Emigrant Creek Cattle 

Allotment: Lessons 

From 30 Years of 

Photomonitoring

Frederick C. Hall

United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacifi c Northwest 

Research Station

General Technical 

Report

PNW-GTR-639 

June 2005
The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of 

multiple use management of the Nation’s forest resources for sustained yields of wood, 

water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the 

States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National 

Grasslands, it strives—as directed by Congress—to provide increasingly greater service to 

a growing Nation.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and 

activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, religion, age, disability, political 

beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all 

programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of 

program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET 

Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-

W, Whitten Building, 14th and Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or 

call (202) 720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

USDA is committed to making its information materials accessible to all USDA customers 

and employees.

Author

Frederick C. Hall was senior ecologist (now retired), U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Natural Resources, 

P.O. Box 3623, Portland, OR 97208-3623. This paper was prepared in cooperation 

with the Pacific Northwest Region.
Abstract

Hall, Frederick C. 2005. Emigrant Creek cattle allotment: lessons from 30 years of 

photomonitoring. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-639. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 37 p.

Emigrant Creek cattle allotment is located 48 km northwest of Burns, Oregon. It 

was photo sampled at nine original sites, starting in 1975. Photos were taken three 

times per year: June 15 prior to cattle grazing, August 1 at pasture rotation, and 

October 1 at the end of grazing. An additional four photopoints were established 

following disturbance from flooding and beavers. Results reported here cover 30 

years, 1975 to 2005. Cattle did not significantly impact the riparian area. Beavers 

(Castor canadensis) arrived in 1984 and departed in 1994. They seriously reduced 

aboveground willow biomass by harvesting stems for food and dam construction. 

Dams raised the water table causing a dry meadow to become moist, and increased 

water in a wet meadow that inhibited willow growth. Beaver departure in 1994 left 

dams unmaintained. A 50-year flood event in February 1996 eroded dams and 

created a new channel. The water table was reduced below that of the 1984 levels, 

causing a dry meadow to revert to pre-1984 conditions and permitting willows to 

vigorously expand in a wet meadow. Dynamic riverine riparian environmental 

conditions seriously challenge the typical range management concepts of “condition 

and trend.” There is no “climax good condition.” Instead a “state-and-transition” 

concept seems a more apt range management concept to describe range conditions 

resulting from beaver dams and flooding over a 30-year period on Emigrant Creek 

cattle allotment. 

Keywords: Riverine, riparian, beavers, floods, condition and trend, cattle, 

grazing.
Contents

 1 Introduction

 1 The setting

 2 Organization

 4 Observations

 4 Concept of Range Condition and Trend

 5 Livestock Use

 5 Beaver Cutting

 5 Gopher Activity

 6 Flood of May 21, 1984

 7 Alluvial Fan, Lower Emigrant Creek

 8 Beaver Dams

 9 New Stream Channel, Pole Camp

 10 Measurement of Change by Grids

 11 Lower Emigrant Pasture

 12 Thirty Years Change: Lower Emigrant

 14 Thirty Years Change: Pole Camp Dry Meadow

 16 Seasonal Change: Pole Camp Dry Meadow

 18 Thirty Years Change: Pole Camp Wet Meadow

 20 Seasonal Change: Pole Camp Wet Meadow

 22 Thirty Years Change: Pole Camp Stream

 24 Seasonal Change: Pole Camp Stream

 26 Thirty Years Change: Button Meadow, East Pasture

 28 Seasonal Change: Button Meadow, East Pasture

 30 Button Meadow: Mule-Ears Flowering

 31 Button Meadow: Fence Line

 32 Condition and Trend: Button Meadow, East Pasture

 33 Condition and Trend: Pole Camp Dry Meadow

 34 Conclusions

 35 Names of Plants

 36 English Equivalents

 36 Literature Cited
1

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

Introduction

Emigrant Creek allotment is on the Emigrant Creek Ranger District, Malheur 

National Forest. It has been grazed by domestic livestock since about 1885. In 

1952, a sheep permit was terminated and the area was assigned to cattle use on 

a 4- to 5-month season-long basis. Grazing management was changed in 1974 to 

a three-pasture rest-rotation system. This change prompted the author to initiate a study to appraise effects of altered grazing management on riparian areas.

Starting in 1975, riparian areas in each of three pastures were sampled by 

photomonitoring: June 15 prior to start of grazing, August 1 when pastures were 

rotated, and October 1 at the end of grazing. In all, nine permanent photopoints 

were initially established, each composed of a general view with a meter board 

placed at 10 m and closeup views of the vegetation on each side of the meter board 

(Hall 2002: 32–33). All species were recorded by their percentage of canopy cover 

on 1-m2 plots on each side of the meter board. 

Additional photomonitoring was initiated on specific sites whenever conditions 

suggested the need, such as a spring flood in 1984 (p. 6), deposition of an alluvial fan 

in 1984 (p. 7), dam building by beavers (Castor canadensis) (p. 8), or creation of a 

new stream channel (p. 9). In all, about 2,000 photographs were taken in a 30-year 

span. This publication uses 83 images to illustrate change in the riparian areas. 

The Setting

The study site, Emigrant Creek allotment, is in the southern Blue Mountains 

province adjacent to the High Lava Plains Province (Franklin and Dyrness 1988). 

Elevation ranges from 1515 m at lower Emigrant Creek, to 1640 m at Pole Camp, 

to 1780 m at Button Meadow. The climate is continental characterized by winter 

snowfall and dry summers with little effective precipitation. 

Emigrant Creek allotment is approximately 48 km north and west of Burns, 

Oregon, on the east edge of the former Snow Mountain Ranger District, now combined with the Burns Ranger District. On U.S. Highway 20, drive about 1.6 km west 

of Hines, Oregon, and turn north on Oregon Road 127 to its junction, about 40 km, 

with Forest Service (FS) Road 43 bordering Emigrant Creek. Follow the 43 Road to 

its juncture with the 4870 Road and cattle guard identifying the lower end of Emigrant Creek allotment (see fig. 1). The middle pasture, Pole Camp is identified, as 

is Button Meadow, which has a division fence between the east and west pastures. 

Plant communities in the Emigrant Creek allotment are similar to others on 

the east side of the Cascade Range. Three general kinds were investigated: willow 

shrublands, aquatic sedge communities, and Kentucky bluegrass dry meadows. 

All have been reported in riparian ecological studies (Crowe and Clausnitzer 1997, 

Kovalchik 1987, Kovalchik and Clausnitzer 2004). 
2

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

A map detailing the photomonitoring layout was made for each location. 

An example is a detailed map of Pole Camp, an intensively sampled area, shown 

in figure 2. 

Organization

The purpose of this study is to compare conditions over time, in most cases 

30 years. Therefore, six images, taken at 6-year intervals, are placed on opposite 

pages to facilitate comparison (see pages 12 and 13). The dates 1975, 1981, and 

1987 are on the left and 1993, 1998, and 2004 are on the right. All images of the 

topic are displayed side by side. Explanations are in the outer margins.

Some special topics are illustrated with only three images. They are observations and the concept of range condition and trend.

Figure 1—Sampling locations in the Emigrant Creek allotment. Photo sampling Pole Camp, the center location, is illustrated on the facing page. 

Geographic positioning system (GPS) coordinates for camera locations are lower Emigrant: North latitude 43°5415.14′′, West longitude 119°3343.99; 

Pole Camp: North latitude 43°5356.65, West longitude 119°3006.36; Button Meadow: North latitude 43°5415.14, West longitude 119°3343.99. 
3

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

Figure 2—Pole Camp photomonitoring system. Four locations are illustrated in this report: (D) dry meadow (pp. 14–17), (W) wet meadow 

(pp. 18–21), (S) stream (pp. 22–25), and (X) new channel (p. 9) resulting from the flood of February 1996.
4

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Observations

Some things to consider when evaluating riparian areas in the Emigrant Creek 

allotment are animal use; the flood of May 21, 1984; an alluvial fan deposited 

following a thunderstorm on July 15, 1984; beavers and their dams; the flood of 

February 1996, which caused a new stream channel; and measurement of change 

in the profile of willows. The following pages illustrate these observations. 

Concept of Range Condition and Trend

The concept of range condition and trend supposes that natural climax vegetation 

is the basis for best condition, here called “good.” Any departure from this condition is presumably caused by livestock overgrazing, resulting in a downward 

successional trend. In condition classes less than good, proper livestock management is supposedly designed to foster an upward trend in the plant community 

toward good condition. 

Two problems with this concept must be dealt with in riverine riparian settings: (1) what is “good” condition in an environment characterized by disturbance 

(Winward 2000), and (2) livestock grazing is only one of several factors influencing 

vegetative development (Prichard 1995). This study will show that beavers, owing 

to their dams raising the water table, have a major influence on “range condition.” 

It will also show that floods, like that of February 1996, make new channels and 

thus new sites within the riparian zone. 

And finally, one must deal with the concept of “best condition” described in 

Forest Service range condition guides. Three lists of species were proposed: decreasers, palatable species that decrease with livestock overuse; increasers, less 

palatable species that increase; and invaders that are unpalatable species. 

Traditionally, the concept of “good range condition” has presumed that it is 

dominated by palatable species. We must ask why. This might be true in the Great 

Plains. But is it always true? A series of articles in Rangelands (2003: vol. 25) 

clearly discussed this concept (Box 2003, Pyke 2003, Ragsdale 2003) and strongly 

concluded that “dominance by decreasers” was a concept that must be reconsidered. 

I propose that in some cases, such as a dry meadow in Pole Camp, the plant community type may be dominated by low-palatability species. 

A condition and trend section, pages 32 and 33, deals with a concept of range 

condition. See also the discussion of bluegrass,1 in footnote 2 under “Common and 

Scientific Names.”

1 See “Common and Scientific Names” for plant species mentioned in this publication, 

pp. 35–36. 
5

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

Livestock Use 

Cow and calf overlooked in fall roundup 

have spent 3 weeks grazing in Pole 

Camp resulting in stubble heights of only 

4 to 5 cm and significant use on the 

green line along the stream. Cattle must 

be moved when the area has been grazed 

enough (Hall and Bryant 1995). 

Beaver Cutting

Beavers cut willows for dam construction and food. Page 10 illustrates 

a method for measuring the effects 

of beavers on willows. 

Gopher Activity

Gophers are active during the winter 

under snow cover and can disrupt roots 

of herbs, grasses, and shrubs. Their 

tunnels tend to funnel spring snowmelt, 

which can lead to riverbank erosion. See 

page 24, May 22, 1999.
6

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Flood of May 21, 1984

May 21, 1984—Water is above bankfull, 

flooding the first terrace. Fencing marks 

the lower allotment unit. Tree with board 

is dead as shown below. The lower 

Emigrant study site is immediately above 

the fence, shown on pages 12 and 13. 

June, 1988—Four years later, this 

photo reveals that the flood water had 

been about 31 cm deep. 

Meter board marks the wet meadow 

sampling site. Compare the pattern of 

water to vegetation on pages 18 to 21 

and on the cover of this report. 
7

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

Alluvial Fan, Lower 

Emigrant Creek

June 15, 1984—An alluvial fan was 

deposited in Emigrant Creek, at the lower 

sampling site, following a thunderstorm 

on June 15, 1984. The material was 

washed off FS Road 5870. Images 

below show how fast recovery can be. 

August 1, 1985—One and a half growing 

seasons after the photo above, Geyer’s 

willow is colonizing the rubble and is 

moving into moist areas.

August 1, 1990—Now five growing 

seasons after the photo above and sixand-a-half since deposition, Geyer’s 

willow is becoming dominant, thinleaf 

alder (left) has colonized the fan, and 

Kentucky bluegrass is dominant on 

the dryer sites. 
8

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Beaver Dams 

Beaver Dam A in Pole Camp—Beaver 

dam A upstream from the wet meadow 

sampling site in 1985. This and other 

dams (see below) raised the water table 

causing changes in the dry meadow 

(pp. 14 to 17) and made the wet meadow 

a little too moist for willows (pp. 18 

and 19).

Beaver Dam B, June 15, 1985—Beaver 

dam B just downstream from the wet 

meadow site with water flowing around 

the edge. The dam gave way during the 

February 1996 flood because departed 

beavers had not maintained it. As a 

result, a new channel was formed draining the dry and wet meadow (pp. 14 

through 19). The tall tree on the horizon 

can be used to orient this photo.

Beaver Dam B, October 1, 1997—

Same dam as shown above. A new 

channel is developing as shown on the 

next page. The lone tree on the horizon 

helps orient the photo, as a camera 

location was not established for the 

June 15, 1985, photo. Compare willow 

stature following 10 years of use by 

beavers with image above. 
9

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

New Stream Channel, 

Pole Camp 

August 1, 1997—A new stream channel 

was formed by the February 1996 flood, 

which collapsed beaver dam B shown on 

the previous page. The lower two images 

on page 8 were taken facing the camera 

`within the willows in the background. 

August 1, 1999—New stream channel 

2 years after the image above. The meter 

board is placed lower than in the 1997 

photo by about 4 dm, down on bedrock. 

Note that it is now 2 m tall with “1M” 

just visible.

August 1, 2004—Five years after the 

middle picture above and 7 years after 

channel formation (top picture). By now 

the stream bottom has stabilized with 

aquatic sedge, tufted hairgrass, and 

Kentucky bluegrass. The dead willow 

at left in 1999 photo has been washed 

into the stream channel. 
10

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Measurement of Change 

by Grids

Grid analysis (Hall 2002) may be used to 

document change of identifiable features 

in photographs. This is Pole Camp wet 

meadow in August 1976. A grid has been 

precisely adjusted to the meter board 

based on 2 dm marks. Grid adjustment 

is one function of the meter board. The 

willows in the background were outlined 

and grid intersects on each shrub counted. These data were then compared to 

the image below.

August 1993—Beavers were still active 

and had reduced willow profile area 

significantly. The willow profile area was 

again measured. This outlining and 

measurement was done every August 1st

from 1975 to 2004 with results shown 

below.

Smoothing spline regression—This 

regression of willow profile area by year 

is significant at the 1 percent probability 

level. Presence of beavers in Pole Camp 

is shown at the bottom of the graph. 

Willows have responded rapidly with 

reduction in beaver use and a lower water 

table permitting adequate root aeration. 
11

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

Lower Emigrant Pasture

Lower Emigrant pasture became a study in frustration and learning. The original 

camera location had to be moved in 1985 and again in 1998 because willows 

obstructed the view. The total movement was 2.7 m to the right. But even by 

2004, the view was again obstructed. The lesson was to select a camera location 

that will not become obstructed by vegetation because blocking the view renders 

the location useless. 

In all cases, the meter board “1 M” is dead center of the image, even though 

one may not see it. Orientation of the photos from 1975 to 1993 may be estimated 

by noting the stump and living ponderosa pine in the upper right cover.
12

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Thirty Years Change: 

Lower Emigrant

August 1, 1975—Geyer’s willow is 

dominant at about 40 percent canopy 

cover. Herbaceous species are aquatic 

sedge, tufted hairgrass, Baltic rush, 

Kentucky bluegrass, bluejoint reedgrass, 

and shrubby cinquefoil. Standing water 

is 8 cm deep. 

August 1, 1981—Geyer’s willow has 

increased to about 50 percent cover. 

Herbaceous species are the same. 

There is no standing water.

August 1, 1987—Camera location 

had to be moved a little less than 1 m 

to the right to avoid willows. Meter 

board is small, yellow spot just below 

midcenter. Willows are now 60 percent 

cover. Density of herbaceous species 

has declined. Kentucky bluegrass only 

occurs on drier sites to the right of the 

fencepost. Shrubby cinquefoil is absent. 

Cows have not impacted the vegetation. 

There is wet soil but no standing water.
13

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

August 1, 1993—Geyer’s willow 

continues to increase. Herbaceous 

species now are aquatic sedge, bluejoint 

reedgrass, and scant Baltic rush. Cover 

of herbs is half that of 1975. Soil is wet 

but with no standing water. Meter board 

is in center of image.

August 1, 1998—Camera location was 

moved 1.8 m right, now 2.7 m right of 

1975. Double meter board is now standard. Geyer’s willow is 60 percent cover. 

Herbs are dominated by aquatic sedge, 

bluejoint reedgrass, beaked sedge and 

scant Baltic rush. Soil is wet with no 

standing water.

August 1, 2004—Double meter board 

is nearly invisible owing to increasing 

willow cover, which is now about 75 

percent. The board is located dead center 

of the image. Herbs are still aquatic 

sedge, bluejoint reedgrass, beaked 

sedge, and scant Baltic rush. Soil is 

wet with no standing water.
14

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Thirty Years Change: 

Pole Camp Dry Meadow

August 1, 1976—Dominant species are 

high mountain cinquefoil (or gray cinquefoil), narrowleaf pussytoes (also grey 

colored), Kentucky bluegrass (or Agassi’s 

bluegrass), slender cinquefoil, some 

analogue sedge, and dandelion. At far 

background edge of meadow, note small 

stature and spotty distribution of willows. 

Moist meadow well behind the meter 

board is dominated by analogue sedge.

August 1, 1981—Dominant species are 

the same: high mountain cinquefoil (or 

gray cinquefoil), narrowleaf pussytoes 

(also grey colored), Kentucky bluegrass 

(or Agassi’s bluegrass), slender cinquefoil, some analogue sedge, and dandelion. 

After 6 years, willows at the far edge of 

the meadow have increased in stature 

and density.

August 1, 1987—Beaver moved into Pole 

Camp in 1984 building dams and raising 

the water table in this meadow. Willows 

at the far edge of the meadow are no 

longer visible. The dry meadow is now 

becoming a moist meadow where analogue sedge is assuming dominance. 

Other species are bluegrass, some tufted 

hairgrass, and much reduced high mountain and slender cinquefoil and pussytoes. 
15

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

August 1, 1993—The dry meadow has 

become moist owing to a raised water 

table caused by beaver dams. It is now 

dominated by analogue sedge. Beavers 

have been here for 9 years and have 

clearly changed the site potential of this 

area. The former moist analogue sedge 

meadow behind the meter board is now 

approaching a wet meadow. A small 

lodgepole pine right of the meter board 

has been killed by the raised water table.

August 1, 1998—Four years have passed 

since beavers and their dams left Pole 

Camp. The moist meadow of 1993 is 

reverting to a dry meadow. Dominant 

species are now bluegrass (Kentucky or 

Agassi’s), poor-vigor tufted hairgrass, 

decreasing analogue sedge with increasing pussytoes and both high mountain 

and slender cinquefoils. 

August 1, 2004—Ten years have passed 

since beavers left and the water table was 

lowered to about the 1981 level. Vegetation is now similar to that in 1976 and 

1981: pussytoes is codominant with both 

cinquefoils, bluegrass is common, with 

scant junegrass and occasional analogue 

sedge. Willows at the far edge of the 

meadow have increased in stature. 
16

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Seasonal Change: 

Pole Camp Dry Meadow.

June 15, 1981—Plant community 

condition is shown prior to beaver 

influences and prior to livestock turnout. 

Vegetative conditions at start of the 

grazing season are dry meadow at the 

meter board and analogue sedge moist 

meadow rear of board. At the board, 

grey cast is high mountain cinquefoil 

and narrowleaf pussytoes; green is 

slender cinquefoil, bluegrass, and 

scant analogue sedge. 

August 1, 1981—The date when livestock are moved from one pasture to 

another. This area had not been grazed 

by August 1 as shown by stubble height. 

Both the dry meadow at the meter board 

and the moist meadow rear of the board 

are dry. Low palatability of dry forage 

often causes a change in animal preference to green forage such as willow 

leaves. Compare greenness with the 

opposite page for August 1. 

October 1, 1981—This is the date 

when livestock are supposed to leave 

the allotment. The pasture was fall 

grazed leaving an uneven stubble 

height of 4 to 5 cm. This light use 

should foster an upward trend if 

site potential is better than existing 

vegetation suggests. 
17

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

June 15, 1983—Vegetative conditions 

at the start of grazing look very similar 

to those of 1981. A slightly greener cast 

seems apparent. Gray cast is high mountain cinquefoil and narrowleaf pussytoes; 

green is slender cinquefoil, bluegrass, 

and scant analogue sedge.

August 1, 1983—When 1983 is compared to 1981, one sees much more 

green in 1983. Phenological development 

appears quite different for 1983. The 

greenish color suggests extended 

palatability of herbaceous vegetation.

October 1, 1983—Compare 1983 to 

1981. Ungrazed stubble height is 5 to 

10 cm in both years. For this kind of 

meadow with its low-stature vegetation, 

the stubble height in 1981 was probably 

not detrimental to an upward trend. 

The 30-year record on pages 14 and 

15 suggests this might be in good range 

condition for the site potential. See 

“Concept of Range Condition and 

Trend,” page 4, and “Condition and 

Trend” on pages 32 and 33. 
18

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Thirty Years Change: 

Pole Camp Wet Meadow

August 1, 1975—Meter board is at 

the transition from dry to wet meadow. 

Dry meadow, at right in front of meter 

board, is analogue sedge, Kentucky or 

Agassi’s bluegrass, strawberry, slender 

and high mountain cinquefoil. Wet 

meadow left and rear of board is aquatic 

sedge, slender cinquefoil, tufted hairgrass, and strawberry. 

August 1, 1981—Little change in species 

dominance: dry meadow, at right in front 

of meter board, is analogue sedge, 

Kentucky or Agassi’s bluegrass, strawberry, slender and high mountain cinquefoil. Wet meadow left and rear of board is 

aquatic sedge, slender cinquefoil, tufted 

hairgrass, and strawberry. Willows in 

background show little change as does 

the shrubby cinquefoil to right of the 

meter board. However, beavers arrived 

in 1984 causing significant changes.

August 1, 1987—Four years after 

beavers cut willows for dam construction, 

the rising water table caused aquatic 

sedge to overwhelm the dry meadow 

right and front of the meter board. 

Willows rear of the board are significantly reduced. Mountain-pine-beetle 

(Dendroctonus ponderosa) killed 

lodgepole pine on the distant slope,

which was salvaged in 1985.
19

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

August 1, 1993—Nine years since 

beavers raised the water table with dams, 

resulting in major expansion of aquatic 

sedge into former dry meadow (right and 

front of meter board). Willows have 

disappeared from the aquatic sedge site 

owing to both beaver use and raised water 

table, which inhibit willow growth owing 

to poor root aeration. There was standing 

water here in August 1993. 

August 1, 1997—Beavers have been 

gone for 3 years and their dams deteriorated causing the water table to recede to 

its 1975 and 1981 level. The new channel 

(p. 9) has diverted water, leaving the 

stream dry. Willows are starting to 

emerge behind the meter board. Wet 

meadow is aquatic sedge, tufted hairgrass, slender cinquefoil, and fleabane. 

Former dry meadow is tufted hairgrass, 

slender cinquefoil, and bluegrass. Lodgepole pine has regenerated on the slope in 

background.

August 1, 2004—Willows have become 

dominant in the former wet meadow, 

presumably owing to better root aeration. 

The new channel cut by the flood of 

February 1996 has further drained the 

wet area, resulting in poor vigor of 

aquatic sedge. Tufted hairgrass is common with slender cinquefoil, analogue 

sedge, and strawberry. The dry meadow 

is again in pussytoes, bluegrass, slender 

cinquefoil, strawberry, and analogue 

sedge.
20

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Seasonal Change: 

Pole Camp Wet Meadow

June 15, 1981—Wet meadow behind 

meter board is good-vigor aquatic sedge. 

Dry meadow right and front of board is 

analogue sedge, slender cinquefoil, 

strawberry, Kentucky or Agassi’s bluegrass, pussytoes and some tufted hairgrass. These are conditions prior to 

beaver activity. 

August 1, 1981—The wet meadow is 

turning brown, whereas the dry meadow 

is already cured. Compare to seasonal 

conditions for the dry meadow shown on 

page 16. Change in herbaceous maturity 

often causes livestock to change preference for greener forage such as willow 

leaves. 

October 1, 1981—Pasture was fall 

grazed showing a 4- to 5-cm stubble 

height on the dry meadow with little use 

on the wet meadow. Evaluating stubble 

heights on the most palatable species, 

such as bluegrass, may be used as an 

indication of livestock preference for 

forage species (Hall and Bryant 1995). 

In this case, livestock were removed prior 

to undesirable browsing of willows.
21

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

June 15, 1983—Plant development is a 

little later than in 1981. Herbaceous plants 

have grown enough to support moderate 

spring grazing.

August 1, 1983—Herbaceous plant 

maturity is much later than in 1981. 

Aquatic sedge is ready for use but the 

soil is still very wet. The dry meadow 

is also greener, owing in large part to 

slender cinquefoil and bluegrass (Kentucky or Agassi’s). Compare to the dry 

meadow on page 17. Cattle can easily 

fill their rumen under these conditions. 

October 1, 1983—The pasture was 

not grazed this season. Everything is 

mature, offering little nutritious forage 

for livestock. 
22

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Thirty Years Change: 

Pole Camp Stream

August 1, 1975—This is Crowfoot 

Creek, viewed upstream, where it flows 

through Pole Camp. The photopoint was 

established to document fate of the fallen 

sod block. A fencepost was pounded 

down to the top of the meter board to 

evaluate soil change. Edge of bank is 

2.8 m from camera location No. 1. The 

dry meadow on pages 14 through 17 is 

13.6 m right of the meter board (see map 

on p. 3). The wet meadow, pages 18 to 21, 

is in the background. Soil is silt loam 

over clay loam, providing poor aeration 

for willow roots.

August 1, 1981—The block of sod is 

still present but has been colonized by 

aquatic sedge and has been enlarged by 

silt deposition. Edge of bank is still 

2.8 m from camera location No. 1.

August 1, 1987—Beavers arrived in 

1984, built dams, and backed water up 

about 4.6 dm above previous August 1 

levels. Aquatic sedge has greatly expanded. Edge of bank is still 2.8 m from 

camera location No. 1. Willows in the 

background, the wet meadow site, have 

been significantly reduced.
23

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

August 1, 1993—After 9 years of beaver 

presence, aquatic sedge now dominates 

the old stream channel and the block of 

sod remains. Beaver dams raised the 

water table changing the dry meadow 

above the stream to analogue sedge. Bluegrass and slender cinquefoil right of the 

meter board have almost disappeared. 

August 1, 1998—Beavers departed 4 

years previously and the flood of February 1996, cut a new channel (p. 9) draining water from this elbow and re-creating 

the dry meadow. Aquatic sedge is still 

dominant on the lower stream channel. 

Willows are increasing and lodgepole 

pine is reproducing near the meter board. 

August 1, 2004—Willows have increased 

dramatically in the background, and 

lodgepole pine regeneration is growing 

well. Aquatic sedge shares dominance 

with tufted hairgrass in the old stream 

channel. The meter board was placed 

behind the original fencepost to measure 

amount of soil deposition. Top of the 

fencepost is at 5 dm, meaning 5 dm of 

soil has been deposited on the old sod 

block.
24

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Seasonal Change: 

Pole Camp Stream

April 21, 1999—These photos document 

riparian areas during seasons other than 

livestock use. Pole camp stream, Crowfoot Creek, was visited April 21 to 

October 1, 1999. On page 23, August 1, 

1998, a year earlier, no water was flowing. Here, in late winter, the stream is 

flowing. Note in particular standing water 

on the dry meadow at camera location 

No. 1 fencepost. The fencepost in the 

snow in the distance is photopoint “Wet 

Meadow.” 

May 2, 1999—Eleven days later, new 

snow had fallen and water still stood on 

the dry meadow site.

May 22, 1999—Snow is gone and 

greenup has just begun, particularly on 

parts of the dry meadow. Cold snowmelt 

water apparently retards aquatic sedge’s 

early development. Holes made by 

gophers in the bank to the right of the 

meter board and in the foreground tend 

to funnel snowmelt water and can cause 

bank erosion. 
25

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

June 15, 1999—Spring runoff is 

over and the streambed has only 

pools of water. Aquatic sedge 

dominates with tufted hairgrass 

above the winter water line. 

August 1, 1999—Only a few pools 

of water remain in the streambed 

and aquatic sedge is fully grown.

October 1, 1999—Occasional pools of 

water remain. These are apparently the 

result of subsurface flow. The gopher 

hole near the lower right corner can 

contribute to bank erosion during 

spring runoff.
26

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Thirty Years Change: 

Button Meadow, East Pasture

August 1, 1975—Green cast suggests 

palatable, nutritious forage. Dominants 

are ragwort, aquatic sedge, American 

bistort, slender cinquefoil, longstalk 

clover, checkerbloom, and delphinium. 

The composition is 70 percent forbs. See 

“Condition and Trend” on pages 32 and 

33. Pasture was not used in the spring. 

August 1, 1981—Much drier conditions 

compared to 1975. Dominants this year 

are aquatic sedge, tufted hairgrass, 

ragwort, American bistort, slender 

cinquefoil, and fleabane. Light spring 

use this year.

August 1, 1987—Vegetation is moderately green, composed of aquatic sedge, 

aster, tufted hairgrass, slender cinquefoil, 

ragwort, and Baltic rush. Light spring 

use.
27

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

August 1, 1993—Forbs dominate the 

plant community: ragwort in yellow 

flower, slender cinquefoil, aquatic sedge, 

flowering heads of tufted hairgrass, dried 

American bistort, some geranium, foxtail 

barley, and foothill arnica. No spring 

grazing.

August 1, 1998—Tufted hairgrass 

seedheads overemphasize its dominance. 

Common species are aquatic sedge, 

slender cinquefoil, analogue sedge, aster, 

American bistort, Baltic rush, and 

foothill arnica. No spring grazing. 

August 1, 2004—Tufted hairgrass seed 

heads belie its low cover percentage. 

Common species are aquatic sedge, 

slender cinquefoil, ragwort, and American bistort. Composition is still about 70 

percent forbs. These images clearly show 

light cattle use over 30 years. Apparently 

this site should be considered a “forbsedge type.” 
28

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Seasonal Change: 

Button Meadow, East Pasture

June 15, 1981—Dominant species are 

ragwort, American bistort (white flowers), aquatic sedge, slender cinquefoil 

(yellow flowers), analogue sedge, longstalk clover, small camas, and buttercup. 

Dark green areas are Baltic rush with 

standing water. Plant height is about 

2 dm. 

August 1, 1981—Nearly all species have 

cured out for this year. But compare to 

August 1, 1983. Species are ragwort, 

foothill arnica, aquatic sedge, tufted 

hairgrass (the flowering stalks), fleabane, 

small camas, and California oatgrass. 

October 1, 1981—Fall use at the end of 

the grazing season. The “scruffy” 

appearance of the vegetation indicates 

(1) cattle could fill their rumen with 

preferred species leaving less palatable 

ones, and (2) they were not forced to eat 

less desired forage, which could cause 

overuse of preferred species and a switch 

to willow leaves. 
29

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

June 15, 1983—Some change in flowering heads from 1981. Still ragwort, 

American bistort, aquatic sedge, slender 

cinquefoil, small camas, dandelion, and 

Baltic rush in dark green areas. 

August 1, 1983—Vegetation is much 

greener than in 1981, emphasizing 

phenological differences between years. 

These differences tend to cause shifts in 

livestock preference, which should be 

considered when evaluating animal 

impacts on riparian vegetation. Common 

species remain ragwort, foothill arnica, 

aquatic sedge, tufted hairgrass (the 

flowering stalks), small camas, and 

California oatgrass. 

October 1, 1983—No livestock use this 

year. Seed heads are tufted hairgrass. 

For some reason, the dominant sedge 

has produced so few seed heads that its 

identification as aquatic sedge might be 

questionable.
30

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Button Meadow: 

Mule-Ears Flowering

June 15, 1975—This photopoint was 

established to document flowering of 

mule-ears (the white flower). It also 

records apparent erosion or former 

erosion. There have been no changes 

in the soil pattern for 30 years. Other 

species present are fleabane, ragwort, 

Baltic rush, and scant bluegrass 

(Kentucky or Agassi’s).

June 15, 1976—No flowering on 

mule-ears even though the leaves are 

visible. Other species are the same.

June 15, 1977—Again, no flowers on 

mule-ears. (There have been no flowers

for the 29 years since 1975.) Yet muleears leaves are clearly evident. Growing 

conditions this spring were good for the 

dominant species: fleabane, ragwort, 

Baltic rush, and scant bluegrass.
31

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

Button Meadow: Fence Line

August 1, 1975—Fence-line conditions 

are shown at the start of rest-rotation 

grazing. Cattle are beginning fall use on 

the right pasture. Dominant species are 

ragwort, aquatic sedge, American bistort, 

slender cinquefoil, checkerbloom, tufted 

hairgrass, delphinium, and longstalk 

clover. Species compositions on both 

sides of the fence are similar.

August 1, 1989—This is halfway through 

the 30-year study. Species composition is 

similar on both sides of the fence. Seed 

heads belie the low coverage of tufted 

hairgrass.

August 1, 2004—After 30 years, little 

change is apparent across the fence. Right 

pasture is being fall grazed. Plant community composition is still 70 percent 

forbs and 30 percent grasses and sedges. 

Much of the green is slender cinquefoil 

and ragwort, even at midseason. 
32

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Condition and Trend: 

Button Meadow, East Pasture

June 15, 1975—Spring vegetation is 

compared over 30 years to appraise trend 

and to evaluate concepts of range condition. Cattle grazing, using a rest-rotation 

system, has been moderate to light— 

supposedly fostering an upward trend if 

previous range condition was less than 

good. Here, species composition was 

ragwort, American bistort, small camas, 

aquatic sedge, slender cinquefoil, longstalk clover, and dandelion. 

June 15, 1990—Fifteen years later, 

composition is very similar: ragwort 

(yellow flowers), American bistort (white 

flowers), aquatic sedge, slender cinquefoil, small camas (blue flowers), analogue 

sedge, and longstalk clover. There is no 

evidence of trend toward presumably 

aquatic sedge. Composition is about 70 

percent forbs and 30 percent sedges and 

grasses.

June 15, 2004—There is no apparent 

change in “range condition” over 30 years 

of moderate to light grazing. Dominants 

here are again ragwort (yellow flowers), 

American bistort (white flowers), aquatic 

sedge, slender cinquefoil, small camas 

(blue flowers), analogue sedge, rush, and 

longstalk clover. I call this a forb-sedge

meadow in good condition. It is a functioning riparian system (Prichard 1995). 
33

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

Condition and Trend: 

Pole Camp Dry Meadow

June 15, 1975—In this example, range 

“condition” will change because of a raised 

water table caused by beaver dams. Prior to 

beavers, species composition looked like it 

was “poor condition”: high mountain cinquefoil (grey color), narrowleaf pussytoes (also 

grey color), slender cinquefoil, bluegrass 

(Kentucky or Agassi’s), and scant analogue 

sedge. Composition was about 80 percent 

forbs. See discussion of bluegrass in footnote 

2 (p. 36).

June 15, 1990—After 6 years of a raised 

water table, composition has changed to 

analogue sedge dominant, with narrowleaf 

pussytoes, high mountain cinquefoil, bluegrass, and slender cinquefoil. Herbage 

production is double that in 1975. Now 

look at 2004 below.

June 15, 2004—Now 9 years since beaver 

dams disintegrated and the water table 

dropped. Composition is back to slender 

cinquefoil, pussytoes (grey color on the 

ground), high mountain cinquefoil, bluegrass, 

and scant analogue sedge. Herbage production is less that half that in 1990. Water table 

depth was the primary “range trend” factor 

here. The plant community returned to its low 

water table “best condition.” In all three 

examples, it is a functioning riparian system 

(Prichard 1995). I call this a dry forb-grass 

meadow in good condition.
34

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Conclusions

In 1975, a change in cattle management from season-long to three-pasture restrotation was implemented on Emigrant Creek allotment, Emigrant Creek Ranger 

District, Malheur National Forest. A photomonitoring study was implemented to 

track changes in vegetation and soils in riparian areas. An area was selected in each 

of three pastures: lower Emigrant, Pole Camp, and Button Meadow. Eleven photopoints were established and were visited 3 times per year: June 15 at start of grazing, August 1 at change in pastures, and October 1 at the end of grazing. 

The current grazing system is having no adverse impact on either soils or 

vegetation. Other impacts have had far greater influence: 

• A flash flood created an alluvial fan into Emigrant Creek, which has 

been colonized and stabilized by herbs and shrubs under current livestock 

grazing. 

• Beavers moved into Pole Camp in 1984 and left in 1994. They severely 

reduced willow dominance by harvesting shrubs for dam construction and 

forage. Beaver dams also raised water tables reducing soil aeration and apparently adversely affecting willow growth in wet meadows. Raised water 

tables also changed a dry meadow to a moist meadow causing major shifts 

in species composition and an increase in production. When beavers left 

Pole Camp and their dams disintegrated, water tables were lowered and the 

moist meadow reverted to its dry status and species composition. Livestock 

did not influence this change in vegetation. After beavers departed, willows 

increased significantly in profile area on a wet meadow under current livestock grazing. 

• Abandoned beaver dams and the flood of February 1996, a 50-year event, 

combined to create a new stream channel in Crowfoot Creek as it flows 

through Pole Camp. Livestock had no influence on this event. The new 

channel has further reduced water tables in adjacent wet meadows, causing 

a shift in species dominance and an increase in diversity as less watersensitive species colonize the area. 

A concern that became evident during this study was what constitutes “good 

range condition”? Traditionally it is characterized by a dominance of decreasers, 

species palatable to livestock. Of the five moist and wet meadows sampled, only one 

was initially dominated by a typical “decreaser,” aquatic sedge at Pole Camp. The 

other meadows were dominated by forbs typically of low palatability to livestock. 

Yet none of these showed an upward range trend after 30 years of light to moderate 

livestock use. The conclusion is that, ecologically, dominant species need not be 

palatable to domestic livestock. 
35

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

Another concern was range trend. Lower Emigrant soils have a gravel layer 

providing root aeration for willows. Even though aquatic sedge and bluejoint 

reedgrass dominated the herbaceous layer, willows expanded under livestock grazing to the extent that herbage production was cut by two-thirds. 

The Pole Camp wet meadow, dominated by aquatic sedge, was another example. Loss of beaver dams and a lowering of the water table has caused a major 

increase in willows. This is a “downward range trend” not caused by livestock. The 

increase in willows is reducing herbage production at Pole Camp. Adjustment in 

grazing will not alter this trend.

Riparian areas are a unique environment quite different from uplands. Traditional concepts of range condition and trend have been based on upland conditions 

(Winward 2000). They should be seriously challenged in the riverine riparian setting in favor of a “state and condition” concept (Box 2003, Pyke and Herrick 2003, 

Ragsdale 2003). 

Names of Plants

Common name Scientific name

Agassi’s bluegrass2 Poa agassizensis Bolvin & D. Löve

American bistort Polygonum bistortoides Pursh

Analogue sedge Carex simulata Mackenzie

Aquatic sedge Carex aquatilis (Holm) Kükenth.

Aster Aster spp.

Baltic rush Juncus balticus Willd.

Beaked sedge Carex rostrata Stokes

Bluejoint reedgrass Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv.

Buttercup Ranunculus spp.

California oatgrass Danthonia californica Boland

Checkerbloom Sidalcea spp.

Dandelion Taraxacum officinale G.H. Weber ex Wiggers

Delphinium Delphinium spp.

Fleabane Erigeron spp.

Foothill arnica Arnica fulgens Pursh

Foxtail barley Hordeum jubatum L.

Geranium Geranium viscosissimum Fisch. & C.A. Mey. ex C.A. Mey.

Geyer’s willow Salix geyeriana Anderss.

High mountain cinquefoil Potentilla flabellifolia Hook. ex Torr. & Gray

Junegrass Koeleria macrantha (Laedeb.) J.A. Shultes = K. cristata auct. p.p. non Pers.

Kentucky bluegrass2 Poa pratensis L.

Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud.

Longstalk clover Trifolium longipes Nutt.

Mule-ears Wyethia amplexicaulis (Nutt.) Nutt.

Narrowleaf pussytoes Antennaria stenophylla (Gray) Gray

Ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws

Ragwort Senecio spp.
36

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-639

Common name Scientific name

Shrubby cinquefoil Dasiphora floribunda (Pursh) Kartesz, comb. nov. ined = 

 Potentilla fruticosa auct. non L.

Slender cinquefoil Potentilla gracilis Dougl. ex Hook.

Small camas Camassia quamash (Pursh.) Greene

Strawberry Fragaria spp.

Thinleaf alder Alnus incana (L.) Moench ssp. tenuifolia (Nutt.) Breitung

Tufted hairgrass Descampsia caespitosa (L.) Beauv.

Willows Salix spp. (S. geyeriana is most common)

English Equivalents

When you have: Multiply by: To get:

Decimeters (dm) 3.94 Inches

Centimeters (cm) 0.394 Inches

Meters (m) 3.28 Feet

Kilometers (km) 0.6215 Miles

Square meters (m2) 10.76 Square feet

Literature Cited

Box, T. 2003. The last 25 years: changes and reflections. Rangelands. 25(6): 31–35.

Cronquist, A.; Holmgren, A.H.; Holmgren, N.H.; Reveal, J.L.: Holmgren, P.K. 

1977. Intermountain flora: vascular plants of the intermountain West, U.S.A. 

Volume six: the monocotyledons. New York: Columbia University Press. 584 p.

Crowe, E.A.; Clausnitzer, R.R. 1997. Mid-montane wetland plant associations 

of the Malheur, Umatilla, and Wallowa-Whitman National Forests. Tech. Pap. 

R6-NR-ECOL-TP-22-97. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 299 p.

Franklin, J.F.; Dyrness, C.T. 1988. Natural vegetation of Oregon and 

Washington. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press. 452 p. 

Hall, F.C. 2002. Photo point monitoring handbook: Part A—Field procedures; 

Part B—Concepts and analysis. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-526. Portland, OR: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research 

Station. 2 parts: 48 p. and 86 p.

2 Poa pratensis and P. agassizensis look very similar as both can be prostrate and both have a web of hairs on the 

lemma. Poa agassizensis is considered a native, whereas P. pratensis is considered an alien (Cronquist and others 

1977). Poa pratensis leaves are broader, and it is mostly three-flowered rather than two-flowered. Bluegrasses found 

in the Emigrant Creek allotment more closely resemble P. agassizensis and tend to support the concept of a “forbbluegrass dry meadow” type. 
37

Emigrant Creek Cattle Allotment: Lessons From 30 Years of Photomonitoring

Hall, F.C.; Bryant, L. 1995. Herbaceous stubble height as a warning of 

impending cattle grazing damage to riparian areas. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

PNW-GTR-362. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 9 p.

Kovalchik, B.L. 1987. Riparian zone associations of the Deschutes, Ochoco, 

Fremont, and Winema National Forests. R6 ECOL TP-279-87. Portland, OR: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 

171 p.

Kovalchik, B.L.; Clausnitzer, R.R. 2004. Classification and management of 

aquatic, riparian, and wetland sites on the national forests of eastern Washington: 

series description. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-593. Portland, OR: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research 

Station. 354 p.

Prichard, D. 1995. Riparian area management: process for assessing proper 

functioning condition. Technical Reference 1717-9. Denver, CO: U.S. Department 

of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Service Center. 51 p. 

Pyke, D.; Herrick, J. 2003. Transitions in rangeland evaluations. Rangelands. 

25(6): 22–30.

Ragsdale, B.J.; 2003. From 25 years ago: range technology must be extended. 

Rangelands. 25(6): 36–38.

Winward, A.H. 2000. Monitoring the vegetation resources in riparian areas. 

Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-47. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 49 p.

Pacific Northwest Research Station

Web site http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw

Telephone (503) 808-2592

Publication requests (503) 808-2138

FAX (503) 808-2130

E-mail pnw_pnwpubs@fs.fed.us

Mailing address Publications Distribution

 Pacific Northwest Research Station

 P.O. Box 3890

 Portland, OR 97208-3890
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Pacific Northwest Research Station

333 SW First Avenue

P.O. Box 3890

Portland, OR 97208-3890

Official Business

Penalty for Private Use, $300