RECOMMENDED FOR PUBLICATION

Pursuant to Sixth Circuit I.O.P. 32.1(b)

File Name: 21a0254p.06

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE SIXTH CIRCUIT

PREVENT USA CORPORATION; EASTERN HORIZON 

GROUP NETHERLANDS B.V.,

Plaintiffs-Appellants,

v.

VOLKSWAGEN AG; VOLKSWAGEN GROUP OF AMERICA,

INC.,

Defendants-Appellees.

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No. 21-1379

Appeal from the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan at Detroit.

No. 2:19-cv-13400—Bernard A. Friedman, District Judge.

Argued: October 21, 2021

Decided and Filed: November 8, 2021

Before: SUTTON, Chief Judge; BATCHELDER and LARSEN, Circuit Judges.

_________________

COUNSEL

ARGUED: Matthew S. Tripolitsiotis, BOIES, SCHILLER & FLEXNER, LLP, Armonk, 

New York, for Appellants. Sharon L. Nelles, SULLIVAN & CROMWELL LLP, New 

York, New York, for Appellees. ON BRIEF: Matthew S. Tripolitsiotis, BOIES, SCHILLER 

& FLEXNER, LLP, Armonk, New York, Duane L. Loft, Brianna S. Hills, BOIES, SCHILLER 

& FLEXNER, LLP, New York, New York, for Appellants. Sharon L. Nelles, Steven L. Holley, 

Suhana S. Han, Laura Kabler Oswell, Leonid Traps, SULLIVAN & CROMWELL LLP, New 

York, New York, Todd A. Holleman, MILLER, CANFIELD, PADDOCK & STONE, PLC, 

Detroit, Michigan, for Appellees.

>
No. 21-1379 Prevent USA Corp., et al. v. Volkswagen AG, et al. Page 2

_________________

OPINION

_________________

SUTTON, Chief Judge. This litigation has had two chapters, so far. Chapter one grew 

out of a dispute between Volkswagen, a company based in Germany, and a group of companies 

based in Europe, called the Prevent Group, that specializes in turning around distressed 

automotive parts suppliers. The seeds of the dispute, from Volkswagen’s vantage point, arose 

when the Prevent Group organized an effort to halt supplies of their car parts in order to obtain 

better terms from Volkswagen, and Volkswagen responded by opting not to do business with the 

affiliated companies. From the Prevent Group’s vantage point, Volkswagen engineered a 

boycott of its companies and violated several German and European antitrust laws in the process. 

Begun in 2016, this litigation initially involved claims of unfair business practices and 

anticompetitive behavior under German and European law and was handled by a number of 

German trial and appellate courts. Volkswagen has prevailed in most of these suits, and one case 

is still pending before the Regional Court in Frankfurt. 

Chapter two began in 2019 and was initiated by two members of the Prevent Group: 

Eastern Horizon Group, based in the Netherlands, and an American subsidiary (Prevent USA). 

The two of them sued Volkswagen and its American subsidiary in Michigan, alleging that the 

carmaker unfairly prevented them from acquiring distressed automotive-parts manufacturers. 

After determining that the Eastern Horizon Group and Prevent USA were trying to open another 

front on a dispute that should remain in Europe, the district court dismissed the complaint on the 

basis of forum non conveniens. Finding no errors of law or abuse of discretion in the district 

court’s weighing of the relevant factors, we affirm.

I.

Eastern Horizon Group is part of a network of companies called the Prevent Group. The 

group is located in Europe, and the affiliated companies specialize in turning around failing or 

underperforming automotive-parts suppliers. Prevent USA Corporation is a subsidiary formed to 

acquire distressed manufacturers in the United States, and it is headquartered out of an apartment 
No. 21-1379 Prevent USA Corp., et al. v. Volkswagen AG, et al. Page 3

building in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Prevent-owned companies have supplied Volkswagen, a 

German company, with parts for several years. 

Roughly five years ago, the relationship soured. Eastern Horizon and Prevent USA 

(collectively Prevent USA from now on unless otherwise specified) claim that Volkswagen 

abruptly cancelled its contracts because the Prevent Group’s acquisition of several manufacturers 

threatened Volkswagen’s single-buyer status for car parts. Volkswagen used this position, 

Prevent USA claims, to keep the prices of its inputs low by buying only from small companies 

with little bargaining power. For its part, Volkswagen alleges that a Prevent company 

unexpectedly demanded millions of euros in additional payments in the middle of a contract and 

halted production when Volkswagen declined, prompting the carmaker to conclude that the 

Prevent Group could not be trusted as a business partner. 

According to Prevent USA, Volkswagen launched a coordinated initiative called 

“Project 1” to impede well-resourced suppliers like the Prevent Group from acquiring distressed 

manufacturers. R.1 at 35. Volkswagen reportedly used a variety of means to frustrate the 

Prevent Group’s acquisition of struggling parts manufacturers. One of them involved option 

agreements that gave Volkswagen the right to purchase the target company if Volkswagen 

objected to a prospective buyer. Prevent USA claims that it learned about Project 1 through 

internal documents, including presentations and spreadsheets, that a Volkswagen executive 

leaked. In response to this conduct, Prevent Group companies sued Volkswagen at least five 

times in German courts. 

Prevent USA alleges that Volkswagen’s anticompetitive efforts frustrated its plans to 

acquire struggling suppliers in the United States. When the Prevent Group attempted to buy the 

Brazilian manufacturing arm of the Michigan company Tower International, Tower’s CEO 

informed it that Volkswagen would have to approve the Group’s purchase of the Brazilian 

operations. Prevent USA also claims that Tower admitted to signing an option agreement to 

allow Volkswagen to purchase the Brazilian operations if a Prevent entity attempted to acquire 

them. Prevent USA infers that Project 1 likewise frustrated its efforts to acquire six 

other Michigan-based companies on a “Problematic Suppliers” list that Volkswagen kept. Id. at 

45–46.
No. 21-1379 Prevent USA Corp., et al. v. Volkswagen AG, et al. Page 4

Prevent USA sued Volkswagen in federal court, alleging violations of §§ 1 and 2 of the 

Sherman Act and several state laws. Prevent USA alleges that Project 1 blocked the Prevent 

Group from profiting from potential American investments, “caused loss to Prevent’s industry 

goodwill and market reputation, and substantially decreased the overall market valuation of the 

Prevent Group.” Id. at 57.

Volkswagen moved to dismiss on forum non conveniens, among other grounds, arguing 

that the dispute should proceed in Germany. The district court agreed, reasoning that Germany 

was an adequate and available alternative forum, that the public and private interest factors 

favored dismissal, and that the choice of forum by the one American plaintiff (Prevent USA) 

merited little deference because it was merely a shell company acting as a “scouting party” for 

the Prevent Group. R.56 at 12–21.

II.

The phrase forum non conveniens (an “unfitting forum”) may suggest a more venerable 

history than the cases reveal. As Latin phrases go, this one has a relatively recent vintage. 

Minted by a Scottish court in 1845, the common law doctrine, which allows a court to dismiss a 

case in favor of a more convenient forum, has attained by some accounts the status of 

“Scotland’s most significant legal export in the field of private international law.” Ardavan 

Arzandeh, The Origins of the Scottish Forum Non Conveniens Doctrine, 13 J. Priv. Int’l L. 130, 

130–32 (2017). The doctrine gained popularity in the Anglo-American legal world after the 

House of Lords recognized it in 1926. Société de Gaz de Paris v. Société Anonyme de 

Navigation, 1926 SC (HL) 13. The U.S. Supreme Court mentioned forum non conveniens for 

the first time in the 1930s. See Rogers v. Guar. Tr. Co. of N.Y., 288 U.S. 123, 151 (1933)

(Cardozo, J., dissenting); Can. Malting Co. v. Patterson S.S., 285 U.S. 413, 423 (1932) 

(explaining “[c]ourts of equity and of law also occasionally decline, in the interest of justice, to 

exercise jurisdiction, where the suit is between aliens or nonresidents, or where for kindred 

reasons the litigation can more appropriately be conducted in a foreign tribunal”).

But the Court did not provide a full explanation of the American common law doctrine 

and the factors bearing on its invocation until Gulf Oil Corp. v. Gilbert, 330 U.S. 501 (1947). 
No. 21-1379 Prevent USA Corp., et al. v. Volkswagen AG, et al. Page 5

With Justice Jackson writing for the majority, Gilbert held that the district court’s power to 

dismiss a case on forum non conveniens grounds is rooted in the reality that “a court may resist 

imposition upon its jurisdiction even when jurisdiction is authorized by the letter of a general 

venue statute.” Id. at 507. Justice Black dissented, insisting that a court faced with a cognizable 

claim based on alleged violations of common law or statutory rights may not decline to exercise 

jurisdiction absent congressional authorization, no matter the inconvenience to the defendant. Id. 

at 513–15 (Black, J., dissenting). Since then, the Court has stuck to Justice Jackson’s path, 

authorizing trial courts to dismiss a case on forum non conveniens grounds. Piper Aircraft Co. v. 

Reyno, 454 U.S. 235, 257 (1981); see Lonny S. Hoffman & Keith A. Rowley, Forum Non 

Conveniens in Federal Statutory Cases, 49 Emory L.J. 1137, 1153–54 (2000).

In deciding whether to dismiss a case on this basis, “the central focus” is “convenience.” 

Piper Aircraft, 454 U.S. at 249. Three questions guide a district court’s discretion: Is there an

adequate alternative forum? Would the chosen forum be unduly burdensome to the defendant or

court given the private and public considerations at play? Are there legitimate reasons for

denying the plaintiff its choice of forum? Jones v. IPX Int’l Eq. Guinea, S.A., 920 F.3d 1085, 

1090 (6th Cir. 2019).

In reviewing a forum non conveniens ruling, we ask whether the district court committed 

a “clear abuse of discretion.” Piper Aircraft, 454 U.S. at 257. We give “substantial deference” 

to district court decisions that get the process right—that account for all of the “relevant public 

and private interest factors.” Id.; see Jones, 920 F.3d at 1093. Fresh review applies to questions 

of law, such as whether an adequate alternative forum exists. DRFP L.L.C. v. Republica 

Bolivariana de Venezuela, 622 F.3d 513, 518 (6th Cir. 2010).

1. Is there an available and adequate alternative forum? Countries that have jurisdiction 

over the defendant typically qualify. Piper Aircraft, 454 U.S. at 254 n.22. In the “rare 

circumstances” in which “the remedy offered by the other forum is clearly unsatisfactory,” 

American courts tend to keep the case. Id. But the reality that the foreign venue makes it more 

difficult to establish the claim or that the foreign law is less generous to prevailing plaintiffs does 

not establish unavailability. See, e.g., id. at 249, 255.
No. 21-1379 Prevent USA Corp., et al. v. Volkswagen AG, et al. Page 6

Germany is an adequate forum to hear this case. German antitrust law gives its courts 

jurisdiction over “all restraints of competition having an effect within the area of application of 

this Act, even if they were caused outside the area of application of this Act.” Gesetz gegen 

Wettbewerbsbeschränkungen [GWB] [Act against Restraints of Competition], § 185 (2), 

https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_gwb/englisch_gwb.html#p1903 (Ger.). Prevent 

USA has adequately alleged an anticompetitive effect within Germany, as it identified antitrust 

injuries that arose from missed investment opportunities and its European parent’s resulting 

stunted growth, all in contrast with Volkswagen’s German-based market dominance during this 

period. On top of that, Prevent USA alleges that, as a result of Project 1, its parent company 

(based in Europe) missed out on key investment opportunities within Germany. 

As between a Germany-based antitrust lawsuit and an American one, it appears that the 

German one would reach more conduct and more injuries. In Germany, the Prevent Group also 

may bring antitrust claims under European law. The Rome II Regulation, which regulates choice 

of law in private lawsuits within the European Union, provides a mechanism for bringing before 

a single member state’s court anticompetitive behavior affecting many European states. Clay H. 

Kaminsky, The Rome II Regulation: A Comparative Perspective on Federalizing Choice of Law, 

85 Tul. L. Rev. 55, 66 (2010). A plaintiff may bring an antitrust action alleging effects in 

multiple countries in the “court of the domicile of the defendant” based on that country’s law,

“provided that the market in that Member State is amongst those directly and substantially 

affected by the restriction of competition.” Commission Regulation 864/2007, on the Law 

Applicable to Non-Contractual Obligations (Rome II), 2007 O.J. (L 199) 44. That means the 

Prevent Group could bring an action in German court for anticompetitive effects across the 

European Union. Not so for a Sherman Act claim, which would not reach foreign conduct that 

produces only anticompetitive harm abroad. Absent proof of domestic injury, Prevent USA 

could not recover for any of the alleged European antitrust violations in an American court. 

F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd. v. Empagran S.A., 542 U.S. 155, 165 (2004). This factor favors a 

German court.

This approach, by the way, may not necessarily end Prevent USA’s opportunity to sue in 

an American federal court. A dismissal without prejudice has no res judicata effect on a 
No. 21-1379 Prevent USA Corp., et al. v. Volkswagen AG, et al. Page 7

subsequent claim. 9 Charles A. Wright & Arthur R. Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure 

§ 2367 (4th ed. 2021). And it may be the case—we need not finally decide—that claims 

dismissed on forum non conveniens grounds may be refiled in federal court if the alternative 

forum itself declines to exercise jurisdiction or otherwise determines it lacks authority to address 

injuries located solely on American soil. See Butler v. Denka Performance Elastomer LLC, 806 

F. App’x 271, 274 (5th Cir. 2020) (per curiam); Sigalas v. Lido Mar., Inc., 776 F.2d 1512, 1516 

(11th Cir. 1985); Fischer v. Magyar Allamvasutak Zrt., 777 F.3d 847, 852 (7th Cir. 2015).

2. Do the private and public interest factors favor an American or German court? Start 

with the private considerations: access to evidence, mechanisms for ensuring that unwilling 

witnesses participate, and costs of obtaining testimony from willing witnesses. Gilbert, 330 U.S. 

at 508; Duha v. Agrium, Inc., 448 F.3d 867, 875 (6th Cir. 2006). The question through it all is 

whether these considerations “establish . . . oppressiveness and vexation to a defendant . . . out of 

all proportion to plaintiff’s convenience.” Piper Aircraft, 454 U.S. at 241 (quotation omitted).

The district court reasonably weighed these private interest factors. German and 

Portuguese are the languages of choice of the documents purporting to establish Project 1, and 

the imperative of translation into the language of an American forum favors dismissal. Duha, 

448 F.3d at 876–77. Most of the witnesses also reside in Europe. Prevent USA’s allegations 

about the relevant presentations and spreadsheets, all directed at German executives, suggest that 

much of the evidence will be in German, and that the German courts will be able to access these 

documents and witnesses far more conveniently than American courts could. The district court 

reasonably thought as much, and not one major private consideration disrupts this balancing.

Turn to the public interest factors: local interest in the dispute, the location of the injury, 

the fullness of the court’s docket, preference for trying cases in the place of the governing law, 

hesitance to apply foreign law, and desire to avoid conflict-of-law problems. Wong v. 

PartyGaming Ltd., 589 F.3d 821, 832 (6th Cir. 2009). These factors ultimately speak to an 

American court’s potential “administrative and legal problems” with trying the case. Piper 

Aircraft, 454 U.S. at 241 (quotation omitted).
No. 21-1379 Prevent USA Corp., et al. v. Volkswagen AG, et al. Page 8

The district court reasonably applied these considerations and followed a well-travelled 

path in doing so. It found that “Michigan jurors would have scant relation to this case” and that, 

based on Prevent USA’s allegations, “Germany is the country with the greatest interest in the 

controversy.” R.56 at 17–18. Both of the “local-interest considerations”—namely, “the parties’ 

connections to the local forum and the location of the injury”—favor dismissal. Hefferan v. 

Ethicon Endo-Surgery Inc., 828 F.3d 488, 500 (6th Cir. 2016). In truth, the only instance in 

which Prevent USA specifically alleged in its complaint that Volkswagen’s anticompetitive 

behavior blocked its concrete efforts to acquire a company involved the Brazilian subsidiary of 

Tower International. Without more specific pleadings about blocked Prevent USA efforts to 

acquire the American operations of Michigan-based companies on the “problematic suppliers” 

list, we share the district court’s concern over whether the plaintiffs have shown a meaningful 

connection between the alleged injury and the United States. No abuse of discretion occurred.

3. Are there legitimate reasons for denying Prevent USA its choice of forum? Because 

forum non conveniens is designed to “secure convenient trials,” it makes sense to “defer to a 

plaintiff’s choice of forum based on an assumption that the plaintiff” knows its self-interest 

better than anyone else and thus “will choose a convenient forum.” Jones, 920 F.3d at 1094. In 

the abstract, this consideration favors an American forum. But that assumption is less valid in 

the case of a foreign plaintiff or a “shell corporation” set up primarily for suing within the United 

States, Rustal Trading US, Inc. v. Makki, 17 F. App’x 331, 338 & n.6 (6th Cir. 2001), and, worse 

in this instance, when affiliates of the new American corporation have already tried and largely 

failed to win on similar grounds in a foreign forum.

The convenience of handling this lawsuit in Michigan is not obvious, even from Prevent 

USA’s perspective. Keep in mind that the Prevent Group brought five different actions in 

Germany before bringing this American lawsuit. And Prevent USA, a corporation designed to 

acquire American companies but that has not yet succeeded in doing so, has several hallmarks of 

a “shell company”—a place of business in an apartment, few employees, and little apparent 

presence or activity in this country—whose forum choice merits little deference. See id. 

Regardless of the exact size of Prevent USA’s operations, the litigation history demonstrates that 

the real party in interest is the Prevent Group, which as a foreign plaintiff enjoys less deference 
No. 21-1379 Prevent USA Corp., et al. v. Volkswagen AG, et al. Page 9

in its choice of forum. Piper Aircraft, 454 U.S. at 255. It is difficult to be overly concerned that

Volkswagen “will uproot plaintiffs as a form of litigation strategy,” Hefferan, 828 F.3d at 493, 

given how many German roots this long-running dispute already has. The Prevent Group’s own 

prior actions confirm as much, as it initially launched this litigation in 2016 in Germany, a forum 

choice that one long-standing member of the Prevent Group (Eastern Horizon) cannot fairly 

distance itself from and that the creation of an American subsidiary (Prevent USA) does not 

make go away.

Trying to fend off this conclusion, Prevent USA claims that antitrust actions may never

be dismissed for forum non conveniens. It urges us to follow the Fifth Circuit’s decision in 

Industrial Investment Development Corp. v. Mitsui & Co., 671 F.2d 876, 890–91 (5th Cir. 1982), 

which reached that conclusion for two reasons. The Fifth Circuit first looked to United States v. 

National City Lines, Inc., 334 U.S. 573 (1948) (National City Lines I), which held that the broad 

venue provision of the Clayton Act precluded a federal court from dismissing a lawsuit on forum 

non conveniens grounds and making the claimant file it in a different federal district. The Fifth 

Circuit held that this precedent “appl[ied] fully” to foreign courts, not just domestic ones. 

Mitsui, 671 F.2d at 890. It made no difference to the Fifth Circuit that Congress repudiated 

National City Lines I later that year by enacting a domestic venue transfer statute, 28 U.S.C. 

§ 1404(a), or that the Court recognized the impact of § 1404 and limited its decision in United 

States v. National City Lines, 337 U.S. 78, 84 (1949) (National City Lines II). As the Fifth 

Circuit saw it, National City Lines II did not disturb its predecessor’s holding that common law 

dismissal under forum non conveniens is inappropriate for antitrust actions. Mitsui, 671 F.2d at 

890 n.18.

The Fifth Circuit next determined that, with or without National City Lines I, it would not 

apply forum non conveniens to Sherman Act claims. In its view, the Act’s focus on penalizing 

and deterring monopolistic behavior made dismissal in favor of a foreign venue inappropriate 

because it risked placing anticompetitive violations “beyond the reach of the Sherman Act.” Id.

at 891.

We are not persuaded. National City Lines I for one does not control this case. The 

Clayton Act says nothing about forum non conveniens dismissal. Although its special venue 
No. 21-1379 Prevent USA Corp., et al. v. Volkswagen AG, et al. Page 10

provision generously authorizes a plaintiff to sue “in any district wherein [defendant] may be 

found or transacts business,” nothing in that language indicates that the district court may not 

dismiss a case for refiling in a foreign country. 15 U.S.C. § 22. As then-Chief Judge Breyer 

reasoned about a similar special venue provision in a federal securities statute, “[t]he language of 

such a statute does not forbid transfer” but “simply adds to the number of courts empowered to 

hear a plaintiff's claim.” Howe v. Goldcorp Invs., Ltd., 946 F.2d 944, 949 (1st Cir. 1991). If a 

general venue statute like § 1404(a) does not bar the international transfer of a lawsuit, as Piper 

confirms, it is hard to see why a special venue provision would do so implicitly. Id. at 948–49.

The Fifth Circuit also is not the only court of appeals to consider this question. The First 

Circuit, as suggested, took a different approach. It reasoned that National City Lines I had no 

role to play in view of the later enactment of § 1404 and the Supreme Court’s decision in 

National City Lines II. Id. It explained that, under a special venue provision in the Securities 

Act of 1934, which allowed the plaintiff to sue in the jurisdiction “wherein any act or transaction 

constituting the violation occurred,” the common law doctrine of forum non conveniens 

remained a viable option. Id. at 948, 950. Then-Chief Judge Breyer reasoned that the statute 

does not prohibit transfer explicitly or implicitly and thus does not end the common law tradition 

of allowing such transfers. Id. at 949–50.

The Second Circuit followed a similar path in the context of a claim just like this one, a 

Sherman Act complaint. Cap. Currency Exch., N.V. v. Nat’l Westminster Bank PLC, 155 F.3d 

603, 606 (2d Cir. 1998). It held that, even after National City Lines I, antitrust claims may be 

dismissed under forum non conveniens. Id. at 608–09. In doing so, it relied on the First 

Circuit’s decision in Howe, concluding that the Supreme Court had “considered only domestic 

transfers; it did not consider international transfers at all.” Id. at 608 (quoting Howe, 946 F.2d at 

949). It saw no good reason why National City Lines I required any particular approach in the 

international context because the Supreme Court’s decision focused on domestic antitrust 

litigation.

Prevent USA invokes legislative history in an effort to show that the relevant antitrust 

and securities acts differ, offering a reason to distinguish Howe (but not Capital Currency 

Exchange). Two answers come to mind. The first is that the argument does little to counter the 
No. 21-1379 Prevent USA Corp., et al. v. Volkswagen AG, et al. Page 11

First Circuit’s persuasive (and non-legislative-history-based) explanation why National City 

Lines I does not advance the plaintiffs’ cause. The second is that the argument illustrates a vice 

of relying on legislative history. If accepted, this approach would require us to conclude that two 

statutes with materially identical venue provisions—the Sherman Act and the 1934 Securities 

Act—would somehow generate opposite conclusions about the continuing vitality of the 

common law doctrine of forum non conveniens. Whatever virtues this kind of argument 

advances, the rule of law is not among them. By creating a “hodge-podge” of different 

conclusions about a court’s power to dismiss a case for statutes with similar special venue 

provisions, Howe, 946 F.2d at 950, we would sacrifice consistent and predictable decision 

making.

Confirming the risk, the Fifth Circuit has brought that prediction to fruition. Mitsui, as 

shown, barred a forum non conveniens dismissal of an antitrust lawsuit given the statute’s 

special venue provision (15 U.S.C. § 22), which allows plaintiffs to sue “in any district wherein 

[defendant] may be found or transacts business.” 671 F.2d at 890 & n.17 (quotation omitted). 

But other Fifth Circuit cases reach a different result with other federal statutes that have similar 

venue provisions. In one, the court upheld a forum non conveniens dismissal of a claim 

premised on the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, or RICO. Kempe v.

Ocean Drilling & Expl. Co., 876 F.2d 1138, 1144 (5th Cir. 1989). That statute has a special 

venue provision that allows plaintiffs to sue in “any district in which” defendant “resides, is 

found, has an agent, or transacts his affairs.” 18 U.S.C. § 1965(a). In another, the court noted 

the availability of a forum non conveniens dismissal of a tort claim under the Jones Act, In re Air 

Crash Disaster Near New Orleans, 821 F.2d 1147, 1163 n.25 (5th Cir. 1987) (en banc), which 

had a since-repealed venue provision (46 U.S.C. § 688) that authorized jurisdiction “under the 

court of the district in which the defendant employer resides or in which his principal office is 

located.” To give the Clayton Act’s special venue provision different legal effect than similarly 

worded provisions of other statutes based on a handful of floor statements would be contrary to 

our duty to “interpret laws rather than reconstruct legislators’ intentions.” I.N.S. v. CardozaFonseca, 480 U.S. 421, 452–53 (1987) (Scalia, J., concurring in the judgment).
No. 21-1379 Prevent USA Corp., et al. v. Volkswagen AG, et al. Page 12

One might wonder whether Piper Aircraft’s dismissal for forum non conveniens to 

international courts is limited to common law claims. That is a fair question. Piper Aircraft 

after all considered only the dismissal of common law tort claims. 454 U.S. at 239–40. But 

nothing in the decision limits its holding to common law claims, and in many cases the type of 

tort claim at issue in Piper Aircraft is created by a statute, say a tort claim under the Jones Act. 

Court after court, moreover, has declined to draw this line, as shown by the many courts of 

appeals that have allowed forum non conveniens dismissals of federal statutory claims. See 

Howe, 946 F.2d at 950 (Securities Act); Cap. Currency Exch., 155 F.3d at 609 (Sherman Act); 

Trotter v. 7R Holdings LLC, 873 F.3d 435, 442 (3d Cir. 2017) (Jones Act); Kempe, 876 F.2d at 

1144 (RICO); Gemini Cap. Grp., Inc. v. Yap Fishing Corp., 150 F.3d 1088, 1092 (9th Cir. 1998) 

(RICO); Republic of Panama v. BCCI Holdings (Luxembourg) S.A., 119 F.3d 935, 952–53 (11th 

Cir. 1997) (RICO). 

Also unpersuasive are Prevent USA’s other arguments for barring the use of forum non 

conveniens in antitrust claims. It overstates the risk that dismissing this lawsuit between 

competitors will prohibit anyone from challenging Volkswagen’s alleged anticompetitive 

behavior. The U.S. Department of Justice, the fifty state attorneys general, and any consumers 

harmed by higher car prices could still sue the company under the Sherman Act and would be 

less likely to have their lawsuits dismissed under forum non conveniens. 15 U.S.C. §§ 4, 15. 

Nor is it obvious that the German and European antitrust protections lack teeth. Consider the 

increasingly sophisticated antitrust legislation being written in Europe and elsewhere today that 

offers private remedies between competitors. See Daniel J. Gifford & Robert T. Kudrle, The 

Atlantic Divide in Antitrust: An Examination of US and EU Competition Policy 1 (2015) 

(explaining “[t]he United States and the European Union have competition laws that are broadly 

similar”). 

Prevent USA separately argues that Germany is not an adequate alternative forum 

because the German courts would not apply the Sherman Act and consequently would not award 

treble damages for antitrust violations. But suing under German antitrust law instead of the 

Sherman Act does not “render the possible remedy so clearly inadequate that forcing a plaintiff 

to bring suit [in Germany] would be unjust.” Hefferan, 828 F.3d at 495. Differences in the 
No. 21-1379 Prevent USA Corp., et al. v. Volkswagen AG, et al. Page 13

amount of recovery will not make a forum inadequate, even when it lacks punitive damages, id., 

as long as the forum provides some remedy, Piper Aircraft, 454 U.S. at 255. That is amply true 

here.

Prevent USA adds that Germany is not an available forum because German courts would 

not be able to exercise jurisdiction over codefendant Volkswagen Group of America. But 

Volkswagen’s German law expert explained that its American subsidiary could be held liable as 

a joint tortfeasor for inflicting intentional economic damage to the Prevent Group. Besides, we 

have affirmed dismissal for forum non conveniens even when the other forum lacked jurisdiction 

over one defendant where other affiliated corporate entities from whom the plaintiffs could 

recover were amenable to service. Est. of Thomson ex rel. Est. of Rakestraw v. Toyota Motor 

Corp. Worldwide, 545 F.3d 357, 365 (6th Cir. 2008).

We affirm.