U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water 

Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, 

Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

By Robert T. Kay

Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4116

DeKalb, Illinois

2002
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

GALE A. NORTON, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Charles G. Groat, Director

For additional information write to: Copies of this report can be purchased from:

District Chief U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey Branch of Information Services

221 N. Broadway Avenue Box 25286

Urbana, IL 61801 Denver, CO 80225-0286
Contents III

CONTENTS

Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................ 1

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................... 1

Estimated Water Withdrawals .............................................................................................................................. 4

Total Withdrawals for Offstream Water Use............................................................................................... 4

Total Withdrawals from Surface Water and Ground Water......................................................................... 4

Per Capita Water Withdrawals .................................................................................................................... 7

Withdrawals for Public-Water Supply ........................................................................................................ 8

Deliveries from Public-Water Supply Systems.................................................................................. 10

Withdrawals for Rural Domestic Supply .................................................................................................... 12

Withdrawals for Use by Livestock .............................................................................................................. 12

Withdrawals for Irrigation........................................................................................................................... 14

Withdrawals for Self-Supplied Industrial Use ............................................................................................ 15

Mining................................................................................................................................................ 16

Commercial........................................................................................................................................ 17

Withdrawals for Thermoelectric Power Generation ................................................................................... 18

Estimated Water Use ............................................................................................................................................ 18

Domestic ..................................................................................................................................................... 19

Industrial and Commercial.......................................................................................................................... 19

Estimated Water Consumption............................................................................................................................. 20

Total Consumption...................................................................................................................................... 20

Public-Water Supplies................................................................................................................................. 21

Rural Domestic ........................................................................................................................................... 22

Livestock ..................................................................................................................................................... 24

Irrigation...................................................................................................................................................... 24

Self-Supplied Industrial Water.................................................................................................................... 24

Thermoelectric Power Generation .............................................................................................................. 26

Summary .............................................................................................................................................................. 27

References............................................................................................................................................................ 28

Glossary................................................................................................................................................................ 29
IV Contents

FIGURES

1. Map showing location of north-central States ........................................................................................................ 2

2-33. Graphs showing:

2. Total water withdrawals in the north-central States, 1950-95 ......................................................................... 5

3. Population of the north-central States, 1950-95 .............................................................................................. 5

4. Percentage of total withdrawals in the north-central States from surface water, 1950-95 .............................. 6

5. Total withdrawals from surface water in the north-central States, 1950-95 .................................................... 6

6. Total withdrawals from ground water in the north-central States, 1950-95 .................................................... 6

7. Per capita water withdrawals in the north-central States, 1950-95.................................................................. 7

8. Total withdrawals for public-water supply in the north-central States, 1950-95............................................. 8

9. Total withdrawals of surface water for public-water supply in the north-central States, 1950-95 .................. 9

10. Total withdrawals from ground water for public-water supply in the north-central States, 1950-95.............. 9

11. Percentage of withdrawals for public-water supply in the north-central States from surface 

water, 1950-95 .............................................................................................................................................. 9

12. Volume of water delivered from public suppliers to domestic users, public users, and lost 

to conveyance in the north-central States, 1960-95...................................................................................... 11

13. Volume of water delivered from public suppliers to industrial and commercial users and 

thermoelectric power generators in the north-central States, 1960-95......................................................... 11

14. Total withdrawals for rural domestic supply in the north-central States, 1960-95.......................................... 12

15. Total withdrawals for livestock supply in the north-central States, 1960-95................................................... 13

16. Percentage of water withdrawals for livestock use from ground water in the north-central 

States, 1960-95 ............................................................................................................................................. 13

17. Total withdrawals for irrigation in the north-central States, 1950-95.............................................................. 14

18. Percentage of water withdrawals for irrigation use from ground water in the north-central 

States, 1950-95 ............................................................................................................................................. 15

19. Total withdrawals for self-supplied industrial use in the north-central States, 1960-95 ................................. 16

20. Total self-supplied withdrawals for thermoelectric power generation in the north-central 

States, 1960-95 ............................................................................................................................................. 18

21. Percentage of total surface-water withdrawals in the north-central States used for

 thermoelectric power generation, 1960-95.................................................................................................. 19

22. Total water consumption in the north-central States, 1960-95 ........................................................................ 21

23. Water consumption by customers of public supplies in the north-central States, 1960-95 ............................. 21

24. Percentage of total water consumption in the north-central States by customers of public 

supplies, 1960-95.......................................................................................................................................... 22

25. Rural domestic water consumption in the north-central States, 1960-95........................................................ 22

26. Percentage of total water consumption in the north-central States from rural-domestic

systems, 1960-95 .......................................................................................................................................... 23

27. Percentage of water withdrawals for rural-domestic use in the north-central States that is 

consumed, 1960-95....................................................................................................................................... 23
Contents V

28. Percentage of total water consumption in the north-central States by livestock, 1960-95.............................. 24

29. Percentage of total water consumption in the north-central States from irrigation, 1960-95 ......................... 25

30. Water consumption by self-supplied industrial systems in the north-central States, 1960-95........................ 25

31. Percentage of total water consumption in the north-central States by self-supplied 

industrial systems, 1960-95 ......................................................................................................................... 26

32. Water consumption by generation of thermoelectric power in the north-central States, 1960-95.................. 27

33. Percentage of total water consumption in the north-central States from thermoelectric 

power generation, 1960-95 .......................................................................................................................... 27

CONVERSION FACTORS

Multiply By To obtain

gallon per day (gal/d) 3.785 liter per day

million gallons per day (Mgal/d) 0.003785 million cubic meters per day
Introduction 1

Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water 

Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, 

Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

By Robert T. Kay

Abstract

From 1950 through 1995, the U.S. 

Geological Survey tabulated water withdrawals 

throughout the United States, including the northcentral States of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, 

Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin. During this 

period, total water withdrawals increased in each 

of the north-central States by at least a factor of 

two. Illinois led the north-central States in total 

withdrawals, withdrawals from surface water and, 

typically, withdrawals from ground water. Per 

capita withdrawals were largest in Indiana or 

Illinois, however, the disparity in per capita 

withdrawals in the north-central States decreased 

from 1950 through 1995. Surface water was the 

source of 75 to 95 percent of all water withdrawals 

in the north-central States and consistently 

accounted for over 90 percent of total withdrawals 

in Illinois. From 1950 through 1995, the 

magnitude of increase in withdrawals from surface 

water was lower in Illinois than in most of the other 

north-central States, even though surface-water 

withdrawals in Illinois increased from about 9,000 

to 19,000 million gallons per day. Total water 

withdrawals from ground water in Illinois have 

decreased by about 150 million gallons per day 

since 1975. From 1950 through 1995, from 

68 to 86 percent of the total water withdrawals in 

Illinois were for generation of thermoelectric 

power; this percentage is higher than for the other 

north-central States and has increased since 1970. 

Approximately 12 percent of water withdrawals 

in Illinois are for municipal water supply, which 

was consistent with the other north-central States. 

Ten percent or less of the water withdrawn in the 

north-central States is estimated to have been 

consumed. 

INTRODUCTION

Management of water supplies within an area of 

concern is aided by knowledge of the total amount of 

water withdrawn from surface water and ground water 

and the use of the water. Identification of actual or 

potential water-supply and water-quality problems can 

be aided by knowledge of the volume of, and temporal 

changes in, water withdrawals and water consumption. 

Because areas of concern often correspond to political 

boundaries, and because water resources often are 

shared by multiple areas of concern (cities, counties, 

States, Nations) management of water supplies in an 

area of concern also is assisted by knowledge of water 

use in surrounding areas.

Water withdrawals throughout the United States, 

including Illinois and the nearby States of Indiana, 

Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin 

have been estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) every 5 years from 1950 through 1995 

(MacKichan, 1951, 1957; MacKichan and Kammerer, 

1961; Murray, 1968; Murray and Reeves, 1972, 1977; 

Solley and others, 1983, 1988, 1993, 1998). These data 

were not compiled nationally prior to 1950. Estimates 

of the amount of water consumed have been compiled 

every 5 years from 1960 through 1995. These 

compilations provide a starting point for assessment of 

potential sources of stress on limited water resources. 

For the purposes of this report, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, 

Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin are 

collectively referred to as the north-central States 

(fig. 1). 
2 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95 Figure 1. Location of north-central States.
Introduction 3

Because one of the goals of the withdrawal 

estimates is to provide insight into the source of the 

stresses on water resources, the estimates consist of a 

breakdown of the volume of water withdrawn from 

surface- and ground-water sources for use in publicwater supplies, domestic water supplies, self-supplied 

industrial operations, self-supplied commercial 

operations, mining operations, thermoelectric power 

generation, irrigation, and livestock operations as well 

as the volume of water consumed. Public-water 

supplies, domestic water supplies, self-supplied 

industrial operations, self-supplied commercial 

operations, mining operations, thermoelectric power 

generation, irrigation, and livestock operations account 

for all offstream (water is diverted from its source and 

conveyed to its place of use) water use. Instream (water 

is used at its source) water use, such as boat navigation 

or hydroelectric power generation, is not discussed in 

this report. Definitions of these and other terms used 

in the report are presented in the glossary.

The estimated data are presented in the reports 

cited in the reference section (MacKichan, 1951, 1957; 

MacKichan and Kammerer, 1961; Murray, 1968; 

Murray and Reeves, 1972, 1977; Solley and others, 

1983, 1988, 1993, 1998). The sources of the data and 

the methods of data analysis also are discussed (to 

varying degrees) in these reports. Estimation of 

withdrawals and consumption for the various water-use 

categories is based on a variety of techniques with 

varying degrees of accuracy. For example, suppliers 

typically measure, monitor, and report the amount of 

withdrawals for public-water supplies and these 

estimates are comparatively accurate. Withdrawals 

from rural-domestic supplies and withdrawals for 

livestock use are based on census estimates of the 

human or animal population served and assumptions 

about per capita water use for humans and various 

types of livestock. The accuracy of these and other 

estimates of water use are less certain. The volume of 

water consumed was estimated by multiplying the total 

water withdrawals for a particular water-use category 

by the percentage assumed to have been consumed. 

Consumption values may contain a high percentage 

of error.

The components of the withdrawal and 

consumption estimates for many of the categories 

have changed from 1950 through 1995, affecting the 

estimated amount of withdrawals. Some of the 

apparent trends in water withdrawals from 1950 

through 1995 are a reflection of changes in the 

definition of the water-use categories and do not 

necessarily reflect actual changes in water withdrawals 

or water use. For example, dewatering was removed 

from the estimation of water withdrawals for mining 

use in the 1995 data. Where possible, changes in 

evaluation of the components of a water-use category 

will be noted and the effects, if any, will be discussed. 

Public-water supply withdrawals are made by 

a utility for use by the general public, commercial, 

industrial, and civic concerns (MacKichan, 1951). The 

amount of water delivered from a public supply for 

domestic use; public use and conveyance loss; 

industrial and commercial supply; and thermoelectric 

power generation were differentiated at various times 

since 1955. 

Rural domestic water supply withdrawals are 

withdrawals for domestic use (drinking, bathing, 

washing clothes, watering lawns) by individual or small 

groups of homeowners not served by a public system 

(MacKichan, 1957). Estimates of per capita 

withdrawals for rural domestic use have increased 

through time, as the percentage of the rural population 

with running water increased (households with running 

water use more water than households without running 

water). Prior to 1960, rural water withdrawals for 

domestic use were combined with withdrawals for use 

by livestock. 

Livestock water use includes drinking water for 

livestock, dairy sanitation, evaporation from stockwatering ponds, and cleaning and waste disposal 

(Solley and others, 1998). These withdrawals typically 

are self-supplied. Withdrawals for aquaculture were 

considered industrial withdrawals prior to 1980, but 

have been included in livestock withdrawals since 

1980. This change is likely to have had minimal effect 

on water-use estimates in the north-central States.

Self-supplied industrial water withdrawal is 

water not obtained from public-water supplies that is 

used for such purposes as processing, washing, and 

cooling in facilities that manufacture products 

(MacKichan and Kammerer, 1961). Industries that use 

substantial quantities of water in their daily operations 

such as mining, and the manufacture of steel, chemical, 

and paper products, are present in varying amounts in 

the north-central States. 
4 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

Withdrawals for thermoelectric power generation 

include self-supplied water used for the generation of 

electrical power with fossil-fuel, nuclear, or geothermal 

energy (Solley and others, 1988). Most of the water 

withdrawn by thermoelectric power plants is used for 

condenser and reactor cooling. Withdrawals for 

thermoelectric power generation were included in the 

self-supplied industrial category in 1950 and 1955, but 

have been tabulated separately since 1955 (MacKichan 

and Kammerer, 1961).

Self-supplied commercial water withdrawal is 

water not obtained from public-water supplies that is 

used for hotels, restaurants, office buildings, and other 

commercial facilities including military bases. Selfsupplied withdrawals for commercial uses were 

included in the self-supplied industrial category prior 

to 1985, but were tabulated separately in 1985, 1990 

and 1995. 

Mining water use includes both fresh and saline 

water used for the extraction of naturally occurring 

rock, liquids, and gasses such as stone, coal, petroleum, 

and natural gas (Solley and others, 1988). This 

category includes quarrying, milling, and other 

operations done as part of the mining activity. All 

mining water is assumed to be self-supplied for 

purposes of estimation. Withdrawals for mining uses 

were included in the self-supplied industrial category 

prior to 1985, but were tabulated separately in 1985, 

1990, and 1995. 

Irrigation water use includes all water artificially 

applied to farm and horticultural crops, as well as water 

for golf courses (Solley and others, 1998). All water 

used for irrigation is considered to be self-supplied for 

the purposes of estimation.

This report describes the results of a 

compilation of estimates of water withdrawals, water 

deliveries, water use, and water consumption for a 

variety of water-use categories in the north-central 

States at 5-year intervals from 1950 through 1995. 

Estimates of total withdrawals and breakdowns of 

withdrawals from surface-water and ground-water 

sources for each of the major water-use categories are 

presented. Differences in the estimated water 

withdrawals and water consumption between the 

north-central States are discussed for each water-use 

category, and temporal trends are presented.

ESTIMATED WATER WITHDRAWALS 

Much of the water withdrawn for offstream use is 

returned to the water environment as discharge to a 

stream, where it is available to be withdrawn again. For 

this compilation, each time that water was taken from a 

natural source it was added to the accumulated totals of 

water withdrawn; therefore, some of the water has been 

counted more than once. Most of the water withdrawn 

from the ground water is returned to surface water. 

Diversion of ground water to surface water increases 

the availability of surface water, but depletes the 

ground-water resource. As a result, water-supply 

problems in the north-central States are more common 

with ground water than surface water. 

Total Withdrawals for Offstream Water Use

Illinois typically has the largest total water 

withdrawals among the north-central States 

(19,953 million gallons per day (Mgal/d) in 1995), 

followed by Michigan (12,062 Mgal/d), Indiana 

(9,139 Mgal/d), Wisconsin (7,249 Mgal/d), Missouri 

(7,030 Mgal/d), Kentucky (4,416 Mgal/d), and Iowa 

(3,038 Mgal/d) (fig. 2). Quantities of water withdrawn 

show a general correlation with the population of each 

of the north-central States (fig. 3). Total withdrawals 

showed an overall increase in all of the north-central 

States from 1950 to 1995. Comparison of the total 

water withdrawals in 1950 and 1995 showed an 

increase ranging from slightly less than a factor of 

two in Iowa (1,625 to 3,038 Mgal/d) to about a factor 

of seven in Missouri (995 to 7,030 Mgal/d). Water 

withdrawals in Illinois essentially doubled from 

9,910 Mgal/d in 1950 to 19,953 Mgal/d in 1995 and 

showed an overall increase during this period. Water 

withdrawals in Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, and Michigan 

were largest in 1980, decreased from 1980 to 1985 

(as did total water withdrawals in Illinois and Missouri) 

and increased gradually from 1985 through 1995. 

Total Withdrawals from Surface Water and 

Ground Water

More than 75 percent of the total water 

withdrawals in the north-central States are supplied 

from surface water, with ground water making up the 
Estimated Water Withdrawals 5

Figure 2. Total water withdrawals in the north-central States, 1950-95.

Figure 3. Population of the north-central States, 1950-95.

difference (figs. 4, 5, 6). Surface water typically has 

accounted for more than 90 percent of the total 

withdrawals in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, and 

Michigan from 1950 through 1995 (fig. 4). The 

percentage of the total water withdrawals derived from 

surface water in the north-central States historically has 

been smallest in Iowa (from about 66 to 84 percent), 

and intermediate in Missouri and Wisconsin (from 86 to 

93 percent). The percentage of the total amount of 

water withdrawals derived from surface water or 

ground water has remained fairly constant in each of 

the north-central States from 1950 through 1995.

The total volume of surface water withdrawn 

increased overall in all of the north-central States from 

1950 through 1995, mirroring the increase in total water 

withdrawals (fig. 5). The magnitude of the increase was 

about a factor of two in Illinois (9,390 to 19,000 Mgal/

d), Iowa (1,300 to 2,510 Mgal/d), and Michigan (5,300 

to 11,200 Mgal/d); more than a factor of three in 

Wisconsin (1,780 to 6,490 Mgal/d), and Kentucky 

(1,106 to 4,190 Mgal/d); about a factor of four in 

Indiana (1,990 to 8,430 Mgal/d); and about a factor of 

seven in Missouri (880 to 6,140 Mgal/d). Total surfacewater withdrawals were largest in 

Indiana (13,000 Mgal/d), Iowa (3,500 Mgal/d), 

Kentucky (4,600 Mgal/d), Michigan (14,000 Mgal/d), 

and Missouri (6,400 Mgal/d) in 1980.
6 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

Figure 4. Percentage of total withdrawals in the north-central States from surface water, 1950-95.

Figure 5. Total withdrawals from surface water in the north-central States, 1950-95.

Figure 6. Total water withdrawals from ground water in the north-central States, 1950-95.
Estimated Water Withdrawals 7

The total volume of ground water withdrawn 

from 1950 through 1995 typically has been largest in 

Illinois and smallest in Kentucky (fig. 6). Comparison 

of the total volume of ground water withdrawn in 1950 

and 1995 showed an increase in all of the north-central 

States. The magnitude of the increase was less than a 

factor of two in Illinois (520 to 953 Mgal/d), Indiana 

(440 to 709 Mgal/d), Iowa (325 to 528 Mgal/d), 

Kentucky (120 to 226 Mgal/d), and Michigan (600 to 

862 Mgal/d); more than a factor of two in Wisconsin 

(295 to 759 Mgal/d); and nearly a factor of eight in 

Missouri (115 to 891 Mgal/d). Total ground-water 

withdrawals were largest in Illinois (1,100 Mgal/d) 

in 1975 and in Indiana (1,300 Mgal/d), Iowa (760 

Mgal/d), Kentucky (250 Mgal/d), and Michigan (950 

Mgal/d) in 1980.

Per Capita Water Withdrawals

Total per capita water withdrawals, the total 

amount of water withdrawn divided by the population 

of a State, increased overall for each of the north-central 

States from 1950 through 1995 (fig. 7). Per capita 

water withdrawals exceeded 1,000 gallons per day (gal/

d) in the north-central States from 1980 through 1995. 

The magnitude of the increase in the 

per capita total water withdrawals from 1950 through 

1995 ranged from less than a factor of two in Michigan 

(926 to 1,260 gal/d) and Illinois (1,138 to 1,680 gal/d), 

the States with the largest overall withdrawals, to more 

than factor of five in Missouri (252 to 1,320 gal/d). Per 

capita total water withdrawals for all of the northcentral States increased overall from 1950 to 1980. Per 

capita total water withdrawals for all of the northcentral States except Wisconsin decreased by at least 

170 gal/d from 1980 to 1985, then increased between 

10 and 430 gal/d from 1985 to 1995. Only Illinois 

and Wisconsin had higher total per capita water 

withdrawals in 1995 than in 1980. Per capita total 

water withdrawals in 1950 were largest in Illinois, 

followed by Michigan. For most of the period from 

1955 through 1990, Indiana had the largest per capita 

water withdrawals (geometric mean value of 1,563 

gal/d from 1955 through 1990), followed by Illinois 

(mean value of 1,362 gal/d) or Michigan (mean value of 

1,200 gal/d). Illinois regained the largest per capita 

water withdrawals in 1995. The disparity between the 

States with the largest and smallest per capita water 

withdrawals has decreased dramatically since 1950. 

In 1950, per capita water withdrawals in Illinois were 

about 880 gal/d greater than in Missouri and exceeded 

per capita withdrawals in Missouri by more than a 

factor of four. In 1995, per capita water withdrawals in 

Illinois were about 600 gal/d greater than in Iowa and 

exceeded per capita withdrawals in Iowa by less than a 

factor of two.

Figure 7. Per capita water withdrawals in the north-central States, 1950-95. 
8 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

Withdrawals for Public-Water Supply

Total volumes of water withdrawn for publicwater supplies were a general reflection of population 

and industrial activity, being largest in Illinois, 

second largest in Michigan, intermediate in Indiana, 

Wisconsin, and Missouri, and smallest in Kentucky and 

Iowa (fig. 8). Volumes of water withdrawn for publicwater supply increased overall from 1950 to 1995 in 

each of the north-central States, although the maximum 

withdrawals in Illinois occurred in 1970. The largest 

total increases, from 1950 to 1995, were measured in 

Illinois (611 Mgal/d) and Michigan (550 Mgal/d) with 

smaller increases in Missouri (414 Mgal/d), Kentucky 

(376 Mgal/d), Indiana (369 Mgal/d), Wisconsin (310 

Mgal/d), and Iowa (218 Mgal/d). The amount of water 

withdrawn for public-water supply in 1950 and 1995 

increased by more than a factor of four in Kentucky 

(120 to 496 Mgal/d); more than a factor of two in 

Indiana (300 to 669 Mgal/d), Missouri (285 to 699 

Mgal/d), Wisconsin (290 to 600 Mgal/d), and Iowa 

(155 to 373 Mgal/d); and less than a factor of two in 

Michigan (750 to 1,300 Mgal/d) and Illinois (1,210 and 

1,821 Mgal/d). Water withdrawals for public-water 

supply typically were between 5 and 15 percent of the 

total withdrawals for each State and typically were 

from 9 to 12 percent of the total withdrawals in Illinois. 

Withdrawals for public-water supply in Indiana 

typically were the smallest percentage of the total water 

use, from 4 to 7 percent, whereas withdrawals for 

public-water supply from Missouri, prior to 1980, were 

15 percent or more of the total water use.

Volumes of both surface water and ground water 

extracted for public-water supply showed an overall 

increase in most of the north-central States from 1950 

through 1995 (figs. 9, 10). However, withdrawals of 

ground water for public-water supply in Illinois peaked 

in 1970, declined slightly in 1975, and have dropped 

substantially since 1975 (fig. 10). This decline in 

withdrawals from ground water is at least partially the 

result of a shift in water supply from ground water to 

water from Lake Michigan in suburban Chicago. With 

the exception of Iowa, surface water typically was the 

primary source of water for public-water supply in the 

north-central States from 1950 through 1995 (fig. 11). 

Surface water typically accounted for less than onethird of the water withdrawn for public-water supply 

in Iowa; between 48 and 64 percent of the water 

withdrawn for public-water supply in Indiana; about

80 percent of the water withdrawn for public-water 

supply in Michigan; and about 85 percent of the water 

withdrawn for public-water supply in Kentucky. From 

1950 through 1995, surface water has decreased from 

91 to 68 percent of the water withdrawn for publicwater supply in Missouri. In Illinois, surface water 

accounted for 84 to 88 percent of the water withdrawn 

for public-water supply from 1950 through 1965, 

decreased to about 68 percent in 1970 and 1975, and 

has consistently increased to 80 percent in 1995. In 

Wisconsin, surface water accounted from 55 to 60 

percent of the water withdrawn for public-water 

supply from 1950 through 1975, and decreased to

about 50 percent in 1980 through 1995.

Figure 8. Total withdrawals for public-water supply in the north-central States, 1950-95.
Estimated Water Withdrawals 9

Figure 9. Total withdrawals of surface water for public-water supply in the north-central States, 1950-95.

Figure 10. Total withdrawals from ground water for public-water supply in the north-central States, 1950-95.

Figure 11. Percentage of withdrawals for public-water supply in the north-central States from surface 

water, 1950-95.
10 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

Withdrawals from ground water for public-water 

supply increased from about 25 to 65 percent of the 

total withdrawals from ground water in Illinois from 

1950 to 1975, then decreased to 39 percent of the 

total withdrawals from ground water in Illinois in 1995 

(figs. 6, 10). Withdrawals from ground water for 

public-water supply typically have accounted for 

about 40 and 25 percent of the total ground-water 

withdrawals for Wisconsin and Missouri, respectively, 

from 1950 through 1995. Withdrawals from ground 

water for public-water supply generally are an 

increasing percentage of the total withdrawals from 

ground water in Indiana (from 32 to 45 percent), 

Iowa (from 26 to 49 percent), Kentucky (from 8 to 

24 percent), and Michigan (from 27 to 40 percent) 

from 1950 through 1995.

Withdrawals from surface water for public-water 

supply decreased from about 30 to 8 percent of the total 

withdrawals from surface water in Missouri from 1950 

to 1995 (figs. 5, 9). From 1950 through 1995, 

withdrawals from surface water for public-water supply 

typically have accounted for about 10 percent of the 

total surface-water withdrawals in Illinois, Kentucky, 

and Michigan; and about 4 percent of the total surfacewater withdrawals in Indiana, Iowa, and Wisconsin. 

Deliveries from Public-Water Supply Systems

In addition to withdrawals by public-supply 

systems, deliveries from public-supply systems have 

been estimated. Deliveries from public-supply

systems are to industrial, domestic, and public users. 

In addition, some of the water withdrawn by publicsupply systems is lost during conveyance from the point 

of withdrawal to the point of delivery.

The volume of water delivered from publicsupply systems to industrial users included estimates of 

delivery to commercial users and thermoelectric power 

generators from 1955 through 1980. The volume of 

water delivered from public-supply systems to 

commercial users and thermoelectric power generators 

was differentiated from the volume delivered to 

industrial users in 1985, 1990, and 1995. For 

consistency, the volumes of water delivered to 

industrial users, commercial users, and thermoelectric 

power generators are grouped in all estimates of 

deliveries to industrial users in this report.

The volume of water delivered from publicsupply systems to domestic and public users and lost 

during conveyance was estimated from 1960 through 

1995. The volume of water delivered to domestic users 

was differentiated from the conveyance loss and public 

use (conveyance loss and public use were not 

differentiated from each other) in 1985, 1990, and 

1995. For consistency, the volumes of water delivered 

for domestic use as well as public use and conveyance 

losses are combined in the discussion of total deliveries 

from the public-water supply systems, but are 

differentiated for the discussion of volumes of water 

delivered for domestic use, and for public use and 

conveyance loss. The volume of water lost in 

conveyance and used for public use is estimated by 

subtracting the volume delivered to domestic, industrial 

and commercial users, thermoelectric power 

generators, and any other users from the total volume 

of water withdrawn by the public-water supplies. 

From 1960 through 1995, the period for which 

these records are available, total deliveries from publicwater supply systems for domestic use, and public use 

and conveyance losses typically accounted for more 

than 1,000 Mgal/d in Illinois, about 400 to 800 Mgal/d 

in Michigan, about 200 to 500 Mgal/d in Indiana, 

Missouri, and Wisconsin, and about 100 to 300 Mgal/d 

in Iowa and Kentucky (fig. 12). Total deliveries from 

public-water supply systems for domestic use, public 

use, and conveyance loss showed a generally consistent 

increase from 1960 through 1995 in each of the northcentral States, typically increasing by about a factor of 

two. The exception to this trend was Illinois, with 

maximum deliveries from 1960 through 1975.

Deliveries for domestic use exceeded 

conveyance loss and deliveries for public use in each 

of the north-central States from 1985 through 1995. 

Deliveries for domestic use exceeded deliveries for 

public use and conveyance loss by less than a factor 

of two in Iowa (typically about 139 and 88 Mgal/d, 

respectively) and Wisconsin (geometric mean of 179 

and 157 Mgal/d, respectively); by about a factor of 

three in Indiana (typically about 300 and 100 Mgal/d, 

respectively) and Missouri (geometric mean of 359 

and 118 Mgal/d, respectively); about a factor of four 

in Illinois (geometric mean of 896 and 234 Mgal/d, 

respectively); by about a factor of five in Kentucky 

(geometric mean of 196 and 35 Mgal/d, respectively); 

and by nearly a factor of nine in Michigan (geometric 

mean of 612 and 71 Mgal/d, respectively).
Estimated Water Withdrawals 11

From 1960 through 1995, withdrawals from 

public-water supply systems for delivery to 

commercial, industrial, and thermoelectric power 

generating facilities typically accounted for about 

500 to 800 Mgal/d in Illinois and Michigan, 100 to 300 

Mgal/d in Indiana, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 70 to 225 

Mgal/d in Kentucky, and 50 to 100 Mgal/d in Iowa 

(fig. 13). From 1960 through 1995, deliveries 

from public-water supply systems for industrial, 

commercial, and thermoelectric power uses increased 

by less than a factor of two in Illinois, Indiana, 

Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin; increased by a 

factor of two in Iowa, and increased by about a factor of 

three in Kentucky. From 1985 through 1995, 

withdrawals from public-water supplies for delivery 

to thermoelectric power generating facilities were 

negligible in the north-central States. From 1985 

through 1995, withdrawals from public-water supplies 

for delivery to commercial facilities exceed deliveries 

to industrial facilities in Illinois (typically by less than 

a factor of two), whereas deliveries to industrial 

facilities tended to exceed deliveries to commercial 

facilities in Kentucky, Missouri, and Wisconsin. From 

1985 through 1995, public-supply deliveries to 

industrial and commercial facilities were similar in 

Indiana. No clear patterns were observed for Iowa 

and Michigan. 

Figure 12. Volume of water delivered from public suppliers to domestic users, public users, and lost to 

conveyance in the north-central States, 1960-95.

Figure 13. Volume of water delivered from public suppliers to industrial and commercial users and 

thermoelectric power generators in the north-central States, 1960-95.
12 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

Most of the water withdrawn for public-water 

supply in the north-central States since 1955 has

been used for domestic and public use or is lost in 

conveyance, with the exception of Michigan. 

Deliveries to domestic users, public users, and 

conveyance losses typically accounted for 59 to 75 

percent of the total water withdrawn by public-water 

supply systems in Illinois, Indiana, and Iowa, 50 to 75 

percent in Missouri, 45 to 70 percent in Kentucky, 

about 55 percent in Wisconsin, and 43 to 48 percent 

in Michigan.

Withdrawals for Rural Domestic Supply

Volumes of water withdrawn for rural domestic 

supply from 1960 through 1995 (withdrawals for rural 

domestic and livestock use were not differentiated in 

1950 and 1955) ranged from 100 to 194 Mgal/d in 

Michigan, 87 to 139 Mgal/d in Indiana, 70 to 92 

Mgal/d in Wisconsin, 39 to 92 Mgal/d in Missouri, 

41 to 65 Mgal/d in Iowa, and 24 to 65 Mgal/d in 

Kentucky (fig. 14). The volume of water withdrawn 

for rural domestic supply in Illinois increased from 

73 to 92 Mgal/d from 1960 to 1965, decreased to about 

17 Mgal/d in 1970 and 1975, and increased to 115 and 

130 Mgal/d in 1985 and 1995, respectively. With the 

exception of the trends described in Illinois and an 

approximately twofold increase in Michigan, the total 

volume of water withdrawn for rural domestic water 

supply in the north-central States did not change 

appreciably from 1960 through 1995. A small 

decrease was calculated in Iowa. Water withdrawals for 

rural domestic supply typically were less than 2 percent 

of the total withdrawals for each State. Withdrawals 

for rural domestic supply in Illinois always were the 

smallest percentage of the total water withdrawals in 

the north-central States and always were less than 1 

percent of the total withdrawals in Illinois. Withdrawals 

for rural domestic supply in Iowa typically were the 

largest percentage of the total water withdrawals in the 

north-central States, ranging from 2.7 to 15 percent of 

the total water withdrawals in Iowa.

With the exception of small quantities from 

Kentucky (less than 6 Mgal/d) and Michigan (0.1 

Mgal/d), surface water was not used extensively for 

rural domestic water supply in any of the north-central 

States since 1980. Essentially, all water withdrawn

for rural domestic supply in the north-central States 

since 1980 has been withdrawn from ground water. 

Although variable, withdrawals for rural domestic 

supply constitute about 20 percent of the total groundwater withdrawals in Kentucky and Michigan, about 

15 percent of the total ground-water withdrawals in 

Indiana and Wisconsin, and about 10 percent in Illinois, 

Iowa, and Missouri.

Withdrawals for Use by Livestock

The volume of water withdrawn for use by 

livestock from 1960 through 1995 exceeded 105 

Mgal/d in Iowa, ranged from 71 to 90 Mgal/d in 

Wisconsin, ranged from 42 to 78 Mgal/d in Illinois, 

Figure 14. Total withdrawals for rural domestic supply in the north-central States, 1960-95.
Estimated Water Withdrawals 13

typically was between 40 and 50 Mgal/d in Indiana, 

ranged from 31 to 50 Mgal/d in Kentucky, and 13 to 31 

Mgal/d in Michigan (fig. 15). The volume of water 

withdrawn for livestock supply in Missouri increased 

from 72 to 159 Mgal/d from 1960 through 1975, 

decreased to about 40 Mgal/d by 1985, and increased to 

76 Mgal/d in 1995. Water withdrawals for livestock 

supply decreased overall from 1960 through 1995 in 

Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, and Wisconsin, remained 

essentially unchanged in Indiana and Missouri, and 

increased by less than a factor of two in Kentucky. 

Withdrawals in Missouri increased by about a factor 

of two from 1960 through 1975 then decreased to 

approximately 1960 levels from 1980 through 1995. 

Water withdrawals for livestock supply were less than 1 

percent of the total withdrawals in Illinois, Indiana, and 

Michigan; were often between 1 and 2 percent of total 

withdrawals in Kentucky and Wisconsin; and ranged 

from about 3 to 7 percent of the total withdrawals in 

Iowa. Livestock water supply accounted for more than 

3 percent of all water withdrawals in Missouri from 

1960 through 1975, 

and has been approximately 1 percent of withdrawals 

since 1975.

It is estimated that ground water supplies most 

of the water withdrawn for livestock supply in all of the 

north-central States, except Kentucky and Missouri 

(fig. 16). The percentage of water withdrawals for 

livestock derived from ground water in Illinois 

increased from about 75 percent from 1960 through 

1980, to more than 95 percent since 1980. Surface 

water is estimated to account for nearly all of the water 

withdrawn for livestock supply in Kentucky, and for 

about 75 percent of withdrawals in Missouri. 

Figure 15. Total withdrawals for livestock supply in the north-central States, 1960-95.

Figure 16. Percentage of water withdrawals for livestock use from ground water in the 

north-central States, 1960-95.
14 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

Withdrawals for livestock use typically constitute 

less than 8 percent of the total withdrawals from ground 

water in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, and 

Missouri; constitute about 10 to 15 percent of the total 

withdrawals from ground water in Wisconsin; and 

typically are 15 to 25 percent of the total ground-water 

withdrawals in Iowa. Withdrawals for livestock use 

typically constitute less than 0.5 percent of the total 

withdrawals from surface water in Illinois, Indiana, 

Michigan, and Wisconsin; and are typically about 1 

percent of the total withdrawals from surface water in 

Iowa, Kentucky, and Missouri.

Estimated withdrawals for animal-specialty use 

in 1990 and 1995 typically were less than 1 Mgal/d in 

Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, and Missouri; 

about 10 Mgal/d in Illinois; and about 30 Mgal/d in 

Wisconsin. The volume of water withdrawn for 

animal-specialty is less than 6 percent of the volume 

of water withdrawn for livestock use in Indiana, Iowa, 

Kentucky, and Missouri; from 5 to 27 percent of the 

volume withdrawn for livestock supply in Michigan; 

about 20 percent in Illinois; and about 45 percent in 

Wisconsin.

Withdrawals for Irrigation

The estimated volume of water withdrawn for 

irrigation has increased substantially since 1950 in each 

of the north-central States (fig. 17). Irrigation data were 

not available for Kentucky in 1995. Because water use 

for irrigation in the north-central States typically 

was negligible in 1950, the States with the largest 

increases from 1950 to 1995 also are the States with 

the largest total water use. Estimated water 

withdrawals for irrigation in the north-central States 

since 1980 typically were greatest in Missouri (306 to 

567 Mgal/d); intermediate in Michigan (210 to 228 

Mgal/d), Illinois (71 to 180 Mgal/d), Wisconsin (84 to 

169 Mgal/d), and Indiana (47 to 116 Mgal/d); and least 

in Iowa (22 to 68 Mgal/d) and Kentucky (8 to 12 

Mgal/d in 1990). The volume of water estimated to 

have been withdrawn for irrigation use increased 

overall from 1950 through 1995 in each of the northcentral States, except Indiana and Iowa, which had their 

largest withdrawals in 1980 and 1985, respectively. 

Water withdrawals for irrigation always were less 

than 1 percent of the total withdrawals in Illinois and 

Kentucky; and typically were less than 1 percent in 

Indiana. Water withdrawals for irrigation supply 

typically were less than 3 percent if the total 

withdrawals in Iowa, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and 

have accounted for as much as 8.1 percent of the total 

withdrawals in Missouri. 

Ground water has supplied an increasingly large 

percentage of the water withdrawn for irrigation in 

Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Wisconsin, accounting for 

more than 90 percent of irrigation water in 1995 in 

these States (fig. 18). Surface water accounts for nearly 

all of the water withdrawn for irrigation in Kentucky, 

and for slightly over half of irrigation withdrawals in 

Figure 17. Total withdrawals for irrigation in the north-central States, 1950-95.
Estimated Water Withdrawals 15

Michigan. Ground water has supplied a highly variable 

percentage of the water withdrawn from irrigation in 

Indiana, decreasing from 61 percent in 1955 to 40 

percent in 1965, increasing to 91 percent in 1980, 

decreasing to 39 percent in 1990, and increasing to 53 

percent in 1995. The percentage of the total amount 

of water withdrawn for irrigation that is supplied by 

surface water and ground water in the north-central 

States, except Indiana, typically has varied by less than 

6 percent since 1975.

Withdrawals for irrigation constitute an 

increasingly large percentage of the total withdrawals 

from ground water, increasing from essentially nothing 

in 1950 to 60 percent in Missouri, 22 percent in 

Wisconsin, 19 percent in Illinois, 12 percent in 

Michigan, and about 8 percent in Indiana and Iowa by 

1995. Irrigation accounts for less than 1 percent of the 

ground-water withdrawals in Kentucky. Withdrawals 

for irrigation typically constitute less than 0.5 percent 

of the total withdrawals from surface water in all of the 

north-central States, except Michigan, where about 1 

percent of all surface water withdrawn from 1980 

through 1995 has been for irrigation. 

Withdrawals for Self-Supplied Industrial Use

Estimated withdrawals for mining and selfsupplied commercial use were included in the national 

estimates of withdrawals for self-supplied industrial 

use from 1950 through 1980, but were tabulated 

separately from 1985 through 1995. For consistency, 

water withdrawals for mining and self-supplied 

commercial use are included in the estimates of 

withdrawals for self-supplied industrial use in 1985, 

1990, and 1995 presented in this report. Because 

industrial withdrawals were combined with 

withdrawals for thermoelectric power generation in 

1950 and 1955, these years are omitted from the 

following discussion.

The volume of self-supplied water withdrawn 

for industrial use from 1960 through 1995 was largest 

in Indiana, Michigan, and Illinois. Self-supplied 

withdrawals for industrial use in Indiana and Michigan, 

and to a lesser extent Illinois, typically exceeded 

withdrawals from Iowa, Kentucky, Missouri, and 

Wisconsin by more than 1,000 Mgal/d (fig. 19). The 

volume of self-supplied industrial water withdrawn 

decreased between 12 and 60 percent in each of the 

north-central States, except Wisconsin, between 1980 

and 1985 and continued to decrease through 1995 in 

Illinois (from 747 Mgal/d in 1985 to 630 Mgal/d in 

1995), Indiana (from 2,751 to 2,508 Mgal/d), and 

Missouri (from 133 to 77 Mgal/d). The volume of 

self-supplied industrial water has increased above 1985 

levels in Kentucky (from 283 Mgal/d in 1990 to 397 

Mgal/d in 1995), Michigan (1,416 to 1,951 Mgal/d), 

and Wisconsin (from 466 to 470 Mgal/d). From 

1960 through 1995, self-supplied industrial water 

withdrawals consistently have been from about 25 to 

35 percent of the total water withdrawals in Indiana, 

typically were between 12 and 22 percent of the total 

Figure 18. Percentage of water withdrawals for irrigation use from ground water in the north-central 

States, 1950-95.
16 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

withdrawals in Michigan, were about 10 percent of total 

withdrawals in Iowa, and between 5 and 10 percent of 

total withdrawals in Kentucky and Wisconsin. Selfsupplied withdrawals for industrial use decreased from 

more than 15 percent of total water withdrawals in 1960 

to about 3 percent in 1995 in Illinois, and decreased 

from about 11 percent in 1965

to about 1 percent in 1995 in Missouri.

With the exception of Missouri and Iowa prior 

to 1990, most self-supplied water withdrawn for 

industrial use in the north-central States was taken 

from surface water. Surface water accounted for more 

than 80 percent of self-supplied water withdrawn for 

industrial use in Illinois between 1950 and 1980, but 

has been less than 70 percent since 1980. Surface water 

has consistently accounted for between 75 and 90 

percent of the self-supplied water withdrawn for 

industrial use in Indiana and Michigan, about 70 

percent in Kentucky, and has increased from about 

30 to 73 percent of the self-supplied water withdrawn 

for industrial use in Iowa from 1950 to 1995. 

Self-supplied withdrawals for industrial use 

constituted 50 percent or more of the total ground-water 

withdrawals in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, and 

Michigan at least once from 1960 through 1995, but 

have been a decreasing percentage of the total groundwater withdrawals in the north-central States during 

this period. From 1970 through 1995, self-supplied 

withdrawals for industrial use have accounted for about 

25 percent of total ground-water withdrawals in 

Illinois, Indiana and Iowa, and Michigan; about 45 

percent of total ground-water withdrawals in Kentucky; 

and about 15 percent of all ground-water withdrawals in 

Missouri and Wisconsin. From 1960 through 1995, 

self-supplied withdrawals for industrial use generally 

have accounted for an increasingly smaller percentage 

of the total surface-water withdrawals in Illinois (from 

more than 10 to less than 4 percent), and Missouri (from 

more than 6 to less than 1 percent); showed no clear 

variation through time in Indiana, Michigan, and 

Wisconsin; consistently accounted for about 6 percent 

of the total surface-water withdrawals in Kentucky; and 

accounted for a consistently larger percentage of total 

surface-water withdrawals in Iowa (from about 2 to 10 

percent).

Mining

Although included in the discussion of selfsupplied water withdrawals for industrial use for the 

entire 1950 to 1995 period, volumes of self-supplied 

water withdrawn for use in mining were broken out 

from self-supplied industrial use after 1980 (Solley 

and others, 1988, 1993, 1998), permitting detailed 

discussion of water withdrawals for use in mining 

operations from 1985 through 1995. Total water 

withdrawals for mining use from 1985 through 1995 

were from 90 to 136 Mgal/d in Indiana; 75 to 105 

Mgal/d in Illinois; 56 to 61 Mgal/d in Michigan; 34 

to 62 Mgal/d in Iowa; about 25 Mgal/d in Missouri; 

Figure 19. Total withdrawals for self-supplied industrial use in the north-central States, 1960-95.
Estimated Water Withdrawals 17

and from 0 to 12 Mgal/d in Wisconsin. The volume 

of water withdrawn for use in mining operations 

decreased from 1985 through 1995 in Illinois and Iowa, 

increased in Indiana and Wisconsin, and essentially 

remained unchanged in Kentucky, Michigan, and 

Missouri. Saline water constitutes from 60 to 80 

percent of the water withdrawals for mining in Illinois, 

but is not used to any appreciable extent for mining 

purposes in the other north-central States. Mining 

water withdrawals consistently have been less than 

1 percent of the total water withdrawals in Illinois, 

Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, and 

are about 1 percent of the total withdrawals in Indiana 

and Iowa.

Surface water consistently has accounted for 

about 91 percent of mining withdrawals in Indiana and 

about 85 percent of withdrawals in Michigan. Surface 

water has accounted for 50 to 65 percent of mining 

withdrawals in Illinois, and 71 to 87 percent of mining 

withdrawals in Kentucky. Surface water and ground 

water have accounted for highly variable percentages of 

mining withdrawals in Iowa and Wisconsin. 

From 1985 through 1995, mining withdrawals 

constituted less than 2 percent of the total ground-water 

withdrawals in Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin; 

between 1 and 4 percent of the withdrawals from 

ground water in Kentucky and Missouri; and from 3 to 

6 percent of the ground-water withdrawals in Illinois. 

Mining withdrawals were more than 7 percent of 

ground-water withdrawals in Iowa in 1985, but less 

than 0.5 percent in 1990 and 1995. Mining withdrawals 

accounted for about 13 percent of the self-supplied 

industrial water withdrawals in Illinois from 1985 

through 1995, about 4 percent of the self-supplied 

withdrawals for industrial use in Indiana, about 

7 percent in Kentucky, about 3 percent in Michigan, 

and less than 3 percent in Wisconsin. The percentage 

of self-supplied industrial water derived from mining 

withdrawals in 1985 through 1995 ranged from 10 to 

21 percent in Iowa, and 19 to 31 percent in Missouri.

Commercial

Volumes of self-supplied water withdrawn for 

commercial use were reported separately from selfsupplied industrial use after 1980 (Solley and others, 

1988, 1993, 1998). These withdrawals, however, are 

primarily estimates with a high level of uncertainty. 

Total self-supplied water withdrawals for commercial 

use from 1985 through 1995 were substantially higher 

in Illinois (104 to 173 Mgal/d) than in any of the other 

north-central States, though by 1995 self-supplied 

withdrawals for commercial use from Indiana were 

93 Mgal/d, only 11 Mgal/d below Illinois at that time. 

From 1985 through 1995, the estimated volume of selfsupplied water for commercial use increased by a factor 

of about 90 in Indiana (1.1 to 93 Mgal/d), increased by 

about a factor of four in Wisconsin (4 to 17 Mgal/d), 

and did not vary substantially in the remaining northcentral States (27 to 43 Mgal/d in Iowa, 34 to 41 

Mgal/d in Michigan, and 13 to 22 Mgal/d in Kentucky 

and Missouri). Self-supplied water withdrawals for 

commercial use consistently have been less than 0.5 

percent of the total water withdrawals in Kentucky, 

Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, and consistently 

have been less than 1.5 percent of the total withdrawals 

in Illinois, Indiana, and Iowa.

Surface water accounts for an increasing 

percentage of the self-supplied water withdrawals for 

commercial use in Indiana, Iowa, and perhaps Illinois 

from 1985 through 1995 and was the source of more 

than half of the self-supplied water withdrawn for 

commercial use in these States by 1995. Surface water 

consistently has accounted for about 65 percent of the 

self-supplied water withdrawals for commercial use in 

Kentucky, and 60 to 75 percent of self-supplied water 

withdrawals for commercial use in Michigan. Ground 

water and has accounted for essentially all of the selfsupplied water withdrawals for commercial use in 

Missouri and Wisconsin from 1985 through 1995. 

From 1985 through 1995, self-supplied water 

withdrawals for commercial use constituted less than 

5 percent of the total withdrawals from ground water 

and less than 1 percent of the total withdrawals from 

surface water in the north-central States. Commercial 

withdrawals accounted for less than 5 percent of the 

self-supplied withdrawals for industrial use in Indiana, 

Michigan, and Wisconsin from 1985 through 1995, 

about 6 percent of the self-supplied withdrawals for 

industrial use from Kentucky, and from 13 to 24 percent 

in Illinois and Missouri. 
18 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

Withdrawals for Thermoelectric Power 

Generation

The volume of self-supplied water withdrawn for 

use in the generation of thermoelectric power from 

1960 through 1995 (1995 data are not available for 

Kentucky) was largest in Illinois and Michigan, 

intermediate in Indiana, Wisconsin, and Missouri, and 

smallest in Kentucky and Iowa (fig. 20). The volume of 

self-supplied water withdrawn for use in the generation 

of thermoelectric power increased from 1960 to 1995 

by more than a factor of 4 in Missouri (1,301 to 5,550 

Mgal/d), increased by about a factor of two in Illinois 

(9,708 to 17,111 Mgal/d), Indiana (3,200 to 5,691 

Mgal/d), Kentucky (2,000 to 3,448 Mgal/d), Michigan 

(3,900 to 8,373 Mgal/d), and Wisconsin, and increased 

by a factor of about one-half in Iowa (1,500 to 2,125 

Mgal/d). Self-supplied water withdrawals for use in 

thermoelectric power generation have accounted for 

more than 65 percent of the total water withdrawals in 

Illinois from 1965 through 1995, and have accounted 

for more than 80 percent of the total water withdrawals 

in Illinois since 1980. Self-supplied water withdrawals 

for use in thermoelectric power generation typically 

have accounted for about 80 percent of the total 

withdrawals in Kentucky, from 70 to 85 percent of total 

withdrawals in Wisconsin, 60 to 80 percent in Michigan 

and Missouri, 65 to 75 percent in Iowa, and 55 to 68 

percent of total withdrawals in Indiana. Essentially all 

of the water withdrawn for thermoelectric power 

generation in the north-central States is surface water. 

Thermoelectric power generation typically has 

accounted for less than 2 percent of total withdrawals 

from ground water in Illinois, Indiana, Michigan and 

Wisconsin; has accounted for as much as 6.9 percent 

of ground-water withdrawals in Missouri; and has 

exceeded 15 percent of the total withdrawals from 

ground water in Kentucky since 1980. Withdrawals 

for thermoelectric power generation have accounted 

for an increasing percentage of the total withdrawals 

of surface water in Illinois (from about 75 to about 

90 percent) and Missouri (from about 70 to about 

90 percent); consistently have been between 85 to 95 

percent in Iowa; 80 to 90 percent in Kentucky and 

Wisconsin; and about 60 to 75 percent in Indiana 

(fig. 21). Thermoelectric power generation accounted 

for an increasing percentage of the total surface-water 

withdrawals in Michigan from 1960 (about 61 percent) 

through 1980 (about 85 percent), and has declined since 

1980.

ESTIMATED WATER USE

The total volume of water delivered from publicwater suppliers to industrial and commercial users was 

estimated from 1955 through 1995. The total volume 

of water delivered from public-water suppliers for 

domestic use was estimated in 1985, 1990, and 1995. 

Estimates of deliveries from public-water supplies to 

domestic and industrial and commercial suppliers can 

be added to estimates of self-supplied domestic and 

Figure 20. Total self-supplied withdrawals for thermoelectric power generation in the 

north-central States, 1960-95.
Estimated Water Use 19

industrial and commercial withdrawals to determine 

the total amount of water used for domestic and 

industrial and commercial purposes in the north-central 

States. Withdrawals for livestock, irrigation, mining 

operations, and thermoelectric power generation are 

assumed to be self supplied; therefore, these uses 

already have been discussed.

Domestic

From 1985 through 1995, the volume of water 

used for domestic purposes from both municipal and 

self-supplied (rural domestic) systems totaled more 

than 975 Mgal/d in Illinois, between 700 and 820 

Mgal/d in Michigan, 421 to 562 Mgal/d in Indiana, 

about 415 Mgal/d in Missouri, from 225 to 281 Mgal/d 

in Kentucky and Wisconsin, and typically about 180 

Mgal/d in Iowa. Public-water supply deliveries 

constitute approximately 88 percent of all water used 

for domestic supply in Illinois and Missouri, 75 to 90 

percent of the domestic supply from Kentucky, 75 to 

80 percent of the domestic supply from Michigan, 

approximately 75 percent of domestic use in Indiana 

and Iowa, and 67 percent of domestic use in Wisconsin. 

Water used for domestic purposes accounted for about 

4 to 7 percent of the total water withdrawals in each of 

the north-central States.

Industrial and Commercial

From 1985 through 1995, the volume of water 

used for industrial and commercial purposes from 

both municipal and self-supplied systems decreased 

from about 2,800 to 2,600 Mgal/d in Indiana, 1,350 

to 1,100 Mgal/d in Illinois, and from about 300 to 

250 Mgal/d in Missouri. From 1985 through 1995, 

the volume of water used for industrial and commercial 

purposes from both municipal and self-supplied 

systems increased from about 1,900 to 2,400 Mgal/d 

in Michigan; 330 to 720 Mgal/d in Wisconsin, 440 to 

590 Mgal/d in Kentucky; and 280 to 450 Mgal/d in 

Iowa. Approximately 90 percent of the water for 

industrial and commercial supply in Indiana, 65 to 

85 percent in Iowa and Michigan, 60 percent in 

Kentucky and Wisconsin, 50 percent in Illinois, and 

less than 40 percent in Missouri is self supplied. 

Industrial and commercial use accounted for about 

30 percent of the total water use in Indiana, about 

20 percent in Michigan, about 12 percent in Iowa, 

Kentucky, and Wisconsin, about 8 percent in Illinois, 

and about 4 percent in Missouri.

Figure 21. Percentage of total surface-water withdrawals in the north-central States used for 

thermoelectric power generation, 1960-95.
20 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

ESTIMATED WATER CONSUMPTION

Some portion of the water withdrawn for each 

water-use category is removed from the immediate 

water environment by evaporation; uptake by crops and 

animals; or incorporation into products. This water is 

consumed, or unavailable for reuse, until it returns as 

precipitation. 

Reporting of water consumption by customers of 

public-water supplies, rural domestic households, and 

self-supplied industrial operations in the north-central 

States varied from 1960 through 1995, necessitating 

some manipulation of the data for this report. From 

1960 through 1995, consumption of water by 

thermoelectric power plants, livestock and during 

irrigation was reported in a consistent manner and 

did not require manipulation. Again, values of 

consumptive use are highly estimated and may contain 

appreciable errors.

From 1960 through 1980, the water-use reports 

presented estimates of the volume of water consumed 

by domestic, industrial, and commercial customers of 

public-water suppliers; self-supplied (rural domestic) 

households; and self-supplied industrial systems. The 

total volume of water consumed by customers of 

public-water suppliers was reported during this period, 

but the volume of water consumed by the domestic, 

industrial, and commercial users was not differentiated.

From 1985 through 1995, the reports also 

presented estimates of the total volume of water consumed for domestic and industrial use. Consumption 

of water during industrial use from 1985 through 1995 

was further divided into consumption during commercial and mining operations. The volume of water 

consumed by self-supplied and public-supplied 

methods of delivery for domestic and industrial use 

was not differentiated during this period.

To provide a consistent reporting of the 

estimates of water consumption, the percentage of 

the total estimated domestic and industrial (including 

commercial) water use delivered by public-supply 

systems from 1985 through 1995 was multiplied by the 

total volume of water estimated to have been consumed 

for each of these water-use categories. These values 

then were totaled to estimate the consumptive use 

associated with deliveries from public-supply systems. 

The percentage of the self-supplied withdrawals for 

domestic and industrial (including commercial and 

mining) use also was multiplied by the total volume of 

water consumed for each of these categories to estimate 

the volume of water consumed by self-supplied 

industrial and rural domestic water use during this 

period. All, or virtually all withdrawals for livestock 

use, irrigation, and thermoelectric power generation are 

self-supplied; therefore, the consumption estimates for 

these water uses did not require manipulation to 

estimate a public-supply component.

Total Consumption

 Water consumption in each of the north-central 

States showed an overall increase from 1960 through 

1995. Illinois typically had the largest water 

consumption of the north-central States (884 Mgal/d

 in 1995) (fig. 22). Michigan (668 Mgal/d), Missouri 

(690 Mgal/d), and Indiana (505 Mgal/d) had large to 

intermediate consumption from 1960 through 1995, 

whereas Wisconsin (442 Mgal/d), Kentucky (318 Mgal/

d), and Iowa (290 Mgal/d) typically consumed 

the smallest amounts of water. Comparison of the total 

water consumption in 1960 and 1995 showed an 

increase of less than a factor of two in Iowa (234 to 

290 Mgal/d) and Indiana (295 to 505 Mgal/d), an 

increase by a factor of about 2.5 in Illinois (337 to 884 

Mgal/d), and about a factor of three in Missouri (244 to 

691 Mgal/d), Wisconsin (150 to 442 Mgal/d), Michigan 

(212 to 668 Mgal/d), and Kentucky (96 to 318 Mgal/d).

Less than 8 percent of all of the water withdrawn 

in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, and 

Wisconsin; and about 10 percent of all of the water 

withdrawn in Iowa and Missouri, from 1960 through 

1995 was consumed. These percentages varied by 5 

percent or less in each of the north-central States from 

1960 through 1995.
Estimated Water Consumption 21

Public-Water Supplies

From 1960 through 1995, the volume of water 

delivered from public-water supply systems that was 

consumed decreased slightly in Illinois and Indiana, 

increased by less than a factor of two in Michigan, 

Missouri, and Kentucky, increased by more than a 

factor of two in Wisconsin, and increased by more than 

a factor of four in Iowa (fig. 23). Water consumption 

from public-supply systems typically was largest in 

Illinois, but decreased by about a factor of ten in 1975 

and 1980, before increasing again in 1985. The large 

decline in the estimate of the volume of water 

consumed is related to a change in how consumption 

was calculated in Illinois at that time. Domestic uses, 

including lawn watering, typically have accounted for 

more than half of the water consumed from public 

supply systems since 1980 in the north-central States.

Figure 22. Total water consumption in the north-central States, 1960-95.

Figure 23. Water consumption by customers of public supplies in the north-central 

States, 1960-95.
22 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

Estimates indicate that from 3 to 57 percent of the 

water consumed from 1960 through 1995 was obtained 

from public-supply systems in the north-central States 

(fig. 24). With the exception of Iowa, these percentages 

have decreased through time, particularly in Illinois, 

Indiana, and Michigan. Since 1980, consumption of 

water from public-supply systems has accounted for 

about 25 percent of the water consumed in Iowa; about 

20 percent of the water consumed in Illinois, Michigan, 

Missouri, and Wisconsin; and about 15 percent of the 

water consumed in Indiana and Kentucky.

Estimates are that about 10 percent of the water 

from public-water supply systems was consumed in 

Illinois, Kentucky, and Michigan, and about 20 percent 

was consumed in Missouri. Prior to 1975, about 25 

percent of public supply water in Indiana was 

consumed, decreasing to less than 15 percent since 

1970. In Iowa, about 10 percent of the water from 

public-water supplies was estimated to have been 

consumed, increasing to 20 percent or more after 1980. 

Rural Domestic

From 1960 through 1995, the volume of water 

withdrawn for rural domestic use that was consumed 

decreased substantially in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, 

and Missouri, remained essentially unchanged in Iowa 

and Michigan, and increased by about a factor of two 

in Wisconsin (fig. 25). Water consumption for rural 

domestic use in the north-central States varied by more 

than 50 Mgal/d from 1960 through 1970, but has varied 

by less than 20 Mgal/d from 1985 through 1995. 

Figure 24. Percentage of total water consumption in the north-central States by 

customers of public supplies, 1960-95.

Figure 25. Rural domestic water consumption in the north-central States, 1960-95.
Estimated Water Consumption 23

Estimates indicate that from 1 to 25 percent of all 

of the water consumed from 1960 through 1995 was 

consumed in rural domestic use (fig. 26). With the 

exception of Iowa and Wisconsin, these percentages 

have decreased through time, particularly in Illinois, 

Indiana, and Kentucky. Since 1980, water consumption 

from rural domestic systems has accounted for about 

6 percent of the total water consumed in Iowa and 5 

percent or less of the water consumed in the remaining 

north-central States.

Estimates indicate that from 10 to 100 percent 

of the water withdrawn for rural domestic use was 

consumed in the north-central States from 1960 

through 1995 (fig. 27). These values tend to vary 

between States and through time, indicating that the 

variations in the estimates are affected by changes in the 

underlying assumptions for the calculations. From 

1985 through 1995, the mean percentages of water 

withdrawals for domestic use that have been consumed 

varied from 10 percent in Illinois to 40 percent in Iowa.

Figure 26. Percentage of total water consumption in the north-central States from 

rural-domestic systems, 1960-95.

Figure 27. Percentage of water withdrawals for rural-domestic use in the north-central 

States that is consumed, 1960-95.
24 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

Livestock

From 1960 through 1995, the volume of water 

consumed by livestock in the north-central States 

decreased by less than a factor of two in Illinois, 

Indiana, Iowa, Michigan and Wisconsin, essentially 

remained unchanged in Missouri, and increased by less 

than a factor of two in Kentucky. Because water 

consumed by livestock (including water held in stockwater ponds) is evaporated or discharged as wastewater 

to the ground, essentially all water withdrawn for use by 

livestock is consumed; therefore, trends in livestock 

consumption mirror trends in water withdrawals for 

livestock use (fig. 15). 

Estimates indicate that from 2 to 56 percent of all 

of the water consumed in the north-central States from 

1960 through 1995 was consumed by livestock (fig. 

28). These percentages have decreased through time in 

each of the north-central States. 

Irrigation

Incorporation into crops, evaporation, or seeping 

into shallow ground water typically consumed more 

than 90 percent of all water withdrawn for irrigation in 

the north-central States except Missouri, where about 

75 percent of all water withdrawn for irrigation is 

estimated to have been consumed. Because water 

withdrawals for irrigation in each of the north-central 

States (except Iowa) increased substantially from 1960 

through 1995 (fig. 17), consumption of water 

withdrawn for irrigation also increased substantially. 

Consumption of water withdrawn for irrigation in Iowa 

decreased by less than a factor of two from 1960 

through 1995.

Estimates indicate that from 1 to 64 percent of all 

of the water consumed in the north-central States from 

1960 through 1995 was irrigation water (fig. 29). In 

Iowa, irrigation water declined from about 25 percent 

of the water consumed in 1960 and 1965 to about 10 

percent of the water consumed in 1980 and 1985. From 

1960 through 1995, irrigation water has been an 

increasing percentage of the water consumed in Illinois 

(from 1 percent in 1960 to 20 percent in 1995), Indiana 

(2 to 21 percent), Michigan (10 to 32 percent), Missouri 

(11 to 61 percent), and Wisconsin (11 to 34 percent); 

and was consistently about 3 percent of the total amount 

of water consumed in Kentucky.

Self-Supplied Industrial Water

Between 1960 and 1995, the volume of water 

obtained from self-supplied industrial systems that 

was consumed decreased by less than a factor of two in 

Kentucky, remained essentially unchanged in Missouri, 

increased by about a factor of two in Illinois and 

Indiana, increased by about a factor of three in Iowa and 

Michigan, and increased by more than a factor of four 

in Wisconsin (fig. 30). Consumption of water from 

self-supplied industrial systems typically was largest 

in Indiana or Michigan, and was smallest in Iowa, 

Kentucky, or Missouri. 

Figure 28. Percentage of total water consumption in the north-central States by livestock, 1960-95.
Estimated Water Consumption 25

Figure 29. Percentage of total water consumption in the north-central States from irrigation, 

1960-95.

Figure 30. Water consumption by self-supplied industrial systems in the north-central States, 

1960-95.
26 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

Estimates indicate that from 1 to 54 percent of all 

of the water consumed in the north-central States from 

1960 through 1995 was consumed from self-supplied 

industrial systems (fig. 31). These percentages have 

varied substantially through time, and have shown no 

consistent trends. Since 1985, water consumption from 

self-supplied industrial systems has accounted for less 

than 5 percent of the total water consumed in Kentucky 

and Missouri; about 12 percent of the water consumed 

in Illinois and Iowa; about 20 percent of the total water 

consumed in Michigan and Wisconsin; and about 33 

percent of the total water consumed in Indiana.

Estimates indicate that since 1980 about 4 

percent of the water withdrawn from self-supplied 

industrial systems in Kentucky was consumed. About 

7 percent of the water withdrawn from self-supplied 

industrial systems in Indiana and Michigan; about 

10 percent of the water in Iowa and Missouri; and about 

15 percent of the water withdrawn from self-supplied 

industrial systems in Illinois and Wisconsin was 

consumed.

Thermoelectric Power Generation

From 1960 through 1995, the volume of water 

consumed during the generation of thermoelectric 

power increased by a factor of five in Iowa, and 

increased by more than a factor of ten in the remaining 

north-central States (fig. 32). Most of this increase has 

occurred since 1975. Since 1975, water consumption 

during the generation of thermoelectric power typically 

was largest in Illinois, followed by Kentucky, 

Michigan, Indiana, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Iowa.

Estimates indicate that from less than 1 to as 

much as 66 percent of all of the water consumed in 

the north-central States from 1960 through 1995 was 

consumed during the generation of thermoelectric 

power (fig. 33). Thermoelectric power generation 

consistently has accounted for an average of about 

6 percent of all of the water consumed in Iowa from 

1960 through 1995. These percentages have varied 

substantially through time in the other north-central 

States, but have tended to increase substantially since 

1970 or 1975. In 1990 and 1995, thermoelectric power 

generation accounted for about 12 percent of the total 

Figure 31. Percentage of total water consumption in the north-central States by self-supplied 

industrial systems, 1960-95.
Summary 27

water consumed in Missouri and Wisconsin; about 

25 percent of the total water consumed in Indiana and 

Michigan; about 45 percent of the water consumed in 

Illinois; and about 65 percent of the water consumed in 

Kentucky.

Less than 4 percent of the water withdrawn for 

generation of thermoelectric power in the north-central 

States from 1960 through 1995 was consumed. The 

large percentage of the total water consumed attributed 

to the generation of thermoelectric power is affected by 

the large amount of the water withdrawn for the 

generation of thermoelectric power.

SUMMARY

Management of water supplies within an area 

of concern is aided by knowledge of the total amount of 

water withdrawn from surface water and ground water, 

the disposition of the water, temporal trends in the 

disposition of the water, and water use in hydraulically 

adjacent areas. Estimation of water withdrawals in 

Illinois and the nearby States of Indiana, Iowa, 

Kentucky, Missouri, Michigan, and Wisconsin 

(referred to as the north-central States in this report)

by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) from 1950 

Figure 32. Water consumption by generation of thermoelectric power in the 

north-central States, 1960-95.

Figure 33. Percentage of total water consumption in the north-central States from 

thermoelectric power generation, 1960-95.
28 Estimated Water Withdrawals, Water Use, and Water Consumption in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Wisconsin, 1950-95

through 1995 allows for a general assessment of 

regional and temporal changes in water withdrawals 

and water use in the north-central States.

Total water withdrawals in Illinois doubled from 

1950 through 1995 and have exceeded total water 

withdrawals in Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, 

Missouri and Wisconsin during this period by as much 

as a factor of eight. Per capita withdrawals in Illinois 

during this period were either the largest or second 

largest of the north-central States, but the disparity in 

per capita water use decreased from 1950 through 1995. 

Approximately 95 percent of all water withdrawals in 

Illinois are from surface water, which is similar to or 

slightly higher than the percentage of the total water 

withdrawals in most of the north-central States. 

Surface-water withdrawals are higher in Illinois than 

in the other north-central States, and total water 

withdrawals from surface water doubled from 1950 to 

1995, a magnitude of increase that tended to be similar 

to or lower than most of the other north-central States. 

Total water withdrawals from ground water in Illinois 

typically exceeded those of the other north-central 

States, but have decreased since 1975. 

Self-supplied water withdrawals for generation 

of thermoelectric power constitute about 75 to 90 

percent of surface-water withdrawals in Illinois, a 

percentage that tends to be somewhat higher than the 

other north-central States. Withdrawals of water for 

public-water supply constitute about 10 percent of 

surface-water withdrawals in Illinois, the percentage 

decreasing somewhat since 1950. Withdrawals of 

water for public-water supply were as much as 

64 percent of the total ground-water withdrawals in 

Illinois from 1950 through 1995, but have been less 

than 50 percent of the total withdrawals from ground 

water since 1975. Self-supplied ground water for 

industrial use has constituted a decreasing percentage 

of the total ground-water withdrawals, from 50 percent 

of total ground-water withdrawals in 1960 to about 

25 percent of withdrawals since 1965. Irrigation is the 

fastest growing category of withdrawals from ground 

water from 1950 through 1995 in the north-central 

States.

The volume of water estimated to have been 

consumed in the north-central States from 1960 

through 1995 increased, typically by more than a 

factor of two. Total water consumption typically 

was 10 percent or less of the total withdrawals. The 

percentages of the total water consumption attributed 

to each of the water-use categories varied through time 

in each of the north-central States. Rural-domestic 

supply, livestock use, and deliveries from public-water 

supply systems, typically accounted for a decreasing 

percentage of the total water consumption in the northcentral States from 1960 through 1995, whereas 

irrigation and thermoelectric power generation 

accounted for an increasing percentage of the total 

water consumption. Consumptive use is highly 

estimated and values may contain appreciable errors.

REFERENCES 

MacKichan, K.A., 1951, Estimated use of water in the 

United States, 1950: U.S. Geological Survey 

Circular 115, 13 p.

MacKichan, K.A., 1957, Estimated use of water in the 

United States, 1955: U.S. Geological Survey 

Circular 398, 18 p.

MacKichan, K.A., and Kammerer, J.C., 1961, 

Estimated use of water in the United States, 1960: 

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 456, 26 p.

Murray, C.R., 1968, Estimated use of water in the 

United States, 1965: U.S. Geological Survey 

Circular 556, 53 p.

Murray, C.R., and Reeves, E.B., 1972, Estimated use of 

water in the United States, 1970: U.S. Geological 

Survey Circular 676, 37 p.

Murray, C.R., and Reeves, E.B., 1977, Estimated use of 

water in the United States, 1975: U.S. Geological 

Survey Circular 765, 39 p.

Solley, W.B., Chase, E.B., and Mann, W.B., 1983, 

Estimated use of water in the United States, 1980: 

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1001, 56 p.

Solley, W.B., Merk, C.F., and Pierce, R.R., 1988, 

Estimated use of water in the United States, 1985: 

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1004, 82 p.

Solley, W.B., Pierce, R.R., and Perlman, H.A., 1993, 

Estimated use of water in the United States, 1990: 

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1081, 76 p.

Solley, W.B., Pierce, R.R., and Perlman, H.A., 1998, 

Estimated use of water in the United States, 1995: 

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1200, 71 p.
Glossary 29

Animal specialties—Water use associated with the 

production of fish in captivity, except fish hatcheries, 

fur-bearing animals in captivity, horses, rabbits, and 

pets.

Aquaculture—Farming of organisms that live in water, 

such as fish, shellfish, and algae.

Commercial water use—Water for motels, hotels, 

restaurants, office buildings, other commercial 

facilities, and institutions. The water may be 

obtained from a public supply or may be self 

supplied.

Consumptive use—That part of the water withdrawn that 

is evaporated, transpired, incorporated into products 

or crops, consumed by humans or livestock, or 

otherwise removed from the immediate water 

environment. Also referred to as water consumed.

Conveyance loss—Water that is lost in transit from a pipe, 

canal, conduit, or ditch by leakage or evaporation. 

Domestic water use—Water for household purposes, 

such as drinking, food preparation, bathing, washing 

clothes and dishes, flushing toilets, and watering 

lawns and gardens. The water may be obtained from 

a public supply or may be self supplied.

Evaporation—Process by which water is changed from a 

liquid into a vapor.

Ground water—Generally all subsurface water as 

distinct from surface water; specifically that part of 

the subsurface water in the saturated zone (a zone in 

which all voids are filled with water) where the water 

is under pressure greater than atmospheric.

Industrial water use—Water that is used for industrial 

purposes, such as fabrication, processing, washing, 

and cooling, and includes such industries as steel, 

chemical, and allied products, paper and allied 

products, mining, and petroleum refining. The water 

may be obtained from a public supply or may be self 

supplied.

Irrigation water use—Artificial application of water on 

lands to assist growing of crops and pastures or to 

maintain vegetative growth in recreational lands, 

such as parks and golf courses.

Livestock water use—Water for livestock watering, feed 

lots, dairy operations, fish farming, and other on-farm 

needs. Livestock as used here includes cattle, sheep, 

goats, hogs, and poultry. Also included are animal 

specialties.

Million gallons per day (Mgal/d)—A rate of flow of 

water.

Mining water use—Water use for the extraction of 

minerals occurring naturally including solids, such as 

coal and ores; liquids, such as crude petroleum; and 

gases, such as natural gas. Also includes uses 

associated with quarrying, well operations 

(dewatering) (prior to 1995), milling (crushing, 

screening, washing, flotations, and so forth), and 

other preparations. Use of water in mining 

operations customarily is done at the mine site or as 

part of a mining activity. Does not include water used 

in processing, such as smelting, refining petroleum, 

or slurry pipeline operations, which are included in 

industrial water use.

Offstream use—Water withdrawn or diverted from a 

ground- or surface-water source for public-water 

supply, industry, irrigation, livestock, thermoelectric 

power generation, and other uses.

Per capita water use—The average amount of water used 

per person during a standard time period.

Public supply—Water withdrawn by public and private 

water suppliers and delivered to users. Public 

suppliers provide water for a variety of uses, such as 

domestic, commercial, thermoelectric power, 

industrial, and public-water use. 

Rural domestic water use—Self-supplied water for 

domestic water use. 

Saline water—Water that contains more than 1,000 

milligrams per liter of dissolved solids.

Self-supplied water—Water withdrawn from a surfaceor ground-water source by a user rather than being 

obtained from a public supply.

Surface water—An open body of water, such as a stream 

or a lake.

Thermoelectric power water use—Water used in the 

process of generation of thermoelectric power. The 

water may be obtained from a public supply or may 

be self supplied.

Transpiration—Process by which water that is absorbed 

by plants is evaporated into the atmosphere.

Water use—In a restrictive sense, the term refers to water 

that actually is used for a specific purpose, such as for 

domestic use, irrigation, or industrial processing. In 

this report, the quantity of water use for a specific 

category is the combination of self-supplied 

withdrawals and public-supply deliveries.

Withdrawal—Water removed from the ground or 

diverted from a surface-water source for use. 

GLOSSARY