activity comparison site.  However, police in this site issuedtwice as many citations than were written in either treatment site but did not initiate any specialpublic information program.  No increases in usage rates were observed in the comparisonsite.
**Use of Safety Restraints by Law Enforcement Officers Following Safety Belt Training andPassage of a State-Wide Belt Law***1988, DOT HS 807 260*A safety belt program designed for the Maryland State Police was evaluated. Initial evaluationof the program, prior to the mandatory use law, found a significant increase in observed beltuse from 21% prior to the program to 42% following the program.  Following passage of themandatory law (from which police officers are NOT excluded), observed use by the StatePolice was 91%. 
**Evaluation of Child Safety Seat Enforcement Strategies***1989, DOT HS 807 479*Nine community programs designed to increase child safety seat use through publicinformation and education and enforcement were evaluated.  Each community received a$5,000 grant to assist its programs.  Data were collected from over 5,700 vehicles carryingchild passengers.  There was no significant increase in the overall use of seats.  However,there was evidence that the programs increased correct use of the seats being used.
**Enforcing Child Passenger Safety Seat Laws***1990, DOT HS 807 631*The project studied the impact of overtime patrol and an intensified public informationcampaign on child safety seat usage and correct usage rates.  The project results indicated thatboth usage and correct usage increased while the overtime enforcement was in place, but ratesdropped somewhat after the special enforcement activity ceased. 
**Evaluation of FY 1987 Safety Belt Use Law State Enforcement Grants***1991, DOT HS 807 715*Law enforcement grants to 17 states were evaluated.  The States initiated enforcementprograms in over 100 communities, counties, or specific areas.  From the 82 sites providingobservation data, 55 appeared to experience an increase in safety belt use following theirprograms, 22 sites experienced no change, and five suffered a decrease.  At least 58 sites couldbe identified as implementing "Elmira-type" enforcement programs.  Of these, 41 programshad an increase in belt use, 14 had no change, and three saw a decrease in usage.  The generalresults indicate that occupant restraint enforcement coupled with public information andeducation (PI&E) and officer training can lead to increases in safety belt use.
**Local Police Enforcement, and Public Information and Education Strategies to FosterMore and Proper Use of Child Safety Seats by Toddlers***1994, DOT HS 808 120*This project evaluated the effects of enforcing both belt and child safety seat use laws (withoutadditional funding) and providing public information and education to increase restraint use bychildren ages 1-5 and to increase proper safety seat use.  Two Philadelphia suburbs showedsignificant increases in seat use and proper seat use compared to a control site.  Belt use bydrivers in the two suburbs also increased significantly.  
**Evaluation of California's Safety Belt Law Change to Primary Enforcement***1994, DOT HS 808 205*On January 1 1993, California became the first state to implement an uninterrupted changefrom secondary to primary belt law enforcement.  In the six study communities, the percentageof drivers observed wearing seat belts increased from 58% to 76%.  Police officersparticipating in focus groups indicated that they were pleased with the change and had receivedno negative public reaction.
**Strategies for Addressing Barriers to Police Enforcement of Safety Belt Use Laws***In progress*This project uses a literature review, expert input, and focus groups to identify strategies thatwill prompt police to enforce safety belt use laws more actively. The project involves peoplefamiliar with "Operation Buckle-Down Programs" and representatives of police departmentsthat have successfully overcome enforcement barriers.  It also involves people familiar withdepartments that have had only partial success and police in departments that have not yetadopted enforcement programs.
**Strategies to Secure Political Influence for Safety Belt Law Enforcement***In progress*The project will use a literature review, expert input, and group discussions to identify  strategiesthat will motivate politicians to support police enforcement of safety belt use laws.  The projectwill involve people familiar with NHTSA's "Operation Buckle-Down Program" and other peoplefamiliar with the politics of police innovation and enforcement activities.  
**Evaluation of Occupant Protection (sTEP) Demonstration Grants***In progress*This national evaluation tracks the progress of 20 states as they implement selective trafficenforcement programs (sTEPs) to support Campaign SAFE & SOBER.  Detailed case studiesof 3 states will evaluate certain aspects of occupant protection and impaired drivingenforcement coupled with public information and education campaigns.
E)  Barriers to Safety Belt and Child Safety Seat Use
**Strategies to Increase the Use of Child Safety Seats Among Toddlers (Volume I)***1987, DOT HS 807 118*In-depth interviews were conducted with parents to investigate attitudes toward use and nonuseof child safety devices for toddlers.  There were differences between users and nonusers.Participants also reacted to written descriptions of program concepts to increase child safetyseat use.
**Comparison of the Comfort and Convenience of Automatic Safety Belt Systems AmongSelected 1988-1989 Model Year Automobiles***1989, DOT HS 807 467*A non-random sample of short, tall, and overweight drivers assessed the comfort andconvenience of automatic safety belt systems in 17 different model automobiles.  Comparisonswere made among the systems, rather than to an absolute standard.  The motorized systemsand the two-point non-motorized systems had the fewest or least severe problems.  Somedrivers had problems with all systems. 
**Installation of Child Safety Seats in Selected 1988-1989 Model Year Automobiles***1989, DOT HS 807 464*The difficulty of installing child safety seats in 1988 and 1989 model automobiles was studied. Problems with the installation and use of child safety seats (CSS) differed by test vehicle butnot by child seat.  Use in the front seat appeared to present many problems as compared to therear seat.  This confirmed the recommendations of some manufacturers not to install CSSdevices in the front seat of automobiles with motorized safety belt systems.
***NEW!*****Patterns of Misuse of Child Safety Seats***January 1996, DOT HS 808 440*This project addressed the patterns of child safety seat (CSS) misuse in the nation and reportedon the most appropriate techniques to accurately and efficiently collect this data. CSS use andmisuse observations were collected for about 5,900 target young children (under 60 pounds) inover 4,000 vehicles in the following four states: Mississippi, Missouri, Pennsylvania, andWashington. The study found overall correct CSS use was only 20.5%.
**Identify Conditions of Safety Belt Use For Youth***In progress*This project will determine why teenagers do not use their safety belts more often. Observations and focus groups will be conducted in Texas, Idaho, Virginia, and Mississippi. Procedures will be developed to determine whether there are specific subgroups of teens whouse belts less than do other teens, and whether there are specific conditions where teens tend tonot use belts.  Potential approaches to increasing belt use will be reviewed with teens. 
F)  Incentives for Safety Belt and Child Safety Seat Use
**Long-Term Effects of Employer-Based Programs to Motivate Safety Belt Use***1987, DOT HS 807 111*This report reviews the procedures and results of 28 different programs that had increasedemployees' use of vehicle safety belts at ten work settings.  Key findings include:  1) safetybelt use can be cost-effectively improved at corporations and institutions, 2) significant residualeffects of belt use promotion remain long after program termination, 3) belt use gains can beincreased with intermittent programs, 4) further research needs to determine optimal program-strategy scheduling, and 5) pros and cons of extrinsic rewards versus no-rewards for beltpromotion need attention.
**Commitment/Incentive Program to Increase Safety Belt Use on a University Campus***1987, DOT HS 807 110*This study was conducted before Virginia's safety belt use law was passed.  Safety belt use ona university campus was increased by offering faculty/staff and students who returned signed"buckle up" pledge cards chances to win donated prizes.
**Safety Belt Use And Automobile Insurance:  Report to Congress***1988*The relationship between belt use and automobile insurance prices was estimated.  It was foundthat where belts were used the average insurance bill dropped between 2 and 6%, $9 to $27per vehicle insured.  During this same period, auto claims costs per injury rose an average of17.5% per year.  Insurance incentives should be stated as actual savings rather than as areduced rate of price increases.
**Increasing Safety Belt Use By High Risk Drivers***1991, DOT HS 807 742*The study identified groups of non-belt users who were most likely to become involved inhighway crashes, and developed and tested communication programs designed to increase beltuse by the groups.  The following groups were identified:  Young Males (18-24), AllDrinkers, Elderly (over 65), Unemployed Males, and Smokers.  A program was developed forthe Young Males group that involved a contest run by a radio station targeted at this agegroup.  Prizes were awarded to drivers observed using belts whose vehicle had a conteststicker on it.  No increase in safety belt usage resulted from the program.  Follow-up researchidentified that contest stickers were not popular and that the contest rules were viewed as toocomplicated for the prizes. 
**Program Strategies For Increasing Car Seat Usage In Rural Areas***1995, DOT HS 808 274*Data indicate that most young children killed in crashes were not using safety restraints.  Theobjective of this project was to identify strategies for increasing car seat use in rural areas,which tend to be over-represented in child fatalities.  Focus groups were conducted with youngfemales in rural Georgia and Tennessee.  The project identified appropriate channels forprogram delivery, preferred message packaging, and opportunities for program activities.  
***NEW!*****Program Strategies For Increasing Safety Belt Usage In Rural Areas***November 1996, DOT HS 808 505*This report provides a guide to safety professionals for developing and implementing programsto increase safety belt use among young male pickup truck drivers who reside in rural areas.  Itpresents the results of focus groups conducted with young males ages 16 to 26 years in ruralareas of Texas and Kentucky.
**Increasing Belt Use Among Part Time Users***In progress*Data suggest that increasing the frequency of safety belt use among part time users may have agreater positive impact on safety than attempting to transform nonusers into users.  This projectwill identify strategies for increasing belt usage among this segment of the population.  Twowaves of focus groups will be conduced in each of three states: Ohio, Kansas, and South Dakota.
**Child Safety Seat Distribution Program Evaluation***In progress*About $8 million of child safety seats are being distributed across the country by non-profitorganizations.  This evaluation examines the effectiveness of this program in delivering childsafety seats, toddler seats, and booster seats to low income and special needs children. A casestudy will be conducted with at least 20 selected sites to look at recipient demographics and thetraining that occurs to ensure correct seat installation and use.
G)  Education
**Health Risk Appraisal and Safety Belt Use***1987, DOT HS 807 139*An evaluation was performed to determine the effectiveness of health risk appraisal programsfor increasing safety belt use.  Programs were field tested with and without supplemental belteducational materials in work and medical settings in four states.  Materials appeared to helpincrease belt use.  The materials were considered by the programs to be very useful as acomplement to their current activities.
**Junior High School Occupant Protection Materials***1989, DOT HS 807 485*Based on a review of existing materials, discussions with subject experts and teachers, and aseries of pilot tests, a set of draft curriculum materials was developed.  The materials weredesigned to appeal to the wide range of developmental levels in students ages 12 to 15, and tomaximize ease of use of the materials by teachers.  The materials were structured in modules,with activities emphasizing student participation and self-discovery.
**Strategies to Increase the Use of Safety Belts by Youngsters***1989, DOT HS 807 521*This project used a literature review, expert input, and focus groups with children in grades 3through 10 and parents of children in grades K-12 to investigate strategies to increase youngsters'use of safety belts.  Age-sensitive combinations of several program strategies and activitieswould be most effective (e.g., peer testimonials, belt law enforcement, penalties for new drivers,parent education about the importance of restraint use for children).
**Encouraging Full-Time Use of Safety Belts Among Current Part-Time Users***1991, DOT HS 807 700*Studies have found that about a third of drivers report using their seat belts only some of thetime.  A study was conducted to determine whether safety belt messages highlighting the risks ofnot using belts all the time could induce these users to buckle up more often.  A significantincrease in belt use was found for individuals who received information, but the gain did notpersist over time.  It was felt that if this information were part of a larger belt program, theimpact might continue.
IV.  Speed and Other Unsafe Driving Actions
A)  Problem Identification
**Safety Impact of Permitting Right-Turn-On-Red:  A Report to Congress***December 1994, DOT HS 808 200*The Energy Policy Act of 1992 required NHTSA to conduct a study of the safety impact ofpermitting right and left turns on red lights. This report presents a brief summary of thecurrent status of State implementation of laws permitting right and left turns at red lights, abrief review of previous research, and presents the results of analyses of available dataassessing the safety impact of permitting right turns on red. The study found that the numberof crashes due to right-turn-on-red was small, and thus the impact on traffic safety has beensmall.
***NEW!*****Evaluation of the Chattanooga Tennessee Speed Enforcement Project***In press*The objective of this project was to evaluate a speed enforcement campaign in Chattanooga,Tennessee.  The speed enforcement campaign, which included a Public Information andEducation (PI&E) component, was conducted in Chattanooga with three waves of enforcement(from March to September, 1991; May to September, 1992; and October 1992 to September1993).  There was a 13% reduction in vehicles traveling in excess of 10 miles per hour over thespeed limit after the enforcement program was initiated.  Moreover, the drop in speeds stillpersisted six months after the enforcement effort was completed.  The speed reduction occurredon an area-wide basis rather than just in those areas where speed enforcement was implemented.There are few, if any, other documented instances where speed reductions have been shown tooccur outside actual enforcement zones.   In addition, injury crashes declined 18% and policedreported speed-related traffic crashes declined 15% by the end of the study period.
**Determine the Conditions Under Which Speeding and Other Problematic Driving Actions are Hazardous***In progress*This is a nation-wide crash investigation study that will identify the specific conditions underwhich speeding and other problem behaviors (e.g. running traffic signals) are hazardous.  Theobjective is to identify "problem types" for future countermeasure development.  These"problem types" will be defined in terms of specific behaviors, specific types of drivers andvehicles, and specific traffic and environmental conditions. Data necessary to perform thestudy will be specified, and then collected by National Accident Sampling System (NASS)investigators trained for this purpose.  A sample of 1,000 or more crash investigations isexpected.  Speed will also be monitored in the general traffic at crash sites to serve as acontrol.
**Nationwide Survey of the General Driving Public Regarding Speeding and Other Unsafe Driving Behaviors***In progress*The objective of this study is to develop and implement a nationwide phone survey of the drivingpublic to determine the reasons why, and situations in which, the public speeds or commits otherunsafe driving infractions; the types of drivers involved; the kinds of countermeasures the publicwould support in these areas, etc.  Phase I will include the development and pretest of thenationwide phone survey.  In Phase II the driver survey will be administered to 6,000 respondentsand data will be collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
***NEW!*****Guidance on Setting and Enforcing Speed Limits***In progress*This study is being conducted by the Transportation Research Board (of the National Academyof Science).  It will consider the appropriateness of existing procedures for setting speed limitsin light of research findings on the role of speed in traffic safety, road design and operation,enforcement and compliance, driver characteristics and behavior, vehicle safety features, mixof vehicles, and social benefits and costs. In order to better capture important changes andtrends, emphasis will be placed on research conducted over the last 20 years. The study willalso consider the speed limit policy implications of new and emerging techniques for trafficenforcement.
B)  Enforcement
**Field Test of Combined Speed, Alcohol, and Safety Belt Enforcement Programs***1995, DOT HS 808 242; DOT HS 808 243; DOT HS 808 244; DOT HS 909 245*The purpose of this project was to determine the effectiveness of a combined enforcementprogram that focused on speed, alcohol, and safety belts.  Well-publicized campaigns wereimplemented in three test communities.  The results indicated that combined enforcementprograms need to maintain high levels of enforcement and publicity to be successful.  DOT HS 808 242 is a summary report, DOT HS 808 243 is a site report for Knoxville, Tennessee;DOT HS 808 244 is a site report for Wichita, Kansas; and DOT HS 909 245 is a site report forLexington, Kentucky.  
***NEW!*****The Effectiveness of Laser and Radar Based Enforcement Programs for Deterrence of Speeding***February 1997, DOT HS 808 530*Jurisdiction-wide speeding enforcement programs using exclusively either radar or laser wereimplemented and evaluated in two sites.  Both sites increased their speed enforcement activityduring the program period and both supported their enforcement efforts with a publicity programaimed at increasing the public's perception of the risk of being caught and cited for a speedingviolation.  Results showed that speeding was reduced in the radar-based enforcement programsite, but not in the laser-based enforcement site.  Possible reasons for the absence of a morepronounced effect at the laser site include its higher baseline level of speed limit enforcement, abetter baseline level of speed limit compliance, and its elimination of all moving enforcementduring the test.  The absence of an easily detectable signal which advertises the presence ofenforcement activity may also have contributed to the finding of no speed reductions in the lasersite.  Laser speed measuring devices worked well from an operational standpoint, providingresults that could be used effectively to prosecute accused speeders, and they are especiallyeffective in situations requiring the targeting of specific vehicles in heavy traffic.  A preliminarytest of laser detectors was also conducted and results showed that by the time the driver reactedto the detectors' alarms, the targeted vehicle's speed was already captured. 
**Electronic Vehicle Identification for Automated Traffic Law Enforcement: Strategies to Address Privacy and Other Concerns of Motorists and Police***In progress*This project uses a literature review, expert input, and focus groups to assess motorist and policeconcerns about using electronic vehicle identification to aid traffic law enforcement, for example,for speeding in pedestrian zones and red-light running.  Groups and experts conditionally favoredautomated enforcement -- only at dangerous spots -- for laws they respected, flagrant violators,and identified drivers, and if automation could get the highest-risk drivers off the roads.  Theirsupport also depended on whether privacy worries were sufficiently addressed, and if theyperceived social benefits of stricter enforcement outweighed possible privacy losses.  Theyfavored electronics to prevent dangerous violations rather than to ticket violators, and suggestedother steps to address their general concerns about privacy, equipment reliability and othermatters.****
V.  Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety
A)  Problem Identification
**Identification of Alcohol-Pedestrian Crash Problems Among Culturally-Diverse Groups***In progress*A study is being conducted to develop an accurate picture of the involvement of various culturalpopulations in alcohol-related pedestrian crashes; to identify each group's cultural barriers andfacilitators to reducing this crash problem; and to provide recommendations and strategies toreduce pedestrian/alcohol crashes.
**Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety Survey***In progress*NHTSA is conducting a national survey to assess public attitudes, knowledge, and behaviorsregarding pedestrian and bicyclist safety.  The survey is designed to assess the public's awarenessof pedestrian and bicycling risks, its knowledge of safe walking and riding behaviors, its use ofeducation and training programs, and to explore interactions among drivers, pedestrians, and bicyclists.  The purpose of the study is to provide a background of information for agencyguidance in developing and implementing programs to address these traffic problems.
**Problem Identification Program for Pedestrians and Bicyclists***In progress*The goal of this project is to produce a software program that trains people in classifying policecrash reports into the NHTSA/FHWA (Federal Highway Administration) pedestrian and bikecrash types.  The same program then will serve to create an operational data base that identifiespedestrian and bicyclist safety problems at the local level.
**Development of Crash Typing Software for Pedestrians and Bicyclists***In progress*The Federal Highway Administration is developing a prototype software package that can beused by communities to identify their most common crashes and potential solutions.  In additionto automatically typing crashes, communities will be able to determine those target groups thatare most likely to get into crashes.  NHTSA's effort will determine whether the software is userfriendly and how accurate coders in the field are as compared to a group of experts.  Based on thestudy's findings, the software will be refined as necessary.   
***NEW!*****Literature Review: Vehicle Travel Speed and Pedestrian Injury***In Progress*This project will review and summarize the state of knowledge concerning vehicle speed,resulting pedestrian injury, and ways in which speed may be controlled.  This will beaccomplished through a literature review, analyses of crash data bases, and direct contact withexperts in the field.  This work will serve as the foundation for any future speed reductionprograms designed to reduce pedestrian injuries.
B)  Public Information and Education (PI&E) Programs
**Development of Safety Information Materials and Media Plans for Elderly Pedestrians***1991*NHTSA, in conjunction with FHWA, examined the kinds of crash situations in which olderpedestrians were involved and developed safety advice to minimize these risks.  Thisinformation, contained in the publication, "*Walking Through The Years,*" was made availableto several national organizations (American Association of Retired Persons, AmericanAutomobile Association, National Safety Council) for dissemination to their large olderaudiences.  The publication recommended, for example, that older pedestrians can improvetheir traffic risks by taking precautions in just two areas:  "Seeing" -- being sure that you cansee turning or approaching vehicles, especially at intersections; and "Being Seen" -- makingsure that drivers can see you, whether you are in the street, a driveway, parking lot, oranywhere else vehicles travel.
**Development and Evaluation of a Pedestrian Safety Program for Elementary School Bus Riders***1995*The study developed and evaluated a comprehensive pedestrian safety program for elementary(K- 6) school bus riders.  Based on a review of existing materials, crash data, and statelaws/regulations, a list of 113 behaviors were identified for inclusion in the program.  Theprogram contains materials for teachers, parents, and bus drivers. Five videos, K-6 curricula,and information pamphlets make up the program materials.  All materials were evaluated in aNew York State school district using a pre-post design with a comparison site.  Significantimprovements were achieved in critical knowledge and skills as a result of student participationin the program.  The complete package is available from the National Safety Council (call 708-775-2307) as the "Walk-Ride-Walk: Getting to School Safely" program.
**Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety Information for Driver Education and Licensing***In progress*This project will identify and package safety information from the pedestrian and bicyclistcrash areas that will be useful for driver education and driver licensing activities.  
**Pedestrian Safety Awareness Program***In progress*A project is underway to develop and implement a national program to make pedestrians,motorists and relevant professions more aware of the pedestrian crash problem.  Heightenedawareness will increase the demand for, and acceptance of, pedestrian safety initiatives andcountermeasures.  
C)   Countermeasures
**Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety:  A Review of Key Program and CountermeasureDevelopments During the 1980's***1992, DOT HS 808 108*This report reviews important countermeasure developments and program activities impactingon pedestrian and bicyclist safety over the past decade.  Key national level policies and trendspertaining to pedestrians and bicyclists are highlighted to set the stage for the review.
**Development, Implementation, and Evaluation of a Countermeasure Program forAlcohol-Involved Pedestrian Crashes***In progress*This large-scale research project addresses the problem of alcohol involvement in pedestriancrashes.  Approximately 2,500 adult pedestrians killed in crashes each year since 1980 wereintoxicated.  The purpose of the ongoing research is to devise, develop, and test a set ofcountermeasures which a community can use to reduce alcohol-related pedestrian crashes.  Theresearchers will work in close cooperation with a Community Traffic Safety Program (CTSP)in satisfying the goals of the project -- the production of a program manual and countermeasurematerials that can serve as a guideline for other communities in designing and implementing apedestrian alcohol countermeasure program.
**Development, Implementation and Evaluation of a Pedestrian Safety Zone for Elderly Pedestrians***In progress*NHTSA and FHWA have undertaken a field study to safeguard older pedestrians.  The projectdeals with the creation of pedestrian safety zones around areas of high crash frequency forolder pedestrians. The zones are saturated with an appropriate mix of engineering,enforcement, and educational countermeasures.  Phoenix, Arizona, and Chicago, Illinois arethe two test cities for this ongoing project.
**Development and Test of Bicyclist Countermeasures***In progress*This joint NHTSA/FHWA project will develop and evaluate selected behavioral andengineering bicycle safety countermeasures designed to prevent specific types of crashesoccurring to bicyclists or to reduce injuries.
VI.  Older Drivers
A)  Program Planning
**Traffic Safety Plan for Older Persons***1988*NHTSA's research is based upon a plan that was first developed in 1988 in response to theTransportation Research Board publication *Transportation in an Aging Society*.  The planoutlines research according to three main areas:  Problem Identification, ProgramDevelopment, and Program Evaluation.  
**Research and Development Needs for Maintaining the Safety and Mobility of Older Drivers***1989, DOT HS 807 554*NHTSA co-sponsored a conference with The National Institute on Aging (NIA), the FederalHighway Administration (FHWA) and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) to identify theresearch needed to minimize older drivers' risk while maximizing their mobility. 
**Addressing the Safety Issues Related to Younger and Older Drivers***1993, DOT HS 807 957*This was a Report to Congress summarizing what is known about the safety issues related toyounger and older drivers and what needs to be done about the issues.
**Traffic Safety Plan for Older Persons***1993, DOT HS 807 966*This project updated the traffic safety plan for older persons originally developed in 1988, inresponse to the Transportation Research Board's study "Transportation in an Aging Society."  
***NEW!*****Improving Transportation for a Maturing Society***1997, DOT P10 97 01*This project produced under the auspices of the Office of the Associate Secretary forTransportation Policy presents an overview of what five expert panels viewed the issues oftransportation for an aging society.
B)  Problem Identification
**Licensing the Older Driver: A Summary of State Practices and Procedures**1*989, DOT HS 807 443*This project documented state practices and procedures for licensing older drivers.  Resultssuggest a need to evaluate existing programs and develop better methods of identifyinghigh-risk drivers on the basis of performance capability, particularly age-related functionalimpairment.
**Older Drivers:  The Age Factor in Traffic Safety***1989, DOT HS 807 402*This study analyzed crash involvement rates based upon estimates of miles driven.  The studyindicated that motor vehicle crashes are not a major cause of death for older persons (0.5% forthose over 60).  Motor vehicle crash involvement per unit population is highest for 18 yearolds (5 times those over 80) and declines steadily with increasing age until 70, at which pointthe rate increases somewhat.  The study went on to show that older drivers have more crashesin urban areas, at intersections and driveways, during the day, and with one other vehicle. Also, older drivers in crashes were more likely to be cited for right-of-way and sign violations.
**Driving Practices of Older Drivers in Rural and Urban Areas***1989, 1992*Under interagency agreements with the National Institute on Aging, NHTSA sponsoredprojects by Yale University and the University of Iowa to study how functional capabilityinfluences the driving practices of older drivers.  The Yale study focused on an urban drivingenvironment, the Iowa study on a rural environment.  Research indicated that older drivers tend to self-adjust their driving to accommodate any reduction in functional capacity.  Theresults also showed that older driver safety problems are concentrated among drivers who areeither unaware of their difficulties or unable to make compensating adjustments to theirdriving.  A series of journal articles on functional impairments and driving patterns amongolder drivers in a rural and urban communities have been published.
**Decision Cues: Older Drivers Referrals for License Reexaminations***1992*This study in five states determined what police use as signs of driver deficiency when theyreport older drivers to the licensing agencies.  Contrary to expectation, it was found that therewas a decrease in referral for medical conditions for very old drivers and a slight increase forsensory deficiencies, notably poor hearing.  The results were published in a TransportationResearch Record. 
**Establish the Crash Risk for Specified Medical/Functional Conditions***In press*Under an interagency agreement with NHTSA, Oak Ridge National Laboratories (ORNL) reviewed the literature on crash rates, driving cessation and age-related driver limitations, toidentify the potential of existing data bases for establishing firmer estimates.  ORNL analyzedselected data bases in establishing the some of the needed relationships.  
**Document the Mobility Consequences of Relinquishing the Driver License***In press*Work performed under an interagency agreement between the Department of Transportationand the Department of Health and Human Services Coordinating Council on Human ServicesTransportation documented the broad array of concerns expressed by older persons who reduceor stop driving. It also assessed some transportation remedies to address these concerns. 
**Intersection Negotiation Problems of Older Drivers***In progress*A study is underway to identify the problems older drivers experience in negotiatingintersections and determine the capabilities needed for older drivers to successfully perform thetasks. 
**Validate Statistical Model Relating Functional Limitations and Crashes***In progress*A model developed by Oak Ridge National Laboratories will be use to analyze data from theSalisbury Eye study where 2,500 subjects have been measured for functional ability and statedmedical conditions over a four year period.  The purpose of the study is to further refine therelationships between medical conditions, functional capability and crash involvement.
C)  Program Development
**Document the Mobility Consequences of Relinquishing the Driver License**In pressWork performed under an interagency agreement between the Department of Transportationand the Department of Health and Human Services Coordinating Council on Human ServicesTransportation  documented the broad array of concerns expressed by older persons whoreduce or stop driving. It also assessed some transportation remedies to address these concerns.
**Develop Performance Assessment Techniques***In progress*The California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) has identified the functional limitationsthat need to be assessed for cognitively impaired and physically frail drivers.  Under acooperative agreement with NHTSA, the DMV is pilot testing assessment tools that canpotentially detect the functional limitations that affect driving of older individuals. 
**Develop Training and Information Programs***In progress*This task order with the American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators (AAMVA)Public Affairs and Consumer Education (PACE) Committee will identify, develop anddisseminate more accurate information on older driver issues.  PACE will examine howeducational materials (pamphlets, speaker's bureau guide, etc.) can provide better informationabout older driver issues, both for older people and the general public.  Work is being done in cooperation with the Transportation Research Board's Committee on Safe Mobility of OlderPersons' Subcommittee On Public Information. 
***NEW!*****Improving Safety and Mobility for Older People***In progress*This project will identify and develop improved driver and transportation programs for olderpeople in rural areas.
**A Model System to Improve Self and Institutional Regulation of Driving by Older People****In progress**Some older drivers are aware that their driving abilities are diminished, and in some cases, nolonger adequate even under the safest road conditions and make appropriate adjustments to theirdriving. Other older drivers are not aware of their diminished abilities.  This research will helppeople, especially those in social services, identify the differences.  In addition, guidelines forsocial service providers and a self-guided pamphlet for seniors will be produced.
**Family and Friends Reporting/Regulating Problem Older Drivers***In progress*Some older drivers do not realize their driving skills are deteriorating.  Three classes of people(friends/family, medical, and other service providers) may be able to make them aware, and helpthem appropriately regulate their driving patterns.  This research concentrates on how the familyand friends of the older driver can identify problems and tell them what steps to take.  In additionto this report, guidelines for family and friends will be produced.
***NEW!*****Model Driver Screening and Evaluation Program***In progress*This project will identify or develop screening and evaluation programs that states and provincescan use to assess and license functionally-limited drivers and develop a plan to field test theprogram.
***NEW!*****Medical Guidelines for Driver Impairment and Driver Examiner Training Materials***In progress*This project will update the guidelines states use in making licensing decisions about individualswho have medical and functional limitations. It will also develop guidelines for licensingpersonnel to assist them in identifying drivers who present themselves with functional limitationsthat might limit their driving.
VII.  Novice and Young Drivers
**Workshop to Identify Training Requirements Designed to Reduce Young Driver RiskTaking and Improve Decision Making Skills***1993, DOT HS 808 066*A panel of national and international experts in traffic safety was convened to identify researchand development requirements for training designed to reduce driver risk taking and improvedecision making skills.  The report covers the discussions and recommendations.  Areascovered include:  issues and definitions in analyzing young driver risk taking, training as ameans of reducing risk taking, ways to restructure current driver training efforts, and effortsneeded to improve driver training.
**Addressing the Safety Issues Related to Younger and Older Drivers: Report to Congress***January 1993, DOT HS 807 957*The report covers a variety of issues that affect younger and older drivers, presents a briefoverview of past NHTSA efforts, and provides NHTSA's planned research agenda for youngerand older drivers.  
**Research Agenda For an Improved Novice Driver Education Program***May 1994, DOT HS 808 161*The report discusses why novice driver education may not be as effective as it could be, andexplains why it is recommended that an improved program be an integral part of a graduatedlicensing system.  The report concludes with a plan for research, development, and evaluationactivities designed to restructure and improve novice driver education.
**Understanding Youthful Risk Takers***June 1995, DOT HS 808 318*To make major inroads in the youth crash problem, countermeasures are needed that can dealeffectively with youthful risk taking.  Developing these countermeasures requires anunderstanding of the mechanisms underlying risk taking.  This project is part of a broader effortby NHTSA to develop that understanding, and those countermeasures.  The project looks at risktaking in a broader context than highway safety, and includes extensive literature review as wellas a workshop with experts.
***NEW!*****Understanding Youthful Risk Taking and Driving:  Database Report***November 1995, DOT HS 808 346*This report catalogs national databases that contain information about adolescents and risk takingbehaviors.  It contains descriptions of the major areas, unique characteristics, and risk-relatedaspects of each database.  The report also contains information on databases that states collectedon various domains of risk taking behaviors.
***NEW!*****Feasibility of New Simulation Technology to Train Novice Drivers***December 1996, DOT HS 808 548*This effort is part of NHTSA's redevelopment of novice driver education.  The project determined the feasibility of developing and using some form of electronic simulation to enhancethe safety training of young novice drivers.  The effort included a workshop with national expertsto discuss the conceptual procedures and potential applications for using this type of technologyin the training of novice drivers.
**Parent Participation in The Training of Young Novice Drivers***In progress*This effort is part of NHTSA's redevelopment of novice driver education.  The project will resultin the development of materials and procedures for increasing the involvement of parents andother adults in the training and supervised driving of novice drivers.   
**Training to Improve the Decision Making of Young Novice Drivers***In progress*This effort will develop a training module that results in less risky driving related behaviorsthrough improved perceptual skills and decision making by young novice drivers.  The modulewill be part of the advanced skills section of the new two-staged driver education program.  Itwill be designed to stand along and to be easily integrated into other related driver educationactivities.
**Matching Safety Strategies to Youth Characteristics***In progress*This project will describe the cognitive and perceptual functioning of youth, with particularattention to developmental factors, as they apply to traffic safety issues.  The project also willdetermine how to match safety information (content and format) to cognitive and perceptualfunctioning of youth.  Draft guidelines will be developed for implementing developmentallyappropriate safety education and training to youth.
VIII.   Fatigue
***NEW!*****Analyze the Role of Fatigue, Sleep Disorders, and Inattention in Highway Crashes***In progress*The objectives of this study are to describe qualitative characteristics of fatigue, sleepdisorders, and inattention (FSDI) crashes; identify population subgroups most at risk; andidentify exacerbating situations and conditions.  The study will convene a panel of experts(e.g., from the Federal Highway Administration, National Institutes of Health, National SleepFoundation, and the American Sleep Disorders Association), hold a two- or three-dayworkshop, and compile a state-of-knowledge report regarding FSDI and crashes.
***NEW!*****Investigate Instances of Fatigue-Related Events in Motor-Vehicle Operation***In progress*The objectives of this study are to observe drivers during fatigue-related inattention incidents;establish distinguishing characteristics of fatigue-related, distraction-related, and other types ofinattention; and relate fatigue-related inattention to vehicle maneuvers.  The study will select10-15 drivers for continuous monitoring, install vehicle and driver monitoring and recordingdevices, record data for all driving during a suitable interval with periodic downloading ofdata, and analyze data from inattention events.
***NEW!*****Develop and Test Educational Countermeasures for Fatigue-Related Highway Crashes***In progress*The objectives of this study are to specify target populations, determine alternative messagethemes (content), establish candidate motivational approaches (e.g., fear, anxiety, family ties),and establish candidate dissemination strategies for fatigue-related highway crashes. The studywill review literature, analyze geodemographics of crash-involved persons, develop candidateapproaches and sample materials, and conduct focus group discussions (and other qualitativemethods).
***NEW!*****Develop Strategy and Lay the Foundation for an Education and Information Campaign***In progress*The objectives of this study are to determine campaign objectives, choose target audiences,determine appropriate information content, determine appropriate motivational strategy, establishappropriate media mix, prepare and test draft materials, and refine materials for fatigue-relatedhighway crashes.  The study will review related project results, convene panel of specialists,conduct focus group discussions (and other qualitative methods) with target-group members, andprepare "camera-ready" materials.
IX.  Emergency Medical Services
**Michigan Rural Preventable Mortality Study***June 1995, DOT HS 808 341*This study reviewed all trauma deaths in 24 rural counties in Michigan to identify preventabledeaths that may have occurred.  A total of 159 deaths were analyzed by an expert panel, and thenature and frequency of inappropriate medical care associated with those deaths was reviewed. The study classified deaths for just under 13% of patients as preventable or possibly preventable,with 31 episodes of inappropriate care occurring among these patients.  The most frequent typesof inappropriate care were delays in treatment, and problems in airway management and in bloodreplacement. Among the recommendations was the conclusion that efforts to reduce the episodesof inappropriate care should be directed primarily toward care rendered in the hospital emergencydepartment rather than care provided during the pre-hospital phase.
***NEW!*****North Carolina Rural Preventable Mortality Study***February 1996, DOT HS 808 345*This study examined trauma deaths in 29 northeastern counties in rural portions of NorthCarolina.  This was the third study in a series designed to review deaths from motor vehicletrauma in rural areas, and was intended to replicate and validate findings from two previousevaluations.  It found that up to 29% of the deaths that occurred in this area were preventable orpossibly preventable, as defined in the study, and that these preventable deaths were the result oferrors or omissions in care.
***NEW!*****North Carolina Rural Preventable Mortality Evaluation***In progress*This project is a follow-on to three previously completed rural preventable mortality studies. Thisproject is implementing remedies designed to correct the errors or omissions in care foundresponsible for the high trauma death rate in rural areas.  After the remedies have beenimplemented, the death rate will be reexamined to determine if the remedies were successful inlowering the rate of preventable trauma deaths.
***NEW!*****Emergency Medical Services:  A Summary of Findings From NHTSA Surveys***November 1996, DOT HS 808 488*This report presents information related to emergency medical services (EMS) that was obtainedin two national telephone surveys of the driving age public.  Data are summarized concerningsuch topics as the public's knowledge of the 9-1-1 emergency number, their expectationsregarding ambulance response time, their confidence in emergency workers, concerns they wouldhave about stopping to assist at a crash, and their interest in training to assist crash victims.
***NEW!*****Emergency Medical Services (EMS) Outcomes Evaluation Project***In progress*This cooperative agreement is to support and facilitate Emergency Medical Services (EMS)patient outcomes research and evaluation that is to be conducted by the broad EMS community. Specifically this project will identify and rank order "tracer" conditions (those patient conditionsthat can be followed to conclusion to evaluate patient outcome), determine measures of illnessand injury severity that can be used to evaluate these conditions, identify and combine pre-existing data sets suitable for this evaluation, identify stakeholders and EMS constituents with aninterest in the work of the project, identify appropriate outcomes for the tracer conditions, anddevelop a research dissemination plan. 
X.  Miscellaneous
**Responses of Women and Men to Traffic Safety Messages: A Qualitative Report***1994, DOT HS 808 091*This project explored gender differences about receptivity to traffic safety communications inorder to help future development of effective media campaigns reaching women.  A literaturereview and expert interviews revealed few data to characterize women involved in crashes orto describe their responses to advertising.  Eight focus groups of men and women ages 25-59provided responses to seven TV public service announcements. The report identifies severalsimilarities and typical differences in male and female reactions to driving situations and safetyadvertising.****
***NEW!*****Analysis of Driving Histories of ADHD Subjects***June 1995, DOT 808 417*The goals of this research were to assess the relationship between early childhood diagnosis ofAttention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and later driving performance.  Drivingrecords were obtained for ADHD and comparison subjects who were participants in aprospective longitudinal study begun in 1974 to explore the identification, treatment, and lifehistories of hyperactive children. The analyses presented in this report compare subjectsdiagnosed as having severe ADHD to all other subjects.****
***NEW!*****Highway Safety Needs of U.S. Hispanic Communities:  Issues and Strategies***September 1995, DOT HS 808 373*The Hispanic population is one of the fastest growing demographic groups in the United States. This report presents the results of a study to identify highway safety needs in Hispaniccommunities, and ways of promoting highway safety to those communities. Telephonediscussions were held with representatives of agencies and organizations actively engaged withHispanic communities in California, Texas, Colorado, the District of Columbia, New YorkCity/New Jersey, and Florida.  In addition, focus groups were held with adolescent males, youngadult males, young adult females, and parents of young children.
***NEW!*****Analysis of the Capital Beltway Crash Problem***March 1996,  DOT HS 808 393*This is one of a series of studies supporting the Capital Beltway Safety Team documenting thecrashes that occur on the Washington Capital Beltway, a 64-mile interstate facility around thenation's capital.  Crash typing of 4,447 Virginia and Maryland police-reported crashes for thetwo years 1993 and 1994 were analyzed.  Three types of crashes accounted for 78% of allBeltway crashes, many related to congestion problems during peak hours.  A separate analysis ofthe interchanges documented the most frequently occurring crash at these high crash locations. Finally, the study looked at the incident of a crash causing subsequent crashes on the Beltway.  Up to 10% of Beltway crashes are followed by subsequent crashes. 
***NEW!*****National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 1995 Customer Satisfaction Survey***September 1996, DOT HS 808 439*NHTSA conducted a national Customer Satisfaction Survey in response to the requirements ofthe National Performance Review and Executive Order 12862. The survey was administered bytelephone to 4,003 persons ages 16 and older. This report presents survey findings concerning thepublic's knowledge of available highway safety resources, the importance they attach to differenthighway safety issues, and the role they would like to see the government take in promotinghighway safety.
**User Friendly NHTSA Listings for Telephone Directory "Blue Pages"***In progress*This project used focus groups to identify how adults use phone books to get help with trafficsafety questions and find listings for NHTSA and its Auto Safety Hotline.  Participants includedgroups who currently use the "Blue Pages" section of  the phone book to contact governmentoffices and groups who just use the "Yellow Pages" for information contacts.  Participants inBaltimore, Atlanta, St. Louis, and Los Angeles attempted several "lookup" exercises using localphone books and several proposed alternatives, then explained their search behaviors, reactions,and preferences.  The report will present findings from the groups, suggest ways to presentNHTSA's and the NHTSA Hotline's numbers, and discuss related matters such as 1-800 listingsand operator assistance. 
***NEW!*****Demonstration and Evaluation of Safe Communities Programs***In progress*This project is examining two Safe Communities programs in Dallas, Texas and Pitt County,North Carolina. The programs will run from 1996 to 1999, and will enlarge NHTSA's previouscommunity programs by adding emphasis on community ownership, the entire cycle of injurytreatment (prevention, acute care, emergency rooms, and hospitals, and rehabilitation), and datalinkage. 
***NEW!*****Update of the Capital Beltway Crash Problem***In progress*This study continues a series of studies supporting the Capital Beltway Safety Team to documentthe crashes that occur on the 64-mile interstate Washington Capital Beltway.  Police-reportedcrashes for 1995 and 1996 are being added to those already analyzed for 1993 and 1994 to assesscrash reductions that may be attributable to recent engineering, enforcement, and publiceducation and information programs.  A separate series of focus groups will examine aggressivedriving issues.