Red Alder: 

A State of Knowledge

United States

Department of

Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest

Research Station

General Technical

Report

PNW-GTR-669

March 2006

U S
Technical Editors

Robert L. Deal, research forester, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest 

Research Station, 620 SW Main Street, Suite 400, Portland, OR 97205

Constance A. Harrington, research forester, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Research Station, 3625 93rd Ave. SW, Olympia, WA 98512-9193

Credits

Cover, title page and section dividers photography by Constance A. Harrington and Leslie C. Brodie,

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Olympia, WA 

98512-9193; Andrew Bluhm, Department of Forest Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 

97331; and Erik Ackerson, Earth Design, Ink, Portland, OR 97202

Graphic designer: Erik Ackerson, Portland, OR 97202

Pesticide Precautionary Statement

This publication reports on operations that may involve pesticides. It does not contain 

recommendations for their use, nor does it imply that the uses discussed here have been 

registered. All uses of pesticides must be registered by appropriate state or federal agencies, 

or both, before they can be recommended.

CAUTION: Pesticides can be injurious to humans, domestic animals, desirable plants, 

and fish or other wildlife—if they are not handled or applied properly. Use all pesticides 

selectively and carefully. Follow recommended practices for the disposal of surplus 

pesticides and pesticide containers.

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Pacific Northwest Research Station

333 S.W. First Avenue

P.O. Box 3890

Portland, OR 97208-3890

Papers were provided by the authors in camera-ready form for printing. Authors are 

responsible for the content and accuracy. Opinions expressed may not necessarily 

reflect the position of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

The use of trade or firm names is for information only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product or service.
Red Alder: 

A State of Knowledge

Robert L. Deal

and Constance A. Harrington

Technical Editors

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest Research Station

Portland, Oregon

General Technical Report

PNW-GTR-669

February 2006

ABSTRACT

Deal, Robert L.; Harrington, Constance A., eds. 2006. Red alder—a state of knowledge. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-669. 

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 150 p.

In March 23-25, 2005, an international symposium on red alder was held at the University of Washington Center for 

Urban Horticulture in Seattle, WA. The symposium was entitled “Red alder: A State of Knowledge” and brought together 

regional experts to critically examine the economic, ecological and social values of red alder. The primary goal of the 

symposium was to discuss new advances in the understanding of red alder biology and silviculture, changing market and nonmarket values, and the current regulatory climate for management of alder. This proceedings includes 14 papers based on oral 

presentations given at the symposium. These papers highlight some of the key findings from the history, ecology, biology, 

silviculture and economics sessions presented at the red alder symposium.

KEYWORDS: Red alder, Alnus rubra, history, biology and ecology, mixed-species stands, silviculture, pruning, plantation 

establishment, economics, inventory, supply.
PREFACE

During March 23-25, 2005, an international symposium on red alder was held at the University of Washington Center 

for Urban Horticulture in Seattle, WA. The symposium was entitled “Red alder: A State of Knowledge” and was presented by 

the University of Washington College of Forest Resources Rural Technology Initiative and Stand Management Cooperative 

and Washington State University Extension. The primary goal of the symposium was to discuss new advances in the 

understanding of red alder biology and silviculture, changing market and non-market values, and the current regulatory 

climate for management of alder. This symposium brought together regional experts to critically examine the economic, 

ecological and social values of red alder. More than 180 people attended the meeting.

The primary members of the Symposium Scientific Committee included David Briggs (Chair) University of Washington; 

Glenn Ahrens, Oregon State University Extension; Norm Andersen, Washington State Department of Natural Resources; 

Andy Bluhm, Hardwood Silviculture Cooperative; Robert Deal, Pacific Northwest Research Station; Del Fisher, Washington 

Hardwoods Commission; Don Hanley, Washington State University Extension; Bari Hermann, Weyerhaeuser Company; 

David Hibbs, Hardwood Silviculture Cooperative, Oregon State University; Pete Holmberg, Washington State Department 

of Natural Resources; Paul Kriegel, Goodyear Nelson Hardwood Company; Larry Mason, University of Washington Rural 

Technology Initiative; George McFadden, Washington State Department of Natural Resources; Joe Monks, Weyerhaeuser 

NW Hardwoods; Megan O’Shea, University of Washington; and Dave Sweitzer, Western Hardwoods Association.

Red Alder: A State of Knowledge was sponsored by several companies, agencies, and universities in the region. 

Sponsors included: British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Carlwood Lumber; Cascade Forestry; College of Forest 

Resources, Olympic Natural Resource Center, Rural Technology Initiative, and Stand Management Cooperative, 

University of Washington; Goodyear Nelson/Mount Baker Products; Hardwood Silviculture Cooperative and Extension 

Service, Oregon State University; Northwest Hardwoods; USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 

Focused Science Delivery Program; Washington Alder LLC; Washington Department of Natural Resources; Washington 

Forest Protection Association; Washington Hardwoods Commission; Washington State University Extension; Western 

Forestry and Conservation Association; Western Hardwood Association; and Weyerhaeuser Company. Sponsors helped 

defray some of the costs of the meeting including funding attendance for several students.

This three-day symposium included a pre-conference field trip and two days of plenary and concurrent sessions on the 

history of alder, biology, ecology and silviculture of alder, and the economic and regulatory climate for alder. The field trip 

included a tour of the Washington Alder mill near Mt. Vernon, Washington and stops in the woods to visit a 14-year-old 

plantation planted at different densities (one of the installations of the Hardwood Silviculture Cooperative) and another stop 

to discuss the restrictions on management in riparian areas and how they differ in British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon. 

The 2-day indoor session included 44 formal presentations as well as poster sessions and several moderated discussion 

sessions. The oral presentations (including portions of the field trip) were videotaped and are available on line as streaming 

video presentations at: http://www.ruraltech.org/video/2005/alder_symposium/index.asp

Following the symposium, we invited the speakers to also submit a paper for publication; 14 authors responded. 

Although we were not able to include additional information from all the meeting presenters, the papers that are included 

capture many of the key findings from the history, ecology, biology, silviculture and economics sessions.

Red Alder: A State of Knowledge was a very successful conference with excellent interaction between researchers, 

practitioners, mill owners, students, consultants, planners, and extension agents. We thank all those involved in planning, 

presenting, or contributing in some way to the meeting. We hope that this printed proceedings will add to the overall value 

of the conference and that you will find this information to be useful and of interest.

This is a product of the Sustainable Wood Production Initiative from the Focused Science Delivery Program of the 

Pacific Northwest Research Station.

Robert L. Deal Constance A. Harrington

Pacific Northwest Research Station Pacific Northwest Research Station
— Red Alder: A State of Knowledge —

CONTENTS

Background

History of Research and Attitudes about the Biology and Management of Red Alder ............................................3

Dean S. DeBell

Biology/Ecology

Biology and Ecology of Red Alder .........................................................................................................................21

Constance A. Harrington

Red Alder Stand Development and Dynamics ......................................................................................................45

Robert L. Deal

The Value of Red Alder as an Integrated Pest Management Tool For Controlling Weevil Damage

 to Sitka Spruce ................................................................................................................................................55

Lyle Almond

Experimental Studies of Red Alder Growth and Nutrition on Vancouver Island ....................................................61

Kevin R. Brown and Paul J. Courtin

Management/Silviculture

Red Alder: Its Management and Potential .............................................................................................................73

Andrew A. Bluhm and David E. Hibbs

Red Alder Plantation Establishment: Site Selection, Site Preparation, Planting Stock, 

 and Regeneration ............................................................................................................................................87

Alex Dobkowski

Response of Young Red Alder to Pruning .............................................................................................................95

Leslie C. Brodie and Constance A. Harrington

Time and Distance to Clear Wood in Pruned Red Alder Saplings .......................................................................103

Dean S. DeBell, Constance A. Harrington, Barbara L. Gartner and Ryan Singleton

On the Effects of Tree Crop Rotation: Red Alder following Alder or Douglas-fir; Douglas-fir

 following Fir or Alder ......................................................................................................................................115

Mariano M. Amoroso and Eric C. Turnblom
Economics (Supply/Markets/Returns)

Overview of Supply, Availability, and Regulatory Factors Affecting Red Alder

 in the Pacific Northwest .................................................................................................................................125

Glenn R. Ahrens

Red Alder Market Implications for Management; Reasons for Optimism ...........................................................133

C. Larry Mason

Red Alder—Regeneration and Stand Initiation: Techniques and Field Craft as Related

 to Final Returns on Early Investments .........................................................................................................137

Pete Holmberg

Alternate Plans for Riparian Hardwood Conversion: Challenges and Opportunities ..........................................145

Kevin W. Zobrist and C. Larry Mason

Metric-English Equivalents ..........................................................150
1

Background

3

— Red Alder: A State of Knowledge —

History of Research and Attitudes About 

the Biology and Management of Red Alder

Dean S. DeBell1

Abstract 

Indigenous people of the coastal Northwest developed 

the earliest knowledge about red alder; next to western 

redcedar, they used the wood of alder more widely than 

any other tree species. Sea explorers from Russia and 

England were the first non-natives to observe and collect 

red alder specimens, but the first written descriptions of the 

species and its silvical traits were those in the published 

diaries of Lewis and Clark. Other pre-1900 references to 

red alder include journals and species descriptions by early 

botanists, and an 1882 book on “Forest Trees of California” 

by Kellogg that contained what may be the first mention 

of ecological amenities provided by alder, such as stream 

bank protection and trout habitat. Publications during the 

first two decades of the 20th century contained the diverse, 

contrasting opinions that remained through many decades: 

some foresters saw red alder as an undesirable species, 

to be removed and replaced with conifers as soon as 

practicable; others saw it as providing significant benefits to 

the forest; and some saw industrial possibilities in cabinetry 

and other uses. A comprehensive bulletin on utilization 

and management of red alder was published in 1926, 

but most of the silvicultural information then available 

was based on perceptive observations and measurements 

taken on temporary plots. In the 1930s, several long-term 

silvicultural projects were initiated by the Forest Service, 

and by the middle to late 1940’s, interest and research in 

utilization and management of alder increased in other 

public organizations. The 1950s ushered in a long period of 

research and management interest in alder’s soil-improving 

ability and growth rate, the competition it may create for 

1Dean S. DeBell is a research forester (retired), email: djdebell@comcast.net

This paper was published in: Deal, R.L. and C.A. Harrington, eds. 2006. Red alder—a state of knowledge. General Technical 

Report PNW-GTR-669. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 150 p.

conifers in plantations, and the use of herbicides to control 

or eliminate the species on conifer sites. In the 1960s, the 

long-term studies established earlier resulted in publications 

on several important topics: normal yield tables, growth and 

yield in pure and mixed stands, thinning, pruning, and soil 

improvement. Conversion of red alder stands to conifers 

increased, particularly on large industrial ownerships. 

Research on herbicides to control alder continued in the 

1970s as new chemicals were developed. The expanding 

hardwood industry became concerned about future supplies, 

and began to question policies related to alder on public 

lands. National and international interest in short rotation 

culture of hardwoods (including bioenergy plantations) 

and use of nitrogen-fixing species as an alternative to 

chemical fertilizer stimulated further studies on red alder. 

Beginning in the 1980s, major changes in the status of 

alder began to occur in northwestern forestry. Oregon State 

University hired a hardwood silviculturist and formed a 

research cooperative focused on alder silviculture, industrial 

corporations began to establish alder plantations on high 

site quality forest land, the contributions of alder to wildlife 

habitat and riparian productivity were recognized, and 

prices for alder logs increased (and eventually equaled and 

at times surpassed) those paid for Douglas-fir. Today, red 

alder is acknowledged as a species with a significant role in 

the forest ecosystem and forest products economy and of the 

Pacific Northwest. 

Keywords: Alnus rubra, early observations, management 

status, research history, red alder
4

Introduction

Red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) is an interesting and 

unusual species. Although lacking the impressive size 

of most trees in Pacific Northwestern forests, red alder 

now occupies a significant niche in the conifer-dominated 

ecosystem and wood products economy of the region. This 

was not always the case. During most of the past century, 

red alder was regarded as second rate, an undesirable, even 

threatening species. Even in those times, however, there 

were individuals and groups in forestry and other natural 

resource professions who saw value and possibilities in this 

hardwood species. Red alder is one of the first forest tree 

species to have had a symposium devoted exclusively to 

its biology. The first symposium held in 1967 at an annual 

meeting of the Northwest Scientific Association (Trappe et 

al. 1968) has been followed at 10- to 15-year intervals by 

three others. The second symposium dealt with utilization 

and management (Briggs et al. 1978), and the third with 

biology and management (Hibbs et al. 1994). The fourth 

symposium covered matters pertaining to markets and 

economics as well as biology, management and utilization, 

and many of the presentations are documented in this 

General Technical Report. A Hardwood Commission in 

Washington functions as an advocate and a Hardwood 

Silviculture Cooperative at Oregon State University is 

focused on alder research. Not a bad record for a tree 

regarded by many foresters as a third string species at best!

Organizers of this symposium asked me to provide a 

brief history of how the above situation developed, with 

particularly attention to research and attitudes concerning 

the biology and management of red alder. As I began to 

prepare this historical perspective, I identified more and 

more with a concern raised nearly two centuries ago by 

German forest scientist Heinrich Cotta (republished as 

Cotta 2000); that is, “the forester who practices much writes 

but little, and he who writes much practices but little.” 

When tracing the history of alder over many decades, one 

is heavily dependent on published material. Unfortunately 

this written record represents only a small portion of both 

the experience and attitudes developing in any period, and 

the events and influences that shaped them. Despite such 

limitations, the history of red alder is an interesting one! 

In the following pages, I shall relate first some 

information about the initial observations, collections and 

descriptions of red alder; then review some research reports 

and other literature that were published during the 20th

century, particularly those items that reflected or influenced 

attitudes and management of the species; finally, I’ll offer 

some thoughts about factors that contributed to the changing 

status of red alder in Pacific Northwestern forestry. 

Early Observations, Collections, 

and Descriptions

The earliest knowledge about red alder obviously is that 

developed and passed on among the indigenous people that 

populated the Pacific Northwest. For many, many centuries, 

the wood of alder was, next to western redcedar (Thuja 

plicata Donn.), the most widely used of any tree species 

in Northwest Coast woodworking (Gunther 1973). Dishes, 

platters, spoons, cradles, and canoe bailers were made from 

alder. It was considered to be ideal firewood because it 

did not spark, and it was uniformly preferred for smoking 

salmon. Its value extended beyond the wood itself; the bark 

was used for dyes, and medicines were prepared from both 

bark and catkins (Turner et al. 1990).

The first observations and collections of red alder by 

non-native people appear to have been made in the mid- to 

late-1700s by Russian explorers in coastal Alaska. These 

collections were not described until the mid-1800s (Bongard 

1833) and remained unknown to most of the western world 

until much later. In fact, it was not until the 1930s that red 

alder’s scientific name was changed from Alnus oregona

Nuttall to Alnus rubra Bongard to credit these earlier 

collections and descriptions. 

Probably the next European to make an observation 

about red alder in the Pacific Northwest was Archibald 

Menzies, a botanist-naturalist with Captain George 

Vancouver’s expedition. Menzies’ personal diary refers 

to alder in several places, including a note about finding 

“American Aldar” at Discovery Bay on May 2, 1792 

(Gorsline 1992).

The first written silvical (or ecological) observations 

appear to be those found in the original diaries (1804–1806) 

of Lewis and Clark (Thwaites 1905, reprinted 1959). Two 

hundred years ago (late October 1805), Lewis and Clark 

descended the Columbia River and near the mouth of Wind 

River observed a “timber resembling a beech in bark but 

different in its leaf which is smaller, and the tree smaller.” 

This timber is believed to be red alder, and if so, the entry 

represents its first mention in their journal. The species was 

later referred to by Lewis and Clark as “black alder” or 

“beech.” The smooth, beech-like bark of alder was no doubt 

the reason that both Lewis and Clark chose it to mark their 

presence at Cape Disappointment, the westernmost point of 

their journey (fig. 1). Lewis carved his name, and Clark later 

added not only his name but also the date and the line: “By 

Land from the U. States in 1804 and 1805.” While at Fort 

Clatsop on the Oregon side of the river, Lewis and Clark 

observed that alder trees “grow separately from different 

roots and not in clusters or clumps as those of the Atlantic 

states.” They also recorded phenological information—

observing that alder “did not cast its foliage until about the 

first of December”; and they noted that “the black alder is 

in blume” on March 24, 1806, the day after they left Fort 

Clatsop for their return home. 
5

Other early references to red alder in pre-1900 

documents include the journals of James G. Swan (1852–

1900) and David Douglas (1823–1827). Douglas collected 

alder near Cape Disappointment on April 8, 1825, and 

thought it might be Alnus glutinosa (European black alder) 

(Douglas 1959). In addition, original species descriptions of 

red alder (or Oregon alder) were prepared by H.G. Bongard 

(1833) and Thomas Nuttall (1842).

Kellogg (1882) wrote a particularly poetic account 

titled “The Great Red Alder” in his book, Forest Trees 

of California, and he may be the first writer to mention 

ecological amenities or values other than wood and plant 

products. His description of the species and its habitat 

included observations that trout seem to prefer those pools 

in which the mineral waters have been cooled and “toned” 

by alder’s presence, and that their flesh there acquired an 

aldery-tinged color and quality (Kellogg 1882). He also 

indicated that the wood of red alder was highly esteemed as 

piles for foundations of bridges and other water structures 

because when kept constantly underwater, it is very durable. 

Such durability when immersed is probably the reason that 

another member of the Alnus genus was used along with 

oak and larch for piling in the marshes on which the city of 

Venice, Italy was built (Botkin, 1990).

Chronology of Research 

and Attitudes

The following chronology is intended to document 

briefly the evolution of knowledge and attitudes about red 

alder during the past century. To do so, a few items in each 

decade were selected to illustrate or reflect the status and 

development of information and thinking about red alder 

management during that period. 

1900–1909 

At the beginning of the last century, forestry in North 

America was in its infancy and was represented almost 

entirely by employees of the U.S. Forest Service. 

In 1908, George Sudworth, a Forest Service 

dendrologist, included a description of red alder in his book, 

Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope. He recognized its “rapid 

growth” and referred to its “cherry-like, fine grain that was 

attractive when finished, and made the wood suitable for 

cabinet work” (Sudworth 1908). 

1910–1919

This second decade of the 20th century brought forth 

contrasting views about alder that persisted throughout most 

of the century. Two publications—both from USDA Forest 

Service—illustrate this contrast:

The first view—and the dominant one for many 

years—was published in 1912 in U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service Silvical Leaflet 53–Red Alder

(Graves 1912). Referring to six species of tree-size alder, 

the author, presumably Henry S. Graves, second chief of 

Forest Service and founding Dean of the Yale School of 

Forestry, writes “The most important of these is red alder, 

a medium-sized tree of the Pacific coast region. Although it 

has no particularly excellent qualities, and is not abundant 

enough to be very important commercially, it is one of the 

conspicuous broadleaf trees of its range, where there are 

but few broadleafs of any species.” This paper contains 

some information about growth patterns, site suitability, 

and utilization—including a number of observations that 

seem to contradict the idea that the species had no excellent 

qualities. These appear to have had little impact on the 

author’s opinion, however, as the leaflet concludes with 

the following comments on management: “Red alder is not 

a tree which merits the forester’s especial care, although 

it is one of the most abundant broadleaf trees of western 

Washington and Oregon. .... The forester’s chief aim should 

not be to encourage this species, but to find a means of 

profitably disposing of what already exists. Stands of alder, 

wherever practicable, should be utilized before decadence 

sets in, and in cutting them an effort should be made to 

convert the forest of alder into a forest of more desirable 

species.”

Figure 1—The smooth, beech-like bark of red alder attracted personal 

inscriptions by both Lewis and Clark at Cape Disappointment.
6

That view contrasts sharply with a view presented 

5 years later in a Journal of Forestry article written by 

Herman M. Johnson, a forest examiner for the Forest 

Service. It was titled, Alnus oregona: its value as a forest 

type on the Siuslaw National Forest (Johnson 1917). After 

reviewing some of the silvical characteristics, he argued 

that “the value of this species has not been given proper 

recognition,” and described several useful purposes, 

including its value for fire protection and soil rehabilitation 

(both particularly significant on the Siuslaw National Forest 

as it had experienced extensive fires in the 1800s). Johnson 

concluded his paper as follows: “Although the Oregon alder 

has been commonly considered a weed tree and in many 

respects undesirable, this study has shown that it has been 

and is yet of great value to the Siuslaw National Forest.” 

He then added: “it may be expected that in the near future it 

will develop an industry of considerable extent.”

During this same period, Canadians were also 

beginning to examine the forests of British Columbia, and 

red alder receives brief mention. After describing some 

attractive growth and wood characteristics, the account 

ends with the statements: “The chief use, however, is as 

fuel, for which it is excellent. It is of local importance only 

and no estimate of the available supply has been secured.” 

(Whitford et al. 1918).

About the same time, B. L. Grondal, a professor at the 

University of Washington College of Forestry, added his 

voice to those who saw a promising role for alder in the 

developing forestry economy of the Northwest. He wrote 

an article in the West Coast Lumberman titled Seattle Shoe 

Factory Utilizes Red Alder (Grondal 1918). Seasoned alder 

was used as sole material in shoes, and was “found by actual 

test to be superior to any other timber known.”

Thus, early on in the development of forestry in the 

Northwest, the contrasting opinions that prevailed through 

many following decades were on the table: some saw red 

alder as an undesirable species, to be removed from the 

forest and replaced by conifers as soon as practicable; 

some saw it as providing significant ecological benefits to 

the forest; some recognized its superiority as a fuelwood; 

and some saw possibilities in cabinetry and actual use in a 

developing industry as sole material in a shoe factory!

1920–1929

Although there was not much research activity dealing 

with red alder in the twenties, the Forest Service published 

in 1926 the first comprehensive bulletin on its utilization, 

growth and management (fig. 2). The bulletin was coauthored by H.M. Johnson, who had foreseen the value 

of alder nearly a decade before on the Siuslaw National 

Forest, Edward Hanzlik, forest inspector, and W.H. Gibbons 

of the Office of Forest Products in Portland (Johnson et 

al. 1926). They addressed the species’ importance in the 

first section of the bulletin stating “Red alder, although 

a wood of comparatively little importance outside of the 

region where it is found, is yet the leading hardwood of the 

Pacific Northwest...Its importance locally is due both to 

the intrinsic qualities of the wood and to the scant supply 

of other commercial hardwoods throughout its range.” And 

after describing some of its wood characteristics, the authors 

wrote “The growth of the furniture industry and similar 

wood-using industries of the Pacific Northwest may indeed 

be said to depend in a large measure on the perpetuation of 

an adequate supply of alder.” A section on Characteristics, 

Growth and Yield included the observation that alder is 

“exceptionally free from all sorts of diseases and injuries” 

up until the time of its maturity (about 50 years of age). 

They determined maximum size at about 120 feet in height 

and nearly 4 feet in diameter; and recognized that young 

alder trees grew “more rapidly even than Douglas-fir.” 

Their yield data showed that stands as young as 30 to 40 

years may average more than 90 feet tall, 12 inches plus 

in diameter, and contain more than 20,000 board feet per 

acre—this to a 6-inch top diameter and mininum breast-high 

diameter of 8 inches. Two-way volume tables were provided 

in both board feet and cubic feet. The management summary 

Figure 2—First technical bulletin on utilization and management of red 

alder was issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1926.
7

concluded: “The facts indicate that for many reasons red 

alder is a desirable tree to perpetuate as a forest type in the 

Pacific Northwest.”

1930–1939 

Most of the information available on red alder 

before 1930 was based on perceptive observations and 

measurements taken on temporary plots. In the 1930s, 

additional labor became available on the National Forests, 

including the Experimental Forests, in the form of the 

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). Several long-term 

silvicultural projects were initiated during this period, 

perhaps aided directly or indirectly by the CCC program. 

In 1932, red alder was planted in a strip, 70-90 feet 

wide and about one mile long, in the Yacolt Burn on 

the Wind River Experimental Forest. This planting was 

intended to serve as a firebreak, but through a serious of 

serendipitous events, it provided a classic example of 

benefits possible in a mixed stand of red alder and Douglasfir (these will be described later in this paper). About the 

same time, some direct seeding of red alder was done on the 

Olympic National Forest. During the 1935 to 1937 period, 

several long-term studies on growth and silviculture of 

red alder were established at Cascade Head Experimental 

Forest. These studies included plots that compared pure 

and mixed stands of red alder and conifers, and thinned and 

unthinned stands of alder (fig. 3). A test of pruning was also 

established.

In 1938, Thornton Munger wrote a paper for the 

Hardwood Record titled Red Alder Long Considered but 

a Weed Tree, Now an Important Raw Material for West 

Coast Woodworkers (Munger 1938). And the next year, T. J. 

Starker, of Oregon State’s College of Forestry, published in 

the Journal of Forestry what may be the first paper related 

to genetic variation of the species (Starker 1939). In A 

New Alder, he described a genetic variant, the cutleaf or 

pinnatisecta variety of the species.

1940–1949

During the early 1940s, there was relatively little new 

research on the biology and management of red alder, 

probably due in part to the war effort. A study of sprouting 

of alder at Cascade Head indicated that coppicing was not 

a feasible regeneration method for red alder, at least not for 

trees of saw timber size (Worthington et al. 1962). 

In the middle to late 1940s, however, interest in 

utilization and management of alder increased in several 

public organizations. There were projects on kiln-drying of 

hardwoods (Voorhies 1944) and other aspects of hardwood 

utilization at the Oregon State University Forest Products 

Laboratory (Robinson 1948). 

At the end of the decade, William Lloyd (1949) of the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service 

established thinning plots in northwest Washington, and 

George Warrack (1949) began researching red alder for the 

provincial government in British Columbia. The same year, 

Morrison published in the British Columbia Lumberman

what may be the first report on use of herbicides to 

control alder (fig. 4)—“Keeping roads alder free by the 

use of chemical sprays” (Morrison 1949). And Philip 

Haddock, then a young assistant professor at University of 

Washington, wrote a paper for the Forestry Club Quarterly

with the interesting title A Problem Child Reforms—New 

Perspectives in the Management of Red Alder (Haddock 

1949). He pointed out that continuity and stability of 

production was one of the main obstacles to any permanent 

alder industry. After recognizing the problems of alder 

competing with or preventing establishment of conifers 

on some lands, he suggested the need for more exact 

knowledge of alder as a soil builder before attempting largescale removals of the species by chemical control methods 

or otherwise. The most surprising aspect of this paper 

was that Haddock went on to discuss some of the genetic 

improvement work occurring in Europe, and advocated 

applying such techniques to intensive management 

of red alder in the Pacific Northwest. (Note that this 

recommendation was made 56 years ago!) 

Figure 3—Stand of red alder at Cascade Head Experimental Forest thinned 

and released from overstory conifers at age 10.

Figure 4—Roadside spraying in the late 1940s and 1950s was an 

early use of herbicides to control red alder.
8

1950–1959

The early 1950s ushered in a long period of interest 

in the soil-improving characteristics of alder. Bob Tarrant 

(fig. 5) and others compared nutrient content of litter of 

several tree species (Tarrant et al. 1951). They found that 

red alder leaf litter had extremely high nitrogen content 

(40 percent higher than the next highest species); and they 

suggested that alder had possible value as a soil conditioner. 

Elsewhere, scientists began to examine the nitrogen-fixing 

capacity of several Alnus species, and the role of alders in 

soil development after the recession of glaciers (Bond 1954, 

Crocker and Major 1955, Lawrence 1958).

In the mid-1950s, Bob Ruth began to evaluate 

performance of young conifer plantations in coastal Oregon 

(Ruth 1956, 1957). He found that alder and various brush 

(or shrub) species hindered conifer development. Although 

red alder had been considered as inferior to Douglas-fir 

and other conifers in some respects (size, use as structural 

material), this research indicated that alder could actually 

threaten conifer establishment and early growth. As a 

result, work progressed on use of chemicals to control this 

threat. Basal spraying with 2,4,5-T in oil was found to be an 

effective way to kill alder (Ruth and Berntsen 1956). 

The first volume tables (Johnson 1955, Skinner 1959), 

site curves (Bishop et al. 1958), and some preliminary yield 

tables (Lloyd 1956) became available in the late 1950s.

At the National Convention of the Society of American 

Foresters (SAF) in 1958, Carl Berntsen presented a 

paper titled A Look at Red Alder–Pure, and in Mixture 

with Conifers. He examined the results after 20 years of 

silvicultural manipulations starting in a 10-year-old mixed 

stand of red alder and Douglas-fir (Berntsen 1958). One area 

remained as a control; conifers were completely removed 

from two areas to leave pure stands of alder, one of which 

was also thinned to 8 ft by 8 ft; all alder was removed from 

the fourth area to leave a pure conifer stand at 6 ft by 6 ft 

spacing. From age 10 to age 20, alder grew much more 

rapidly than the conifers. At stand age 30, however, the 

conifers were growing at 400 cubic ft per acre per year and 

the pure alder only 260 cubic ft per acre. Thinning the pure 

alder stand made little difference. Growth in the mixed stand 

was least. Implications of this study were that pure stands 

of either conifers or alder were superior to mixed stands, at 

least to age 30, and that alder thins itself rather effectively.

1960–1969

The 1960s were rich in production of information on 

several topics about alder. Studies established in the 1930s 

had matured, and interest in both managing and controlling 

or converting red alder had increased over time. A number 

of significant publications on silviculture and management 

resulted.

One of the most important was a collaborative effort 

among several landowners and agencies to gather data and 

produce normal yield tables for red alder. These tables were 

authored by Norman Worthington (fig. 6) and Floyd Johnson 

(PNW Station) with George Staebler (formerly with PNW 

Station but by then of Weyerhaeuser Company) and William 

Lloyd (Soil Conservation Service) and were published as 

a PNW Station Research Paper (Worthington et al. 1960). 

They provided—for the first time—a broad-based estimate 

of levels of production that might be expected from fullystocked stands of alder over a wide range of sites and ages.

Berntsen published three significant papers on the alder 

silviculture studies that had been established decades earlier 

at Cascade Head Experimental Forest. One was a detailed 

examination (Berntsen 1961) of the study that he discussed 

at the national SAF meeting three years before (Berntsen 

1958). A second paper (Berntsen 1962) evaluated 20-year 

growth of alder stands that had three different treatments: 

scattered overstory Douglas-fir occurred in two stands and 

was girdled; one of these two stands was also thinned; the 

third stand was initially pure alder and was not thinned. 

The latter grew much more rapidly than the other two and 

differences between those were minimal, suggesting again 

that red alder may be rather effective at self-thinning. The 

third paper (Berntsen 1961) dealt with pruning and carried 

Figure 5—Robert Tarrant pioneered research on soil improvement by red 

alder in the 1950s and 1960s, and later served as Director of the Pacific 

Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.
9

two main messages: (1) branch stubs were grown over 

very rapidly, and although decay was present in every stub, 

it did not extend beyond the knots; and (2) gains in clear 

wood were offset by development of epicormic branches. 

The upshot was that pruning of red alder was regarded 

as a questionable practice for many years. In hindsight, it 

appears that this pruning test was conducted in stands that 

were released from overtopping conifers and further thinned 

at the same time (Rapraeger 1949); it therefore seems likely 

that these other stand-opening treatments contributed to 

epicormic branching at least as much as the pruning itself.

Worthington, Ruth, and Matson (1962) combined 

efforts to publish a comprehensive bulletin on management 

and utilization of red alder. This was an update of the earlier 

bulletin by Johnson, Hanzlik, and Gibbons (1926) some 36 

years before, but with considerably more information on 

silviculture and management.

Scientific understanding of the effects of alder on 

physical, chemical, and microbial properties of the soil was 

also advanced in the sixties. Tarrant (1961) published a 

significant paper on a study conducted in the mixed stand 

of red alder and Douglas-fir at Wind River—the one created 

serendipitously by the intended firebreak mentioned earlier. 

Tarrant compared soil properties and Douglas-fir growth 

in the mixed planting with soil properties and tree growth 

in the adjacent pure stand of Douglas-fir; in the mixed 

stand, soil nitrogen and foliar N of the Douglas-fir and 

current growth of dominant Douglas-fir trees were greater 

than in the pure Douglas-fir stand. Such evidence and the 

striking visual demonstration (fig. 7) at this site stimulated 

interest by other scientists and managers in the possibilities 

that alder may offer in the region’s forest economy and 

ecosystem. A detailed follow-up study by Tarrant and 

Miller (1963) showed that organic matter content was also 

increased, bulk density was lower in surface soil, and on 

average an additional 36 pounds of N per acre per year had 

accumulated beneath the mixed stand. These studies at Wind 

River led to studies of soil properties in the mixed and pure 

stands at Cascade Head Experimental Forest (Bollen et al. 

1967, Franklin et al. 1968).

In other microbiology and pathology studies, red alder 

was shown to be non-susceptible to Phellinus (then Poria) 

weirii root rot (Wallis 1968). Survival of Phellinus in 

infected cubes of Douglas-fir wood buried in soil was poorer 

beneath stands containing alder than under pure Douglasfir stands (Nelson 1968). Research was also conducted on 

rhizophere microflora and mycorrhizal associations of red 

alder (Neal et al. 1968a, 1968b) and interactions between 

alder and various root rot fungi (Li 1969). 

In the mid-sixties, Tarrant presented a paper on forest 

soil improvement by growing red alder at the International 

Soil Congress (Tarrant 1964); Warrack published some 

results on thinning of red alder in British Columbia 

(Warrack 1964); and the Extension Service of Washington 

State University issued a circular on Growing Red Alder 

for Profit (Washington State University Extension Service 

1964).

The first symposium on alder was held in 1967 at the 

Northwest Scientific Association Annual Meeting, and 

was geared primarily to forest scientists. The proceedings 

(fig. 8), Biology of Alder, were published by the Pacific 

Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station the next 

year (Trappe et al. 1968) and contained three papers on 

taxonomy, eight on ecology, ten on soils and microbiology, 

five on physiology, and two on growth and yield.

In 1969, Bernard Douglass and Ralph Peters, foresters 

with the State and Private branch of the Forest Service, 

installed the first field study of red alder genetics at Cascade 

Head Experimental Forest (fig. 9). This provenance trial 

consisted of seedling sources collected from 10 locations 

ranging from Port Orford, Oregon to Juneau, Alaska. 

Figure 6—Norman Worthington of the Pacific Northwest Forest and Range 

Experiment Station’s Olympia Research Center led efforts in the late 

1950s and early 1960s to produce normal yield tables and a comprehensive 

bulletin on management of red alder.

Figure 7—A strip of red alder planted as a firebreak in the 1930s resulted in 

more productive soil and taller Douglas-fir trees with darker green foliage 

than occurred in the surrounding Douglas-fir plantation.
10

 One might think the tide had turned during this decade 

regarding prevailing opinions about the usefulness for alder, 

but if it did, the change was minor. Forest managers were 

also looking more closely at stand conversion, and work on 

chemical release of plantations from alder and other brush 

was accelerating.

Staebler (1960) reported difficulties in killing red 

alder via a basal injection of 2,4,5-T. Many other studies 

were carried out using herbicides as basal sprays (Madison 

and Ruth 1962) or via injection or in frills to kill larger 

alder stems (Finnis 1964, Newton 1966). There was also 

work on application of foliar sprays to kill brush (one of 

the constituents being red alder) in conifer plantations 

(Hetherington 1964).

In 1969, James Yoho and other economists (1969a) 

published an economic analysis on converting red alder to 

Douglas-fir. They concluded that in most instances it was 

financially desirable convert red alder to Douglas-fir—and 

the sooner the better! They stated that forest managers 

were not rushing to respond to this profitable investment 

in conversion, and recognized that a large share of private 

owners do not respond at all—a good thing for the alder 

industry! Their paper stimulated a letter from the Chief 

Forester of Northwest Hardwoods, Inc. (Burns 1971) to 

the PNW Station Director. The letter began by suggesting 

that the paper was based upon “an inaccurate economic 

model, faulty data, and assumptions biased to give credence 

to the one best species myth peculiar to foresters in the 

Northwest.” The letter then listed some reasons for such 

strong criticism, one of which was the assumption that 

“red alder stumpage rates would stay in the same ratio to 

Douglas-fir forever more!” The letter did, however, end on 

a conciliatory note; the chief forester offered to “cooperate 

in any way possible” in a new study to replace the “faulty” 

one. 

The same group of economists (Yoho et al. 1969b) 

also published a note at the same time that was probably 

somewhat better received by the alder industry. Although 

titled Marketing of Red Alder Pulpwood and Saw Logs, it 

was more than that. In it, the authors pointed out that quoted 

stumpage prices were not indicative of true market values 

because alder logs were usually a minor component of a 

timber sale and the concerns of buyers and sellers were 

usually centered on the conifer component. The economists 

foresaw a bright future for alder markets, however; the use 

of red alder in pulp mills was increasing at the time, and 

they thought the potential for market expansion and earnings 

in the lumber markets might be even greater.

1970–1979

The 1970s brought substantial increases in research on 

alder species throughout the northern temperate zone. 

Studies on herbicides increased as many new chemical 

products were developed. Ron Stewart evaluated foliage 

sprays and budbreak sprays, and made recommendations 

for site preparation and release of conifer plantations from 

competition associated with red alder and other hardwood 

tree and shrub species (Stewart 1974a, 1974b). Further 

analyses were made on the matter of converting brush and 

hardwoods to conifers (Dimock et al. 1976).

Figure 8—Proceedings of the first symposium on red alder were published 

in 1968 by the Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Figure 9—A red alder provenance trial established in 1969 by State and 

Private Forestry at Cascade Head Experimental Forest was the first genetics 

field test and in 2005 is probably the oldest pure plantation of the species.
11

The concept of short-rotation intensive culture of 

hardwoods, developed in the Southeast as “silage sycamore” 

in the mid-1960s (McAlpine et al. 1966), received some 

attention in the northwestern United States and Canada 

(Heilman et al. 1972, Smith and DeBell 1973). Red alder 

and black cottonwood were the species of choice (DeBell 

1975, Harrington et al. 1979). When the oil crisis developed, 

an interest developed in using the concept for growing 

“energy plantations,” and red alder (as well as poplars) 

figured prominently in early assessments (Evans 1974). 

The idea gained momentum and the U.S. Department of 

Energy was formed and initiated a long-term program 

of research on woody biomass production (Ranney et al. 

1987); projects involving red alder (in addition to Populus

and other hardwoods) were funded at several institutions in 

the Pacific Northwest (initially at University of Washington, 

Washington State University, and Seattle City Light, and 

later at the Pacific Northwest Research Station). The funds 

from this program fostered work on many aspects of red 

alder biology and silviculture.

Other work that had also started in the 1960s by soil 

microbiologists and forest pathologists at Corvallis led to 

the hypothesis that alder might serve as a biological control 

for laminated root rot of Douglas-fir (Trappe 1972). Several 

studies were undertaken in the 1970s to gather information 

on this possibility; these included additional exploratory 

studies and a long-term, large-scale test of effects of 

short rotations of alder or cottonwood on development of 

root rot in subsequent Douglas-fir crops on International 

Paper Company land in northwest Oregon (Nelson et al. 

1978). Investigations of field survival of Phellinus in large 

Douglas-fir stumps did not confirm any special inhibitory 

effect of alder on the pathogen (e.g., Hansen 1979), but 

meaningful evaluation of the long-term empirical trial 

will not be possible for at least another decade. There is 

a general consensus, however, that on Phellinus-infested 

sites suitable for alder, a rotation of this non-host while the 

fungus exhausts its resources is a reasonable strategy for 

limiting losses from the root rot. 

About this same time, the alder industry was expanding 

and became concerned about current and future log 

supplies. Public agencies began to be questioned about their 

policies related to alder management. There was a series 

of articles in the Portland Oregonian (Sorensen 1973a, 

1973b). One investigated a so-called “mismanagement of 

the alder resource on the Siuslaw National Forest.” The 

Corvallis Gazette-Times ran a feature on red alder that 

described the possible benefits derived from managing and 

utilizing red alder (Hall 1976). Washington Department of 

Natural Resources staff released several notes about alder 

management and the economics thereof during mid- to late1970s (Prevette 1975, 1976; Koss and Scott 1977).

In 1977, a second symposium on alder was held; this 

one involved foresters and mill owners and managers as 

well as forest scientists and its focus was utilization and 

management of red alder. The proceedings, published by 

the Pacific Northwest Station (Briggs et al. 1978), contained 

many papers of practical as well as scientific interest. One 

of the papers (Miller and Murray 1978) examined growth 

and yield in the previously-mentioned stands of red alder 

and Douglas-fir at Wind River; at age 48, Douglas-fir in 

the mixed stand was taller by 16 ft and had a larger per 

acre volume despite having one-third fewer stems than in 

the pure Douglas-fir stand. Total volume of red alder and 

Douglas-fir in the mixed stand was about double that of the 

pure Douglas-fir stand. These substantial long-term growth 

benefits to Douglas-fir strengthened interest in the ecology 

and potential management of mixed species stands. 

A great deal of interest developed during the decade 

in nitrogen fixation, stimulated in part by the high cost 

(in terms of money and energy) of nitrogen fertilizer. A 

workshop held at the Harvard Forest featured several papers 

on Alnus, two of which involved red alder in the Pacific 

Northwest—one a short-rotation intensive culture study of 

pure and mixed alder and cottonwood (DeBell and Radwan 

1979), the other a conceptual paper on crop rotation of alder 

and Douglas-fir (Atkinson et al. 1979). Two years later, 

an international symposium on use of nitrogen fixation in 

management of temperate forests was held at Oregon State 

University (Gordon et al. 1979). Again, red alder and other 

Alnus species were prominent in the presentations.

1980 and Beyond

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, relative economic 

values began to change substantially—there were downturns 

in the forest products industry and values of Douglas-fir logs 

and stumpage declined for a time. During this same period, 

prices for red alder logs remained more or less stable. 

Gradually, prices for both Douglas-fir and alder increased. 

Trends were more erratic for Douglas-fir and there was a 

shift to smaller timber as public (primarily federal) timber 

sales declined. Red alder prices, however, increased 

steadily as both domestic and international (particularly 

Asian) markets expanded. In the past 5 years (i.e., since 

2000), prices for alder sawlogs have commonly equaled or 

surpassed those for No. 2 and 3 Douglas-fir sawlogs.

In 1983, Bob Tarrant, Bernard Bormann, Bill Atkinson 

and I collaborated on a paper in the Journal of Forestry

(Tarrant et al. 1983). We thought it timely to examine some 

options for managing red alder in the Douglas-fir region. 

We concluded that only small changes in then current 

costs, prices, and yields would make red alder management 

financially attractive. Crop rotation of alder and Douglasfir and continuous rotations of sawlog alder appeared to be 

economically viable alternatives to continuous cropping of 

Douglas-fir.

A comprehensive bibliography of literature on red alder 

was issued by the Pacific Northwest Station (Heebner and 

Bergener 1983). It listed 661 documents, the vast majority 

with abstracts.
12

Throughout the eighties, the Department of Energy 

Short Rotation Woody Crops Program funded a great deal 

of research on biology and culture of red alder at the Pacific 

Northwest Station’s Olympia Forestry Sciences Laboratory 

(fig. 10). Studies included tree nutrition and fertilization 

(DeBell et al. 1983, DeBell and Radwan 1984, Radwan et 

al. 1984, Radwan 1987, Radwan and DeBell 1994), initial 

spacing (DeBell and Giordano 1994, DeBell and Harrington 

2002, Hurd and DeBell 2001), genetic variation (Ager 1987, 

Hook et al. 1987, 1991, Lester and DeBell 1989), stump 

sprouting (Harrington 1984, DeBell and Turpin 1989), 

seed germination (Radwan and DeBell 1981), vegetative 

propagation (Radwan et al. 1989), and seedling production 

(Radwan et al. 1992). Much of this work involved 

collaboration with other organizations, and it furthered the 

general state of scientific knowledge on the various topics. 

Findings from the research on stump sprouting 

indicated that red alder was not a good candidate for the 

coppice systems of management then advocated for energy 

plantations, but the basic understanding of factors affecting 

sprouting (Harrington 1984) led to development of effective 

guidelines for controlling alder by cutting in young conifer 

stands (DeBell and Turpin 1989). This approach was 

economically feasible and could be applied selectively 

within stands; it was also more socially acceptable than 

herbicide applications and became the routine practice 

for alder control on federal lands. The work of greatest 

immediate practical importance, however, provided methods 

to evaluate site quality for growing alder and was done by 

Connie Harrington (Harrington 1986). She and Bob Curtis 

also developed new height growth and site curves for red 

alder (Harrington and Curtis 1986); the index age used was 

20 years total age (rather than 50 years as commonly used 

for most tree species) in recognition of the short rotations 

anticipated for the species. 

In 1983, Oregon State University added a hardwood 

silviculturist to their faculty in the person of David Hibbs. 

A few years later, a research cooperative focused on alder 

silviculture was formed. This Hardwood Silviculture 

Cooperative (HSC) is led by Hibbs and involves cooperators 

from several industrial organizations, public agencies, and 

academic institutions. Decisions were made early on to 

concentrate on stand density management, and cooperators 

became involved in establishing plots in natural stands and 

also in establishing plantations at a range of densities (fig. 

11). The HSC has installed 26 research plantations located 

from Coos Bay, Oregon to Vancouver, British Columbia, 

covering a wide range of site conditions. Each plantation 

contains blocks planted at four different spacings (100 to 

1200 trees per acre), and each spacing block has several 

thinning and pruning treatments. Data from this endeavor 

will provide essential information for intensive management 

of red alder. Hibbs and his colleagues also studied some 

natural alder stands and existing plots to produce several 

publications on self-thinning guidelines, response to 

thinning, and stand development (Hibbs and Carlton 1989, 

Hibbs et al. 1989, 1995, Puettmann et al. 1992, 1993a). 

In addition, the cooperative published useful state-ofthe-art publications on such matters as seed collection, 

handling and storage (Hibbs and Ager 1989), guidelines 

for regeneration (Ahrens et al. 1992), and stand density 

management (Puettmann et al. 1993b). More recent work of 

the cooperative is discussed in other papers contained in this 

volume.

In 1980, Weyerhaeuser Company acquired Northwest 

Hardwoods, Inc., a major producer of solid wood products 

from red alder. By the mid- to late-1980s, concerns about 

future log supply for these hardwood mills led to an interest 

in growing red alder on some of the company’s land. 

Over the next decade, tens of thousands of acres of alder 

plantations were established on some of the highest site 

quality land for Douglas-fir in southwest Washington.

A third symposium on red alder was held in 1992 at 

Oregon State University on biology and management (Hibbs 

et al. 1994). The 1992 symposium brought together existing 

knowledge on many scientific and practical matters, and was 

attended by both scientists and managers. At that time, many 

shifts were developing in forestry and in the forest products 

economy throughout the Pacific Northwest.

Figure 10—A dense planting of red alder established as part of the U.S. 

Department of Energy’s Short Rotation Woody Crops Program. 

Figure 11—A recently thinned stand density installation for red alder near 

Cascade Head on the Oregon coast.
13

In the years since, significant changes have occurred 

in land ownership (particularly industrial), mills, markets, 

and government and corporate policies. Issues related to 

riparian areas and various wildlife species have become 

more and more important and portend to be very influential 

in future alder management. On some sites, the influences 

are restrictive and may hamper harvest and subsequent 

investments in regeneration and management. In other 

situations, however, a recognition of the unique habitat 

provided for songbirds and other wildlife and beneficial 

effects on productivity and diversity of riparian sites may 

stimulate greater interest in managing red alder on some 

ownerships. These matters were addressed in the recent 

(fourth) symposium and are documented in other papers in 

this volume. 

Concluding Thoughts

Over the past century, there has been a gradual but 

sustained effort to learn more about red alder and to develop 

an effective approach to its management and use. Much 

more so than we would expect for a species that early on 

was deemed undesirable and targeted for eradication. In 

recent years, a major turnabout in the status of alder in the 

forest management community and forest products industry 

has occurred (fig. 12). 

I believe several factors have contributed significantly 

to this change:

1. Red alder possesses traits that are both valuable 

and uncommon. These include: rapid early growth, 

wood properties that are desirable and uniform, 

ability to fix nitrogen, and the provision of habitat 

features associated with hardwood trees in a region 

dominated by conifers. 

2. Over the years, an adequate body of information 

to guide management was accumulated. This came 

about because several individual forest managers 

and scientists developed a personal interest in 

the species. These individuals carried out modest 

trials that were supported by their supervisors 

and employers, even though such work was a 

bit outside the main mission of their respective 

organizations. In the past two decades, research 

efforts on alder were accelerated through support 

from the Department of Energy’s Short Rotation 

Woody Crops Program and formation of the 

Hardwood Silviculture Cooperative. 

3. There has been a continual increase in value of red 

alder logs relative to logs of Douglas-fir and other 

conifer species.

4. The unique contribution of alder to the coniferdominated forest ecosystem of the Pacific 

Northwest in terms of soil improvement, wildlife 

habitat and riparian productivity has been 

recognized and more fully appreciated.

Had it not been for the species’ valuable intrinsic 

properties, the interest by—and encouragement and 

support of—individual foresters and scientists in its 

management, improvements in its relative economic value, 

and recognition of the other benefits it provides to the 

forest ecosystem, it seems unlikely that red alder would 

have achieved its present status in forest management and 

utilization.

The history of alder also provides us with a compelling 

example of the dynamic nature of forest resource 

management (including production forestry) and the extent 

to which attitudes and values can change—even within 

one rotation of a fast-growing timber species or within one 

professional career. This history challenges our natural 

tendency to think that certain components or processes in 

our forests are entirely good or entirely bad, or to focus on 

one way to manage them—whether choices and decisions 

involve tree species, silvicultural practices, or management 

policies.

Acknowledgments

Constance A. Harrington, David E. Hibbs, Richard E. 

Miller, and Robert F. Tarrant reviewed an earlier draft of 

the manuscript. Grace Douglass edited the manuscript to 

conform to the format required for publication, and Joseph 

Kraft provided valuable assistance in preparing figures for 

the original PowerPoint presentation and for this paper. I 

thank them all. 

Figure 12—Red alder plantations have been established on industrial land 

having high productivity for Douglas-fir. 
14

Literature Cited

Ager, A.A. 1987. Genetic variation in red alder in relation 

to climate and geography of the Pacific Northwest. 

Ph.D thesis. Seattle, WA: College of Forest Resources, 

University of Washington. 

Ahrens, G.R.; Dobkowski, A.; Hibbs, D.E. 1992. Red 

alder: guidelines for successful regeneration. Special 

Publication 24. Corvallis, OR: Forest Research 

Laboratory, Oregon State University. 

Atkinson, W.A.; Bormann, B.T.; DeBell, D.S. 1979. 

Crop rotation of Douglas-fir and red alder: a preliminary 

biological and economic assessment. Botanical Gazette 

140(Suppl.): S102-S107.

Berntsen, C.M. 1958. A look at red alder--pure, and 

in mixture with conifers. In: Proceedings, Society of 

American Foresters National Convention, Salt Lake City, 

UT. Society of American Foresters Proceedings 1958: 

157-158.

Berntsen, C.M. 1961a. Growth and development of red 

alder compared with conifers in 30-year-old stands. Res. 

Pap. 38. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Range and Experiment 

Station. 20 p.

Berntsen, C.M. 1961b. Pruning and epicormic branching in 

red alder. Journal of Forestry 59(9): 675-676.

Berntsen, C.M. 1962. A 20-year growth record for three 

stands of red alder. Res. Note 219. Portland, OR: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Range and Experiment Station. 9 p.

Bishop, D.M.; Johnson, F.A.; Staebler, G.R. 1958. 

Site curves for red alder. Res. Note 162. Portland, OR: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Range and Experiment Station. 7 p.

Bollen, W.B.; Chen, C.-S.; Lu, K.C.; Tarrant, R.F. 

1967. Influence of red alder on fertility of a forest soil - 

microbial and chemical effects. Res. Bulle. 12. Corvallis, 

OR: Forest Research Laboratory, School of Forestry, 

Oregon State University. 61 p.

Bond, G. 1954. Evidence for fixation of nitrogen by root 

nodules of alder under field conditions. New Phytology. 

55 (2): 147-153.

Bongard, H.G. 1833. Observations sur la vegetation de l’ile 

de Sitcha. Akad. Sci. St. Petersb. Mem. Sci. Math. Phys. 

Nat. Ser. 6 II: 119-177.

Botkin, D.B. 1990. Discordant harmonies–a new ecology 

for the twenty-first century. New York: Oxford University 

Press. 241 p.

Briggs, D.G.; DeBell, D.S.; Atkinson, W.A. (compilers). 

1978. Utilization and management of alder. PNW-GTR70. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Range and Experiment Station. 

379 p.

Burns, J.A. 1971. Unpublished letter to P.A. Briegleb, 

PNW Station Director, on Station Paper PNW-88, “The 

Economics of Converting Red Alder to Douglas-fir”.

Cotta, H. 2000. Cotta’s Preface. (Reprinted from Forestry 

Quarterly, Volume 1, 1902-1903; originally written at 

Tharandt, Germany, December 21, 1816) Forest History 

Today, Fall 2000: 27-28.

Crocker, R.L.; Major, J. 1955. Soil development in 

relation to vegetation and surface age at Glacier Bay, 

Alaska. Journal of Ecology 43: 427-448.

DeBell, D.S. 1975. Short-rotation culture of hardwoods in 

the Pacific Northwest. Iowa State Journal of Research 

49(3): 345-352.

DeBell, D.S.; Radwan, M.A. 1979. Growth and nitrogen 

relations of coppiced black cottonwood and red alder in 

pure and mixed plantings. Botanical Gazette 140(Suppl.): 

S97-S101.

DeBell, D.S.; Radwan, M.A.; Kraft, J.M. 1983. Influence 

of red alder on chemical properties of a clay loam soil in 

western Washington. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-313. Portland, 

OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Pacific Northwest Range and Experiment Station. 19 p. 

DeBell, D.S.; Radwan, M.A. 1984. Foliar chemical 

concentrations in red alder stands of various ages. Plant 

and Soil 77: 391-394.

DeBell, D.S.; Turpin, T.C. 1989. Control of red alder 

by cutting. Res. Paper PNW-RP-414. Portland, OR: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Research Station. 10 p. 

DeBell, D.S.; Giordano, P.A. 1994. Growth patterns of 

red alder. In: Hibbs, D.E.; DeBell, D.S.; Tarrant, R.F., 

eds. Biology and managment of red alder. Corvallis, OR: 

Oregon State University Press: 116-130.

DeBell, D.S.; Harrington, C.A. 2002. Density and 

rectangularity of planting influence 20-year growth and 

development of red alder. Canadian Journal of Forest 

Research 32: 1244-1253.

Dimock, E.J., II; Bell, E.; Randall, R.M. 1976. Converting 

brush and hardwood to conifers on high sites in western 

Washington and Oregon--progress, policy, success and 

costs. Res. Pap. PNW-213. Portland, OR: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Range 

and Experiment Station. 16 p.
15

Douglas, D. 1959. Journal kept by David Douglas during 

his travels in North America, 1823-1827. New York: 

Antiquarian Press, Ltd. 

Evans, R.S. 1974. Energy plantations: should we grow trees 

for power plant fuel? Inf. Rep. VP-X-129. Victoria, BC. 

Western Forest Products Laboratory. 15 p.

Finnis, J.M. 1964. Chemical frill treatment of alder. 

Research Progress Report. Western Weed Control 

Conference: 47.

Franklin, J.F.; Dyrness, C.T.; Moore, D.G.; Tarrant, 

R.F. 1968. Chemical soil properties under coastal Oregon 

stands of alders and conifers. In: Trappe, J.M.; Franklin, 

J.F.; Tarrant, R.F.; Hansen, G.M., eds. Biology of alder. 

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment 

Station: 157-172.

Gordon, J.C.; Wheeler, C.T.; Perry, D.A. 1979. Symbiotic 

nitrogen fixation in the management of temperate forests. 

Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press. 

Gorsline, J. 1992. Rainshadow–Archibald Menzies and 

the botanical exploration of the Olympic Peninsula. Port 

Townsend, WA: Jefferson County Historical Society. 63 p. 

Graves, H.S. 1912. Red alder. Alnus oregona Nutt. Silvical 

Leaflet No. 53. Washington, DC. U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service. 4 p.

Grondal, B.L. 1918. Seattle shoe factory utilizes red alder. 

West Coast Lumberman. May: 21, 32.

Gunther, E. 1973. Ethnobotany of western Washington–the 

knowledge and use of indigenous plants by native 

Americans. Seattle, WA University of Washington Press. 

71 p.

Haddock, P.G. 1949. A problem child reforms - new 

perspectives in the management of red alder. Forest Club 

Quarterly 22(2): 9-15.

Hall, D.A. 1976. Trees of conflict. Corvallis, OR: Corvallis 

Gazette-Times August 4: 25-26.

Hansen, E.M. 1979. Survival of Phellinus weirii in 

Douglas-fir stumps after logging. Canadian Journal of 

Forest Research 9: 484-488.

Harrington, C.A.; DeBell, D.S.; Strand, R.F. 1979. 

An experiment in biomass production: results from 

three consecutive harvests of cottonwood and alder. In: 

Proceedings: Solar ‘79 Northwest. Seattle, WA: 363-366.

Harrington, C.A. 1984. Factors influencing initial 

sprouting of red alder. Canadian Journal of Forest 

Research 14(3): 357-361.

Harrington, C.A. 1986. A method of site quality evaluation 

for red alder. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-192. Portland, OR: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Research Station. 22 p.

Harrington, C.A.; Curtis, R.O. 1986. Height growth 

and site index curves for red alder. Res. Pap. PNW-358. 

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 14 p.

Heebner, C.F.; Bergener, M.J. (compilers) 1983. Red 

alder: a bibliography with abstracts. PNW-GTR-161. 

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Range and Experiment Station. 

186 p.

Hetherington, J.C. 1964. Brush control in coastal British 

Columbia. Res. Note 38. Vancouver, BC: British 

Columbia Forest Service. 56 p. 

Heilman, P.E.; Peabody, D.V., Jr.; DeBell, D.S.; Strand, 

R.F. 1972. A test of close-spaced, short-rotation culture 

of black cottonwood in the Pacific Northwest. Canadian 

Journal of Forest Research 1: 456-459.

Hibbs, D.E.; Ager, A.A. 1989. Red alder: guidelines for 

seed collection, handling, and storage. Special Publication 

18. Corvallis, OR: Forest Research Laboratory, Oregon 

State University. 

Hibbs, D.E.; Carlton, G.C. 1989. A comparison of 

diameter- and volume-based stocking guides for red alder. 

Western Journal of Applied Forestry 44(4): 113-115.

Hibbs, D.E.; Emmingham, W.H.; Bondi, M.C. 1989. 

Thinning red alder: effects of method and spacing. Forest 

Science 35: 16-29.

Hibbs, D.E.; Emmingham, W.H.; Bondi, M.C. 1995. 

Responses of red alder to thinning. Western Journal of 

Applied Forestry 10(1): 17-23.

Hibbs, D.E.; DeBell, D.S.; Tarrant, R.F., eds. 1994. The 

biology and management of red alder. Corvallis, OR: 

Oregon State University Press. 256 p. 

Hook, D.D.; Murray, M.D.; DeBell, D.S.; Wilson, B.C. 

1987. Variation in growth of red alder families in relation 

to shallow water table levels. Forest Science 33(1): 

224-229. 

Hook, D.D.; DeBell, D.S.; Ager, A.; Johnson, D. 1991. 

Dry weight partitioning among 36 open-pollinated red 

alder families. Biomass 21: 11-25. 

Hurd, P.D.; DeBell, D.S. 2001. Growth and early stand 

development of intensively cultured red alder plantings. 

New Forests 21: 71-87.

Johnson, F.A. 1955. Volume tables for Pacific Northwest 

trees (a compilation). Agric. Handb. 92. U.S. Department 

of Agriculture. 112 p.
16

Johnson, H.M. 1917. Alnus oregona: its value as a forest 

type on the Siuslaw National Forest. Journal of Forestry 

15(8): 981-987.

Johnson, H.M.; Hanzlik, E.J.; Gibbons, W.H. 1926. Red 

alder of the Pacific Northwest: its utilization, with notes 

on growth and management. Department Bulletin. No. 

1437. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

46 p. 

Kellogg, A. 1882. Forest Trees of California. Sacramento, 

CA: State Mining Bureau. 148 p.

Koss, W.; Scott, B.D. 1977. Alder or conifer? Ask 

an economist? DNR Note No. 20. Olympia, WA: 

Department of Natural Resources, State of Washington. 

2 p.

Lawrence, D.B. 1958. Glaciers and vegetation in 

southeastern Alaska. Ameri. Science 46: 89-122.

Lester, D.T., DeBell, D.S. 1989. Geographic variation 

in red alder. Res. Paper PNW-RP-409. Portland, OR: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Research Station. 8 p. 

Li, C.Y. 1969. Biological influence of red alder on Poria 

weirii and other root rot pathogens. PhD thesis. Corvallis, 

OR: Oregon State University. 94 p.

Lloyd, W.J. 1949. Results of thinning a young alder stand. 

Pacific Reg. Tech. Note 8. Portland, OR: U.S. Department 

Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 2 p.

Lloyd, W.J. 1956. Red alder yield tables. Unpublished 

document. U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil 

Conservation Service, Seattle, WA.

Madison, R.W.; Ruth, R.H. 1962. Basal spraying of red 

alder. Weeds 10(4): 324-325.

McAlpine, R.G.; Brown, C.L.; Herrick, A.M.; Ruark, 

H.E. 1966. “Silage” sycamore. Forest Farmer 26 (1): 6-7, 

16.

Miller, R.E.; Murray, M.D. 1978. The effects of red alder 

on growth of Douglas-fir. In: Briggs, D.G.; DeBell, D.S.; 

Atkinson, W.A., comps. Utilization and Management 

of Alder. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-70. Portland, OR: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Range and Experiment Station: 283-306.

Morrison, V.L. 1949. Keeping roads alder free by the use 

of chemical sprays. British Columbia Lumberman 33(1): 

108-110.

Munger, T.T. 1938. Red alder long considered but a weed 

tree, now an important raw material for west coast 

woodworkers. Hardwood Record: March.

Neal, J.L., Jr.; Lu, K.C.; Bollen, W.B.; Trappe, J.M. 

1968. A comparison of rhizosphere microfloras associated 

with mycorrhizae of red alder and Douglas-fir. In: Trappe, 

J.M.; Franklin, J.F.; Tarrant, R.F.; Hansen, G.M., eds. 

Biology of alder. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and 

Range Experiment Station: 57-71.

Neal, J.L., Jr.; Trappe, J.M.; Lu, K.C.; Bollen, W.B. 

1968. Some ecotrophic mycorrhizae of Alnus rubra. In: 

Trappe, J.M.; Franklin, J.F.; Tarrant, R.F.; Hansen, G.M., 

eds. Biology of alder. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and 

Range Experiment Station: 179-184.

Nelson, E.E. 1968. Survival of Poria weirii in conifer, 

alder, and mixed conifer-alder stands. Res. Note PNW83. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Range and Experiment Station. 

5 p.

Nelson, E.E.; Hansen, E.M.; Li, C.Y.; Trappe, J.M. 

1978. The role of red alder in reducing losses from 

laminated root rot. In: Briggs, D.G.; DeBell, D.S.; 

Atkinson, W.A., comps. Utilization and management 

of alder. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-70. Portland, OR: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Range and Experiment Station: 273-282.

Newton, M. 1966. New injection system for killing or 

curing trees. (Abstract). Meeting of the Weed Society of 

America 1966: 30-31.

Nuttall, T. 1842. The North American sylva; or, a 

description of the forest trees of the United States, 

Canada, and Nova Scotia, not described in the work of 

F. Andrew Michaux, and containing all the forest trees 

discovered in the Rocky Mountains, the territory of 

Oregon, down to the shores of the Pacific, and into the 

confines of California, as well as in various parts of the 

United States. Vol. 1: 41-46. Philadelphia, PA, D. Rice 

and A.N. Hart.

Prevette, T. 1975. Growing alder—how and how long. 

Forest Products Utilization and Marketing Bulletin. 

Department of Natural Resources, State of Washington 

July: 1, 3.

Prevette, T. 1976. Growing alder—a commercial species. 

Forest Products Utilization and Marketing Bulletin. 

Department of Natural Resources, State of Washington 

January: 1, 3-4.

Puettmann, K.J.; Hann, D.W.; Hibbs, D.E. 1992. 

Extending the size-density analysis to mixed species 

populations and investigation of underlying dynamics 

using red alder and Douglas-fir stands. Journal of Ecology 

80: 448-459.
17

1993a. Development and comparison of the size-density 

trajectories for red alder and Douglas-fir stands. Forest 

Science 39: 7-27.

Puettman, K.J.; DeBell, D.S.; Hibbs, D.E. 1993b. Density 

management guide for red alder. Research Contribution 

No. 2. Corvallis, OR: Forest Research Laboratory, 

Oregon State University. 6 p.

Radwan, M.A.; DeBell, D.S. 1981. Germination of red 

alder seed. Res. Note PNW-RN-370. Portland, OR: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 4 p.

Radwan, M.A.; Harrington, C.A. Kraft, J.M. 1984. 

Litterfall and nutrient returns in red alder stands in 

western Washington. Plant and Soil 79: 343-351.

Radwan, M.A. 1987. Effects of fertilization on growth and 

foliar nutrients of red alder seedlings. Res. Pap. PNW375. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 14 p.

Radwan, M.A.; Max, T.A.; Johnson, D.W. 1989. 

Softwood cuttings for propagation of red alder. New 

Forests 3: 21-30.

Radwan, M.A.; Tanaka, Y.; Dobkowski, A.; Fangan, 

W. 1992. Production and assessment of red alder 

planting stock. Res. Pap. PNW-450. Portland, OR: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Research Station. 13 p.

Radwan, M.A.; DeBell, D.S. 1994. Fertilization and 

nutrition of red alder. Chapter 15. In: Hibbs, D.E.; 

DeBell, D.S.; Tarrant, R.F., eds. Biology and managment 

of red alder. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University 

Press: 216-228.

Ranney, J.W.; Wright, L.L.; Layton P.A. 1987. Hardwood 

energy crops: the technology of intensive culture. Journal 

of Forestry 85 (9): 17-28.

Rapraeger, H. A. 1949. Pruning and thinning of red alder. 

Unpublished office report dated December 6, 1949 and 

on file at Olympia Forestry Sciences Laboratory. 7 p., 

including tables.

Robinson, D.D. 1948. Utilization of Oregon hardwoods. 

Inf. Circ. 2. Corvallis, OR: Oregon Forest Products 

Laboratory. 22 p.

Ruth, R. 1956. Plantation survival and growth in two 

brush-treatment areas in coastal Oregon. Res. Pap. No. 

17. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment 

Station. 14 p.

Ruth, R.H.; Berntsen, C.M. 1956. Chemical basal 

treatment to control red alder. Res. Note No. 128. 

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment 

Station 6 p.

Ruth, R.H. 1957. Ten-year history of an Oregon coastal 

plantation. Res. Pap. No. 21. Portland, OR: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 15 p.

Skinner, E.C. 1959. Cubic volume tables for red alder 

and Sitka spruce. Res. Note No. 170. Portland, OR: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 4 p.

Smith, J.H.G.; DeBell, D.S. 1973. Opportunities for 

short-rotation culture and complete utilization of seven 

Northwestern tree species. Forest Chronicle 49:31-34.

Sorensen, D.J. 1973. Alder mill operators angered by 

waste. Portland, OR: The Oregonian, May 2. 

Sorensen, D.J. 1973. Alder shortage blamed on 

mismanagement. Portland, OR: The Oregonian, May 3.

Staebler, G.R. 1960. Basal injection of 2,4,5-T fails to kill 

red alder and bigleaf maple. Res. Note. Weyerhaeuser 

Company.

Starker, T.J. 1939. A new alder. Journal of Forestry 37(5): 

415-417.

Stewart, R.E. 1974a. Foliage sprays for site preparation 

and release from six coastal brush species. Res. Pap. 

PNW-172. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Range and Experiment 

Station. 18 p.

Stewart, R.E. 1974b. Budbreak sprays for site preparation 

and release from six coastal brush species. Res. Pap. 

PNW-176. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Range and Experiment 

Station. 20 p.

Sudworth, G.B. 1908. Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service. Government Printing Office. 441 p.

Tarrant, R.F.; Isaac, L.A.; Chandler, R.F., Jr. 1951. 

Observations on litter fall and foliage nutrient content of 

some Pacific Northwest tree species. Journal of Forestry 

49(12): 914-915.

Tarrant, R.F. 1961. Stand development and soil fertility in 

a Douglas-fir - red alder plantation. Forest Science 7(3): 

238-246.

Tarrant, R.F.; Miller, R.E. 1963. Accumulation of organic 

matter and soil nitrogen beneath a plantation of red 

alder and Douglas-fir. Soil Science Society of America, 

Proceedings 27(2): 231-234.
18

Tarrant, R.F. 1964. Forest soil improvement through 

growing red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) in Pacific 

Northwestern United States. Eighth International 

Congress Soil Science Transaction V: 1029-1043.

Tarrant, R.F.; Bormann, B.T.; DeBell, D.S.; Atkinson, 

W.A. 1983. Managing red alder in the Douglas-fir region: 

some possibilities. Journal of Forestry 81:787-792. 

Thwaites, R.G. 1905 [reprinted 1959]. Original Journals of 

the Lewis and Clark Expedition. 8 volumes. Antiquarian 

Press, New York.

Trappe, J.M. 1972. Regulation of soil organisms by red 

alder: a potential biological system for control of Poria 

weirii. Berg, A.B. ed. Managing young forests in the 

Douglas-fir region, Vol. 3. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State 

University, School of Forestry: 35-51.

Trappe, J.M.; Franklin, J.F.; Tarrant, R.F.; Hansen, 

G.M. eds. 1968. Biology of alder. Portland, OR: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific 

Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Turner, N.J.; Thompson, L.C.; Thompson, M.T.; York, 

A.Z. 1990. Thompson ethnobotany – knowledge and 

usage of plants by the Thompson Indians of British 

Columbia. Royal British Columbia Museum Memoir No. 

3. 335p. 

Voorhies, G. 1944. The essentials of kiln drying Oregon 

hardwood lumber. Res. Leaflet 2. Corvallis, OR: Oregon 

Forest Products Laboratory. 17 p. 

Wallis, G. 1968. Resistance of Alnus rubra to infection 

by the root rot fungus Poria weirii. In: Trappe, J.M.; 

Franklin, J.F.; Tarrant, R.F.; Hansen, G.M. eds. Biology 

of alder. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range 

Experiment Station. 195 p.

Warrack, G. 1949. Treatment of red alder in the coastal 

region of British Columbia. Res. Note 14. Victoria, BC: 

British Columbia Forest Service. 7 p. 

Warrack, G.C. 1964. Thinning effects in red alder. 

Victoria, BC: British Columbia Forest Service, Victoria 

Research Division. 8 p.

Washington State University Extension Service. 1964. 

Growing red alder for profit. Pullman, WA: Washington 

State University. 6 p.

Whitford, H.N.; Craig, R.D. 1918. Forests of British 

Columbia. Committee on Forests, Ottawa, Canada: 

Commission of Conservation.

Worthington, N.P.; Johnson, F.A.; Staebler, G. R.; Lloyd 

W.J. 1960. Normal yield tables for red alder. Res. Pap. 

No. 36. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 

29 p.

Worthington, N.P.; Ruth, R.H.; Matson, E.E. 1962. Red 

alder—its management and utilization. Misc. Publ. 881. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service. 44 p.

Yoho, J.G.; Chappelle, D.E.; Schweitzer, D.L. 1969. The 

economics of converting red alder to Douglas-fir. PNW88. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacific Northwest Range and Experiment Station. 

31 p.

1969. The marketing of red alder pulpwood and saw logs. 

Res. Note PNW-96. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Range and 

Experiment Station. 7 p.
19

Biology/Ecology
20