Technical Report 1181

Nonverbal Communication and Aircrew Coordination

in Army Aviation: Annotated Bibliography

Lawrence C. Katz

U.S. Army Research Institute

Gretchen Kambe and Kurt F. Kline

Dynamics Research Corporation

Gary N. Grubb

Independent Contractor

June 2006 20060804044

United States Army Research Institute

for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
U.S. Army Research Institute

for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

A Directorate of the Department of the Army

Deputy Chief of Staff, G1

Authorized and approved for distribution:

MICHELLE SAMS ZITA M. SIMUTIS

Technical Director Director

Research accomplished under contract

for the Department of the Army

Dynamics Research Corporation

Technical review by

David M. Johnson, US Army Research Institute

Robert E. Solick, US Army Research Institute

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REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE

1. REPORT DATE (dd-mm-yy) 2. REPORT TYPE 3. DATES COVERED (from... to)

June 2006 1Final January 2005-April 2006

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE: 5a. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER

Nonverbal Communication and Aircrew Coordination in N61339-03-C-0139

Army Aviation: Annotated Bibliography 5b. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER

622785

6. AUTHOR(S) 5c. PROJECT NUMBER

Lawrence C. Katz (U.S. Army Research Institute); A790

Gretchen Kambe, and Kurt F. Kline (Dynamics Research 5d. TASK NUMBER

Corporation); Gary N. Grubb (Independent Contractor) 252

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Contracting Officer's Representative and Subject Matter POC: Lawrence Katz

14. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words):

The Army's Aircrew Coordination Training (ACT) programs emphasize the importance of verbal

communications between crewmembers during mission execution. While this is a critical component of

effective crew coordination, little attention has been directed towards the influence of nonverbal

communication on effective crew coordination. Nonverbal communication transactions occur in the cockpit, but

the extent to which they supplement verbal communication and their contribution to safe mission performance

remain unclear. The report documents online research materials pertaining to (but not limited to) aircrew

coordination, communication classification schemas, nonverbal communication (within aviation and other

applicable fields), and team training. A review of the literature was conducted with the results compiled into a

database containing the relevant articles, and a categorization schema for future research in nonverbal

communication in cockpit environments was recommended.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Communication, aviation cockpit, nonverbal communication, literature review, classification schema,

aircrew coordination, teamwork, rotary wing, tactical, accident reduction, aviation, crewmembers

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF 19. LIMITATION OF 20. NUMBER 21. RESPONSIBLE PERSON S C AABSTRACT OF PAGES

16. REPORT 17. ABSTRACT 18. THIS PAGE Ellen Kinzer

Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified Unlimited 115 Technical Publication Specialist

(703) 602-8047
Technical Report 1181

Nonverbal Communication and Aircrew Coordination in Army

Aviation: Annotated Bibliography

Lawrence C. Katz

U.S. Army Research Institute

Gretchen Kambe and Kurt F. Kline

Dynamics Research Corporation

Gary N. Grubb

Independent Contractor

Rotary-Wing Aviation Research Unit

William R. Howse, Chief

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

2511 Jefferson Davis Highway, Arlington, VA 22202-3926

June 2006

Army Project Number Personnel Performance and

622785A790 Training Technology

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited

11]
iv
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION AND AIRCREW COORDINATION IN ARMY

AVIATION: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Research Requirement:

The Army's Aircrew Coordination Training (ACT) and Aircrew Coordination Training

Enhancement (ACTE) programs emphasize the importance of verbal communications between

crewmembers during mission execution. While this is a critical component of effective crew

coordination, little attention has been directed towards the influence of nonverbal communication

on effective crew coordination. Nonverbal communication transactions occur in the cockpit, but

the extent to which they supplement verbal communication and their contribution to safe mission

performance remain unclear. Some Army rotary-wing aircraft employ a tandem-seating

configuration that limits viewing angles between crewmembers. All Army rotary-wing aircraft

operate at times with limited in-cockpit visibility resulting from night and night vision goggle

(NVG) use. The resulting reductions in nonverbal communication may have an important impact

on crew coordination and team performance and may require adjustments to training content and

technique.

Procedure:

A review of the literature was conducted with the results compiled into a database of

relevant nonverbal communication-related articles. From this review, a categorization schema for

future research on nonverbal communication in rotary-wing aircraft was recommended. The

report documents research materials pertaining to (but not limited to) aircrew coordination,

communication classification schemas, nonverbal communication (within aviation and other

applicable fields), and team training.

Findings:

The full impact of nonverbal communication on tactical rotary-wing operations is

currently unknown. Extensive research on nonverbal communication and its effects on human

interaction has been conducted in the areas of sociology and psychology. From the research

conducted on air traffic controllers, a classification schema is identified as having potential for

use with aviation crewmembers within a rotary-wing cockpit. Additionally, potential

methodologies are identified and described for use in future research on the impact of nonverbal

communication on aircrew coordination in rotary-wing aircraft.

Utilization and Dissemination of Findings:

This report identified a message classification schema that could be useful in conducting

focused research addressing the effects of nonverbal communication on the completion of

tactical missions in Army rotary-wing aircraft. The objective of this research would be to

determine the level and types of nonverbal communication required in tactical rotary-wing

v
aircraft to provide a baseline of information to aircrew coordination trainers. This research could

potentially provide aircraft accident investigators an additional category and classification

schema to assist in accident investigations.

vi
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION AND AIRCREW COORDINATION IN ARMY

AVIATION: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

CONTENTS

Page

IN TRODU CTION ........................................................................................................................... 1

Background ................................................................................................................................ I

Purpose and Goals ..................................................................................................................... I

A ircrew Coordination .................................................................................................. ..... 2

Com m unication betw een Crewm em bers ............................................................................... 4

Types of A ircrew Com m unication ........................................................................................ 5

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION EFFECTS ON AIRCREW COORDINATION

(LITERA TU RE REV IEW ) ......................................................................................................... 6

M ethod ....................................................................................................................................... 6

Focus A reas and Categorization ........................................................................................... 8

D efinitions of N onverbal Com m unication .......................................................................... 9

Classification Schem as ........................................................................................................ 10

Research M ethodologies ...................................................................................................... 10

Body M ovem ent and G estures ................................................................................................ 11

Tim e and Space ....................................................................................................................... 11

Facial D isplays and Eye M ovem ent .................................................................................... 12

Related Topics (Crew Composition, Automation, Accident Investigation) ....................... 12

Im plications for A ircrew Coordination ............................................................................... 13

G eneral Literature Review Conclusions ............................................................................. 14

CLA SSIFICA TION SCH EM A S ............................................... ................................................ 15

Theoretical Schem a ................................................................................................................. 15

Conceptual Schem a ................................................................................................................. 16

A viation-related Schem a ...................................................................................................... 16

Selection of a Taxonom y ................................................................................... ....................... 17

POTEN TIA L M ETH OD OLO G IES .......................................................................................... 19

Review ..................................................................................................................................... 19

Selection of a M ethodology ............................................................................................... 20

CON CLU SION ............................................................................................................................. 21

Sum m ary .................................................................................................................................. 21

Recom m endations for Future Research ............................................................................. 21

A CRON Y M S ................................................................................................................................. 23

RE FERE N CES .............................................................................................................................. 25

vii
CONTENTS (continued)

APPENDICES

A. Nonverbal Communications Literature by Category .................................................... A-i

B. Proposed Research Area and Approach ........................................................................ B-1

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1. KEY W ORD S AND TOPICS ................................................................................. 7

TABLE 2. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION CATEGORIES ............................................ 9

TABLE 3. RECOMMENDED CLASSIFICATION SCHEMAS AND LEVELS OF

CLASSIFICATION FOR MESSAGES .................................................. 18

TABLE B-1. PROPOSED EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN .......................................................... B-3

TABLE B-2. DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS AND ASSOCIATED MEASURES ..B-4

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1. AVIATION ACCIDENT TRENDS ....................................................................... 3

FIGURE 2. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATIONS DATABASE TOOL - INPUT FORM ........ 8

FIGURE B-1. RESEARCH M ETHODS ................................................................ B-2

viii
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION AND AIRCREW COORDINATION IN ARMY

AVIATION: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Introduction

The U.S. Army Combat Readiness Center (USACRC) investigates Army aircraft

accidents, and has included combat losses in their investigations. Their work continues to reveal

a high incidence of crew coordination errors that contribute to loss of life and equipment. A

USACRC spokesman stated that, "Eighty percent of our accidents are caused by human error

and 66 percent of those can be directly linked to aircrew coordination failures" (Rosenberg,

2005). Materiel and training solutions are being sought to minimize the losses and maximize the

effectiveness of Army Aviation's contributions in the Global War on Terror. Nonverbal forms of

communications, such as gesturing, pointing, nodding, and shoulder tapping, comprise a method

of interaction that might be related to aircrew coordination failures.

Background

The Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences Rotary-Wing

Aviation Research Unit (ARI-RWARU) has had continual involvement in the Army's Aircrew

Coordination Training program from the original conception to the current Aircrew Coordination

Training Enhanced (ACTE) program, both in research and in the development of prototype

training material. The USACRC, as the executive agency, along with the Directorate of

Evaluation and Standardization (DES) as cadre trainers, are engaged in training the initial cadre

in ACTE as one of the responses to the Secretary of Defense's requirement for a Department of

Defense (DoD)-wide 50% reduction in Class A aviation accidents.

The training and its underlying research are heavily weighted to forms of verbal

communication. To date, there has been almost no research into the impact of nonverbal means

of communication among aircrew members in Army rotary-wing aircraft. This has hindered

researchers' ability to investigate the impact of nonverbal communication on aircrew

coordination. This issue has become increasingly relevant in discussions of crew coordination

and flight safety. In an article in the July 2005 issue of FlightFax, Katz discusses nonverbal

communications and asks for examples of nonverbal communication from Army aviators (Katz,

2005). These and other efforts are beginning to address the importance of nonverbal

communication between crewmembers within a cockpit.

Purpose and Goals

The purpose of this research is to gather and catalog information pertaining to nonverbal

communication between crewmembers in Army rotary-wing aircraft cockpits. The resulting

information database and review will provide the starting point for further research into

nonverbal communication as it pertains to tactical rotary-wing aircrews operating Army aircraft.
The goals of this research are:

"* Establish an understanding of the issues relating to nonverbal communication in the cockpit.

"* Describe types of nonverbal communications that can exist in an aviation setting.

"• Provide ARI-RWARU, US Army Aviation, and other interested DoD and civilian agencies

with a centralized and easily accessible store of information pertaining to nonverbal cockpit

communication.

"* Provide a recommended classification schema allowing for further coding and analysis of

nonverbal communication as it occurs in aviation cockpits.

"* Provide a list of potential research areas to focus study on the impact of nonverbal

communications without repeating research.

Aircrew Coordination

The US Army defines aircrew coordination as a set of principles, attitudes, procedures,

and techniques that transforms individuals into an effective crew (Katz & Grubb, 2003). The

current exportable training package contains the following definition for ACTE: "the interaction

between crewmembers (communication) and actions (sequence and timing) necessary for tasks

to be performed efficiently, effectively, and safely. It involves the effective utilization of all

available resources; hardware, software, and liveware" (Department of the Army, 2003, p. 27).

Beginning in 1988, ARI began conducting a program of research that responded to the

Army's need for better crew coordination training. This program was conducted in close

cooperation with the United States Army Aviation Center (USAAVNC) and its efforts to revise

its training standards to reflect increased emphasis on crew-level performance. The USAAVNC

formed a Working Group in early 1990 to incorporate the results of the aircrew coordination

research into revisions of the total Aircrew Training Program (Training Circular 1-2 10, Aircrew

Training Program: Commander's Guide to the Aircrew Training Program) and Aircrew Training

Manuals (ATMs) for all Army aircraft. The March 1992 revised Training Circular (TC) 1-210

introduced battle rostering and crew coordination as policies designed to improve effectiveness

and safety by shifting the training emphasis from individual to crew-level performance

(Department of the Army, 1992).

The new crew coordination policy, designed to standardize crew behaviors, required the

development of a training course. Dynamics Research Corporation (DRC) worked closely with

the USAAVNC Working Group to draft training and evaluation methods and materials for a

crew coordination validation effort. During the 1992 validation test bed, Fort Campbell, KY

units selected UH-60 crews who completed four missions in the visual flight simulator. The test

bed demonstrated and validated the program for training and evaluating crew coordination skills.

Results showed that the crews performed their missions significantly more effectively and safely

after the training than before the training (Simon & Grubb, 1993). The USAAVNC subsequently

implemented the Aircrew Coordination Exportable Training Package (ETP) using a trainer cadre

team.

The initial ACT program was first implemented in 1993 as an ETP (Pawlik, Simon,

Grubb, & Zeller, 1992). In June 1995, the requirement was established that all active duty flight

2
crewmembers would be qualified in aircrew coordination not later than 31 May 1997 and the

reserve component not later than 31 May 1998. This training was deemed to be so important that

the Army redesignated Readiness Level (RL) 1 crewmembers without ACT to RL 2 until the

training was completed.

Following implementation of the initial ACT program, the Army's aviation accident rate

dropped dramatically. While no causal relationship can be established, commanders and

aircrews alike acknowledged the benefit of the mandatory, one-time training that was received

by all crewmembers within the Army. However, the accident rate steadily increased in the

ensuing years (see Figure 1). The initial program did not address sustainment issues and did not

package the training in a manner that would facilitate updates. Several factors are believed to

have limited the attaining and maintaining of high levels of Army aircrew coordination. These

include the significant personnel turbulence associated with downsizing and high operational

tempo, the lowering of experience levels, and the atrophy of skills due to reduced flying hours

that resulted from successive years of limited funding.

Aviation Accident Trends

45-

40-

35 Secfef Base Yr

30-

25 ACT Fielding - Class A

20. 15 UR Class B

10

5- FY 05 Sec Del

9 Goals 0

FY92 FY95 FY98 FY01 FY04 FYO5thru14Aug

66.7% of Class A mishaps identify a lack of effective aircrew coordination

(Statement by Director of Army Safety to Congress 11 Feb 04)

Figure 1. Aviation accident trends.

In early 1998, the USAAVNC formed a special Aircrew Coordination Working Group

(ACWG) to explore the increase in ACT-related accidents. The ACWG addressed the immediate

problem of spatial disorientation by incorporating the issue into an overall assessment of the

ACT program. Results of the ACWG effort and their ACT sustainment recommendations were

noted but not acted upon due to inadequate funding (Grubb, Simon, Goddard, & Kline, 2001).

In 1999, the United States Army Safety Center (USASC) chartered the Aviation Safety

Investment Strategy Team (ASIST) to define measurable accident prevention goals and identify

the most important Army-wide investments needed to achieve them. Specifically, ASIST was

3
established to reduce by 50% the rate of fatalities and serious injuries, the annual cost of aviation

accidents, and the Class A-C accident rate within ten years.

The Hazard Analysis phase of ASIST identified 290 hazards across the five aircraft types

analyzed. Five of the top ten hazards placed the crew of the aircraft at the center of attention. For

example, "Maneuvering among obstacles in a degraded visual environment may cause an

escalation in workload, increased fatigue and diminished capacity to safely maintain aircraft

position, resulting in collision with ground or obstacles." and "Hovering in close proximity to

terrain in a degraded visual environment and high workload may result in loss of situational

awareness, resulting in inadvertent hover drift and collision with terrain" (Hicks & Peusch, 2001,

p. 129).

The ASIST study reported that by developing an ACT sustainment program, the potential

for an aviation accident reduction of 6.4% or a cost reduction of 144 million dollars could be

realized over a ten-year period. The study identified 249 potential controls for the 290 hazards

that were defined. Number four on the list of controls was, "Develop, monitor and evaluate a

Crew Coordination Sustainment Training program integrated into aviation tasks" (Hicks &

Peusch, 2001, p. 132).

Communication between Crewmembers

There is a large body of research on the effects of communication on performance. The

importance of communication within the aircrew is highlighted in the formal ACT program.

Crew Coordination Objective (CCO) 4, Exchange mission information, is defined as

"establishing communication using effective patterns and techniques which allow for the free

flow of essential information among crewmembers and other mission elements, especially that

information pertaining to the maintenance of mission situational awareness" (Department of the

Army, 2003). Two of the Basic Qualities (BQ) associated with CCO 4, BQ 6, Statements and

directives clear, timely, relevant, complete and verified; and BQ 8, Decisions and actions

communicated and acknowledged, directly relate to the transfer of information. In addition, five

of the eight associated Crew Coordination Elements (also defined in each Aircrew Training

Manual) also relate to communication within the aircrew. The CCOs, BQs, and related Crew

Coordination Elements stress the use of standardized terminology to avoid errors due to

misunderstanding the information being related.

Yet, the breakdown of communication among aircrew members is frequently found in

USACRC accident reports as a causal factor to date. Barriers to verbal communication exist in

the cockpit, such as noise and other internal and external audio communications, improper

terminology, and divided attention leading to misunderstanding or misinterpreting information.

The use of read back or questioning may not always be accomplished due to high workload or

stress. Maintaining clear and timely verbal communications among aircrew members in

operational environments continues to pose a challenge to Army aviation.

4
Types ofAircrew Communication

The majority of the focus of the ACT program relates to verbal communication, and

includes areas such as challenge and response, read back of information, and proper use of

terminology. The program includes only minor mention of nonverbal communication. Indeed,

the nonverbal communication discussion is limited to written words and symbols on forms and

maps and body language such as nods, gestures, and eye contact (Katz & Grubb, 2003). There is

no clarification or amplification of any of the topics and facilitation of the nonverbal topics is

limited to personal knowledge of the instructor.

There are Army and Joint publications that describe the use of visual signals with Army

aircraft. Field Manual (FM) 21-60, Visual Signals (Department of the Army, 1987), is a primary

reference for aircrew and ground support personnel during marshalling of the aircraft. Other

publications are specific to areas such as shipboard operations (Department of Defense, 1997).

The Federal Aviation Administration provides mandatory light signals in the Aeronautical

Information Manual that allow for operation of aircraft with inoperative radios (Federal Aviation

Administration, 2004). In many of these cases, the nonverbal communication is in response to or

in conjunction with a verbal communication.

Anecdotal examples of nonverbal communication include:

"* Visually checking for accomplishment of assigned tasks, such as the pilot on the controls

visually checking to ensure the pilot not at the controls is identifying the proper switch in

response to a verbal request or checklist item.

"* Visually verifying the correct display is selected.

"* Using a "thumbs up" or "thumbs down" in the visual scan of a crewmember as a positive

or negative response.

"* Slightly moving the cyclic laterally to provide reinforcement that an individual has taken

control of the aircraft.

"* Tapping or pointing to an aircraft flight instrument to call attention to a flight parameter

such as airspeed or altitude.

"* Tapping or pointing to a systems instrument to call attention to a task, such as pointing to

the fuel gauge as a reminder to start or end a fuel-consumption check.

A relatively new area of nonverbal communication is the use of automated systems to

display and verify information, send and receive information, and maintain situational awareness

without verbal communication. This constitutes a growing body of communication between

crewmembers. However, for the purpose of this research, the nonverbal communications

examined will be restricted to those nonverbal communications used by the aircrew members in

the cockpit of Army rotary-wing aircraft. The following operational definition is used in this

literature review: Nonverbal communication (NVC) is communication without the use of spoken

language and the study of communication systems that do not involve words. Nonverbal

communication includes gestures, facial expressions, and body positions (known as "body

language"), as well as unspoken understandings and presuppositions.

5
Nonverbal Communication Effects on Aircrew Coordination (Literature Review)

The Army's aircrew coordination training program relies heavily on exchanging mission

information as a major objective to achieve safe mission performance. Supporting basic qualities

include ensuring that statements and directives are clear, timely, relevant, complete, and verified

in order to maintain situational awareness. Aircrew coordination training stresses that decisions

and actions be both communicated and acknowledged. Another basic quality of effective

information exchange is that aircrew members seek information and actions from each other.

For information exchange within flight crews to be effective, their words and actions,

whether they are communicated intentionally or unintentionally, explicitly or implicitly, must be

interpreted accurately. Team coordination training emphasizes using a professional language

containing simple, unambiguous words with well-understood meaning. Considerable attention is

given during training and evaluation of flight crew performance as to how well crewmembers

acknowledge and verify information presented in verbal, text, and graphic form. It may be

equally important to take care in correctly interpreting nonverbal messages.

In order to study the impact of nonverbal communication on crew coordination, a detailed

analysis of the types of nonverbal communications that occur between crewmembers is required.

Similar to the verbal communication literature, a classification schema is necessary to enable

researchers to better isolate and identify the nature and impact of the nonverbal communications

that occur between crewmembers. Only after a classification schema has been identified and

applied to nonverbal communications can the impact of nonverbal communication on crew

coordination be examined in an objective fashion. The nonverbal communications can be coded

and analyzed within the framework of the classification schema in the same manner as verbal

communication research is conducted.

This section describes a baseline review of aviation related (e.g., military and commercial

aviation) and non-aviation related (e.g., air traffic control, medicine, power generation)

nonverbal communications literature. The review is intentionally constrained to define the

relevant issues and acquire knowledge concerning nonverbal communication in the cockpit

environment and its effect on aircrew coordination. Additionally, the review is limited to those

aspects of nonverbal communication that can be physically observed by another person. For

example, physical body movement and gestures are included. Manners of speech or

paralanguage aspects of verbal communications such as voice pitch, word stress, timing and

pauses are excluded from this review of literature.

Method

This literature review was initiated by conducting an online search to establish a trial

definition for nonverbal communication. Using the keywords nonverbal-communicationsdefinition reduced the number of hits to two. Both sources (Hirsch, Kett, & Trefil 2002;

Trenholm, 1995) provide an unambiguous description of nonverbal communications that

includes elements that are consistent with the research constraints. The two search results were

combined to produce the definition presented above. That is, the definition used for this literature

review considered only those communications devoid of the use of spoken language, to include

6
gestures, facial expressions, body positions, unspoken understandings and presuppositions. A

parallel search of online resources was conducted to identify candidate schemas for organizing

nonverbal communications topics.

Initial searches using a trial set of key words and topics (see Table 1) produced nonverbal

communications literature items from a variety of sources including military manuals, books,

journals, technical reports, research reports, periodicals, papers, proceedings, and training

courses. Expanded searches included additional online sources and the New England Research

Application Center (NERAC). NERAC search strategies ranged from the broad topic area of

communications to nonverbal communications to the key words and topics. Repositories queried

by NERAC included Defense Information Service (dissertation abstracts), Department of

Defense (defense technical information), Energy and Engineering Indexes (monographs),

Medline (research papers), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (research papers),

Psychology Info (research papers), Trade and Industry News (articles), and Government Reports

Announcement File (research reports). Also queried were corporate technical libraries for

support, especially regarding the availability of documents identified from other sources, e.g.,

Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) and interlibrary loan agreements. Researchers

reviewed candidate literature items for evidence of nonverbal communications relevance and

whether or not the information contributed to the emerging body of knowledge.

Table 1

Key Words and Topics

Key Words Topics

Military aviation nonverbal communication Definitions

Commercial aviation nonverbal communication Schemas

Aviation-related nonverbal communication Methodologies

Body Movement and Gestures

Time and Space

Facial Displays and Eye Movement

The review and documentation process for this literature review consisted of an input

worksheet and a literature review database. The input worksheet is a Microsoft Word matrix

organized by topic titles. The matrix provides information areas to identify each literature item

and track it through the review process. Having already developed a literature review database

for the Army Research Laboratory's Battle Command Staff Proficiency Measurement System,

the product was refined to support this application. The database tool was designed to store and

report out information describing the nonverbal communications literature review. The tool was

developed using Microsoft Access, utilizing the application's relational database environment.

The user interface consists of an input form and menus for executing commands and reports. The

tool can be shared on a network drive to allow for a multi-user environment. Database elements

and capabilities are presented visually to the user on the input form (see Figure 2). The database

tool is capable of producing and exporting to a Microsoft Word document the literature review

appendix and reference reports.

7
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DocumentseNb~a

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Date: FL _19.93. unviy ll a• t Urbana i

Volume: Pag Num rs-.:: ... .... . ..

Issue:

Abstract. Introdcion Advances i technotog• have grearly wMacted the appearance of the modern acrafl

cockpil. Where once one wold see rows upon row, of dials and switches, today one can lind a tack of ,,- CR1 slcreens and data-entry keyboards. Beyond the viesuat appearance ofthe cockpit, tram a functionat

9 DefintRions: 0 Schras: El Methodologiel:E]

NVC - Body Movement and Gestures: E] NVC - Time and Spaicec

NVC - Facial Displays and Eye Movement: E] Related Topics: [E

Reviewed but not Included: [E

Reviewer: Gary Grubb _ .T

Cosmaente: introdluces supports rmoi verbal and nonverbal as action dependant speech [ADS)

Form VSiw. .. .

Figure 2. Nonverbal communications database tool -- input form.

Focus Areas and Categorization

Guidelines for including a literature item in the review aligned directly with the

constraints embodied in the definition-driven key words and topics. For example, the constraint

to consider only the nonverbal communication in the cockpit environment produced a guideline

to be alert for items that addressed intra-team communications. Intra-cockpit communications

were defined as communication between crewmembers that share the same workspace in the

aircraft cockpit (Segal, 1993). Reviewers were instructed to apply the guideline by including

intra-team communication related literature and comment on whether it explicitly addressed

nonverbal communications. Hence, a comments field was added to the input worksheet and the

database entry form for reviewers' use.

Additionally, the expandesed sear ietfd a number of items that addressed important

topics that are directly related to nonverbal communications and could have potential

implications on aircrew coordination, e.g., automation, crew composition, and accident

investigation. A separcate cegory was created for related topics in both the worksheet and a

corresponding field in the database tool to document these potentially relevant literature items.

The key word searches identified a small number of items that were not directly related even

though the title, descriptor, or abstract matched the strategy parameters. Thus, a field was added

8
to the database tool to account for items reviewed but not included in the literature review. The

intent was to provide information on nonproductive search areas and assess the effectiveness of

the set of key words and topics.

The final structure is a set of categories (see Table 2) based on reviewing, assessing, and

documenting the literature items generated from the searches. These categories serve to organize

the assessment of the current body of nonverbal communications knowledge along with insights

and implications for aircrew coordination.

Table 2

Nonverbal Communication Categories

Category Description (Examples)

Definitions of Nonverbal Comm. Specific to research constraints (Physical, Intra-cockpit)

Classification Schemas Existing, directly relatable construct

Research Methodologies Behaviors, team performance measures

Body Movement and Gestures Physical code, observable

Time and Space Mission-task flow

Facial Displays and Eye Movement Facial expressions, eye behavior (Night vision devices)

Related Topics Accident Investigation, Crew Composition, Automation

Reviewed Not Included Face relationship to NVC but determined not relevant

Definitions of Nonverbal Communication

Scientific dictionaries provide a baseline definition of nonverbal communications, i.e.,

communication without the use of spoken language. Such definitions almost always include a

discussion of what nonverbal communications include and sometimes how nonverbal

communications differ from other forms of communication (Hirsch, Kett, & Trefil, 2002).

Research definitions tend to include detailed discussion of topics like nonverbal behaviors,

common nonverbal codes, and sending and receiving skills (Trenholm, 1995). Assessment of

these items and others formed the basis of our operational definition of NVC and contributed to

our key words and topics. Aviation-related literature defines "implicit communication" as that in

which various interpretations may be derived from the information conveyed. Explicit

communication is that in which the message is detailed with exact information and there is no

ambiguity in interpretation (Campbell & Bagshaw, 2002).

Numerous literature items provided additional detail and reinforced one or more aspects

of our operational definition. For example, several categories of human expression such as facial

displays, gesture and body movement, posture and body orientation constitute active messages

sent and received in ongoing interactions. Body movement and speech-related gestures are often

used as a substitute for words and accompany or reinforce verbal communications (Kazdin,

2000). Recent research in the field of virtual environments emphasizes that physical gestures

used to convey information or meaning require both accurate recognition and interpretation to

enhance or facilitate communications (Cerney & Vance, 2005).

9
Classification Schemas

In the context of the current research effort, a schema is a system by which information

can be grouped into common logical categories. When reviewing existing information on

nonverbal communications, a variety of gestures, facial expressions, and body movements were

considered. In order to determine the impact of these nonverbal communications on crew

coordination, the nature and intent behind the communications need to be classified in a

consistent fashion.

The commercial aviation literature provided a limited number of items directly and

indirectly related to schemas for nonverbal communications. Our search did identify a single

Army aviation study on verbal communications, an academic paper on gesture recognition, and a

book that contains insights into the development of a nonverbal communications organizing

structure. Commercial aviation research into air traffic control communications provided a

taxonomy of general communication categories, communication topics, and communication

expression. This taxonomy supports evaluation of communications between two-person

controller team members in an environment similar to aircrews (Peterson, Bailey, & Willems,

2001).

The Army aviation study applied a verbalization analysis method in which each

verbalization was coded in one of eight categories (Ahroon, Gordon, Mozo, & Katz, 2000).

Books identified in the search offered organizing approaches based on functions,

communications models (Campbell & Bagshaw, 2002), and levels of message classification

(Penman, 1980). Research papers provided insights into possible classifications for gestures

(Rehfeld, Jentsch, & Rodriguez, 2004), communications topics (Costly, Johnson, & Lawson,

1989), and communication patterns in automated cockpit environments (Straus & Cooper, 1989).

Research Methodologies

Literature items addressing communications schemas and taxonomies consistently

discussed the research methodologies they supported. All of the communications methodology

literature we identified was commercial aviation related except the Army's research into

communications effectiveness using aviator hearing protection equipment and two studies on

distributed team performance. Commercial aviation methodologies used aircraft flight deck

simulators and expert observers to record and evaluate aircrew communications behaviors and

performance of flight mission scenarios. Cockpit communication recording was either audio only

or both audio and video to support subsequent coding and analysis of communication events

(Straus & Cooper, 1989). Videotaping allows for an in-depth review of intra-aircrew

communications (Peterson et al., 2001). Categories of verbal communications were logged and

in some studies associated overt actions taken in task performance were also logged (Costley,

Johnson & Lawson, 1989). An analysis of communications protocols by NASA concluded that

direct observation techniques are best to capture both verbal and nonverbal communication

events (James, Sanderson, & Seidler, 1989). Literature suggested that methodologies for

communications studies include quantitative measures supported by detailed video recording and

expert performance evaluations (Segal, 1994).

10
The Coordination Index Rating for Crew Linguistic Events (CIRCLE) methodology used

in the Army aircrew hearing protection study provided useful information regarding how well

crewmembers communicated verbally during a simulator mission. Additionally, it was used to

measure communication effects on aircrew coordination behaviors (Ahroon et al., 2000). An

academic paper discussed the role of nonverbal communication in crew tasks and how actions

can serve as a context for the interpretation of verbal communications (Segal, 1989). An analysis

of crew factors for manned space flight described the use of written surveys to identify nonverbal

communication factors, followed up by detailed questionnaires to refine categories (Wong &

Lyman, 1993). The Army's studies on training and communications performance of teams

working in distributed environments provided insights into the importance of face-to-face and

nonverbal communications (Commarford, Kring, & Singer, 2001; Kring, Hamilton, & Singer,

2004).

Body Movement and Gestures

Gesture and body movement-related literature came mainly from commercial aviation

studies of flight deck crews conducting a simulated flight. An Australian university study

presented evidence that one way in which pilots develop and demonstrate to one another their

shared understanding is by precisely coordinating gesture and talk. A takeoff and climb mission

segment was examined by transcribing both the talk and non-talk activities, e.g., gestures, body

movement, and orientation. The study concluded that analyzing more than words is necessary to

explain how people interpret what they are doing and what is going on around them (Nevile,

2002). A NASA sponsored study analyzed videotape of crew actions when confronted with a

dangerous fuel leak midway in the flight. Temporal analysis showed how gesture and space

provided the context for interpreting speech. Gesture and speech were mutually self-supporting

(Hutchins & Palen, 1997).

Time and Space

Literature addressing the time and space category of nonverbal communications focused

on intra-cockpit communication and crew coordination. Research data used video and

performance measures from full mission simulations conducted by two-person flight crews. One

independent variable was called "action-dependent speech." Action-dependent speech was

defined as "Any speech act that is so ambiguous that it cannot be understood without reference to

the visual record" (p. 56). Such words get their meaning in the context of a concurrent action,

i.e., the message has meaning only when both verbal and nonverbal information are combined.

For example, "This light should not be red, should it?" (Segal, 1993, p. 62). Crewmembers in a

two-person cockpit anticipate and look to confirm each other's interactions with aircraft displays

and controls (Segal & Wickens, 1994). For example, to perform takeoff and initial climb pilots

perform a number of actions in strict sequence. The talk consists mostly of prescribed callouts

and responses. Precisely timed coordination of talk and hand movement is critical to effectively

transfer control of engine power levers (Nevile, 2002).

11
Facial Displays and Eye Movement

Facial displays can be viewed and interpreted in person or by video signal as virtual faceto-face communications. Literature related to the facial displays category of nonverbal

communications resides mainly in applications of videoconferencing. Research addressed the

issues of field of view and fidelity necessary to provide facial expression detail (Burden, 1999).

Eye movement was the subtlest of the physically observable nonverbal communications

categories. Aviation related literature came from air traffic control and medical studies. Both

areas of research addressed the relationship of where one's eyes are looking (Helleberg &

Wickens, 2001) and for how long during the performance of collaborative tasks (Grimaud et al,

2002). Eye movement/tracking research addressed performance and communication as they

relate to situation assessment and error (Fussell & Setlock, 2003).

Related Topics (Crew Composition, Automation, Accident Investigation)

Two military aviation studies and one commercial aviation study addressed the impact of

crew composition on communications in the cockpit. Both the Army and Air Force military

studies indicated that fixed (homogeneous) crews tend toward informal communications and

commit more errors than formed (heterogeneous) aircrews (Barker, Clothier, Woody, McKinney,

& Brown, 1996; Grubb, Simon, Leedom, & Zeller, 1994). The commercial aviation literature

centered on the effect that automated systems have on aircrew communication patterns and

generally found no overall difference as a function of crew composition (Kanki & Foushee,

1989; Straus & Cooper, 1989).

Automation and information technology for coordination and communication are rapidly

replacing traditional face-to-face interactions between team members. Aircrew members often

visually monitor each other's interactions with controls and displays in the cockpit and rely on

nonverbal cues for task coordination and communication. There is limited research on the effects

of the loss of nonverbal cues that are commonly used to transmit information in face-to-face

teams (Pharmer, 2001). A review of literature on issues related to implementing adaptive

automation presents a finding that some automation interfaces allow one crewmember to instruct

the system without permitting the other to infer the nature of the input from observable behavior

alone. This may compromise nonverbal communication, degrade situational awareness, and

impede decision making, and thereby increase the possibility of errors in crew coordination and

flight performance (Kaber, Riley, Tan, & Endsley, 2001).

Recent research has developed a conceptual framework for supporting awareness in a

shared workspace. Teams performing collaborative tasks in real-time distributed systems

obtained information that was produced by people's bodies in the workspace, from workspace

artifacts, and from conversations and gestures (Gutwin & Greenberg, 2002). Research using

automated weather alert transmissions revealed how information presented at different times and

in different forms affects the awareness and decision-making behaviors of aircrews (Lee, 1991).

Literature on pilot-automation interaction increases understanding of the attention demands

12
placed on aircrews and the change from the traditional eye scanning behavior to individual

pieces of information on the glass cockpit display (Sarter & Woods, 1995).

Aviation accident investigation literature included a National Transportation Safety

Board report that points out the limits of existing flight recorders to fully document the range of

flight crew actions and communications. The Safety Board recommended a cockpit image

recorder to record the entire cockpit including views of each control position and actions taken

by people in the cockpit (Garvey, 2000).

Implications for A ircrew Coordination

The search results reinforce the perception that nonverbal communications are only

briefly mentioned in military training and evaluation. There is limited discussion of the role or

importance of nonverbal communications in the Army's aircrew coordination program. Without

instructional and evaluative information on nonverbal behaviors and skills, it is not possible to

accurately interpret the range of communications in the cockpit. Consequences of inaccurate

recognition and interpretation of nonverbal communication include potential performance errors

and accidents.

An accepted schema or taxonomy for nonverbal communications is required to research

and design effective training interventions and evaluation systems for the Army's aircrew

coordination program. The nonverbal communications schema should address observable

behaviors and be directly relatable to aircrew performance. Ideally, the behavioral constructs it

addresses should have application to aircrew interfaces external to the cockpit, such as

communications with Air Traffic Control.

All of the communications methodology literature, including the Army's research into

communications effectiveness using aviator hearing protection equipment, used aircraft flight

simulators. Meaningful communication and coordination research requires the use of expert

observers to record and evaluate aircrew communications behaviors and performance of flight

mission scenarios. Categories of nonverbal communications and aircrew behaviors associated

with task performance should be logged for analysis. A method is needed to measure how well

crewmembers communicate nonverbally during a simulator mission.

Insights and examples from the literature review of the definition-based categories of

nonverbal communications, i.e., body movement and gestures, time and space, and facial

displays and eye movement, are readily relatable to aircrew coordination in cockpits. Nonverbal

communications training should clearly address each category with meaningful examples, e.g.,

"Pilots develop and demonstrate to one another their shared understanding by precisely

coordinating gesture and talk;" and, "Precisely timed coordination of talk and hand movement is

critical to effectively transfer control of engine power levers."

Evidence of informal procedures and nonstandard verbal communications noted by crew

composition research suggests that the nonverbal communications of fixed crews may present a

threat to effective crew coordination. Increasing automation and the resultant tendency of

aircrews to rely more on visually monitoring each others' interactions with controls and displays

13
in the cockpit make them more reliant on nonverbal cues for task coordination and

communication. Video recording of aircrew actions and communications would enhance after

action reviews and feedback on aircrew coordination behaviors.

General Literature Review Conclusions

An aviation-related taxonomy of communication and coordination used in an air traffic

control study (Peterson, Bailey, & Willems, 2001) was identified that addressed intra-team

communications. While the classification schema requires some modification for use with rotarywing crewmembers internal to a cockpit, this schema provides a starting point for future research

and training. The air traffic control communications taxonomy, or Controller to Controller

Communication and Coordination Taxonomy (C 4T) identified during the literature review

provides general communication categories, communication topics, and communication

expressions that are highly relatable to aircrew coordination. This taxonomy could be adapted to

support training and evaluation of aircrew nonverbal communications. (See C4T discussion in the

Classification Schemas section.)

The simulator-based methodology used during the Army's aircrew coordination training

research program provides a realistic mission context in a visual flight simulator with expert

observer evaluators. The use of surveys, questionnaires, and experiments to confirm nonverbal

communication constructs, methods, and measures should precede full simulator missions.

The definition-based categories of nonverbal communications provide reliable input to a

nonverbal communications schema. These include body movement and gestures, time and space,

and facial displays and eye movement. All of these categories are readily relatable to aircrew

coordination in cockpits.

Little is known concerning the potential threat to effective crew coordination and

communication posed by the lack of nonverbal communication training and awareness. Many

pilots report that nonverbal communications occur frequently during flight and crew

coordination activities. However, there are many instances in which nonverbal communications

are blocked during routine flight conditions. It is important to identify the extent to which

nonverbal communications impact crew coordination and mitigate risk in situations where verbal

communications are ineffective, are supplemented by nonverbal communication, are replaced by

nonverbal communication, or are habitually not used. Further research on crew coordination

should include the impact of nonverbal communication on risk management.

In order to research and design an effective training intervention and evaluation system

for the Army's aircrew coordination program, an accepted schema or taxonomy for nonverbal

communications is required. Once the various nonverbal communications that regularly occur

within a cockpit have been categorized, a nonverbal communication schema should be identified

and enhanced to address observable behaviors directly relatable to aircrew performance. In the

following section, existing classification schemas are evaluated in terms of the theoretical

communication models they support, the conceptual levels of message description they espouse,

and their potential application to Army aviation.

14
Classification Schemas

While researchers have created a wide variety of classification schemas to encompass the

types and formats of communications that occur between individuals, no research has been

conducted on the impact of nonverbal communication on aircrew coordination. Of particular

interest is the impact of nonverbal communication between crewmembers on aviation safety.

This concern is progressively more relevant with the increase in the use of night vision goggles

and tandem seating arrangements in aviation cockpits. Crewmembers' ability to visually track

and interact with each other is decreased in these settings. These conditions reduce

crewmembers' ability to communicate via nonverbal gestures and visual tracking of movements.

The impact this has had on crew coordination and thus flight safety has yet to be formally

investigated. However, informal testimonials from crewmembers have suggested that this does

have a negative impact on crew coordination (Katz, 2005). Therefore, it is important to study the

impact of nonverbal communication on crew coordination in order to mitigate the risks

associated with blocked nonverbal communication between crewrnembers.

Within the existing literature on nonverbal communication, information is available

pertaining to one of three general perspectives: Theoretical, conceptual, and aviation related.

While there were no classification schemas directly related to examining the impact of nonverbal

communication on crew coordination among aviation crewmembers internal to the cockpit, the

schemas reviewed all contribute information relevant to extending this research area in the

future.

Theoretical Schema

In a chapter titled, "Theoretical Models of Communication Processes," Penman (1980)

presents four interrelated communication models that can represent the complexity of

communications systems in terms of their structural properties. The theoretical models are

presented in a hierarchical manner such that they build on each other. The first, the message

model, accounts for the symbolism in language (manifest or surface) as well as the symbolism in

non-vocal behaviors (latent or inferential). It presents a way of conceptualizing the

interrelationships between components of the message. A punctuation model provides a way to

look at how the messages themselves are interrelated by dividing the communication sequence

into transactional units with a beginning and end for analysis depending on the number of

participants (dyad or triad). A system constraints model provides a way to look at the types of

structural connections within a unit of communication. Observers' and participants' models used

together provide a dual level perspective of the structures inherent in communication processes.

A rules-based model suggests a procedure for describing regularities in terms of their function,

as the final step in a structural account of ongoing communication processes.

In "Human Performance and Limitations in Aviation", Campbell and Bagshaw (2002)

briefly describe components and aspects of two different models of communication. Berlo's

communication model presents four components: source, message, channel, and receiver. The

model includes elements for both the message and communication channel. Schul von Thun's

communications model proposes four aspects or levels of a verbal message: informational,

15
relational, appellative, and self-disclosure. Further discussion of this model notes that it is

necessary to have a context, given by nonverbal cues, to properly analyze the different levels.

Both communication models could potentially contribute to development of a schema for

nonverbal communications in aircraft cockpits.

Conceptual Schema

Literature items identified in the search offer organizing approaches based on nonverbal

communications theory and levels of message classification (Penman, 1980). Penman proposes a

schema for classifying messages based on the levels of message description-manifest and

latent. The schema is intended to be appropriate for classifying all behavior in a communication

setting. Application examples focus on the vocal rather than non-vocal communication modes to

avoid confusing an already complex situation. Each of the categories within the two levels is

defined in terms of either the power or involvement dimensions of behavior. A full description of

each category is provided as an appendix.

Two research papers in particular provide insight on possible classifications for gestures.

In "Memory Recall for International Gestures" (Rehfeld et al., 2004), the authors review relevant

research on emblem gestures and then organize a set of sixteen to research how well gestures are

learned and remembered. Researchers at Iowa State University (Cerney & Vance, 2005)

reviewed the cognitive, perceptual, and human factors motivations for using gestures in virtual

environments. They provided a set of guidelines for gesture development and a categorization of

gesture-based interaction tasks.

A viation-related Schema

Commercial aviation research into air traffic control communications provides a

taxonomy of general communication categories, communication topics, and communication

expression. This C4T supports evaluation of communications between two-person controller

team members in an environment similar to aircrews (Peterson et al., 2001). The taxonomy

divides communication expression into the categories of verbal, nonverbal, and both, i.e.,

containing components of both verbal and nonverbal expression. Initial field testing and

experiments suggest the taxonomy is useful to support both training and evaluation of intra-team

communications.

16
Selection of a Taxonomy

In order to investigate the impact of nonverbal communications on aircrew coordination a

classification schema needs to be identified that can be applied to aircrew communications

internal to the cockpit. The classification schema used to support this type of research needs to

accommodate both the type of communications that occur between crewmembers and the format

of the communications. For example, not all communications between crewmembers in an

aviation cockpit are verbal. Some are nonverbal and some are "mixed," a combination of verbal

and nonverbal communications. Further, communications are expressed in a variety of formats.

Communications can take the form of a request, command, question, response, or statement. The

schema should be supported by a clearly established taxonomy.

Research conducted by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) on controller-tocontroller communications (Peterson et al., 2001) included the development of a classification

schema and supporting taxonomy that can be applied to crewmembers within a cockpit (see

Figure 3). Communications between and among air traffic controllers (ATC) share several

properties with the communications between crewmembers. For example, the type, format and

topic of communications overlap between these groups.

The taxonomy captures communications in three general categories of topic, format, and

expression-all categories are highly related to aircrews in a cockpit environment. The

communication topic category contains 13 topics such as traffic, altitude, and route that account

for the majority of air traffic control communications. Definitions and examples for each topic

are brief and precise. Aircrew coordination parallels are readily apparent. The second category is

grammatical format and consists of five subcategories including question, answer, statement,

command, and command answer. Similar grammatical forms specific to Army aircrews are

available in Army manuals and research reports. Three subcategories of communication

expression address verbal, nonverbal, and both verbal and nonverbal communications.

Nonverbal communications considers mainly physical gestures such as head nodding, thumbs

up, etc. Explicit recognition of nonverbal communications in this taxonomy provides a distinct

point for development of more descriptive subcategories based on insights from this literature

review.

The Controller-to-Controller Communication and Coordination Taxonomy (C4T)

provides the best application of knowledge concerning theoretical and conceptual

communications schemas that is relatable to developing a nonverbal communications

classification schema for aircrew coordination. This candidate taxonomy affords the opportunity

to incorporate, in particular, the latent levels of communication into a practical classification

schema for researching nonverbal communication in aircrew coordination.

17
Table 3

Recommended Classification Schemas and Levels of Classification for Messages

Recommended classification schemas Levels of classification for messages

Communication Topic

(definitions specific to "speaker" group) Manifest

1. Approval I. Exchange

2. Handoff 2. Advise

3. Point-out 3. Support

4. Traffic 4. Agree

5. Altitude 5. Concede

6. Route 6. Request

7. Speed 7. Avoid

8. Weather 8. Disagree

9. Frequency 9. Aggress

10. Flow Messages 10. Offer

11. Flight Strips

12. Equipment Latent

13. Aircraft ID 1. Offer

2. Seek

Grammatical Formats 3. Abstain

1. Question 4. Resist

2. Answer 5. Control

3. Statement 6. Initiate

4. Command 7. Share

5. Command Answer 8. Collaborate

9. Oblige

Communication Expression 10. Cling

1. Verbal 11. Submit

2. Nonverbal 12. Relinquish

3. Both 13. Remove

14. Evade

15. Counter

16. Reject

18
Potential Methodologies

No previous research has been conducted to address the impact of nonverbal

communication on aircrew coordination. The focus of such a research initiative would be to

conduct a preliminary investigation on the types, functions, and effects of nonverbal

communication on aircrew coordination. The following section addresses research

methodologies found in the literature that may be applicable to this effort.

Review

Most of the communications methodology literature identified was commercial aviation

related. The few exceptions included the Army's research into communications effectiveness

using aviator hearing protection equipment and two studies on distributed team performance.

Commercial aviation methodologies used aircraft flight deck simulators and expert observers to

record and evaluate aircrew communications behaviors and performance of flight mission

scenarios. Cockpit communication recording was either audio only or both audio and video to

support subsequent coding and analysis of communication events (Straus & Cooper, 1989).

Videotaping allows for an in-depth review of intra-aircrew communications (Peterson et al.,

2001). In all coordination and communications methodologies, the categories of verbal

communications were logged and in some studies associated overt actions taken in task

performance were also logged (Costley et al., 1989). A review of literature items concluded that

direct observation techniques were best to capture both verbal and nonverbal communication

events (James et al., 1989). The most cited literature items suggest that methodologies for

communications studies include quantitative measures supported by detailed video recording and

expert performance evaluations (Segal, 1994).

The Coordination Index Rating for Crew Linguistic Events (CIRCLE) methodology used

in the Army aircrew hearing protection study provides useful information regarding how well

crewmembers communicated verbally during a simulator mission. Additionally, it was used to

measure communication effect on aircrew coordination behaviors (Ahroon et al., 2000). A

related academic paper discussed the role of nonverbal communication in crew tasks and how

actions can serve as a context for the interpretation of verbal communications (Segal, 1989). An

analysis of crew factors for manned space flight described the use of written surveys to identify

nonverbal communication factors followed up by detailed questionnaires to refine categories

(Wong & Lyman, 1993). The methodology used in the Army's study on training and

communications performance of teams working in distributed environments provides insights

into the importance of face-to-face and nonverbal communications (Commarford et al., 2001;

Kring et al., 2004).

All of the communications methodology literature including the Army's research into

communications effectiveness using aviator hearing protection equipment used aircraft flight

simulators. Meaningful communication and coordination research requires the use of expert

observers to record and evaluate aircrew communications behaviors and performance of flight

mission scenarios. Categories of nonverbal communications and aircrew behaviors associated

with task performance actions should be logged for analysis.

19
Selection of a Methodology

The methodology to support a preliminary investigation of the impact of nonverbal

communication on aircrew coordination should establish some initial data on three issues: 1) the

types of nonverbal communications that occur between crewmembers during mission execution,

2) the frequency with which nonverbal communications occur, and 3) how nonverbal

communications affect aircrew coordination.

An accepted schema or taxonomy for nonverbal communications is required in order to

research and design effective training interventions and evaluation systems for the Army's

aircrew coordination program. The nonverbal communications schema should address

observable behaviors and be directly relatable to aircrew performance. Behavioral constructs

should have application to aircrew interfaces with other than the cockpit crewmembers, i.e.,

mission crewmembers, other members of the mission package, and external resources and

control agencies.

A simulation-based methodology is recommended to evaluate the effects of nonverbal

communication on aircrew coordination. Crew coordination behaviors would be the focus for

evaluation during this research for two purposes: 1) to determine the degree of crew coordination

that occurred during mission execution; and 2) to determine the extent to which nonverbal

communications are used during crew coordination behaviors. It is hypothesized that less

coordinated crews will display fewer nonverbal communications during mission execution.

Additionally, it is possible that mission execution will be compromised more when nonverbal

communication is obstructed for crews that demonstrate high levels of crew coordination than

those that do not. Additionally, nonverbal communications may be utilized to support verbal

coordination behaviors performed during mission execution, or in lieu of verbal

communications. It is important to track the extent to which nonverbal communications are used

during crew coordination to better assess the degree to which situations that compromise

nonverbal communication (such as night systems operations and tandem aircraft crew

configurations) might negatively impact crew coordination and mission execution.

To investigate the effects of nonverbal communication on aircrew coordination, aircrews

would be asked to participate in two visual flight simulator periods for observation and data

collection. During one simulator period aircrews would be observed during mission execution

where nonverbal and verbal communication is able to proceed naturally ("Open Cockpit"). This

would provide a baseline measure of the frequency and nature of nonverbal communications as it

occurs during mission execution. A second simulator period would include a visual barrier that

would partially obstruct crewmembers' view of each other, hindering nonverbal communication

("Closed Cockpit"). Comparing aspects of crew coordination across these two conditions would

provide the opportunity to determine the degree to which nonverbal communications affect

aircrew coordination during mission execution. To increase the likelihood of capturing nonverbal

communications, the aircrews selected for participation would be expected to be familiar with

each other and have logged previous flight/simulation hours together. Evidence supports the

supposition that increased familiarity between crewmembers increases the frequency and type of

nonverbal communications likely to occur (Grubb et al., 1994).

20
Several measures could be used during this research endeavor. Video and audio-captures

allow for analysis of the frequencies and categorization of the types of verbal and nonverbal

communications that occur during crew coordination. The ACTE Behavioral Anchored Rating

System (BARS) provides the ability to determine whether the nonverbal communications that

occur during mission execution actually affect crew coordination. Observer Evaluator

Worksheets would allow measurement of performance parameters, and structured interviews

could be used to supplement these measures with subjective feedback.

Conclusion

Summary

Nonverbal communication is communication without the use of spoken language and the

study of communication systems that do not involve words. Nonverbal communication includes

gestures, facial expressions, and body positions (known as "body language"), as well as

unspoken understandings and presuppositions, and cultural and environmental conditions that

may affect any encounter between people. Nonverbal communication provides for emphasis or

enhancement of verbal communications in its simplest forms and at the extreme can completely

alter the meaning of verbal communications. Additionally, nonverbal communications may occur

in lieu of verbal communication. As Army aviation continues to expand operations at night and

utilize complex glass cockpits and tandem seating, the effects of nonverbal communication on

crew coordination will need to be understood. Research on the impact of obstructing nonverbal

communication between crewmembers will need to be conducted in conjunction with the

investigation into the effect of nonverbal communication on crew coordination. In this way the

means by which nonverbal communications enhance or affect mission safety can be established.

So far, very little is known about the impact of nonverbal communication on aircrew

coordination. In particular, research on nonverbal communication within rotary-wing tactical

aviation is extremely limited.

The full impact of nonverbal communication on tactical rotary-wing operations is

currently unknown. Extensive research on nonverbal communication and its effects on human

interaction have been conducted in the areas of sociology and psychology. Crew coordination

and its verbal component continue to be cited as a factor in aviation accidents. The impact of

nonverbal communication in aviation accidents is unmeasured. The need to conduct further

research, based on a pre-determined schema, into the effects of nonverbal communication within

the aviation industry exists. Research in this area will support cockpit design, operational

training, and tactical deployment of modem rotary-wing aircraft. For example, if research

indicates that nonverbal communication has little or no effect on tactical rotary-wing operations

then aircraft designers would be free from current design limitations that provide for line of sight

with other crewmembers.

Recommendations for Future Research

ARI should conduct focused research on the effects of nonverbal communication on the

conduct of tactical missions in Army rotary-wing aircraft. The objective of this research would

21
be to determine the level of nonverbal communication currently ongoing in rotary-wing

operations and the effect of reducing or eliminating the nonverbal communication on mission

success. This baseline of information will provide aircraft designers, aviation trainers, and

accident investigators with a known effect of nonverbal communication on mission safety and

task performance in tactical rotary-wing aircraft. This baseline could assist in the design and

modification of aircraft, training products, operational tactics, techniques, and procedures. In

addition, this research could provide the aviation accident investigator with additional

investigative tools and knowledge.

22
Acronyms

ACT - Army Aircrew Coordination Training

ACTE - Army Aircrew Coordination Training Enhancement

ACWG - Aircrew Coordination Working Group

ARI - Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

ARI-RWARU - ARI Rotary-Wing Aviation Research Unit

ARNG - Army National Guard

ASIST - Aviation Safety Investment Strategy Team

ATC - Air Traffic Controllers

ATM - Aircrew Training Manual

BARS - Behavioral Anchored Rating System

BQ - Basic Qualities

CaT - Controller to Controller Communication and Coordination Taxonomy

CIRCLE - Coordination Index Rating for Crew Linguistic Events

CCO - Crew Coordination Objective

DES - Directorate of Evaluation and Standardization

DoD - Department of Defense

DRC - Dynamics Research Corporation

DTIC - Defense Technical Information Center

ETP - Exportable Training Package

FAA - Federal Aviation Administration

FM - Field Manual

NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NERAC - New England Research Application Center

NVC - Nonverbal Communication

NVD - Night Vision Device

NVG - Night Vision Goggle

RL - Readiness Level

SOP - Standard Operating Procedure

TC - Training Circular

USAAVNC - United States Army Aviation Center

USACRC - United States Army Combat Readiness Center

USASC - United States Army Safety Center

23
24
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28
Appendix A

Nonverbal Communication Literature by Category

This appendix provides a summary sheet for each literature item considered in the

baseline review of aviation related (e.g., military and commercial aviation) and non-aviation

related (e.g., medicine, power generation) nonverbal communications literature.

Summary sheet contents provide the standard title-author reference details and abstract.

Included are comments indicating how the literature item relates to the nonverbal

communications body of knowledge as it applies to aircrew coordination in Army aviation

cockpits. Comments are provided for every literature item that is cited in the report as directly

relevant to the research effort. Comments provided for literature items not cited in the report

indicate how the literature is related and supports one or more aspects of nonverbal

communications. Some literature items with face relationship communication titles and/or

abstracts intentionally do not have comments posted as content review disclosed little or no

relevance.

Summary sheets are organized by key words and topics derived from the operating

definition of nonverbal communications: nonverbal communication (NVC) is communication

without the use of spoken language and the study of communication systems that do not involve

words. Nonverbal communication includes gestures, facial expressions, and body positions

(known as "body language"), as well as unspoken understandings and presuppositions, and

cultural and environmental conditions that may affect any encounter between people.

Table of Contents

Category Number Page

of Items

Definition (Physical, Intra-Cockpit) 4 A-2

Schemas (Relatable Organizing Structure) 7 A-7

Methodologies (Behaviors, Performance Measures) 11 A-14

NVC-Body Movement and Gestures (Physical, Observable) 2 A-25

NVC-Time and Space (Mission-Task Flow) 3 A-27

NVC-Facial Displays and Eye Movement (Night Vision Devices) 5 A-30

Related Topics (Risk Management, Crew Composition, Automation) 20 A-35

Reviewed but Not Included (Not Relevant) 21 A-57

Note: MS Access NVC database tool with literature item entries provided separately.

A-1
Definitions

Title: Science Information about Nonverbal Communication

Author: Hirsch, Jr. E.D., Kett, J. F., & Trefil, J.

Date 2002

Publication: The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Communication without the use of spoken language. Nonverbal

communication includes gestures, facial expressions, and body positions

(known collectively as "body language"), as well as unspoken

understandings and presuppositions, and cultural and environmental

conditions that may affect any encounter between.

Comments: Baseline definition of nonverbal communication from a science

perspective. (Cited item)

A-2
Title: The Shaker is the Taker

Author: Katz, L.

Date 2005

Publication: FlightFax

Volume: 33

Issue: (7) July

Page Numbers: 9

Abstract: Army Research Institute is currently conducting research to explore the

impact of limited nonverbal communication on aircrew coordination.

Comments: Provides definition of nonverbal communications as--Nonverbal

communications include any interactions in which a message is sent or

received without using written or spoken words; e.g., prodding, pointing,

tapping, gesturing, etc. Article alerts aviation leaders and Soldiers of

research effort and solicits their input and support. (Cited item)

A-3
Title: Encyclopedia of Psychology

Author: Kazdin, A. D.

Date 2000

Publication: Oxford University Press

Volume: (5)

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Nonverbal communication subsumes several categories of human

expressiveness such a facial displays (including eye contact and gaze

behavior), gesture and body movement, posture and body orientation,

touch, human spacing and territorial behavior, and vocal and paralinguistic

behavior. Some explications also include physical attractiveness and other

physical attributes, odor, and features such as hair, clothing, and

adornment. These latter aspects, however, are less frequently included

under the nonverbal communication rubric since they are more static than

messages sent.

Comments: Supports the operational definition of nonverbal communications

established by the review team. (Cited item)

A-4
Title: Thinking through Communication: An Introduction to the Study of

Communication. 3rd edition.

Author: Trenholm, S.

Date 1995

Publication:

Volume: Chapter 5

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Chapter 5: Encoding Messages/Nonverbal Communication. Goal: To

appreciate the extent to which nonverbal behaviors convey messages; to

identify common nonverbal codes and explore ways to use them more

effectively during communication. Nonverbal communication is the study

of communication systems that do not involve words. It is not easy to

define nonverbal communication. Experts disagree about whether to count

unintended actions as nonverbal communication. In this book, nonverbal

communication is regarded as occurring whenever stimuli other than

words create meaning in either a sender's or a receiver's mind. Given such

a broad definition, we must keep in mind that nonverbal stimuli are often

outside a sender's awareness. It is important to take care in interpreting

nonverbal messages. To increase interpretive accuracy, we should check

the communication context cues to meaning. Comparing nonverbal acts to

baseline behaviors will increase interpretive accuracy. If unsure, we

should ask for verbal feedback. As a system of communication, nonverbal

communication is unique. It has several defining characteristics. It may be

unintentional, may often combine multiple codes, is relatively universal,

(although nonverbal acts can be conventionalized), and it conveys certain

kinds of messages particularly well. It is immediate, continuous, and

natural. Nonverbal communication is often used to make initial judgments

when direct verbal questioning would be inappropriate. It gives us

information about our relationships with others, particularly in regard to

status, liking, and responsiveness. Nonverbal messages are particularly

appropriate for conveying emotion. Nonverbal communication often

accompanies and supplements verbal messages by repeating,

contradicting, substituting for, complementing, accenting, and regulating

them. Nonverbal communication consists of several codes working in

concert. Body movement and gesture, part of the kinesic code, are

important sources of information. Emblems act like words and they have

direct verbal translations. Illustrators are gestures that accompany speech

and add meaning to it. Regulators maintain the back and forth flow of talk

in an interaction by acting as social traffic signals. Affect displays convey

emotional meaning. Posture and gesture often tell us how a person feels.

When people lie, body movements can give them away. Adaptors are

unnoticed gestures or movement we use to calm ourselves in moments of

stress. Facial displays, including eye movement, are also part of nonverbal

A-5
communication, as the face is a powerful source of nonverbal information.

Facial displays are partly innate and partly learned. People learn to use

facial expressions to intensify or de-intensify feelings and to neutralize or

mask other emotions. We follow cultural, professional, and personal

display rules as we learn to manage our faces. The eyes, long associated

with mystic power, are important sources of information. Eye behavior

serves to maintain social position. The eyes are good indicators of

emotion. Eye contact signals our willingness to relate to one another. Eye

behavior is associated (often falsely) with character traits. Paralanguage,

the way we say something rather than what we say, is another nonverbal

code. Paralanguage is usually divided into three parts, each of which

convey meaning. Vocal qualities are characteristics of the voice like

pitch. Vocalizations are special sounds like groans or sighs.. Vocal

segregates are pauses, fillers, and other hesitation phenomena. Although

the judgments we make on the basis of voice are not necessarily accurate,

we think they are. Silence is an overlooked aspect of paralanguage that

carries meaning. Time, or chronemics, and space, or proxemics, also

convey messages. The values we attach to and the way we use time

provide useful information about us. People have different psychological

orientations to the present and the future. People are also controlled by

biological clocks. Cultures also differ in the meanings they attach to time.

The way we use space is called proxemics. We mark and defend four

kinds of territories, public, home, interaction and body, and these

territories can be encroached through contamination, violation, and

invasion. The ways we arrange home and public territories affect the

amount, flow, and kind of interaction that occur in these territories. Each

of us varies in our attitudes to personal space, how close we prefer to be to

other people. The extreme of personal closeness is touch.

Comments: This document supports the operating definition of Nonverbal

Communication used for this study. It provides a definitional basis for the

selected categories of nonverbal communications, i.e., body movement

and gestures, time and space, and facial displays and eye movement.

(Cited item) All cultures regulate and forbid certain kinds of touch.

Touch defines relationships, communicates social status, and satisfies

emotional needs. All cultures favor certain body types and create

stereotypes about the characteristics attached to them. People can be

classed according to somatypes. North American cultural norms value

men who are muscular and women who are slender. Dress fulfills several

functions: comfort protection, modesty, and cultural display. The objects

or artifacts we display also send messages. Our possessions are closely

linked with our sense of self. Elements in the design of built environments

give off additional messages. Size, shape, texture, linear perspective,

lighting, color, temperature, noise, and sensory stimulation are important

environmental factors.

A-6
Schemas

Title: Human Performance and Limitations in Aviation: Third edition

Author: Campbell, R. D., & Bagshaw, M.

Date 2002

Publication: Malden, MA: Blackwell Science Ltd

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Human error continues to be a major cause of aviation accidents. Experts

agree that a better understanding of the factors affecting human

capabilities and limitations whether physical or psychological will help

reduce pilot error and improve safety standards. This new training manual

covers the physiological aspects of aviation medicine and provides a

readable introduction to aviation psychology. A knowledge and

understanding of this aspect of flying helps reduce risks and motivates

pilots to maintain personal fitness, which is essential for pilot well being.

Written by pilots for pilots, the book avoids excessive medical jargon and

makes the material of real practical use for all who fly. The information

covered is suitable not only for private pilots, but also for commercial

aviators. The book takes into account the most recent changes in the newly

revised European JAR pilot training syllabus, but is based on an

international PPL syllabus to appeal to aviators around the globe.

Comments: Provides brief description of schema-related components and aspects

of two different communications models. Emphasizes the distinction

between explicit and implicit communication to include the importance

of accurate interpretation. Also supports the operating definition of

nonverbal communication established by the research team. (Cited item)

A-7
Title: Gesture Recognition in Virtual Environments: A Review and Framework

for Future Development

Author: Cerney, M. M., & Vance, J. M.

Date 2005

Publication: Ames, Iowa: Human Computer Interaction Program and Department of

Mechanical Engineering

Volume:

Issue: (ISU-HCI-2005-01)

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Gesture recognition has the potential to be a natural and powerful tool

in virtual environments, supporting efficient and intuitive interaction

between the human and the computer. A review of the cognitive,

perceptual, and human factors motivations for the use of gesture in

virtual environments is provided. A set of guidelines for gesture

development and a categorization of gesture-based interaction tasks

are formulated for practitioners.

Comments: Provides a set of guidelines for gesture development and

categorization of gesture-based interaction tasks. Also supports the

operational definition of nonverbal communications and provides input to

methods for evaluating gestures in nonverbal interactions. (Cited item)

A-8
Title: Nonverbal Communication: Studies and Applications (Fourth Edition)

Author: Hickson, III, M. L., Stacks, D. W., and Moore, N.

Date 2004

Publication: Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury Publishing Company

Volume: (ISBN: 1-891487-20-5)

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: The text offers complete coverage of the field's basic subcodes:

Haptics (touch); Proxemics (space); Physical appearance; Kinesics

(human body movement); Oculesics (face and eye); Vocalics

(paralanguage); Olfactics (scent and smell); and Chronemics (time

usage). An ever-popular feature is the chapter on research

methodology. Students will better understand what they are learning if

they become aware of the processes scholars follow in developing

theories. The authors conclude their text with a chapter on the future of

nonverbal communication--what we know about the field, its practical

implications, and where the discipline appears to be heading.

A-9
Title: Communication Processes and Relationships

Author: Penman, R.

Date 1980

Publication: London: Academic Press.

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: The dual emphasis on theory and method is reflected in the structure of the

book. The first half is concerned primarily with theory integration and

development and the latter half with the theory in practice. As a means of

demonstrating practical applications, the author presents descriptions of

the conversations of a sample of marital-type dyads. However, in order to

make the second half of the book more readable, the author minimizes

technical matters, except where necessary.

Comments: Provides an organizing approach based on nonverbal communications

theory and levels of message classification. (Cited item)

A-10
Title: Controller-to-Controller Communication and Coordination

Taxonomy(C4T)

Author: Peterson, L. M., Bailey, L. L., & Willems, B. F.

Date 2001

Publication: Washington, DC: Office of Aerospace Medicine

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: While previous research in the air traffic control (ATC) communications

area has generally concentrated on controller-pilot communications, this

program of research focuses on controller-to-controller communications.

At the Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC), teams of two

controllers, R-side and D-side, are required to communicate on a

continuing basis to coordinate the duties of their sector. As modernization

of the ATC system progresses, questions arise concerning the effects these

changes will have on intra-enroute sector team (EST) communications. In

anticipation of technology changes, the Federal Aviation Administration

commissioned a series of studies investigating intra-EST communication.

This initial study details the design and subsequent field-testing of the

Controller-to-Controller Communication and Coordination Taxonomy

(C4T). The taxonomy is designed to capture the following general

communication categories: Topic, Format (grammatical form), and

Expression. The final taxonomy resulting from this research contains 12

ATC topics (i.e., Traffic, Altitude, etc.). Communication Grammatical

Format contained 5 subcategories: Question, Answer, Statement,

Command, and Command Answer. Communication Expression consisted

of 3 subcategories: Verbal, Nonverbal or a combination of Verbal and

Nonverbal, referred to as Both. A field study at an ARTCC was conducted

with subject-matter experts coding intra-EST communications using the

taxonomy described. Field observations were made at 18 different sectors

between the hours of 07:00 and 019:00 based on moderate to high traffic

levels. Descriptive statistics detail the results of the taxonomy's use in a

field setting. Testing and further refinement of the taxonomy allows its use

in both field and controlled experimental settings. Provides a tool for

training individuals to code C4T communications, and enables the

establishment of a C4T baseline to investigate changes in communication

patterns as modernization continues in the enroute ATC environment.

Comments: Provides insight into key elements of nonverbal communications

operational definition and includes a taxonomy of general communications

categories, topics, and expression means. Supports methodologies using

video recording of simulator missions. (Cited item)

A-1I
Title: Memory Recall for International Gestures

Author: Rehfeld, S. A., Jentsch, F. G., & Rodriguez, T. N.

Date 2004

Publication: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 48th

Annual Meeting, USA

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 2604-2607

Abstract: The current project reviewed relevant research in the area of emblem

gestures and created an electronic library of gestures that incorporates

established population norms by culture and region. In order to present

this information to assist learning and remembering the information, four

displays were used (text only, text with gender-neutral and expression

neutral image, text with contextually relevant image, or text with detailed

image of gesture) with 16 gestures (eight with the same meaning across

countries, eight with different meanings). Accuracy was measured for the

first set of 32 questions (learning) and the second set of 32 questions

(transfer of knowledge to novel stimuli). Results showed a clear benefit

for gestures with the same meaning across cultures. In addition, use of the

detailed image produced significantly higher accuracy than textual

information alone.

Comments: Author reviews emblem gestures and organizes a set of sixteen to support

research regarding how well gestures are learned and remembered. (Cited

item)

A-12
Title: Crew Structure, Automation and Communication - Interaction of

Social And Technological Factors on Complex Systems Performance

[Electronic version]

Author: Straus, S. & Cooper, R.

Date 1989

Publication: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 3 3rd Annual Meeting: Santa

Monica, CA

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 783-787

Abstract: The effects of automation and task group social structure on group

communication and performance are analyzed in a simulated flight

experiment. The interaction of technological and social factors is studied

through micro communication analysis of crew interaction during the

flight simulation mission. Based on the analysis of recorded transcripts, no

overall difference is found in communication patterns as a function of

crew composition. However, the results indicate that heterogeneous crews

tend to exchange a higher ratio of task relevant to task irrelevant

statements compared to homogeneous crews. This interaction corresponds

to performance data that show enhanced performance for heterogeneous

crews in the automated condition. It is suggested that group structure and

interaction may contribute to the observed performance differences. (V.T.)

Comments: Identifies three groups of communications patterns used in analysis of

recorded simulator missions. Also addresses crew composition aspects

of intra-cockpit communications. (Cited item)

A-13
Methodologies

Title: Communications Effectiveness When using the Communications

Earplug or Expandable-Foam Earplug with the HGU-56/P Aviator

Author: Ahroon, W. A., Gordon, E., Mozo, B. T., & Katz, L. C.

Date 2000

Publication: Fort Rucker, AL: U.S. Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory

Volume:

Issue: (USAARL Report No. 2000-27)

Page Numbers:

Abstract: The ability of rotary-wing aircrew to utilize cockpit communications to

successfully coordinate missions is impaired by the high noise inherent

in the aviation environment and by hearing protection strategies

designed to protect the aviators from noise-induced hearing loss. The

use of the communication earplug in place of an expandable-foam

earplug when using double-protection (sound-attenuating helmet and

earplugs) significantly reduces the number of events classified by the

Coordination Index Rating for Crew Linguistic Events (CIRCLE)

measurement technique in the sub-code associated with pilots

requesting that a communication be repeated. The sub-codes

associated with missed transmissions (i.e., repeated verbalizations

caused by an assumed missed transmission) and improper responses

(where the response was inappropriate to the message received) did

not show statistical significance. However, the relatively low frequency

of occurrence of these sub-codes may limit the application of these

two sub-coded behaviors.

Comments: CIRCLE is a sequential analysis system employed at USAARL for

quantifying cockpit communications as coded pairs of events (Katz,

Fraser, & Wagner, 1998a). Each verbalization is labeled as one of eight

verbalization types and operates as a response to the previous

utterance and a stimulus for ensuing verbalizations. CIRCLE is a

system that codes all verbalizations as well as a lack of expected

verbalizations between pilot and copilot. The codes that CIRCLE

employs are Command, Question, Observation, Self-report,

Acknowledgement, Reply, Zero response, and Dysfluency. Subcodes

within each of these major codes are possible. Also supports

nonverbal communications schema development. (Cited item)

A-14
Title: Investigating Communication As A Possible Mediator Of Team

Performance In Distributed Environments

Author: Commarford, P. M., Kring, J. P., & Singer, M. J.

Date 2001

Publication: Proceeding Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 45th Annual

Meeting, USA

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 1939-1942

Abstract: The U.S. Army Research Institute (ARI) is investigating the use of virtual

environment (VE) technologies to train personnel in distributed

simulations. As part of this endeavor, ARI compared the communication

activities of two team types as they completed a series of missions in a

common VE. Local teams were comprised of two members situated in the

same physical location, whereas distributed team members were separated

geographically and had no opportunity for face-to-face communication.

Following the first 7 (of 8 total) missions, communications were recorded

as each team completed an after action review of their performance.

Analyses of the amount and type of communication acts revealed no

significant differences between local and distributed teams, even though

significant performance differences were found for these team types

during the VE missions. Results suggest that nonverbal communication

likely mediated the relationship between networking condition and team

performance.

Comments: Methodology used in Army study on training and communication

performance of teams working in distributed environments. Provides

insights into importance of face-to-face and nonverbal communications.

(Cited item)

A-15
Title: A Comparison of Cockpit Communication B737-B757

Author: Costley, J., Johnson, D., & Lawson, D.

Date 1989

Publication: Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Aviation

Psychology, Columbus: The Ohio State University

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 413-418

Abstract: Concern has been expressed for some time that the coming of

automated (EFIS) flight decks might well change the nature or the

pattern of communication and activity of flight deck crews, and that

any changes might detract from the alertness of pilots and therefore

from the level of safe operation of new-generation aircraft crewed by

new-generation pilots. If there is evidence of such changes there will

undoubtedly be a need for guidance in respect of Flight Deck

Management training for future generations of pilots. Interaction

Trainers Limited, in cooperation with Air Europe, has undertaken a

research study of inter-pilot communication on the flight decks of three

types or marques of aircraft and this paper presents preliminary results.

The aircraft concerned were the 737-200, with a conventionally

instrumented flight deck, the 737-300, with 'glass' flight

instrumentation, and the 757 with full 'glass' cockpit. Communication

behavior was observed and manually recorded by an observer present

on the flight deck throughout each flight from pre-start to postshutdown.

Comments: Expert observers manually recorded inter-pilot communication

behaviors. Data were logged into fifteen elements organized by four

communications categories for analysis. Also supports development

of nonverbal communications schema. (Cited item)

A-16
Title: C3 Generic Workstation: Performance Metrics and Applications

Author: Eddy, D. R.

Date 1988 (May 1, 1988)

Publication: Mental-State Estimation, NASA Langley Research Center

Volume:

Issue: 19880501

Page Numbers: pp. 381-384

Abstract: The large number of integrated dependent measures available on a

command, control, and communications (C3) generic workstation under

development are described. In this system, embedded communications

tasks manipulate workload to assess the effects of performanceenhancing drugs (sleep aids and decongestants), work/rest cycles,

biocybernetics, and decision support systems on performance. Task

performance accuracy and latency were event coded for correlation

with other measures of voice stress and physiological functioning.

Sessions were videotaped to score non-verbal communications.

Physiological recordings included spectral analysis of EEG, ECG, vagal

tone, and EOG. Subjective measurements included SWAT, fatigue,

POMS and specialized self-report scales. Performance assessment

algorithms were also developed, including those used with small

teams. This system provides a tool for integrating and synchronizing

behavioral and psychophysiological measures in a complex decisionmaking environment.

A-17
Title: SHAPA: An interactive software tool for protocol analysis applied to

aircrew communications and workload

Author: James, J. M., Sanderson, P. M., & Seidler, K. S.

Date 1989

Publication: Proceeding of the Third Annual Workshop on Space Operations

Automation and Robotics, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, USA

Volume:

Issue: (SEE N90-25503 19-59)

Page Numbers: 347-352

Abstract: As modem transport environments become increasingly complex,

issues such as crew communication, interaction with automation, and

workload management have become crucial. Much research is being

focused on holistic aspects of social and cognitive behavior, such as

the strategies used to handle workload, the flow of information, the

scheduling of tasks, and the verbal and non-verbal interactions between

crewmembers. Traditional laboratory performance measures no longer

sufficiently meet the needs of researchers addressing these issues.

However observational techniques are better equipped to capture the

type of data needed and to build models of the requisite level of

sophistication. Presented here is SHAPA, an interactive software tool

for performing both verbal and non-verbal protocol analysis. It has

been developed with the idea of affording the researchers the closest

possible degree of engagement with protocol data. The researcher can

configure SHAPA to encode protocols using any theoretical framework

or encoding vocabulary that is desired. SHAPA allows protocol

analysis to be performed at any level of analysis, and it supplies a wide

variety of tools for data aggregation and manipulation. The output

generated by SHAPA can be used alone or in combination with other

performance variables to get a rich picture of the influences on

sequences of verbal or nonverbal behavior.

Comments: Reinforces importance of direct observation to evaluate communications

interactions. (Cited item)

A-18
Title: Implications of Team Communication Training for Distributed Team

Performance in an Immersive Virtual Environment

Author: Kring, J. P., Hamilton, R. M., & Singer, M. J.

Date 2004

Publication: Proceeding of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 48th Annual

Meeting, USA

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 2647-2651

Abstract: Distributed immersive virtual environments (VEs) allow geographically

separate individuals to train together in a common setting, yet research

suggests that the absence of face-to-face (FTF) contact may degrade

distributed team performance by negatively affecting communicationdependent team functions. This study tested whether brief team

communication training (TCT) could reduce this distributed team

disadvantage by imparting skills to compensate for the lack of FTF

contact. Two-person teams completed a series of VE missions under

local (same physical location) or distributed (different locations)

conditions with half of each team type receiving TCT. Results indicated

all local teams outperformed distributed teams overall, but there were

no observable benefits of TCT for team performance. Explanations

focus on the brevity and administration approach of the TCT as well as

how cognitive overload may have negated any beneficial aspects of

TCT.

Comments: Methods included physical separation of team members (local and

distant) and introduced communications training as approach to

compensate for lack of face-to-face interactions. (Cited item)

A-19
Title: Differences In Cockpit Communication

Author: Segal, L. D.

Date 1989

Publication: International Symposium on Aviation Psychology 5th, Columbus, OH

Apr. 17-20, 1989, Proceedings

Volume: 2

Issue:

Page Numbers: 576-581

Abstract: The purpose of this theoretical paper is to identify and call attention to

effects of cockpit spatial layout on crew communication and

subsequent task performance. The paper discusses the general role of

nonverbal communication in crew tasks, how workspace spatial layout

affects behavior, how semantics can emerge from behavior within a

specified context, and how actions can serve as a context for the

interpretation of verbal communication. Examples are initially taken from

general crew task scenarios, and later focus on specific aircraft cockpit

interactions. It is suggested that human factors include the effects of

cockpit spatial layout on crew communication in their research effort,

aiming to apply the results to cockpit designs and crew training

programs.

Comments: Discusses the role of nonverbal communications in how actions can

serve as a context for the interpretation of verbal communications in

methodologies. Also supports the time and space category of nonverbal

communications. (Cited item)

A-20
Title: Validation of Crew Coordination Training and Evaluation Methods for

Army Aviation

Author: Simon, R., & Grubb, G.

Date 1993

Publication: Wilmington, MA: Dynamics Research Corporation

Volume:

Issue: (E-785U)

Page Numbers:

Abstract: At the request of the U.S. Army Aviation Center (USAAVNC), the Army

Research Institute Aviation Research and Development Activity

(ARIARDA) developed field exportable training and evaluation materials

for aircrew coordination. A testbed of the materials was implemented with

the cooperation of the 101 st Aviation Brigade. Sixteen aircrews

participated. Using a UH-60 flight simulator, aircrews were evaluated

while executing a comprehensive tactical mission. Evaluation data were

collected before and after aircrew coordination training was provided.

Evaluation measures included attitude, behavior, task performance, and

mission performance. Results showed that 1) the training had positive

effects on all of the measures, and 2) the measures are sensitive to changes

in performance. The impact on safety of flight was also assessed. The

report concludes with recommendations and suggested areas for future

research.

Comments: Methodology includes use of flight simulator missions, audio and video

recording of communications interactions, and expert observation of

aircrew coordination behaviors. (Cited item)

A-21
Title: Team Performance in Distributed Virtual Environments

Author: Singer, M. J., Grant, S. C., Commarford, P. M., Kring, J. P., & Zavod, M.

Date 2001

Publication: Orlando, FL: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences (Simulator Systems Research Unit)

Volume:

Issue: (ARI Tech Report No. 1118; ADA 396489)

Page Numbers:

Abstract: The U.S. Army is using virtual simulations for mission planning,

training, rehearsal, and concept development. Virtual environment (VE)

technology can provide simulated real world activities for dismounted

Soldiers. One issue in the use of distributed simulations is whether

team members learn, perform, and transfer their skills in distributed

situations in the same ways as individuals in local situations. In this

experiment, local and distributed teams completed a series of mission

rehearsals in a VE over two days. Eighteen, two-person teams of

college students performed synthetic tasks representative of tasks

performed by police, emergency response, and military teams. All

participants were trained to criterion in a VE before being assigned to a

team. Biographical information and subjective self-report

questionnaires were administered before, during, and after training and

mission sessions. Local teams interacted face-to-face between mission

rehearsal sessions, while distributed teams only interacted by phone

during the after action review session following each mission. Local

teams performed significantly better than distributed teams on several

collective task measures over the repeated missions. Simulator sickness

and presence during the mission rehearsals were also investigated.

Comments: Methodology uses mission simulators with two-person teams

executing a discrete portion of an overall mission.

A-22
Title: Crew Structure, Automation and Communication: Interaction of Social

and Technological Factors on Complex Systems Performance

Author: Straus, Suang, Cooper, & Russells

Date 1989

Publication: Institute of Aviation, Aviation Research Laboratory

University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign

Savory, Illinois

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: The effects of automation and task group social structure on group

communication and performance are analyzed in a simulated flight

experiment. The interaction of technological and social factors is studied

through micro communication analysis of crew interaction during the

flight simulation mission. Based on the analysis of recorded transcripts, no

overall difference is found in communication patterns as a function of

crew composition. However, the results indicate that heterogeneous crews

tend to exchange a higher ratio of task relevant to task irrelevant

statements compared to homogeneous crews. This interaction corresponds

to performance data that show enhanced performance for heterogeneous

crews in the automated condition. It is suggested that group structure and

interaction may contribute to the observed performance differences.

Comments: Methodology includes use of flight simulator missions, audio and video

recording of communications interactions, and expert observation of

aircrew coordination behaviors. (Cited item)

A-23
Title: Analysis Of Multicultural Crew Factors For International Manned

Spaceflight Missions

Author: Wong, C. K., & Lyman, J.

Date 1993

Publication: CSERIAC Gateway

Volume: 54-03b

Issue:

Page Numbers: 1641

Abstract: The objective of this study was to provide manned spaceflight personnel

from the world's space agencies with information on how key cultural and

interpersonal communication factors can impact multicultural crew

operations and interaction. American, Canadian, European, and Japanese

manned spaceflight personnel and officials participated in this study as

research collaborators and/or subjects. A two-phased procedure was used

to identify key multicultural factors and assess their potential effect on

international manned spaceflight crews. In Phase 1, they conducted a

literature review, interviews with retired and active astronauts, and

administration of written surveys to identify 14 multicultural factors:

language, nonverbal communication styles, task- and relationship-oriented

behavior, patience and tolerance, assertiveness, decision making

processes, interpersonal interest, respect for other cultures, personal

hygiene and cleanliness norms, gender roles/norms/stereotypes, conflict

management and resolution, trust in people, sense of humor, and crewmachine interfaces. In Phase2, a detailed questionnaire was developed and

administered to American, Canadian, European, and Japanese manned

spaceflight personnel contacts to assess cultural differences and

similarities on these 14 factors. The questionnaire grouped the 14

multicultural factors into four sections: language, cultural flexibility and

personal space, management styles, and crew-machine interface design.

The questionnaires revealed that the four cultural groups have both similar

and different attitudes regarding the following areas: (1) verbal

communication styles (e.g., slang, profanity, accents, idioms, formal

versus informal language), (2) discussion topics (e.g., humor, sex, religion,

politics, emotions and personal feelings), (3) cultural norms for work

ethics, social behavior, and traditional practices, (4) personal hygiene and

cleanliness norms, (5) cultural norms for proxemic and haptic behavior,

(6) gender roles in operational settings, (7) management styles and

approaches to conflict resolution in different types of situations, and (8)

movement stereotypes and color conceptual compatibility for crewmachine interfaces. A conceptual multicultural education and training

program for international manned spaceflight crews is proposed and

briefly described.

Comments: Describes the use of written surveys to identify nonverbal communications

factors with questionnaires to refine initial categories. (Cited item)

A-24
NVC - Body Movement and Gestures

Title: Constructing Meaning from Space, Gesture, and Speech

Author: Hutchins, E., & Palen, L.

Date 1997

Publication: http://hci.ucsd.edu/lab/hci_papers/EH 1997-1 .pdf

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Face-to-face communication in the workplace is often conceived of as

consisting mainly of spoken language. Although spoken language is

clearly a very important medium for the creation of representations, in

complex work settings, it is one of several such media. Gestures and the

space inhabited by speakers and listeners are normally thought of as

providing context for the interpretation of speech. This chapter

shows how space, gesture, and speech are all combined in the

construction of complex multi-layered representations in which no

single layer is complete or coherent by itself. They examine a brief

explanation given by one worker to two others, focusing on the

coordination among the spatial organization of specialized artifacts, the

positioning of gestures with respect to those artifacts, and the words

that are spoken.

Comments: Temporal analysis of simulator mission showed how gesture and space

provide context for interpreting speech. (Cited item)

A-25
Title: Gesture In The Airline Cockpit: Allocating Control Of The Power

Levers During Takeoff

Author: Nevile, M.

Date 2002

Publication: Paper presented at the First International Conference on Gesture,

University of Texas at Austin, USA, June.

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: This paper explores the role of gesture in the routine work of airline pilots.

The airline cockpit is an information rich environment (Hutchins 1995),

with an almost bewildering array of displays, buttons, switches, lights and

levers. This paper uses video data of airline pilots at work during a regular

passenger flight, along with detailed transcriptions of the pilots' talk and

non-talk activities. The paper draws on insights and practices of ethnomethodology and conversation analysis to examine gesture and processes

of talk-in-interaction as the pilots collaborate together to accomplish a

routine but critical action for a takeoff: allocating 'control' of the engine

power (thrust) levers. To have control of the power levers is to have the

responsibility, indeed the right, to touch them and to move them to alter

engine power. The paper explores how pilots develop and demonstrate to

one another their situated and moment-to-moment understandings of

which pilot has control of the power levers, and exactly when they have

this control. The pilots are shown to coordinate with precision a range of

available resources, including talk, visual monitoring of displays, and

physical contact with the levers. Such coordination is one way that pilots

both orient to and enact relevant cockpit roles as Captain or First Officer,

and as Pilot-flying or Pilot-not-flying.

Comments: Supports NVC Time & Space & Methodologies. Suggests that analyzing

more than words is necessary to explore how people interpret their

interactions. (Cited item)

A-26
NVC - Time and Space

Title: Automation Design and Crew Coordination

Author: Segal, L. D.

Date 1993

Publication: Moffett Field, CA: Aviation Research Laboratory

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 578-583

Abstract: Introduction: Advances in technology have greatly impacted the

appearance of the modem aircraft cockpit. Where once one would see

rows upon rows of dials and switches, today one can find a rack of

CRT screens and data-entry keyboards. Beyond the visual appearance

of the cockpit, from a functional point of view, the introduction of

automation has greatly altered the demands on the pilots and the

dynamics of aircrew task performance. Unfortunately, the rapid pace of

introduction of computer-based devices into the cockpit has

outstripped the ability of designers, pilots, and operators to formulate

an overall strategy for their use and implementation (Wiener, 1988).

While engineers and designers continue to implement the latest

technological innovations in the cockpit - claiming higher reliability

and decreased workload - a large percentage of aircraft accidents are

still attributed to human error: for air carriers, about two thirds of all

accidents are attributable to the cockpit crew; for general aviation, the

rates are even more disproportionate, with almost 9 out of 10 accidents

attributable to human causes (Nagel, 1988). While these figures may

accurately reflect the apparent cause of an accident, it is important to

remember that, rather than being the main instigators of accidents,

operators tend to be the inheritors of system defects created by poor

design, incorrect installation, faulty maintenance and bad management

decisions (Reason, 1990). This paper looks at some of the variables that

need to be considered if we are to eliminate at least one of these

inheritances - poor design. Specifically, this paper describes the first

part of a comprehensive study aimed at identifying the effects of

automation on crew coordination.

Comments: Introduces and discusses the mix of verbal and nonverbal as action

dependent speech (ADS). Also provides definitional basis for intra-cockpit

communication. (Cited item)

A-27
Title: Actions speak louder than words: How pilots use nonverbal

information for crew communications

Author: Segal, L. D.

Date 1994

Publication: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Aviation Psychology, 5th

Annual Meeting, USA

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 21-25

Abstract: How does the design of an aircraft cockpit affect crew communication?

The research described hereunder aimed at identifying aspects of design

that play a critical role in task coordination, yet have heretofore been

ignored. It is proposed that crewmembers coordinate the performance of

tasks using visual, nonverbal, information that emerges from the

interactions between individual pilots and the aircraft's systems. Twentyfour airline pilots participated in a high-fidelity simulator experiment that

compared the impact of three different types of interface on crew

communication and coordination. Measurement included detailed video

recording, and quantitative and expert performance evaluations. The data

suggest that pilots visually monitor each other's performance of tasks, that

visual monitoring is affected by the design of the interface, and that pilots

rely on such nonverbal information for communication and coordination.

The discussion looks at implications of these data to the design of

workstations and cockpits.

Comments: Methodology includes use of flight simulator missions, audio and video

recording of communications interactions, and expert observation of

aircrew coordination behaviors. (Cited item)

A-28
Title: Effects of Checklist Interface on Non-Verbal Cockpit Communications

Author: Segal, L. D., and Wickens, C.

Date 1994

Publication: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Volume: 55-09B

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: The investigation described hereunder looked at the effects of the

spatial layout and functionality of cockpit displays and controls on

crew communication Specifically, the study focused on the intracockpit crew interaction--and subsequent task performance--of airline

pilots flying different configurations of a new electronic checklist,

designed and tested in a high-fidelity simulator at NASA-Ames

Research Center (ARC). The first part of this proposal establishes the

theoretical background for the assumptions underlying the research,

suggesting that in the context of the interaction between a multioperator crew and a machine, the design and configuration of the

interface will affect interactions between the individual operators and

the machine, and subsequently, the interaction between operators. In

view of the latest trends in cockpit interface design and flight-deck

technology--in particular, the centralization of displays and controls--

the theoretical introduction identifies certain problems associated with

these modem designs, and suggests specific design issues to which

the expected results could be applied. A detailed research program and

methodology is outlined, and the results are described and discussed.

Overall, differences in cockpit design were shown to impact the activity

within the cockpit, including interactions between pilots and aircraft

and the cooperative interactions between pilots. The research--which

was performed on site at NASA ARC--served as the basis for Leon

Segal's doctoral dissertation; Dr. Barbara Kanki served as his technical

monitor and chief collaborator for NASA ARC and Prof. Chris Wickens

as academic advisor. This research was supported by NASA-Ames

University Consortium grant NCA 2-616.

Comments: Investigates crewmember interactions when using automated

checklists to include timing and movement to confirm crewmember

actions with aircraft controls and displays. (Cited item)

A-29
NVC - Facial Displays and Eye Movement

Title: Coming Into Focus. (Lucent's MMCX Desktop Videoconferencing

Server; Microsoft's Netmeeting)(Product Information) (Abstract)

[Electronic Version].

Author: Burden, K.

Date 1999

Publication: Journal of Computerworld

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Production of Joint Strike Fighter requires face-to-face collaboration.

Lockheed Martin Tactical Aircraft Systems in Fort Worth, Texas, wants

everyone involved in the production of its new Joint Strike Fighter

working as if they were side-by-side. Actually, its testing methodology

requires it. Lockheed uses the Fagen inspection program, which involves

four people conducting formalized walk-throughs designed to detect

defects in software and its documentation as early as possible. But because

the Fagen system calls for the players to be face-to-face so that facial

expressions and body language can be recorded, Lockheed had to create a

virtual enterprise for its geographically dispersed team members.

"Nonverbal communication is critical to this inspection process," says

Wynn Jones, engineering specialist. "Things like raising an eyebrow when

you don't understand something -- that gets lost in conference calls."

Lockheed chose the MMCX desktop videoconferencing server from

Lucent Technologies Inc. in Murray Hill, N.J., for many reasons: foremost

for its application sharing, which is handled through Microsoft Corp.'s

NetMeeting. With it, team members can work together in shared

applications, passing documents back and forth while talking in full

duplex mode. The system connects Lockheed's Fort Worth campus with

its divisions in Marietta, Ga., and Palmdale, Calif., and will soon connect

to British Aerospace in the U.K. Image size and quality were also

priorities, because it was important for workers to clearly see facial

expressions. But Lockheed needed to decide how far back from broadcast

quality would be acceptable, because the 30 frame/sec. needed for realtime video wasn't possible on its lOBase-T network. "We found that a

frame rate about half that of real time was acceptable for us," Jones says.

But Lockheed is upgrading its network to a Category 5 cabling. Although

15 frame/sec. is workable, Lockheed wants it to be better.

Comments: Provides insights into field of view and fidelity issues associated with

facial expression details. (Cited item)

A-30
Title: Using Eye-Tracking Techniques to Study Collaboration on Physical

Tasks: Implications for Medical Research

Author: Fussell, S. R., & Setlock, L. D.

Date 2003

Publication: Unpublished manuscript, Carnegie Mellon University

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: This paper discusses eye-tracking as a technique to study

collaborative physical tasks-tasks in which two or more people work

together to perform actions on concrete objects in the threedimensional world. For example, a surgical team might collaborate to

treat a patient. They first consider the use of eye tracking as people

perform their tasks. They review studies applying eye-tracking to

individual performance of physical tasks and interpersonal

communication, then present a study on gaze in a collaborative

construction task. Next, they consider eye tracking as an independent

measure-a factor that is manipulated in studies of remote

collaboration on physical tasks. They discuss how the use of eyetracking can be used to assess the importance of gaze awareness

information for collaboration and present results of a study using this

technique. They end by considering limitations and theoretical issues

regarding eye-tracking as a research tool for collaborative physical tasks.

Comments: Importance of gaze awareness as it relates to situation assessment and

error. Unpublished manuscript, Carnegie Mellon University. (Cited item)

A-31
Title: Delegation Of Spacing Tasks From Controllers To Flight Crew: Impact

On Controller Monitoring Tasks

Author: Grimaud, I., Hoffman, E., Pellegrin, A., Rodet, L., Rognin, L., & Zeghal,

K.

Date 2002

Publication: Proceedings of the Air Traffic Management for Commercial and

Military Systems, USA

Volume: I

Issue:

Page Numbers: 2B31-2B39

Abstract: The impact of introducing procedures on active control

(communication and instructions) and on monitoring task was

discussed. Air traffic controller activity combines the issuing of

instructions with continuous visual assessment of the situation. Visual

scanning is a systematic and continuous effort to acquire all the

necessary visual information in order to build and maintain a complete

awareness of activities and situations which may affect the controllers.

Comments: Addresses how long air traffic controller remains focused on a single

area during performance of a collaborative task. Impacts situational

awareness-assessment and decision making. (Cited item)

A-32
Title: Auditory Vs. Visual Data Link: Relative Effectiveness

Author: Helleberg, J., & Wickens, C. D.

Date 2001

Publication: Proceedings of the Human Factors Ergonomics Society 45th Annual

Meeting, USA

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 35-39

Abstract: Pilots flew a GA simulator based on ATC-instructed maneuvers, while

scanning outside for traffic. Various length ATC instructions were

delivered through a textual, voice, or redundant data link format. Pilots

read back the instructions, then complied with the maneuver. Visual

scanning was measured. Results indicated the visual display provided

greatest accuracy of communications read back and least disruption of

traffic monitoring and flight-path tracking. The voice-only condition

was most disruptive, partially because the pilot's eyes were drawn into

the cockpit longer while note taking, compared to the two visual text

displays. The redundant display never supported better performance

than the visual display. This cost resulted partially because arrival of

the discrete auditory communications disrupted flight-path

performance. Pilots allocated about 60% of visual attention to the

instrument panel, and communications accuracy was degraded by

longer ATC instructions. Results are interpreted referencing

mechanisms of attention, working memory, and the pilot's task priority

hierarchy.

Comments: Visual scanning and eye location during simulator mission. (Cited item)

A-33
Title: Aircrew Decision-Making Behavior In Hazardous Weather Avoidance

Author: Lee, A.T.

Date 1991

Publication: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD-Display&DB

=pubmed

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: In-flight encounters with hazardous weather represent one of the most

significant safety issues in civil aviation operations. Aircrew judgment

is often cited as the probable cause of incidents and accidents

involving weather, although lack of information is also a factor. The

present study examines how information, presented at different times

and in different forms, affects the awareness and decision-making

behavior of aircrews in a flight simulation study of a recent

microburst/wind shear incident. In order to examine the influence of

enhanced information transfer on aircrew behavior, intracrew

communications and approach-to-land decisions were evaluated with

conventional ATC communications and with automated cockpit

alerting and display of weather information. Results of the study

revealed that aircrews provided only with conventional ATC

transmissions of weather information had difficulty discriminating

conditions conducive to microburst events from less hazardous

wind shear events. Improved situation awareness for microburst events

was found when ground-based convective weather information was

provided in real time to aircrews. Avoidance decision-making was

found to be less efficient with conventional ATC alert transmissions

when compared to the performance of crews provided with a visual

display of microburst events. The importance of information transfer on

aircrew situation awareness and decision-making in hazardous weather

avoidance is discussed.

Comments: Automation related article shows how information presented at

different times and in different forms affects behaviors of aircrews.

A-34
Related Topics

Title: Crew Resource Management: A Simulator Study Comparing Fixed

Versus Formed Aircrews [Electronic version]

Author: Barker J.M., Clothier C. C., Woody J. R., McKinney, Jr., E. H., & Brown,

J. L.

Date 1996

Publication: USAAhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db

=pubmed&dopt=Abstract &listuids=8929198&query hi=2

Volume: January

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Most airline and military transport planes are flown by crews that have

been teamed together for a short amount of time before disbanding and

becoming part of a different crew (formed crew concept). Some military

operations use a fixed crew concept, pairing crewmembers together for an

indefinite period. This research investigated the effect of crew formation

policy on aircrew performance during missions in U.S. Air Force KC-135

(tanker) simulators. METHOD: The performance of fixed aircrews is

compared to formed aircrews flying the same simulator mission scenario,

which included an in-flight emergency. Cockpit resource management

(CRM) behavioral data and error data were collected by trained observers

for 17 crews (9 fixed and 8 formed). RESULTS: The results show that

fixed crews committed more minor errors (4.4 per mission) than formed

crews (2.6 per mission), t (14) = 2.32, p = 0.036. No differences were

found concerning major errors or CRM behavioral indicators.

CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest the possibility of a "familiarity

decline," where aircrew performance declines when crewmembers become

too familiar with each other and may affect flight safety.

Comments: Crew Composition related study suggests presence of a familiarity decline

in performance of fixed crews compared to formed crews during simulator

missions. (Cited item)

A-35
Title: A Macroergonomic Approach to Distributed Team Performance

Author: Cuevas, H., Fiore, S., Salas, E., & Bowers, C.

Date 2002

Publication: Proceedings of the 46'h Annual Meeting of the Human Factors and

Ergonomics Society, Santa Monica, CA: HFES.

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 1335-1339

Abstract: With the structure of teams in organizations increasing in complexity to

include both co-located and distributed team members, explicit linkages

between theory and practice are critically needed to mitigate the negative

effects that computer-mediated interaction may have on distributed team

performance. Following a macroergonomic approach, this paper focuses

on describing how theories from organizational psychology can address

some of the challenges faced by this small, but growing, subset of teams.

Specifically, theories in motivation, group dynamics, and decision-making

can be applied to offer practical guidelines to foster the development of

positive team attitudes (e.g., cohesion, trust) and behaviors (e.g., goalsetting, self-regulation), and successful decision-making performance in

distributed teams.

Comments: Team performance related paper introduces the concept of team opacity as

the phenomenon whereby distribution decreases awareness of team

member actions and may thus alter their interactions.

A-36
Title: Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Shipboard Helicopter

Operations

Author: Department of Defense

Date 1997

Publication: Fort Monroe, VA: Joint Warfighting Center

Volume:

Issue: (Joint Publication 3-04.1)

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Joint Service doctrinal publication incorporates joint and Service tactics,

techniques, and procedures into a single-source publication and provides

the guidance and procedures necessary to plan, coordinate, and conduct

joint shipboard helicopter operations from US Navy and US Coast Guard

ships.

Comments: Army doctrine related manual provides codes and signals appendices

related to gestures and nonverbal communications category. (Cited item)

A-37
Title: Field Manual 21-60, Visual Signals

Author: Department of the Army

Date 1987

Publication: Washington, D.C; Headquarters,

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Army doctrine on visual signals including arm-and-hand, flag,

pyrotechnic, panel, mirrors, and strobes.

Comments: Army manual covers general subject area related to nonverbal

communications, especially as arm-and-hand signals as gestures. (Cited

item)

A-38
Title: Aircrew Coordination Qualification Course

Author: Department of the Army

Date 2003

Publication: Fort Rucker, AL: United States Army Aviation Center

Volume: March

Issue: File No. 4634

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Army Aircrew Coordination Training Program

Comments: Provides a formal definition of aircrew coordination and includes three

talking points specific to nonverbal communications, i.e., signals, words

and symbols, and body language. (Cited item)

A-39
Title: Effects Of Cockpit Display Of Traffic Information On Visual Attention

And Eye Movements In The General Aviation Cockpit

Author: Duley, J. A.

Date 2001

Publication: Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences &

Engineering

Volume: 62

Issue: (2-B)

Page Numbers: 1122

Abstract: A General Aviation pilot must perform primary flight tasks of aviate,

navigate, and communicate while attending to information regarding

collision avoidance. A cockpit display of traffic information (CDTI) has

been previously proposed as a form of automation to assist in the latter

task. The present study assessed the impact of a CDTI on the performance

of a pilot's primary flight tasks. The Multi-Attribute Task Battery (MAT)

was used as the primary task. The University students' multi-task

performance, and visual sampling strategies with and without the CDTI

were assessed. The addition of the CDTI task to the MAT task

performance induced a scanning strategy change resulting in improved

task performance. There appears to have been a shift from a data

acquisition strategy to one emphasizing the frequent sampling of all task

displays. However the engine thrust maintenance sub-task was negatively

impacted by the addition of the CDTI task. It appears that the overall task

demands of the MAT and CDTI together created interference with the

memory demands of this sub-task leading to longer periods of time away

from the optimal thrust. The effects of expertise on these abilities and

strategies were investigated in a second experiment with University

students and GA pilots. Expertise played a role in their strategies such that

the students who had more MAT experience determined their attention

strategy based on the ratio of intruders to total number of CDTI events. In

contrast, the number of CDTI events appears to have driven the sampling

strategies of the other participants (pilots and a second group of students)

who had less experience with the MAT. The results of both experiments

indicate the need for the training of an efficient information acquisition

strategy particularly when a new display is added to a set of primary task

displays. While the CDTI did not negatively affect overall primary task

performance, it did alter the attentional strategies of the participants which

was beneficial under the data-limited conditions of the first experiment but

detrimental under the increased CDTI event rate of the second experiment.

Comments: Related topic - Automation

A-40
Title: Aeronautical Information Manual, Official Guide to Basic Flight

Information and ATC Procedures

Author: Federal Aviation Administration

Date 2004

Publication: Washington, D.C: Headquarters

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Official guide to basic flight information and ATC procedures.

Comments: Traffic control light and hand signals relate to gestures and nonverbal

communications category. (Cited item)

A-41
Title: Safety Recommendation

Author: Garvey, J.

Date 2000

Publication: Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety Board

Volume:

Issue: (A-00-30 and -31)

Page Numbers:

Abstract: In this letter, the National Transportation Safety Board recommends

that the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) take actions to address

safety issues concerning the current lack of cockpit imagery and the

location of flight recorder circuit breakers. These recommendations were

prompted by the lack of valuable cockpit information during the

investigations of several aircraft incidents and accidents, including USAir

flight 105 on September 8, 1989, ValuJet flight 592 on May 11, 1996, Silk

Air flight 85 on December 19, 1997, Swissair flight 111 on September 2,

1998, and Egypt Air flight 990 on October 31, 1999. This letter

summarizes the Safety Board's rationale for issuing the recommendations.

Comments: Accident Investigation related Safety Recommendation suggests

installation of cockpit image recorders to record the views of each control

position and actions taken by crewmembers. (Cited item)

A-42
Title: Review of Current Aircrew Coordination Training Program and Master

Plan for Program Enhancement: Aircrew Coordination Training Master

Plan

Author: Grubb, G., Simon, R., Goddard, J., Kline, K.

Date 2001

Publication: Wilmington, MA: Dynamics Research Corporation

Volume:

Issue: (A-515693)

Page Numbers:

Abstract: This report presents the results of reviewing the training and

evaluation of aircrew and team coordination aspects of the Army's

current Aircrew Coordination Training (ACT) program to develop a

master plan of continuous improvement. Research source materials

included policies, training courseware, evaluation guides, research

papers and reports, and assessment summaries of operational trend

data. Information was developed from interviews with team

coordination subject matter experts and published information across

the Department of Defense military services, commercial carriers, and

academia. Interviews, reviews, and information results focused on ACT

policy, training, evaluation and risk management, and future plans and

research. The results of the review led to the conclusion that the

Army's ACT program effectiveness has greatly declined since 1995

due to limited funding and that it requires revitalization and enhancement.

Because Army aviation reorganization and modernization initiatives

impact all units and components, it is now more important than ever to

develop an integrated strategy of corrective actions. The report

includes a recommended Master Plan for ACT Enhancement in the form

of a proactive, multi-phased course of continuous improvement to

maximize Army aviation modernization investments and complement

leadership training initiatives.

Comments: Team training related Contractor Report provides historical background

and provides a strategic program plan for the Army's Aircrew

Coordination Training Program. (Cited item)

A-43
Title: Effect of Crew Composition on AH-64 Attack Helicopter Mission

Performance and Flight Safety

Author: Grubb, G., Simon, R., Leedom, D., & Zeller, J.

Date 1994

Publication: Wilmington, MA: Dynamics Research Corporation

Volume:

Issue: (E-1534U)

Page Numbers:

Abstract: This report presents the results of evaluating battle rostering (pairing

crewmembers on a long-term basis) by comparing AH-64 attack

helicopter crews when flying in a battle-rostered and mixed crew

composition. Participants in the experiment were AH-64 attack helicopter

standardization instructor pilots, and 12 battle-rostered aircrews consisting

of a pilot and copilot gunner. All participants received training in the

Army's Aircrew Coordination Exportable Training Package as a

prerequisite for the experiment. Participating aircrews conducted two

missions in a battle-rostered crew and two missions in a mixed crew.

Discussion and analysis of crew performance are presented as measures of

behavior, task performance, mission performance, and participant exit

interview comments. The study concludes that minimal evidence exists to

show that battle rostering provides meaningful improvements in the

mission performance or flight safety of crew coordination-trained

aircrews. Battle rostering drawbacks include overconfidence and increased

reliance on implicit communications and coordination. The report

recommends implementing actions to improve mission effectiveness and

flight safety and follow on research to better understand and capitalize on

the strengths of crew and team coordination.

Comments: Report findings support the perception that battle-rostering fosters

implicitness, which can lead to informality and complacency. Battlerostered crews rated their crew coordination style as more implicit than

mixed crews. Both objective and subjective data collected during the study

identified the following operational drawbacks associated with battlerostering--overconfidence, informal and nonstandard procedures, and

implicit coordination behaviors. (Cited item)

A-44
Title: A Descriptive Framework of Workspace Awareness for Real-Time

Groupware [Electronic version].

Author: Gutwin, C., & Greenberg, S.

Date 2002

Publication: Computer Supported Cooperative Work, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic

Publishers

Volume: 11

Issue: 3

Page Numbers: 411-446

Abstract: Supporting awareness of others is an idea that holds promise for

improving the usability of real-time distributed groupware. However,

there is little principled information available about awareness that can

be used by groupware designers. In this article, the authors develop a

descriptive theory of awareness for the purpose of aiding groupware

design, focusing on one kind of group awareness called workspace

awareness. They focus on how small groups perform generation and

execution tasks in medium-sized shared workspaces - tasks where

group members frequently shift between individual and shared

activities during the work session. They have built a three-part

framework that examines the concept of workspace awareness and that

helps designers understand the concept for purposes of designing

awareness support in groupware. The framework sets out elements of

knowledge that make up workspace awareness, perceptual mechanisms

used to maintain awareness, and the ways that people use workspace

awareness in collaboration. The framework also organizes previous

research on awareness and extends it to provide designers with a

vocabulary and a set of ground rules for analyzing work situations, for

comparing awareness devices, and for explaining evaluation results.

The basic structure of the theory can be used to describe other kinds

of awareness that are important to the usability of groupware.

Comments: Automation related publication indirectly addresses time and space

aspects of nonverbal communications called workspace awareness.

Teams performing collaborative tasks obtain information that is

produced by team members' bodies in the workspace, workspace

artifacts, and conversations and gestures. (Cited item)

A-45
Title: Field Manual 3-04.564, Shipboard and Overwater Operations

Author: Headquarters, United States Army Aviation Center: Fort Rucker, Alabama

Date 2005

Publication:

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Army doctrine on shipboard and overwater operations includes detailed

appendices on aircraft handling, arming, and safing signals.

Comments: Signals appendices relate to nonverbal communications gestures category.

A-46
Title: Army Safety Investment Strategy Team (ASIST) Translating Aviation

Accident Information to Hazards and Controls

Author: Hicks, J., & Peusch, I.

Date 2001

Publication: Proceedings of the 19th International System Safety Conference, USA

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: As part of a risk management campaign to enhance readiness and protect

the capability of the force, the US Army leadership directed an Aviation

Safety Investment Strategy Team (ASIST) to chart a path toward

breakthrough gains in aviation safety. The ASIST Team was chartered to

define measurable accident prevention goals and identify the most

important Army-wide investments needed to achieve them. The means to

achieve the Army goals will be the integration of accident prevention and

risk management requirements into the Aviation planning, programming,

and budgeting system. The team has completed an in-depth analysis of

accident experience involving all force-modernized aircraft during the last

5 years. Currently, the team is prioritizing and validating requirements in

various areas of doctrine, training, leader development, organization,

materiel, and Soldier performance.

Comments: Provides a comprehensive review of Army aviation accidents over a fiveyear period concluding that aircrew coordination training represents a high

payoff, low cost solution (control) that addresses a range of threats

(hazards). (Cited item)

A-47
Title: On the Design of Adaptive Automation for Complex Systems

[Electronic version].

Author: Kaber, D. B., Riley, J. M., Tan, K. W., & Endsley, M. R.

Date 2001

Publication: International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics

Volume: 5

Issue: (1)

Page Numbers: 37-57

Abstract: This article presents a constrained review of human factors issues relevant

to adaptive automation (AA), including designing complex system

interfaces to support AA, facilitating human-computer interaction and

crew interactions in adaptive system operations, and considering workload

associated with AA management in the design of human roles in adaptive

systems. Unfortunately, these issues have received limited attention in

earlier reviews of AA. This work is aimed at supporting a general theory

of human-centered automation advocating humans as active information

processors in complex system control loops to support situation awareness

and effective performance. The review demonstrates the need for research

into user-centered design of dynamic displays in adaptive systems. It also

points to the need for discretion in designing transparent interfaces to

facilitate human awareness of modes of automated systems. Finally, the

review identifies the need to consider critical human-human interactions

in designing adaptive systems. This work describes important branches of

a developing framework of AA research and contributes to the general

theory of human-centered automation.

Comments: Automation related article provides an excellent review of literature on

issues in the implementation of adaptive automation. Addresses nonverbal

communication, situational awareness, and decision-making. (Cited item)

Key References: Bowers, C. A., Oser, R. L., Salas, E., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (1996).

Team performance in automated systems. In R. Parasuraman & M.

Mouloua (Eds.), Automation and human performance: Theory and

applications (pp.243-263). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,

Inc.

Costley, J., Johnson, D., & Lawson, D. (1989). A comparison of cockpit

communication B737-B757. In Proceedings of the Fifth International

Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 413-418). Columbus: The Ohio

State University.

Sarter, N. B., & Woods, D. D. (1995). How in the world did we ever get

into that mode? Mode error and awareness in supervisory control. Human

Factors, 37, 5-19.

Sarter, N. B. (1995). "Knowing when to look where": Attention allocation

on advanced automated flight decks. In Proceedings of the Eighth

International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 239-242).

Columbus: The Ohio State University.

A-48
Straus, S. G., & Cooper, R. S. (1989). Crew structure, automation and

communication: Interaction of social and technological factors on complex

systems performance. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 33rd

annual meeting (pp. 783-787). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors

Society.

A-49
Title: Communication As Group Process Media Of Aircrew Performance

Author: Kanki, B. G., & Foushee, H. C.

Date 1989

Publication: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db

=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&listuids=2730482&queryhl=2

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: This study of group process was motivated by a high-fidelity flight

simulator project in which aircrew performance was found to be better

when the crew had recently flown together. Considering recent

operating experience as a group-level input factor, aspects of the

communication process between crewmembers (Captain and First

Officer), were explored as a possible mediator to performance.

Communication patterns were defined by a speech act typology

adapted for the flight deck setting and distinguished crews that had

previously flown together (FT) from those that had not flown together

(NFT). A more open communication channel with respect to

information exchange and validation and greater First Officer

participation in task-related topics was shown by FT crews while NFT

crews engaged in more non-task discourse, a speech mode less

structured by roles and probably serving a more interpersonal function.

Relationships between the speech categories themselves, representing

linguistic and role-related interdependencies provide guidelines for

interpreting the primary findings.

Comments: Crew Composition related study explored communication patterns and

differences between crews that had previously flown together from

those that had not. (Cited item)

A-50
Title: Enhancing U.S. Army Aircrew Coordination Training.

Author: Katz, L. C., & Grubb, G.

Date 2003

Publication: Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and

Social Sciences

Volume:

Issue: (Special Report #56)

Page Numbers:

Abstract: This special report describes objectives and outcomes of ongoing team

training research and development (R&D) under the guidance of the U.S.

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, RotaryWing Aviation Research Unit (ARI-RWARU) at Fort Rucker, Alabama.

The Aircrew Coordination Training Enhancement (ACTE) program is an

applied research project that employs experience, innovation, and

technology to address the operational issue, "Can interactive multimedia

courseware using web-based distribution provide the realism and

relevance necessary for effective behavior-based team training and

evaluation?" The goal of the ACT Enhancement effort is to make

available a web-delivered, interactive aircrew coordination training system

that provides Army aircrews with the knowledge and skill-sets needed to

increase flight safety and mission effectiveness in daily operations. Focus

areas for the applied research were identified by Army leadership and the

Aircrew Coordination Training Working Group. They emphasized:

Current ACT program revitalization and enhancement without repeating

previous research; Automation and aircraft configuration issues; Course

length reductions; Simplified assessment and evaluation procedures, and;

Adult learning-based presentation, feedback, and discussion. The products

from the first phase of research are research reports on the development

and evaluation of computer-based Aircrew Coordination Training. They

include as attachments two interactive multimedia courses of instruction

with supporting training, the ACTE Aircrew Course and the ACTE

Instructor Course. Both courses contain a fully integrated Data

Management System that tracks student demographics, provides graphic

feedback displays during evaluation exercises, and facilitates electronic

course critiques. User testing and validation results indicate high levels of

acceptance for both the training and performance evaluation components.

Initial testing of the prototype courseware on the Army's distance learning

suite supports both the web-based and instructor facilitated delivery

strategies. The products have been presented to the U.S. Army Aviation

Center for consideration for Army-wide implementation. Initial data

suggest that web-delivered, interactive multimedia courseware provides

effective realism and relevance for team training and evaluation. Ongoing

ARI research activities include developing aircraft-specific training

A-51
support packages and a program to meet the particular training needs of

non-rated crewmembers. The ACTE serves as a model for adult learningbased training supported by distance learning technologies.

Comments: Recap of research assessing the usability of web-based training directly

related to crew coordination behaviors including information exchange

objectives and supporting basic qualities. Provides contextual definition of

aircrew coordination and suggests that distributed training means may be

relevant to: 1) promote awareness of the importance of nonverbal

communications, 2) gather field experience and success stories, and 3)

develop and deliver nonverbal communications training interventions.

(Cited item)

A-52
Title: Automated Decision Aids in High-Risk Environments: An Example

From the ATC Domain

Author: Metzger, U., & Parasuraman, R.

Date 2003

Publication: Human Factors in the Age of Virtual Reality. Shaker Publishing: The

Netherlands

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 255-272

Abstract: New concepts of air traffic management propose a sharing of

responsibilities for aircraft separation between air traffic control and the

pilots. Automated decision aids are introduced to support controllers

in the detection and resolution of conflicts. However, the effects of

such decision aids on controller performance and mental workload are

not well studied. In simulations of the Free Flight concept, air traffic

controllers were tested in en route Air Traffic Control (ATC)

environments under manual as well as reliable and unreliable

automation conditions. Dependent variables were controller

performance in the detection of potential and actual conflicts,

communication and secondary task performance. Subjective ratings of

mental workload, heart rate variability and eye movement data were

obtained. While reliable automation improved controller performance

under conditions of shared decision-making, the detection of conflicts

under unreliable automation conditions was worse under automated

than under manual conditions ("complacency"). The reduced detection

performance under unreliable automation conditions was associated

with a reduced number of fixations on the automated task (i.e. a shift in

attention allocation away from the automated task). Implications for

theories of human-automation interaction and for the design of

automated systems are discussed.

Comments: Related topic - Automation.

A-53
Title: Distributed Team Performance: An Executive Summary

Author: Pharmer, J.

Date 2001

Publication: Proceedings of the Strategic Studies Group, Orlando FL: Naval Air

Warfare Center Training Systems Division

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Advanced technology has brought with it such concepts as networkcentric warfare in which individual members of the team may have to

perform coordinated actions while physically located miles apart from

one another. As a result, the use of information technology for

coordination and communication is increasingly replacing traditional

face-to-face interactions between team members. Consequently, there

is a real need to understand how this physical separation of team

members will affect their overall performance as a team. In recent years,

team researchers have begun to focus on these distributed teams and

the variables that may affect their performance. The purpose of this

paper is to describe the directions of current research into distributed

team performance, to identify gaps in this research, and to suggest

directions for future research.

Comments: Automation related paper identifies the absence of necessary research

on the effects of the loss of nonverbal cues commonly used to transmit

and receive information in face-to-face teams. (Cited item)

A-54
Title: Army Air Accidents Rise Dramatically

Author: Rosenberg, Eric

Date 2005

Publication: Seattle Post-Intelligencer

Volume:

Issue: Monday, July 18

Page Numbers:

Abstract: 2005 could end up being worst year for accidents in recent memory.

Article recaps recent Army aviation accidents and makes comparison

with other service accident/mishap rates for FY 2005. Reader context

information includes facts like--In 1997, the Defense Science Board, a

high-level technical advisory panel to the secretary of defense, found

that "human performance is a causal factor in over 70 percent of all

Class A mishaps." Aircrew coordination is a subset of human error,

Van Riper said, "such as one crewmember says to another an

ambiguous phrase, which is misinterpreted and that leads to another

event that is directly causal in an accident."

Comments: Presents evidence that there remains a persistent challenge to maintain

awareness of the need for aircrew coordination.

A-55
Title: How In The World Did We Ever Get Into That Mode? Mode Error And

Awareness In Supervisory Control.

Author: Sarter, N. B., & Woods, D. D.

Date 1995

Publication: Human Factors

Volume: 37

Issue: I

Page Numbers: 5-19

Abstract: This paper is an attempt to improve our understanding of attentional

demands imposed by complex highly autonomous (cockpit) technology. It

explores pilots' monitoring strategies and their compatibility with the

design and behavior of modem flight deck automation. The objective of

this work is to support a use(r)-centered approach to system and feedback

design that integrates the constraints arising from human, machine, and

task environment.

Comments: Automation related article addresses attention demands and change from

traditional eye scanning behavior to individual pieces of information on

the glass cockpit display. (Cited item)

A-56
Reviewed but Not Included

Title: New Intercom Would Enhance In-flight Safety For SOCOM; Expected To

Win Contract To Provide A Test Batch Of 138 Aircraft Wireless Intercom

Systems

Author: Fox, J. J. & Gormley, T. J.

Date 1996

Publication: Aerospace Daily

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 477

Abstract: Communications Applied Technology (Reston, VA) is expected to win

a sole-source contract to provide a test batch of 138 Aircraft Wireless

Intercom Systems (AWLS) for aircraft of the Special Operations

Command (SOCOM). SOCOM will eventually need 357 AWlS units.

Eight AWIS systems will be tested on all intended platforms, such as

the MC-130H and the MH-60K. The wireless upgrade is driven by

safety concerns, to eliminate the need for hand signals and long

communications cords.

A-57
Title: An Examination Of Nonverbal Cues Used By University Professors

When Delivering Instruction In A Two-Way Video Classroom

Author: Anderson, M. R.

Date 2001

Publication: Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences &

Engineering

Volume: 62

Issue: 2B

Page Numbers: 1205

Abstract: As the education field further embraces technology and the classroom

develops a distance component, more and more colleges and

universities are delivering classes via two-way video. Research has

established that nonverbal cues exist and play a significant role in

classroom instruction (Arnold & Roach, 1989; Cyrs, Conway, Shonk, &

Jones, 1997; Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968). The growing popularity of

two-way video and the fundamental concepts of communication

establish a parallel between traditional classroom and two-way video

instruction delivery. This parallel and the established effect that

nonverbal cues have on instructional delivery support the need to

study nonverbal communication in a two-way video classroom.

Descriptive observation of six instructors, each teaching five 50-

minute lectures, produced the data for this preliminary study. The

nonverbal cues were recorded using the Two-way Video Nonverbal

Cue Observation Instrument (TV-NCOI). The TV-NCOI consisted of

seven nonverbal communication categories and 22 variables used to

identify and quantify professors' nonverbal cue use in two-way video

instructional delivery. Frequency response, common themes, and

nonverbal cue delivery observations, collected by the TV-NCOI, were

used to answer the research question; what nonverbal cues are used

by university professors when delivering instruction in a two-way

video classroom? The results suggest that professors in engineering

and chemistry, the two focused disciplines, heavily used nonverbal

cues when delivering instruction in a two-way video classroom.

However, the majority of these cues have a technical delivery base.

The traditional classroom nonverbal cues of board pointing, material

pointing, and accent gestures are delivered via computer cursor, twoway video camera, and software applications in the two-way video

classroom. More specifically, 87% of the nonverbal cues used in

instructional delivery had a technological connection and only 13% of the

nonverbal cues used were without a technical delivery base.

A-58
Title: Talking Tactically

Author: Witt, M

Date 1990

Publication: Asian Defence Journal

Volume: 20

Issue: 5

Page Numbers: 52-58

Abstract: Ferranti is developing a small size laser transmitter that is capable of

projecting voice modulated signals over specific sectors surrounding a

helicopter. The development of the system is being conducted as a

method of getting around the limitations imposed by crewmembers

having to communicate by hand signal and the risks inherent in using a

radio. Receivers on the other aircraft pick-up the signals allowing

normal speech to be used. The system permits almost complete

security with almost no detection by hostile forces. However, the

system is a short-range system and is hence, a tactical one. The article

contains additional information on tactical communications systems,

including cable, mobile radio, new technologies, miniaturization, and a

look at the differences between strategic (trunk) and tactical

communications.

A-59
Title: The Large Interactive Screen: A Multimodal Dialogue Tool For The

Future Pilot Cabin

Author: Barbier, B., Filiatre, E., & Irigaray, I.

Date 1994

Publication: Aerospace Medicine and Biology. National Aeronautics and Space

Administration: Washington, DC.

Volume: NASA SP 7011

Issue: November 1994

Page Numbers: 54

Abstract: The experimental make-up described is constituted of a large size

projection screen displaying an image on which an operator acts in real

time, under control of a specific dialogue software, using several

control devices (speech recognizer, numeric data glove, oculometer).

Various human communication channels are then simultaneously used:

vision and audition for the system-to-man flow, voice, gesture and

gaze, for the man-to-system flow. Various ways of using and associating

these communication channels are discussed.

A-60
Title: Barriers to Effective Communication: Implications for the Cockpit

Author: Baron, R.

Date 2005

Publication: http://www.airlinesafety.com/editorials/BarriersToCommunication.htm

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: The communication process encompasses every part of our daily being.

The use of both verbal and non-verbal communication is

the very basis of how we converse, both on a personal and on a

business level. This paper introduces the concepts of the

communication process and then uses the aviation domain to exemplify

how barriers to effective communication may manifest themselves.

Two specific areas in aviation are discussed; barriers to effective

communication between pilots, and, barriers to communication between

pilots and air traffic controllers. The combination of case

examples, empirical research, and studies of literature, is combined to

give the reader a true picture of the effects of deficient communications

processes in the aviation domain.

A-61
Title: Talking Heads: Models And Applications For Multimodal Speech

Author: Beskow, J.

Date 2003

Publication: KTH, Department of Speech, Music and Hearing: The Netherlands

Volume: urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-3561 (Doctoral Dissertation)

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: This thesis presents work in the area of computer-animated talking heads.

A system for multimodal speech synthesis has been developed, capable of

generating audiovisual speech animations from arbitrary text, using

parametrically controlled 3D models of the face and head. A speechspecific direct parameterisation of the movement of the visible articulators

(lips, tongue and jaw) is suggested, along with a flexible schema for

parameterising facial surface deformations based on well-defined

articulatory targets. To improve the realism and validity of facial and

intra-oral speech movements, measurements from real speakers have been

incorporated from several types of static and dynamic data sources. These

include ultrasound measurements of tongue surface shape, dynamic

optical motion tracking of face points in 3D, as well as electromagnetic

articulography (EMA) providing dynamic tongue movement data in 2D.

Ultrasound data are used to estimate target configurations for a complex

tongue model for a number of sustained articulations. Simultaneous

optical and electromagnetic measurements are performed and the data are

used to resynthesise facial and intra-oral articulation in the model. A

robust resynthesis procedure, capable of animating facial geometries that

differ in shape from the measured subject, is described. To drive

articulation from symbolic (phonetic) input, for example in the context of

a text-to-speech system, both rule-based and data-driven articulatory

control models have been developed. The rule-based model effectively

handles forward and backward coarticulation by target underspecification. The articulatory control models are evaluated and compared

against other data-driven models trained on the same data. Experiments

for driving the articulation of a talking head directly from acoustic speech

input are also reported. A flexible strategy for generation of non-verbal

facial gestures is presented. It is based on a gesture library organized by

communicative function, where each function has multiple alternative

realizations. The gestures can be used to signal turn-taking, backchanneling and prominence when the talking head is employed as output

channel in a spoken dialogue system. A device independent XML-based

formalism for non-verbal band verbal output in multimodal dialogue

systems is proposed, and it is described how the output specification is

interpreted in the context of a talking head and converted into facial

animation using the gesture library. Through a series of audiovisual

perceptual experiments with noise-degraded audio, it is demonstrated that

A-62
the animated talking head provides significantly increased intelligibility

over the audio-only case, in some cases not significantly below that

provided by a natural face. Finally, several projects and applications are

presented, where the described talking head technology has been

successfully employed.

A-63
Title: Automation, Task Difficulty, and Aircrew Performance

Author: Bowers, C., Thornton, C., Braun, C., Morgan, Jr., B. B., & Salas, E.

Date 1998

Publication: Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida

Volume: 10

Issue: (4)

Page Numbers: 259-274

Abstract: The effects of an automated system on team processes and performance

were assessed in a laboratory simulation. Two-person crews were required

to fly a complex emergency-response scenario under conditions of low

and high workload. These flights were completed with or without the aid

of an autopilot. The results indicated that the autopilot was effective in

reducing subjective workload. However, the automation was associated

with improved performance on only 1 of 4 performance measures.

Furthermore, it was observed that problem-solving performance was

worse in the autopilot condition during the high-workload flights.

Investigation of crew process data indicated that workload savings

afforded by the autopilot might have been invested in more explicit

coordination. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for

military aviators' performance, system design, and team training.

A-64
Title: The Relationship Among Eye Movements, Head Movements, And

Manual Responses In A Simulated Air Traffic Control Task.

Author: Boyer, D. J.

Date 1995

Publication: FAA Office of Aviation Medicine Reports

Volume:

Issue: A357892

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Investigated sessional, daily, and event-type changes in eye and head

movements as indices of alertness changes in 10 subjects, chosen from a

previous study (J. A. Stem et al, 1994) for their propensity to make

head movements when shifting gaze from the CRT display to the

keypad. Subjects made manual responses to 44 infrequently occurring

events of four types (e.g., two aircraft at the same altitude flying toward

each other). The 2-hr session was divided into three equal time blocks. No

significant eye-head movement differences occurred among the event

types. Initiation of head and eye movement appeared to be a stable

individual characteristic; it was consistent between days and within a

session. Return saccades were task dependent; events requiring two

manual responses showed different return saccade patterns.

A-65
Title: Preliminary Results From The Evaluation Of Cockpit Resource

Management Training: Performance Ratings Of Flightcrews

Author: Chidester T. R., Gregorich S. E., Helmreich R. L., & Wilhelm J. A.,

Date 1990

Publication: Department of Psychology, University of Texas, Austin 78712.

Volume: 61

Issue: (6)

Page Numbers: 576-579

Abstract: The first data from the NASA/University of Texas Crew Performance

project on the behavior of flight crews with and without formal training

in Cockpit Resource Management (CRM) are reported. Expert observers

made detailed ratings of 15 components of crew behavior in both line

operations and in full mission simulations. The results indicate that

such training in crew coordination concepts increases the percentage

of crews rated as above average in performance and decreases the

percentage rated as below average. The data also show high and

unexpected degrees of variation in rated performance among crews

flying different aircraft within the same organization. It was also found

that the specific behaviors that triggered observer ratings of above or

below average performance differed markedly between organizations.

Characteristics of experts' ratings and future research needs are also

discussed.

A-66
Title: Sextant Avionique Developing Data Glove

Author: Defense Daily

Date 1990

Publication: Defense Daily

Volume: 167

Issue: 55

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Sextant Avionique has developed a new "data glove" to be used for

pilot/system communications in next generation cockpits. At a GIFAS

conference in Washington this week, Jean Noel Perbet, manager,

advanced avionics display R&D, described Sextant's developments in

visual, auditory and hand communication channels, designed for

efficient man-machine interfaces, particularly in cockpits with high

performance electronic copilot aids. Perbet said the glove provides a

high accuracy reading of the hand's attitude, to be used for hand

gestures for simple messages or to detect hand shape and position, with a

3D tracker, to point out or manipulate objects in the cockpit.

A-67
Title: An Empirical Comparison Of Copresent And Technologically-Mediated

Interaction Based On Communicative Breakdown (Videoconferencing)

Author: Doerry, E.

Date 1995

Publication: Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences &

Engineering

Volume: 67

Issue: 3A

Page Numbers: 1462

Abstract: Within the area of Computer-Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), there

has been an explosion of interest in how recently developed network

technologies might be applied to support the collaborative endeavors of

widely distributed participants. Increasingly powerful systems for desktop

conferencing, group meeting, and distributed design have been developed.

Though the technologies applied in such systems vary widely, their

underlying design goal is essentially the same: to support interactions that

are functionally equivalent to face-to-face interaction. This dissertation

evaluates the extent to which currently available technologies achieve this

goal by comparing the amount of communicative breakdown experienced

by pairs of participants interacting in three communications environments:

copresent, audio-mediated and audio/video-mediated. In all three

environments, participants had access to a shared workspace, in which

they used a graphical computer simulation to collaboratively explore the

behavior of a simple cardiovascular system. Videotaped interactions were

analyzed in a series of three studies, intertwining the qualitative

techniques of Conversation and Interaction Analysis with more traditional

quantitative techniques to progressively refine understanding of the

functional differences that exist between environments. Four categories of

communicative breakdown were identified: failure to maintain shared

conceptions of current topic, failure to establish shared reference, failure

to regulate access to the verbal channel and to a shared cursor. Statistical

results showed that copresent interactions were significantly less prone to

breakdown than interactions in either of the two technologically-mediated

environments; no significant differences in the incidence of breakdown

were found between audio-only and audio-video interactions. A

subsequent qualitative analysis showed that breakdowns in

technologically-mediated interactions were related to a profound

insensitivity to nonverbal displays like direction of gaze, deictic gesture

and manipulation of objects in the task context. Thus, though visual access

to a partner is clearly vital for avoiding breakdown, the visual access

afforded by a video image is fundamentally unequal to that afforded by

physical copresence. There is a great deal of difference between

technically making more communicative resources available in an

environment and the practical utility of such upgrades to participants.

A-68
Title: USAF Wing Takes Innovations Overseas

Author: Fulghum, D. A.

Date 1993

Publication: Aviation Week & Space Technology

Volume: 139

Issue: 24

Page Numbers: 18-26

Abstract: The US Air Force's (USAF) rapid deployment force, the 366th Wing,

has become an operational laboratory for the latest technological

innovations, including nonverbal communications between fighters,

the introduction of new radar-locating devices, and some of the

service's most exotic precision weapons. The 366th operates a mix of

twelve F-15Cs, twelve F-15Es, eighteen F-16s, seven B-52s, and six KC135s and can be on its way to a war within 48 hours as the premier, fastreaction unit for the Air Force. In late November and early December

1993, the unit honed its deployment capabilities with a Bright Star

exercise in Egypt, operating with the air forces of several Middle

Eastern countries. The wing's function is to focus its beefed up

firepower quickly in order to avoid doing more later, according to

Colonel Jerry Callen, 336th Wing vice commander. The wing can be

used both as a political signal that the US is willing to use force or as a

military instrument to quickly take away a key target or two in hopes of

deterring an aggressive foe.

A-69
Title: Multi-Cultural Considerations For Space Station Training And Operations

Author: Hanssen, V., Stayton, W., & Wlaka, M.

Date 1992

Publication: Proceedings of the Space Programs and Technologies Conference,

Huntsville, AL

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 7

Abstract: The present discussion of Space Station Freedom program-related

Extreme Environment Training (EET) gives attention to cultural

differences that can potentially create problems during EET, and

explores those aspects of identified problems to which trainers can

productively respond. These cultural differences cover the fields of

native language, nonverbal communication , task-oriented behavior,

assertiveness, decision-making processes, scheduling and timemanagement, patience and tolerance, interpersonal interest,

relationship-oriented behavior, respect for foreign cultures, sensitivity

to gender roles, and sense of humor.

A-70
Title: Selecting Pilots With Crew Resource Management Skills

Author: Hedge J.W., Bruskiewicz K.T., Borman, W.C., Hanson, M.A., Logan,

K.K., & Siem, F.M.

Date 2000

Publication: International Journal of Aviation Psychology

Volume: 10

Issue: (4)

Page Numbers: 377-392

Abstract: For years, pilot selection has focused primarily on the identification of

individuals with superior flying skills and abilities. More recently, the

aviation community has become increasingly aware that successful

completion of a flight or mission requires not only flying skills but the

ability to work well in a crew situation. This project involved

development and validation of a crew resource management (CRM)

skills test for Air Force transport pilots. A significant relation was

found between the CRM skills test and behavior-based ratings of

aircraft commander CRM performance, and the implications of these

findings for CRM-based selection and training are discussed.

A-71
Title: Quantitative Measurement Of Observed Workload In The Analysis of

Aircrew Performance [Electronic version].

Author: Laudeman I. V., & Palmer, E. A.

Date 1995

Publication: International Journal of Aviation Psychology

Volume: 5

Issue: (2)

Page Numbers: 187-197

Abstract: A methodology for the quantitative evaluation of observed workload

was proposed. The model was designed to provide point estimations of

observed workload at any time during the performance of a set of

tasks. The model was also designed to provide information about the

task-scheduling strategies used to complete a set of tasks. The

proposed model was then tested with data from a full mission flight

simulation. The model predictions correlated significantly with expert

ratings of workload management made during the flight simulation. The

model was also able to distinguish between low- and high-performing

aircrews when performance was based on the number of errors made

during flight simulations.

A-72
Title: Human-Computer Interactions In Shared Virtual Environments

Author: Loftin, R. B

Date 1999

Publication: Human Computer Interactions (HCI)

Volume: 2

Issue:

Page Numbers: 1120-1123

Abstract: Since 1994, the authors have been exploring the application of shared

virtual environments for team training within NASA and for Operations

Other Than War within the defense community. Applications

have been developed for: teams of astronauts training to conduct

scientific experiments and maintenance within the International Space

Station program; and military teams preparing to conduct peacekeeping

operations. In order to more effectively employ shared virtual

environments for these types of tasks, they have been led to investigate

a number of human-related issues. Among these are: training transfer

to real-world environments, the effect of communications latencies,

successful interaction metaphors, human figure representations,

necessary fidelity (visual, audio, haptic) for effective non-verbal,

human-human communication, navigation methods, training transfer,

and the psychology of team building. While much work remains to be

done, this paper reports on progress made in two major areas, training

transfer and non-verbal communication.

Comments: Related topic - Automation.

A-73
Title: The Helicopter: Some Ergonomic Factors [Electronic version].

Author: Lovesey E. J.

Date 1975

Publication: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db

=PubMed&list uids=1 5677178&dopt=Abstract

Volume: PMID: 15677178 [PubMed]

Issue:

Page Numbers:

Abstract: Helicopter pilots are some of the hardest working human operators,

because of the machine's inherent instability and control problems.

This article covers some aspects where ergonomists might help to

improve the overall system. After considering basic differences

between helicopters and fixed wing aircraft, the author examines

controls, where there are prospects of using miniature hand levers;

cockpit vision and displays with particular reference to night and

instrument flying; seating and vibration where the effects of protective

clothing and harnesses are considered; and cabin noise from the

engine, transmission and intercom systems. Finally, he assesses pilot

activity using cine film techniques for different types of flight.

A-74
Title: Some Aspects Of Space Crew Member Interactions In Emergency

Situations

Author: Pavlov, V. L.

Date 1979

Publication: Psychological problems of space flight. (A80-32976 13-53) Moscow,

Izdatel'stvo Nauka

Volume: Collected Work

Issue:

Page Numbers: 84-90

Abstract: A social psychological analysis of space based on crewmember

interactions during an emergency situation is presented.

Consideration is given to the influence of the unexpectedness and lack

of time in emergency situations on the organizational structure of the

crew, intercrew verbal and nonverbal communication and the

coordination of competitive activities. Requirements for the

experimental investigation of the effectiveness of small group

interactions in emergency-type situations are then formulated.

A-75
Title: Emergency Operating System For Piloting An Aircraft In A Smoke Filled

Cockpit

Author: Smith, E. S.

Date 2001

Publication: Innovation and Consolidation in Aviation. Ashgate Publishing:

Burlington, VT.

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 231-241

Abstract: A system for operating equipment, aircraft or other like vessels in a smoke

filled environment is presented. The system includes a facemask

configured to surround a user's eyes and form an airtight seal against the

user's face. The mask includes a screen viewable by the user for

displaying critical operating system information that permits continued

operation of the equipment or aircraft. A signal path means provides the

display screen with appropriate signals from instrument display sources of

the equipment or aircraft. One embodiment of the system includes a handoperated communication device that enables non-verbal communication

with others. Another embodiment of the system includes independently

powered backup instruments covering minimum critical equipment or

aircraft operating conditions. The backup instruments would be coupled to

the mask by the signal path means in the event that the equipment or

aircraft's instruments should become inoperable due to fire and/or

electrical power interruption. Still another embodiment of the system

includes a respirator that is integral with the mask and provides oxygen to

the user. The display screen includes a first section for displaying

equipment instrument information from instrument display sources of the

equipment, a second section for normal viewing through the face mask,

and a third section for displaying external image information from external

environmental sensing systems of the equipment. A hand-operated

communication device enables non-verbal communication with an air

traffic controller. The communication device includes recording playback

means for storing and playing pre-recorded messages which can be

transmitted by the aircraft's radio transmission system to the air traffic

controller, wherein the communication device being operable during an

emergency situation when said smoke fills said cockpit and vision of said

pilot is obscured.

A-76
Title: Remote Observation And Diagnostic Evaluation: Contact And

Communication In Medical-Control Problems

Author: Uskov, F. N., Kushnereva, 0. V., Popov, B. A., Bazhin, E. F., Valsiner, I.

A., Durandina, A. T., Zaprisa, N. S., Kolinichenko, T. B., Korneva, T.

V., & Moravek, M.

Date 1982

Publication: Psychological problems of space flight. (A80-32976 13-53) Moscow,

Izdatel'stvo Nauka

Volume:

Issue: 112

Page Numbers: 24-45

Abstract: The monitoring of professional and psychological adaptation of

cosmonauts to flight stress factors is described. A series of external

signs (including speech, gesture, body movements, and posture),

which are insignificant in the usual diagnostic situation, become the

major source of significant flight stress information. The problem of

limited doctor-patient communication is considered and a solution is

offered in the form of automatic recording and analysis of dialogue time

parameters, which are important in studying the details of doctorpatient rapport. The involvement level of the diagnostician is

discussed; his role as observer is stressed. It is proposed that specific

verbal and nonverbal behaviors are indicative of psychosomatic

manifestations in conditions of weightlessness.

A-77
Title: Multi-Touch: A New Tactile 2-D Gesture Interface For Human-Computer

Interaction

Author: Westerman, W, Elias, J. G., & Hedge, A.

Date 2001

Publication: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 45th Annual Meeting

Volume:

Issue:

Page Numbers: 632-636

Abstract: The naturalness and variety of a touch-based hand gesture interface offers

new opportunities for human-computer interaction. A new type of

capacitive sensor array, a Multi-Touch Surface (MTS) can be created that

is not limited in size, can be presented in many configurations, is robust

under a variety of environmental operating conditions, and is very thin.

Typing and gesture recognition built into the Multi-Touch Surface allow

users to type and perform bilateral gestures on the same surface area and

in a smaller footprint than is required by current keyboard and mouse

technologies. The present approach interprets asynchronous touches on the

surface as conventional single-finger typing, while motions initiated by

chords are interpreted as pointing, clicking, gesture commands, or hand

resting. This approach requires learning only a few new chords for

graphical manipulation, rather than a vocabulary of new chords for typing

the whole alphabet. Graphical manipulation seems a better use of chords

in today's computing environment.

A-78
Appendix B

Proposed Research Area and Approach

Pilots report that nonverbal communications do occur in the cockpit. The extent to which

nonverbal communications are relied upon to supplement verbal coordination and to direct

behaviors relating to mission performance and safety is unclear. With some Army rotary-wing

aircraft using a tandem-seating configuration and with the limited in-cockpit visibility afforded

by night flight and NVG flight operations, the impact of restricted nonverbal communication on

crew coordination and performance is an important issue to address, particularly in situations

where flight safety is impacted by the inability to transmit and interpret nonverbal

communications. Little is known concerning the potential threat to effective crew coordination

and communication posed by a lack of nonverbal communications training and awareness.

Research Area

The initial focus of this research area would be to conduct a preliminary investigation on the

types, functions, and effects of nonverbal communication on aircrew coordination. Research in

the area of nonverbal communications would include establishing a definitional base, developing

a standardized framework, relating framework categories to behaviors and performance,

developing training methods and materials, developing evaluation methods and materials,

validating methods and measures, and finally applying training and evaluation knowledge to

non-aviation applications, such as battle command.

The technology required to support this type of research is already available. Desk top trainers,

system task trainers, visual flight simulators (side-by-side and tandem), and mission simulators

(side-by-side and tandem) are all useful tools for providing significant insight into the use and

importance of nonverbal communications between crewmembers within a cockpit. For example,

research simulators with the capability to record and log aircrew's body movement, hand

position, eye movement, digital communication, and verbal communication can be used to

support experiments and evaluations. This would be particularly useful during experiments in

which aircrews are to be monitored as they interact with the cockpit controls and displays.

Subjective measures have indicated that aircrews tend to rely on visually monitoring each other's

interactions with controls. Aircrew interactions with cockpit displays present an opportunity to

employ a manipulation of technology, i.e., change the properties or position of display items to

enhance nonverbal cues for task coordination and communication.

Research Approach

A progressive methodology is needed to support the nonverbal communications technical

research program. The research approach should embody a deliberate use of surveys,

questionnaires, and test bed experiments, e.g., confirm nonverbal communication constructs,

methods, and measures before proceeding to full simulator missions (see Figure B-i).

B-i
Survey, Questionnaire, Interview

Topic Survey

Detailed Questionnaire

Structured Interview

Tests and Experiments

Audio Recording (existing, new mission/equipment)

Audio Transcripts

Video Recording (existing, new mission/equipment) (single or multiple views of aircrew,

environment, systems indicators)

Coding and Analysis (C4T*)

Simulation

Mission scenario segments

Aircrew coordination tasks

Participants (crewmembers, expert ACT** observer/evaluators, expert NVC***

observer/evaluators)

Equipment (visual flight simulator)

Experimental design (standardized behavioral training)

Measures (NVC frequencies, NVC categories, aircrew coordination behaviors,

mission/task performance)

* Controller-to-Controller Communication and Coordination Taxonomy

** Aircrew Coordination Training

*** Nonverbal Communications

Figure B-1. Research methods.

Recommended methodology includes the sequence of research activities listed below:

I. Review unit SOPs

2. Review existing video recordings (ACTE data collection events)

3. Observe experienced aircrews in simulator training events

4. Develop and administer survey to identify NVC topics

5. Develop trial taxonomy of Functions, Topics, and Expressions

6. Develop and administer questionnaire

7. Refine taxonomy

8. Develop candidate measures based on taxonomy

9. Design and conduct NVC experiments to test measures (Checklist-Run up, Emergency

procedure, Landing)

10. Develop NVC critical event scenarios (Low-high workload)

11. Design and conduct simulation (Level I -Critical event)

12. Develop NVC mission segment scenarios (Low-high workload)

13. Design and conduct simulation (Level 2-Mission segment)

14. Develop NVC complete mission scenarios (Low-high workload)

15. Design and conduct simulation (Level 3-Complete mission)

B-2
Simulation activities for a complete mission (Level 3) would follow the design outlined in the

following example. Two scenarios validated during previous ACTE phases could be used for two

sessions in the simulator: one of which would take place without obstructing nonverbal

communications (Open Cockpit condition), the other would include some obstruction of the

visual space within the cockpit (Closed Cockpit condition) to compromise nonverbal

communication capabilities (see Table B-1).

Table B-1

Proposed Experimental Design

Counterbalanced, Within Subject's Design

2 (Open vs. Closed Cockpit) x 2 (mission scenario)

Scenario 1: Open Cockpit Scenario 2: Closed Cockpit

Crew I Baseline Nonverbal Blocked Condition

Crew 2 Baseline Nonverbal Blocked Condition

Crew 3 Baseline Nonverbal Blocked Condition

Crew 4 Baseline Nonverbal Blocked Condition

Crew 5 Baseline Nonverbal Blocked Condition

Scenario 1: Closed Cockpit Scenario 2: Open Cockpit

Crew 6 Nonverbal Blocked Condition Baseline

Crew 7 Nonverbal Blocked Condition Baseline

Crew 8 Nonverbal Blocked Condition Baseline

Crew 9 Nonverbal Blocked Condition Baseline

Crew 10 Nonverbal Blocked Condition Baseline

This task will gather and report on information in multiple areas using data collection

instruments validated in previous ACTE phases. Observer evaluator sheets and video-recording

instruments will constitute the bulk of the data collection effort. Measurement materials are listed

in Table B-2.

B-3
Table B-2

Data Collection Instruments and Associated Measures

Instrument Measurement

Observer Evaluator ATM Task Performance Standard, S+, S, S-, U

Worksheet Navigation and Mission Errors

Time to complete mission critical task: error recognition to

crew action

Crew reaction correct or incorrect for presented situation

Video and Audio Capture Number of verbal communication events attempted

Number of nonverbal communication events attempted

Number of crew actions and cross checks (external)

Verifications with and without nonverbal cues present

Categorization of nonverbal communications (C4T)

Simulator Data Capture Eye movement (tracking, frequency, dwell time)

Hand movement (tracking, frequency, dwell time)

ACTE Behavioral Anchored 5 Crew Coordination Objectives: Below, Meets, or Exceeds

Rating System (BARS) Standards (1 through 7 Scale)

Structured Interview Subjective reactions to nonverbal (open cockpit) versus

nonverbal-blocked (closed cockpit) conditions

Requirements to complete this research task are:

0 10 UH60 crews consisting of qualified pilots available for one 8-hour duty day (Two 3.5-

hour sessions with 1-hour lunch) or two (3.5 hour) sessions

"o Pilots must be UH60 qualified, with no minimum time

"o Crews must have some degree of experience flying together, either in actual or simulated

flight, prior to participation

"o Pilots can not be qualified in the tandem seat aircraft (AH-1 or AH64 series)

* Crews must remain constant across all events

• UH60 Flight Simulators, both a research version and a mission training version.

"o Research flight simulator with eye and hand movement tracking and recording capability

"o Briefing room for 20 (twenty persons)

"o Twenty 3.5-hour periods; each UH60 crew will fly 2 scenarios of 2 hours each with 1

hour for pre-mission planning and 0.5 hours of mission debriefing/interviewing

* One small room with electrical power for use as a research operations center

B-4