REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE

1. REPORT DATE (dd-mm-yy)

July 2001 

2. REPORT TYPE

Final

3. DATES COVERED (from. . . to)

3 May 2000 – 2 May 2001 

5a. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER

DASW01-99-D-0012 DO #8 

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed

Computer-Based Training 5b. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER

0602785A

5c. PROJECT NUMBER

A790

5d. TASK NUMBER

211

6. AUTHOR(S)

Richard C. Deatz and Charlotte H. Campbell (Human 

Resources Research Organization) 

5e. WORK UNIT NUMBER

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

Human Resources Research Organization (HumRRO) 

66 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 400 

Alexandria, VA 22314

8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER

10. MONITOR ACRONYM

ARI

9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

ATTN: TAPC-ARI-IK

5001 Eisenhower Avenue

Alexandria, VA 22333-5600

11. MONITOR REPORT NUMBER

Research Product 2001-03 

12. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Contracting Officer’s Representative: Bruce S. Sterling

14. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words): 

As the U.S. Army continues to develop more powerful and complex digital information systems, it is 

essential that both training needs and training opportunities are addressed to meet mission objectives. One

way to address the training challenges of emerging digital systems is through the use of computer-based 

instruction (CBI), particularly because of the flexibility it offers in the way training can be delivered (e.g., 

embedded, distance learning, Internet). Another way is to improve learning by applying principles of

cognitive psychology to the training design. This paper describes a research and development effort that

incorporated a limited set of cognitive learning principles and techniques in the design of CBI for

individual digital operator skills. To demonstrate the design features, four prototype training modules

were developed for the Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2), the Army’s vehiclemounted digital system for distributing information to provide situational awareness. This paper describes 

how the selected instructional techniques and cognitive principles were used in distributed computer-based

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Cognitive Principles Computer-based Instruction Distributed Training Digital System Training

Cognitive Techniques Prototype Training Module 

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF

16. REPORT

Unclassifie

d

17. ABSTRACT

Unclassified

18. THIS PAGE

Unclassified

19. LIMITATION OF 

ABSTRACT

Unlimited 

20. NUMBER

OF PAGES

31 

21. RESPONSIBLE PERSON

(Name and Telephone Number)

Dr. Bruce S. Sterling

DSN 464-2613 
Research Product 2001-03 

Application of Cognitive Principles in 

Distributed Computer-Based Training

Richard C. Deatz and Charlotte H. Campbell 

Human Resources Research Organization 

Armored Forces Research Unit 

Barbara A. Black, Chief 

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences 

5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333-5600 

June 2001 

Army Project Number Personnel Performance and 

20262785A790 Training Technology

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited

ii 
iii 
FOREWORD

The Future Battlefield Conditions (FBC) Team of the Armored Forces Research Unit, U.S. 

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI) has a Science and 

Technology Objective (STO) entitled “Force XXI Training Strategies.” This STO is also 

reflected in the FBC work package (2228) FASTTRAIN: Force XXI Training Methods and 

Strategies. The present research supports the objectives outlined in the statement of work 

(SOW) titled Performance Evaluation, Training, and Future Requirements for Digital Skills, 

Task 3: Design, develop, and demonstrate prototype training techniques that incorporate 

principles of cognitive psychology and automated performance assessment and feedback (ARI, 

2000). 

This report supports the goals of the SOW Task 3 research effort by developing prototype 

training modules that demonstrate principles of cognitive science that could be incorporated into 

Army training programs to enhance the acquisition, retention, and transfer of future (year 2012) 

digital command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence (C4

I) system commander 

and staff skills. The Task 3 work represents a logical extension and continuation of previous 

ARI skill retention research accomplished with the Army’s Inter-Vehicular Information System

(IVIS), where it was noted that a number of learning theory principles might be applied to 

modify training to enhance skill retention. The present work identifies opportunities to apply

principles of cognitive science in developing prototype computer-based instructional modules for 

the Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2) digital information system. 

The use of cognitive science principles in digital information system training design, as

identified in this report, should be of value to training developers for a wide range of current and 

future systems. The prototype training modules clearly demonstrate the ease with which 

cognitive principles can be adopted in training, and their potential utility. The results of this 

research were briefed to representatives of the U.S. Army Armor School, Directorate of Training

and Doctrine Development, and other Fort Knox agencies during an in-progress review on 

1 February 2001. 

ZITA M. SIMUTIS

 Technical Director 

v 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report represents the efforts of an integrated team of research scientists, military

experts, simulation technology experts, and administrative support personnel. In addition to the 

authors, team members directly involved with this effort include Mr. Mike Cobb of Human 

Resources Research Organization (HumRRO) and Mr. Neff Jenkins of Litton PRC, who 

provided military and digital system expertise. Providing administrative support was Ms. 

Kathleen Horn (Litton PRC) with Mr. William T. Holden, Jr. of HumRRO providing guidance as 

project manager. 

Representing the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 

Armored Forces Research Unit, Dr. Bruce Sterling, Contracting Officer’s Representative, and 

Mr. William Sanders provided guidance and leadership throughout the project. 

Additionally, technical support was provided by the following organizations and 

individuals: 

Mounted Maneuver Battlespace Lab (MMBL), Fort Knox, Kentucky

Colonel Dennis J. Szydloski 

Lockheed Martin-Marietta

Mr. Don Appler, Site Manager 

Mr. Paul Monday, Analyst 

Mr. Paul Colonna, Analyst 

vi 
APPLICATION OF COGNITIVE PRINCIPLES IN DISTRIBUTED COMPUTER-BASED 

TRAINING

CONTENTS 

Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1

Background ......................................................................................... 1

Purpose of the Research...................................................................... 2

Training Focus .................................................................................... 3

Training Tasks..................................................................................... 4

Prototype 

Training Modules 

...................................................................................................................... 5

Demonstration of Cognitive Learning Principles and Techniques..... 6

Learner control and learning styles................................................... 6

Hierarchical sequencing of information............................................ 8

Realistic context .................................................................................... 8

Performance assessment and feedback.............................................. 9

Chunking ................................................................................................ 10

Advance organizer................................................................................ 11

Metaphor................................................................................................ 12

Concept/process map ........................................................................... 13

Frames, type 1 ....................................................................................... 14

Rehearsal ............................................................................................... 15

Summary ............................................................................................................. 17

Lessons Learned.................................................................................. 17

Future Considerations......................................................................... 19

Conclusion .......................................................................................... 20

References ............................................................................................................. 21

Appendixes Appendix A. Acronym List................................................................ A-1

 B. FBCB2 Task Analysis Sample ..................................... B-1

vii 
CONTENTS (Continued) 

Tables Table 1. Cognitive Principles and Techniques................................... 2

 2. Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below Task List 4

Figures Figure 1. Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below system

 display picture ................................................................... 3 

 2. Prototype training module screen layout for the task Reports

 (Spot Report)..................................................................... 5 

 3. Example of use of learner control in the prototype

 demonstration .................................................................... 7 

 4. Examples of performance assessment and feedback in the 

 prototype demonstration.................................................... 9 

 5. Example of use of chunking in the prototype 

 demonstration .................................................................... 10 

 6. Example of advance organizer presentation in the prototype 

 demonstration .................................................................... 11 

 7. Depiction of use of metaphor, showing comparison

 between Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below 

 (FBCB2) system screen and prototype training module 

 screen................................................................................. 12 

 8. Example of use of concept/process map in the prototype 

 demonstration .................................................................... 13 

 9. Example of frames, type 1 matrix in the prototype

 demonstration .................................................................... 14 

 10. Example of rehearsal, using a practice exercise, in the 

 prototype demonstration.................................................... 16

viii 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

INTRODUCTION As the U.S. Army continues to develop more powerful and complex digital 

information systems, it is essential that both training needs and training

opportunities are addressed to meet mission objectives. Initial training for 

operators, leaders, and staff members who use the information systems to 

conduct battlefield command and control is one training need. Equally

important is the need for retraining those same individuals as highly

technical information systems are periodically upgraded. These training

needs present trainers and training developers with challenges such as 

keeping up with the software changes, delivering incremental training that

highlights critical modifications, and providing support so that units can 

maintain and improve operational proficiency without incurring high

training costs or extra wear and tear on those systems. 

One way to address the challenges of emerging digital systems is through 

distributed training. Distributed training, as described in Brown (1991), is 

providing appropriate training and training support at the best location for 

effective training. Recent work in this area has focused on the use of

computer-based instruction (CBI)

1

, particularly because of the flexibility it 

offers in the way training can be delivered (e.g., embedded, distance 

learning, Internet). Additionally, the training potential of emerging systems 

includes not only technological capabilities, but also the ability to vary

instructional methods and media to meet the cognitive demands of the 

learning tasks (Hooper & Hannafin, 1991). To improve learning, the 

application of principles of cognitive psychology to training design also can

address the training challenges associated with new digital systems. By

increasing the opportunities for distributed computer-based training that 

incorporates cognitive learning principles and techniques, it is expected that

skill acquisition and retention can be improved. 

Background The U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

(ARI) has initiated various research projects to address the training

challenges associated with digitization. One such project, documented by

Sanders (2001), proposes using specific cognitive learning principles and 

techniques as viable ways to improve training. The emphasis is on 

organizing and presenting information in ways that track with how learners

learn – mirroring the way more complex information is received, stored, and 

retrieved by the mind. This approach could allow learners to acquire and 

retain digital system skills more readily and adapt as digital tasks evolve

with system enhancements. 

 

1

 Appendix A contains a complete list of the acronyms used in this report. 

1 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Purpose of the 

Research 

As an outgrowth of Sanders’ work, ARI initiated the present research

focused on designing prototype training modules that incorporates cognitive 

learning principles and techniques in computer-delivered training. The 

primary goal was not to develop complete training modules, but to 

demonstrate the training design through the use of storyboards. The 

cognitive learning principles and techniques used in the design of the

training modules are described in Table 1. 

Table 1. Cognitive Principles and Techniques 

Cognitive Principle 

or Technique 

Description Source

Learner control and 

learning styles 

Active involvement by learners in the learning process

and providing them a learning environment which best

suits the way they acquire information 

Ertmer & Newby

(1993) 

Hierarchical 

sequencing of 

information 

The order in which information is presented, 

deliberately designed in terms of enabling and 

terminal skills 

Ertmer & Newby

(1993) 

Realistic context Training content delivered in a job-related context 

(how the learner will use the information), such as 

realistic examples, constructive or virtual simulations,

or mission-based exercises 

Means, Salas, 

Crandall, and Jacobs

(1993); CannonBowers, Salas, &

Converse (1992) 

Performance 

feedback and 

assessment 

Learner performance-related information and 

evaluation provided for, and linked to, completed 

training tasks to help improve performance 

Morrison & Meliza 

(1999) 

Chunking Organizing information for better comprehension and 

learning by ordering, classifying, or arranging 

West, Farmer, & Wolff 

(1991) 

Advance Organizer New instructional content presented with explicit

description of relationship to prior knowledge as an 

aid to comprehension 

West, Farmer, & Wolff 

(1991); Ertmer &

Newby (1993) 

Metaphor Analogies between the new instructional content and 

general background knowledge to improve 

comprehension 

West, Farmer, & Wolff 

(1991) 

Concept/Process 

Map 

Graphical depiction of how concepts or processes are 

linked to aid comprehension 

West, Farmer, & Wolff 

(1991) 

Frames, Type 1 Matrix to contrast and compare information to aid 

recall 

West, Farmer, & Wolff 

(1991) 

Rehearsal Active, repetitive use of instructional content to 

improve longer term recall

West, Farmer, & Wolff 

(1991) 

2 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Training Focus The training focus was on the training of individual digital operator skills 

using the Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2) as the

exemplar digital system. The FBCB2 is a key component of the Army

Battle Command System (ABCS) and interfaces with the Army Tactical

Command and Control System (ATCCS) at the battalion level. It comprises 

information technology equipment and software to visually display

situational awareness (SA) information provided by weapon systems, 

sensors, and support platforms; prepare and distribute orders and graphics; 

and receive, develop, and distribute data based on a common battlefield 

picture. The FBCB2 supports SA down to the soldier/platform level across

all battlefield functional areas and echelons. An FBCB2 screen is depicted 

in Figure 1. 

The FBCB2 system is normally found in fighting vehicles, command 

vehicles, and command posts. For this effort, the audience was limited to a

battalion battle staff.

Figure 1. Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below system display

picture. 

3 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Training Tasks Instructional system design should begin with an in-depth analysis of the 

instructional content. However, since the focus of this project was on 

training design, the initial task analysis was used by the project team to 

select 4 of 10 possible FBCB2 tasks that would best demonstrate the design 

characteristics. The tasks were selected from the Army’s Automated 

Systems Approach to Training (ASAT) database, a multi-user database that

supports collective and individual task analysis along with Army publication 

and doctrine development. The selected ASAT tasks are identified in 

Table 2. It should be noted that after the task analysis, the task Perform 

Information Management was created as an alternative to the ASAT task of

Perform Message Management using FBCB2. The original ASAT task was 

limited to processing E-mail messages and the project team felt it should be 

expanded to include related sub-tasks such as changing transmission settings 

and user groups. These sub-tasks not only apply to E-mail, but are also used

to distribute overlays, reports, or orders. 

An in-depth task analysis was conducted for each of the four FBCB2 tasks 

to identify the steps in the process. These task steps provided the training

content to which the cognitive principles were applied. A copy of the task

analysis was provided to the proponent (Armor) school Directorate of 

Training and Doctrine Development. A sample of the task analysis for

Reports can be found in Appendix B.

Table 2. Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below Task List

Task Title Abbreviated Task Title

a

Perform Information Managementb Information Management

Prepare/Send Overlays using FBCB2 Overlays

Prepare/Send Reports using FBCB2 Reports

Prepare/Send Order/Request Messages 

using FBCB2 

Orders

Note. FBCB2 = Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below. a

Abbreviated titles are used in the text for convenience. 

b

The task was originally the Automated Systems Approach to Training 

 task, Perform Message Management using FBCB2. 

4 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

PROTOTYPE 

TRAINING

MODULES 

Each training module was designed to train one FBCB2 task. Upon selecting a 

training module, the learner is presented with an introduction to the instructional 

content followed by a video and audio demonstration of the task. At the end of 

each section of the interactive training, a review of the material is provided in

addition to a multiple-choice quiz. When all sections of the module have been 

completed, the learner is directed to a scenario-based practice exercise. 

The training module screen displays combined digitally-captured FBCB2 screen 

pictures with a text-based description of how each task step is performed and 

supporting information that explains why or how system information is used to 

complete the FBCB2 task. The training module screen layouts were constructed 

in a Microsoft PowerPoint presentation graphics program as a way to 

storyboard the design characteristics. An example of a screen layout for a 

training module is shown in Figure 2. 

The supporting text is displayed in Training Points boxes and in callout boxes 

that are timed to “fly in” and stop beside a particular screen attribute (refer again 

to Figure 2). By following the prompts in the Action box for the next step in the 

training and reading the supporting information as it appears on the screen, the 

learner is effectively participating in CBI for the FBCB2 system. 

Action

1

Prepare and Send Spot Report

Previous Next

Note: The “M” box

indicator turns black once

data has been entered

Training Points

Important Reminder:

When opening on Optional

Group, the associated

options will be displayed

and some will now be

mandatory fill

Click on Entity Identity

down arrow button

SSppoott Rep Repoortrt pprroocess: cess:

Closing

Steps

• Messages

• Create tab

• Combat Messages

• SPOT/SALUTE

• Save As

• Send Report

• Report Type and Unit

• Entity Data

• Obs Equipment Data

• Observation Data

(To restart a section, click on one of the process boxes)

Initial

Steps

Report

Completion

QUIT

Note. Circled area highlights a callout box. 

 Figure 2. Prototype training module screen layout for the task Reports (Spot Report). 

5 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Demonstration of

Cognitive Learning

Principles and 

Techniques 

The remainder of this section provides descriptions and examples of how the 

cognitive learning principles and techniques were used in the prototype

training module design. Although each principle or technique is discussed 

separately, the reader should not infer that they can or should be used 

separately. Often the power of the principles or techniques is amplified 

when they are combined (West, Farmer, & Wolff, 1991). 

Where appropriate, the principles and techniques are illustrated in a figure

by using a training screen picture. To highlight a training technique being

discussed, a circle may be drawn around the particular feature. 

Learner control and 

learning styles 

The learner control principle is incorporated into the training design by

providing learners the ability to move freely throughout the training program 

and modules. From the main menu screen, the learners may select the 

desired training module or practice exercise. They are able to either move to 

a specific section of a module (using process boxes at the top left portion of

the screen) or page forward or back (using the “previous” or “next” button at 

the bottom of the screen) as shown in Figure 3. They can escape from the 

training module at any point by clicking the “quit” button. 

To address a variety of potential learning styles, information is presented in

three ways. First, the learner watches the task performed (albeit at a rapid 

pace) through the use of a video and audio demonstration prior to the start of 

each training module. Second, the learner begins to interact with the system

by following the step-by-step procedures for completing the task. Third, the

learner can train, with minimal guidance, using the practice exercise

developed for each task. 

6 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Action

1

Prepare and Send Spot Report

Previous Next

Training Points

Important Reminder:

When opening on Optional

Group, the associated

options will be displayed

and some will now be

mandatory fill

Click on Entity Identity

down arrow button

SSpot pot R Reepor portt proc proceessss::

• Messages

• Create tab

• Combat Messages

• SPOT/SALUTE

• Save As

• Send Report

• Report Type and Unit

• Entity Data

• Obs Equipment Data

• Observation Data

(To restart a section, click on one of the process boxes)

Report

Completion

QUIT

 Note. Circled areas highlight learner control. 

Closing

Steps

Initial

Steps

 Figure 3. Example of use of learner control in the prototype demonstration. 

7 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Hierarchical 

sequencing of

information

The in-depth analysis of the FBCB2 tasks surfaced information and 

processes that suggested an order to the instructional content. Although 

some learning could occur by reading the description of each button’s 

functionality, the buttons do not necessarily work independently. Those 

relationships between button functions would be found only through trial 

and error if not described or shown to the learners. 

A sequence prescribed by the training design is imposed throughout the 

training modules. For example, the procedures for establishing the desired 

SA screen display attributes (e.g., unit icons, terrain features, area of 

operation) are presented prior to the training on the Overlays, Reports, or 

Orders task. The users must first customize the SA screen display to 

provide the information applicable to their role in order to perform the other 

tasks (Overlays, Reports, or Orders). 

Realistic context To ensure an accurate understanding of how a digital system will impact

mission execution, it is important to provide instruction using real-life 

examples and situations. Gaining an acceptable understanding of the 

instructional content may not occur if learners are allowed to practice with a

system without guidance or job context (Cannon-Bowers, Salas, &

Converse, 1992). 

The use of this principle varied in several ways within the training design. 

First, the design incorporates actual FBCB2 screen pictures so the learner 

becomes familiar and comfortable with the location of information in 

preparation for using the FBCB2 system. Additionally, the scenario used in 

the practice exercises provides the learner an opportunity to analyze 

information while using the system, as they would when conducting a 

mission exercise. 

8 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Performance 

assessment and 

feedback 

Performance assessment and feedback are critical aspects of training. In a 

summary of the performance feedback literature, Throne et al. (1999) stated 

“...research on the learning styles and knowledge structures of experts 

suggests that feedback, which helps the learner to analyze and categorize an

experience, will result in more long-lasting performance improvement”

(p. 17). 

The use of performance assessment and feedback is demonstrated in the 

training design in several ways. First, feedback is provided for each menu 

navigation action made by the learner. Correct actions cause the screen to

change so that the learner can progress to the next task step. Incorrect

actions fail to bring a response from the system. In this way the training

provides immediate feedback in response to learner actions. 

Second, at the end of each section of instruction within a module, the 

learners are presented with a review and test question. Learners click on the 

button for the selected answer, as shown in Figure 4, picture A. If the 

answer is correct (in this example it is Edit), they are advised of the correct

answer and are directed to advance to the next section of training. If an 

incorrect answer is selected (in this example Manage, as in picture B), 

learners are advised that a better choice is available and additional 

information regarding the answer they selected is provided. They are 

instructed to make another selection by clicking on the return button. This 

sequence is repeated until the correct answer has been selected. 

Action

1 Click on the button for

the best answer

Prepare and Send Spot Report

Training Points

Previous Next

The review continues...

SpSpoott R Reeppor ortt p prrooccess: ess:

Initial

Steps

Report

Completion

Closing

Steps

• Messages

• Create tab

• Combat Messages

• SPOT/SALUTE

• Save As

• Send Report

• Report Type and Unit

• Entity Data

• Obs Equipment Data

• Observation Data

(To restart a section, click on one of the process boxes)

QUIT

After clicking on the message button, which tab

should you select to start a new report?

(Click on your answer)

A. Manage

B. Edit

C. Create

D. Send

Click on the Return

button

Return

Sorry!

A. Manage

B. Edit

C. Create

D. Send

There is a better answer; the Manage tab allows

the user to manipulate folders and files. Please

hit the return button.

(To restart a section click on one of the process boxes or individual topics above.)

Prepare and Send Spot Report

Action

Training Points

SSpot Reeppor ort pr prooccess: es

• Messages

• Create tab

• Combat Messages

• SPOT/SALUTE

• Save As

• Send Report

• Report Type and Unit

• Entity Data

• Obs Equipment Data

• Observation Data

Initial

Steps

Closing

Steps

Report

Completion

A. Training module quiz page B. Training Module incorrect answer example 

 Note. Circled area highlights performance assessment screen attributes. 

 Figure 4. Examples of performance assessment and feedback in the prototype 

 demonstration. 

9 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Chunking Information chunking is the structuring of information using spatial or linear 

segments such as time and procedure, or classification segments such as

taxonomies and sorting. One way chunking was used in the training

modules, as shown in Figure 5, was to organize the FBCB2 task steps into 

three stages: the initial steps (how to get to the desired system screen), task 

completion (how to use the system to complete the task), and closing steps 

(what to do when the task is completed). This information is displayed at

the top of the screen so learners can easily track their progress throughout 

training. 

Another use of chunking is found in the training reviews at the end of each 

section of instruction. The numerous steps required for completing an 

FBCB2 task were grouped based on common output characteristics (e.g., 

observer location information, enemy data). These groupings provide 

learners with an organizing strategy that can aid retention. Additionally, the 

groupings are designed to closely resemble the way staff members would 

execute the task in their current non-digital operational environment. 

Action

1

Prepare and Send Spot Report

Previous Next

Training Points

Important Reminder:

When opening on Optional

Group, the associated

options will be displayed

and some will now be

mandatory fill

Several files within

Entity Data are now

mandatory fill

Click on Entity Identity

down arrow button

SSppoott Rep Repoort p rt prroocess: cess:

Closing

Steps

• Messages

• Create tab

• Combat Messages

• SPOT/SALUTE

• Save As

• Send Report

• Report Type and Unit

• Entity Data

• Obs Equipment Data

• Observation Data

(To restart a section, click on one of the process boxes)

Initial

Steps

Report

Completion

QUIT

Note. Circled area highlights chunking. 

Figure 5. Example of use of chunking in the prototype demonstration. 

10 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Advance organizer Advance organizers provide an initial structure for new information that

allows learners to organize and retain the instructional content. The advance 

organizer has a specific use by being presented just prior to the beginning of

new instructional content. It is usually based on relevant concepts that are 

already established in the learner’s mind and these concepts are used as part

of the organizing framework. 

In the example shown in Figure 6, the advance organizer is displayed at the 

start of the training module and points out that what the learner already

knows about sending Spot Reports will also apply when using the FBCB2

system. What does change is the way the information is gathered and how it 

is used to create a Spot Report. The information within the text box

(Figure 6) appears as bullets that are displayed sequentially, allowing time to 

read each bullet before the next one appears. 

Prepare and Send Spot Report

Action

1 Press continue when

ready

Continue

FBCB2 FBCB System Training Modules: 2 System Training Modules:

(To restart a module, click on one of the options above)

A. Tutorial and FBCB2 Basics

B. Prepare FBCB2 for Operation

and Shutdown

C. Information Management on

FBCB2

D. Prepare and send Reports

E. Prepare and send Overlays

F. Prepare and send Orders

and Requests

G. Perform Operator

Maintenance on FBCB2

H. Practice Exercises by Module

Training Points

In this training module, you will

be introduced to and will

access all options that are

available for completing a

Spot Report using FBCB2

It is unlikely that you will use

all the options each time you

prepare a Spot Report during

a tactical mission

Spot Reports in FBCB2

• Spot Reports for FBCB2 are no different, in content,

than your current SOP

• The key is learning where to access the Spot Report

function in FBCB2 and what information options are

available to complete the report in this system

• The available information options should cover potential

data elements within the unit’s current SOP

• Though not within the scope of this training session, the

unit may wish to use their SOP for this FBCB2 function

prior to conducting tactical training missions.

Note. Circled area highlights advance organizer. 

Figure 6. Example of advance organizer presentation in the prototype demonstration. 

11 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Metaphor This cognitive technique is like the advance organizer, bridging prior

knowledge and new knowledge by emphasizing the similarities between 

them. Metaphor, however, is often based upon general knowledge and lacks 

the specific detail relevant to technical content found in the advance 

organizer. 

Metaphor was used as the basis for the training screen layout. The FBCB2

system uses a map or SA display in the lower left corner of the monitor. 

Information is provided above the display with the available system function 

buttons to the right. The training module has employed a similar screen 

layout, as seen in the FBCB2 screen layout comparison in Figure 7. The 

FBCB2 screen picture is positioned in the lower left corner with supporting

information above. The “Action” box to the right provides the cues for the

next step to be taken during training while the “Training Points” box

provides reasons why the action is required, how the system will respond, or

other options available to the learner. With this screen layout, the learner

becomes accustomed to viewing the system display to the left and looking to 

the right for the available actions. 

FBCB2 system Prototype training module

Select Run Demo to begin

the module

SSpot RepRepoorrt t pprocess:

Initial

Steps

Report

Completion

Closing

Steps

• Messages

• Create tab

• Combat Messages

• SPOT/SALUTE

• Save As

• Send Report

• Report Type and Unit

• Entity Data

• Obs Equipment Data

• Observation Data

(To restart a section click on one of the process boxes or individual topics above.)

Run Demo

A video demonstration

provides a preview of the

expected training outcomes

Prepare and Send Spot Report

Action

Training Points

QUIT

Figure 7. Depiction of use of metaphor, showing comparison between Force XXI Battle 

Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2) system screen and prototype training module screen. 

12 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Concept/process map The concept or process map technique places information in a visual array,

such as a chain map, spider map, or hierarchy map. Chunking is a 

prerequisite to developing a concept map (West et al., 1991). 

In this training module, Figure 8 shows the technique (a chain map) being

used to provide the learner with an overview of the entire process. It is 

displayed across the top of the screen through each step of training. As 

learners advance through the stages of the training module, the appropriate

process box is highlighted with a solid color. The learner is provided a 

small picture of the expected outcome of the training next to the process 

map. 

Action

1

Prepare and Send Spot Report

Previous Next

Training Points

Important Reminder:

When opening on Optional

Group, the associated

options will be displayed

and some will now be

mandatory fill

Several files within

Entity Data are now

mandatory fill

Click on Entity Identity

down arrow button

SSppoott Re Reppoort p rt prroocess: cess:

Closing

Steps

• Messages

• Create tab

• Combat Messages

• SPOT/SALUTE

• Save As

• Send Report

• Report Type and Unit

• Entity Data

• Obs Equipment Data

• Observation Data

(To restart a section, click on one of the process boxes)

Initial

Steps

Report

Completion

QUIT

 Note. Circled area highlights concept/process map 

 Figure 8. Example of use of concept/process map in the prototype demonstration. 

13 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Frames, type 1 The frames, type 1 matrix provides a visual array of the relationships 

between main ideas, like the concept/process map. The technique was used

in the prototype to indicate the relationship between the various steps in the 

execution of an FBCB2 task. 

In the example shown in Figure 9, the task is Prepare/Send Reports using 

FBCB2 (in this case, a Spot Report). Although the Spot Report process is 

not especially difficult using FBCB2, it does involve numerous steps, 

making it awkward to remember. Those steps were reduced into seven 

general groups using chunking and were entered into the first column of the 

matrix. The purpose column describes or defines the general groupings 

followed by the third column providing the more detailed system options for

each group. The key is to understand and recall what can be accomplished 

using the particular system function, not necessarily to recall each detailed 

step, since the system prompts the user with that information. 

Action

1

Prepare and Send Spot Report

Training Points

Previous Next

Review continues with

additional details

Click on Next below

when ready to continue

SSpot pot R Repepoortrt p proroccess: ess:

Closing

Steps

• Messages

• Create tab

• Combat Messages

• SPOT/SALUTE

• Save As

• Send Report

• Report Type and Unit

• Entity Data

• Obs Equipment Data

• Observation Data

(To restart a section, click on one of the process boxes)

Initial

Steps

Report

Completion

Purpose System Options

Identify type of information to be provided Spot or Salute

Identify the unit reporting the information Choose from division assets

Provide general description of what Categorization, size, action, 

was observed location, course, speed

Provide specific vehicle/equipment Specific type, quantity,

details location

Report Type

Entity Data

Unit

Observed

Equipment

Data

Observer

 Location

Date/Time

Group

Comments

Provide observer’s position Specify using map/LRF/other

Identify when the observation occurred Current or specified date/time

Describe additional details not available Freetext messaging

using the FBCB2 system

QUIT

Note. Circled area highlights frames, type 1 

Figure 9. Example of frames, type 1 matrix in the prototype demonstration. 

14 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

In this example, the frames technique was used as a review tool, 

summarizing the instructional content at the end of each stage of the training

module. The rows of the matrix appear sequentially so the learner gradually

receives the information. In addition to being used for review, the matrix is 

also used as a preview tool at the start of a practice exercise. 

Rehearsal Rehearsal is the repetitive use of instructional content and can take many

different forms, such as note-taking, questioning, or paraphrasing in addition 

to the more common practice exercise. West et al. (1991) stated that 

rehearsal can also include repeated presentation or exposure to new material 

for it to be more deeply ingrained for long-term recall. 

This technique appears in the training module as a practice exercise. The 

practice exercise is based on a tactical situation that requires users to analyze 

a situation and perform an FBCB2 task based on that analysis. In the 

example in Figure 10 the task is Prepare/Send Reports using FBCB2 

(specifically, a Spot Report). The scenario, circled in the figure, is displayed 

across the top portion of the screen as a reference throughout the exercise. 

Instead of providing the next step in the process, the “Action” box now 

references the stage (from the training module’s process map) of the process 

in which the step is found. There is also a “Hints” link, developed for the 

training module, should the learner need help with the process steps. By

clicking on that link, learners can review a matrix containing the process 

steps to refresh their memory. 

In addition to practice exercises, the rehearsal technique is used within each

module by introducing the information several times and in several ways. 

When starting a training module, the learner first receives information 

through the video and audio demonstration of the task. The second time is 

in the step by step instruction, along with a summary of the information 

appearing in the process map at the top of the screen. Finally, the material is 

also summarized in the review at the end of each section of instruction. 

15 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Previous Next

Click here for

hints

Use Initial Steps to reach

the spot report long form

Spot Report Practice Exercise 1

Action

Hints

QUIT

Spot Report Condition: You are 1st Platoon Leader, A Co, 1-22 Inf (Mech). Using FBCB2, create a

spot report to relay the information from the scenario described below.

Spot Report Scenario: You are observing an unknown enemy company-size force center of mass

vicinity 11SNV 238826. The enemy unit is advancing due south at approximately 10 kph. You can

identify 3 T-80 tanks at NV240823, 7 BMP-2s at NV237828, 3 2S1s at NV234834, and an IMR at

NV236829. Your current location is in BP A1 at NV222570624. If the enemy continues along its

current axis of advance it will bypass your position to the east without you being able to engage it

without shifting to alternate BP A2-1.

 Note. Circled area highlights the practice exercise scenario. 

 Figure 10. Example of rehearsal, using a practice exercise, in the prototype 

 demonstration. 

16 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

SUMMARY The prototype training modules were designed to demonstrate the use of

cognitive learning principles and techniques in distributed computer-based

training. While the most highly developed training module, Reports (Spot 

Report), involves a sequence of steps reinforced by mandatory fields, this 

training method could also apply to more complex leader tasks as 

demonstrated by the less complete module, Perform Information 

Management. This approach was taken to address the training challenges of 

providing adequate and timely training for the Army’s emerging digital 

systems. It is expected that digital skill acquisition and retention can be

improved by leveraging the flexibility of delivering training through CBI

with cognitive learning principles and techniques. 

A formal evaluation was not required for this project. However, the project 

team members and ARI personnel conducted several informal design trials. 

Additionally, with the evolution of the prototype training module from a 

storyboard presentation to an emulated and functional training product, the

project team had an opportunity to expand the design trials to include 

soldiers. Several soldiers, of varying rank and FBCB2 experience, reviewed

the training modules and provided feedback for design revisions. 

The experiences and comments from the project team members, ARI

personnel, and soldiers have provided the basis for the lessons learned. The 

lessons learned are followed by a discussion of future considerations. 

Lessons Learned Several important points concerning the development, use, and delivery of 

digital systems training should be made. The first is that CBI can be

developed with commonly used presentation software (e.g., Microsoft

PowerPoint) as a “low cost” alternative or supplement to embedded 

training on tactical equipment. Although PowerPoint may not be the 

optimum system for interactive training development, other, more powerful

systems are less readily available in the field and require more expertise and 

time to develop and modify. As the project’s storyboard presentation 

evolved, more capabilities were added so that it realistically emulated

FBCB2 system functionality that was delivered through CBI. In support of 

this product, comments received from soldiers indicated they felt they

received good training, and at times, forgot they were using an emulated 

FBCB2 system. Additionally, changes to the training would not require

specific multimedia software expertise, allowing trainers who are familiar

with slide presentation software to be able to update the modules. 

17 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Secondly, it appears the training design techniques would apply to fully or 

appended embedded training as well. On board systems or surrogate “White 

Box” systems, equipped with the objective embedded training capability,

can provide the soldier with full system capability with current software

already on the system. Although the training modules were demonstrated on

a personal computer using a CD-ROM, the characteristics of the design (i.e., 

cognitive learning principles and techniques) do not limit development to 

that medium alone. In addition to being delivered through the Internet, the

design attributes would work using an array of computer software and 

hardware, whether they are located in a vehicle or in the learner’s office or 

home. 

Another lesson learned is that it is difficult, if not impossible, to keep 

training current when emerging digital systems release updated versions 

several times a year. These system changes, like altering or streamlining the

steps to complete a particular task, are often time consuming and expensive

to update and distribute as revised training programs or manuals. 

Developing training using a “low-cost” method, as suggested in the first 

lesson learned, allows local trainers to quickly update the training package

as system updates are fielded. Combining that approach with a sound 

computer-based design that is easily distributed (e.g., Internet) may offer a 

way to meet the soldier’s training needs while these emerging systems 

mature and fully embedded training programs are developed. 

Finally, CBI for digital systems, particularly using common slide

presentation software, offers great flexibility as to the environments in which 

the training can be utilized. There are few limiting factors for this type of

training due to unique equipment or software requirements. Additionally,

the training programs are highly transportable through the Internet or 

CD-ROM. 

18 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Future 

Considerations

There are several future considerations that focus on training design

evaluation, collective training, performance assessment and feedback, 

training management, and training development. The first, and most 

important consideration, is the need to evaluate the effectiveness of this 

training design. Although prior research has indicated that the use of 

cognitive principles may improve learning, the retention of skills acquired 

using the prototype training modules was not formally evaluated during this

project. It is important that formal trials be conducted to gather data 

regarding the effectiveness of the training design.

The second consideration refers to the need to investigate ways to link users 

together, after completing individual training, in order to conduct collective,

scenario-based practice exercises. Although this project focused on 

individual digital system skills training, it is difficult to escape the need for 

soldiers to be able to train collectively. This is becoming even more

important with the advent of a lighter, faster digital army. Future efforts 

should determine if there are ways to allow learners using stand-alone CBI

programs to connect together, perhaps through the Internet, to conduct a 

scenario-based practice exercise as a team. 

Automated performance assessment and feedback continues to be a topic 

that spurs new research. The emerging digital command, control, 

communications, computers, and intelligence (C4

I) systems have unrealized 

potential to collect data automatically, and that feature is becoming more

integral to the performance of individual and collective skills (Throne, 

Holden, & Lickteig, 2000). Particularly for CBI, without an instructor 

present, maximizing automated performance feedback is essential. Research 

efforts should continue to find new opportunities for more extensive 

feedback to the learner. 

When designing CBI, consideration should be given to include a mechanism 

that can track a learner’s progress through the training program and report 

that information to a training management database. Army units experience 

continual changes in personnel for a myriad of reasons. Ensuring that 

everyone is up-to-date with individual training requirements for various 

digital systems is a difficult process, particularly when it involves large 

numbers of soldiers. This CBI feature should be able to report information 

such as which training modules an individual has successfully completed 

and when that training last occurred. The training management database 

could use that information to provide customized reports as an aid for 

scheduling initial and sustainment training. 

19 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Another future consideration is to continue to look for ways to develop 

functional, yet inexpensive, CBI. A lesson learned in this project was that 

the use of a slide presentation software provided a potentially viable way to 

provide CBI. Although this approach has limitations in matching the

sophistication of complex digital software programs with regard to user 

flexibility or free-play, it could be successful when the digital system 

training is highly structured. Further work in this area may find other 

simple, commonly used and easily updated software to provide the learner 

greater training flexibility.

Conclusion The U.S. Army continually looks to identify what the future holds, in order 

to lay the groundwork required for successful operations. To this end, work

is being conducted to develop new and more efficient digital systems, in 

addition to finding ways to improve the training needed to support those 

systems. Distributed training, based on solid design principles, can provide

the soldier with the skills and knowledge to meet the challenges associated 

with emerging digital systems. 

20 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

References 

Brown, F. J. (1991). A simulation-based intensified training readiness strategy for the reserve

component (IDA Paper P-2611). Alexandria, VA: Institute for Defense Analysis. 

Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Salas, E., & Converse, S. (1992). Shared mental models in expert team 

decision making. In H. J. Castellan, Jr. (Ed.), Current issues in individual and group 

decision making (pp. 221-246). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 

Ertmer, A. P., & Newby, J. T. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, contructivism: Comparing

critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement

Quarterly, 6 (4), 50-72. 

Hooper, M. J., & Hannafin, S. (1991). Psychological perspectives on emerging instructional 

technologies: A critical analysis. Educational Technology Research and Development, 

26 (1), 69-95. 

Means, B., Salas, E., Crandall, B., & Jacobs, T. O. (1993). Training decision makers for the real 

world. In G. A. Klien, J. Orasnu, R. Calderwood, & C. E. Zsambok (Eds.), Decision making 

in action: Models and methods (pp. 306-326). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing

Corporation. 

Morrison, J. E., & Meliza, L. L. (1999). Foundations for the after action review process (ARI

Special Report 42). Alexandria, VA: U. S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and 

Social Sciences. 

Sanders, W. R. (2001). Cognitive psychology principles for digital systems training (ARI

Research Report 1773). Alexandria, VA: U. S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral 

and Social Sciences. 

Throne, M. H., Deatz, R. C., Holden, W. T., Campbell, C. H., Sterling, B. S., & Lickteig, C. W.

(1999). Prototype staff training and evaluation methods for future forces (ARI Research 

Report 1745). Alexandria, VA: U. S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and 

Social Sciences. 

Throne, M. H., Holden, W. T., & Lickteig C. W. (2000). Refinement of prototype staff 

evaluation methods for future forces: A focus on automated measures (ARI Research 

Report 1764). Alexandria, VA: U. S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and 

Social Sciences. 

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. (2000). Performance 

Evaluation, Training, and Future Requirements for Digital Skills, Task 3: Design, develop, 

and demonstrate prototype training techniques that incorporate principles of cognitive 

psychology and automated performance assessment and feedback (Statement of Work). 

Alexandria, VA: Author

West, C. K., Farmer, J. A., & Wolff, P. M. (1991). Instructional design implications from 

cognitive science. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. 

21 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Appendix A 

Acronym List 

ABCS Army Battle Command System

ARI U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences 

ASAT Automated Systems Approach to Training

ATCCS Army Tactical Command and Control System 

C4

I command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence 

CBI computer-based instruction 

FASTTRAIN Force XXI Training Methods and Strategies 

FBC future battlefield conditions 

FBCB2 Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below 

HumRRO Human Resources Research Organization 

IVIS Inter-Vehicular Information System

MMBL Mounted Maneuver Battlespace Lab 

SA situational awareness 

SOW statement of work 

STO Science and Technology Objective 

A-1 
Application of Cognitive Principles in Distributed Computer-Based Training 

Appendix B

FBCB2 Task Analysis Sample

This appendix provides a sample of the task analysis worksheet (first two pages) used to 

identify the process steps of the FBCB2 task, Prepare and Send Reports using FBCB2. A 

worksheet was completed for each of the four FBCB2 tasks used to demonstrate the training

design. 

Task to Step Analysis 

Training Program Function Task # Audience 

Prototype 171-145-0008

Task Name: Prepare and Send Reports using FBCB2 

Step Action Additional Information

1 Select MESSAGES from

the function bar or F4 on 

the keyboard. 

Notes. 

1. The virtual keyboard, when activated, may be used with either an operating touch

screen or a mouse.

2 Select the CREATE tab.

3 Select the REPORTS

radio button.

The display box lists 21 different report options: Airborne Artillery FCR, Bridge

Report, Chemical Downwind Report, Contact Report, Effective Downwind Message, 

Engagement Report, Free Text Message, Log Report, Land Minefield Laying Report, 

Land Route Report, Medical SITREP, Mortuary Affairs, NBC 1 Report, NBC 3 

Report, NBC 4 Report, Obstacle Report, Personnel Report, Position Report, Situation 

Report, Spot Report, and Supply Point Status Report. The reports are in alphabetical

order. 

Note. You must set your default settings for each type message before that message

may be sent. 

4 Prepare a report/message. Determine the report or message request to create. Highlight the desire report or 

message request template in the display box. 

The Report/Message Toolbox is displayed. 

Notes. There are three tabs in the toolbox (except for the FREE TEXT MESSAGE).

1. Outline: displays the order template. 

2. Preview: displays the prepared order for review. This tab can be selected at any

point during orders production to review what has been entered to date. 

3. Rules: no function as of yet – it does nothing. 

After you highlight the desired report or message request, select the EXECUTE button 

to display the desired order/request temple. 

4a Highlight Free Text

Message.

The Free Text Message is used to provide information that doesn’t fall into a

structured message format.

4a.1 Select the EXECUTE 

button.

This displays the Free Text Dialogue Box.

Notes. 

1. There is no mandatory field. 

2. The cursor appears automatically within the text box. 

4a.2 Enter message. Either the standard or virtual keyboards may be used to enter the message. To use the

virtual keyboard to enter data, select the VIRTUAL KEYBOARD button below the

text box. 

Note. Message content is limited to 1200 alpha numeric characters. 

B-1