Emergency Vehicle 

Safety Initiative 

FA-272/August 2004
 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE i

U.S. FIRE ADMINISTRATION MISSION

STATEMENT

As an entity of the Federal Emergency Management

Agency, the mission of the United States Fire Administration is to reduce life and economic losses due to fire and

related emergencies, through leadership, advocacy, coordination, and support. We serve the Nation independently,

in coordination with other Federal agencies, and in partnership with fire protection and emergency service

communities. With a commitment to excellence, we provide public education, training, technology, and data

initiatives.

On March 1, 2003, FEMA became part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. FEMA’s continuing mission

within the new department is to lead the effort to prepare

the Nation for all hazards and to manage Federal response

and recovery efforts effectively following any national incident. FEMA also initiates proactive mitigation activities,

trains first responders, and manages Citizen Corps, the

National Flood Insurance Program, and the U.S. Fire Administration.

 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE iii

Table of Contents........................................................................................................... iii

Preface ........................................................................................................................... vii

SECTION 1: INITIATIVE OVERVIEW ....................................................................... ....................................................................... 1

Introduction.................................................................................................................... 1

Background .................................................................................................................... 2

Methodology .................................................................................................................. 3

Definition........................................................................................................................ 6

Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 6

SECTION 2: AGENCY PROFILES ............................................................................ ............................................................................ 7

California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection .................................................... 7

Fairfax County (Virginia) Fire and Rescue ........................................................................ 7

Phoenix (Arizona) Fire Department ................................................................................. 8

Plano (Texas) Fire Department ........................................................................................ 9

Sacramento (California) Regional Driver Training Facility.............................................. 10

Salt Lake Valley (Utah) Area........................................................................................... 10

 West Valley Fire Department ....................................................................................... 10

 Murray Fire Department ............................................................................................. 11

 Valley Emergency Communications Center (VECC) .................................................... 11

Ventura County (California) Fire Department ............................................................... 12

Virginia Beach (Virginia) Fire and Rescue Department .................................................. 12

Intelligent Transportation Systems ................................................................................ 13

 Commuterlink, Salt Lake City, Utah ............................................................................ 13

 Smart Traffic Center, Hampton Roads, Virginia ........................................................... 15

SECTION 3: APPARATUS SAFETY DEVICES ........................................................... ........................................................... 17

Introduction.................................................................................................................. 17

Markings....................................................................................................................... 17

 Vehicle Striping ........................................................................................................... 17

 Other Markings ........................................................................................................... 19

Restraints ...................................................................................................................... 19

Warning Lights.............................................................................................................. 20

Electronic Monitoring Equipment ................................................................................. 22

 Backing Cameras ........................................................................................................ 22

 Recording Cameras..................................................................................................... 23

 Onboard Computers................................................................................................... 23

Recommendations for Apparatus Safety Devices........................................................... 24

SECTION 4: TRAFFIC CONTROL MEASURES ........................................................ ........................................................ 25

Introduction.................................................................................................................. 25

Optical Preemption....................................................................................................... 25

 Training Personnel ...................................................................................................... 27

 Effects on Traffic.......................................................................................................... 27

 Data Analysis and Findings ......................................................................................... 28

Intelligent Transportation System, Traffic Control Centers ............................................ 28

Recommendations for Traffic Control Measures............................................................ 29

SECTION 5: HIGHWAY OPERATIONS .................................................................. .................................................................. 31

Introduction.................................................................................................................. 31

Apparatus Placement .................................................................................................... 31

 Training ...................................................................................................................... 34

TABLE OF CONTENTS
iv EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

Scene Lighting and Marking ......................................................................................... 34

Reflective Vests.............................................................................................................. 37

Standard Operating Procedures .................................................................................... 37

 Effect on Highway Operations .................................................................................... 38

 Limitations .................................................................................................................. 38

Recommendations for Highway Operations.................................................................. 39

SECTION 6: RESPONSE ...................................................................................... ...................................................................................... 41

Introduction.................................................................................................................. 41

Priority Dispatch ........................................................................................................... 41

Response Matrix............................................................................................................ 44

Volunteer Response in Privately Owned Vehicles (POV’s) .............................................. 46

Recommendations for Response ................................................................................... 46

SECTION 7: TRAINING ...................................................................................... ...................................................................................... 47

Introduction.................................................................................................................. 47

Human Factors.............................................................................................................. 47

Driver Training Courses................................................................................................. 48

 California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection ................................................ 48

 Sacramento Regional Training Facility ........................................................................ 50

 Ventura County (California) Fire Department ............................................................. 51

Driving Simulator.......................................................................................................... 51

 Technical Aspects........................................................................................................ 51

 Training Sessions ......................................................................................................... 53

 Effects of the Training ................................................................................................. 55

Sharing Lessons Learned ............................................................................................... 55

 Accident Investigation Reporting — The Green Sheet ................................................ 55

 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)

 Fatality Investigations ................................................................................................. 55

Driver Requirements ..................................................................................................... 56

Emergency Vehicle Maintenance .................................................................................. 56

Recommendations for Training ..................................................................................... 58

SECTION 8: SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................... ............................................... 59

Introduction.................................................................................................................. 59

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................... 63

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Public Comments on NFPA 1901 .............................................................. 65

Appendix B: UDOT Letter of Agreement for Optical Preemption .................................. 69

Appendix C: Highway Operations SOP’s ....................................................................... 71

 Fairfax County Fire and Rescue ................................................................................... 71

 Phoenix Fire Department ............................................................................................ 76

Appendix D: Phoenix Fire Department Nature/Dispatch Codes .................................... 81

Appendix E: Response Matrices..................................................................................... 85

 Virginia Beach Fire and Rescue .................................................................................... 86

 Salt Lake Valley............................................................................................................ 91

Appendix F: AAA Best Practice for EMS Driving Outline ................................................ 95

Appendix G: Driver Training Courses ............................................................................ 97

 CDFFP Vehicle Operations Course Objectives ............................................................. 97

 Sacramento Regional Training Center Lesson Plan ...................................................... 99

 Ventura County Fire Department Driving Course Descriptions ................................. 103
 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE v

Appendix H: Sharing Lessons Learned......................................................................... 105

 CDFFP Green Sheet................................................................................................... 105

 NIOSH Hazard ID ...................................................................................................... 110

Appendix I: Driving Course Specifications................................................................... 113

Appendix J: Manufacturer Contact Information .......................................................... 117

Appendix K: Acronym List ........................................................................................... 119

 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE vii

PREFACE

The United States Fire Administration would like to acknowledge the following individuals and organizations

who participated in one or more of the National Forums on Emergency Vehicle Safety or conducted the information gathering site visits. The participants formed a group with one of the most comprehensive bases of expertise

in emergency vehicle response and highway scene safety ever assembled. The extensive information provided

within this report would not have been possible without their dedication and efforts on this project.

Organization Representative(s)

American Ambulance Association Maria Bianchi

Larry Wiersch

Congressional Fire Service Institute Robert J. Barraclough

Cumberland Valley Volunteer Firemens Association Steve Austin

Harry Carter

Federal Aviation Administration Technical Center Keith Bagot

Fire Apparatus Manufacturers Association Glen McCallister

Fire Department of New York/Firehouse Magazine Michael Wilbur

Fire Department Safety Officers Association Charles Soros

General Services Administration Mel Globerman

International Association of Fire Chiefs Richard Knopf

International Association of Fire Fighters Andy Levinson

Richard Duffy

International Fire Service Training Association Michael Wieder

IOCAD Emergency Services Group Richard Gurba

Neil Honeycutt

Warren James

Judy Janing (Principal Writer)

Murrey Loflin

Richard Marinucci

Eric Nagle

Kevin Roche

Gordon Sachs

Steve Weissman

Michael Wieder (Project Manager)

Medical Transportation Insurance Professionals William Leonard

Mitretek Systems (supporting FHWA USDOT-ITS) Ken Brooke

National Association of Emergency Vehicle Technicians Don Henry

Jeff Dickey

National Fire Protection Association Gary Tokle

Carl Peterson

National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health Nancy Romano

National Institute of Standards & Technology Nelson Bryner

National Safety Council Barbara Caracci

National Truck Equipment Association Mike Kastner

National Volunteer Fire Council Bob Cumberland

North American Fire Training Directors Butch Weedon

Plano, Texas, Fire Department Alan Storck

Training Resources and Data Exchange Jim White

Art Cota

U.S. Army TACOM David Tenenbaum

U.S. Department of Transportation/National

Highway Traffic Safety Administration David Bryson

Craig Allred
viii EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

U.S. Fire Administration Cathy Broughton

Charlie Dickinson

Jeff Dyar

Alex Furr

Kirby Kiefer

Bill Troup

Volunteer Fireman’s Insurance Services (VFIS) David Bradley

William Jenaway

Mike Young

Richard Patrick

The following people are acknowledged for their photographic contributions to this report:

Leland Bishop

Judy Janing

Murrey Loflin

Eric Nagle

Alan Storck

Steve Weissman

Michael Wieder

The United States Fire Administration would also like to acknowledge the tremendous support and assistance

provided by the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Joint Program Office.
INITIATIVE


OVERVIEW


INTRODUCTION 

As traffic volume increases and the highway and interstate system becomes more 

complex, emergency responders face a growing risk to their personal safety while 

managing and working at highway incidents. The purpose of this report is to identify 

practices that have the potential to decrease that risk, as well as to reduce the number of injuries and deaths that occur while responding to and returning from incidents 

(Figure 1-1). (Figure 1-1).

Since 1984, 20 to 25 percent of firefighter fatalities annually resulted from motor vehicle 

crashes. From 1990 to 2000, 18 percent of the 

fatalities occurred responding to an alarm, and 

4.1 percent occurred returning from an alarm. 

Of the firefighters who died in motor vehicle 

crashes, 25 percent were killed in privately owned 

vehicles (POV’s.) Following POV’s, water tankers, engines, and airplanes were most often 

involved in fatal crashes. Tankers claimed more 

fatalities than engines and aerial apparatus 

combined. Approximately 27 percent of fatalities were ejected at the time of the crash. Only 

21 percent were reportedly wearing restraints 

prior to the crash. Table 1-1 (on page 2) pro­ able 1-1able 1-1

vides a summary analysis of fatal emergency 

Figure 1-1. Springfield, Virginia, interchange. e 1-1. vehicle crashes that occurred while responding 

to and returning from an alarm from 1994 to 2001. 

According to a study by Maguire, Hunting, Smith, and Levick, emergency medical 

services (EMS) personnel in the United States have an estimated fatality rate of 12.7 

per 100,000 workers.1 There is no comprehensive central database for ambulance 

crash data, but some estimate 15,000 crashes per year. A USA Today analysis of the 

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) fatal, multivehicle ambulance crash data between 1980 and 2000 revealed the number killed in the other 

vehicle was 21 times greater than the number of ambulance drivers who died.2 

According to the NHTSA Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS), there were 300 

fatal crashes involving ambulances from 1991 to 2000. These 300 crashes resulted in 

82 deaths of ambulance occupants and 275 deaths of occupants of other vehicles 

and pedestrians. FARS does not differentiate ambulance workers from passengers 

among those experiencing nonfatal injuries in fatal crashes. However, seating positions for all occupants and the severity of injuries can be determined. Using the FARS 

“fatal injury at work” variable with death certificate information, calculations indicated that 27 occupant fatalities were on-duty EMS workers.3 

According to the National Emergency Medical Services Memorial Foundation in 

Roanoke, Virginia, 3 of the 16 EMS worker fatalities (19 percent) in 2001 to 2002, 

resulted from vehicle-related causes; one was involved in a crash and two were struck 

by vehicles while at the scene of an accident.4 

An 11-year retrospective analysis of the characteristics of fatal ambulance crashes 

by Kahn, Pirrallo, and Kuhn revealed that the majority of ambulance crashes occurred during the emergency mode of operation and rear compartment occupants 

were more likely to be injured than those in the front compartment.5 The findings of 

SECTION 1


1 
TABLE 1-1. TABLE 1-1.

FIREFIGHTER FATALITIES RESPONDING TO AND FROM AN ALARM: 1994-2001

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Total Fatalities 12 14 20 15 14 14 20 23 

Apparatus Collision (12) (14) (14) (13) (12) (11) (18) (20) 

Falls (0) (1) (2) (3) (2) (2) 

Vehicle T ehicle Tehicle Type

Fire Apparatus:

 Engine 2 5 4 2 4 5 3 3

 Water Tanker 4 2 1 2 1 4 3 5

 Other (including 3 2 3 3 2 8 6

 ambulance) 

Private Vehicle 1 5 7 5 4 2 6 9 

Unknown 1 5 2 1 

Contributing Factors*

 Behavior – Fire Personnel 1 4 4 4 3 6 9 9

 Behavior – Civilians 1 3 2 2 1 3 4

 Technical Problems 1 1 1 1 1 3

 Laws/Policy 1 4 1 5 4 9 8

 Other (Environment, 2 1 5 3 1 6 12

 weather, medical

 condition) 

Unknown Unknown 7 3 7 6 3 1 1 

* Fatality may have more than one contributing factor noted, thus, numbers will not sum to total number of fatalities. 

Source: U.S. Fire Administration, Fire Fighter Fatality Reports (1994-2001). 

the NHTSA analysis appear to contradict the findings of Kahn, Pirrallo, and Kuhn. 

The NHTSA analysis revealed that 11 (41 percent) of worker fatalities occurred in the 

driver’s seat and 5 (19 percent) in the front passenger seat. Although not coded specifically, seven (26 percent) probably occurred in the patient compartment and four 

were unknown. The NHTSA analysis did reveal a greater injury severity associated 

with riding in the patient compartment, which supports the findings of Kahn, Pirrallo, 

and Kuhn.3 

As with firefighter fatality data, non-use of restraints is an important contributing 

factor to EMS worker fatalities. Seven (26 percent) were drivers not wearing a restraint, 

two were unrestrained in the front passenger seat, and six were unrestrained in the 

patient compartment.3 This is due in part to the design of lap belt restraint systems 

commonly found in the patient compartment. These systems do not allow full access 

to the patient. If the belt is used properly the responder is positioned against the side 

wall, making it impossible to bend forward to access the patient or the cabinets along 

the wall on the driver’s side. The belts must be unbuckled for the responder to stand 

over or kneel near the cot to perform certain treatments. 6 This limitation results in 

many responders sitting on the edge of the side bench and riding unrestrained. 

BACKGROUND 

The consistently high annual percentage of emergency worker fatalities related to 

response prompted the Fire Service Emergency Vehicle Safety Initiative (EVSI), a partnership effort among the U.S. Fire Administration (USFA), the U.S. Department of 

Transportation (DOT)/NHTSA, and the DOT/Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) 

Joint Program Office. One of the primary functions of the EVSI was to sponsor the 

National Forum on Emergency Vehicle Safety, which brought together representatives of major national-level fire and emergency ser vice associations and other 

2 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

individuals and organizations with an interest and expertise in emergency vehicle 

safety. These representatives met three times between June 2002 and August 2003. 

The purpose of these meetings was to: 

•	 identify the major issues related to firefighter fatalities that occur while responding to or returning from alarms and while operating on highway emergency 

scenes; 

•	 develop and prioritize recommendations to reduce firefighter response and highway scene fatalities; 

•	 identify organizations that had made progress in improving firefighter/responder 

safety in these areas based on mitigation techniques and technologies; and 

•	 review and approve the findings of the research done for this report. 

METHODOLOGY 

During the first meeting, the participants formed several focus groups that identified 

multiple issues related to emergency response and highway scene safety. Potential 

recommendations to address each issue were also listed. Following the meeting, these 

issues and recommendations were categorized. 

At the second meeting, participant focus groups reviewed, refined, and expanded 

the recommendations from the first meeting in relation to technology, training, and 

operational aspects as follows. 

Legislation, Standards, and SOP’s 

•	 Develop model legislation based on information from the National Committee 

on Uniform Traf fic Laws and Ordinances and the Model Uniform Traffic Code 

(MUTC) for both fire apparatus and civilian drivers. 

•	 Review the MUTC for pertinent information to help develop model Standard 

Operating Procedures (SOP’s) and legislation. 

•	 Develop model SOP’s and enforcement criteria. 

•	 Develop driver qualifications. (These should be verified before allowing a person to drive.) 

•	 Implement available standards and requirements for marking highway emergency scenes, such as those of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 

the International Safety Equipment Association (ISEA), and the DOT. 

•	 Require the use of compliant protective vests when operating on the highway. 

•	 Penalize violators of highway safety practices/requirements. 

•	 Submit public comment for NFPA 1901, Standard on Automotive Fire Apparatus, encouraging the use of brightly colored seatbelts, marking vehicle 

dimensions, and the use of reflective markings for vehicle compartments and 

interior aspect of doors. 

Since public comments were closing soon after the second meeting, the forum participants voted to submit these comments as participants of the EVSI, not endorsed by 

USFA. There were five public comments submitted to the NFPA Fire Department Apparatus Committee. Appendix A contains the submitted wording, the final wording 

that went into 1901, and the committee’s substantiation for its changes to the submitted wording. 

Training 

•	 Develop a layered (modular) training program that includes specific training 

for all levels of an organization on their responsibilities related to emergency 

vehicle safety. Modules would be developed for responders, drivers, company 

officers, chief officers, emergency vehicle technicians (mechanics), instructors, 

educators, and local government officials. 

•	 Develop and implement legitimate proficiency testing to assess the performance 

of drivers. 

INITIATIVE OVERVIEW
 3 
•	 Develop a certification/recertification program as an extension of the layered 

training program and proficiency testing process. It could be based on the commercial driver license (CDL) process and should be similar to the red card program 

for wildland certification. 

•	 Put training and testing in the context in which it actually will be used. 

Technology 

•	 Assess opportunities to expand the use of traffic control devices. 

•	 Assess the effectiveness of: 

—	 Orange or yellow seatbelts, 

—	 Seatbelt extensions and brightly colored reception ends, 

—	 Seatbelt lights at the officer’s position and above an unbelted, occupied seat, 

—	 Passive restraints (airbags), 

—	 Remote control mirrors, 

—	 Lateral acceleration warning devices, and 

—	 Vehicle visibility enhancements on apparatus and personnel protective equipment. 

General Fire Service Education 

•	 Implement an awareness campaign to educate emergency service personnel 

about the seriousness of the emergency vehicle safety issues, POV response issues, and the need for a change in behavior and attitude. This awareness must 

occur on all levels. 

•	 Train leaders about the aspects they are responsible for; advocate leadership 

responsibility for safety. 

•	 Increase safety awareness of drivers’ supervisors. 

•	 Increase awareness of safety issues related to unrestrained objects in the cab. 

•	 Increase knowledge of vehicle modifications that affect vehicle stability. 

Delivery of Safety Information 

FIRE SERVICE 

•	 Develop a Web site for organizations to share and download model SOP’s, progressive programs, and other safety information. 

•	 Develop regional safety program conferences. 

•	 Review the National Fire Academy (NFA) curriculum to determine the amount/ 

level of highway safety information in various curricula. At a minimum, it should 

be included in the Health & Safety and Public Education curricula. 

•	 Develop informational pieces for the USFA Web site. 

PUBLIC 

• Develop an awareness campaign to educate the public on how to react properly 

when approaching/being approached by an emergency vehicle, and how to 

traverse safely through an emergency scene. 

DATA COLLECTION 

•	 Develop a national database on emergency vehicle crashes and any resulting 

injuries/deaths to both firefighters and civilians. 

•	 This could begin by enhancing an existing database (adding a ‘box’ for involvement of emergency vehicle and type). The new system should be based on the 

National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) technology and programming 

so it can be integrated easily into the fire service. The development of the database must involve law enforcement, NHTSA, and USFA. 

•	 Implement a near-miss reporting system, similar to the ‘Green Sheet’ program 

4 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
by the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CDFFP). 

•	 Encourage research on highway safety-related issues in the Executive Fire Officer (EFO) program at the NFA. 

ADDITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS 

•	 Incentives should be developed by the insurance industry and other sources to 

encourage those departments working toward improved emergency vehicle safety. 

•	 Continue and expand the work of the participants in the National Forum on 

Emergency Vehicle Safety as the National Emergency Vehicle Safety Consortium 

under the EVSI project. The consortium should be modeled after the National 

Fire Service IMS Consortium and would be responsible for such things as: 

— Developing model SOP’s, 

— Developing model State laws, 

— Identifying new technologies, and 

— Developing publications. 

Forum participants recognized that it would be impossible to address all of these 

issues and areas in a reasonable amount of time. Therefore, they selected five topical 

areas to identify progressive programs that would be easy to implement and would 

help emergency response agencies make immediate improvements to their procedures. Based on personal knowledge and experience, participants also recommended 

agencies for site visits to examine progressive programs in these areas. These five 

basic topical areas and the agencies that were selected for review are listed in Table

1-2. 

An interview team visited each department. Specific questions, developed prior to 

TABLE 1-2. TABLE 1-2.

PARTICIPANT-IDENTIFIED REVIEW SITES

Topic Aspects Reviewed Site 

Emergency Vehicle 

Driver Training 

Vehicle Marking OnScene Warning Lights 

Highway Scene 

Markings 

Priority Dispatch 

Response SOP’s 

Optical Pre emption 

• Effectiveness of a “stepped” driver training program 

• Benefit of apparatus operator certification program 

• Use of emergency vehicle training simulators 

• Reflective marking patterns 

• Warning light types/colors/patterns 

• Use of lights to warn other vehicles appr oaching an 

emergency scene 

• Types and patterns of lighting 

• Apparatus positioning 

• Placement of stand-alone barriers, markings, and laneclosure devices 

• Policies that limit emergency mode (lights and sirens) 

response based on the type and severity of the reported 

emergency 

• Effects of optical preemption devices on response times, 

vehicle crashes/near misses, and integration in the intelligent 

transportation system 

CDFFP, Ione, CA 

Ventura County, CA 

Sacramento Regional

 Training Facility, CA 

Fair fax County, VA 

Phoenix, AZ 

Plano, TX 

Fairfax Country, VA 

Plano, TX 

Virginia Beach, VA 

Virginia Beach, VA 

Salt Lake City, UT 

Phoenix, AZ 

Salt Lake City, UT 

Virginia Beach, VA 

INITIATIVE OVERVIEW
 5 
the visit, served as the basis and starting point for each interview. Department personnel often provided additional information related to other safety practices. After 

the site visit, the interview notes were reviewed, collated, and summarized by topic. 

All team members reviewed the summary for accuracy. This information was used to 

compile the report draft. Forum participants reviewed this draft and added final recommendations in August 2003. 

DEFINITION 

There are several terms used to identify personnel who drive apparatus, including 

engineer, operator, and driver. In the context of this report, the term “driver” is used 

to identify personnel who have the responsibility of actually driving the vehicle. 

LIMITATIONS 

It must be stressed that there are three major limiting factors to the findings of this 

report: 

1. There is no comprehensive database to identify factors involved in emergency 

vehicle crashes, emergency worker injuries, or emergency worker fatalities. 

2. The databases that do exist may or may not include information related to 

either volunteer fire or EMS ser vices. 

3. Very few of the departments visited gather any data to evaluate the effectiveness of any of the practices reviewed. 

Because of these limitations, the reader must keep in mind that the progressive 

programs discussed in this report are anecdotal. Although anecdotal in nature, they 

have been endorsed by the participants of the National Forum on Emergency Vehicle 

Safety. The reader must also remember that the success of the programs discussed in 

this report, as well as all safety programs, requires both a multifaceted approach and 

member and management commitment. 

It is hoped that this initial report will stress the need to develop a comprehensive 

database and serve as the basis to identify areas for true scientific research that will 

identify a specific problem, define its scope, and collect specific data for analysis to 

determine the actual effects of a given practice or intervention on pre-identified outcomes. The outcomes for specific studies must be measurable over a relatively short 

timeframe, using a limited number of participating departments. Impact on fatalities cannot be measured in any one study, since the number of fatalities is small in a 

scientific sense and may not be accurate because of the limited database. 

1 U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser vices, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2003, February 28). Ambulance crash-r elated injuries among emergency medical ser vices workers — United States, 

1991-2002. Morbidity Mortality Weekly Report, 52 (08), 154-156. 

2 Davis, R. (2001, March 21). Speeding to the r escue can have deadly results. USA Today.


3 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. op cit.


4 Harvey, N. (2003, May 25). Service honors fallen EMS providers. Roanoke Times.


5 Kahn, C.A., Pirrallo, R.G., Kuhn, E.M. (2001). Characteristics of fatal ambulance crashes in the United


States: an 11-year retrospective analysis. Prehospital Emergency Care, 5, 261-269. 

6 U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser vices, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 

(2001). 26-year-old emergency medical technician dies in multiple fatality ambulance crash—Kentucky. 

Pub. No. FACE-2001-11. 

6 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

AGENCY


PROFILES


A total of 12 agencies were visited in the process of gathering information on the 

progressive programs selected for review. Following are the profiles of each of these 

agencies. 

CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY AND FIRE PROTECTION 

The CDFFP employs 2,500 full time personnel. During fire season, the department 

adds an additional 2,500 seasonal workers, bringing the total to approximately 5,000. 

The department currently has nine different first-line engine models. There are 336 

first-line engines, 36 to 40 reserve engines, and 40 camp engines. Last year the department used an additional 10 augmentation engines. These are engines that have 

been replaced, but remain in service until fire season is over. The use of augmentation engines is based on need and is not a standard practice. There are also 19 engines 

at the Training Academy. These have been used in the past to form three strike teams. 

The department is in the process of moving to 100 percent fully enclosed crew cabs to 

replace the engines that still require the crew to ride exposed in the back. At the time 

of this writing, the cost of insurance for each piece of apparatus was approximately 

$175 annually. The Office of Risk Insurance Management (ORIMS) determines the 

cost based on the financial impact of crashes. 

The CDFFP Academy was established in 1967 and is located in Ione, California. Of 

the 19 engines at the academy, 4 are structural Type I and the rest ar e wildland Type 

III. The staff trains approximately 300 potential fire apparatus drivers each year. 

Approximately 200 are trained at the academy and 100 are trained off-site. The academy has classroom facilities, a driving course, practice areas for wildland vehicle 

operations, and a skid pan. It also has dormitory space and its own cafeteria. Students attending the academy reside in the dormitories until their training is complete. 

Acknowledgements 

The following are acknowledged for their expertise and willingness to give of their 

time in support of this project: 

Dave Ebert Chief, State Director of Fire Training 

Paul Sans Battalion Chief, Training Academy 

Rick Brown Senior Equipment Manager 

Benny Aguilar Limited Term Engineer (Driver) 

Darren Dow Limited Term Engineer (Driver) 

FAIRFAX COUNTY (VIRGINIA) FIRE AND RESCUE 

The Fairfax County Fire and Rescue Department is a combination career and volunteer organization providing fire suppression, emergency medical, technical rescue, 

hazardous materials, water rescue, life safety education, fire prevention, and arson 

investigation services. EMS includes advanced life support (ALS) response by paramedic engines and medic transport units. The department also sponsors a FEMA Urban 

Search and Rescue (US&R) Task Force (Virginia Task Force 1). 

The department serves a population of 964,712 and covers a 399-square-mile area 

with a complement of 1,166 uniformed personnel and 12 active volunteer fire departments with 361 operational members. There are 35 stations with the following 

distribution of apparatus: 

35 Paramedic engines 18 Ambulances 

22 Medic units 8 Rescues 

12 Trucks 2 Foam units 

SECTION 2


7 
In 2002, the department made 89,246 total responses, which are categorized as 

follows: 

60,685 – EMS 

23,579 – Suppression

 4,982 – Public service 

Acknowledgements 

The following are acknowledged for their expertise and willingness to give of their 

time in support of this project: 

Charles Atkins Captain, Safety Officer 

Rescue 19 A Shift Personnel 

Engine 24 A Shift Personnel 

Station 8 A Shift Personnel 

Carol Salinger Captain, Safety Officer, Arlington County

 Fire Department 

PHOENIX (ARIZONA) FIRE DEPARTMENT 

The Phoenix Fire Department is one of the busiest fire departments in the United 

States. The department serves a population of 1,387,662 and covers a 485.9-squaremile area with a complement of 1,366 sworn personnel and 332 civilians. The department has 48 fire stations with the following distribution of apparatus: 

41 ALS Engines 12 Brush trucks


13 BLS Engines 5 Tankers


13 Trucks 3 Utility


12 Ladder tenders 8 Special operations (3 Haz mat)


22 BLS Ambulances 7 Air & Foam


 7 ALS Ambulances 10 Support vehicles 

The department also sponsors a FEMA US&R Task Force (Arizona Task Force 1). In 

2002, the department made 185,101 total calls, which are categorized as follows:

 16,339 – Fire 

104,635 – EMS

 563 – Special operations

 11,177 – Miscellaneous

 52,387 – Transports 

Acknowledgements 

The following are acknowledged for their expertise and willingness to give of their 

time in support of this project. 

Kevin Roche Resource Management 

Bill Bjerke Apparatus Supervisor 

Nick Brunacini North Division Commander 

Mike Worrell Engine 18 Captain 

Ryan Dooley Engine 18 Driver 

Kirk Hover Engine 13 Captain 

Nick Petrucci Engine 13 Driver 

Brian Parks Safety Officer 

Louise Smith Dispatch Super visor 

8 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

PLANO (TEXAS) FIRE DEPARTMENT 

The Plano Fire Department is a career organization. The department serves a population of 230,000 and covers approximately 70 square miles with a complement of 

262 uniformed field and 32 suppor t personnel. There are 10 stations with the following distribution of apparatus: 

11 Paramedic Engines 6 Ambulances 4 Paramedic Trucks 

In 2002, the department made 16,498 total responses, which are categorized as 

follows: 

Fires Other Emergency Calls

Structures Medical 9,035 

Residential 148 (including motor vehicle crashes) 

Other 32 

Outside of structures 80 Hazardous conditions 724 

Vehicular 101 Public service 897 

Grass 77 Good intent 1,946 

Dumpster/Refuse 76 False calls 2,559 

Other 9 Undetermined 45 

Cancelled by CAD 1,005 

TOTAL 523 TOTAL 16,211

The Plano Fire Department has established itself as a model for fire departments 

internationally. Plano Fire Department has received Accredited Agency status with 

the Commission on Fire Accreditation International (CFAI) for meeting the criteria 

established through the CFAI’s voluntary self-assessment and accreditation program. 

The department is the second fire department in the country to r eceive accreditation 

from the Commission on Accreditation of Ambulance Services (CAAS) for its compliance with national standards of excellence. 

The City of Plano is one of only 29 cities in the United States to hold a Class 1 Public 

Protection Classification from the Insurance Services Office, Inc. (ISO). The Plano Fire 

Department is the only ISO Class 1, CAFI-accredited and CAAS-accredited fire department in the United States. 

Acknowledgements 

The following are acknowledged for their expertise and willingness to give of their 

time in support of this project: 

William Peterson Fire Chief 

Kirk Owen Division Chief (Support Services and Operations) 

Alan Storck Section Chief (Training, Safety) 

Tami Laake Risk Management 

Jay Benton Captain, Station 2 

Mark McKown Fire Apparatus Operator (Driver), Station 2 

Michael Covey Firefighter, Station 2 

Chris Mougia Firefighter, Station 2 

Billy Lay Captain, Station 5 

Allen Light Lieutenant, Station 5 

Jack Miller Fire Apparatus Operator (Driver), Station 5 

Eric Everson Firefighter, Station 5 

Robert Hogan Firefighter, Station 5 

Toby Peacock Captain, Station 5 

Les Ruble Fire Apparatus Operator (Driver), Station 5 

Jeffrey Deskeere Firefighter, Station 5 

Mark Doerr Firefighter, Station 5 

Shawn Childress Firefighter, Station 5 

Keil Baldia Firefighter, Station 5 

SACRAMENTO (CALIFORNIA) REGIONAL DRIVER TRAINING FACILITY 

AGENCY PROFILES 9 
The Sacramento Regional Driver Training Facility was established in response 

to an increase in vehicular crashes, fatalities, and increased financial loss. To 

save costs, the Sacramento City Fire Department, Sacramento City Police Department, and the Sacramento County Sheriff’s Department entered into a Joint 

Powers (Interagency) Agreement (JPA) for staffing and operating the facility. 

Sacramento Metro Fire Department is a participating par tner. The training facility is 

located on the former Mather AFB Alert Pad 

and was opened in mid-1999. The driving 

course was designed by the Emergency Vehicle 

Operations Course (EVOC) instructors and includes a skid pan that can handle sedans, 

ambulances, and engines (Figure 2-1). 

Four full-time and two part-time fire instructors, six full-time and three part-time police 

Figure 2-1. Sacramento Regional Training Center skid pan. e 2-1. instructors, and four full-time county sheriff

instructors staff the facility. Fire personnel are 

cycled through the facility for annual training. Law enforcement personnel 

train on a 2-year cycle. The facility trains 900 to 1,100 fire personnel and 900 to 

1,100 law enforcement personnel yearly. In addition, training is offered to any 

other government agency willing to enter into a cooperative agreement and 

pay a fee for the service. At the time of this writing, the facility costs approximately $3,000,000 a year to operate. The city contributed approximately $1.3 

million and the county contributed approximately $1.7 million of the cost to 

maintain the facility. 

Acknowledgements 

The following are acknowledged for their expertise and willingness to give of 

their time in support of this project: 

Bill Myers Lieutenant, Sacramento County Sheriffs Office 

Lloyd Ogan Captain, Sacramento City Fire Department 

SALT LAKE VALLEY (UTAH) AREA 

Four agencies were interviewed in this area. The profiles of the fire departments 

and dispatch center are included here. The profile of the fourth agency, the 

Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), is included in the final profile of this 

section. 

West Valley Fire Department 

West Valley Fire Department serves a population of 114,000 and covers 42 square 

miles with 80 uniformed personnel. The department has five stations and six 

companies with the following distribution of apparatus: 

3 ALS Type 1 engines 1 Raceway response unit 

1 Tele-Squirt ALS engine 1 Decon trailer 

1 Truck 1 Technical rescue squad 

1 Haz mat squad 

In 2002, the department made 9,200 responses, with 82 percent being medical in nature. The department currently provides only ALS first response, but is 

in the process of assuming the entire EMS service. 

10 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

Murray Fire Department 

Murray Fire Department serves a population of 44,000 (with a daytime population of 

approximately 100,000) and covers 12 square miles with 50 uniformed personnel. 

The City of Murray recently annexed some of the surrounding area, so the department was in the process of conducting surveys to determine additional personnel/ 

apparatus needs. The department has three stations with the following distribution 

of apparatus: 

1 ALS squad 1 Haz mat squad


1 ALS engine 1 Utility


1 BLS engine 1 Brush truck


1 Truck


In 2002, the department made 3,117 total responses, which are categorized as 

follows: 

1,148 Fire 

1,757 EMS 

212 miscellaneous 

This includes 324 traffic incidents and 17 auto/pedestrian responses. The department has an average response time of less than 2 minutes. 

Valley Emergency Communications Center (VECC) 

The Valley Emergency Communications Center (VECC) is a 36,000-square-foot, stateof-the-art facility that provides dispatch services to nine fire departments, eight police departments, public works, 

and animal control in the valley. 

The services cover a population of 

3/4 million. The Center averages 

4,000 calls per day, with 2,200 to 

2,400 of those calls resulting in a 

dispatch of services. The Center is 

funded by a charge per call assessed to each department. 

The Center employs 3 managers, 10 supervisors, and 108 

dispatchers. Based on call volume, Figures 2-2 a and b. Figures 2-2 a and b. The VECC Fire Dispatch Pod. 18 to 36 dispatchers are on duty 

at any given time. The Center is 

organized in three distinct dispatch pods — call takers, fire dispatchers, and 

police dispatchers (Figures 2-2 a and b). 

Television monitors allow dispatchers to view certain traffic intersections 

through links to the Traffic Operations Center, Commuterlink cameras (Fig-­

ure 2-3) . The link provides views of inters e 2-3) ections selected by Traffic Operations. 

The Center has no direct control of the cameras. 

Acknowledgements 

The following are acknowledged for their expertise and willingness to give Figure 2-3. VECC Television Traffic Center. e 2-3.

of their time in support of this project: 

John Evans Assistant Chief, West Valley Fire Department 

Terry Hansen Captain, HazMat 

Russ Carr Captain, Engine 75 Murray Fire Department 

Randy Willden Battalion Chief 

Brad Freeman Captain, Truck 81 Valley Emergency

 Communications Center (VECC)


Nancy McKean Manager of Training and Professional Services


AGENCY PROFILES
 11 
VENTURA COUNTY (CALIFORNIA) FIRE DEPARTMENT 

In addition to the unincorporated areas, Ventura County Fire Department provides 

service to six cities within the county. The department covers 1,873 square miles, of 

which 860 square miles is a forest reserve. Service is provided to a total population of 

452,584. The department has a complement of 549 personnel; 417 of those are sworn. 

There are 32 stations with the following distribution of apparatus: 

50 Engines, Type I structural 15 Specialized response vehicles 

10 Engines, Type III wildland 41 Fire crew/Construction vehicles 

4 Trucks 21 Utility vehicles

 2 Paramedic squads 113 Staff/Support fleet vehicles

 9 Command vehicles 

Acknowledgements 

The following are acknowledged for their expertise and willingness to give of their 

time in support of this project: 

David Festerling Deputy Chief 

Mike Sandwick Battalion Chief, Training 

Kenny Kappen Captain, Training 

Terry Lamb Firefighter, Training 

Larry Jones Fire Safety Risk Manager 

Mark Karr Captain 

Larry Brister Captain 

Kevin Miller Engine Driver 

Michael Fine Firefighter 

Martin Gonzalez Firefighter 

Greg Chavez Firefighter 

Richard Snyder General Manager, FAAC 

VIRGINIA BEACH (VIRGINIA) FIRE AND RESCUE DEPARTMENT 

The Virginia Beach Fire and Rescue Department is a career organization. In addition 

to fire suppression, the department provides basic life support (BLS) emergency medical care from engine, truck, and heavy rescue companies. The minimum certification 

for members assigned to these units is Emergency Medical Technician - Basic (EMT-B). 

The department also provides the opportunity for those holding ALS certifications to 

practice these skills. Each engine, truck, and heavy rescue company is assigned the 

necessary ALS equipment to fully function as the primary care provider for patients 

requiring advanced prehospital care. 

The department has several specialty companies. The haz mat team is a partner in 

the Southside Regional Hazardous Materials response team. The technical rescue team 

is tasked with responding to emergency operations involving structural collapse incidents, trench and excavation collapse, confined space rescue, vehicle and machinery 

extrication, and high-angle rope rescue. The marine operations team maintains and 

operates a 21-foot vessel in the City of Virginia Beach and can respond within the 

port of Hampton Roads as requested. The team assists the Coast Guard and may be 

requested by any agency for assistance. The department also sponsors a FEMA US&R 

Task Force (Virginia Task Force II). 

The department serves a population of approximately 439,257 people and covers 

258.7 square miles of land area and 51.3 square miles of water area with a complement of 438 employees of which 413 are uniform personnel. There are 19 stations 

with the following distribution of apparatus: 

21 Engines 11 Brush trucks


 6 Trucks 2 Heavy rescue


 4 Battalions 2 Tankers


 1 Trench rescue 

12 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
The department averages 25,000 responses a year. The 2002 responses are categorized as follows: 

Incidents Type Number

Fire 8,704 

EMS 15,648 

Hazardous Materials 442 

Other 2,491 

False Alarms 1,694 

TOTAL 28,979

Acknowledgements 

The following are acknowledged for their expertise and willingness to give of their 

time in support of this project: 

Virginia Beach Fire Depar e Department

David W. Land Deputy Chief — Operations 

John W. Harvey Battalion Chief — Safety and Health 

Patrick Cameron Captain — B Shift Safety Officer 

Steve Miles Captain — A Shift Safety Officer 

Captain Ray Irrizary and 7 fire fighters Fire Station 8 — A Shift 

Captain Pat Ehle and 7 fire fighters Fire Station 9 — B Shift 

City of V City of VCity of Virginia Beach

Keith Barron Risk Management Administrator 

Ron Knowles Engineer — Highways Department 

Mike Shasiah Engineer — Highways Department 

INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS 

Two intelligent transportation system traffic centers were visited in the course of gathering information. 

Commuterlink, Salt Lake City, Utah 

The Utah Department of Transportation (UDOT) Commuterlink Traffic Operations 

Center (TOC) monitors and assesses the conditions of more than 85 miles of freeway 

system. The system currently uses 221 cameras mounted on 45-foot poles and spaced 

1/2 mile apart. The Center can pan, tilt, and zoom the cameras. The cameras feed 

information across 250 miles of fiber optic cable with 13 hubs. The center also uses 61 

variable message signs (VMS) and a highway advisory radio system to transmit current traffic information. Information from the cameras is fed to the control room’s 

main screens (Figures 2-4 a and b). 

Figures 2-4 a and b. The UDOT TOC console and main screen. 

AGENCY PROFILES 13 
Congestion sensors are designed to detect traffic volume, speed, and congestion on 

freeways and surface streets in real time. Traffic sensors are spaced every 1/2 mile 

along the freeways. Weather recording stations and pavement icing sensors placed at 

key locations on the State highway system are used to alert motorists to snow-packed 

and icy conditions and to improve winter road maintenance and snow removal. The 

TOC is operational Monday through Friday, 5 a.m. to 11 p.m.; Saturday and Sunday, 

10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Dispatchers are on call 7 days/week, 24 hours/day. The TOC provides a variety of traffic control, including: 

•	 ramp meters on I-15 in Salt Lake and Davis Counties; 

•	 variable message signs in Salt Lake and Davis Counties; 

•	 portable trailer-mounted variable message signs; 

•	 changeable directional signs; 

•	 highway advisory radio; 

•	 Incident Management Teams (IMT’s); and 

•	 distribution of traffic information via the Internet, live video feeds to local media, and emergency dispatch centers. 

Two operators staff the Control Room on each shift, and a third operator is added 

during peak hours. Operators are responsible for the following: 

•	 answer telephones; 

•	 monitor and control views of traffic cameras; 

•	 monitor police radio; 

•	 monitor CAD data; 

•	 monitor road conditions using sensor data; 

•	 control VMS, traffic signals, and highway advisory radio; 

•	 update Web site; and 

• alert UDOT personnel and update UDOT road conditions hotline. 

The IMT’s cover approximately 140 miles over three interstates and a major highway traffic corridor. The teams operate from 6:30 a.m.to 7:00 p.m., 5 days a week, 

with personnel working 10-hour shifts. There are six IMT trucks: Three trucks are on 

the roads on Monday, six trucks operate Tuesday through Thursday, and three trucks 

operate on Friday. In addition to assisting at accident scenes, the IMT’s perform a 

variety of motorist assist services, including tire changes/inflation, jump starts, adding water to a radiator, etc. 

Acknowledgements 

The following are acknowledged for their expertise and willingness to give of their 

time in support of this project: 

David Kinnecom Traffic Operations Engineer 

Denny Simmons Traffic Control Room Supervisor 

Billy Frashure Incident Management Specialist 

Deryl Mayhew Region Two Signal Engineer 

Additional information about Utah’s ITS, Commuterlink, and the TOC is available 

online at: http://www.commuterlink.utah.gov 

or by contacting: 

UDOT Traffic Operations Center


2010 South 2760


West Salt Lake City, Utah 84104


14 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

Smart Traffic Center, Hampton Roads, Virginia 

The Virginia Depar tment of Transportation (VDOT) Hampton Roads 

Smart Traffic Center monitors and assesses the conditions of 113 

miles of interstate system using an advanced computer system linked 

to video cameras along the roadside and electronic sensors (Figure (Figure

2-5). The sensors, designed to detect deviations in traffic patterns, 2-5)

are linked by fiber optic cable to the center’s computer system. The 

cameras allow the traffic controller to zoom in on traffic incidents 

from the center. 

The system currently uses 288 cameras mounted on 40-foot poles 

and spaced 1/2 mile apart. The cameras feed information across 

522 miles of fiber optic cable to 70 TV screens in the control center. e 2-5. The Hampton Roads (Virginia) Smart The center also uses 244 VMS and a highway advisory radio system Figure 2-5. 

Traf fic Center. to transmit current traffic information. 

The center is operational 24 hours/day, 7 days/week. Controllers 

perform a variety of duties including: 

•	 assess traffic patterns via closed-circuit video cameras; 

•	 dispatch the Freeway Incident Response Team (FIRT) units to highway incidents; 

•	 disseminate real-time traffic-related information via the Highway Advisory Radio and VMS;


• operate the I-64 HOV Reversible Roadway access gates;


•	 initiate and verify all VMS messages; 

•	 support additional VDOT facilities (bridge openings, tunnel maintenance, etc); 

•	 enter data and document information from daily operations via multiple soft­


ware applications;


•	 share r esources with VDOT facilities and bordering jurisdictions (including Trans­


portation Emergency Operations Center);


•	 incident management support and coordination; and 

•	 monitor radio communications between emergency responder agencies and the


associated units.


The FIRT units patrol over 60 miles of interstate in the Hampton Roads area and 

perform a variety of motorist assist services, including tire changes/inflation, jump 

starts, adding water to a radiator, etc. Additional information on the Hampton Roads 

Smart Traffic Center is available online at: http://www.virginiadot.org/comtravel or 

can be requested via e-mail at hamptonroadsinfo@vdot.state.va.us. FIRT patrollers 

are dressed in highly visible apparel that meets ANSI standards (Figures 2-6 and

2-7). 

Figure 2-6. FIRT vehicle.	 Figure 2-6. Figure 2-7.FIRT patroller.

AGENCY PROFILES 15 
Acknowledgements 

The following are acknowledged for their expertise and willingness to give of their 

time in support of this project: 

Erika Ricks Traffic Information Specialist 

Ryan McLean Lead Traffic Controller 

16 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

APPARATUS SAFETY 

DEVICES 

INTRODUCTION 

This section reviews a variety of devices and markings that are placed on the apparatus. These markings and devices are used to improve the safety of firefighters riding 

in the apparatus, working at an emergency scene, and all those working in close 

proximity to the apparatus. Markings and lighting colors/patterns are used to increase the visibility of the apparatus. Some apparatus also incorporate devices that 

serve as reminders for personnel to follow safe practices when operating the apparatus. These devices range from simple markings to sophisticated technologies that 

monitor apparatus operation. 

MARKINGS 

The visibility of apparatus is a key component of responder safety. The following 

section examines the impact of vehicle striping and other markings. 

Vehicle Striping 

Retroreflective striping around the perimeter of fire apparatus is required in NFPA 

1901, Standard for Automotive Fire Apparatus. The minimum requirements of the 

standard are intended to illuminate fire apparatus at night when visibility is limited. 

The retroreflective strip reflects the light produced by headlights and streetlights to 

provide an indication of the location and size of the apparatus. Recent additions to 

the standard require striping inside cab doors to help alert drivers to an open door

The Phoenix, Arizona, Fire Department began using reflective striping in 1984. All 

vehicle striping installed on the front, sides, and back of the apparatus comply with 

NFPA 1901. The department implemented significant changes to its striping package 

in 1988 with the purchase of a large number of engines. Figures 3-1 a and b a and b show 

both the NFPA-required white striping and an additional strip of red and white striping that is incorporated into rub rails at the base of the body. All apparatus lettering 

also is produced with retroreflective materials, adding to the visibility of the apparatus. The estimated cost of the additional striping and lettering was approximately 

$500 per unit. 

. 

SECTION 3 

Figures 3-1 a and b. es 3-1 a and b. Phoenix fire es 3-1 a and b. apparatus have NFPA-r equired striping and optional DOT-style, red/white truck reflective markings.

17 
The white stripe above is required by NFPA 1901. The red and white stripe at the 

bottom of the body is supplemental retroreflective marking incorporated into the rub 

rail. 

The pattern of the additional red and white striping along the rub rails is that 

required by NHTSA for commercial trailers and truck tractors and is often referred to 

as “DOT conspicuity striping.” This material is widely available and inexpensive. 

Although adding some expense, incorporating the striping into the vehicle’s rub rails 

adds protection for the striping material. More information on the conspicuity requirements for commercial trucks and tractors can be found online at: 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/pdfs/consp.pdf 

The Plano, Texas, Fire Department marks apparatus with conspicuous, contrasting colors to improve driver recognition while the apparatus is on the roadways, both 

moving and stopped. While a great deal of attention and money is spent to make the 

front of fire apparatus conspicuous, many fire departments pay very little attention 

to the rear of the apparatus. Plano’s current vehicle marking system has been in 

effect since approximately 1998. It is based on markings that the fire chief observed 

on the rear of fire and law enforcement vehicles while in the United Kingdom. Vehicle 

markings are reviewed regularly to determine if the pattern can be redesigned to be 

more noticeable. 

The rear of the apparatus has a barricade patter n with 6 inch red stripes on a limeyellow background (Figures 3-2 a through c). The lime-yellow sheets go on the (Figures 3-2 a through c)

smooth surfaces of the rear of the apparatus. The 6 inch red stripes go over the limeyellow background. The cost of the herringbone pattern on the rear of apparatus was 

approximately $1,000/unit. 

Figures 3-2 a through c. Plano apparatus feature U.K.-style reflective patterns on the rear of the vehicle. 

The specifications for the barricade pattern are 

• Lime-yellow background material: 3M Scotchlite® Diamond Grade Fluorescent LDP Reflective Sheeting — 3963 — Yellow Green. 

• Red 6-inch diagonal stripes: Scotchlite® Electronic Cuttable Film — 1172 — 

Red. 

Optional treatments for the rear barricade pattern: 

• 1160 Protective Overlay Film. (This is like putting Teflon over the reflective 

film, making it easier to clean.) 

• 880i (ink) clear edge seal. (This keeps the dirt out of the first row of cells at the 

edge of the sheeting.) 

18 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
The striping reflects brightly off lights, chrome, etc., and is very visible to the traffic 

that faces the rear of apparatus, especially at night. Personnel provided a specific 

example of the improved vehicle visibility: While they were driving to another department for a night training exercise, tractor-trailer drivers commented on the citizen’s 

band radio about the brightness of the design. The visibility of the rear marking is 

decreased at incident scenes when an apparatus is angled to provide blocking protection for emergency workers. 

Although not used by any of the departments that were visited in the preparation 

of this report, fluorescent apparatus paint is also available. This paint adds to the 

visibility of the apparatus in daylight and at night. The paint tends to be more expensive than standard apparatus finishes. 

Other Markings 

Phoenix fire apparatus have several reminder markings for safety. There is a reminder posted on the 

windshield above the driver to use a backer while in 

reverse (Figure 3-3) . There are also height remind­ (Figure 3-3)

ers posted on both the mirror and windshield 

(Figure 3-4) and an internally mounted “DO NOT e 3-4)

MOVE” light (Figure 3-5). The “DO NOT MOVE” (Figure 3-5)

light is activated if any cab or compartment door is 

open. This light is required by NFPA 1901. An audible buzzer is another way to alert apparatus drivers 

and officers of an open cab or compartment door. 

The buzzer should have a cutoff feature that disables it when the vehicle’s parking brake is set. This 

will avoid excessive background noise if the Inci- Figure. 3-3. This reminder to have spotters is used on Phoenix fire Figure. 3-3. dent Commander operates from inside the cab. apparatus. 

Figure. 3-4. Reminding the driver of the vehicle height is important. Figure. 3-4. Figure. 3-5. The “DO NOT MOVE” light on a Phoenix engine company. e. 3-5.

RESTRAINTS 

NFPA 1500, Standard Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program, specifies the mandatory use 

of restraints during both emergency and nonemergency response. It can be difficult for company officers to 

assure all responders are in compliance when the restraints are a neutral color that blends in against apparel. 

Plano, Fire Department apparatus have orange-colored seat restraints to make it easier for the officer and 

others to assure that all personnel are restrained before the apparatus moves. The rearview mirror above the 

APPARATUS SAFETY DEVICES
 19 
officer’s seat allows him/her to assure that all personnel are wearing restraints without the distraction of having to turn around (Figures 3-6 a and b). 

A recent change to NFPA 1901 requires red seatbelt webbing (section 14.1.3.1). 

This change was based on a public comment received by the NFPA apparatus committee from participants of the EVSI forums. After review, the committee voted to 

include the requirement in the new edition of the standard. All fire apparatus built to 

NFPA 1901 will incorporate this safety feature. 

Figures 3-6 a and b. Orange restraints and the of ficer’s seat rearview mirror on Plano fire apparatus. 

WARNING LIGHTS 

A system of optical warning devices (warning lights) is required by NFPA 1901 for all 

fire apparatus. The standard addresses emergency lighting in the upper and lower 

zones of the apparatus and the requirements for all four sides. The standard segments the required emergency lighting into two modes. 

The ‘calling for right of way’ mode describes the emergency lights that operate as 

the vehicle is in motion or responding to the scene of the emergency. These lights are 

designed to catch the attention of other drivers and pedestrians, give them notice 

that the fire apparatus is approaching, and allow them time to yield to the apparatus. The ‘blocking right of way’ mode describes the lights that operate when the fire 

apparatus is parked on the scene of the emergency. This lighting is intended to alert 

drivers that the vehicle is stopped and allow the drivers to take action to avoid colliding with the parked emergency vehicle. 

NFPA 1901 allows the use of red and blue emergency lights in both modes. Clear 

(white) lights are not allowed to project toward the rear of the apparatus while in the 

‘calling for right of way’ mode and are not allowed to operate at all when the vehicle 

is in the ‘blocking right of way’ mode. Clear lights to the rear of the apparatus can 

blind drivers behind the emergency vehicle as it is in motion, and blind drivers approaching from any direction if used on the scene of an emergency. Amber (yellow) 

lights are allowed to project only forward when the vehicle is in the ‘calling for right 

of way’ mode, but may project in any direction while the vehicle is in the ‘blocking 

right of way’ mode. 

Authorization to operate different colors of warning lights varies by State and different light colors may have alternate designations. For example, blue lights signify 

a volunteer firefighter in New York State, while blue lights represent law enforcement, 

EMS, and fire vehicles in other parts of the countr y. 

20 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

The most effective lighting continues to be debated. What is known is that visibility, conspicuity, driver attention, and driver expectancy are the factors that determine 

whether an object is perceived appropriately.1 Visibility and conspicuity must be 

considered in the design of warning lights because these factors are not highly dependent on driver behavior.2 

The sensitivity of human vision peaks in the yellow-green portion of the spectrum. 

It has been established that white is the most visible color for warning lights, followed 

by green, amber, and red.3 White alone fails to identify an emergency vehicle. Although green is visually effective, it is viewed as a “go,” or “safe,” color in our society.4 

Yellow and red signify “danger,” which led to their popularity as warning and caution identifiers. 

The California Highway Patrol (CHP) conducted studies in 1971 and 1974 to determine if vehicle lighting factors were responsible for an increase in rear-end collisions. 

Their data was inconclusive and did not include side-swipe incidents.5 However, the 

studies did stimulate further research by Stafford, Rockwell, and Banasik6 in 1970 

and Jan Berkhout7 in 1979. Both follow-on studies showed the color blue induced an 

illusion of approaching motion and the color red induced an illusion of receding 

motion. 

Plano Fire Department uses additional lighting of a contrasting color to the vehicles. Figures 3-7 a and b show the department’s r ed EMS units with two contrasting es 3-7 a and b

blue strobes on the light bar and one blue strobe under each headlight to contrast the 

red color of the vehicle. 

Figures 3-7 a and b. Contrasting blue lights on Plano ambulances. Figures 3-7 a and b.

In 1994, a Phoenix Fire Department firefighter was killed when struck by a passing vehicle. Following the 

fatality, the department studied onscene emergency lighting. Findings suggested that amber (yellow) lighting 

was less likely to blind drivers and also less likely to draw the interest and attention of passing drivers. It was 

thought that approaching drivers (seeing amber lights rather than red, clear, or blue) would believe that they 

were approaching a highway or tow truck rather than an emergency scene and take action to avoid the hazard. It was also believed that drivers seeing red, clear, or blue lights were more likely to take an interest in 

examining the scene as they passed. This could divert their attention long enough to cause a crash or could 

actually draw drivers to the flashing lights. 

At the time of this writing, 10 engines were configured for all nonamber warning lights (clear, red, and blue) 

to go off when the apparatus parking brake was engaged. Amber lights on all four sides of the apparatus are 

the only functioning lights in the ‘blocking right of way’ mode. The amber lights are not tied to directional 

arrows. Figures 3-8 a and b (on page 22) show the amber lighting configuration on the front and the rotating Figures 3-8 a and b

amber light on the side of the engine. 

APPARATUS SAFETY DEVICES
 21 
Figures 3-8 a and b. Figures 3-8 a and b. Amber lighting used on Phoenix fire apparatus. 

The apparatus is equipped with an override switch that allows the 

driver to continue using the warning lights, except clear flashers, even 

when the parking brake is engaged (Figure 3-9). The estimated cost of (Figure 3-9)

installing this system was $200 per unit. The estimated amperage drawn 

on apparatus when only amber lights are operating is 30 amps, as 

opposed to 100 amps when the override is activated and 130 amps 

when the unit is responding with lights and siren. 

According to maintenance personnel, the additional relays, overrides, and interlocks on warning lights have had minimal to no effect 

on apparatus maintenance frequency or severity. 

Personnel interviewed believed that many companies routinely used 

the override at scenes. Interviews with line personnel revealed that 

some used the override routinely during daytime operations but not at 

Figure 3-9. The amber lighting override. night, believing the amber lights alone do not provide the necessary 

visibility during daylight hours. No personnel interviewed noticed a 

difference in traffic reaction to all amber lights when operating on scenes. 

Figure 3-9Figure 3-9

ELECTRONIC MONITORING EQUIPMENT 

Modern technology has provided the fire service with a variety of electronic devices 

that can assist in improving fire apparatus and firefighter safety. The following section highlights some of the devices that are installed on modern fire apparatus. 

Backing Cameras 

Backing cameras are installed on all Murray, Utah, Fire Department engines and 

trucks. The cost of the cameras was approximately $475 each, uninstalled. These 

cameras are mounted on the rear of the apparatus with the screen mounted next to 

the driver (Figures 3-10 a and b). Figure 3-11 shows the view provided by the backup Figure 3-11

camera. The apparatus is parked in the bay with the rear doors open. 

Figure 3-11. The cab-mounted monitor allows Figure 3-11.

the driver to view the area behind the 

Figures 3-10 a and b. Backing cameras are installed on the rear of the apparatus. Figures 3-10 a and b. apparatus.

22 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
Even though cameras provide an additional measure of safety, they do not substitute for spotters. NFPA 1500 requires spotters for backing, regardless of whether the 

apparatus is equipped with cameras or other backing safety equipment. 

Recording Cameras 

The City of Plano installed the DriveCam® in 911 city vehicles, including fire department apparatus (Figure 3-12). The DriveCam® is a palm-sized video event data (Figure 3-12)

recorder that mounts inside the vehicle behind the rearview mirror and monitors 

driving activity continuously. The cost was approximately $1,000 per unit, uninstalled. 

The unit monitors video, audio, and four directional G-forces caused by activities 

such as hard braking, sudden acceleration, hard cornering, and/or collisions. Data 

collected through monitoring are purged on a first-in, first-out sequence, unless the 

device is triggered to record. When any directional G-force exceeds the preset 

threshold, the event is recorded for later 

viewing. A recorded event contains the 

data from 10 seconds prior and 10 seconds after recording is triggered. The 

driver can also activate the unit manually at any time. The unit can store 17 

to 24 incidents in its flash memory. Incidents are downloaded from the 

camera to a computer for viewing. 

The city plans to use the data 

from the units to review accidents 

involving city vehicles, as well as 

for legal purposes. Although the 

specific data analysis has not 

begun, the city Risk 

Management department is 

currently working to incorporate 

the information gathered from 

the DriveCam® into their Figure 3-12. The DriveCam® that is installed on Plano fire apparatus. Photo courtesy of 

RiskManager® software package Chereskin Communications 

in an effort to better track losses 

from vehicular-related incidents. 

Figure 3-12.

On-Board Computers 

Another electronic device used to monitor the safety of drivers is the on-board computer, commonly called the Black Box. The Black Box monitors parameters including 

speed, rpm, vehicle stops, excess idle time, overspeeds, over rpm’s, hard accelerations, hard decelerations and daily distance. If specified by an organization, the system 

can also monitor the use of restraints, turn signals, brakes, emergency lights, siren, 

auxiliary power, doors, and warning lamps. It provides feedback to the driver when 

unsafe or aggressive actions are taken and keeps a computer log of driver performance. 

When the driver begins to operate the vehicle in an unsafe manner, the system 

produces an audible warning tone, much like a Geiger counter. If the warning is 

ignored, the system produces a steady tone. This tone alerts the driver that the system 

has started recording the occurrence. The computer log information can be downloaded to an office computer for analysis or has an option to transmit data wirelessly 

to a central data collection point. The program also contains preformatted reports. 

At the time of this writing, the cost of the system was approximately $2,500. 

APPARATUS SAFETY DEVICES
 23 
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR APPARATUS SAFETY DEVICES 

•	 Mark apparatus with conspicuous, contrasting colors. 

•	 Consider visibility and conspicuity when designing color and placement of additional warning lights on vehicles. 

•	 Consider contrasting colored restraints and a rearview mirror above the officer’s 

seat. 

•	 Use spotters when backing the apparatus. 

1 Hills, B.L. (1980). as cited in DeLorenzo, R. & Eilers, M. (1991). Lights and siren: A review of

 emergency vehicle warning systems. Annals of Emergency Medicine, online. 2 DeLorenzo, R. & Eilers, M. (1991). Lights and siren: A review of emergency vehicle warning

 systems. Annals of Emergency Medicine, online. 

3 Allen, M., Strickland, J., & Adams, A. (1967). as cited in DeLorenzo, R. & Eilers, M., op. cit.


4 Scarano, S. (1981). as cited in DeLorenzo, R. & Eilers, M. (1991), op. cit.


5 Davis, C.C. (1982). Accidents involving stopped vehicles on freeway shoulders. Automobile


 Club of Southern California. 

6 Stafford, R.R., Rockwell, T.H., & Banasik, C.R. (1970) as cited in Davis, C.C., op. cit. 

7 Hills, B.L. (1980). as cited in DeLorenzo, R. & Eilers, M. (1991), op. cit. 

24 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

TRAFFIC CONTROL 

MEASURES 

INTRODUCTION 

Control and navigation of busy intersections is a dangerous situation during a response. Numerous studies have shown that intersections are the most likely location 

for an emergency vehicle to be involved in a crash. Managing traffic flow during 

highway operations also is critical to the safety of responders. This section reviews the 

use of optical preemption for safely navigating controlled intersections and the use of 

State DOT ITS and highway response teams to assist in traffic management during 

highway operations. Although this discussion focuses on Opticom®, the brand used 

by the departments visited, the reader should be aware there are several other manufacturers of preemption devices. 

OPTICAL PREEMPTION 

Optical preemption is one method of improving navigation through intersections 

when responding in the emergency mode. The safety of both civilian drivers and 

responders is improved when emergency vehicles cross through an intersection on a 

green light. Responders can control signals with optical preemption, resulting in a 

green light when the emergency vehicle arrives at the intersection. Initiating optical 

preemption usually provides adequate time for civilian traffic to clear the intersection before an emergency vehicle arrives. 

The majority of the fire departments in the Salt Lake Valley have optical preemption devices installed on at least some major intersection traffic lights. The Murray 

Fire Department was the first to install the devices, and has used optical preemption 

for over 8 years. At the time of this writing, 75 percent of the city’s major intersections 

were covered with optical preemption. Optical preemption installation is required 

now on all new controlled intersections built in the city. 

Response time was not a factor for installing optical preemption. The decision to 

install the devices and the choice of brand (3M Opticom®) used in Murray was made 

by a previous chief who came from an area that had optical preemption. The department budgets for the installation of the device on one major existing intersection per 

year. The cost to the department for 2003 was $5,500. Other brands were reviewed, 

but there was a question of compatibility with existing units. 

UDOT approves the installation of traffic signal preemption by Salt Lake Valley 

area fire departments and requires a signed agreement from each department. The 

agreement requires the city to pay for installation, and UDOT agrees to maintain the 

signal devices. Some cities now require developers to pay for installation of preemption as the traffic signals are installed. UDOT must also approve the vendor. This 

requirement was implemented to assure that preemption devices are able to identify 

and code units and to prevent vendor monopoly. Although one goal is to prevent 

vendor monopoly, the engineers agree that followup on compliance has not been a 

priority. The UDOT agreement form can be found in Appendix B. 

The decision to install the devices in Virginia Beach was based on increasing traffic 

volume resulting in traffic jams at key intersections, an increase in the number of 

blind intersections, and an increase in the number of near-misses for emergency vehicles. In 1993, the Traffic Engineering Division of the Highways Department made 

the decision to use 3M Opticom®. It was selected because: 

•	 It had been tested and used by other local governments. 

•	 Traffic Engineering can control the system. The system identifies each vehicle 

that uses the device, including date and time. This prevents unauthorized use. 

•	 The system is customized for use by fire and EMS only. 

SECTION 4


25 
The Traffic Engineering Division maintains 330 controlled intersections in Virginia 

Beach. As of June 2003, the preemption device was installed on 45 of those intersections. At the time of this writing, the cost of installation was $7,500 per intersection. 

Opticom® has two settings, high and low. Both areas have it set on high, which 

activates the traffic signal from 1/2 mile away and holds it on green for 15 seconds 

after it loses the preemption signal. It takes approximately 12 additional minutes to 

recycle the signal back to the 

ITS setting. The device does 

have limitations. The emitter functions on line-of-sight 

(Figure 4-1). Any obstruction (Figure 4-1)

to that line of sight, such as 

signals that are around 

curves or are blocked by trees 

in a median, results in a failure to activate the signal 

change until they are 

cleared. Fog and snow also 

can decrease the distance of 

activation. 

All Vir ginia Beach Fire 

and Rescue marked vehicles 

have the preemption device 

installed. Installation of the 

device on the light bar is part 

of the specification and bid 

process for all new appara- Figure 4-1. The Opticom® Priority Control System line-of-sight. tus and has significantly Courtesy of 3M Manufacturing 

Figure 4-1. Figure 4-1.

increased the cost (Figure 4- (Figure 4­(Figure 4- (Figure 4-(Figure 4-

2a). Installation includes an 2a)

automatic control that activates the device when the warning lights are turned on 

and deactivates the device when the parking brake is applied. Reserve units are being upgraded as older units are retired. 

All Murray Fire Department vehicles with light bars have the device (Figure 4-2b). 

Although the device is deactivated automatically when the lights are shut off or the 

parking brake is engaged on new apparatus, the department has experienced a probFigure 4-2b. This emitter is independent of the vehicle warning light Figure 4-2b.

Figure 4-2a. This emitter is mounted within the warning light bar. e 4-2a. bar.

26 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
lem with personnel failing to manually deactivate the signal on some older apparatus. Emission control in the older apparatus is tied to door opening or switches. Failure 

to manually deactivate has resulted in holding the light at green and tying up traffic 

for a considerable distance. It has often taken someone else to notice the traffic back 

up and call the apparatus to tell them to deactivate the device. 

Training Personnel 

The manufacturer provided the initial training for personnel when the device was 

first installed on the Murray Fire Department vehicles. The department then set up 

driver training to practice device activation and observation of results. The initial 

installation brought calls from citizens questioning what was happening. The department sent an information flyer in the public works bill to explain the new system 

to all citizens. When the device was installed on Virginia Beach Fire and Rescue vehicles, guidelines for operation were sent to personnel in a departmental directive 

that was passed from the chief down through the ranks. Training was completed instation by the captains. 

Effects on Traffic 

The use of optical preemption devices has notable affects on intersection control by 

approaching emergency vehicles and the response by civilian motorists. Some of these 

are highlighted as follows. 

INTERSECTION CONTROL 

A major problem can arise if apparatus from opposing directions attempt to control 

the signal at the same time. In 1990, the Plano, Texas, Fire Department had a serious 

crash between department apparatus when an engine proceeded against the red light 

after a ladder truck already had the preemption. The engine driver was so used to 

capturing the light that he assumed he had captured the light when he had not. 

Both Virginia Beach and Murray department personnel cited occasional instances 

of opposing vehicles attempting to control the signal. Since drivers understand that 

the first unit to activate the preemption device is the unit that controls the intersection, this has never resulted in any mishaps. Both departments’ policies require units 

to stop at red lights before proceeding. 

CIVILIAN DRIVER RESPONSE 

Even though both departments activate the unit from the same 1/2-mile distance, 

descriptions of the preemption’s effect on civilian driver behavior by department personnel were almost opposite. Murray Fire Department line personnel stated the 

preemption usually clears the intersection before the unit arrives and allows it to 

keep rolling at a safe and relatively steady speed. Personnel have had no problems 

with drivers appearing confused or not clearing the intersection. Preemption also has 

eliminated the need for units to jump medians to get around intersection traffic, 

which reduced replacement of chassis springs. 

Line personnel from Virginia Beach described a variety of motorist responses to 

signal preemption, including: 

•	 appears visibly shocked/surprised; 

•	 slams on brakes; 

•	 displays visible anger if more than one unit preempts the light while they are 

stopped; 

•	 unaware that the light has been preempted; and 

•	 proceeds through the preempted light anyway — this occurs more frequently at 

the hard-wired preemption in front of the fire stations. 

Although these behaviors were noted, there have been no intersection crashes since 

the system was implemented. 

TRAFFIC CONTROL MEASURES
 27 
Data Analysis and Findings 

Neither Virginia Beach nor Murray conducts specific data analysis, such as response 

times or intersection crashes, related to optical preemption. The Virginia Beach Risk 

Management department does track all automobile and property claims against 

police, fire, EMS, and all other agencies operating for the city. A summary of the 

automobile liability for the fire department for 5 years is given in Table 4-1 able 4-1able 4-1. 

TABLE 4-1. TABLE 4-1.

SUMMARY OF FIRE DEPARTMENT-INCURRED CLAIMS, AUTOMOBILE LIABILITY

VIRGINIA BEACH, VA

Fiscal Y Fiscal YFiscal Year Claim Count IncurredIncurred Incurred IncurredIncurred

1998 30 $ 8,962.97 

1999 9 $209,073.00 

2000 19 $ 5,442.06 

2001 15 $ 15,360.77 

2002 18 $ 87,139.33 

TOTAL 91 $325,978.13

Subjectively, line personnel from both departments agreed that the use of preemption provides improved and safer intersection navigation by opening a clear path for 

the emergency vehicle to pass through and reduces response times. Murray personnel cite the time it took to run the length of the city’s main street as an example of 

improved response times. During the peak Christmas shopping rush before preemption, it took approximately 15 to 18 minutes. After the installation of preemption 

devices, the time decreased to approximately 5 to 7 minutes. They also 

suggest that the department performs less maintenance, especially on 

brakes, because units don’t have to consistently start and stop. 

Before it was installed, the UDOT traffic engineers believed that optical 

preemption would create significant traffic problems. They now agree that 

preemption does not really hurt traffic flow and improving technology is 

making it even better. Although there is currently no way to track the number of pr eemptions remotely, that information can be manually 

downloaded from a given signal, if there is a complaint or reason to do so. 

The traffic engineers suggest yearly tests to be sure the devices are working. This test could be done in conjunction with the annual signal inspection 

done by the engineers. 

INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM, TRAFFIC 

CONTROL CENTERS 

An ITS and a TOC can provide considerable assistance to emergency response departments for traffic control at a highway operations scene. The 

FIRT units in Virginia Beach are dispatched to assist at highway incidents 

by the Hampton Roads Smart Traffic control center. The IMT units in the 

Salt Lake City area must be requested and dispatched by the State police to 

assist at highway incidents. The IMT’s monitor fire frequencies and, at the 

time of the site visit, were working to get permission to talk directly to fire 

units enroute. 

All FIRT and IMT vehicles carr y traffic cones and are equipped with a 

lighted arrow board to control the traffic flow. The vehicles have an amber 

strobe light located on top of the cab. When the arrow board is deployed, it 

blocks the amber strobe, reducing confusion and allowing motorists to focus on the arrow board. The board can be raised or lowered and the desired 

Figures 4-3 a and b. A Utah DOT IMT arrow pattern activated from within the cab for added safety. Figures 4-3

vehicle arrow board. a and b show the lighted arrow board on a Utah IMT vehicle. a and b

28 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
UDOT IMT vehicles are equipped with vertically extendable floodlights on both 

the driver and passenger side of the vehicle (Figure 4-4). These also are controlled (Figure 4-4)

from inside the vehicle. 

UDOT IMT vehicles remain on scene as long as necessary. If it is determined that 

an incident will exceed 1 hour, the FIRT patroller contacts VDOT to obtain larger 

equipment including, but not limited to: 

•	 arrow trailers; 

•	 additional cones; 

•	 temporary signage; and 

• VDOT trucks with rear-mounted bumper blocks and hatch marks.


Departments that do not already have a working relationship should contact their
 Figure 4-4. A Utah DOT IMT State’s DOT to identify criteria for responses that would incorporate DOT resources to Figure 4-4.

aid in traffic control and improve safety for responders involved in highway opera- extendable floodlight. 

tions. 

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL MEASURES 

•	 Consider optical preemption to improve emergency vehicle movement through


intersections.


•	 Require units to come to a complete stop at red lights, stop signs, and activated


or unguarded rail crossings before proceeding.


•	 Pursue a working relationship with the State DOT to identify criteria for responses


that would incorporate DOT resources to aid in traffic control and improve safety


for responders involved in highway operations.


TRAFFIC CONTROL MEASURES
 29 
HIGHWAY 

OPERATIONS 

INTRODUCTION 

Our society is mobile. Every year the volume of traffic increases and interstate systems become more complex. We spend hours traveling to and from work in urban 

areas. In response, automobile manufacturers make vehicles as comfortable as possible. They control noise and provide a variety of entertainment, including radios, 

CD’s, and screens for watching videos. 

We also are a society in a hurry. Because we must spend more time on the roadways, we conduct many activities while traveling from point A to point B. Studies 

have shown that these activities include eating, putting on make-up, combing hair, 

reading the paper, and the ever-present talking on the cell phone. All these activities 

decrease focus on driving and traffic flow. 

We are curious when seeing emergency lights along the roadside. Drivers routinely 

try to see what is going on, often missing an altered traffic pattern. Any impairment 

from fatigue, alcohol, or drugs increases the potential for poor judgment and a mishap. 

Highway operations should be handled in the same manner as other types of operations. Departments must preplan highway emergency incidents with emphasis on 

tactical considerations and personnel safety. This section will review practices that 

provide a safer environment and improve the protection of emergency responders 

involved in highway operations. 

APPARATUS PLACEMENT 

The Phoenix, Arizona, Fire Department made major revisions to their positioning 

SOP after the loss of a firefighter in 1994. The firefighter/paramedic was struck by a 

drunk driver while loading a patient into the back of an ambulance. Prior to this 

fatality, the use of an emergency vehicle as a barrier to protect onstreet incidents was 

well established. The SOP was used for highway and freeway emergencies, but not for 

incidents in residential areas. The positioning SOP was changed to place emphasis on 

the dangers in residential areas, as well as on highways. Personnel interviewed for 

this report stated that the level of awareness of apparatus positioning is significantly 

higher than before the 1994 fatality. 

A line-of-duty fatality that occurred in Midwest City, Oklahoma, prompted the Plano, 

Texas, Fire Department to institute an apparatus positioning policy. On August 5, 

1999, two career firefighters were struck by a motor vehicle on a wet and busy interstate. One firefighter was killed and one was seriously injured. The NIOSH report of 

this incident is available online at: 

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/summ9927.html 

At the time, there was no consistency for securing a highway incident scene in 

Plano. Although the department had not suffered a catastrophic loss, they realized 

the potential and the need to develop a highway safety operations policy. As in other 

growing urban/suburban areas, increases in traffic volume and speed also contributed to the need for improved safety on the roadways. The Plano policy mirrors the 

policy developed by Phoenix Fire Department. 

Fairfax County, Virginia, Fire and Rescue developed a manual to outline appropriate highway operations. This manual, Operating Procedures for Highway Incidents, 

is now used in place of a SOP. The manual was developed in response to an increase 

SECTION 5


31 
in the incidence of near-misses while operating on the highway. It is based on information from Federal DOT publications and was developed in consultation with VDOT. 

The SOP’s of all three departments provide graphic examples of vehicle placement. 

Figures 5-1 through 5-8 are the Phoenix apparatus placement graphics. 

Figure 5-1. Where possible, angle apparatus at a 45- Figure 5-2. Prioritize placement of the apparatus by 

degree angle from the curb. blocking from the most critical to the least critical side. 

Figure 5-1. Figure 5-1. Figure 5-2.

Figure 5-3. Often times two or more sides may need Figure 5-3. Figure 5-4.Traffic routes around the fire apparatus. e 5-4.

to be protected. 

32 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

Figure 5-5. To protect pump operator, position e 5-5. Figure 5-6. Figure 5-6. Where possible, park rescues in driveways Figure 5-6.

apparatus with the pump panel on the side opposite or position rescue to protect patient loading area.

on-coming traffic. 

Figure 5-7. Protect the ambulance loading area even Figure 5-8. Provide specific direction to police as to 

when the ambulance is parked in a driveway. what traffic control needs you have. Position rescues 

to protect patient loading areas. 

Figure 5-7. Figure 5-8. Figure 5-8.

HIGHWAY OPERATIONS 33 
Training 

When the apparatus positioning SOP was changed in Phoenix, much of the training 

was done using videos that were aired on the cable television Phoenix Fire Network 

(PFN). PFN is a 24-hour-a-day operation, and schedules programs based on input 

from Operations personnel and the Safety Officer. Practical training was done at the 

district level, using demonstrations of how to position, how to set up work zones, and 

some simulated scenes for hands-on practice. 

The Plano training included classroom presentation of the Midwest City incident. 

Videos, pictures, and other information regarding that incident served as the basis 

for the safety discussion. A tabletop exercise planned the placement of apparatus at 

various intersections and locations on various roadways. This was followed by a roadway exercise with apparatus to emphasize the points of the classroom and tabletop 

exercise. Personnel consistently remarked that the concept was discussed so often in 

advance of the policy and training, it seemed like second nature when it went into 

effect. 

Fairfax County recruits receive the highway operations manual while at the academy. Other personnel are given the manual when they go through driver training. 

Policy change is communicated via the Intranet. The change may be in the form of a 

general order, a training or safety bulletin, or a manual change. This is usually followed by an in-station discussion and/or training, or may involve quarterly training 

at the academy. 

SCENE LIGHTING AND MARKING 

Lighting specifications for new apparatus for all departments interviewed are based 

on NFPA 1901. Fairfax County Fire and Rescue personnel cite an increased use of 

amber lighting in conjunction with emergency lighting, but amber lights are not 

used in isolation. The current policy is to leave all emergency lights on at the scene. 

Headlights are turned off when facing oncoming traffic. Figures 5-9 thr es 5-9 thres 5-9 through 5-11

show different configurations for amber directional arrow placement on Fairfax County 

fire apparatus. Figure 5-12 depicts cone placement for traffic control and apparatus Figure 5-12

placed in the “fend off” (45-degree angle) position to protect the work zone and emergency providers. Figure 5-13 depicts night flare placement. Figure 5-13

Plano Fire Department uses the directional arrows on the rear light bar of apparatus, turns off headlights, and leaves rotators and flashing beacons on while operating 

at highway incidents. When floodlights are used, they are raised to a height that 

allows light to be directed down on the scene. Personnel believe this provides the 

optimum working conditions at night, improves vision, and reduces the trip hazard 

Figure 5-9. A large directional arrow on the rear Figure 5-9. Figure 5-10. Some Fairfax County apparatus are e 5-10. Figure 5-11. A combination of apparatus- Figure 5-11.

of a Fairfax County engine company. equipped with arrowstick light bars. mounted warning arrows and traffic cones 

should be used to redirect traffic. 

34 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

Figure 5-12. Figure 5-12. Figure 5-13. Figure 5-12. Apparatus should be angled at 45 degrees, and Figure 5-13. Flares are more visible than traffic cones during nighttime 

cones placed to route traffic around the scene. operations. 

by reducing shadows. “The more lights, the safer the providers” is the consensus among 

Plano line personnel. The Plano Police Department also has a support pickup truck 

with cones that can be called to help divert traffic from an incident scene. 

The Virginia Beach Fire and Rescue SOP for highway markings was developed as 

the result of proactively reviewing safety aspects of highway operations and an increasing number of responses for highway incidents. Line personnel also identified 

the number of near-misses they experienced and injuries in the neighboring Norfolk 

Fire Department as factors that prompted the desire for the SOP at their level. 

Virginia Beach used a team approach to develop the SOP, which is based on the 

Fairfax County and Phoenix departments’ policies, NFPA standards, State regulations, and what Fort Collins, Colorado, was doing related to lighting issues. The 

department also consulted public safety, law enforcement, VDOT, and the private 

EMS provider to identify their needs and recommendations. 

The policy for highway marking distances for a working incident zone (300 feet 

when light, 500 feet when dark) was based on vision and distance changes at night. 

The policy also identifies the minimum requirements for the work zone. The Incident 

Commander can adjust these distances, request additional units for protection, and 

block the entire road as dictated by existing conditions. The State police are responsible for traffic control outside the fire department’s established work zone. 

The “best” light color(s) and lighting pattern for highway operations is still being 

debated. Research by the National Institute of Standards and Technology has shown 

that as the number of flashing lights increase, the ability of drivers to quickly respond 

to the emergency message decreases.1

 A 1988 study conducted by Boff and Lincoln at 

Wright-Patterson AFB showed an emergency flashing light is noticed quickly if there 

are no other flashing lights in the field of view.2 

Dr. Stephen Solomon, an ophthalmologist who has studied emer gency vehicle colors and lighting, notes that the fire service philosophy has been to attract as much 

attention as possible through a combination of lights and light colors with varying 

degrees of reflection and flashes. Strong stimuli hold central gaze and drivers tend to 

steer in the direction of gaze. If fatigue, alcohol, or drugs impair the driver, the potential and degree of drift increases. He suggests this practice actually makes the fire 

apparatus a “visual, magnetic target.” He recommends reducing the time span of 

looking toward a complex flashing light display by reducing the number, brightness 

and array of color, revolving strobe, and reflecting lights during emergency travel; 

HIGHWAY OPERATIONS
 35 
and using either filament bulbs in one or two amber flashers (mounted on the upper 

level of the vehicle on each corner) blinking in tandem or revolving beacons when 

the vehicle is parked along the road or at a curb and clear of all active traffic lanes.3 

The use of emergency vehicle lighting is also addressed in the Manual of Uniform 

Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD). The manual r evision had a target finalization date 

of October 2003. The manual addresses the use of emergency lighting as follows: 

Section 6I.05 Use of Emergency-V gency-Vehicle Lighting (Flashing or Rotating Bea- ehicle Lighting (Flashing or Rotating Bea­ ehicle Lighting (Flashing or Rotating Beacons or Strobes)

Support: 

The use of emergency-vehicle lighting is essential, especially in the initial stages 

of a traffic incident, for the safety of emergency responders and persons involved 

in the traffic incident, as well as road users approaching the traffic incident. 

Emergency-vehicle lighting, however, provides warning only and provides no 

effective traffic control. It is often confusing to road users, especially at night. 

Road users approaching the traffic incident from the opposite direction on a 

divided facility are often distracted by emergency-vehicle lighting and slow their 

vehicles to look at the traffic incident posing a hazard to themselves and others 

traveling in their direction. 

The use of emergency-vehicle lighting can be reduced if good traffic control has 

been established at a traffic incident scene. This is especially true for major traffic incidents that might involve a number of emergency vehicles. If good traffic 

control is established through placement of advanced warning signs and traffic 

control devices to divert or detour traffic, then public safety agencies can perform their tasks on scene with minimal emergency-vehicle lighting. 

Guidance: 

Public safety agencies should examine their policies on the use of emergencyvehicle lighting, especially after a traffic incident scene is secured, with the aim 

of reducing the use of this lighting as much as possible while not endangering 

those at the scene. Special consideration should be given to reducing or extinguishing forward facing emer gency-vehicle lighting, especially on divided 

roadways, to reduce distractions to oncoming road users. 

The MUTCD also addresses cone placement as follows: 

Section 6F Section 6FSection 6F.56 Cones .56 Cones.56 Cones

Standard: 

Cones shall be predominantly orange and shall be made of a material that can 

be struck without causing damage to the impacting vehicle. For daytime and 

low-speed roadways, cones shall be not less than 450 mm (18 in) in height. 

When cones are used on freeways and other high-speed highways or at night on 

all highways, or when more conspicuous guidance is needed, cones shall be a 

minimum of 700 mm (28 in) in height. For nighttime use, cones shall be 

retroreflectorized or equipped with lighting devices for maximum visibility. 

Retroreflectorization of 700 mm (28 in) or larger cones shall be provided by a 

white band 150 mm (6 in) wide located 75 to 100 mm (3 to 4 in) from the top of 

the cone and an additional 100 mm (4 in) wide white band approximately 50 

mm (2 in) below the 150 mm (6 in) band. 

Option: 

Traffic cones may be used to channelize road users, divide opposing motor vehicle traffic lanes, divide lanes when two or more lanes are kept open in the 

same direction, and delineate short duration maintenance and utility work. 

36 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

REFLECTIVE VESTS 

Personnel visibility is critical during highway operations, especially at night. Being 

struck by a vehicle is a constant danger. Dawn, dusk, and inclement weather compromises visibility and increases the risk of being struck. It is imperative that workers 

be visible as a person among the flashing lights and other apparatus marking. ANSI/ 

ISEA Standard 107-1999 specifies the minimum amount of fabric and reflective materials to be placed onto safety garments that are worn by workers near vehicular 

traffic. This standard is now the most commonly used standard associated with safety 

vests. 

Reflective vests should be used to increase worker visibility; regardless of the use 

of turnout gear. The reflective vests used by emergency workers should have both 

retroreflective and florescent properties. Retroreflective material retur ns the majority of light from the light source back to the observer. Florescent material absorbs 

UV light of a certain wavelength and regenerates it into visual energy. Plano Fire 

Department requires all personnel involved in highway operations to wear a Class 

II vest with a lime green background and orange/gray stripes, shown in Figures 5- Figures 5­Figures 5- Figures 5-Figures 5-

14 a and b. 

Figure 5-14 a and b. A Plano Fire Department traffic vest. 

STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES 

Seven fire departments in Northern Virginia, have formed a regional committee to 

review highway safety policies and recommend changes to them when necessary. 

The committee is made up of the following departments: 

• Fairfax County Fire and Rescue Department; 

• Arlington County Fire Department; 

• Fort Belvoir Fire Department; 

• Fairfax City Fire Department; 

• Reagan National Airport Fire Department; 

• Dulles Airport Fire Department; and 

• Alexandria County Fire Department. 

Any member of any of the participating fire departments can submit a proposed 

change. The proposed change is passed through the chain of command to the committee for review. In Fairfax County, the Safety Officer and an operations chief review 

the proposed change before it is advanced to the committee. Committee recommendations go to all department chiefs, who ultimately decide if the recommendation 

will be implemented in the individual department. The regional committee does not 

HIGHWAY OPERATIONS
 37 
mandate changes to individual departments. It ser ves primarily as an information 

sharing forum to improve interoperability among participating departments. 

The Vir ginia Beach Fire and Rescue SOP, Operations of Fire Department Vehicles, 

was in the process of revision at the time of this writing. Any member of the department can submit suggested policy changes. Suggestions go first to a specific committee, 

such as the Safety Committee or Apparatus Committee, for review. If the suggestion 

has merit, it is forwarded to the SOP committee. The SOP committee forwards its final 

recommendation to the chief for a decision on implementation. It is not unusual for 

changes to go back and forth between the chief and the SOP committee several times 

until consensus is reached. After approval, the SOP is implemented as an interim 

policy for 90 days for evaluation and any necessary modification before it becomes 

final. The Fairfax County Fire and Rescue Operating Procedures for Highway Incidents and the Phoenix Fire Department Safe Parking While Operating in or Near 

Vehicle Traffic can be found in Appendix C. 

Effect on Highway Operations 

The design and insulation of new passenger and commercial vehicles, combined with 

operating radio/CD and air conditioning, can significantly hinder a driver’s ability to 

hear emergency vehicle audible warning devices and realize emergency vehicles are 

approaching. Departments must engrain safety into all activities; and personnel must 

view safety as their job, both individually and collectively. 

No department interviewed had any specific data to support cur rent apparatus 

placement or lighting patterns. However, personnel had several subjective comments 

regarding the effects. All Phoenix Fire Department field personnel, including chiefs, 

believed that crew communication and apparatus positioning were the primary methods of providing a safe operational environment. 

Plano Fire Department personnel also unanimously agreed that apparatus placement is the most effective of all methods used on scene to improve safety of providers. 

They believed the department’s placement policy definitely improved safety and decreased near-misses. Blocking a lane with apparatus slows traffic speed and impedes 

traffic flow. The blocking policy increases the feeling of safety for both fire and law 

enforcement personnel, but all remain vigilant. Even when proper blocking is used, 

personnel have witnessed drivers going over curbs, cones, and even between blocking 

apparatus. Vehicles have struck blocking apparatus. Had the apparatus not been 

there, the vehicle could have breached the work zone and injured personnel. 

All the departments placed less importance on lighting patterns versus apparatus 

placement. Phoenix fire personnel considered lighting secondary and, in many cases, 

unreliable. Some believed that any lighting pattern was useless at night when extensive floodlights were used. Some Fairfax County personnel believed that directional 

signaling (light sticks, arrows, etc.) seemed to help traffic flow, but identified pulling 

all the information together and discipline as the keys to successful highway operations, and rapid mitigation as the key to improving and restoring traffic flow. 

Limitations 

Plano Fire Department personnel identified forgetting to shut off apparatus headlights and civilian motorists paying more attention to what is going on at the scene 

than to traffic flow as their biggest problems during highway operations. Another 

challenge is dealing with neighboring districts that do not use similar apparatus 

placement practices, which can result in confusion and policy issues when responding with mutual aid. In an effort to reduce this problem, Plano shared its policies with 

neighboring departments. It must be remembered that SOP’s and operating manuals 

serve as a basis for safe practice. Actual practices depend on the existing conditions 

identified by the company officer or Incident Commander. 

38 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HIGHWAY OPERATIONS 

•	 During highway operations, position the engine at a 45-degree angle to the 

lanes, with the pump panel toward the incident and the front wheels rotated 

away from the incident. 

•	 Extinguish for ward-facing emergency vehicle lighting, especially on divided roadways. 

•	 Reduce the use of lighting as much as possible at the scene. 

•	 Require members to wear highly reflective material when conducting highway 

operations. 

•	 Remain vigilant during all phases of highway operations. 

•	 Work with neighboring districts to develop similar highway operations policies. 

•	 Allow all members to submit suggested policy changes. 

1

 National Bureau of Standar ds. (1978). Emergency Vehicle Warning Lights: State of the Art, Pub. No.480-

16. 

2

 Solomon, S. (2002). The case for amber emergency warning lights. Firehouse (2), 100-102. 

3 Ibid. 

HIGHWAY OPERATIONS
 39 
RESPONSE


INTRODUCTION 

Responses that are true emergencies (both fire and EMS) are limited. Yet, tradition 

dictates that apparatus respond using lights and siren to all calls received through 

911. Responding in the emergency mode increases the risk for vehicular crashes resulting in injuries and fatalities to both emergency responders and civilians. This 

section reviews practices that decrease that risk by limiting emergency response (use 

of lights and siren). 

PRIORITY DISPATCH 

The use of warning lights and sirens on fire and EMS emergency vehicles is a basic 

component of emergency response and patient transport in this country. Over the 

past several years, the effectiveness of this long-standing tradition in affecting patient outcome or decreasing property or financial loss has come into question. What 

is known is that the majority of emergency vehicle crashes occur when warning lights 

and siren are in use. Multiple studies have been conducted comparing ambulance 

response times with and without the use of lights and sirens. Separate studies conducted by Addario, et al. and Kupas, Dula, and Pino have demonstrated that, although 

response times are faster with lights and siren, the time saved had no significant 

impact on patient outcome, except in cardiac arrest and obstructed airway.1,2 Because of the risk associated with lights and siren, the National Association of EMS 

Physicians (NAEMSP) and the National Association of State EMS Directors (NAEMSD) 

published the position paper, Use of Warning Lights and Siren in Emergency Medical 

Vehicle Response and Patient Transport, in 1993. This document is available online 

at: http://www.naemsp.org/Position%20Papers/WarnLghtSirn.html 

If a dispatcher gets accurate and complete information from the caller, he/she 

should be able to determine if the condition warrants a lights and siren response from 

the information given. Sound priority dispatching relies on trained dispatchers and 

preset, algorithmic questions. There are commercial programs with preset questions 

available for both fire and EMS conditions. Departments also have developed their 

own preset questions. 

Responses within Salt Lake County, with the exception of Salt Lake City, are automatic and cross jurisdictional boundaries. All calls are dispatched based on the closest 

station rather than the jurisdiction of the incident location. Testing of Automatic Vehicle Locator (AVL) dispatching began in May 2003. All fire apparatus have Global 

Positioning Satellite (GPS) locators installed. During the testing phase, units are dispatched using both the closest unit (AVL) and the closest station. Data are being 

collected to compare and assure the closest unit is actually being dispatched. Response times will also be compared between the two systems. A plan is in place to 

dispatch a second unit to assure the first AVL unit dispatched does not remain out of 

its jurisdiction on consecutive calls. 

Priority dispatch for both fire and EMS has been part of the Salt Lake County system for all departments for 25 years. Priority dispatch began with Dr. Jeff Clawson’s 

Emergency Medical Dispatch (EMD), which he developed while Medical Director for 

Salt Lake City Fire Department. Over time, the concept was extended to fire calls. 

Currently Salt Lake City uses Clawson’s system, which must be purchased. The nine 

SECTION 6


41 
departments that provide services for the rest of Salt Lake County organized a committee of representatives, including chiefs, who developed the priority questions that 

are used by VECC to determine priority dispatch codes. An example of a Call Guide 

used by dispatch can be found in Figure 6-1, below. 

SAMPLE VALLEY EMERGENCY COMMUNICATIONS CENTER CALL GUIDE 

HAZFIRE: H HAZFIRE:HAZFIRE: azardous material spill or leak involving a fire. Priority 1 

DEFINITION: DEFINITION: Any hazardous material spill or leak involving a fire. DEFINITION:

CALL-TAKER PROCEDURES: AKER PROCEDURES:

1. Line #. 

2. Location of occurrence. 

1. Name or type of building or structure. 

2. Apt #, building #, suite #, as applies. 

3. Specific location of the problem and access information for responding units. 

4. Is the fire inside or outside? 

5. Is this a drug lab? 

3. Is it the building itself or a hazardous material that is on fire? 

If this is a hazardous material that is on fire, what is the material? 

4. Are you inside the building where the fire is occurring? 

YES NO/ orComplainant Callback

• If safe to do so, follow your evacuation 1. Are you at a safe location? 

protocol and get everyone out. If yes, go to question #5. 

• Take the safest way out and then DO NOT

go back in. 

• Where is your safe location or meeting place? If no, Go to a safe location and 

• If possible, have someone call back 911 call us back on 911. 

on a cell phone. 

5. Do you think anyone is still inside? (Cars in the parking lot, lights on?) 

6. Are you still near the building? 

7. Where is everyone meeting? 

8. Does anyone need medical help? 

1. If yes, refer to medical priority cards. 

2. Advise the fire dispatchers. 

9. How many people were injured or affected? 

10. If complainant does not know what the material is, ask; 

1. Is there a placard on the container? 

If yes, get the color of the placard and the number on the card. If this is a railroad tanker and it is safe to do so, 

get the number off of the side of the tanker. 

2. If the substance is not known, is it a liquid, solid, or vapor? 

3. Where did it come from? (Source: bucket, barrel, truck, or tanker?) 

4. How much was spilled? 

5. Is the wind affecting the situation? 

1. If so, what direction is the wind blowing? 

6. Is the substance threatening or leaking into any waterways, storm drains, or sewers? 

11. Complainant information (include name, address, and phone of where they are calling from). 

Figure 6-1. Sample Valley Emergency Communications Center Call Guide. e 6-1. 

42 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
SAMPLE VALLEY EMERGENCY COMMUNICATIONS CENTER CALL GUIDE (CONTINUED) 

DISPATCHER PROCEDURES: TCHER PROCEDURES:

1. Refer to the individual agency’s fire assignments for the appropriate dispatch response. 

2. Anywhere other than Sandy or West Valley, fire dispatchers MUST notify the County EOC Duty Officer (LEPC) in a MUST

timely manner, if this is: 

1. Confirmed spill or leak of over 50 gallons of gasoline or hydrocarbon. 

2. Any spilled or released hazardous material thr eatening or in a waterway. 

3. Any spilled or released hazardous material from a business or facility. 

4. Abandoned, discarded, or unknown hazardous materials. 

5. Spills or leaks occurring during transport. 

3. If thi ccurs in Sandy or West Valley then you MUST notify Sandy and West Valley’s LEPC for all of the above MUST

types of incidents. 

4. If, upon arrival, units advise this is a working fire: 

1. Assign WF to the primary unit. 

2. Dispatch any other required equipment, when applicable. 

3. Notify Utilities. 

4. Make necessary notifications to Command Personnel. 

5. Dispatch any other required equipment when applicable. 

6. Continue time notifications until told otherwise. 

5. If it is discovered that there are injuries before units arrive on scene, advise the primary unit and ascertain if any 

additional units should be sent. **LEPC = Local Emergency Planning Committee. Notifying the LEPC complies with the 

Federal law, SARA III. 

Updated: 09/28/99

Figure 6-1. Sample Valley Emergency Communications Center Call Guide (continued). e 6-1. 

In 1997, the Virginia Beach Fire and Rescue Safety Officer, City Risk Manager, and 

Deputy Chief of Operations identified a potential problem while prioritizing department risks using the risk matrix in Figure 6-2. Vehicle and intersection crashes were e 6-2

reviewed and compared to the type of call dispatched. It was found that most of the incidents were 

low frequency, low severity. The safety officer also 

reviewed the St. Louis, Missouri, Fire Department’s 

“On-The-Quiet” policy at the time. This group used 

the findings to classify certain incident types as nonemergency responses. 

Using the classifications, the Safety Officer worked 

with the SOP Committee to develop the priority dispatch policy, which was approved by the risk 

manager, the deputy chief, the chief, and finally, 

the city attorney. Table 6-1 (on page 44) contains able 6-1able 6-1

the classifications of emergency and nonemergency 

fire responses. 

Phoenix fire apparatus are initially dispatched 

to respond with lights and siren on the majority of 

calls. If the first-arriving unit finds nothing on approach, the remaining responding units are Figure 6-2. Risk Assessment Matrix. Figure 6-2.

downgraded to continue without lights and siren. 

Virginia Beach Fire and Rescue uses the same approach on multiunit emergency 

responses. If an emergency situation does not exist, the first-arriving unit transmits a 

radio downgrade to all responding units. This downgrade transmission includes a 

brief description of findings. All other responding units continue to the scene in nonemergency mode, until cleared by command. 

RESPONSE
 43 
TABLE 6-1. TABLE 6-1.

VIRGINIA BEACH FIRE DISPATCH RESPONSE PRIORITIES

Emergency Nonemergency

Structures, commercial or residential Lockin or lockout (weather conditions and patient location may require upgraded response) 

Vehicle fires on the interstate Public service call and/or assisting police 

Brush Unauthorized burning 

Boat(s) Controlled burning 

Rubbish or dumpster Vicinity alarms 

Aircraft Citizen’s complaint 

Commercial and residential fire alarm(s) Fuel spills where the product is not an immediate threat to life or environment 

Electrical wires down Carbon monoxide detector activation (without 

signs of CO poisoning) 

Residential/Commercial flammables Water leaks 

Move-ups 

Manpower assistance 

Salvage truck, unless upgraded by command 

Bomb threats 

Wir es hanging -- not on fire 

Any incident downgraded by the on-scene 

resource 

Certain conditions are dispatched nonemergency (no lights and siren.) Appendix 

D contains all the nature codes used by the Phoenix Fire Department. Conditions 

where no default code is indicated require the call taker to specify Code 2 

(nonemergency) or Code 3 (emergency lights and siren). All company officers have 

the authority to change the level of response and are encouraged to err on the side of 

caution and firefighter safety. If the code is changed, it is recorded in the dispatch 

center records by the Mobile Data Terminal (MDT) transmission. None of the departments visited had any data on the number/percent of responses where the response 

code was changed by the company officer. 

As all issues are within the Phoenix Fire Department, a labor-management committee, with input from the medical director, determined the nonemergency response 

EMS conditions. The EMS dispatch codes were developed about 1998 and, as of this 

writing, had not undergone a review. Units dispatched in the nonemergency mode 

can be preempted and redirected to an emergency response. 

The average response time for a Phoenix nonemergency dispatch is 7 minutes, 

and just under 5 minutes for an emergency dispatch. The dispatch supervisor believed that most increases in response times are a result of annexation and larger 

coverage areas. If a response time exceeds 10 minutes, dispatch receives an electronic 

notice and follows up by contacting the unit to determine the cause. 

RESPONSE MATRIX 

With the exception of Salt Lake City, all the fire departments in the Salt Lake Valley 

belong to a user alliance. The alliance meets on a monthly basis. They developed a 

44 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

__________

recommended response matrix for each incident type, which was sent to each 

department’s chief for approval. Each department chief had the option to disapprove 

or modify the response matrix. The response matrix for each city is maintained in the 

VECC. An example from the matrix is found in Figure 6-3. The matrix is updated Figure 6-3

and modified based on dispatch feedback forms and changes in technology (Figure

6-4). The entire fire response matrix and the mass casualty response matrix for the 6-4)

Salt Lake valley departments can be found in Appendix E. 

The Virginia Beach department’s response matrix was revised April 1, 2003. The 

policy now includes two engines responding from opposing directions to all accidents 

on the interstate. Members cannot jump or navigate jersey barriers dividing the highway in order to reach an accident scene from the opposite lane. Apparatus proceed in 

a manner that allows them to position in the lane and direction of travel where the 

incident occurred. 

EXAMPLE OF SALT LAKE VALLEY FIRE RESPONSE MATRIX 

CODE BDALE COUNTY MIDVALE MURRAY SANDY S JORDAN S JORDANS JORDAN SOSL W JORDAN WVALLEY

ALARM 1E 1E 1E 1E 1E 1E,1A 1E 1E 1E 

ALRMCO 1E 1E 1E 1E 1E 1E 1E 1E 1E 

ALRMR 1E 1E 1E, CS 1E 1E 1E, 1A 1E 1E 1E 

ALRMW 1E, 1T 1E, 1T 1E, 1T 1E, 1T 1E, 1T 1E, 1T, 1A 1E, 1T 1E, 1T 1E, 1T 

Figure 6-3. Example of Salt Lake Valley fire response matrix. e 6-3

DISPATCH FEEDBACK FORM

ADMINISTRATIONS: 840-4100 / FAX: 840-4040 DISPATCH: 840-4000 / FAX: 840-4039 

Date Received: VECC CAD#: Date Assigned: 

Date Completed: VECC Case#: VECC Supervisors Initials: 

SALT LAKE V T LAKE VT LAKE VALLEY EMERGENCY COMMUNICATIONS

CENTER DISPATCH FEEDBACK REPORT

DATE: REQUESTING AGENCY:


REPORTED BY: PHONE #:


INCIDENT DATE: TIME: CARE #: 

INCIDENT TYPE: LOCATION: 

PROBLEM/CONCERN: 

Would you like the response: In writing? Verbally?__________ 

Figure 6-4. Dispatch feedback form. Figure 6-4.

RESPONSE 45 
Responding engines that are not on the incident side of the highway contact the 

officer of the apparatus that is to find out if the unit will be needed, should stage until 

further evaluation is completed, or should clear. If the unit is needed, it continues to 

the next exit and reenters the highway system to assist from the same lane and 

direction. If the unit is asked to stage, it proceeds to the next exit and stages at an 

appropriate location until cleared. The V irginia Beach Fire and Rescue fire response 

matrix also can be found in Appendix E. 

VOLUNTEER RESPONSE IN PRIVATELY OWNED VEHICLES (POV’s) 

It is common practice for members of volunteer fire and EMS departments to respond 

to the station (and, in some instances, to an incident location) using their private 

vehicles. Many States allow volunteer members to equip their POV with emergency 

lights. Acceptable color for those lights varies from State to State. Some States allow 

only red lights, some allow only blue lights, and some allow both. In addition, departments may specify the color based on the rank held by the individual (e.g., red is 

used only by chief officers.) Regardless of color, a review of the data in the USFA 

Firefighter Fatalities in the United States reports from 1990 to 2000 showed that 25 

percent of firefighters who died in motor vehicle crashes were killed in privately owned 

vehicles. 

Although volunteers can legally run with lights on a POV, the State of Utah requires them to have authorization from local law enforcement and a rider on their 

personal insurance policy. Therefore, volunteers in the Salt Lake Valley do not run 

with lights on POV’s. There have been no issues related to response times because 

they travel with normal traffic when responding to the station. 

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESPONSE 

•	 Assess and code responses using the classic risk management matrix. 

•	 Respond to low frequency, low severity incidents in a nonemergency mode. 

•	 Train dispatchers in the use of preset questions to determine emergency versus 

nonemergency response. 

1 Addario, M., Brown, L., Hogue, T., Hunt R. C., & Whitney, C. L. (2000). Do warning lights and sirens 

reduce ambulance response times? Prehospital Emergency Care, 4 (1), 70-4. 

2 Kupas, D., Dula, D., & Pino, B. (1994). Patient outcome using medical protocol to limit “lights and siren” 

transport. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine. 9 (4). 

46 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

 7 

TRAINING


INTRODUCTION 

Through attitude and behavior, organization leaders must reflect the importance of 

safety in all aspects dealing with vehicles. This attitude must be infused in all organizational policies and training. Department commitment to driver competency and 

accountability can have a profound effect on reducing crashes, injuries, and fatalities. This begins with the factors used to select the driver candidate. 

Training is the foundation of all safe practices. The type of course, integration of 

classroom and applied practice, and instructor qualifications all contribute to the 

effectiveness of any training. This section reviews factors to consider in selecting driver 

candidates, practices, and programs related to several aspects of training (including 

initial basic driving courses); use and value of a driving simulator in basic, remedial, 

and continuing training; and developing driver requirements. 

HUMAN FACTORS 

The participants in the forums for the EVSI identified four categories of human factors 

that contribute to vehicle crashes: knowledge base, skills, ability, and attitude. Drivers may lack knowledge of traffic laws, physical laws that gover n the apparatus 

operation, or may lack awareness of potential dangers. Inadequate skills in handling 

apparatus may be the result of insufficient training, lack of hands-on training, inexperience, slowed or improper reaction, or poor judgment. Attitude plays a major role 

in safe vehicle operations. Failure to obey laws or take proper precautions, improper 

use of the roads, allowing excitement to lead to impulsive actions, dangerous shortcuts, and irresponsible or reckless behavior all contribute to apparatus crashes and 

fatalities. Other factors include inattentiveness, failure to concentrate on driving tasks, 

and the emotional sense of power and urgency when running lights and siren. This 

sense can block out reason and prudence, leading to the reckless operation of the 

emergency vehicle. 

A review of the USFA Firefighter Fatalities in the United States reports suggests that 

age (both young and older) appears to be a factor in both fire apparatus and ambulance crashes. Many who enter the emergency services field have only 2 to 3 years of 

normal driving experience. The older driver may have slowed responses. The forum 

participants suggested setting a minimum age of 21 for drivers. In some cases, the 

organization’s insurance company may determine this. 

Another factor that contributes to emergency vehicle crashes is improper or no 

background checks of the potential drivers. According to an article in the Detroit 

News, 41 percent of ambulance drivers involved in fatal accidents had prior citations 

on their driving records.1 

Prior to employment, the department should verify driving records by having the 

applicant sign a consent form to allow the department to check records with the 

State. The applicant’s driving record should be reviewed for the number of moving 

violations over the past 36 months, any driving under the influence (DUI) convictions, reckless driving citations, license suspensions, etc. Evaluation of driver education 

certificates, specialized driving license (e.g., CDL), and physical qualifications (e.g. 

vision and hearing) can also help reduce the number of vehicular incidents that occur each year. The American Ambulance Association (AAA) has developed a Best 

Practice for EMS Driving Outline, which can be found in Appendix F. 

SECTION 


47 
DRIVER TRAINING COURSES 

During the course of this study, several fire apparatus driver training programs were 

reviewed. Information on these programs is discussed in the following section. 

California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection 

The CDFFP Academy’s Basic Fire Engine Operator (BFEO) driver training program 

began in the 1980’s as more emphasis was placed on emergency response. The BFEO 

driver program was replaced in 2000 with the current driving course. This change 

occurred as a result of several serious, avoidable apparatus crashes. Although there 

were no fatalities, there were some serious injuries. In all cases, the incidents were 

found to be driver error. Near-misses also played a part in the development of the 

driving program. CDFFP investigators found that approximately 90 percent of vehicle crashes occurred at intersections. The cur rent program was customized for CDFFP’s 

needs using components of the Peace Officer Standard Training (POST) and other 

successful driving programs. 

Full time CDFFP drivers attend 10 weeks of training at the Academy. This consists 

of: 

• Orientation 1 week; 

• Structures and Rescue 3 weeks; 

• Driver operations (includes pump operations) 3 weeks; and 

• Wildland (includes apparatus placement on the line) 3 weeks. 

CDFFP also uses a large number of seasonal workers during the 6-month fire season. If a seasonal worker shows above-average performance, the department may 

bring him/her in to complete just the driver operations module, which leads to classification as a Limited Te rm 

Engineer and allows the seasonal 

worker to drive the apparatus. 

The average driver operations 

course consists of 30 participants 

with an instructor-to-student ratio of 1:4 to 6. This course is 

conducted entirely by the three 

staff instructors and two mechanics. The driver operations course 

consists of 132 hours, broken 

down as shown in Table 7.1 able 7.1able 7.1. 

In addition to the driver operations course, the CDFFP Academy 

teaches the Heavy Fire Equipment Operator (HFEO) course. 

This is a 6-week course that covers the operation of dozers, truck/ 

trailers, etc. It includes the same 

EVOC component as the driver 

operations course. It is taught by 

both staff and outside heavy 

equipment subject matter experts. 

Drivers felt the operations 

course was more intense than the 

old BFEO program, placed more 

emphasis on theor y, and had 

more active instructor involveTABLE 7.1 TABLE 7.1TABLE 7.1

CDFFP DRIVER OPERATIONS COURSE BREAKDOWN

ORIENTATION

Orientation 3 

Written Examinations 5 

Performance Exams 8 

Clean-up 12 

Total 28 

PHYSICAL FITNESS

Physical Training Sessions 8 

Total 8 

PUMP OPERATIONS

Pump Theory 6 

Hydraulics 2 

Pump Skills 17 

Total 25 

VEHICLE OPERATIONS

Basic Driving and Air Brakes 6 

Preventive Maintenance 13 

Emergency Vehicle Operations 14 

Checkout Drives 8 

Cross Country Driving (Field Exercise) 8 

Off Road Vehicle Operations 10 

Total 59 

EMERGENCY/FIREGROUND OPERATIONS

Introduction to I-Zone 4 

Multi-Co Drills 8 

Total 12

 TOTAL132 

48 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

ment. They agreed that including more theory and discussion of vehicle dynamics 

improved their knowledge of apparatus operation and their decisionmaking ability 

by helping them learn to anticipate instead of just react. They cited the dogleg course 

as one example and commended the addition of the Interface Zone (I-Zone) training. 

An I-Zone Exercise Evaluation can be found in Figure 7-1. The objectives and specific Figure 7-1Figure 7-1

hours breakdown for each topic in the Vehicle Operations course can be found in 

Appendix G. 

Figure 7.1. CDFFP I-Zone evaluation. Figure 7.1.

TRAINING 49 
STUDENT REQUIREMENTS 

The driver operations course is open to driver trainees only. Driver trainees must be at 

least 18 years old and hold a Class B license. Since most trainees spend 6 to 7 years as 

firefighters first, the mean age of CDFFP drivers is mid-20’s. 

The training chief identified a change in member demographics from an agricultural background with experience in driving tractors and bigger equipment to a college 

background. This shift, along with the fact that many of the trainees do not obtain 

the Class B license until a month or so before the class starts, contributes to a growing 

pool of students having little to no experience with bigger equipment. 

INSTRUCTOR QUALIFICATIONS 

All Academy instructors must be California Instructor 1A and 1B trained. The instructor training pr ogram is based on the Inter national Fire Ser vice Training 

Association (IFSTA), Fire and Emergency Services Instructor manual, which in turn is 

based on NFPA 1041, Standard for Fire Service Instructor Professional Qualifications. 

Each component is 40 hours. California Instructor 1A covers manipulative lesson 

plans; 1B covers technical lesson plans. This training is offered by the State Fire 

Marshal’s office. All Academy instructors are also DL170 agents of the Department of 

Motor Vehicles (DMV) Employer Licensing Unit. The DMV audits the DL170 records 

for CDFFP. The testing course must be mapped out and approved by the DMV annually. 

There is no standard driver training on the unit level, and these requirements do 

not apply to the unit driving instructors. Some units do yearly EVOC driving days, but 

others do not. Most of the unit training officers have received instructor training, but 

State certification is not required. 

RECERTIFICATION /REMEDIAL TRAINING 

CDFFP currently has no requirement for recertification or repeating any portion of 

the driver operations course. The drivers interviewed believed that the course should 

be used to recertify, if it included more advanced scenarios. Although remedial training is normally handled at the unit level, unit officers can send drivers back for remedial 

training if they believe the driver’s skills indicate this intervention. 

Sacramento Regional Training Facility 

In 1993, Sacramento City Fire implemented ALS. Paramedics were recruited and trained 

at the fire academy, but the training did not include emergency driving. The accident 

frequency rate was 90 at-fault ambulance motor vehicle crashes per one million miles 

the first year of the ALS program. This resulted in a significant increase in third-party 

insurance costs, in particular on the medic units. 

In 1994, the Risk Management, Loss Control Safety Unit coordinated an interdepartmental EVOC between police and fire to train and certify fire EVOC instructors. 

After EVOC became mandatory for completion of the fire academy in 1995, a 39­

percent reduction in ambulance at-fault crashes occurred. 

The Sacramento Regional Training Facility provides driver training for all levels of 

personnel: recruits, firefighters, drivers, captains, support staff, law enforcement officers, etc. The facility has an instructor-to-student ratio of 1:2. The facility develops 

training programs by evaluating multiple programs and customizing courses to meet 

the needs of the Joint Powers partners. For example, the fire instructors built a customized off-road course by adding components to the existing CDFFP and For est Service 

courses. 

The primary course consists of 8 hours of classroom for defensive driving, 16 hours 

of actual course driving, and 4 hours in the simulator. The driving portion concentrates on vehicle placement and the physics of dynamics. An example of a lesson 

plan used for smaller vehicles can be found in Appendix G. 

50 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

Fire personnel train only during daytime hours, while police train during both day and nighttime hours. 

Recruits spend approximately 90 percent of their 40-hour program behind the wheel. Vehicles used for training 

include police sedans, SUV’s, engines, ambulances, a bus, off-road equipment, and trailer trucks. Personnel 

drive both their assigned apparatus and training apparatus. 

INSTRUCTOR QUALIFICATIONS 

All instructors are Fire Course Instructors IA and IB and POST certified, have completed the 40-hour National 

Safety Council course, and an 8-hour class on law and liability issues. Although the goal is 100 percent, 

currently 75 percent of the instructors are certified to conduct DMV training and administer DMV examinations according to California law DL170. All instructors are cross-trained, which allows fire instructors to train 

police personnel and vice versa. 

RECERTIFICATION/REMEDIAL TRAINING 

Fire personnel repeat the entire primary training course each year as a mandatory recertification. In addition, 

the Accident Review Committee can refer anyone found responsible in an at-fault incident to remedial training. Supervisors can also request remedial training for personnel. Remedial training is not a punitive action. It 

is used to reinforce training and is done in a positive manner. 

Ventura County (California) Fire Department 

Ventura County Fire Training conducts seven driving courses: 

• Class A Driver Training; 

• Paramedic Squad Driver Training; 

• Class B Driver Training; 

• Off-Road Driver Training; 

• Class C Driver Training; 

• Driving Simulator; and 

• Tillered Truck Driver Training. 

A description of each of these courses and the instructor qualifications can be found in Appendix G. 

INSTRUCTOR QUALIFICATIONS 

In addition to the instructor qualifications listed for each course, all instructors are California Fire Instructor IA 

and IB trained, POST certified, and certified to conduct DMV training and administer DMV examinations 

under the DL170 program. They completed the Los Angeles County police simulator training and received 

safety officer training. 

DRIVING SIMULATOR 

Both Sacramento Regional Training Facility and Ventura County Fire Department have driving simulators. At 

the time of the site visit, Sacramento had been using the simulator for 4 years. Ventura County had the simulator for 2 years, but the first year was fraught with technical problems, so it had only been used for 1 year. 

The Sacramento Regional Training Facility uses the driving simulator strictly to improve drivers’ decisionmaking processes. A simulator cannot teach the basic driving skills acquired in training exercises using actual 

emergency vehicles. Time has shown that errors in decisionmaking are primarily related to intersection clearing and conflict resolution (obtaining the right of way). The decisionmaking process is reinforced as personnel 

complete 4 hours in the simulator as part of the annual recertification process. 

One of Ventura County’s goals for the simulator program is to educate drivers in safe driving techniques. 

Initially, the emphasis was on emergency driving and backing scenarios. In March 2003, they began using the 

scripting tool to develop scenarios that address intersection analysis, conflict management, and desired apparatus placement options at an incident. Because the simulator was new, the Training Section was working to 

overcome the “video game” mentality that line personnel were exhibiting and provide the rationale to gain 

buy-in. 

Technical Aspects 

Ventura County uses a three-station mobile simulator manufactured by FAAC, Inc. At the time the unit was 

purchased, the simulator cost approximately $500,000, plus $20,000 for the tractor. It is housed in a 42-foot 5th 

TRAINING
 51 
wheel RV trailer so it can be moved from location to location. Ventura County also 

holds a service/maintenance agreement on the simulator, which cost $10,000 annually (Figure 7-2) (Figure 7-2) (Figure 7-2). They believed the additional cost to make the simulator mobile 

(approximately $100,000) provided a cost savings compared to stationary training 

by eliminating the following: 

• fuel for units to travel to training; 

• wear and tear on apparatus; 

• time saving; and 

• cost of a cover assignment from another company. 

The simulator contains three stations that can be configured to represent fire engines, EMS, or other types of vehicles (Figure 7-3) (Figure 7-3). 

Figure 7-2. Ventura County Fir e Department mobile simulator. e 7-2. Figure 7-3. Figure 7-3. Internal layout of three stations. Figure 7-3.

This particular simulator has five screens in each station. Multiple stations are 

linked together through the instructor console for interactive scenarios. Each station 

has headsets that allow the captain and driver to communicate. The headsets can be 

programmed with radio and background noise to simulate real conditions. The stations are configured to interchange vehicle cab models (e.g., sedan, engine, truck, 

etc.) This mobile simulator has two engine cab model stations and one sedan cab 

model station (Figure 7-4) (Figure 7-4) (Figure 7-4). The manufacturer redesigned the engine cab models to 

match the dash of the Ventura County engines. Regardless of the cab model, the 

physical response of the steering wheel, brakes, etc., for any desired vehicle can be 

programmed into the computer feedback. 

While the physics affecting all vehicles is the same, the specific apparatus response 

to forces (e.g., acceleration speed, braking resistance, distance, speed, evasive maneuvers, etc.) is programmed in as needed for a given scenario. Vehicle sounds of 

acceleration, deceleration, tire squeal, siren, radio communication with other simulator “vehicles,” weather, and day/night conditions also can be programmed from 

the instructors’ control console (Figure 7-5). 

Figure 7-4. Engine cab model station. Figure 7-4. Figure 7-5. Instructor control console. Figure 7-5.

52 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
This simulator has four virtual worlds of operation, including urban and rural 

areas (Figure 7-6). The programs allow the instructors and students to view the appa­ (Figure 7-6)

ratus position from an overhead vantage point (Figure 7-7) . This feature is useful (Figure 7-7)

during the scenario replay to show apparatus placement in relation to curbs, etc. The 

manufacturer also programmed the graphics by incorporating pictures of actual 

Ventura County apparatus, so that is what is seen in the overhead view. 

Figure 7-6. Virtual world map. e 7-6. Figure 7-7. Overhead view e 7-7. . 

The Sacramento facility uses a four-station fixed Advanced Mobile Operations Simulator (AMOS) manufactured by Doron that cost approximately $750,000 at the time 

of purchase. This particular simulator has three flat plasma screens in each station 

(Figure 7-8). Each screen costs approxi­ (Figure 7-8)

mately $5,000. Just as the mobile simulator 

at Ventura County, the stationary simulator allows linking of multiple stations for 

interactive scenarios, programming vehicle physical responses, sounds, radio 

communication with other simulator “vehicles,” and altering weather and day or 

nighttime driving through the instructor 

console. The stations are also equipped to 

interchange vehicle cab models (e.g., sedan, engine, truck, etc.). However, because 

vehicle dynamics are the same for a vehicle whether small or large, and only the 

end result differs, the only cab model used Figure 7-8. Three-screen simulator station with sedan cab. by the Regional Training Center is that of 

a sedan. Additional cab models are priced 

separately from the unit. A motion base can be added to cab models to provide realism in road feel for an additional fee. 

Figure 7-8.

Training Sessions 

A relatively common side effect of “driving” the simulator is Simulator Adaptation 

Syndrome (SAS). SAS creates motion sickness symptoms. Ventura County experienced 

an incidence of 5 to 7 percent of members unable to complete the simulator exercises 

due to SAS. Sacramento Regional Training Facility experienced an incidence of approximately 40 percent of participants developing some motion sickness symptoms. 

TRAINING
 53 
There are a variety of methods used to reduce the incidence of SAS, with varying 

degrees of success. Ventura County requir es all members to wear special wristbands 

while driving the simulator. Sacramento uses both the special wristbands and special 

glasses (Figures 7-9 a and b). Limiting the time the member is actually in the simulator is the most effective way to control SAS. 

Each simulator session lasts 3 to 4 hours and involves a total of 20 to 30 minutes of 

actual simulator driving time. The session begins with an orientation process to learn 

to “drive” the simulator (acclimate to the cab model and graphics). The acclimation 

portion puts the driver through four different scenarios. Each scenario lasts approximately 2 minutes. The driver is removed from the simulator for 5 to 6 minutes following 

each completed scenario. 

Figures 7-9 a and b. Figures 7-9 a and b. Methods of controlling SAS. 

Ventura County was beginning to build their scenario bank at the time of the site 

visit. The remaining scenarios used at the Sacramento facility reflect situations requiring rapid decisionmaking. The facility has a bank of approximately 400 usable 

scenarios. Most classes use 18 to 25 scenarios that focus on the most common situations with high-risk potential. These situations are usually intersection clearing and 

conflict resolution. If the driver makes an incorrect decision, the feedback on the 

screen is immediate (Figure 7- (Figure 7­(Figure 7- (Figure 7-(Figure 7-

10). Both simulators allow the 10)

instructor to play back a driver’s 

performance through the entire 

scenario for review and teaching purposes. 

Currently, the simulator is 

not used as part of a recertification program or for any type of 

remedial training by Ventura 

County. Training’s short-term 

goal is to send all personnel 

through a 3-hour simulator session biannually to reinforce 

good driving judgment. A longterm goal is to implement a 

nonpunitive annual driver recertification program. Figure 7-10. Feedback for incorrect decision. Figure 7-10.

54 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
The simulator is part of the driver training offered as a remedial tool through the 

Sacramento Regional Training Facility. The simulator’s software scripting tool allows 

the instructor to script the scenario of the driver’s actual crash. The majority of the 

time the driver will repeat the same actions he/she took in the actual crash. The 

instructor then reviews the “drive,” discusses the appropriate response(s), and repeats 

simulations with new scenarios that have the same elements as the original crash. 

Effects of the Training 

The Sacramento Regional Training Facility was the only agency with data related to 

training effectiveness. From 1999 to 2003, there was a 77-percent decrease in fire 

department at-fault accidents. The average net savings to the city and county, after 

deducting the cost of operating the facility, was $2.5 to $4 per year in litigation alone. 

This does not include savings related to decreased vehicle maintenance, repair costs, 

workers’ compensation, downtime, etc. In addition to hard data, the instructors receive a great deal of positive feedback from personnel, claiming the training makes 

them better and safer drivers both on and off duty. 

SHARING LESSONS LEARNED 

Several organizations involved in this study have developed mechanisms for sharing 

information on incidents that have occurred. The intent of sharing this information 

is to prevent future incidents through the recognition of previous bad experiences. 

The following section highlights some of these information-sharing mechanisms. 

Accident Investigation Reporting — The Green Sheet 

Any of the following CDFFP incidents triggers an investigation: 

• a vehicular accident; 

• a severe loss accident; or 

• an accident in which there has been a loss of life. 

A Multi-Disciplined Accident Investigation Team (MAIT), led by the CHP, conducts 

the investigation of any significant crashes. Using the MAIT team reduces the potential for conflict of interest. The team consists of five or six members with expertise in 

the areas related to the incident. For example, the Fleet Regional Manager would be 

on the investigation team if the incident were equipment-related. 

The findings of all investigations are distributed to the entire department through 

the Intranet using a Green Sheet generated for information purposes. This document 

gives the incident information, the surrounding circumstances, and the findings of 

the investigation. The majority of Green Sheets are published within 3 to 4 days. 

However, if it is a significant and extended investigation, a preliminary sheet may be 

released, with the final results of the investigation coming in 6 to 8 weeks. Green 

sheets are used as a training tool and may result in a policy change. An example of 

a Green Sheet can be found in Appendix H. 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) 

Fatality Investigations 

The NIOSH Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program conducts investigations of both fireground and nonfireground fatal firefighter injuries resulting 

from a variety of circumstances, including motor vehicle incidents. NIOSH staff also 

conducts investigations of selected nonfatal injuries. Each investigation results in a 

report summarizing the incident, and includes recommendations for preventing future similar events. Congress began funding the independent NIOSH investigations 

in 1998 in response to the need for further efforts to address the continuing national 

problem of occupational firefighter fatalities. More information and specific investigation results and r ecommendations are available on the NIOSH Web site at: http:// 

www.cdc.gov/niosh/firehome.html 

TRAINING
 55 
NIOSH also publishes Hazard ID fact sheets and Alerts related to all aspects of 

firefighter safety. The NIOSH Hazard ID, Traffic Hazards to Fire Fighters While Working Along Roadways, can be found in Appendix H. Other Hazard ID’s and Alerts can 

be accessed online at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/othpubs.html 

DRIVER REQUIREMENTS 

All potential Ventura County Fire Department drivers must complete a task book 

before being eligible to take the driver’s examination. The purpose of this practice is 

to ensure that potential drivers are familiar with all of the different models of apparatus that they may encounter and the driving course specifications. The tasks that 

are outlined in the task book are minimum requirements, and are intended to provide a foundation for future learning. This practice encourages motivation and 

self-direction in members. They must travel to stations that house the apparatus on 

their own time and make arrangements with the station driver to supervise their task 

completion. The sections contained in the task book are 

• Apparatus Operator; 

• Aerial apparatus tasks; 

• Type III Wildland Engine tasks; 

• Light and air tasks; 

• Water Tender tasks; 

• Pumping evolution tasks; 

• Specialized apparatus tasks; 

• Tillered aerial apparatus tasks; and 

• Aircraft Crash Vehicle tasks. 

The completed book is submitted to the Training Section, where it is reviewed and 

recorded in the training database. The original book is placed in the individual’s 

training file. Examples of driving course specifications from the task book can be 

found in Appendix I. 

EMERGENCY VEHICLE MAINTENANCE 

Each year a percentage of firefighter/EMS injuries and deaths are the result of mechanical problems and apparatus failure. In these cases, the public and legal systems 

are increasingly inclined to look to the organization’s adherence to maintenance 

standards. In an ongoing attempt to minimize risks and fatalities, several groups 

have been working together to establish and implement standards, training and education, and certification programs supporting the safety of emergency vehicle 

equipment. 

In August of 2000, NFPA 1071, Standard for Emergency Vehicle Technician Professional Qualifications, was issued. This standard establishes a set of professional 

qualifications that can be used to develop educational requirements and corresponding certifications for emergency vehicle technicians and mechanics. In addition, NFPA 

1915, Standard for Fire Apparatus Preventative Maintenance Program, provides guidance for creating and maintaining a comprehensive maintenance program. Together, 

these standards can be used to ensure that a department’s staff has skills adequate to 

service and maintain the full spectrum of emergency vehicles. Although NFPA standards are not legally binding unless formally adopted by the authority having 

jurisdiction (AHJ), many departments, companies servicing emergency equipment, 

and original equipment manufacturers have adopted NFPA 1071 and NFPA 1915 as 

part of their internal policies and operating procedures. 

In an ongoing effort to ensure vehicle safety, the Emergency Vehicle Technician 

(EVT) Certification Commission was established to write and administer tests that 

56 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

would demonstrate proficiency in established standards. The tests resemble those used 

by the Automotive Service Excellence organization (ASE), applying their high “blue 

seal of excellence” standards to fire equipment. Technicians who receive all of the 

EVT and ASE certifications are recognized as a master certified EVT. The EVT certification program presently has two certification tracks, one for technicians who service 

and maintain fire apparatus and another for technicians who service and maintain 

ambulances. The levels of fire apparatus certification are shown in Table 7-2 able 7-2able 7-2. The 

levels of ambulance certification are shown in Table 7-3 able 7-3able 7-3. 

TABLE 7-2. 

EMERGENCY VEHICLE TECHNICIAN FIRE APPARATUS CERTIFICATIONS 

Fire Apparatus Technician Level Requirements – Level I ements – Level I

ASE Exams: EVT Exam: 

• T-7 or A-7, Heating and Air Conditioning • F2 Design & Performance Standards and 

• T2 Truck, Diesel Engines Preventive Maintenance of Fire Apparatus 

• T4 Truck, Brakes 

• T5 Truck, Suspension and Steering 

Fire Apparatus Technician Level Requirements – Level II ements – Level II

ASE Exams: EVT Exams: 

• T3 Truck, Drive Train • F3 Fire Pumps & Accessories 

• T6 Truck, Electrical Systems • F4 Fire Apparatus Electrical Systems 

Fire Apparatus Technician Level Requirements – Master Level III ements – Master Level III

ASE Exams: EVT Exams: 

• T1 Truck, Gasoline Engines • F5 Aerial Fire Apparatus 

• F6 Allison Automatic Transmissions 

TABLE 7-3. 

EMERGENCY VEHICLE TECHNICIAN AMBULANCE CERTIFICATIONS 

Ambulance Technician Level Requirements – Level I ements – Level I

ASE Exams: EVT Exams: 

• A-4 Automobile, Suspension and Steering • E-1 Design & Performance and Preventive 

• A-5 Automobile, Brakes Maintenance of Ambulances 

• A-6 Automobile, Electrical Systems 

• A-8 Automobile, Engine Performance 

Ambulance Technician Level Requirements – Level II ements – Level II

ASE Exams: EVT Exams: 

• A-1 Automobile, Engine Repair • E-2 Ambulance Electrical Systems 

• A-3 Automobile, Manual Drive Train & Axle • E-3 Ambulance Heating, Air-Conditioning, 

• A-7 Automobile, Heating and & Ventilation 

Air-Conditioning 

• T-2 Truck, Diesel Engines 

Ambulance Technician Level Requirements – Master Level III ements – Master Level III

ASE Exams: EVT Exams: 

• A-2 Automobile, Automatic Transmission • E-4 Ambulance Cab, Chassis, and Body 

and Transaxle 

• T-4 Truck, Brakes 

• T-5 Truck, Suspension 

and Steering 

TRAINING
 57 
Today, there are approximately 60,000 emergency vehicle technicians and mechanics in the United States. It is estimated that fewer than 25 percent have received 

certification meeting the requirements outlined in NFPA 1071. It is a common belief 

that increasing the number of certified emergency vehicle technicians will assist in 

reducing the number of emergency worker injuries and fatalities related to equipment failure. Ensuring that quality educational opportunities are readily available is 

central to increasing the number of certified EVT’s. 

More information about the EVT Certification Commission is available online at: 

http://www.evtcc.org 

Additional information about the ASE is available online at http://www.ase.com 

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TRAINING 

•	 Require driver training instructors to possess appropriate instructor credentials 

and firsthand experience in emergency vehicle operations. 

•	 Include an appropriate blend of theory, simulation, and hands-on practice in 

all driver training programs. 

•	 Limit the use of a driving simulator in training programs to improving drivers’ 

decisionmaking processes. 

•	 Require all emergency vehicle drivers to participate in refresher training on an 

annual basis and recertify according to department requirements no less than 

every 3 years. 

•	 Require members to be familiar with all of the different models of fire apparatus 

that they may be expected to operate before taking the driver’s examination. 

•	 Share the findings of all investigations with the entire department in a timely 

manner. 

1 Zagaroli, L. & Taylor, A. (2003, January 1). Ambulance driver fatigue a danger. Detroit News. 

58 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
SUMMARY OF 8 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

INTRODUCTION 

Since 1984, motor vehicle crashes have accounted for 20 to 25 percent of firefighter 

fatalities annually. Between 1990 and 2000, 18 percent of the fatalities occurred responding to an alarm, and 4.1 percent occurred returning from an alar m. Of the 

firefighters who died in motor vehicle crashes, 25 percent were killed in privatelyowned 

vehicles (POV’s). Following POV’s, the apparatus most often involved in fatal collisions were tankers, engines, and airplanes. Tankers claimed more fatalities than 

engines and aerial apparatus combined. Approximately 27 percent of fatalities were 

ejected at the time of the collisions. Reportedly, only 21 percent were wearing restraints prior to the crash. EMS personnel in the United States have an estimated 

fatality rate of 12.7 per 100,000 workers. As traffic volume increases and the highway 

and interstate system becomes more complex, emergency responders face a growing 

risk to personal safety while managing and working at highway incidents. 

This report identified various progressive safety practices and programs related to 

emergency vehicle operations. Although all of the information in this report is pertinent, some factors stand out as being especially relevant. The purpose of this report is 

to identify practices with potential for improving member safety when responding to 

and returning from a response and during highway operations. This chapter provides 

a summary of recommendations based on suggestions of forum participants and the 

most important practices discussed throughout the report. 

Develop a comprehensive database that tracks accidents involving emergency vehicles

and any resulting injuries/deaths to both firefighters and civilians. and any resulting injuries/deaths to both firefighters and civilians.

No solid data are available to support any of the progressive programs aimed at 

improving member safety related to vehicle and highway operations. There should 

be a national repository that collects data from all organizations. Because data are so 

fragmented and minimal, there is only anecdotal information to support the effectiveness of these safety practices or programs. 

Mark apparatus with conspicuous, contrasting colors. Mark apparatus with conspicuous, contrasting colors.

Striping with Diamond Grade fluorescent material in a herringbone pattern, such as 

that used by the Plano, Texas, Fire Department improves driver recognition while the 

apparatus is on the roadways. 

Consider visibility and conspicuity when designing color and placement of additional Consider visibility and conspicuity when designing color and placement of additional

warning lights on vehicles. warning lights on vehicles.

These factors are not highly dependent on driver behavior. For example, the Plano 

Fire Department uses additional lighting of a contrasting color to the vehicles. 

Install contrasting colored restraints and a rearview mir view mirview mirror above the of or above the officer’s seat. s seat.

NFPA 1901 states, “If available from the chassis manufacturer, the seatbelt webbing 

shall be bright red in color.” The committee suggested that “International Orange” is 

not the best color because it shows dirt. A rearview mirror above the officer’s seat 

allows him/her to assure that all personnel are wearing restraints without the distraction of having to turn ar ound. These practices make it easier to assure that all personnel 

are restrained before the apparatus moves. 

SECTION 


59 
Use spotters when backing the apparatus. Use spotters when backing the apparatus.

Even though cameras and other devices that assist with backing the apparatus do 

provide some measure of safety, there is no substitute for having at least one, preferably two, spotters to guide the driver while the apparatus is being operated in reverse. 

NFPA 1500 requires spotters for backing, r egardless of whether the apparatus is 

equipped with cameras or other backing safety equipment. One spotter should be 

equipped with a portable radio in the event that he/she needs to contact the driver 

during the backing operation. 

Consider optical preemption to improve emergency vehicle movement through con- Consider optical preemption to improve emergency vehicle movement through con­ Consider optical preemption to improve emergency vehicle movement through controlled intersections. trolled intersections.

With activation at 1/2 mile, optical preemption usually clears the intersection before 

the unit arrives, allowing continued travel without the need to stop. However, drivers 

must not assume they will have a clear path when they arrive at the intersection and 

must verify visually that all traffic has stopped. 

Always bring units to a complete stop at red lights, stop signs, and activated or un- Always bring units to a complete stop at red lights, stop signs, and activated or un­ Always bring units to a complete stop at red lights, stop signs, and activated or unguarded rail crossings before proceeding. guarded rail crossings before proceeding.

Even though optical preemption devices can provide a clear path for emergency units 

through traffic signals, drivers must not anticipate a change so far ahead that they 

cannot stop the apparatus safely or avoid striking another vehicle. 

Pursue a working relationship with the State Department of T tment of Ttment of Transpor ransportation and local tation and local

law enfor law enforlaw enforcement to identify criteria for responses that would incorporate DOT re-­

sources to aid in traf ces to aid in traffic contr fic contrfic control and improve safety for responders involved in highway

operations. operations.

An intelligent transportation system, traffic operations center, and DOT freeway 

motorist assist patrollers, if available, can provide considerable assistance to emergency response departments for traffic control at a highway operations scene. 

Position the engine at a 45-degree angle to the lanes with the pump panel toward the

incident and the front wheels rotated away from the incident when conducting high- incident and the front wheels rotated away from the incident when conducting high­ incident and the front wheels rotated away from the incident when conducting highway operations. way operations.

In the event that a motorist strikes the engine, the engine will act as a barrier and in 

the unlikely event the engine is moved upon impact, it will travel away from the 

work zone. The pump panel should face the incident to provide protection for the 

operator while monitoring apparatus functions. 

Extinguish forward-facing emergency vehicle lighting, especially on divided roadways. oadways.oadways.

This will help reduce distractions and glare to oncoming drivers. The headlights on 

the apparatus can temporarily blind approaching drivers, resulting in the problem of 

glare recovery. It takes at least 6 seconds, going from light to dark, and 3 seconds 

from dark to light for vision to recover. 

Create a safe work environment. Create a safe work environment.

Reduce the use of lighting as much as possible at the scene. Establish good traffic 

control, including placement of advance warning signs and traffic control devices to 

divert or detour traffic. This will allow responders to reduce emergency vehicle lighting. This is especially true for major traffic incidents that might involve a number of 

emergency vehicles. 

Require members to wear highly reflective material when conducting highway opera- Require members to wear highly reflective material when conducting highway opera­ Require members to wear highly reflective material when conducting highway operations.

Personnel visibility is critical during highway operations. In addition to PPE, high 

visibility vests should meet the ANSI III Standard. ANSI III provides the highest level 

of both retroreflective and florescent properties. It makes workers conspicuous through 

a full range of body movements at 1,280 feet. 

60 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

Remain vigilant during all phases of highway operations. Remain vigilant during all phases of highway operations.

Even with all safety precautions in place, personnel are at risk from drivers who may 

violate safety zones, blocking apparatus, cones, curbs, etc. Use law enforcement personnel to help secure and protect the scene. If necessary, appoint a Safety Officer to 

monitor traffic. 

Work with neighboring districts to develop similar highway operations policies. ork with neighboring districts to develop similar highway operations policies.

Mutual-aid departments using the same apparatus positioning and marking policies 

will improve the overall safety of all members at the incident, through understanding and familiarity with operating procedures. 

Allow all members to submit suggested policy changes. Allow all members to submit suggested policy changes.

Those members who work at highway operations on a daily basis can provide a 

critical review of existing policy and valuable information to improve safety based 

on experience. 

Assess and code responses using the classic risk management matrix. Identify the low- Assess and code responses using the classic risk management matrix. Identify the lowfrequency equency, low-severity incidents, use preset dispatch questions, and respond in a

nonemergency mode. nonemergency mode.

Multiple EMS studies have shown, with the exception of a few conditions, that there is 

no statistically significant difference in patient outcomes with emergency driving on 

ambulances versus nonemergency driving. It is logical to assume that in many situations (manpower for EMS, water leak, etc.) the results related to incident outcome 

would be duplicated with fire apparatus. St. Louis Fire Department found responding 

without lights and sirens reduced its crash rate. There are commercial dispatch programs available for priority dispatching; or agencies can develop their own specific 

questions, similar to those developed by the Salt Lake Valley, Utah, departments. 

Require driver training instructors to possess appropriate instructor credentials and

firsthand experience in emergency vehicle operations. firsthand experience in emergency vehicle operations.

Organizations that deliver driver training should ensure that their instructors meet 

local and State certification requirements for fire instructors. These instructors should 

also have specialized training and experience in safe and proper operation of emergency vehicles. 

Include an appropriate blend of theory, simulation, and hands-on practice in all driver

training programs. training programs.

Students should be provided with the theory and concepts associated with the safe 

operation of emergency vehicles and highway emergency scene safety. If driving simulators are available, they should be used to familiarize driver candidates with principles 

of vehicle operation. Tabletop scenarios also can be used for simulations. Practical 

driving exercises should be conducted on a controlled driving course and over public 

thoroughfares. 

Limit the use of a driving simulator in a training program to improving drivers’ Limit the use of a driving simulator in a training program to improving drivers’

decisionmaking processes. decisionmaking processes.

A driving simulator is an effective tool to familiarize driver candidates with vehicle 

operations. It can also be used to place experienced drivers in special situations that 

cannot be reproduced practically or safely using actual vehicles. It is most appropriate for high-risk situations, such as intersections and conflict management. It also 

allows remedial training to be tailored to a specific problem. However, a simulator 

cannot replace practical driver training exercises using actual emergency vehicles. 

All driver training programs must include the operation of actual vehicles in order to 

ensure candidates are capable of operating the real thing. 

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
 61 
Require all emergency vehicle drivers to participate in refresher training on an annual Require all emergency vehicle drivers to participate in refresher training on an annual

basis, and recertify accor tify accortify according to department r tment requirements no less than every 3 years. y 3 years.y 3 years.

The organization’s in-service training program must stress continuous maintenance 

and improvement of driver skills. In order to ensure that emergency vehicle drivers 

maintain their skills at an acceptable level, they should be required to prove their 

proficiency by recertifying every 3 years. 

Require members to be familiar with all of the different models of fire apparatus that

they may be expected to operate before taking the driver’ e taking the driver’s examination. s examination.

A member who is going to drive and operate fire department apparatus must be 

familiar with all the different types of fire apparatus operated by the department. 

One method of developing this familiarity is to require the member to complete a 

task book before taking the driver’s examination. This practice assures the member is 

familiar with all of the different models of apparatus that he/she may encounter and 

any driving course specifications. The tasks should be minimum requirements and 

provide a foundation for future learning. 

Share the findings of all investigations with the entire depar e department in a timely manner.

Sharing incident information, the surrounding circumstances, and the findings of 

the investigation in a timely manner can be a valuable training tool. If the investigation is prolonged, release a preliminary findings report. 

62 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

REFERENCES


Addario, M., Brown, L., Hogue, T., Hunt R. C., & Whitney, C. L. (2000). Do warning 

lights and sirens reduce ambulance response times? Prehospital Emergency Care, 

4(1), 70-74. 

Allen, M., Strickland, J., & Adams, A. (1967). As cited in DeLorenzo, R. & Eilers, M. 

(1991). Lights and siren: A review of emergency vehicle warning systems. Annals 

of Emergency Medicine, online. 

Davis, C. C., (1982). Accidents involving stopped vehicles on freeway shoulders. Automobile Club of Southern California. 

Davis, R. (2001, March 21). Speeding to the rescue can have deadly results. USA Today. 

DeLorenzo, R. & Eilers, M. (1991). Lights and siren: A review of emergency vehicle 

warning systems. Annals of Emergency Medicine, online. 

Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S. Fire Administration. (1994-2001). Fire 

Fighter Fatality in the United States. 

Harvey, N. (2003, May 25). Service honors fallen EMS providers. Roanoke Times. 

Hills, B.L. (1980). As cited in DeLorenzo, R. & Eilers, M. (1991). Lights and siren: A 

review of emergency vehicle warning systems. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 

online. 

Kahn, C.A., Pirrallo, R.G., & Kuhn, E.M. (2001). Characteristics of fatal ambulance 

crashes in the United States: an 11-year retrospective analysis. Prehospital Emergency Care, 5, 261-269. 

Kupas, D., Dula, D., & Pino, B. (1994). Patient outcome using medical protocol to 

limit “lights and siren” transport. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine. 9(4). 

National Bur eau of Standards. (1978). Emergency vehicle warning lights: state of the 

art, Pub. No.480-16. 

National Fire Protection Association. (2003). NFPA 1901: Standard for automotive fire 

apparatus. Quincy, MA: NFPA. 

•	 (2002). NFPA 1041: Standard for fire service instructor professional qualifications. Quincy, MA: NFPA. 

•	 (2002b). NFPA 1500: Standard on fire department occupational safety and health 

program. Quincy, MA: NFPA. 

•	 (2000). NFPA 1071: Standard for emergency vehicle technician professional qualifications. Quincy, MA: NFPA. 

•	 (2000b). NFPA 1915: Standard for fire apparatus preventative maintenance program. Quincy, MA: NFPA. 

Scarano, S. (1981). As cited in DeLorenzo, R. & Eilers, M. (1991). Lights and siren: A 

review of emergency vehicle warning systems. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 

online. 

Solomon, S. (2002). The case for amber emergency warning lights. Firehouse, 27(2), 

100-102. 

63 
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention. (2003, Februar y 28). Ambulance crash-related injuries among emergency medical services workers — United States, 1991-2002. Morbidity Mortality 

Weekly Report, 52 (08), 154-156. 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute for Occupational 

Safety and Health. (2001). 26-year-old emergency medical technician dies in multiple fatality ambulance crash—Kentucky. Pub. No. FACE-2001-11. 

Zagaroli, L. & Taylor, A. (2003, January 1). Ambulance driver fatigue a danger. Detroit News. 

64 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

R

PUBLIC COMMENTS ON NFP A 1901
 APPENDIX A 

Standard on Automative Fire Apparatus 

SUBMITTED BY THE EVSI SUBMITTED BY THE EVSI SUBMITTED BY THE EVSI

FORUM P FORUM PARTICIPANTS

Comment #1

Recommended wording from EVSI: Recommended wording from EVSI:

Add a new paragraph as 12.1.4 to read as follows: 

A high visibility plate stating the overall vehicle height, weight (loaded or GVWR)


and length shall be permanently attached in close proximity to the transmission


shift lever (or pad).


Wording that went into the requirements of NFPA 1901: A 1901:

12.1.4 The fire apparatus manufacturer shall permanently affix a high visibility


plate in a location visible to the driver while seated.


12.1.4

12.1.4.1* The plate shall show the height of the completed fire apparatus in feet


and inches or meters, the length of the completed fire apparatus in feet and inches


or meters, and the gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) in pounds or kilograms.


12.1.4.1*12.1.4.1*

12.1.4.2 Wording on the plate shall indicate that the information shown was


current when the apparatus was manufactured and that, if the overall height


changes while the vehicle is in service, the fire department must revise that dimen­


sion on the plate.


12.1.4.212.1.4.2 12.1.4.212.1.4.2 

Wording that went into the annex of NFPA 1901: A 1901:

A.12.1.4.1 It is important for fire apparatus drivers to understand the height, length


and weight of the vehicle compared to their personally owned vehicles. It is also


important that this information be accurate. Because the height of the apparatus


could change after delivery, depending on what equipment might be added, the


fire department must note such changes on the plate. Suggested wording for the


plate is shown in Figure A.12.1.4.1


A.12.1.4.1

Figure A.12.1.4.1 Suggested Plate Showing Dimensions of Fire Apparatus. Figure A.12.1.4.1 Suggested Plate Showing Dimensions of Fire Apparatus.

When manufactured, this vehicle was: 

XX ft YY in. High 

XX ft YY in. Long 

ZZZZ lbs GVWR 

Changes in height since the apparatus was 

manufactured 

shall be noted on this plate by the fire department. 

Committee substantiation for its changes: Committee substantiation for its changes:

The committee agrees with the intent of the submitter. However, it feels that the 

location should be left to the manufacturer as long as it is visible to the driver when 

he/she is seated. The committee has rewritten the submitters requirement to be 

more specific and added an annex item to assist users with understanding the 

requirement. The committee also notes that it is important the fire departments 

note any changes on the plate that change the height of the vehicle after it is 

delivered. 

65 
Comment #2

Recommended wording from EVSI: Recommended wording from EVSI:

Revise 14.1.3 of the draft to read as follows: 

Each crew riding position shall be provided with a seat and an approved seat belt 

designed to accommodate a person with and without heavy clothing. Seat belt 

webbing and the “buckles” shall be high visibility “International Orange” in color 

with the releasing “button” being a contrasting color. The buckle portion of the 

seat belt shall be mounted on a rigid or semi-rigid stalk such that the buckle remains positioned in a convenient location as would allow the fastening of the belt 

to be an operation capable of being completed using only one hand. 

Wording that went into the requirements of NFPA 1901: A 1901:

14.1.3.1 If available from the chassis manufacturer, the seat belt webbing shall be 

bright red in color and the buckle portion of the seat belt shall be mounted on a 

rigid or semi-rigid stalk such that the buckle remains positioned in an accessible 

location. 

14.1.3.114.1.3.1

Committee substantiation for its changes: Committee substantiation for its changes:

The committee feels “International Orange” is not the best color because it shows 

dirt and recommends “red” for seat belts. It is adding wording concerning the 

provision of a rigid or semi-rigid stock for mounting the buckle. 

Comment #3

Recommended wording from EVSI: Recommended wording from EVSI:

Add a new paragraph as 14.1.6 to read as follows: 

All crew and driving compartment doors shall have at least 96 square inches of 

reflective material or a reflective “Stop Sign” affixed to the inside of each of the 

doors. 

Wording that went into the requirements of NFPA 1901: A 1901:

14.1.6 All driving and crew compartment doors shall have at least 96 in2 (62,000 

mm2) of reflective material affixed to the inside of each of the doors. 

14.1.6

Committee substantiation for its changes: Committee substantiation for its changes:

The Committee agrees with the comment except for the “Stop Sign” option. The 

“Stop Sign” option could cause confusion to motorists. The committee also feels 

that often it is neither necessary nor desired for the motorist to stop. 

Comment #4

Recommended wording from EVSI: Recommended wording from EVSI:

Revise 14.3.3 in the draft to read as follows:


“The passenger side mirror shall be remote controlled from the drivers position


and be so mounted that the driver has a clear view of the mirror...”


Wording that went into the requirements of NFPA 1901:


None


Wording that went into the annex of NFPA 1901: A 1901:

. 2) When specifying new apparatus, the purchaser should consider 

remotely controlled mirrors, especially on the passenger side. The location and 

mounting of the mirrors should not be placed where door pillars or other obstructions block their view. The location and mounting should be placed so warning 

lights do not reflect in the mirror to blind the driver’s view. The location and mounting should not be placed so that the driver must look through the windshield area 

that is not wiped by the windshield wiper when viewing the passenger side mirror. 

Convex and other secondary mirrors should be considered to eliminate blind spots 

not covered by primary mirrors. Where necessary, heated mirrors should also be 

considered. 

A.14.3.3 A.14.3.3A.14.3.3 (par. 2) 

66 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
NFPA Staff note: This annex material is the result of action on 2 public comments 

combining new wording with existing annex wording. 

Committee substantiation for its changes: Committee substantiation for its changes:

The committee thinks the proposed requirement could cause reliability problems 

and should not be a requirement. However, the committee thinks it is appropriate 

to place the intent of the submitter’s recommendation in the annex for fire departments to consider. 

Comment #5

Recommended wording from EVSI: Recommended wording from EVSI:

Add a new paragraph as 15.9.4 to read as follows: 

Where body compartment doors are of “roll-up” construction, a strip of red and 

white reflective material (like what is currently placed on all highway trailers) 

meeting the current D.O.T. Standard, shall be affixed in the rub rail area below the 

door. If compartment doors are of the “swing-out” type, a 4 in. (minimum) reflective stripes or “Chevron type” reflective stripes shall be placed on the inside of the 

doors. 

Wording that went into the requirements of NFPA 1901: A 1901:

None 

Wording that went into the annex of NFP the annex of NFPA 1901: A 1901:

A.15.9.3.2 If fire departments specify rollup doors, they should consider affixing a 

strip of reflective material to the rail area below the door. If fire departments specify 

vertically hinged compartment doors, they should consider affixing 4 in. (100 mm) 

minimum width reflective stripes or chevron-type reflective stripes on the inside of 

the doors. 

A.15.9.3.2

Committee substantiation for its changes: Committee substantiation for its changes:

The committee thinks the intent of this comment is appropriate for the annex 

rather than the main body of the standard. Also, this comment does not take into 

consideration how the minimum reflective material will be placed on a horizontally hinged door. 

APPENDIX A
 67 
______________________________ 

______________________________ 

_________________________ 

_________________________ 

UDOT LETTER OF AGREEMENT FOR
 APPENDIX B 

OPTICAL PREEMPTION 

Date:_____________ 

Chief ________________________ 

__________________ Fire Department 

Re: Traffic Signal Pre-emption 

Dear Chief ___________________________, 

The Utah Department of Transportation appr oves your request to install traffic signal 

preemption on UDOT-owned traffic signals at the following locations in ___________ 

The following conditions apply: 

1.	 UDOT approves the use of traffic signal pre-emption as a public safety measure


at locations where local Fire Departments find it necessary to safely move


emergency vehicles through high traffic volume intersections under conditions


of emergency response. Accordingly, the _______________ Fire Department agrees


to install vehicle emitters only on Fire Department vehicles and to use traffic


signal pre-emption only under emergency conditions. _______________ Fire


Department policies shall be modified or updated if necessary to limit the use of


traffic signal pre-emption to appropriate emergency conditions.


2.	 UDOT will provide technical advice in design, installation, and maintenance at


no expense to the _______________ Fire Department.


3.	 The _______________ Fire Department shall bear all costs of the equipment and


the labor for a complete installation. Such costs will include the replacement or


upgrading of any existing conduit or cabinets which are inadequate to


accommodate the new pre-emption equipment.


4.	 The _______________ Fire Department may select a contractor of its choice,


provided that the contractor is pre-qualified by UDOT for traffic signal work.


5.	 After installation, UDOT will provide routine maintenance such as cleaning and


aiming of receivers, and maintenance of the proper programming of the


equipment. _______________ shall report any malfunctions requiring UDOT


assistance to the UDOT Traffic Operations Center at 887-3700. The Fire


Department will be responsible for all maintenance of the emitters.


6.	 The _______________ Fire Department will be responsible for replacing any


malfunctioning equipment, if necessary, in the future if it cannot be routinely


repaired by UDOT.


7.	 UDOT’s policy is to use traffic signal equipment which provides standardized


interfaces and open communication protocols, thus permitting compatibility


and interchangeability between equipment provided by different vendors. At


this time, the pre-emption devices commonly available on the market do not


fully meet this objective. Therefore, UDOT does not have an approved equipment


69 
__________________________________ ____________________ 

__________________________________ ____________________ 

list, nor does it endorse or specify any particular brand or vendor. UDOT will 

approve equipment proposed for use by local governments Departments on a 

case-by-case basis. At this time, UDOT will approve equipment that has: 

•	 Proven reliability 

•	 A means of uniquely identifying and logging pre-emption calls by individual 

vehicles. 

•	 Sufficient precision and accuracy to minimize false pre-emption calls which 

are disruptive to normal operation of the traffic signal. 

8.	 A proposed design (sketch plan), equipment list, and proposed contractor must 

be submitted for approval by UDOT prior to start of installation work. 

9.	 Vehicle emitter shall be wired so that they are enabled only when emergency 

light bars on the vehicles are activated. A means shall be provided to 

automatically disable the emitters when the vehicle is parked. 

10.	 Upon completion of the work, the ____________ Fire Department must arrange 

for the manufacturer’s representative to be on-site at no cost to UDOT to inspect 

the final installation, and assist in testing, fine-tuning and programming of the 

pre-emption unit. The manufacturer must provide a letter to UDOT certifying 

that the pre-emption unit and the vehicle emitters have been installed in 

accordance with the manufacturer’s r ecommendations and with UDOT 

requirements. 

APPROVED: 

David A. Kinnecom, P.E. Date 

Traffic Operations Engineer 

Utah Department of Transportation 

Chief Date 

_____________________ Fire Department 

CC: 

70 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
HIGHWAY
 APPENDIX C 

OPERATIONS SOP’s 

Par t 1: Fair f ax County Fire and Rescue 

Operating Procedures for Highway Incidents 

Part 2: Phoenix Fire Department 

Safe Parking While Operating in or Near Vehicle Traffic 

FAIRFAX COUNTY FIRE AND RESCUE 

OPERATING PROCEDURES FOR HIGHWAY INCIDENTS 

PREFA C E 

The primary objectives for any operation at the scene of a highway incident are preserving life, pr eventing injury to emer gency workers, protecting property and 

restoration of traffic flow. 

Managing a highway incident and other related problems is a team effort. Each 

responding agency has a role to play in an effective incident operation. The Police, 

Virginia Department of Transportation and the Fire and Rescue Department all play 

important roles in the management of highway incidents. It is not a question of 

“Who is in charge?” but “Who is in charge of what?” 

Care of the injured, protection of the public, safety of the emergency responders 

and clearance of the traffic lanes should all be priority concerns of the incident manager operating at the scene of a highway accident. It is extremely important that all 

activities that block traffic lanes be concluded as quickly as possible and the flow of 

traffic be allowed to resume promptly. When traffic flow is heavy, a small savings in 

accident scene clearance time can greatly reduce traffic backups and reduce the probability of a secondary incident. Restoring the roadway to normal or to as near normal 

as soon as possible creates a safer environment for the motorist and emergency responders. Additionally, it improves the public’s perception of the agencies involved 

and reduces the time and dollar loss resulting from the incident. 

The primary objectives for any operation at the scene of a highway incident are 

preserving life, preventing injury to emergency workers, protecting property and restoration of traffic flow. 

PURPOSE 

The purpose of this manual is to provide the incident officers and members of the Fire 

and Rescue Department with a uniform guide for safe operations at incidents occurring on the highway system. It is intended to serve as a guideline for decision-making 

and can be modified by the incident officers as necessary to address existing incident 

conditions. 

The most common occurrence and the one that possibly has the greatest potential 

for an unfavorable outcome to department personnel are emergency operations at 

the scene of a vehicle accident. Each year many significant incidents occur on roadways within Fairfax County. Whether it is on the interstate highway or on a secondary 

road, the potential for injury or death to a member of the department is overwhelming. 

71 
RESPONSE 

Fire and Rescue department personnel shall operate safely and make every effort to 

minimize the risk of injury to themselves and those who use the highway system. 

Personnel shall wear appropriate gear and be seated with restraint strap on prior to 

their vehicle responding to all incidents. 

Apparatus operating in the emergency mode shall operate warning devices and 

follow the guidelines outlined in Department S.O.P. 1.8.03. 

WARNING LIGHTS: Emergency warning lights shall remain operational 

while responding and, when necessary while working at incidents. 

HEADLIGHTS: Apparatus headlights shall be operational during 

all responses and incidents regardless of the time of 

the day. Caution should be used to avoid blinding 

oncoming traffic while on the scene. 

SIREN AND AIR HORN: When operating as an emergency vehicle, siren and 

air horn will be utilized. 

Emergency response to incidents on limited access highways should include at 

least one unit traveling each direction on the highway. When units respond together 

in the same direction, they should remain in single file in relatively close proximity 

to one another. This reduces confusion to the motorists on the highway as to how to 

appropriately yield the right of way to emergency apparatus. 

The preferable lane of response should be the left travel lane. When the shoulder 

must be utilized, apparatus operators must use extreme caution. Be aware of road 

signs, debris, guard rails, oversized vehicles and stopped vehicles. Fire and Rescue 

Department vehicle operators must reduce speed of their vehicle when using the shoulder of the road to access the incident. 

Response on access ramps shall be in the normal direction of travel, unless an 

officer on the scene can confirm that oncoming traffic has been stopped and no civilian vehicles will be encountered on the ramp. 

Median strip crossovers marked “Authorized Vehicles Only” shall only be used for 

turning around and crossing to the other travel lanes, when apparatus can complete 

the turn without obstructing the flow of traffic in either travel direction or all traffic 

movement has stopped. Under no circumstances shall crossovers be utilized for routine changes in travel direction. 

Utilization of U-turn access points in “Jersey” barriers on limited access highways 

is extremely hazardous and shall be utilized only when the situation is necessary for 

immediate lifesaving measures. 

ON SCENE ACTIONS 

The proper spotting and placement of apparatus is the joint responsibility of the 

driver and officer. The proper positioning of apparatus at the scene of an incident 

assures other responding resources of easy access, a safe working area and helps to 

contribute to an effective overall operation. 

The unit officer is responsible for the safety of the unit and his/her crew from the 

time the apparatus leaves quarters until its return. Safety of the crew is foremost 

while they are operating, both in emergency and non-emergency situations. 

ARRIVAL 

Standard practice shall be to position apparatus in such a manner as to ensure a safe 

work area at least one lane wider than the width of the incident. This may be difficult 

to accomplish at incidents on secondary and one-lane roads. Position the apparatus 

in such a manner as to provide the safest work area possible. 

72 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

A work zone shall be established allowing EMS units and the Rescue Squad to 

position in close proximity of the incident (Figure 1) (Figure 1)(Figure 1). 

The Engine placement should be back some distance from the incident, utilizing it 

as a safety shield blocking only those travel lanes necessary. The Engine shall be 

placed at an angle to the lanes, with the pump panel toward the incident and the 

front wheels rotated away from the incident. 

Figure 1. Figure 1.Figure 1.

In the event that a motorist strikes the engine, the engine will act as a barrier and 

in the unlikely event the engine is moved upon impact, it will travel away from the 

work zone. The pump panel should face the incident to provide protection for the 

operator while monitoring apparatus functions. 

Before exiting apparatus at an incident, personnel shall check to ensure that traffic has stopped to avoid the possibility of being struck by a passing vehicle. Personnel 

should remember, to look down to ensure that debris on the roadway will not become 

an obstacle, resulting in a personal injury. All crewmembers shall be in full protective 

clothing or traffic vests as the situation indicates. 

As soon a possible, the engine operator should place out flares and traffic cones. 

Traffic cones assist in channeling traffic away from the incident. Cones shall be used 

whenever department vehicles are parked on or about any road surface. 

Placement of cones and/or flares shall begin closest to the incident, working towards on-coming traffic. Cones and/or flares shall be placed diagonally across the 

roadway and around the incident. This assists in establishing a safe work zone. When 

placing cones or flares, care should be exercised to avoid being struck by oncoming 

traffic (Figure 2) (Figure 2)(Figure 2). 

Figure 2. Figure 2.Figure 2.

APPENDIX C
 73 
The speed of traffic must be considered when establishing a safe work area. 

Utilize the following chart to determine how far to place the first cone or flare away 

from the incident scene. 

POSTED SPEED LIMIT DISTANCE 

35 MPH 100 Ft. 

45 MPH 150 Ft. 

55 MPH 200 Ft. 

> 55 MPH 250 Ft. plus... 

When channeling traffic around the incident, cones shall also be used in front of 

the incident with the same diagonal placement to direct traffic safely around the 

work zone (Figure 3) (Figure 3)(Figure 3). 

It is possible to channel traffic around a curve, hill or ramp provided the first cone 

is placed such that the oncoming driver is made aware of imminent danger. The first 

cone should be placed well before the curve, hill or ramp. The rest of the cones shall 

be placed diagonally across the lanes around the work zone. 

A Four Point System will be used whenever vehicles are parked in an area which 

does not require the channeling of traffic. One cone will be placed at each corner of 

the vehicle approximately four feet from each corner. This will assist the motorist and 

incoming units to identify the established work zone. When utilizing this system around 

aerial apparatus and rescue squads, additional cones should be placed to identify 

extended outriggers, booms and heavy equipment (Figure 4) (Figure 4)(Figure 4). 

Figure 3. Figure 3.Figure 3.

Figure 4. Figure 4.Figure 4.

74 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
PARKING OF RESPONSE VEHICLES 

Providing a safe work area for emergency responders is a priority at every emergency 

incident. However, consideration must be given to keeping as many traffic lanes as 

possible open. Except for those vehicles needed in the operation and those used, as a 

shield for the work area, other response vehicles should be parked together in a designated area. Parking should be on the shoulder or median area, if one exists. Parking 

response vehicles completely out of available travel lanes greatly assists in the movement of traffic. If not needed to illuminate the scene, drivers should remember to 

turn vehicle headlights off when parked at incidents. 

APPARATUS VISIBILITY AT NIGHT 

As the human eye becomes adapted to the dark, the first color to leave the spectrum 

is red. This is important due to the fact that our warning lights ar e red. The color red 

tends to blend in to the nighttime surroundings. 

Glare vision and recover y is the amount of time required to recover from the effects 

of glare once a light source is passed through the eye. This takes at least six seconds, 

going from light to dark and three seconds fr om dark to light for vision to recover. 

At 50 miles per hour, the distance traveled during a second is approximately 75 

feet. Thus, in six seconds, the vehicle has traveled 450 feet before the driver has fully 

regained night vision. This is extremely important when operating on roadways at 

night. 

The headlights on the apparatus can temporarily blind drivers that are approaching fire and rescue apparatus. Drivers of oncoming vehicles will experience the problem 

of glare recovery. This essentially means individuals are driving by the emergency 

scene blind. The wearing of protective clothing and or traffic vests will not help the 

blinded driver see department members standing in the roadway. 

Studies conducted show that at two and a half car lengths away from a vehicle 

with its headlights on, the opposing driver is completely blinded. The best combination of lights to provide maximum visibility is as follows: 

Red warning lights on 

Headlights off 

Fog lights off 

Pump panel lights on 

Spot lights on rear (and front if equipped) on and directed on to a traffic cone. 

Traffic directional boards operating 

Low beam headlights can be utilized to light the emergency scene using care as to 

light only the immediate scene. 

CLEARING TRAFFIC LANES 

When outside of a vehicle on a major roadway, both civilian and emergency responders are in a very unsafe environment. Therefore, it is imperative to take every 

precaution to protect ourselves as well as civilians at incident scenes. Positioning 

apparatus to serve as a shield for work areas is a prudent practice on any incident on 

a major roadway. But, we must remember that reducing and/or shutting down traffic lanes creates other problems and safety concerns. Therefore, it is critical when 

operational phases (extrication’s, medical care and suppression) are completed, that 

apparatus be repositioned to allow traffic to flow on as many lanes as possible. 

Remember that unnecessarily closing or keeping traffic lanes closed greatly increases the risk of a secondary incident occurring in the resulting traffic backup. One 

minute of stopped traffic causes an additional four-minute delay in traffic. 

APPENDIX C
 75 
CLEARING THE SCENE 

Management of incidents on the interstate system and local roadways requires the 

expertise and resources of the Fire and Rescue Department, Police Department, Virginia State Police, local Police Departments, and the V irginia Department of 

Transportation working in concert. While the safety of emergency services personnel 

is the paramount concern for the officer in charge, the flow of traffic must be kept in 

consideration at all times. The closing of roadways disrupts traffic throughout the 

area as well as having a significant impact on businesses throughout the region. 

Keeping the safety of all personnel in mind and coordinating the needs with the 

other emergency services, the officer in charge should begin to open closed lanes 

utilized for extrication and place units in service as soon as practical. 

PHOENIX FIRE DEPARTMENT 

SAFE PARKING WHILE OPERATING IN OR NEAR VEHICLE TRAFFIC 

M.P. 205.07A04/95-R 

RETURN TO VOLUME 2 INDEX 

• OVERVIEW 

• SAFETY BENCHMARKS 

• FREEWAY OPERATIONS 

OVERVIEW 

This procedure identifies parking practices for fire department apparatus that will 

provide maximum protection and safety for personnel operating in or near moving 

vehicle traffic. It also identifies several approaches for individual practices to keep 

firefighters safe while exposed to vehicle traffic. 

IT SHALL BE THE POLICY OF THE PHOENIX FIRE DEPARTMENT TO POSITION

APPARATUS AT THE SCENE OF EMERGENCIES IN A MANNER THAT BEST PRO- T BEST PRO­ T BEST PROTECTS THE WORK AREA AND PERSONNEL FROM VEHICLE TRAFFIC AND OTHER

HAZARDS. HAZARDS.

All personnel should understand and appreciate the high risk that firefighters are 

exposed to when operating in or near moving vehicle traffic. We should always operate from a defensive posture. Always consider moving vehicles as a threat to your 

safety. Each day, emergency personnel are exposed to motorists of varying abilities, 

with or without licenses, with or without legal restrictions, and driving at speeds from 

creeping to well beyond the speed limit. Some of these motorists are the vision impaired, the alcohol and/or drug impaired. On top of everything else, motorists will 

often be looking at the scene and not the road. 

Nighttime operations are particularly hazardous. Visibility is reduced and the flashing of emergency lights tend to confuse motorists. Studies have shown that multiple 

headlights of emergency apparatus (coming from different angles at the scene) tend 

to blind civilian drivers as they approach. 

SAFETY BENCHMARKS 

Emergency personnel are at great risk while operating in or around moving traffic. 

There are approaches that can be taken to protect yourself and all crew members: 

1. Never trust the traffic 

2. Engage in proper protective parking 

3. Wear orange, high visibility reflective vests 

4. Reduce motorist vision impairment 

5. Use traffic cones and flares 

76 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
Listed below are benchmarks for safe performance when operating in or near moving 

vehicle traffic. 

1.	 Always maintain an acute awareness of the high risk of working in or around 

moving traffic. Never trust moving traffic. Always look before you step! Always 

keep an eye on the traffic! 

2.	 Always position apparatus to protect the scene, patients, emergency personnel, 

and provide a protected work area. Where possible, angle apparatus at 45 degrees away from curbside. This will direct motorist around the scene (See Figure

1). Apparatus positioning must also allow for adequate parking space for other 1)

fire apparatus (if needed), and a safe work area for emergency personnel. Allow 

enough distance to prevent a moving vehicle from knocking fire apparatus into 

the work areas. 

3.	 At intersections, or where the incident may be near the middle of the street, two 

or more sides of the incident may need to be protected. Block all exposed sides. 

Where apparatus is in limited numbers, prioritize the blocking from the most 

critical to the least critical (See Figures 2, 3 and 4). 

4.	 For first arriving engine companies where a charged hoseline may be needed, 

angle the engine so that the pump panel is “down stream,” on the opposite side 

of on-coming traffic. This will protect the pump operator (See Figure 5). 

5.	 The initial company officer (or Command) must assess the parking needs of 

later-arriving fire apparatus and specifically direct the parking and placement 

of these vehicles as they arrive to provide protective blocking of the scene. This 

officer must operate as an initial safety officer. 

6.	 During daytime operations, leave all emergency lights on to provide warning to 

drivers. 

7.	 For NIGHTTIME operations, turn OFF fire apparatus headlights. This will help 

reduce the blinding effect to approaching vehicle traffic. Other emergency lighting should be reduced to yellow lights and emergency flashers where possible. 

8.	 Crews should exit the curbside or non-traffic side of the vehicle whenever possible. 

9.	 Always look before stepping out of apparatus, or into any traffic areas. When 

walking around fire apparatus parked adjacent to moving traffic, keep an eye 

on traffic and walk as close to fire apparatus as possible. 

10.	 Wear the orange safety vest any time you are operating in or near vehicle traffic. 

11.	 When parking apparatus to protect the scene, be sure to protect the work area 

also. The area must be protected so that patients can be extricated, treated, 

moved about the scene, and loaded into Rescues safely. 

12.	 Once enough fire apparatus have “blocked” the scene, park or stage unneeded 

vehicles off the street whenever possible. Bring in Rescue companies one or two 

at a time and park them in safe locations at the scene. This may be “down 

stream” from other parked apparatus, or the Rescue maybe backed at an angle 

into a protected loading area to prevent working in or near passing traffic. At 

residential medical emergencies, park Rescues in driveways for safe loading where 

possible. If driveways are inaccessible, park Rescues to best protect patient loading areas. (See Figures 6 and 7). 

13.	 Place traffic cones at the scene to direct traffic. This should be initiated by the 

first company arriving on the scene and expanded, if needed, as later arriving 

companies arrive on the scene. Always place and retrieve cones while facing oncoming traffic. 

14.	 Placing flares, where safe to do so, adjacent to and in combination with traffic 

cones for nighttime operations greatly enhances scene safety. Place flares to 

direct traffic where safe and appropriate to do so. 

APPENDIX C
 77 
15.	 At major intersections a call for police response may be necessary. Provide specific direction to the police officer as to exactly what your traffic control needs 

are. Ensure the police are parking to protect themselves and the scene. Position 

Rescues to protect patient loading areas. (See Figure 8.)

FREEWAY OPERATIONS 

Freeway emergencies pose a particular high risk to emergency personnel. Speeds are 

higher, traffic volume is significant, and civilian motorists have little opportunity to 

slow, stop or change lanes. 

The Department of Public Safety will also have a desire to keep the freeway flowing. Where need be, the freeway can be completely shut down. This, however, rarely 

occurs. 

For freeway emergencies, we will continue to block the scene with the first apparatus on the scene to provide a safe work area. Other companies may be used to provide 

additional blocking if needed. 

The initial company officer, or command, must thoroughly assess the need for 

apparatus on the freeway and their specific positions. Companies should be directed 

to specific parking locations to protect the work area, patients, and emergency personnel. 

Other apparatus should be parked downstream when possible. This provides a 

safe parking area. 

Staging of Rescue companies off the freeway may be required. Rescues should be 

brought into the scene one or two at a time. A safe loading area must be established. 

Traffic cones should be placed farther apart, with the last cone approximately 150 

feet “upstream,” to allow adequate warning to drivers. Place and retrieve cones while 

facing the traffic. 

Command should establish a liaison with the Department of Public Safety as soon 

as possible to jointly provide a safe parking and work area and to quickly resolve the 

incident. 

The termination of the incident must be managed with the same aggressiveness as 

initial actions. Crews, apparatus, and equipment must be removed from the freeway 

promptly, to reduce exposure to moving traffic. 

Figure 2. Prioritize placement of the Figure 2.Figure 2.

Figure 1. Where possible, angle apparatus Figure 1.Figure 1. apparatus by blocking from the most critical 

at a 45-degree angle from the curb. to the least critical side. 

78 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
Figure 3. Often times two or more sides may need to be protected. Figure 3.Figure 3. Figure 4.Figure 4. igure 4. This collision scene must be protected from three sides. 

Figure 5. To protect pump opera e 5. tor, position apparatus with Figure 6. Where possible, park rescues in driveways or position rescue to Figure 6.
Figure 6. Figure 6.Figure 6.

the pump panel on the opposite side of on-coming traffic. protect patient loading area.


APPENDIX C
 79 
Figure 7. The patient loading area is protected when the ambulance	 Figure 8. Provide specific direction to police as to what traffic 

is parked in the driveway.	 control needs you have. Position rescues to protect patient loading 

areas. 

Figure 7.	Figure 7. Figure 7.Figure 7. Figure 8.Figure 8.

80 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
PHOENIX FIRE DEPARTMENT
 APPENDIX D 

NATURE/DISPATCH CODES 

C NATURE DESCRIPTION

ALMMNT FIRE ALARM MAINTENANCE 2 PVT PRIVATE AMBULANCE 

ALMTST FIRE ALARM TEST 2 REFRIG CHECK REFRIG * AOI 

BARHOS BARRICADE HOSTAGE 2 SERV SERVICE CALL * AOI 

BBQING BARBEQUE OPERATION 2 SLAMB PRIVATE AMBULANCE 

BLEED CONTROL BLEEDING 2 SMOKEO SMOKE IN AREA 

CKELEC CHECK ELECTRICAL 2 SNAKE SNAKE REMOVAL * AOI 

CKFOUT CHECK FIRE OUT 2 SV SERVICE VAN REQUEST 

CKHAZ CHECK HAZARD 2 TEST THIS IS ONLY A TEST 

CKWELF CHECK WELFARE 2 UTIL SERVICE CALL 

CSPINE CSPINE STABILIZATION 

DL DRUG LAB 3 1000 CODE 1000 

DRILL FIRE DRILL 3 962 962 

FUEL FUEL SPILL 3 962A 962 

FUELF FUEL SPILL 3 962 BC 9C2 INV BICYCLE 

FUELH FUEL SPILL 3 962F 962 WITH FIRE 

FUMIGT FUMIGATION OPERATION 3 962HM 962 W/HAZ MATERIAL 

GENRAT GENERATOR OPERATION 3 962MC 962 INVOL MOTORCY 

LGLBRN LEGAL BURNING OPER 3 962P 962 INVOLVING PEDEST 

LOCK LOCK OUT 3 962R 962 ROLLOVER 

MEDMNT MED ALARM MAINTNEN 3 962W CAR INTO CANAL 

MEDTST MEDICAL ALARM TEST 3 962X 962 EXTRICATION 

PITBBQ BARBEQUE OPERATION 3 A1 ALERT ONE 

SPRMNT SPRINKLER MAINTENANCE 3 A2 ALERT TWO 

SPRTST SPRINKLER TEST 3 A21A ALERT TWO 

SPRTST SPRINKLER TEST 3 A3 ALERT THREE 

2 ACCID FIRE DEPT VEH ACCIDENT 3 ABD ABDOMINAL PAIN 

2 ARSON FIRE INVESTIGATION 3 ACUNIT AIR CONDITIONER 

2 ASSLTM MINOR ASSAULT * AOI 3 AED CODE 

2 ASSPD ASSIST PD * AOI 3 ALARM FIRE ALARM INDICATIO 

2 BACKM MINOR BACK INJ * AOI 3 ALLEY ALLEY FIRE 

2 BITEM MINOR BITE * AOI 3 ALLRG ALLERGIC REACTION 

2 BURNM MINOR BURN* AOI 3 ALOC ALTERED LVL OF CONSC 

2 CKBEE CHECK BEES * AOI 3 APPLIA APPLIANCE FIRE 

2 COMCAR CRISIS CARE 3 APT APARTMETN FIRE 

2 CONCT CONNECTOR CALL 3 APT1A APARTMENT FIRE 

2 CROWD CHECK CROWDING * AOI 3 ASSLT ASSAULT 

2 ILLEG ILLEGAL BURNING 3 ASSLTS ASSLT * STAGE FOR PD 

2 INFODR DROWNING HOTLINE 3 BACK BACK PROBLEM 

2 INJM MINOR INJURY * AOI 3 BBQ BBQ OUT OF CONT 

2 INV FIRE INVESTIGATION 3 BEE BEE ASSIGNMNT 

2 LAD SERVICE CALL 3 BITE ANIMAL BITE 

81 
2 LARC LARC REQUEST 3 BOATA BOAT ACCIDENT 

2 MISSIN MISSING PERSON * AOI 3 BOATF BOAT FIRE 

2 NOSEND NON-DISPATCHED CALL 3 BR BRUSH FIRE 

2 ODOR CHECK AN ODOR * AOI 3 BR1A BRUSH FIRE 

2 OH OPEN HYDRANT * AOI 3 BRST BRUSH FIRE 

2 PDCCU ASSIST PD 3 BURN BURN INJURY 

2 POOL CHECK POOL * AOI 3 CAR CAR FIRE 

3 CARA CAR-ABOVE GRND 3 HMED21 HAZARDOUS SITUATION 

3 CAREXP ACRE FIRE WITH EXPOSU 3 HOUS1A HOUSE FIRE 

3 CARU CARE FIRE UNDERGRND 3 HOUSE HOUSE FIRE 

3 CB CHILDBIRTH 3 HR1A HIGH RISE FIRE 

3 CHOKE PERSON CHOKING 3 HR2-1 HIRISE 3-1 RESPONSE 

3 CHOKEC CHILD CHOKING 3 HR3-1 HIRISE 3-1 RESPONSE 

3 CHOKEP INFANT CHOKING 3 HYRES HEAVY RESCUE 

3 CODE CODE 3 ILL ILL PERSON 

3 CODEC CHILD CODE 3 INJ INJURED PERSON 

3 CODEP INFANT COCE 3 INJX INJURED PERSON 

3 COMM COMMERCIAL STRUCTURE 3 INTB INTERNAL BLEEDING 

3 COVAMB COVER FD AMBULANCE 3 MA MUTUAL AID 

3 CP CHEST PAIN 3 MAT MATERNITY PROBLEMS 

3 CRASH AIRCRAFT DOWN 3 MED1A MEDICAL RESPONSE 

3 CSPACE CONFINED SPACE RES 3 MED2-1 MEDICAL RESPONSE 

3 CUT CUTTING 3 MED3-1 MEDICAL RESPONSE 

3 CVA STROKE 3 MEDALM MEDICAL ALARM 

3 DB DIFFICULTY BREATHING 3 MMRS METRO MEDICAL RESPO 

3 DEBRIS DEBRIS FIRE 3 MOBILE MOBILE HOME FIRE 

3 DIAB DIABETIC PROBLEM 3 MTNRES MOUNTAIN RESCUE 

3 DOWN PERSON DOWN 3 NBC HAZARDOUS SITUATION 

3 DR DROWNING 3 NBCNIT HAZARDOUS SITUATION 

3 DR2 DROWNING * 2 VICTIMS 3 NOSE NOSE BLEED 

3 DR3 DROWNING * 3 VICTIMS 3 OD OVERDOSE 

3 DRYER DRYER FIRE 3 OVEN OVEN FIRE 

3 DUMP DUMPSTER FIRE 3 POISN POISON INGESTION 

3 ELEC ELECTROCUTION 3 POLE POLE FIRE 

3 ENG SERVICE CALL 3 RES RESCUE CALL 

3 EYE EYE INJURY 3 RES1A RESCUE CALL 

3 FALL FALL INJURY 3 RES2-1 RESCUE CALL 

3 FENCE FENCE FIRE 3 RES3-1 RESCUE CALL 

3 FIELD FIELD FIRE 3 RIC 3-1 RIC RESPONSE 

3 GARAGE GARAGE FIRE 3 RIC1A 1A RIC RESPONSE 

3 GASL NATURAL GAS LEAK 3 SEIZ SEIZURE 

3 BASM BROKEN NAT GAS MAIN 3 SHED SHED 

3 GASS NATURAL GAS LEAK INS 3 SMOKEI SMOKE INSIDE STRUCT 

3 GRASS GRASS FIRE 3 STAB STABBING 

3 GSW GUNSHOT WOUND 3 STABS STABBING-STG FOR PD 

3 GSWS GUNSHOT WOUND-STAGE 3 STOVE STOVE FIRE 

82 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

3 HA HEART PROBLEMS 3 STR STRUCTURE FIRE 

3 HANG HANGING 3 STR1A STRUCTURE FIRE 

3 HAZ HAZARDOUS SITUATION 3 TASER INJURED PERSON 

3 HAZ1A HAZARDOUS SITUATION 3 TRAIN TRAIN FIRE 

3 HAZ2-1 HAZARDOUS SITUATION 3 TRANSF TRASNFORMER FIRE 

3 HAZ3-1 HAZARDOUS SITUATION 3 TRASH TRASH FIRE 

3 HAZMED HAZARDOUS SITUATION 3 TREE TREE FIRE 

3 HEAD HEADACHE 3 TREERS TREE RESCUE 

3 HEAT HEAT RELATED ILL 3 TRENCH TRENCH RESCUE 

3 HMED1A HAZARDOUS SITUATION 3 TRK TRUCK FIRE 

3 TRKA TRUCK ABOVE GRND 3 VEH VEHICLE FIRE 

3 TRKEXP TRUCK FIRE WITH EXPO 3 VEHA VEHICLE ABOVE GRND 

3 TRKU TRUCK UNDERGRND 3 VEHEXP VEHICLE FIRE W/EXPOS 

3 UNC UNCONSCIOUS PERSON 3 VEHU VEHICLE UNDERGRND 

3 UNKF UNKNOWN FIRE 3 WATER WATER RESCUE 

3 UNKM UNKNOWN MEDICAL 3 WIRES CHECK LINES DOWN 

APPENDIX D
 83 
RESPONSE
 APPENDIX E 

MATRICES 

Part 1: Virginia Beach Fire and Rescue — Fire Response 

Matrix 

Part 2: Salt Lake Valley — Fire Response Matrix Mass 

Casualty Response 

85 
86 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

APPENDIX E
 87 
88 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

APPENDIX E
 89 
SALT LAKE VALLEY FIRE RESPONSE MATRIX


APPENDIX E
 91 
SALT LAKE VALLEY FIRE RESPONSE MATRIX


92 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

SALT LAKE VALLEY MASS CASUALTY RESPONSE MATRIX 

Response 

The following table illustrates response assignments for a mass casualty event: 

Call Type Assignment 

First Alar First AlarFirst Alarm Mass Casualty 10-15 Patients m Mass Casualty 10-15 Patients 1 - IMT, 1- Extrication unit, 2 -BLS Engines, 

3 - ALS Units, 1 - Ambulance Strike Team, 

1 - Mass Casualty Trailer (Standby) 

2 - Helicopter (Standby), Command Post 

Second Alarm Mass Casualty 16-30 Patients First Alarm Response & 2 – Chief Officers 

1 – Extrication unit, 2 – BLS Engines, 3 – ALS 

Units, 1 – Ambulance Strike Team, 1 – Mass 

Casualty Trailer, 1 – Mass Transit Unit 

Total:

• Chief Officers – 6· 

• Extrication Units – 2 

• BLS Engines – 4· 

• ALS Units – 6 

• Ambulances – 10 

• Mass Transit Unit – 1 

Third Alarm Mass Casualty 30 < Patients Second Alarm Response & 2 Chief Of ficers, 1 – 

Extrication unit, 2 – BLS Engines, 3 – ALS Units, 1 – 

Ambulance Strike Team, 1 – Mass Transit 

Unit 

Total:

• Chief Officers – 8· 

• Extrication Units – 3 

• BLS Engines – 6 

• ALS Units – 9 

• Ambulances – 15 

• Mass Transit Unit – 2 

Note: The Incident Commander has the discretion to modify this response protocol, to meet the unique needs 

of the incident. 

Also, multiple function equipment (ALS/Transport/Fire Engine) will only count as a single function unit for 

dispatch purposes. 

APPENDIX E
 93 
AMERICAN AMBULANCE
 APPENDIX F 

ASSOCIATION 

Developed by: AAA MMTS subcommittee of the Professional 

Standards and Research Committee 

AAA BEST PRACTICE FOR EMS DRIVING OUTLINE 

Elements: 

•	 Employee selection 

•	 Driver training and education 

•	 Monitoring driving performance 

•	 Company driving policies 

•	 Prioritizing emergency responses 

•	 Ambulance selection 

•	 Ambulance maintenance 

•	 Data collection 

•	 Other factors 

BEST PRACTICE — EMPLOYEE SELECTION 

Interview process focuses on: 

•	 Attitude 

•	 Reference checks 

•	 Verification of driving record 

•	 Skill level 

•	 Training 

•	 Safety belts use 

•	 Personality 

•	 Public awareness 

•	 Knowledge 

• Values 

Drug Testing 

•	 Risk related behaviors — instruments to measure for new hires 

•	 Established minimum driver qualification criteria — e.g. number of moving vio­


lations for past 36 months, no DUI convictions, reckless cites, suspensions, age,


medical condition


•	 DOT Physical requirements — vision, hearing, etc. 

•	 Drivers Education certificate 

BEST PRACTICE — DRIVER TRAINING & EDUCATION 

•	 Formalized classroom program — low force driving concepts 

•	 Certified instructor 

•	 On the road training in training vehicle 

•	 Testing — knowledge and skill based 

•	 Training documentation & certification 

95 
BEST PRACTICE — MONITORING DRIVING PERFORMANCE 

•	 On-board computer monitoring system or equivalent 

•	 Peer monitoring by partner 

•	 Super visory monitoring 

•	 Automatic monitoring of both personal and on-the-job driving for traffic violations 

•	 Other monitoring devices 

BEST PRACTICE — COMPANY DRIVING POLICIES 

•	 Nomenclature — “crashes” & “collisions” vs.“accidents” 

•	 Crash investigation committee 

•	 Seat belts, occupant restraints and patient restraints 

•	 Securing cabinets, equipment, and supplies in patient compartment 

•	 Training and retraining 

•	 Driving privileges — suspensions and revocation 

•	 Speed limit vs. posted speed limit for priority one responses 

•	 Impaired driver — 24-hours shift, medications, alcohol, drugs and fatigue 

•	 Emergency mode driving, routine driving, dynamics of large vehicles, backing, 

low forces driving, zero tolerance standards for seat belt use and complete stops 

at red lights when running emergency, passing school buses with stop signs outward, etc. 

•	 Best practices currently employed in the industry 

BEST PRACTICE - PRIORITIZING EMERGENCY RESPONSES 

•	 Medical Priority Dispatching System reduces lights and siren responses 

•	 Use of certified Emergency Medical Dispatchers 

•	 Dispatch policies — company and EMS system 

BEST PRACTICE — AMBULANCE SELECTION 

•	 Use of KKK standards 

•	 Sirens and mounting locations 

•	 Warning lights 

•	 Loaded weight limitations 

•	 High center of gravity problems 

•	 Mechanical/crash worthiness 

•	 Interior design 

•	 Technology systems 

•	 Preemptive devices 

BEST PRACTICE — AMBULANCE MAINTENANCE 

•	 Preventative maintenance on vehicles 

•	 Driver’s vehicle check list 

•	 Driver’s prerogatives to sideline “un-safe” ambulance policy 

BEST PRACTICE — DATA COLLECTION 

•	 Fleet miles 

•	 Number of vehicles 

•	 Adverse effects 

•	 Vehicle specification data (type of vehicle) 

•	 Severity of crash 

96 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
DRIVER TRAINING
 APPENDIX G 

COURSES 

Part 1: CDFFP Vehicle Operations Course Objectives 

Part 2: Sacramento Regional Training Center Lesson Plan 

Part 3: Ventura County Fire Department Driving Course Descriptions 

Califor California Department of Forestry and Fir y and Firy and Fire Protection Vehicle Operations Course Objectives

BFC STUDENT HANDBOOK

 ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ 2A COURSE OUTLINE

BASIC FIRE CONTROL 2A COURSE REQUIREMENTS 

PHYSICAL FITNESS

PHYSICAL FITNESS TRAINING 8 hours P.T. sessions 

The student will be able to... 

Improve aerobic conditioning with cross-country hiking sessions. 

PUMP OPERATIONS

PUMP THEORY AND OPERATIONS 6 hours classroom 

17 hours skill lab 

The student will be able to... 

Describe the functions and operation of the various pumps, gauges and controls on CDF engines. 

Demonstrate the ability to pump from tank, draft and hydrant with the various CDF engines. 

Demonstrate the procedures to follow while pumping from the tank of CDF fire engines. 

Demonstrate the procedures to follow while pumping from draft with CDF fire engines. 

Demonstrate the procedures to follow while pumping from a hydrant with CDF fire engines. 

HYDRAULICS 2 hours 

The student will be able to... 

Demonstrate the ability to do simple hydraulics problems. 

MOTOR VEHICLE OPERATIONS

BASIC DRIVING AND AIR BRAKES 6 hours 

The student will be able to... 

Safely and correctly drive a conventional and four wheel drive vehicle powered by a gasoline 

and/or diesel internal combustion engine, equipped with an Allison automatic or manual 

transmission. 

Properly adjust an S-Cam air brake to CDF’s standards.


Describe the procedure for checking the complete air brake system for proper operation.


Correctly identify and complete all forms related to vehicle operation.


PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE 6 hours classroom 

7 hours field 

The student will be able to... 

Identify the components of an “A” and “B” service. 

Identify the various forms associated with an “A” and “B” service. 

Correctly perform an “A” and “B” service on a CDF engine. 

97 
BFC STUDENT HANDBOOK

 ______________________ 	 ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ 2A COURSE OUTLINE

EMERGENCY VEHICLE OPERATIONS 6 hours classroom 

8 hours field exercise 

The student will be able to... 

Identify and use the basic principles of defensive driving.


Correctly operate a vehicle in code three mode.


Correctly identify the limitations of and the proper use of emergency warning devices.


Correctly identify the laws and policies that govern code three operations.


CHECK-OUT DRIVES	 8 hours 

The student will be able to... 

Demonstrate the ability to operate CDF engines on rural and city roadways while obeying motor 

vehicle laws and Department policies. 

CROSS COUNTRY DRIVING	 8 hours 

The student will be able to... 

Demonstrate the ability to operate CDF engines in a variety of driving conditions while obeying 

motor vehicle laws and Departmental policies. 

OFF ROAD VEHICLE OPERATIONS	 2 hours classroom 

9 hours field 

The student will be able to... 

Provide the student with knowledge of procedures and safety considerations pertaining to offroad operations of CDF vehicles. 

Provide the student with a working knowledge of winching operations.


Provide the student an opportunity to demonstrate the ability to safely operate a CDF vehicle


off-road.


Provide the student an opportunity to demonstrate the ability to safely use a winch and snatch


block.


EMERGENCY/FIREGROUNDS OPERATIONS 

INTRODUCTION TO I-ZONE	 4 hours 

The student will be able to... 

Recognize ways to properly deploy personnel and equipment during a wildland fire in an urbaninterface area. 

Recognize how to triage structures for protection.


Know what to do if the safety of the fire fighters is compromised.


MULTI-COMPANY DRILLS	 8 hours 

The student will be able to... 

Demonstrate teamwork and leadership skills while responding to a variety of emergencies as a 

Company Officer on an engine company. 

Demonstrate the proper techniques for handling any emergency they are dispatched to. 

98 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
SACRAMENTO REGIONAL TRAINING CENTER LESSON PLAN 

NOTE: T NOTE: This lesson plan applies to sedans and smaller vehicles. his lesson plan applies to sedans and smaller vehicles.

III. VEHICLE PLACEMENT EXERCISES 

A.	 ACCIDENT AVOIDANCE/LANE-CHANGE EXERCISE 

1.	 Purpose: to show the student that, if braking is not an available option, an obstacle in the road can be 

avoided by displacing the vehicle around the obstacle. 

2.	 The student will consider the following driving aspects: 

a.	 Proper instructed speed 

b.	 Good hand positioning 

c.	 Control of weight transfer/spring loading 

d.	 Oversteer recovery (if applicable) 

e.	 Good road positioning & High Visual Horizon 

f.	 40 MPH speed — 45 MPH maximum 

3.	 ALL EXERCISES WILL BE DEMONSTRATED TO THE STUDENT 

B. MEDIUM SPEED SERPENTINE BACKING 

1.	 Purpose: to have the driver properly position a vehicle while backing at a medium speed, taking into 

account Front End Swing, seating position and visual awareness to the rear. 

2.	 The student will consider: 

a.	 Proper 3-point seating position: 

1.	 Turning to the right in the seat, directing vision through the rear window 

2.	 Left leg and foot to brace the body, prepared to brake 

b.	 Front End Swing is an important factor, to avoid front bumper/fender damage 

c.	 To account for F.E.S., the student should: 

1.	 If backing left, keep left side of the car close to obstacle 

2.	 If backing right, keep right side of the car close to obstacle 

d.	 Do not trust mirrors while backing, turn physically around to ensure your confidence in proper 

vehicle placement 

e. If unsure, get out and examine where you will be backing 

f. Turning movements should be smooth, using High Visual Horizon. 

C.	 THRESHOLD BRAKING EXERCISE 

1.	 Purpose: to provide the student with the most efficient manner of stopping a vehicle without using ABS. 

2.	 Threshold Braking should be considered a “PANIC STOP” 

3.	 Remember: ROLLING FRICTION = GOOD; SLIDING FRICTION = BAD 

4.	 The brake pedal should be pushed sufficiently hard that the tires grip to their point of adhesion and NOT 

past it, so that the tires are still rolling 

5.	 In other words: right to the THRESHOLD of sliding 

6.	 If Rolling Friction is lost, REGAIN the Rolling Friction 

a. Slightly release pressure on brake pedal 

b. Do NOT take foot off brake 

c. Relax muscle of leg 

7.	 The stop should be smooth and controlled, turning the vehicle as cones indicate. 

8.	 Speed: 45 MPH maximum 

D.	 T-BOX EXERCISE 

1.	 Purpose: to provide the student with the ability to properly and safely maneuver a vehicle in and out of 

areas containing minimal space. 

2.	 The student will consider: 

a. Proper 3-point seating position 

b. Proper stall positioning 

1.	 Pre-plan for any backing 

2.	 Factor in Front End Swing, Rear Wheel Cheat, Pivot Point 

3.	 Vision, when backing, should be over the right shoulder and through the rear window. 

c. Steering and throttle should be smooth and coordinated. 

APPENDIX G 99 
E. PARALLEL PARKING 

1.	 Purpose: to provide the student with the ability to properly parallel park a standard-sized sedan, using 

correct backing principles. 

2.	 Proper 3-point braced seating position, looking out rear window 

3.	 Factor in Front End Swing while backing, and Slip angle when exiting 

4.	 Throttle: smooth, controlled, slow speed 

5.	 Put far delineator in alignment with center-line of trunk 

6.	 Continue backing, when front fender is clear, turn into stall 

F.	 180× BOOTLEG TURNAROUND 

1.	 Purpose: to provide a student the ability to turn a vehicle around in the most efficient manner possible so 

as to, for example, follow a suspect traveling in another direction. 

2.	 The student will consider: 

a. Proper 3-point seating position 

b. Proper stall positioning 

1.	 Pre-plan for any backing 

2.	 Factor in Front End Swing, Rear Wheel Cheat, Pivot Point 

c. Vision should be over the right shoulder and through the rear window when backing 

d. Steering and throttle should be smooth and coordinated 

G. STAR EXERCISE 

1.	 Purpose: to provide the student the ability to properly and safely maneuver a vehicle in and out of a starshaped area containing minimal space 

2.	 The student will consider: 

a. Proper 3-point seating position 

b. Proper positioning around delineators 

1.	 Set yourself up properly for backing 

2.	 Account for Front End Swing, Rear Wheel Cheat, Pivot Point 

3.	 Vision, when backing, should be over the right shoulder and through the rear window when 

backing 

4.	 The left vehicle area should also be checked for proper vehicle positioning 

c. Steering and throttle should be smooth and coordinated 

H.	 TURNAROUND MANEUVER 

1.	 Purpose: to give the student the ability to maintain safe vehicle control while performing turn-around 

maneuvers. 

2.	 The “Blind Spot” should always be checked 

3.	 The Turnaround consists of a 3-Point tur n, a “modified” bootleg, another bootleg 

4.	 Pivot Points, Rear Wheel Cheat, Front End Swing and Slip Angle are all factors 

5.	 Smooth and controlled throttle 

6.	 Vision over right rear shoulder and through rear window 

7.	 Consider proper roadway position 

8.	 Confusing exercise: DIAGRAM ON BOARD 

I.	 OFFSET FORWARD 

1.	 Purpose: to allow the student, using good depth perception and visual awareness, the ability to properly 

place a vehicle through a series of restricted-clearance cones and delineators, while moving for ward, 

and considering Rear Wheel Cheat 

2.	 The student will consider that the average law enforcement vehicle is roughly 6’ wide and factor this into 

their visual estimation 

3.	 Good hand positioning will be used, the student will “feed the wheel,” smoothly 

4.	 Rear Wheel Cheat will be a factor to consider 

5.	 Throttle should be steady and also smooth 

6.	 All available safe roadway should be used, and vehicle should stay on the roadway 

7.	 High Visual Horizon should be used 

100 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
J.	 OFFSET BACKING 

1.	 Purpose: to allow the student the ability to back around various obstacles and gain further awareness of 

spatial positioning. 

2.	 The student will consider: 

a. Proper seating position 

b.	 Vision should be over the right shoulder when backing right, over the left shoulder and/or our the 

window when backing left 

c. Account for Front End Swing and Pivot Point 

d. When backing left, keep left side of car close to obstacle 

e. When backing right, keep right side of car close to obstacle 

f. Stay on roadway 

g. Minimize steering input: 

1.	 Do not hold turn too long 

2.	 Do not start turn too late 

3.	 Will make driver tend to over-correct 

K.	 LOW SPEED SERPENTINE BACKING & FORWARD 

1.	 Purpose: the student will learn to maneuver around obstacles moving backward and forward, using 

proper coordination of steering and throttle control to minimize weight transfer 

2.	 Proper seating position will be used 

3.	 Pivot Points, Rear Wheel Cheat and Front End Swing will be considered 

4.	 Roadway positioning should be taken into account 

APPENDIX G 101 
VEHICLE PLACEMENT SAFETY PROCEDURES (INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS) 

1.	 Safety is paramount at all times! 

2.	 Keep a High Visual Horizon and an awareness of other drivers on other portions of the course, such as 

Skid Pan. Be aware of the movement of Instructors and other vehicles. 

3.	 Stage when and where indicated by Instructors only. Do not begin the exercise cycle unless told to do so 

by an Instructor, either by radio or in person. 

4.	 Cones and delineators must be replaced by the drivers themselves when they occur, except in the Lane 

Change exercise, which will be completed first. 

5.	 When moving forward or backward into a stall, come to within 12” of the end of the stall. 

6.	 Seat belts will be worn at all times, but may be loosened or removed when backing only. 

7.	 Use proper hand positioning: “9 & 3” or “8 & 4” or “10 & 2.” 

8.	 The air conditioners will remain off at all times — very hard on vehicles. 

9.	 Radios in vehicles are not to be used except for safety problems/emergencies. 

10.	 Two students per car, each driver will run the circuit twice, then switch drivers. 

11.	 All hands, arms, etc. to be in the vehicle at all times — do not hang on to roll bars. 

12.	 If students have a question at any time, they are encouraged to ASK. 

13.	 Students failing to comply with safety procedures and/or Instructors’ directions may be asked to leave 

the course and provide written documentation to his/her immediate supervisor as to why the course was 

not completed. 

NOTE: EACH INSTRUCTOR WILL TAKE A CARLOAD OF STUDENTS THROUGH THE ENTIRE COURSE, AKE A CARLOAD OF STUDENTS THROUGH THE ENTIRE COURSE,

PROVIDING DETAILED EXPLANATION OF THE EXERCISES, PRIOR TO PLACING STUDENTS INTO THE

CARS.

THERE WILL BE ONE INSTRUCTOR DEMONSTRATION FOR THE ENTIRE CLASS, DEMONSTRATED TO THE

GROUP:

SLIP ANGLE: An Instructor will stand next to the door of a training vehicle. With its wheels turned to the

lock, the driver will, at idle, make a slow, full cir , full cir, full cir cle, stopping back at the Lecturing Instructor. Next, the

driver will briskly accelerate the same car, wheels again turned to the lock, to show how Slip angle af ned to the lock, to show how Slip angle affects

the radius of the turn.

102 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

VENTURA COUNTY FIRE DEPARTMENT DRIVING COURSE DESCRIPTIONS 

COURSE: CLASS A TRACTOR/TRAILER 

Description: Description: This course is taken from the State of California Department of Motor Vehicles publication 

“California Commercial Driver Handbook”. The course is taught on a one-on-one basis, and usually takes 

about 8 hours. For those that need additional instruction time, a group of about 4 personnel may work for an 

additional 4 hours. The goal is the mastery of the skills required to pass the DMV’s “Class A” exam. The 3 areas 

of study consist of the “pre-trip,” the “skills” portion, and the driving test. 

Group: All firefighters and drivers, any support personnel required to obtain this class of license 

Instructors: Instructors: DMV certified in exam administration. Instructors:

COURSE: CLASS B VEHICLE TRAINING 

Description: The National Academy for Professional Driving has developed this course. It has both a classroom 

and field component and is a 2-day course. The classroom portion consists of everything from developing the 

need for drivers training to discussing cornering techniques. Entering highways and intersections, considering 

traction, accident avoidance, and addressing legal aspects of driving an emergency vehicle on the street are 

also topics that are covered. The field exercises begin the first day by teaching new skills such as “shuffle 

steering”, slowing the hands and feet, and practicing these skills on a slalom course. The track changes the 

second day when braking, backing, and perception/reaction time are stressed. 

Description: Description:

Group: All firefighters, drivers, and captains. 

Instructors: The lead instructor must be certified with the NAPD. The certification process takes 5 days and 

instructors must recertify every two years. 

Instructors: Instructors:

COURSE: CLASS C/STAFF VEHICLE DRIVER TRAINING 

Description: This is a 4-hour course presented in either 4 one-hour sessions, or 1 4-hour session. The text is the 

National Safety Council’s product “Defensive Driving Course-4.” The information discussed covers driving 

conditions, unsafe driving behaviors, and aggressive driving. This course also has a final exam that is graded 

by the NSC, and participants will receive a certificate of completion from the NSC. 

Description: Description:

Group: All non-safety personnel that may be required to operate a non-emergency, non-commer cial department 

vehicle. 

Instructors: The instructors must attend a 2-day training session hosted by the NSC in order to present the 

course. 

Instructors: Instructors:

COURSE: TILLER OPERATOR CERTIFICATION 

Description: This class consists of instruction, demonstration and hands-on training in a closed course setting 

as well as city street driving. There will be a minimum of 24 hours of training required during the 3-day course. 

The candidate must demonstrate competence in tiller operations, on the skills course and during city street 

driving. 

Description: Description:

Group: All personnel that are assigned to a station that houses a tillered truck. Others are also trained in order 

to keep a reasonable number of personnel available to operate the vehicle. 

Instructors: Instructors: Each of the instructors attended training with Santa Ana Fire Department. Instructors:

COURSE: SQUAD DRIVER TRAINING 

APPENDIX G 103 
Description: This course is a compilation of the National Safety Council’s “CEVO II Ambulance Operator Response 

Book,” and the National Academy for Professional Driving. The NSC product is used for the classroom portion 

of the course and the NAPD skills portion is used for the field exercises. This is a 16-hour course and builds upon 

the foundation that has been laid during the class B vehicle training. 

Description: Description:

Group: Paramedics. 

Instructors: Instructors: NSC instructors and NAPD instructors team-teach this course. Instructors:

COURSE: OFF-ROAD VEHICLE DRIVER TRAINING 

Description: This course was designed using Kern County Fire’s “Off-Road Driving Course.” The National Safety 

Council’s “Off-Road Driving” course is an additional component in the classroom portion of the course. This is 

a 1-day class, which consists of both classroom and field training. A representative group of the department’s 4­

wheel drive vehicle fleet is brought together for the class to provide students a chance to experience the differences 

between the various vehicles. The field exercise consists of operating one of the 4-wheel drive vehicles off-road 

in a steep terrain and narrow roads. 

Description: Description:

Group: Recruits, hand crew members, and personnel stationed at locations where 4-wheel drive vehicles are 

housed. 

uctors: The instructors for this course have been trained by Kern County fire in their “Off-Road Driving” 

course. 

Instructors:

COURSE: DRIVING SIMULATOR TRAINING 

Description: This course has been modeled after the law enforcement’s “Peace Officers Standards and Training” 

that has a required component of simulated driving. The course takes 3-4 hours to deliver and has both a 

classroom and practical portion. Students learn to operate one of a number of simulated vehicles in any of 4 

distinct virtual worlds. Initial training involves simple driving skills and progresses into emergency driving, 

which challenges even the most seasoned drivers. Pedestrian and vehicle conflict resolution and intersection 

analysis are stressed. Shuffle steering and lane positioning are also discussed. There is also the aspect of decision 

making when arriving on the scene of an incident as far as crew and scene safety are concerned, and an 

exchange of ideas related to tactical operations. 

Description: Description:

Group: All department personnel that operate emergency vehicles. 

Instructors: Instructors: Instructors: Each of the instructors r Instructors: eceived initial training from Santa Ana Police Department.

104 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
SHARING LESSONS
 APPENDIX H 

LEARNED 

Part 1: CDFFP Green Sheet 

Part 2: NIOSH Hazard ID, Traffic Hazards to Fire Fighters While 

Working Along Roadways 

GREEN SHEET SUMMARY

RCC00054 

(LMU02067) 

Lassen-Modoc Unit 

Northern Region 

105 
AUGUST 2, 2001 

139 Incident 

E-2280 Vehicle Accident, Injuries to four CDF employees 

A Board of Review has not approved this Summary Report. It is intended as a safety and training tool, an aid to 

preventing future occurrences, and to inform interested parties. Because it is published on a short timeframe, the 

information contained herein is subject to revision as further investigation is conducted and additional information is 

developed. 

INJURIES 

The Engineer and three Firefighters were injured and transported by air and ground ambulances to 

local hospitals. The two Firefighters on the rear of E-2280 were treated for soft tissue injuries and 

released. The front seat Firefighter was transported to a Redding hospital with lacerations and 

possible C-spine injuries. The Engineer was transported to a Redding hospital, stabilized and then 

transferred to University of California Davis Medical Center for treatment of burn injuries. The driver 

of the log truck refused medical treatment at the scene. 

SAFETY ISSUES FOR REVIEW 

The two Firefighters on the rear of E-2280 were in full wildland Personal Protective Equipment 

(PPE) with helmets on secured with elastic chinstraps and goggles up. The helmets came off 

immediately upon initial impact. 

The Engineer and front seat Firefighter were wearing wildland Nomex shirts, uniform T-shirts, trousers 

and boots. The Nomex worn by the Engineer may have minimized burn injuries. 

All occupants of E-2280 were using seatbelts. The roll bar and seatbelts on E-2280 performed as 

designed. The roll bar, front bumper and radiator assembly appeared to have sustained only 

minor damage. 

Lookouts Communications Escape Routes Safety Zones 

106 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
SEQUENCE OF EVENTS

The Engineer assigned to E-2280 began his shift August 2, 2001, the morning of the accident. The 

Engineer performed the daily inspection and found E-2280 in proper working condition. 

E-2280, with a crew of four, left Bieber Fire Station at approximately 10:15 a.m. Their assignment 

was to check a previous fire that occurred July 31, 2001. The Adin incident (CALMU02042) was a 

vegetation fire apparently started by a power pole equipment failure, located approximately one 

mile east of State Route 139. E-2280 was to then continue on to Grasshopper Fire Station. 

E-2280 proceeded east on State Hwy 299, then south on State Route 139 at Adin. There were no 

vehicles visible ahead of E-2280 on State Route 139. The front seat Firefighter, who had previously 

been to the Adin incident, was riding in the cab giving access directions. 

While traveling southbound on State Route 139, the Engineer observed a log truck in the side view 

mirror following the engine at a considerable distance. The front seat Firefighter gave the Engineer 

advance notice of the left turn to access the fire. The Engineer activated the turn signal, prepared to 

turn left as directed and observed the log truck in the driver’s side mirror approaching the rear of E2280. The Engineer made certain the northbound lane was clear and continued with the left turn. 

While negotiating the left turn, E-2280 was struck on the left rear corner by the loaded log truck. The 

truck tractor slid down the left side of the engine and part of the load on the trailer struck E-2280 in 

the left tail light area. The log truck came to rest on its left side on the east shoulder of the road. 

The impact forced E-2280 to spin clockwise and slide sideways. Fuel from the ruptured diesel tank 

caught fire, burning the Engineer through the open driver’s side window. E-2280 then rolled 

approximately 1o times and came to rest on the driver’s side. The Engineer and the front seat 

Firefighter exited the cab through the windshield opening and helped the other Firefighters off the 

rear of the engine. The Engineer checked the welfare of his crew and log truck driver, called 911 

from a nearby house and took charge of the scene until arrival of the first responding engine. 

Lookouts Communications Escape Routes Safety Zones 

APPENDIX H 107 
SUMMARY

At approximately 10:30 a.m. on Thursday, August 2, 2001, a traffic collision involving CDF Engine 

2280 (E-2280) and a loaded log truck occurred on State Route 139, approximately 1.3 miles south 

of Adin, California. Both vehicles were traveling southbound when E-2280, enroute to check a 

previous fire, slowed to make a left turn, when it was struck on the left rear corner by the loaded log 

truck. The impact caused E-2280 to slide broadside, catch fire, and roll. E-2280 was destroyed by 

fire, impact and rollover damage. The loaded log truck also rolled onto its left side and came to rest 

on the east side of the roadway. One Limited Term Fire Apparatus Engineer (Engineer) and three 

Firefighters, from the Lassen-Modoc Unit, and the log truck driver were involved. 

CONDITIONS 

ROAD 

The legal description of the accident location is S33; T39N; R9E; MDBM and was 69 feet north of 

mile post 139 LAS 65.50 

State Route 139 is a north/south directional 2-lane asphalt road. The road surface was dry. Visibility 

was excellent to the north and south approximately 0.5 miles in each direction. The accident occurred 

where the road is straight and flat, the centerline is a broken stripe and the outsides of the lanes are 

marked with continuous white fogline. The road width is approximately 20 feet with each lane 

approximately 10 feet wide. There is a 2-inch drop from the road surface to the shoulder. The 

shoulders are unimproved and have a 25 percent downhill slope away from the roadway edge. 

WEATHER 

The weather was clear and dry and was not considered to be a factor in this accident. The data 

received from the Ash Valley Remote Automated Weather Station (RAWS), 14 miles southeast of 

Adin, (S30; T37N; R11E; MDBM) was as follows: 

Time Temperature Relative Humidity 

1009 hrs 76 degrees F 25% 

1109 hrs 80 degrees F 19% 

Lookouts Communications Escape Routes Safety Zones 

108 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE 
August 2, 2001

139 Incident – Engine 2280

APPENDIX H
 109 
NIOSH HAZARD NOTIFICATION SHEET 

NIOSH TRAFFIC HAZARDS TO FIRE FIGHTERS 

WHILE WORKING ALONG ROADWAYS 

DESCRIPTION OF HAZARD 

The number of fire fighters struck and killed by motor vehicles has dramatically increased within recent years. 

During the 5-year period between 1995 and 1999, 17 fire fighters were struck and killed by motorists. This 

represents and 89 percent increase in the number of line-of-duty deaths over the previous 5-year period (between 1990 and 1994), when 9 fire fighters were struck and killed by motor vehicles [NFPA 2000]. Under the Fire 

Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program, NIOSH investigated two separate incidents involving 

fire fighters who were struck and killed while providing emergency services along roadways during 1999 [NIOSH 

1999, 2000]. These incidents and data demonstrate that hazards to the fire service are not limited to structural 

or wildland fires. Motorists accustomed to a clear, unobstructed roadway may not recognize and avoid closed 

lanes or emergency workers on or near the roadway. In some cases, conditions can reduce a motorist’s ability to 

see and avoid fire fighters and apparatus. Some examples include weather, time of day, scene lighting (i.e., 

area lighting and optical warning devices), traffic speed and volume, and road configuration (i.e., hills, curves, 

and other obstructions that limit visibility). These hazards are not limited to the fire service alone. Other emergency service providers such as law enforcement officers, paramedics, and vehicle recovery personnel are also 

exposed to these hazards. 

CASE STUDIES 

On August 5, 1999, one fire fighter died, and a second fire fighter and another person were severely injured 

when they were struck by a motor vehicle that lost control on a wet and busy interstate highway [NIOSH 1999]. 

A heavy-rescue squad and a ladder truck had been dispatched to a single motor vehicle crash on an interstate 

highway. Approximately 2 minutes after they arrived on the scene and took a position to the rear of the rescue 

squad (protecting the initial vehicle crash scene), another car collided with the back of the ladder truck (Figure 

1). While attending to the injuries of the driver who struck the ladder truck, two fire fighters and the injured 

driver were struck by a third car, causing one fire fighter to be fatally injured and the second fire fighter and the 

driver (who had collided with the back of the ladder truck) to be severely injured.On September 27, 1999, a fire 

fighter died after being struck by a tractor trailer truck while directing traffic along a four-lane highway [NIOSH 

2000]. The victim was standing in front of an apparatus that was parked (facing north) in the outer emergency 

lane for the southbound traffic. The emergency lights of the apparatus were on and functioning properly at the 

time of the incident. He was called out to provide assistance for a neighboring fire department that had responded to a tractor-trailer crash. The initial tractor-trailer crash and subsequent fire fighter fatality occurred 

during a heavy rainstorm along a 1-mile stretch of a four-lane highway. Thirty-nine collisions have occurred 

on this 1-mile stretch of road since 1994. 

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PREVENTION 

Any fire fighter working along any type of roadway runs the risk of being struck by a motorist. To prevent such 

incidents, NIOSH recommends that fire departments and fire fighters take the following actions: 

Fire departments: 

•	 Develop, implement, and enforce standard operating procedures (SOPs) regarding emergency operations 

for roadway incidents. 

•	 Implement an incident management system to manage all emergency incidents. 

•	 Establish a unified command for incidents that occur where multiple agencies have jurisdiction. 

•	 Ensure that a separate incident safety officer (independent of the incident commander) is appointed. 

•	 Develop pre-incident plans for areas that have a high rate of motor vehicle crashes. 

•	 Establish pre-incident agreements with law enforcement and other agencies such as the highway department. 

•	 Ensure that fire fighters are trained in safe procedures for operating in or near moving traffic 

•	 Ensure that fire fighters wear suitable high-visibility apparel such as a strong yellow-green or orange 

reflecting flagger vest when operating at an emergency scene. 

110 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

Firefighters 

•	 Ensure that the fire apparatus is positioned to take advantage of topography and weather conditions 

(uphill and upwind) and to protect fire fighters from traffic. 

•	 Park or stage unneeded vehicles off the roadway whenever possible. 

•	 If police have not yet arrived at a scene involving a highway incident or fire, first control the oncoming 

vehicles before safely turning your attention to the emergency. 

•	 Position yourself and any victim(s) in a secure area that maximizes your visibility to motorists when it is 

impossible to protect the incident scene from immediate danger. 

•	 Use a traffic control device that maximizes your visibility to motorists when controlling traffic. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The principal contributors to this publication were Mark F. McFall and Eric R. Schmidt, NIOSH. Internal review


was provided by Stephanie Pratt, DSR, NIOSH. External reviews were provided by Rita Fahy, National Fire


Protection Association; Barbara Hauser, County Department of Transportation, Phoenix, Arizona; Gary Morris,


Phoenix Fire Department, Phoenix, Arizona; Ron Moore, Plano Fire Department, Plano, Texas; Guenther Lerch,


Professional Engineer.


REFERENCES REFERENCES


NFPA [2000]. U.S. fire fighters struck by vehicles, 1977-1999. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.


Unpublished.


NIOSH [1999]. One fire fighter died and a second fire fighter was severely injured after being struck by a motor


vehicle on an interstate highway-OK. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public


Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and


Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 99F-27.


NIOSH [2000]. Volunteer fire fighter died after being struck by an eighteen-wheel tractor trailer truck-SC. Cin­


cinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control


and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 99F-38.


BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY


Dunn V [1992]. Safety and survival on the fireground. Saddle Brook, NJ: Fire Engineering Books and Videos.


Hall R, Adams B, eds. [1998]. Essentials of fire fighting. 4th ed. Stillwater, OK: Board of Regents, Oklahoma


State University.


Kipp JD, Loflin ME [1996]. Emergency incident risk management: a safety and health perspective. New York:


Van Nostrand Reinhold.


NFPA [1995]. NFPA standard on fire department incident management system. Quincy, MA: National Fire


Protection Association, NFPA 1561.NFPA [1997]. NFPA standard on fire department occupational safety and


health program. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 1500.


NFPA [1997]. NFPA standard for a fire department service vehicle operations training program. Quincy, MA:


National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 1451.


NFPA [1998]. NFPA standard for road tunnels, bridges, and other limited access highways. Quincy, MA: Na­


tional Fire Protection Association, NFPA 502.


U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration [1998]. Standards and guides for traffic 

controls for street and highway construction, maintenance, utility, and incident management operations. Part 

VI of the manual on uniform traffic control devices 

(MUTCD). 3rd rev. Fredericksburg, VA: American Traffic Safety Ser vices Association. 

APPENDIX H 111 
DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2001-143


For mor For more infor e information
mation mation

NIOSH research on traffic hazards to fire fighters has recently been published in the following: McFall M [2001].


Roadside assistance. Fire Chief 45(3):62-64.


To obtain more information about this hazard or other work place hazards 

-call NIOSH at 1-800-35-NIOSH, or 

-visit the NIOSH Web site at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh

The purpose of the NIOSH Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program is to determine factors 

that cause or contribute to fire fighter deaths suffered in the line-of-duty, and to develop strategies for preventing similar incidents in the future. More information can be found at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/firehome.html. 

Department of Health and Human Services 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 

4676 Columbia Parkway 

Cincinnati, OH 45226-1998 

112 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

DRIVING COURSE
 APPENDIX I 

SPECIFICATIONS


This section can be used to determine the driving course requirements as set forth in


NFPA 1002, Standard for Fir e Apparatus Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications


FIRE APPARATUS ROAD COURSE 

Operate a fire department vehicle, given a vehicle and a predeter mined route on a


public way that incorporates the maneuvers and features specified in the following


list that the driver/operator is expected to encounter during normal operations so


that the vehicle is safely operated in compliance with all applicable state and local


laws, department rules and regulations. 

•	 Four left and 4 right turns 

•	 A straight section of urban business street or a two-lane rural road at least 1


mile in length


•	 One through-intersection and two intersections where a stop has to be made 

•	 One railroad crossing 

•	 One curve, either left or right 

•	 A section of limited-access highway that includes a conventional ramp entrance


and exit and a section of road long enough to allow two lane changes


•	 A downgrade steep enough and long enough to require down-shifting and brak­


ing


•	 An upgrade steep enough and long enough to require gear changing to main­


tain speed


•	 One underpass or a low clearance or bridge 

DRIVER/OPERATOR Sec. 3-11: FIRE APPARATUS ROAD COURSE


12/6/2002


113 
WILDLAND APPARATUS OFF ROAD COURSE 

Operate a Wildland apparatus, given a predetermined route off of a public way that 

incorporates the maneuvers and features specified in the following list that the driver/ 

operator is expected to encounter during normal operations, so that the vehicle is 

safely operated in compliance with all applicable state and local laws, department 

rules and regulations. 

•	 Loose or wet soil 

•	 Steep grades (30 percent fore and aft) 

•	 Limited sight distance 

•	 Blind curve 

•	 Vehicle clearance obstacles (height, width, undercarriage, angle of approach, 

angle of departure) 

•	 Limited space for turnaround 

•	 Side slopes (20 percent side to side) 

DRIVER/OPERATOR Sec. 3-11: FIRE APPARATUS ROAD COURSE 

12/6/2002 

114 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

AIRCRAFT CRASH VEHICLE OFF ROAD COURSE 

Operate an Aircraft Crash Vehicle, given a predetermined route off of an improved 

surface that incorporates the maneuvers and features specified in the following list 

that the driver/operator is expected to encounter during normal operations, so that 

the vehicle is safely operated in compliance with all applicable state and local laws, 

department rules and regulations. 

• Loose or wet soil 

• Steep grades (30 percent fore and aft) 

• Limited sight distance 

• Vehicle clearance obstacles (height, width, undercarriage) 

• Limited space for turnaround 

• Side slopes (20 percent side to side) 

DRIVER/OPERATOR Sec. 3-11: FIRE APPARATUS ROAD COURSE 

12/6/2002 

APPENDIX I
 115 
MANUFACTURER CONTACT 

INFORMATION 

NOTE: Manufacturers listed in this appendix are those specifically identified by

the depar the departhe departments visited for this study, and the list is not meant to be all-inclusive. , and the list is not meant to be all-inclusive.

Listing in this appendix does not constitute endorsement by the Department of Listing in this appendix does not constitute endorsement by the Department of

Homeland Security, Federal Emergency Management Agency, or the United States

Fire Administration. Fire Administration.

CAMERAS AND ELECTRONIC MONITORING: 

APPENDIX J


Safety Vision 

6650 Roxburgh Drive, 

Suite 100 

Houston, TX 77041 

Recording DriveCam Video Systems, 

3954 Murphy Canyon Road #D10 

San Diego, CA 92123 

On-Board Computer 

Road Safety International, Inc. 

3251 Grande Vista Drive 

Thousand Oaks, CA 91320-119 

OPTICAL PREEMPTION 

3 M Traffic Safety and Management


3M Center, Building 0225-05-S-08


St. Paul, MN 55144-1000


Tomar Electronics


2100 W. Obispo Avenue


Gilbert, AZ 85233


Simulator Driving


Doron Precision Systems, Inc.


Box 400, 174 Court Street


Binghamton, NY 13902-0400


FAAC, Inc.


1229 Oak Valley Drive


Ann Arbor, MI 48108


Tape Reflective


3 M Traffic Safety and Management


3 M Center, Building 0225-05-S-08


St. Paul, MN 55144-1000


(713) 896-6600 

(800) 880-8855 

Fax: (713) 896-6640 

http://www.safetyvision.com 

(866) 419-5861 

Fax: (858) 430-4001 

http://www.drivecam.com 

(805) 498-9444 

Fax:(805) 498-0944 

http://www.roadsafety.com 

(651) 733-3590 

(800) 553-1380 

http://www.3m.com/us/safety/tcm/products/ 

prodmain.jhtml 

(Intelligent Transportation System

 Priority Control Systems) 

(408) 497-4400 

(800) 3383133 

http://www.tomar.com/products/traffic_ 

control.htm 

(607) 772-0478 

Fax: (607) 772-6760 

http://www.doronprecision.com 

(734) 761-5836 

Fax:(734) 761-5368 

http://www.faac.com 

(651) 733-3590 

(800) 553-1380 

http://www.3m.com/us/safety/tcm/products/ 

prodmain.jhtml 

(Vehicle & Conspicuity Markings) 

117 
TRAINING MATERIAL 

International Fire (800) 654-4055 http://www.ifsta.org 

Service Training Association 

Fire Protection Publications 

930 North Willis Street 

Stillwater, OK 74078 

National Fire Protection Association (800) 344-3555 http://www.nfpa.org 

P.O. Box 9101 

Quincy, MA 02269 

National Safety Council (630) 285-1121 http://www.nsc.org 

1121 Spring Lake Drive 

Itasca, IL 60143-3201 

National Academy for (972) 225-7366 http://www.napd.com 

Professional Driving 

P.O.Box 649 

Hutchins,TX 75141-0649 

VFIS (800) 233-1957 http://www.vfis.com 

183 Leader Heights Road Fax:(717) 741-3130 

York, PA 17402 

118 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

ACRONYM
 APPENDIX K 

LIST 

ALS ...........................................Advanced Life Support


AMOS ....................................... Advanced Mobile Operations Simulator


ANSI .........................................American National Standards Institute


ASE ........................................... Automotive Service Excellence


AVL ...........................................Automatic Vehicle Locator


BFEO ........................................Basic Fire Engine Operator


BLS ........................................... Basic Life Support


CAAS ........................................ Commission on Accreditation of Ambulance Services


CAD .........................................Computer Aided Dispatch


CDFFP ...................................... California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection


CDL ..........................................Commercial Driver License


CFAI .........................................Commission on Fire Accreditation International


CHP ..........................................California Highway Patrol


DMV .........................................Department of Motor Vehicles


DOT .........................................Department of Transportation


EFO ........................................... Executive Fire Officer


EMD ......................................... Emergency Medical Dispatch


EMS ..........................................Emergency Medical Services


EMT-B....................................... Emergency Medical Technician-Basic


EVOC ........................................Emergency Vehicle Operations Course


EVSI ..........................................Emergency Vehicle Safety Initiative


EVT ...........................................Emergency Vehicle Technician


FARS .........................................Fatality Analysis Reporting System


FEMA ........................................Federal Emergency Management Agency


FIRT ..........................................Freeway Incident Response Team


GPS ...........................................Global Positioning Satellite


HFEO ........................................Heavy Fire Equipment Operator


IFSTA ........................................International Fire Service Training Association


IMT ...........................................Incident Management Team


ISO ...........................................Insurance Services Office


ITS ............................................ Intelligent Transportation System


JPA............................................ Joint Powers Agreement


MAIT ........................................Multi-Disciplined Accident Investigation Team


MDT ......................................... Mobile Data Terminal


MUTCD ....................................Manual of Uniform Traf fic Control Devices


NAEMSP ...................................National Association of EMS Physicians


NAEMSD ..................................National Association of State EMS Directors


NFA .......................................... National Fire Academy


NFIRS ....................................... National Fire Incident Reporting System


NFPA ........................................National Fire Protection Association


NHTSA ..................................... National Highway Traffic Safety Administration


ORIMS ...................................... Office of Risk Insurance Management


PFN ...........................................Phoenix Fire Network


POST ........................................Peace Officer Standard Training


POV ..........................................Privately Owned Vehicle


119 
SAS ...........................................Simulator Adaptation Syndrome


SOP ..........................................Standard Operating Procedure


TOC .......................................... Traffic Operations Center


TXDOT ..................................... Texas Department of Transportation


UDOT ....................................... Utah Department of Transportation


US&R........................................ Urban Search and Rescue


USFA .........................................United States Fire Administration


VDOT ....................................... Virginia Department of Transportation


VECC ........................................ (Salt Lake) Valley Emergency Communications Center


VMS ..........................................Variable Message Signs


120 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

114 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

WILDLAND APPARATUS OFF ROAD COURSE

Operate a Wildland apparatus, given a predetermined route off of a public way that

incorporates the maneuvers and features specified in the following list that the driver/

operator is expected to encounter during normal operations, so that the vehicle is

safely operated in compliance with all applicable state and local laws, department

rules and regulations.

• Loose or wet soil

• Steep grades (30 percent fore and aft)

• Limited sight distance

• Blind curve

• Vehicle clearance obstacles (height, width, undercarriage, angle of approach,

angle of departure)

• Limited space for turnaround

• Side slopes (20 percent side to side)

DRIVER/OPERATOR Sec. 3-11: FIRE APPARATUS ROAD COURSE

12/6/2002
APPENDIX I 115

AIRCRAFT CRASH VEHICLE OFF ROAD COURSE

Operate an Aircraft Crash Vehicle, given a predetermined route off of an improved

surface that incorporates the maneuvers and features specified in the following list

that the driver/operator is expected to encounter during normal operations, so that

the vehicle is safely operated in compliance with all applicable state and local laws,

department rules and regulations.

• Loose or wet soil

• Steep grades (30 percent fore and aft)

• Limited sight distance

• Vehicle clearance obstacles (height, width, undercarriage)

• Limited space for turnaround

• Side slopes (20 percent side to side)

DRIVER/OPERATOR Sec. 3-11: FIRE APPARATUS ROAD COURSE

12/6/2002

117

MANUFACTURER CONTACT APPENDIX J

INFORMATION

CAMERAS AND ELECTRONIC MONITORING:

Safety Vision (713) 896-6600

6650 Roxburgh Drive, (800) 880-8855

Suite 100 Fax: (713) 896-6640

Houston, TX 77041 http://www.safetyvision.com

Recording DriveCam Video Systems, (866) 419-5861

3954 Murphy Canyon Road #D10 Fax: (858) 430-4001

San Diego, CA 92123 http://www.drivecam.com

On-Board Computer (805) 498-9444

Road Safety International, Inc. Fax:(805) 498-0944

3251 Grande Vista Drive http://www.roadsafety.com

Thousand Oaks, CA 91320-119

OPTICAL PREEMPTION

3 M Traffic Safety and Management (651) 733-3590

3M Center, Building 0225-05-S-08 (800) 553-1380

St. Paul, MN 55144-1000 http://www.3m.com/us/safety/tcm/products/

prodmain.jhtml

(Intelligent Transportation System

 Priority Control Systems)

Tomar Electronics (408) 497-4400

2100 W. Obispo Avenue (800) 3383133

Gilbert, AZ 85233 http://www.tomar.com/products/traffic_

control.htm

Simulator Driving (607) 772-0478

Doron Precision Systems, Inc. Fax: (607) 772-6760

Box 400, 174 Court Street http://www.doronprecision.com

Binghamton, NY 13902-0400

FAAC, Inc. (734) 761-5836

1229 Oak Valley Drive Fax:(734) 761-5368

Ann Arbor, MI 48108 http://www.faac.com

Tape Reflective

3 M Traffic Safety and Management (651) 733-3590

3 M Center, Building 0225-05-S-08 (800) 553-1380

St. Paul, MN 55144-1000 http://www.3m.com/us/safety/tcm/products/

prodmain.jhtml

(Vehicle & Conspicuity Markings)

NOTE: Manufacturers listed in this appendix are those specifically identified by

the departments visited for this study, and the list is not meant to be all-inclusive. , and the list is not meant to be all-inclusive.

Listing in this appendix does not constitute endorsement by the Department of Listing in this appendix does not constitute endorsement by the Department of

Homeland Security, Federal Emergency Management Agency, or the United States

Fire Administration. Fire Administration.
118 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

TRAINING MATERIAL

International Fire (800) 654-4055 http://www.ifsta.org

Service Training Association

Fire Protection Publications

930 North Willis Street

Stillwater, OK 74078

National Fire Protection Association (800) 344-3555 http://www.nfpa.org

P.O. Box 9101

Quincy, MA 02269

National Safety Council (630) 285-1121 http://www.nsc.org

1121 Spring Lake Drive

Itasca, IL 60143-3201

National Academy for (972) 225-7366 http://www.napd.com

Professional Driving

P.O.Box 649

Hutchins,TX 75141-0649

VFIS (800) 233-1957 http://www.vfis.com

183 Leader Heights Road Fax:(717) 741-3130

York, PA 17402
119

ACRONYM APPENDIX K

LIST

ALS ........................................... Advanced Life Support

AMOS....................................... Advanced Mobile Operations Simulator

ANSI .........................................American National Standards Institute

ASE ........................................... Automotive Service Excellence

AVL........................................... Automatic Vehicle Locator

BFEO ........................................ Basic Fire Engine Operator

BLS ...........................................Basic Life Support

CAAS ........................................ Commission on Accreditation of Ambulance Services

CAD ......................................... Computer Aided Dispatch

CDFFP ...................................... California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection

CDL .......................................... Commercial Driver License

CFAI .........................................Commission on Fire Accreditation International

CHP .......................................... California Highway Patrol

DMV ......................................... Department of Motor Vehicles

DOT ......................................... Department of Transportation

EFO........................................... Executive Fire Officer

EMD ......................................... Emergency Medical Dispatch

EMS .......................................... Emergency Medical Services

EMT-B ....................................... Emergency Medical Technician-Basic

EVOC........................................ Emergency Vehicle Operations Course

EVSI .......................................... Emergency Vehicle Safety Initiative

EVT ........................................... Emergency Vehicle Technician

FARS .........................................Fatality Analysis Reporting System

FEMA........................................ Federal Emergency Management Agency

FIRT .......................................... Freeway Incident Response Team

GPS ........................................... Global Positioning Satellite

HFEO ........................................ Heavy Fire Equipment Operator

IFSTA ........................................ International Fire Service Training Association

IMT........................................... Incident Management Team

ISO ........................................... Insurance Services Office

ITS ............................................Intelligent Transportation System

JPA............................................ Joint Powers Agreement

MAIT ........................................ Multi-Disciplined Accident Investigation Team

MDT ......................................... Mobile Data Terminal

MUTCD .................................... Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices

NAEMSP ................................... National Association of EMS Physicians

NAEMSD .................................. National Association of State EMS Directors

NFA .......................................... National Fire Academy

NFIRS ....................................... National Fire Incident Reporting System

NFPA ........................................ National Fire Protection Association

NHTSA .....................................National Highway Traffic Safety Administration

ORIMS ...................................... Office of Risk Insurance Management

PFN........................................... Phoenix Fire Network

POST ........................................ Peace Officer Standard Training

POV .......................................... Privately Owned Vehicle
120 EMERGENCY VEHICLE SAFETY INITIATIVE

SAS ........................................... Simulator Adaptation Syndrome

SOP .......................................... Standard Operating Procedure

TOC .......................................... Traffic Operations Center

TXDOT ..................................... Texas Department of Transportation

UDOT ....................................... Utah Department of Transportation

US&R ........................................Urban Search and Rescue

USFA......................................... United States Fire Administration

VDOT ....................................... Virginia Department of Transportation

VECC ........................................(Salt Lake) Valley Emergency Communications Center

VMS .......................................... Variable Message Signs