* Pursuant to 5TH CIR. R. 47.5, the court has determined that this opinion should not

be published and is not precedent except under the limited circumstances set forth in 5TH CIR.

R. 47.5.4.

REVISED JANUARY 16, 2009

IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE FIFTH CIRCUIT

No. 06-11146

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Plaintiff - Appellee-Cross-Appellant

v.

CONRAD P SEGHERS

Defendant - Appellant-Cross-Appellee

Appeal from the United States District Court 

for the Northern District of Texas

USDC No. 3:04-CV-1320

Before JONES, Chief Judge, and GARWOOD and JOLLY, Circuit Judges.

E. GRADY JOLLY, Circuit Judge:*

This appeal arises out of a civil enforcement action brought by the

Securities and Exchange Commission against Conrad Seghers for securities

fraud relating to Seghers’s involvement with three hedge funds that he founded.

Seghers appeals the jury verdict and the district court’s judgment in favor of the

Commission, enjoining him from future securities fraud and imposing a civil

fine. The Commission cross-appeals, seeking reversal of the district court’s

United States Court of Appeals

Fifth Circuit

F I L E D

October 28, 2008

Charles R. Fulbruge III

Clerk
No. 06-11146

2

ruling that Seghers was notliable for the entire period alleged. The Commission

further seeks reversal of the district court’s denial of disgorgement of the gains

from Seghers’s fraudulent activity. We affirm the judgment against Seghers,

vacate the finding limiting the period of Seghers’s liability, vacate the denial of

disgorgement, and remand for further proceedings not inconsistent with this

opinion.

I. 

Conrad Seghers was a co-founder and control person of Integral

Investment Management, L.L.C., which was the general partner of Integral

Investment Management,L.P. Integral Investment Management, L.P., was the

general partner of three hedge funds: Integral Arbitrage, L.P.; Integral Equity,

L.P.; and Integral Hedging, L.P. (collectively, “the Integral Funds” or “the

Funds”). Investors were limited partners in the Funds. Seghers and partner

James Dickey offered and sold limited partnership interests in the Integral

Funds to individual and institutional investors. Seghers promoted the Funds as

low risk investments which, through a hedging strategy, were able to provide

steady growth with limited downside risk. 

By June 2000, the majority of the Integral Funds’ assets were invested in

the Galileo Fund, L.P., a separate investment fund managed by Seghers’s

associate, Samir Bizri. Bizri conducted trading for the Galileo Fund. Seghers

and Bizri agreed to a contract titled “Risk-Adaptive Portfolio Structures

Agreement” (“RAPS agreement”). The RAPS agreement called for Bizri to use

his proprietary hedging strategy to trade the Funds’ assets in the Galileo Fund.

The agreement also called for Bizri to calculate, on a monthly basis, the value

of the Galileo Fund account. The agreement contemplated investments in

securities and derivatives that matured at fixed time periods. The assets were

to be valued monthly according to what Seghers and Bizri have called an

“amortization” method. Under this method, the value of the RAPS agreement
No. 06-11146

1 Galileo Fund Offshore was a separate fund established for investment by Integral

Investment Management. 

3

is calculated according to assets’ historical cost plus or minus the value that the

assets would have at expiration if markets remain at the same prices at

expiration as on the valuation date, divided by the number of months remaining

before maturation. 

Olympia Capital Associates, L.P., was hired in June 2000 as the fund

administrator for the Integral Funds. Among its other duties, Olympia sent

monthly and quarterly statements to the Funds’ investors, showing the value of

each investor’s interest in the Funds. It was Seghers, however, who sent to

Olympia monthly valuations of the Funds’ assets, including values for the

Galileo Fund. Under the Integral Funds’ limited partnership agreements,

Integral Investment Management, L.P., received certain fees and distributions

based on the value of the Funds and the profit attributed to each investor’s

account. Seghers, a principal of Integral Investment Management, received

income based on the value and performance of the Funds, as reported to

investors.

Morgan Stanley Dean Witter (“Morgan Stanley”) was the broker-dealer for

the Integral Funds and the Galileo Fund. In February 2001, Bizri discovered

significant errors by Morgan Stanley in the GalileoFund’s account. These errors

included positions in the account at incorrect prices, unauthorized trades,

duplicative trades, and margin calculation errors. Due to errors in the account,

Morgan Stanley mistakenly made margin calls, forcing the liquidation of some

of the assets in the Galileo Fund. A June 6, 2001 letter to Seghers from an

assistant vice-president at Morgan Stanley documented that the statement

values for Integral Equity, Galileo Fund, and Galileo Fund Offshore1 had been

incorrect since February 2001. None of these troubles were reported to investors

at the time they occurred. 
No. 06-11146

2 The Commission also brought claims against Seghers for selling unregistered

securities under §§ 5(a) and 5(c) of the Securities Act. The jury found that Seghers’s offerings

4

In July 2001, the Funds’ assets in the Galileo Fund account were

transferred from Morgan Stanley to another broker-dealer, Spear, Leeds &

Kellogg, L.P. Seghers did communicate the change to investors, but without

explaining the details or extent of the errors that Morgan Stanley had made. 

After September 11, 2001, the Funds collapsed and Integral Hedging and

Integral Equity lost most of their value. Olympia distributed statements to

investors providing their account values as of September 30, 2001. Each

statement contained a new disclaimer stating that the Fund is largely invested

in RAPS Contracts,the net asset value of which is calculated on an amortization

formula that spreads realized gains or losses over the time period until the

expiration ofthe contract. The statement also disclosed that, if the Fund’s assets

were calculated on the basis of a mark-to-market or liquidation value, the value

of the Fund would be down by over 90%.

II.

The Commission, charging securities fraud, brought a civil enforcement

action against Seghers, alleging violations of § 17(a) ofthe Securities Act of 1933,

§ 10(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, Rule10b-5 thereunder, and §§

206(1) and 206(2) ofthe Investment Advisers Act. The Commission alleged that

Seghers committed fraud from June 1 through November 30, 2000 and March

1 through September 30, 2001 because he knowingly caused Olympia to

overstate the value of investors’ interests in the Funds by anywhere from 13%

to 77% per month and because he did not disclose errors by Morgan Stanley that

affected valuation of the Funds. The Commission sought an injunction against

further securities fraud, a civil penalty, and disgorgement of Seghers’s ill-gotten

gains. After a fourteen-day trial, the jury found by a preponderance of the

evidence that Seghers had violated each securities fraud provision alleged.2
No. 06-11146

of interests in the Funds were exempt from the registration requirements of § 5 of the

Securities Act under Rule 506 of SEC Regulation D. The Commission does not appeal this

finding.

3 The district court’s finding that the evidence did not support liability prior to June 6,

2001 appears to have no palpable effect on the ultimate judgment entered. In other words, the

final judgment in this case, which enjoins Seghers from further securities fraud and imposes

a civil fine, remains the same with or without the district court’s finding that the evidence of

scienter was not sufficient for the entire period at issue. 

5

Seghers moved for judgment as a matter of law. The district court denied

Seghers’s motion, but found that the Commission had only presented proof of

Seghers’s mental culpability from June 6, 2001 through September 30, 2001. 3

The district court noted, as evidence of Seghers’s mental culpability, the June 6,

2001 letter Seghers received from Morgan Stanley documenting errors in the

account statements for Integral Equity, Galileo Fund, and Galileo Fund

Offshore. The court also noted a June 15, 2001, email from Seghers to Morgan

Stanley stating that “every day” there were new errors, that “our web pages []

are incorrect so frequently that they can never be trusted,” and that Morgan

Stanley accounts are “continually full of multi-million dollar errors.”

The district court permanently enjoined Seghers from committing

securities fraud and imposed a civil penalty in the amount of $50,000. The

district court denied the Commission’s motion to order disgorgement, finding

that Seghers had lost over $900,000 of his own money along with the investors

and was therefore not unjustly enriched by any ill-gotten gains. 

III. 

Both Seghers and the Commission appeal. 

Seghers argues on appeal that the district court erred in admitting the

testimony of the Commission’s summary witness, Nina Yamamoto, and an

accompanying summary chart. Seghers also contends that the evidence

establishes that he made full and fair disclosures of material facts to investors

as they were known to him, that the evidence is insufficient to sustain the
No. 06-11146

6

verdict against him and, consequently, that the district court erred in denying

his motion for judgment as a matter of law. 

The Commission, on cross-appeal, disputes the district court’s ruling

limiting Seghers’s mental culpability to the period after June 6, 2001. The

Commission also argues that the district court erred in denying disgorgement.

We hold that the district court did not err in admitting the Commission’s

summary evidence. We further hold that the jury’s findings that Seghers

violated the relevant securities laws are supported by legally sufficient evidence.

More specifically,the jury’s verdictis supported by ample evidence that Seghers

knowingly made materially misleading statements and knowingly withheld

material facts about errors by the Funds’ broker, Morgan Stanley, that affected

the valuation of the Funds’ assets and materially harmed investors.

Consequently, we affirm the denial of Seghers’s motion for judgment as a matter

of law and affirm the judgment of the district court.

With respect to the cross-appeal, we hold that the district court erred in

limiting the period for which Seghers was mentally culpable. We also conclude

that there was sufficient evidence for the jury to find that Seghers acted

knowingly or recklessly before June 6, 2001. Finally, we vacate and remand for

further consideration the district court’s denial of disgorgement. Seghers’s

personal losses in the Integral Funds do not, standing alone, insulate him from

disgorgement.

We now turn to the arguments of the parties. 

IV.

Before addressing the substance ofthe evidence supporting the verdict, we

will first consider the court’s evidentiary ruling concerning the summary chart.

Nina Yamamoto, a Commission employee, prepared a summary chart to compare

the total values of the Integral Funds reported to investors each month with the

total values listed in statements of the banks and brokers who held the Funds’
No. 06-11146

4 Yamamoto’s chart displayed five items for each month from June though November

2000 andFebruary through September 2001: (1)the statement date; (2)the Funds’ asset value

reported by Olympia to investors; (3) the Funds’ asset value calculated using reports by

brokers and banks; (4) the difference in the preceding values; and (5) the difference expressed

as a percentage. 

7

assets. Yamamoto created the chart by reviewing two boxes of documents

containing records from Olympia and the various banks and brokers used by

Integral Funds, the Galileo Fund, and Galileo Fund Offshore. For each month,

the total value reported to investors was substantially higher than the value

reported by the banks and brokers.4 Yamamoto’s summary chart was admitted

into evidence. The court instructed the jury that 

Summary exhibits are not evidence in and of

themselves. You must determine whether the

evidence thatis summarized in such an exhibitis

credible or worthy of belief. You may give a

summary exhibit entire weight, some weight, or

no weight at all, depending on your assessment of

the underlying evidence.

Seghers argues that the summary was prejudicial and made an argument

that was not otherwise proven, and that Yamamoto was proffered as an expert

in disguise. He also contends that the underlying evidence Yamamoto used to

produce the summary is inaccurate, because of errors in account statements

produced by Morgan Stanley. Seghers contends that the chart is inconsistent

with the underlying evidence because it alleges that Seghers overstated the

value of the Integral Funds. 

We review the district court’s evidentiary rulings for abuse of discretion.

Triple Tee Golf, Inc. v. Nike, Inc., 485 F.3d 253, 265 (5th Cir. 2007).

Federal Rule of Evidence 1006 provides that 

The contents of voluminous writings, recordings,

or photographs which cannot conveniently be

examined in court may be presented in the form

of a chart, summary, or calculation. The

originals, or duplicates, shall be made available
No. 06-11146

5 Seghers does not contend on appeal that Yamamoto’s summary chart is not based on

evidence before the jury, that the underlying evidence was not voluminous, or that the

evidence was not available to his counsel. 

8

for examination or copying, or both, by other

parties at reasonable time and place. The court

may order that they be produced in court.

We have held that summary charts in particular are admissible when

(1)they are based on competent evidence already before

the jury, (2) the primary evidence used to construct the

charts is available to the other side for comparison so

that the correctness of the summary may be tested, and

(3) the jury is properly instructed concerning the use of

the charts.

United States v. Bishop, 264 F.3d 535, 547 (5th Cir. 2001). 

Although district courts must use caution when admitting summary

evidence,“[f]ull cross examination and admonitions to the jury minimize the risk

of prejudice.” Id.; see also United States v. Smyth, 556 F.2d 1179, 1184-85 (5th

Cir. 1977) (holding that jury instruction neutralized possible prejudice from

argumentative summary chart headings). 

Seghers contends that the summary chart asserted that he fraudulently

overstated the value of the Funds and that the accounting method used by the

Funds is necessarily fraudulent. But neither the chart nor Yamamoto’s

testimony contains such an allegation. The Commission argued that the

summary showed the extent to which Seghers had knowingly reported inflated

values to investors, but Yamamoto’s testimony and chart only summarized the

contents of account statements.5

Seghers relies on our decision in United States v. Hart, 295 F.3d 451 (5th

Cir. 2002). In Hart, we held that the admission of summary charts was

reversible error because the government had not presented any independent

testimony to support assumptions that the witness’s characterization of the
No. 06-11146

6 Seghers contends in a footnote to his discussion of Yamamoto’s testimony and chart

that “These points apply equally to the testimony of the Funds’ receiver, Daniel Jackson.”

However, because Jackson was not a summary witness and because Seghers did not

adequately brief this argument, we do not address it. “A single conclusory sentence in a

footnote is insufficient to raise an issue for review.” United States v. Charles, 469 F.3d 402,

408 (5th Cir. 2006).

9

evidence was proper. Id. at 458-59. Here, the Commission presented

independent evidence that values reported to the Integral Funds’ investors were

substantially higher than those that appeared on the statements sent to the

Integral Funds and the Galileo Fund. Daniel Jackson, a receiver appointed to

control the Integral Funds, testified that he had examined the values reported

to the Funds’ investors and those reported to the Funds by banks and brokers

and found that the values reported to investors were often inflated.6 Moreover,

Seghers testified that Bizri used an accounting method that would result in

values that were different from mark-to-market values. And unlike the chart

offered in Hart, Yamamoto’s chart did not purportto indicate that certain values

ought to have been reported or that they were “overstated,” but only totaled

values found in other records.

Yamamoto’s testimony did not require that she be qualified as an expert

because the production of the chart required her only to add values listed on

various statements and divide the totals to calculate a percentage. We have held

that “when a chart does not contain complicated calculations requiring the need

of an expert for accuracy no special expertise is required in presenting the

chart.” United States v. Jennings, 724 F.2d 436, 443 (5th Cir. 1984). Although

Yamamoto’s preparation of the chart may have been tedious, it was not so

complicated as to require special expertise. 

Seghers’s more serious contention is that some of the statements

Yamamoto used to prepare her summary contained errors. Seghers has not
No. 06-11146

10

shown, however, that the statements used to prepare the chart were

inadmissible. They were the same statements that were sent to the Integral

Funds and the Galileo Fund at the time Seghers was communicating the Funds’

values to Olympia. Seghers testified that he also received monthly summaries

showing the total value of the Galileo account from the brokers. Seghers was

permitted to cross-examine Yamamoto concerning the accuracy of the

statements she used to prepare her summary. Seghers also testified as a

rebuttal witness concerning the accuracy of that evidence and testimony. In

addition, the district court gave a cautionary instruction similar to one that we

have previously approved. See Bishop, 264 F.3d at 547. Any prejudice that may

have arisen from the Commission’s use of the chart was countered by Seghers’s

cross-examination and rebuttal testimony and by the court’s limiting instruction.

We have often emphasized, and do so once again, that district courts must

be very cautious when admitting summary evidence and charts because of their

potential to carry undue weight with the jury. See, e.g., Hart, 295 F.3d at 455.

But the district court here did not abuse its discretion in admitting Yamamoto’s

testimony and chart, especially since it allowed full cross-examination and

rebuttal testimony and gave an appropriate limiting instruction. 

V. 

A.

We now turn to Seghers’s argument that the evidence was insufficient to

show fraud. Although several separate arguments are made, he does not focus

on any specific statutory violation. Instead, he globally contends that the

evidence was insufficient for the jury to find fraud with respect to any and all

counts of the verdict. Seghers moved for judgment as a matter of law, a

challenge to the legal sufficiency of the evidence. We treat Seghers’s claim of

insufficient evidence as an appeal of the district court’s denial of his motion. We

review the district court’s ruling on the motion de novo, applying the same
No. 06-11146

7 Section 10, 15 U.S.C. § 78j, provides, in relevant part:

It shall be unlawful for any person, directly or indirectly, by the

use of any means or instrumentality of interstate commerce or of

the mails, or of any facility of any national securities exchange--

. . . .

(b) To use or employ, in connection with the purchase or sale of

any security registered on a national securities exchange or any

security . . . any manipulative or deceptive device or contrivance

in contravention of such rules and regulations as the Commission

may prescribe as necessary or appropriate in the public interest

or for the protection of investors.

8 Rule 10b-5, 17 C.F.R. § 240.10b-5, provides:

It shall be unlawful for any person, directly or indirectly, by the

use of any means or instrumentality of interstate commerce, or

of the mails or of any facility of any national securities exchange,

(a) To employ any device, scheme, or artifice to defraud,

(b) To make any untrue statement of a material fact or to omit to

state a material fact necessary in order to make the statements

11

standard of review as the district court. Flowers v. Southern Reg’l Phys. Serv.

Inc., 247 F.3d 229, 236 (5th Cir. 2001). Judgment as a matter of law is proper

where “there is no legally sufficient evidentiary basis for a reasonable jury to

have found for [a] party with respect to [an] issue.” Id. (quotation marks

omitted). Although our review is de novo, we recognize that “our standard of

review with respect to a jury verdict is especially deferential.” Brown v. Bryan

County, 219 F.3d 450, 456 (5th Cir. 2000). As such, judgment as a matter of law

should not be granted unless the facts and inferences point “so strongly and

overwhelmingly in the movant’s favor that reasonable jurors could not reach a

contrary conclusion.” Omnitech Int’l, Inc. v. Clorox Co., 11 F.3d 1316, 1322 (5th

Cir. 1994).

The jury found that Seghers violated § 10(b) ofthe Exchange Act7 and Rule

10b-5,8 and § 17(a) of the Securities Act.9 To prove a violation of §10(b) on the
No. 06-11146

made, in the light of the circumstances under which they were

made, not misleading, or

(c) To engage in any act, practice, or course of business which

operates or would operate as a fraud or deceit upon any person,

in connection with the purchase or sale of any security.

9 Section 17(a), 15 U.S.C. § 77q(a), provides:

It shall be unlawful for any person in the offer or sale of any

securities . . . by the use of any means or instruments of

transportation or communication in interstate commerce or by

use of the mails, directly or indirectly

(1) to employ any device, scheme, or artifice to defraud, or

(2) to obtain money or property by means of any untrue

statement of a material fact or any omission to state a material

fact necessary in order to make the statements made, in light of

the circumstances under which they were made, not misleading;

or

(3) to engage in any transaction, practice, or course of business

which operates or would operate as a fraud or deceit upon the

purchaser.

10 Seghers does not contest that his statements to Olympia and his and Olympia’s

statements to investors were made by the use of any means or instruments of transportation

or communication in interstate commerce or by the use of the mails. See 15 U.S.C. § 77q(a),

17 C.F.R. § 240.10b, 15 U.S.C. § 78j(b); 15 U.S.C. § 80b-6.

11 The scope of liability under Section 10(b) and Rule 10b-5 is the same. See SEC v.

Zandford, 535 U.S. 813, 816 n.1 (2002).

12

basis of false or misleading statements or misleading omissions, the Commission

must show (1) material misrepresentations or materially misleading omissions,

(2) in connection with the purchase or sale of securities, (3) made with scienter.10

See Aaron v. Sec. & Exch. Comm’n, 446 U.S. 680, 695, (1980).11 To show a

violation of § 17(a)(1), the Commission must prove (1) material

misrepresentations or materially misleading omissions, (2) in the offer or sale

of securities, (3) made with scienter. See id. at 697. To show that a defendant
No. 06-11146

12 Section 206, 15 U.S.C. § 80b-6, provides, in relevant part:

It shall be unlawful for any investment adviser, by use of the

mails or any means or instrumentality of interstate commerce,

directly or indirectly--

(1) to employ any device, scheme, or artifice to defraud any client

or prospective client;

(2) to engage in any transaction, practice, or course of business

which operates as a fraud or deceit upon any client or prospective

client.

13 Although we have held that an investment adviser’s fiduciary status may be

considered in assessing liability under Rule 10b-5, see Laird v. Integrated Resources, Inc., 897

F.2d 826, 837 (5th Cir. 1990), the Commission does not rely upon any heightened duty, but

contends that Seghers violated the usual standards for assessing fraud under Rule 10b-5. 

13

has violated § 17(a)(2) or § 17(a)(3), the Commission need only show that the

defendant acted with negligence. See id. at 702.

The jury also found that Seghers violated §§ 206(1) and 206(2) of the

Investment Advisers Act.12 The language of the anti-fraud provisions of § 206 of

the Investment Advisers act is drawn from § 17(a)(1) and (3) the Exchange Act,

and conduct falling within § 17(a)(1) and (3) will fall within the analogous

provisions of § 206 when committed by an investment adviser against a client

or prospective client.13 See Steadman v. Sec. & Exch. Comm’n, 603 F.2d 1126,

1134 (5th Cir. 1979). The parties stipulated at trial that Seghers acted as an

investment adviser. Scienter is required to show a violation of § 206(1). See id.

Negligence is sufficient to show a violation of § 206(2). Id.

The case was submitted to the jury in the form of six questions, each

asking whether the Commission had met its burden of proof by a preponderance

of the evidence that Seghers had violated a specific statutory provision. As we

have indicated, Seghers does not direct his appeal at any particular allegation

or statute, but argues more generally that he did not commit any species of

fraud, either because he did not make certain statements or because the
No. 06-11146

14

Commission did not prove that he acted with the requisite state of mind.

Correspondingly, we address his challenge to the sufficiency of the evidence in

generality, holding thatthe Commission presented sufficient evidence to support

its theory that Seghers made misrepresentations and misleading omissions that

violated § 17(a) of the Securities Act, § 10 of the Exchange Act, Rule 10b-5, and

§ 206 of the Investment Advisers Act.

B.

We begin review of the sufficiency of the evidence by considering whether

the Commission presented sufficient evidence that Seghers made material

misrepresentations or materially misleading omissions to support allegations

that Seghers violated § 17(a) of the Securities Act, §10 ofthe Exchange Act, Rule

10b-5, and § 206 of the Investment Advisers Act. We have stated that “the

standard for misrepresentation is whether the information disclosed, understood

as a whole, would mislead a reasonable potential investor.” Trust Co. of

Louisiana v. N.N.P. Inc., 104 F.3d 1478, 1490 (5th Cir. 1997). “[A] statement or

omitted fact is ‘material’ if there is a substantial likelihood that a reasonable

investor would consider the information important in making a decision to

invest.” ABC Arbitrage Plaintiffs Group v. Tchuruk, 291 F.3d 336, 359 (5th Cir.

2002) (quotation marks and citation omitted). 

The Commission presented evidence that beginning in June 2000 Seghers

was responsible for making monthly statements to investors, through the Funds’

manager Olympia, that were misleading to investors about the value of their

account and the performance of the Funds. The Commission also presented

evidence that Seghers made misrepresentations to investors about errors by

Morgan Stanley that harmed the Funds and made their valuation difficult. The

Commission contends that, in combination,this evidence is sufficient to support

the jury’s finding that Seghers violated the securities fraud provisions of the

statutes charged.
No. 06-11146

15

The Commission presented evidence reflecting that Seghers made

materially false or misleading statements of the Funds’ values. The initial

limited partnership agreements for each of the Funds provided that the general

partner, Integral Investment Management, would use either the cash or accrual

method of accounting to keep the Fund’s books and that each limited partner’s

account would be valued according to certain principles. Listed securities would

be valued based on the last reported sales price, that is, at market value. Bizri’s

testimony indicated that the Funds’ assets in the Galileo Fund were invested in

stocks and options that are listed on exchanges. At various times, including the

summer and fall of 2000, the Galileo Fund was invested in money market

accounts and government bonds. Based on the Funds’ initial limited partnership

agreement, the jury could have found that investors would expect their

investments to be valued at their market value for at least part of the period at

issue. 

There is significant evidence, however,that the assets in the Galileo Fund

were not valued at market value. Daniel Jackson, the Funds’ receiver, testified

that the investors’ monthly statements did not report the market value of the

Funds’ assets. Bizri testified similarly that he used a valuation method that

differed from mark-to-market or market value accounting. And, as discussed

above, the Commission introduced evidence showing that, in each month at

issue, the investors’ statements reflected values significantly higher than those

reported by the banks and brokers who held the Funds’ assets. The evidence

established that Seghers discussed the valuations of the Galileo Fund with Bizri,

and that Seghers alone sent those values to Olympia, who used them as the

basis for the investors’ monthly reports. There is therefore evidence from which

the jury could reasonably find that Seghers’s statements of the Funds’ value

would be misleading to a reasonable investor. 
No. 06-11146

16

The Commission also presented evidence that Seghers failed to disclose

and misrepresented errors by Morgan Stanley,the broker for the Integral Funds

and the Galileo Fund. Bizri testified that he informed Seghers in March 2001

of errors in Morgan Stanley’s statements for the Galileo Fund, including

incorrect pricing, unauthorized trades, duplicative trades, and margin

calculation errors. Bizri testified that, as a result, he “didn’t know what

positions we had in the account.” Bizri testified that he used broker statements

to calculate the value of the Galileo Fund and that, because of the errors, he

could not value the account between March and June of 2001. He testified that,

on Seghers’s urging, he attempted to value the Galileo Fund by reconstructing

the individual trades made “by hand.” Seghers testified that, in April 2001, he

flew to California to meet with Morgan Stanley to discuss the errors.

Notwithstanding his knowledge of Morgan Stanley’s errors and Bizri’s difficulty

valuing the Galileo Fund, Seghers continued to communicate valuations of the

Integral Funds to Olympia for reporting to investors.

The Commission presented evidence that some of Morgan Stanley’s errors

triggered margin calls, for which Morgan Stanley mistakenly forced early

liquidation of some ofthe Galileo Fund’s assets. Bizri and Jackson testified that

an improper margin call around April 2001 caused actual losses to the Galileo

Fund. Jackson testified that the loss was approximately one million dollars. 

Seghers emailed Morgan Stanley on June 15, 2001, stating that “Morgan

Stanley’s continued inaccuracies with respect to our account positions and

incorrect order fills continue to materially damage our funds and the respective

investors,” and that the Morgan Stanley accounts are “continually full of multimillion dollar errors.” Seghers did not disclose any of this information to

investors but continued to report values for the Funds to Olympia, who reported

to investors. 
No. 06-11146

17

The evidence against Seghers is clearly sufficient to support the jury’s

verdict, notwithstanding his explanations and arguments to the contrary, which

we discuss below. Seghers made statements of the value of the Funds’ assets

that were significantly higher than the market values of those assets. The jury

reasonably could have concluded that those statements were misleading in the

light of the total mix of information available, including limited partnership

memoranda indicating that Integral Investment Management would use cash

or accrual accounting and value investors’ accounts using market values for all

investments for which market values were available. In addition, Seghers’s

statements to investors were inconsistent with statements he made to Morgan

Stanley concerning the effects of Morgan Stanley’s errors and inconsistent with

Bizri’s testimony that Bizri could not effectively value the Galileo Fund. 

The evidence also supports the finding that Seghers’s misrepresentations

and omissions were material. The value of an investor’s account and the monthto-month performance of the Funds are indisputably relevant to the investor’s

investment decision. Likewise, information that the Funds’ broker was making

substantial errors in the Funds’ accounts and the account for the Galileo Fund

could have affected investors’ decisions to invest or to remain invested in the

Funds. Seghers’s own statement that Morgan Stanley’s errors “continued to

materially damage” the Funds’ investors confirms that investors could consider

knowledge of the errors important in making investment decisions. 

Substantial evidence supports the jury’s verdict that the Commission had

proven Seghers’s violations of the charged statutes by a preponderance of the

evidence. Nevertheless, Seghers makes several arguments against the

conclusion that he committed any securities fraud. We consider his arguments

below, but ultimately find that the jury’s verdict was adequately supported by

the evidence.
No. 06-11146

14 According to the year 2000 audit of Integral Arbitrage, the Galileo Fund was valued

as follows: “Management of Galileo values the underlying securities such as swaps and other

derivative contracts monthly at cost plus or minus a monthly allocation of the appreciation or

depreciation in value that will be achieved upon expiration of the positions at the present

market pricing.” The audit report, prepared by Deloitte and Touche, L.L.P., stated that this

method of accounting is not in accordance with GAAP and that “[a]ccounting principles

generally accepted in the United States of America require that such underlying securities be

accounted for at fair value.” 

18

First, Seghers contends that he did not perform any valuations for the

Galileo Fund, but that Bizri was solely responsible for such calculations. This

argument is immaterial because, even if Seghers did not perform the

calculations, there was sufficient evidence for the jury to find that he made

statements of the Galileo Fund’s values to Olympia, who in turn sent those

statements to investors after it was hired in June 2000, and that Olympia had

no other source for those values. Similarly, Seghers’s contention that he did not

receive detailed account statements from Morgan Stanley showing the individual

trades conducted on behalf of the Galileo Fund is irrelevant. Seghers testified

that he received a monthly summary from Morgan Stanley showing the total

value of the Galileo Fund account. Bizri also testified that he and Seghers

discussed the Galileo Fund’s value in detail before Seghers reported it to

Olympia and that Seghers critiqued and suggested changes to the valuations

before he reported them. 

Second, we turn to Seghers’s primary argument explaining a nonfraudulent basis for the difference in the values reported to investors and market

values. He contends that the value of the Galileo Fund was calculated by Bizri

according to the “amortization method” of accounting. Seghers contends that

values calculated on a mark-to-market basis should not be expected to match

values calculated using this method.14 According to Seghers, the district court’s

judgment should be reversed because the Commission impermissibly relied upon

the theory that the use of the amortization method was fraudulent because it

was in violation of generally accepted accounting principles (“GAAP”). Seghers
No. 06-11146

15 The Nebraska district court found in In re Guenthner, that expert testimony is

required to prove a violation of GAAP, just as it is generally necessary to establish the relevant

19

also contends that the Commission was required to show a violation of GAAP by

expert testimony. It is certainly true that we have held that a violation of

GAAP, without more, does not establish securities fraud. See Lovelace v.

Software Spectrum, 78F.3d 1015, 1020 (5th Cir. 1996); Fine v. Amer. Solar King,

919 F.2d 290, 297 (5th Cir. 1990). “[T]he mere publication of inaccurate

accounting figures, or a failure to follow GAAP, without more, does not establish

scienter. The party must know that it is publishing materially false information,

or the party must be severely reckless in publishing such information.” Id.

Other courts have held that securities fraud may be proved, even where

improper accounting is alleged as the basis for misrepresentation, without

showing violations of GAAP. See United States v. Rigas, 490 F.3d 208, 221 (2d

Cir. 2007); United States v. Ebbers, 458 F.3d 110, 125-26 (2d Cir. 2006). 

In short, GAAP violations are neither necessary nor sufficient to prove

securities fraud. It is possible to violate GAAP, yet not commit fraud, and it is

possible to commit fraud without violating GAAP. As discussed above, the

necessary elements of fraud in this case are materially misleading statements

or omissions made with scienter. For the relevant periods in 2000 and 2001, the

Commission presented evidence from which a jury could reasonably infer that

Seghers knew he was causing Olympia to report to investors account values in

excess of the market values reported by the Integral and Galileo Funds’ broker.

The Commission’s proof of Seghers’s misrepresentations and omissions does not

depend on compliance with GAAP, but instead depends on evidence that

Seghers’s statements and omissions were false or misleading to investors.

Furthermore, because a violation of GAAP was not necessary to the

Commission’s case, a lack of expert testimony regarding GAAP does not require

reversal here.15
No. 06-11146

standard of care applicable to a professional. 395 F. Supp. 2d 835, 846 (D. Neb. 2005). Some

courts have disagreed, holding that expert testimony is helpful to show GAAP violations, but

that the government need not always present expert testimony regarding GAAP. See United

States v. Rigas, 490 F.3d 209, 221 (2d Cir. 2007); United States v. Goyal, 2008 WL 755010, *3

(N.D. Cal. March 21, 2008). We do not address this issue. 

16 Seghers also contends thatthe valuation methodwas approved by investors inlimited

partnership agreements the investors executed, citing six exhibits submitted in a motion to

supplement and correct the record Seghers filed after oral argument was heard in this case.

Seghers, however, misidentified the exhibits with which he sought to supplement the record.

Despite the confusion, we discovered in our own review of the record that the exhibits were in

fact admitted at trial. Given that the exhibits were a part of the trial record, we dismiss

Seghers’s motion to supplement as moot. Nevertheless, the agreements did not provide

adequate notice to investors that the amortization method would be used to value the Funds’

assets.

20

Third, Seghers contends that Bizri’s use of the amortization method to

value the Galileo Fund was “fully disclosed to investors in the Funds’

prospectuses and the Deloitte & Touche audits.”16 The audit reports for the

fiscal year 2000 provided by Deloitte & Touche, L.L.P., do disclose that the

Integral Funds invested in an entity that values its assets under an amortization

method and not according to fair value. However, the audit report is dated May

11, 2001. The report could not therefore provide notice of any use of the so-called

amortization method of accounting prior to the time the report was distributed

to investors. 

Seghers points to amended limited partnership agreements that provide

that for “any structured equity without a quoted market value, such as a swap

or forward contract or limited partnership investment or for any security that

is not listed or traded on an exchange, the value of these securities will be

determined monthly by the General Partner.” The agreement then details an

accounting method resembling the so-called amortization method for “Total

Portfolio Swaps which are Bullet Swaps and only receive their appreciation or

depreciation in value at the end oftheir term.” This evidence does not show that

Seghers’s statements were not misleading. The Funds’ receiver, Daniel Jackson,

testified thatthere was no evidence that the Funds’ investors agreed to modified
No. 06-11146

21

partnership agreements allowing for the use of an amortization accounting

method. In addition, the record does not make clear whether the Funds’

investments in the Galileo Fund fall under the category for which the limited

partnership agreements provide for an alternative accounting method. There

is evidence thatthe Galileo Fund was, at various times, invested in conventional

assets such as government bonds, that had listed market values. Even during

those periods, there was substantial difference in the market value and the

value reported to investors. Therefore, even taking into account the limited

partnership agreement language to which Seghers points, the jury could have

found it misleading to provide investors with monthly statements listing only

account values calculated on a non-market basis, without clear disclosures that

they were calculated on an alternative basis. 

Fourth, Seghers contends that the Commission’s evidence that he reported

inflated values to Olympia is flawed because it relied upon Morgan Stanley’s

monthly account statements, which the parties stipulated contained numerous

errors from February 2001 onward. Seghers testified at trial that there were

other errors in statements during the period from June through November 2000,

but did not testify about their frequency or magnitude, mentioning specifically

only two errors in August 2000. Seghers contends on appeal that the “Morgan

Stanley Data has been hopelessly confused and misleading since mid-2001.” But

for at least an earlier period in June through November 2000, the Commission

presented evidence of the monthly values of the assets of the Integral Funds

that, the jury could find, approximates their mark-to-market values.

Fifth, with regard to the errors by Morgan Stanley, Seghers contends that

he made adequate disclosure to investors in a June 20, 2001 letter stating, “we

have made a change from Morgan Stanley to Spear, Leeds & Kellogg, L.P., a

division of Goldman Sachs. As we have switched to Spear, Leeds, & Kellogg,

errors from Morgan Stanley are being resolved and the monthly performance
No. 06-11146

22

figures and statements should be available in a more timely manner.” A July 31,

2001 investor update letter stated that the Integral Funds retained Spear, Leeds

& Kellogg “due to their specialization in derivatives and market leading risk

management systems” and that “[w]e are also still in the process of resolving

outstanding issues with Morgan.” Seghers’s references to unspecified “errors”

and “issues” do not preclude a finding that the statements were misleading and

that Seghers omitted information necessary to make his relatively benign

explanation for switching brokers not misleading. Seghers did not disclose to

investors that the Integral Funds’ previous broker, Morgan Stanley, had been

making serious errors since February of 2001. Seghers threatened to sue

Morgan Stanley, making a settlement demand of $35 million on August 1, 2001.

Yet, he continued providing valuations of the Funds’ assets to Olympia without

informing investors of these developments or of the errors relating to the Funds’

accounts.

After considering Seghers’s various arguments, we certainly cannot say

that a reasonable jury could only exonerate Seghers of the securities fraud

alleged. There was evidence to support findings that Seghers made statements

that would mislead a reasonable investor and that he made omissions that

would have the effect of misleading investors. The jury reasonably could have

rejected Seghers’s testimony and found that reasonable investors would be

misled by Seghers’s statements concerning the value of the Funds and his failure

adequately to disclose Morgan Stanley’s errors. There was evidence that

Seghers not only reported values based on an unfamiliar accounting method, but

that he did so knowing that the errors made by the Funds’ broker made the

accounting method less reliable and materially damaged the value of the Funds.

Viewing this evidence in combination and in the light most favorable to the

verdict, there is sufficient evidence for the jury reasonably to have found that

Seghers made material misrepresentations and materially misleading omissions.
No. 06-11146

17 The parties stipulated that limited partnership interests in the Integral Funds are

securities. Seghers does not contest on appeal that his statements to investors and monthly

account statements sent to investors were in and in connection with the offer and sale of these

securities.

23

C.

The next question is that of scienter and whether the evidence supports

the jury’s finding that Seghers acted with the mental state required for the

securities fraud violations at issue.17 Scienter is a mental state that embraces

an intent to deceive, manipulate or defraud, and includes severe recklessness.

See Nathenson v. Zonagan Inc., 267 F.3d 400, 408 (5th Cir. 2001). Severe

recklessness is 

limited to those highly unreasonable omissions or

misrepresentations that involve not merely

simple or even inexcusable negligence, but an

extreme departure from the standards of

ordinary care, and that present a danger of

misleading buyers or sellers which is either

known to the defendant or is so obvious that the

defendant must have been aware of it. 

Fine, 919 F.2d at 296-97. Scienter may be found if a reasonable jury can

conclude that the defendant knew his statements were false when made. See id.

at 297.

There was ample evidence that Seghers acted with the knowledge that he

was misleading investors. Despite his protestations to the contrary, Seghers and

Bizri’s testimony provided evidence that Seghers knew the market values of the

Funds’ assets and chose to report higher values. Indeed, one of the accounting

firms Seghers approached in August 2000 warned him that an unusual

accounting technique would be misleading to investors. Seghers was also given

the prescient warning that attempting to “invent” a method of accounting not

accepted in the accounting world would mislead investors and expose Seghers

to potential litigation. Another accounting firm advised Seghers that, if he used
No. 06-11146

24

an “amortization” method of accounting, he would need to have all financial

statement users explicitly agree to the method of accounting. As discussed

above, the evidence does not support a finding that all of the Funds’ investors

agreed to the method of accounting that was actually used. And, tellingly,

Olympia and Seghers ultimately decided to include a disclosure in investors’

statements for September of 2001, explaining that the Galileo Fund used nonmarket value accounting, and disclaiming Olympia’s responsibility for valuing

those assets. This disclosure was not included in the many preceding months.

Based on this and other evidence, the jury reasonably could have found that

Seghers knowingly and intentionally misled investors.

We have already made reference to the evidence that Seghers was aware

ofthe presence and extent of Morgan Stanley’s errors. Bizri testified that he told

Seghers of the errors in March of 2001. Bizri testified that, when he informed

Seghers that he could not value the Galileo Fund, Seghers threatened him by

referencing their contractual agreement and Bizri’s immigration status.

Jackson, the receiver for the Funds, testified about an email from Seghers to

Bizri confirming Seghers’s knowledge of errors, including the improper April

2001 margin call that caused losses to the Galileo Fund that were not reported

to investors. A reasonable jury could conclude that Seghers knew about the

effects that Morgan Stanley’s errors were having on the assets of the Integral

Funds and on the ability to produce accurate valuations, and that he knowingly

or recklessly misled investors by omitting this information when communicating

valuations for the Funds and when disclosing a change in the Funds’ broker.

The jury also could have reasonably found that Seghers had a motive to

overstate the value of the Integral Funds and to conceal problems with the

Funds. We have held that motive, although not alone sufficient, is relevant to

showing scienter. See Nathenson, 267 F.3d at 410-11. See also R2 Investments

LDC v. Phillips, 401 F.3d 638, 644-45 (5th Cir. 2005) (holding that
No. 06-11146

25

circumstantial evidence of scienter must be greater where a clear motive for

alleged misstatements or omissions is not alleged). Integral Investment

Management received fees and distributions that varied directly with the profits

attributed to the investors’ accounts. Seghers, as a principal of Integral

Investment Management, stood to gain financially in direct proportion to

reporting high valuations of the Funds and from attracting new investments

from existing or prospective clients and increasing the size of the Funds.

We therefore hold that the Commission presented sufficient evidence for

a reasonable jury to find that Seghers acted with scienter in making material

misrepresentations and omissions to investors.

D.

In summary, the Commission presented sufficient evidence that Seghers

made material misrepresentations and omissions and that he did so knowingly

or recklessly. Viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to the verdict,

Seghers has failed to demonstrate that no reasonable jury could find that he

violated securities laws. We therefore AFFIRM the district court’s judgment

against Seghers for violations of § 17(a) of the Securities Act, § 10 of the

Exchange Act, Rule 10b-5, and § 206 of the Investment Advisers Act, and its

denial of his motion for judgment as a matter of law. 

VI.

We now turn to the Commission’s argument on cross-appeal that the

district court erred, in its ruling on Seghers’s motion for judgment as a matter

of law, when it concluded that the evidence was insufficient for the jury to find

Seghers mentally culpable before June 6, 2001. As we have earlier noted, this

conclusion had no ultimate effect on the verdict and the judgment, which only

adjudged Seghers generally liable for committing securities fraud, under the

specifically named statutes, and additionally imposed a civil penalty of $50,000

and an injunction against further such conduct. The Commission, however,
No. 06-11146

26

contends that, although the district court did not overrule any part of the jury

verdict and did not grant judgment as a matter of law in favor of Seghers as to

any violation, it effectively granted partial judgment as a matter of law on each

jury finding of securities fraud by concluding that Seghers was not mentally

culpable for a segment of the time during which fraud was alleged to have been

perpetrated. As noted above, judgment as a matter of law should not be granted

unless the facts and inferences point “so strongly and overwhelmingly in the

movant's favor that reasonable jurors could not reach a contrary conclusion.”

Omnitech, 11 F.3d at 1322.

We first note that it is not entirely clear that the Commission is aggrieved

by the district court’s legal conclusion thatthere was insufficient evidence to find

fraud before June 6, 2001. The jury was not asked to pin down its findings to a

particular date. The jury was only asked to find whether the Commission had

met its burden of proof for each statutory provision of which a violation was

alleged. The stipulated facts, however, provided that the “relevant time periods

[the jury] should consider are June 1, 2000 through November 30, 2000; and

March 1, 2001 through September 30, 2001.” Accordingly, the jury was not

required to find that Seghers committed fraud for every segment of the entire

period. The district court’s memorandum opinion, although it found the evidence

lacking for a portion ofthe relevant time period, did not necessarily conflict with

the jury’s general finding of securities fraud.

Nevertheless,the Commission argues thatitis aggrieved in the sense that

the district court’s conclusion can affect the amount of disgorgement that

Seghers may be required to pay. Thus, we do hold that, given the deferential

standard by which we review a jury verdict, the district court’s conclusion that

the evidence was notlegally sufficientto supportthe jury’s finding for any period

before June 6, 2001 is erroneous. The district court apparently found that

Seghers did not act with negligence or scienter before June 6, 2001 because that
No. 06-11146

27

was the date of the letter from Morgan Stanley documenting the presence of

errors in Morgan Stanley’s statements since February 2001. However, as

discussed above, Bizri testified that he told Seghers of the errors before June 6.

Seghers also testified that he traveled to California in April 2001 to meet with

representatives from Morgan Stanley to discuss errors in the Integral and

Galileo Fund accounts. Furthermore, apart from the errors in Morgan Stanley’s

statements,there was significant evidence that beginning in June 2000 Seghers

made monthly statements to investors, through the Funds’ manager Olympia,

that were misleading to investors about the value of their account and the

performance of the Funds. Because there was sufficient evidence that Seghers

was mentally culpable for events during this period of time, the jury reasonably

could have found that Seghers knew of significant Morgan Stanley errors before

receiving the June 6 letter documenting them. Therefore, we VACATE that part

of the district court’s judgment limiting Seghers’s mental culpability to the

period after June 6, 2001. The Commission presented sufficient evidence that

Seghers acted with scienter or negligence to defraud investors before that date.

VII.

We next consider the Commission’s further argument on cross-appealthat

the district court erred in denying disgorgement on the grounds that Seghers

lost his own money in the Integral Funds. 

The Commission sought disgorgement in the amount of $952,896, plus

prejudgment interest. In denying disgorgement, the district court noted that

“[t]he primary purpose of disgorgementis to deprive securities law violators, like

Seghers, of their ill-gotten gains.” The court reasoned that “[b]ecause Seghers

lost over $900,000 of his own money with the investors, he was not unjustly

enriched by any ill-gotten gains. The Court finds that the Permanent Injunction

will sufficiently deter Seghers from committing further securities fraud, and the
No. 06-11146

28

imposition of a Civil Penalty will sufficiently punish him for securities violations

proved at trial.” 

The district court has broad discretion whether to order disgorgement and

to determine the amount ofthe award. See Sec. and Exch. Comm’n v. AMX, Int’l,

Inc., 7 F.3d 71, 73 (5th Cir. 1993). However, the district court abuses its

discretion when it bases its decision on an error of law. E.g., Hodges v. Mack

Trucks, Inc., 474 F.3d 188, 199 (5th Cir. 2006). We have stated that the purpose

of disgorgement is to deprive the wrongdoer of his ill-gotten gains and deter

future violations of the law. AMX, 7 F.3d at 76 n.8. Other courts have rejected

defendants’ arguments that disgorgement may not be ordered where the

defendant has lost funds in his fraudulent scheme. See Sec. & Exch. Comm’n v.

JT Wallenbrock & Assoc., 440 F.3d 1109, 1116 (9th Cir. 2006) (affirming order

of disgorgement notwithstanding that the defendant lost money in his Ponzi

scheme); Sec. & Exch. Comm’n v. First Pacific Bancorp, 142 F.3d 1186, 1192 n.6

( 9th Cir. 1998) (“[n]or does the fact that [the defendant]’s scheme ultimately

failed and he lost a $1,000,000 of his own funds release him from his obligations

toward the defrauded investors”); Sec. & Exch. Comm’n v. Commonwealth Chem.

Sec. Inc., 574 F.2d 90, 102 (2d Cir. 1974) (rejecting the defendants’ argument

that losses in manipulated stock wiped out profits).

We have held that“[t]he court’s power to order disgorgement extends only

to the amount with interest by which the defendant profited from his

wrongdoing.” Sec. & Exch. Comm’n v. Blatt, 583 F.2d 1325, 1335 (5th Cir. 1978).

If the Commission shows a causal relationship between the defendant’s

wrongdoing and the amount by which he was unjustly enriched, that amount of

money may be disgorged even if the defendant has otherwise disposed of,

reinvested, or spent the particular assets that he wrongfully obtained. See Sec.

& Exch. Comm’n v. Banner Fund Int’l, 211 F.3d 602, 617 (D.C. Cir. 2000). A

defendantis notimmune from disgorgement merely because he has spent or lost
No. 06-11146

29

the proceeds of his fraudulent scheme. See id. Any profits that Seghers

obtained by wrongdoing are ill-gotten gains whether he retained them or lost

them in the Integral Funds or another investment.

We hold that the district court erred in finding that Seghers was not

unjustly enriched merely because he lost money in the Integral Funds. Seghers

contends that he did not profit from any fraudulent activity, and we make no

conclusion as to whether he actually did profit from fraud. But if the district

court finds that Seghers did, in fact, profit from the securities fraud for which he

is liable, any such profits may be subject to disgorgement. Seghers’s profits,

fees, and other compensation derived from wrongdoing, if any, are not

diminished by how he chose to continue to invest these ill-gotten profits. 

Because the district court based its decision not to order disgorgement on

the erroneous conclusion that Seghers was not unjustly enriched because of his

losses in the Integral Funds, we VACATE the district court’s judgment denying

disgorgement and REMAND for reconsideration by the district court. We do not

hold that an order of disgorgement necessarily is required in this case, but only

that the matter must be reconsidered by the district court. We repeat that the

district court enjoys broad discretion to order and determine the amount of

disgorgement.

VIII.

For the foregoing reasons, the judgment against Seghers for violations of

§ 10(b) of the Exchange Act and Rule 10b-5, § 17(a) of the Securities Act, and §§

206(1) and 206(2) of the Investment Advisers Act is AFFIRMED. The district

court’s ruling on Seghers’s motion for judgment as a matter of law is AFFIRMED

in part and VACATED in part. On remand, the district court will disregard its

conclusion that Seghers was not liable before June 6, 2001. The district court’s

denial of disgorgement is VACATED. The case is REMANDED for further

proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.
No. 06-11146

30

AFFIRMED IN PART, VACATED IN PART, and REMANDED.