NASA Technical Memorandum 103094

Romans to Mars

D.J. Bents

Lewis Research Cer;ter

Cleveland, Ohio

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Prepared for the

28th Goddard Memorial Symposium

sponsored by the American Astronautical Society

Washington, D.C., March 14-16, 1990

https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19900014023 2019-02-04T13:37:53+00:00Z

Romans to Mars

D.J. Bents

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Lewis Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

"The path made by a l,eader is tread on sand;

his track is seen for others to follow

only as one footstep follows another.

For if he stands still, the trail is erased;

its footprints washed away by the changing tide. "

--- Domitius Lucullan, 195 AD

We are standing ,3n a crumbling stone abutment that overlooks the port of

Ostia on the mouth of the river Tiber, gateway to Imperial Rome. On late

summer afternoons like this one, the breeze blows onshore and carries

with it the pungent aromas of the Mediterranean and the shriek of gulls

that wheel and dip in wide circles over the harbor. The harbor is crowded

with vessels of every kind, from huge war galleys with multiple banks of

oars that stroke tile water in confident, well-coordinated, wingbeat-like

sweeps, to lighters and tenders scurrying among the larger ships like

beetles. And there are sailing vessels, too -- mostly merchantmen tied up

at docks or riding at anchor near the harbor mouth, waiting for evening

when the wind will shift from onshore to the offshore breeze that will

carry them out to sea.

A few paces from us stands a very distinguished looking figure staring out

to sea, his arms folded behind him at parade rest. His cape is scarlet,

trimmed with ermine. He wears the silver breastplate of a proconsul. His

retinue is huddled some distance behind him muttering to themselves and

casting worried glances in his direction. Their master is scowling; his

jaw is set with hard lines around his mouth. Lucius Marcellus Varsovian is

not a happy man. He has driven his chariot hard all the way back from the

capitol after being handed one of the few defeats in his career. To

compound his frustration, insult has been added to injury -- the westbound

courier already cleared the harbor earlier in the day, and so he is unable to

obtain passage home on a military galley. The first leg of the long voyage

back to Spain will have to be on a merchant vessel, a sailing ship. He is

not accustomed to having to wait for the wind to change, and he is furious.
FIGURE1.
The senate failed to back him again. Too bad -- his proposal was bold and

imaginative. It could have resulted in a fresh infusion of riches for the

Empire. Possibly, it could have restored Rome's declining fortunes and

brought a new sense of purpose, ending the petty squabbling now going on.

If China could be reached by going west across the ocean, then the wealth

of the Orient could flow to Rome, not in a trickle on the backs of a few

pack animals, but by the shipload. How could they be so shortsighted?

All he had asked for was some men and a few ships .....

At this point you might be tempted to characterize Lucius Marcellus as a

visionary, a man ahead of his time. That would be a mistake. The ancients

( table I ) knew the world was round ever since Aristotle; from the

calculations of Eratosthanes and Hipparchus, they had a pretty good idea of

its size. By the second century A.D. they were making geometrically

accurate maps by using astronomical observations to locate position.

And Lucius Marcellus Varsovian is not a dreamer, interested in discovery

or commerce. He wants to take his legions to China and plunder their

cities!

The riches of the Orient have tantalized the Romans for a long time.

Their knowledge of China is more tangible than just fables because, in the

third century, there is regular contact and trade. In Rome's heyday, the

emperor Marcus Aurelius had maintained emissaries at the Han court in

Peking. Their reports told of large cities, linked by a network of good

roads, heavily populated, but not heavily fortified. The richest cities were

furthest east, on a wide coastal plain that extended eastward to an ocean.

The reports also indicated that the Chinese empire was more a loose

confederation of fiefdoms than an empire. Although every warlord had an

army, there was no national army nor the political cohesiveness to sustain

one. It had not been necessary because they were so well isolated.

Distance and geography kept the two empires apart. The known route to

China, traveled by the caravans, is a tortuous overland journey which

permits a limited exchange of communication, trade goods, and culture, but

so far has prevented the more direct form of cultural intercourse that

Lucius Marcellus Varsovian is contemplating. Taking armies on a long

march over the caravan route would be out of the question. Varsovian knew

that all too well. As a young centurion in Atticus' disasterous Afghan

campaign, he was one of the few who had made it back across the Khyber

Pass alive.

3
THE ANCIENTS

Pythagoras

Aristotle

Eratosthanes

Hipparchus

Claudius Ptolomy

C0-89-38997

(550 BC) First to offer scientific arguments that

the world was round.

(350 BC) Proved convincingly, and to everyone's

satisfaction, that the world was not only round but

also the true center of the universe.

(240 BC) First accurate estimate of earth's size,

based on solar observations.

(120 BC) Discovered earth's precession; published

first accurate astronomical tables predicting

eclipses, positions of stars and planets throughout

the year. First to systematically use trigonometric

principles, he refined, based on astronomical

observations, earlier estimates of the sizes,

distances to sun, earth, and moon.

(140 AD) Last and most authoritative of the classical

Greek astronomers. Compiled and codified the body

of Greek thought (including Hipparchus) on astronomy,

earth sciences in thirteen volumes ("The Syntaxis").

Published first dimensionally accurate (conical

projection) map of the known world; but

underestimated size of earth by 30%.

TABLEI.

PTOLEMY'S MAP OF THE WORLD

FIGURE2,

CO- El9- 3_19_

4

ORIGINAL PAGE IS

OF POOR QUALITY
But a sea route would change everything. Lucius Marcellus was mainly a

land soldier, but not entirely unappreciative of sea power. He understood

the surprise value of an amphibious assault, having used this tactic

successfully to crush the Berber rebellion in Mauretania. Ferrying his

troops along the coast just out of sight of land until nightfall, he had come

ashore at dawn and driven swiftly inland before they could rally their

tribes, cutting off their main encampment and capturing their chief, who

was subsequently drawn and quartered.

Wounded in that campaign, he was sent to Alexandria to recuperate. It was

on one of his frequent visits to the Great Library there that he had

encountered the astronomer Claudius Ptolomy's Map of the World ( fig. 2 ),

the first conical projection based on astronomical observations and the

most accurate map of its time. Intrigued by the map, he studied Ptolomy's

.__,which explained how the map had been made, how astronomy could

tell you the size o1:the world, and where you were located on it. The map

showed the easternmost part of China, where the richest cities were, to be

located furthest away from the west coast of Spain, where he had been

born. But, if that map were wrapped around a globe according to the

method explained in the book ( fig. 3 ), the east coast of China and the west

coast of Spain were actually facing each other, separated only by an

undetermined stretch of ocean.

According to the calculations and depending on the accuracy of the

astronomical measurements, the distance across that stretch of ocean was

somewhere between 1500 and 2000 leagues. Lucius Marcellus couldn't

fully understand all the explanations which led to this result, but he was

quick to grasp its military significance -- if the ocean could be crossed,

the richest part of China might be directly accessible to his armies.

Would it be possible to cross the Great Ocean? The 1500 to 2000 leagues

of open sea was certainly a formidable distance. But it was not an

insurmountable distance. Roughly equal to the Empire's dimensions from

western Spain to eastern Persia, it was in fact less than the sea distance

routinely navigated from Asia Minor to Britain. What if he could muster

his troops at the port of Gades ( now Cadiz ) on the west coast of Spain,

load them into shiQs, and head directly west? The seas would be calm in

summertime. They could follow the setting sun, or the lodestone. An

accurate landfall wouldn't be needed; it would be hard to miss the China

coast.

5
Compared to the perils of an overland march, a sea voyage would be short

and uneventful. After a few weeks cooped up in their ships, his troops

would be spoiling for a fight, eager to attack. A seaborne invasion would

not be expected. From an eastern beachhead, his invasion force could

easily sweep across the wide coastal plain unopposed; the cities would be

easy prey for his seasoned legions and their siege engines. Even if the

Chinese emperor were able to rally his minions and prepare a

counterattack, it would take time -- time to allow him an orderly retreat

back to his ships, laden with the spoils of war.

He could return to Rome in triumph, perhaps become Emperor. Lucius

Marcellus had a rough understanding of the relationships between military

strength and economic growth. By the third century, Rome had already

absorbed the western world; there was nothing else nearby left to conquer.

The army was not engaged in conquest any more but was, instead, relegated

to maintaining order on the frontier, collecting taxes and putting down

rebellions. That was no challenge. On the other hand, the fabled cities of

the Orient would provide a worthy target for his legions. Why waste

well-disciplined troops skirmishing with barbarians when their skills

could be used so much more profitably against civilized societies? Why

burn down some squalid frontier village when, to the east, there were

magnificent cities waiting to be sacked? What satisfaction was there in

ravishing unwashed savages in animal skins when, to the east, there were

palaces to be looted -- with voluptuous princesses, succulent concubines

draped in silk and jewels, their bodies bathed in perfumes and spices...

Before his armies could embark, however, he would have to know more

about where they were going. Detailed information was needed. Exactly

how far was it to the China coast? Where were the best places to land an

army? Where could they land unopposed, or better yet, undetected?

Before invading by sea, the coastline would have to be positively located

and explored. His calculations indicated it should lie 1500 to 2000 leagues

west of Spain, but that was only an estimate. Even though he believed an

invasion was feasible, he couldn't commit hundreds of ships and thousands

of men to a one-way voyage into the sunset without tangible proof that the

Great Western Ocean could be crossed, and that China indeed lay on the

other side.

The first mission of the campaign would therefore have to be a voyage of

exploration -- or, in terms more familiar to Lucius Marcellus, a

reconnaissance.

6
Great

Western

Sea

F IG_,E 5.

CO-89-3a_67

F If.4_E _.
To cross the Great Ocean, he would need a ship with extraordinary range.

What kind of ship could go that distance? A sailing vessel would seem to

be the logical choice, since it has the most economical form of propulsion.

By Varsovian's time, the sturdy little merchantmen that carried Rome's

trade to the four corners of the Empire were routinely sailed beyond the

Mediterranean up and down the west coasts of Europe and Africa. Beamy

and bluff-bowed, their trademark was a single, loose-footed, square

mainsail, often augmented by a spiritsail carried well forward for added

stability when the ship ran downwind in rough seas. Their Greek and

Phonecian design heritage reflected sailing conditions on the

Mediterranean -- which includes generally pleasant, but often

unpredictable weather. They were unable to hold a course more than a few

points away from the wind, but their shallow draft enabled them to be

sailed right up to the shore. Most were light enough to be dragged onto the

beach by their crew. Hugging the coastline and making forward progress as

long as the wind was behind them, they could steer for shore whenever the

wind turned against them, and wait there until better conditions prevailed.

That strategy, however effective along the well-settled Mediterranean,

would not work offshore. The ungainly little Roman vessels were

adequate for coastal navigation, but, unable to make headway against the

wind, they would not be suited for travel on uncharted waters. If the

prevailing winds were easterly, they would never make it to China. If

westerly, they would never make it back.

A more reliable form of propulsion would be required. Oars, with the

built-in reliability of hundreds of rowers straining their backs in unison,

would be the propulsion system of choice. There was no larger, faster, or

more reliable vessel ever propelled by oars than the Roman galley.

But the reliablility of those straining backs comes at a price. The men who

pull the oars must be fed and watered. This severely limits the amount of

time a galley can stay at sea. For short voyages it is not be a problem.

For longer voyages, however, large amounts of food and water must be

carried on board. Space is limited on any ship, but a galley is more

restricted because such a large fraction of the available space is taken up

by its crew. It is the amount of supplies that can be fitted into the

remaining space, together with the rate at which they are consumed,

which determines how how many days at sea the ship can operate.

8
Compared witt" the nonstop distances commonly traveled by military

vessels, Varsovian's requirement was unprecedented. A trireme, with its

slender hull crammed with rowers for high performance, could achieve

perhaps three days at 11 knots. The quinquireme, a much larger warship,

could last aboL_t a week, but only at a sustained speed of about seven knots.

That would be enough to cross the Mediterranean from Italy to North

Africa, but not enough for a voyage beyond the Pillars of Hercules.

To row across the ocean, Varsovian would need a ship that maximized the

range he could travel before his onboard supplies were exhausted. The

solution was to find a galley with moderate crew size and extra cargo

capacity, and a cruising speed that took a of minimum effort to sustain.

Fortunately, hi.,; experience suggested a compromise -- the common troop

galley ( fig. 5 ) which had served him so well in the Mauretanian campaign.

A medium size vessel of about 70 tons displacement, there were hundreds

of them in service throughout the empire, used to ferry the army to

wherever there was trouble. Designed to carry a cohort of 100 fully armed

troops and their officers, the ship was propelled by another 100 men

pulling on the oars. It also carried a lugsail rig for periods of favorable

wind. A good compromise -- the sails provided economy, the oars provided

reliability. Witl" moderate effort, a galley of this design could be rowed

continuously al 4 to 5 knots, enough to cover 30 to 40 leagues per day.

This galley was not as fast as a warship, but it could stay at sea for a

much longer period. With its wider hull and smaller crew, it normally

carried enough food and fresh water for voyages of about 10 days.

Varsovian could modify this vessel by removing the troop accomodations

and putting in rnore supplies, essentially replacing the 100 fully armed

troops with provisions for his rowers. Based on the weight and volume

margins allowed by this modification, he could lay in enough extra

provisions for an estimated 54 days of travel, a little less than two

months at sea.

Varsovian calculated that if the ship could average 37 leagues per day

( assuming assistance from favorable winds no more than half the time ),

54 days of continuous travel would cover 2160 leagues. That would be

enough to cross the Great Ocean, if Ptolomy was right.

However, crossing the Great Ocean nonstop would still not be enough range

to accomplish the mission. If he got there -- if he really found the coast

-- he wouldn't be able to count on a friendly port or fresh provisions. He
Not a swifl_"

war galley, b#l

wider, sturdier,

with a smaller

cohort (only w_

one hundred oars).

Not as fast, but

able to stay at

sea much longer.

CD-O9-_gg6

ROMAN TROOP GALLEY

Length overall, feet: CXL

Beam, ft: XX!

Displacement; tons: CXX

Capacity, quintals: MCM

SPEED

nominal cruise 4-5 kt.

maximum sustained 7 kt.

dash 8 kt.

ENDURANCE

continuous cruise

RANGE

nominal one way

round trip

54 days

PROPULSION: sail or oars

depending on

wind direction

(assume half

time each mode).

COHORT, officers: Xll

oarsmen: XCVI

2160 leagues _! leagues=3 mi.)

1080 ....

FIGURE5.

i!;!i:iiiiii; ......

0

CROSS THE GREAT WESTERN SEA?

Sea

FlmlE &.

10
might just have to turn around in empty ocean and head home. The 2000

plus leagues of range that he had managed to squeeze out of his troop

galleys so far wa_. only a one-way range. What he actually needed was

2000 + leagues oF _ range, more commonly known as the "distance

to point of no return" where half the supplies are exhausted. Rowing

westwards from Gades, his ship would reach its point of no return ( fig. 6 )

only 27 days into the voyage, a little over 1000 leagues. If he was willing

to gamble with the expedition and keep going, a one-way voyage might

possibly land them on the China coast, and, with a little bit of luck, they

might find a secluded harbor where they could foray ashore for food and

water. But the risks jeapordized the success of his mission. What if

they never sighted land? That would be dissappointing but nonetheless

valuable information. And how much worse would it be to make a

successful landfall, only to be butchered on shore by the local cavalry

while trying to hu._tle a few supplies ....

The only way his reconaissance mission could be successful was to

ensure that they returned home with the information. ( And knowing you

can return generally enhances morale! )

It would have to be a two-way voyage: westward across that distance to

China, or at least as far as China should be, then eastward across that

distance back to Gades. Varsovian had to find a way to stretch his range to

twice the 2000 or so leagues that he had so far obtained, from ships that

were already at their limits. It was a problem which would have caused a

lesser man to give up.

But Varsovian managed to solve this problem also. He did it by

organizing the mission in stages, augmenting the expedition with

additional vessels that would replenish the other ships at carefully timed

intervals.

A fleet of 32 galleys would be required. They would all leave the port of

Gades together on the Ides of June and row westward ( fig. 7 ). Eighteen

days later, howew)r, after one third of the food and water had been

exhausted, the fleet would be split into two groups. The ships would pair

off with one another in midocean, and, within each pair, supplies would be

transferred from one ship to the other. The ship receiving supplies would

be fully reloaded, ,and would continue westward ( fig. 8 ). The donor vessel,

with just enough inventory left for a return trip, would turn east and head

home. The westbound ships would gain an additional 54 days of operating

11
i ' '_ 11 j i ,,

.... ,,,.:

FIG4JRET.

16 Galleys

Westward

Supplies

on board:

54 days

(full)

Range

remaining

to point of

no return:

720

leagues

(36more

days).

C0-89-38_'72

18 DAYS INTO VOYAGE

720 LEAGUES WEST

Transfer 32 Galleys

Donor ship Supplies

transfers on board:

I/2 of its 36 days

remaining (2/3 full)

supplies to _ Range

sister ship , . '1 . ('_T_r,,_

and turns ] parrs] _ remaining

back; other [ [ to point of no return:

ship goes ] [ 360

(9"-more

days).

J[lltll _ 16 Galleys

Homeward

Supplies on board:

18 days (I/3 full)

Range remaining:

720 leagues

FIGURE 8.

12
30 DAYS INTO VOYAGE

1200 LEAGUES WEST

8 Galleys

Westward 2-_

Supplies on board: _

54 days _

(full)

Range

remaining I t

to point of (-(- ,,

no return:

48o 2-_ leagues

(12 more (_ ,_ i

days). 1"

CD-09-38991

T_attsfer

Donor ship

transfers

2/7 of its

remaining

supplies to Spli

sister ship into_

back; other

ship goes

further on.

_ Homeward

Supplies on board:

30 days (5/9 full)

Range remaining:

1200 leagues

FIGURE 9.

16 Galleys

Westward

Supplies

on board:

42 days

(7/9 full)

Range

remaining

to point of

no return:

240

leagues

(6 more

days).

4 Galleys

Westward .,_ _ig_

Supplies

on board: (_ 54 days

(full)

Range

remaining

to point of L_..___._

no retorn:

360

leagues

(9 more _t_,_Rg _

days).

C0-e9-38990

36 DAYS INTO VOYAGE

1440 LEAGUES WEST

Trans

Donor ship

transfers

I/4 of its

remaining

supplies to

sister ship

and turns

back; other

ship goes

further on.

FIGURE 10.

spiit into _

pairs_

4 Galleys

Ilomeward

Supplies on board:

36 days (21_ full)

Range remaining:

1440 leagues

8 Galleys

Westward

Supplies

on board:

48 days

(s/9 full)

Range

remaining

to point of

flO return:

240

leagues

(6 more

days).

13
2 Galleys

Westward

Supplies

on board:

54 days

(fuji)

Range

remaining

to point of

no return:

240

leagues

(6 more ("("

days).

CO-B9-39999

42 DAYS INTO VOYAGE

1680 LEAGUES WEST

Transfer

Donor ship

transfers

I/8 of its

remaining Split

supplies to _into_

sister ship pairs

and turns

back; other

ship goes

further on.

_' 2 Galleys

_ Homeward

Supplies on board:

42 days (7/9 full)

Range remaining: 1680 leagues

F[6URE 11.

4 Galleys

Westward

Supplies

on board:

48 days

(8/9 full)

Range

remaining

to point of

no return:

]60

leagues

(4 more

days).

I Galley

Westward

Supplies

on board:

54 days

(full)

Range

remaining

to point of

no return:

160

leagues

(4 more

days).

C0-87-38_B8

46 DAYS INTO VOYAGE

1840 LEAGUES WEST

2 Galleys

_ Westward

on board:

Donor ship | (--(- . 50 days

transfers ],._:::_i_ (25/27 full)

2/25 of its _- Range

remaining remaining

supplies to to point of

sister ship no return:

and turns 80

back; oilier leagues

ship goes (2 more

further on. days),

I Galley

Homeward

_g:::,_ Range remaining: 1840 leagues

Supplies on board:

46 days (23127 full)

FIGURE 12.

14
time beyond the 18 already used, thus stretching their round trip range an

extra 360 leagues beyond the original point of no return.

Twelve days I_:_ter,or 30 days into the voyage, this maneuver would take

place again. Of the sixteen ships that had continued to row westward,

eight of them would relinquish a fraction of their supplies to their sisters

and turn home, leaving eight ships to continue the voyage ( fig. 9 ). Again,

the westbound ships would be fully replenished; the eastbound ships would

head back with exactly enough food and water for the return trip, since it

was, in fact, the same amount they had consumed on the outbound leg. The

expedition would gain an additional 240 leagues of range.

Six days later, 1440 leagues west of Gades, the fleet would divide itself

once more ( fig. 10 ). Four galleys rowing westward, four galleys rowing

back. Another range gain -- 120 extra leagues.

After another _ix days, or 42 days elapsed, if land had not been sighted yet,

the remaining ships could pair off again, leaving two galleys to venture

onward ( fig. 11 ). The expedition would have covered 1680 leagues of

ocean at this point, a round trip distance further than any individual galley

could have gone, and close to the estimated distance from Spain to China.

They would have another four days to push westward before dividing up the

fleet again.

If land was not yet sighted after 46 days from home port, 1840 leagues

beyond the PiLlars of Hercules, there was still an additional four-day

margin. The expedition could split itself up one more time ( fig. 12 ), stock

up the last galley, and send it west for another 160 leagues. The final

round trip range that resulted would be 2000 leagues. As always, every

vessel would have just enough supplies left to make a safe passage home.

Varsovian's reconnaissance would be the first known use of staging to

boost the range. Figure 13 summarizes the mission stages, their

separation points, and the fractional gain in operating time and range.

This approach had major strengths. It allowed Varsovian to navigate a

round trip distance which would have otherwise been impossible, obtaining

the endurance he needed from ships whose individual capabilities were

limited. Not only did his plan extend the range to almost double that of any

individual ship, it guaranteed that every ship in the fleet could return.

With portions of his fleet dropping out and returning home as the various

15
mission stages were expended, news of the expedition's progress could be

reported home at regular intervals. At each staging point he could choose

which ships should continue, thereby ensuring that only the soundest ships

and strongest crews continue the voyage. Failed or weakened elements

could be removed to the rear; these would not have to make the return

voyage alone.

Best of all, the plan allowed for contingencies. There was plenty of margin

for error. If his range estimate was wrong, if the China coastline proved

inhospitable, or if he was unable to make landfall for any reason -- he

could still complete the mission. The plan not only extended his range, it

did so in a way which maximized the probability of success while

minimizing the risks to his ships and crew.

Unfortunately, Varsovian's plan could not anticipate the most difficult

phase of the mission where the risks were greatest: the presentation of

his proposal to the Emperor and assembled senate ( fig. 14 ). The review

began encouragingly enough; many senators supported his plan. In principle

no one was opposed to a China campaign -- everyone agreed that, if a

sea-borne invasion was to be considered, a reconnaissance mission would

be the next logical step. As for feasibility of the voyage, no one doubted

it; the analytical results Lucius Marcellus presented were far too

convincing. The Emperor had listened to his plan carefully, had liked it,

and had endorsed it. Varsovian's proposal would provide a practical

demonstration of something that already appeared to be scientifically

sound. His plan was reasonable, the risks were modest. Most important,

the mission could be accomplished without any new technology

development.

But the mission was expensive. In fact, the costs were enormous. Instead

of a simple scouting foray, this expedition ( summarized by stages in

table II ) had the dimensions of a full-scale military campaign -- 32 troop

ships and 4000 men, just to see if China was on the other side of the

ocean!

The cost of modifying 32 troop galleys alone was no small amount of

money. Of course, shipyards from Venicia to Tarantum would be busy for

months. Because of the amount of business the expedition represented,

Varsovian obtained a great deal of political support from the shipbuilders

who had once furnished the fleet that carried Julius Caesar to Britain.

They festooned the outer halls of the senate chamber with banners that

proclaimed --

16
STAGES EXTEND THE

Itmnge of one gadley IO80 I_agucs

Prlmus Ter._- sec.-- _- --

/ / Gradus

!

4 home

32 galleys

16 west west

8 home

16 home

F liilE !]1.

/

/

/

/

//

F I_IIE lq.

)

 ̧ ̧i' ̧

17

ORIGINAL PAGE IS

OF POOR QUALITY
"Rome needs the Reconnaissance" and "It's time we raised our oars again."

But when the total costs of the mission were presented ( table III ), the

opposition gave way to a clamor. The senators could not understand going

to the expense of outfitting 32 ships for a voyage that would actually be

completed by 1, or, at the most, 4 ships.

"Isn't your proposal just a little bit gold-plated?" asked Flattus Flavius,

the ranking senator on the floor.

"Yes, it is gold-plated," replied Lucius Marcellus, "That is the only way we

can do it when we really need to have gold, but can't afford it... "

With 32 galleys under stroke, the operating costs were outrageous.

Consider the anticipated charges for provisioning the ships -- food, wine,

fresh water and casking, not to mention wages for the crew ( they would

all have to be volunteers ).

The opposition was vocal and the criticisms were hard to answer. How

could these expenditures be justified? Varsovian's proposal violated the

basic rule that governs every enterprise where public monies are involved:

Where expenditure is great, great risk is not tolerated; where risk is great,

great expenditure is not tolerated.

"It is nothing but a publicity stunt," some said. "Take the army on a boat

ride to China?" With riots at home and rebellions abroad, there was no

way to justify committing all those troops to such a speculative

expedition. After all, Varsovian couldn't guarantee success. Could he

show a tangible benefit? Maybe after the campaign was finished, but

certainly not within the next fiscal year...

"What will they do when that last galley finally gets there? Conquer all of

China with one cohort?" snorted Caius Crassus. "If you're going to take all

those ships to begin with, why not just keep going and invade the place

while you're at it? It wouldn't be any more expensive than the fiasco you

have proposed !"

For several hours the debate raged on. No decision was reached. But they

agreed to appoint a committee to study the plan further and subject it to a

cost/benefit tradeoff analysis to see if the mission could be reoptimized

18
EXPEDITION TO THE ORIENT ACROSSTHE WESTERN SEA

GRADU_ Primus Sec. Tertius Quartos Quint. Sextus TOTAl,

Number of Galleys Each Stage XVI VIII IV II I I XXXII

Number of Days at Sea XXXVl LX

OPERA11NG EXPENSF_S (mille sestertium)

w AG F.S oarsmen ]'VDCCXC mCMXC

officers MDCCCLX MDLX

CONSUMI_ A BLF^_

meat MCXI CMXII

bread DLXVI CDLXIX

goat butter LXXIV LXlV

black oll .'es XLII XXXlll

grapes CXI+ CXXll

zucchini LXXXIV LXXIX

pasta CCXXII CI.XXXI

water (trrl. casklog) CCXL CCXlV

wine CCCXII CCI.VI

LX'_ll LXXXIV xcn C

MMCD MCD DCC DCCXXX _CLXXX

CMXX DXL CCXC CCCXX VCDL

DIVI CCCXX CLXXXl CXCY [_CCLXXV

CCCLXXXI CLXIV XC CIX MDCLXXX

XXXV XXVI X Xll CCXXI

XXII XIV XII XIV CXXXVIII

LXlll XLIX XlX XlX CDRll

XLVII XXl XII XX CCLXIII

CXI LXVlll XLVI XLV DCLXXIII

CXXlll LXIX XXIX XXXI DCCVI

CX XCIX Lll LVI DCCCLXXXV

TABLE I I.

g_glp94

IMPERIAL TREASURY EXPENDITURE

EXPEDITION TO THE ORIENT ACROSS THE WF_STERN SEA

FIXED COSTS

Cot,version of 32 troopships to extended range configuration

OPERATING EXPENSE

WA, ;FA_

oarsmen _g_rVCI.XXX

offi,'er_ VCDL

COI_NU MEABI.F.S TOTALS

me_ t mCCLXXV Figed Cost

bre;td MDCLXXX Operating Expense

goa butler CCXXI material

bla{k ,)lives CXXXVIII burden

grapes CDXll laber

zuo hint CCLXIII overhead

pasl a DCLXXIII G ÷ A

walrr (Incl. casktng) DCCVI cost of money

wine. DCCCLXXXV fee

Grand Total

I_CXLIV

(mille seslertlum )

]_CXLIV

_I_DCCCIII

X'LTNCCCXX V

X'1DCCCXX Xl

L_DCCXXXIV

_gX'VCXCIV

L_CCXCIX

V_DLXXI¥

EV_CMXLIII

_']I_CCXXV|I

TABLE III.

cB.-.¢_- aele._,

19

O_JGINAL PAGE IS

OF POOR QUALITY
for a reduced range of performance parameters and budget constraints. It

was at that point that Varsovian turned on his heel and marched out of the

senate chamber in disgust.

In the end, they voted to table the issue until a more decisive mandate

could be established.

Which brings us back to that brooding figure standing on the pier. Bitter,

disillusioned and cynical, he stares out to the sea dancing on the horizon

past the breakwall. His eyes pierce the afternoon sunlight, but they are

blinded by disappointment. How can the Empire continue if it is not bold

enough to mount even this modest expedition? When men and nations no

longer dare to dream, what can the future hold?

But as he stands there staring out to sea, he fails to see a most marvelous

thing taking place right in front of him. A graceful Arab dhow ( fig. 15 ),

with her lateen rig and deep keel, her sharp prow and delicate forefoot

biting cleanly into the waves, is threading its way out of the harbor

close-hauled, beating upwind toward the breakwall opening and the open

water beyond.

}

/

/

FIGURE 15.

2O
Nalional Aeronautics and

SpaceAdministration

1. Report No,

NASA TM- 103094

4. Title and Subtitle

Romans to Mars

7. Author(s)

D.J. Bents

Report Documentation Page

2. Government Accession No.

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Lewis Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135-3191

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Washington, D.C. 20546-0001

3. Recipient's Catalog No.

5. Report Date

6. Performing Organization Code

8. Performing Organization Report No.

E-5416

10. Work Unit No.

501-14-11

11. Contract or Grant No.

13. Type of Report and Period Covered

Technical Memorandum

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. Supplementary Notes

Prepared for the 28th Goddard Symposium sponsored by the American Astronautical Society, Washington, D.C.,

March 14-16, 1990.

16. Abstract

This paper illustrates the key role played by technology advancement with respect to the anticipated era of

discovery and exploration (in space): how bold new initiatives may or may not be enabled. A truly enabling technology not only renders the proposed missions technically feasible, but also makes them viable economically; that

is, low enough in cost (relative to th_ economy supporting them) that urgent national need is not required for

justification, low enough in cost that high risk can be programmatically tolerated. A fictional parallel is drawn to

the Roman Empire of the second century A.D., shown to have possessed by that time the necessary knowledge,

motivation, means, and technical capability of mounting, through the use of innovative mission planning, an

initiative similar to Columbus' voyag,:. They failed to do so because they lacked the advanced technology

necessary to make it an acceptable proposition economically. Speculation, based on the historical perspective, is

made on the outcome of contemporary plans for future exploration showing how they will be subjected to the

same historical forces, within limits imposed by the state of technology development, that shaped the timing of

that previous era of discovery and exploration.

17. Key Words (Suggested by Author(s))

Exploration

Mission planning

Enabling technology

19. Security Classif. (of this report)

Unclassified

18. Distribution Statement

Unclassified - Unlimited

Subject Category 99

20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of pages

Unclassified 23

22. Price*

A03

NASAFORM1626OCT86 *For sale by the N_tional Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161