U.S. Army Research Institute 

For the Behavioral and Social Sciences 

Research Report 1844 

Training Adaptable Leaders: 

Lessons from Research and Practice 

Rose A. Mueller-Hanson 

Susan S. White 

David W. Dorsey 

Elaine D. Pulakos 

Personnel Decisions Research Institutes, Inc.

October 2005 

Approve for public release; distribution is unlimited. 
U.S. Army Research Institute 

for the Behavioral and Social Sciences 

A Directorate of the Department of the Army 

Deputy Chief of Staff, G1 

Authorized and approved for distribution: 

 

 MICHELLE SAMS ZITA M. SIMUTIS 

 Technical Director Director 

Research accomplished under contract 

for the Department of the Army 

Personnel Decisions Research Institutes, Inc. 

Technical review by 

Mike G. Sanders, U.S. Army Research Institute 

Michelle M. Wisecarver, U.S. Army Research Institute 

NOTICES 

DISTRIBUTION: Primary distribution of this Research Report has been made by ARI. 

Please address correspondence concerning distribution of reports to: U.S. Army 

Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, Attn: DAPC-ARI-MS, 2511 

Jefferson Davis highway, Arlington, Virginia 22202-3926. 

FINAL DISPOSITION: This Research Report may be destroyed when it is no longer 

needed. Please do not return it to the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral 

and Social Sciences. 

NOTE: The findings in this Research Report are not to be construed as an official 

Department of the Army position, unless so designated by other authorized documents. 
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE 

1. REPORT DATE (dd-mm-yy)

 October 2005 

2. REPORT TYPE

 Final 

3. DATES COVERED (from. . . to) 

 September 2003 – October 2005 

5a. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER 

DASW01-03-D-0016 DO. 0017 

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Training Adaptable Leaders: Lessons from Research and 

Practice 5b. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER 

 633007 

5c. PROJECT NUMBER 

 A792 

6. AUTHOR(S) 

Rose A. Mueller-Hanson, Susan S. White, David W. Dorsey, 

Elaine D. Pulakos (Personnel Decisions Research Institutes, 

Inc.) 5d. TASK NUMBER 

 218b 

5e. WORK UNIT NUMBER 

 

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

Personnel Decisions Research Institutes, Inc. 

1300 N. 17th Street, Suite 100 

Arlington, VA 22209 

8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER 

 

10. MONITOR ACRONYM

 ARI 

9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 

U. S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral & Social 

Sciences

ATTN: SPE-ARI-RB 

2511 Jefferson Davis Highway 

Arlington, VA 22202-3926

11. MONITOR REPORT NUMBER 

 Research Report 1844 

12. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. 

13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 

Contracting Officer’s Representative and Subject Matter POC: Dr. Michelle Wisecarver

14. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words): 

In the post 9/11 environment and the subsequent Global War on Terrorism, the need for adaptable 

leaders in the military is increasingly apparent. The development of adaptive leaders has become a high 

priority for the Army; however, current research and practice related to adaptability is still in its infancy. 

The purpose of this paper is to summarize current theory and research related to developing adaptable 

leaders. A discussion of the importance of adaptability in the Army’s leadership is presented followed by 

an exploration of the concept of adaptability. Next, characteristics of adaptable leaders are reviewed 

along a continuum of trainability. The core of this paper addresses training adaptability in terms of 

institutional, operational, and self-development interventions. Within each of these areas, practical 

guidance is provided for designing effective training and development programs, and a summary of areas 

for future research is presented. 

15. SUBJECT TERMS 

 Adaptive performance, mental adaptability, interpersonal adaptability, leader adaptability, 

 training adaptive performance, training Army leaders

 SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF 19. LIMITATION OF

ABSTRACT

20. NUMBER 

OF PAGES

21. RESPONSIBLE PERSON

16. REPORT

Unclassified 

17. ABSTRACT 

Unclassified 

18. THIS PAGE

Unclassified 

 

 Unclassified 

 

 51 

Ellen Kinzer 

Technical Publications Specialist 

703-602-8047 

i 
ii 
Research Report 1844 

Training Adaptable Leaders: 

Lessons from Research and Practice 

Rose A. Mueller-Hanson 

Susan S. White 

David W. Dorsey

Elaine D. Pulakos 

Personnel Decisions Research Institutes, Inc.

 

Fort Bragg Scientific Coordination Office 

Michael G. Sanders, Chief 

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences 

2511 Jefferson Davis Highway, Arlington, VA 22202-3926 

October 2005 

Army Project Number Personnel Performance 

633007A792 and Training 

Approved for Public release; distribution is unlimited. 

iii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This paper could not have been written without the support of many individuals. First, we are 

indebted to Dr. Mike Sanders who provided the initial vision and impetus for this work. In 

addition, Dr. Michelle Wisecarver was instrumental in providing substantive input and helping 

us move the project forward through the review process. Finally, we would like to recognize the 

work of several individuals who have contributed greatly to the development of adaptive leaders

in the U.S. Army Special Forces and who also provided insights into the development of this 

paper, including Mr. Kip Mendini, Maj Ed Deagle, Dr. John “Jat” Thompson, Dr. Lori FosterThompson, and Dr. Bob Kilcullen. 

iv 
TRAINING ADAPTABLE LEADERS: LESSONS FROM RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Research Requirement: 

In the post 9/11 environment and the subsequent Global War on Terrorism, the need for 

adaptable leaders in the military has become increasingly apparent. To date, relatively little is 

known conclusively about whether adaptability can be trained, and if so, the best means of 

training it. Recent research and practical applications have begun to shed some light on these 

issues, however, and in this paper we describe important elements of the training and 

development of officers that can enhance their adaptive performance. 

Procedure: 

Our first step was to define and describe adaptability and the adaptability-related behaviors that 

are important for military leaders. Next, we discussed the knowledge, skills, and abilities that

are needed to successfully perform in an adaptable fashion. As not all of these characteristics are 

amenable to training, we also discussed which characteristics were most appropriate to target in a 

training program and which may be more appropriate as selection factors. Finally, we integrated 

research on adaptability behaviors, characteristics related to adaptability, and effective training 

interventions to present concrete recommendations for developing adaptable leaders via the three

pillars of Army training: institutional, operational, and self-development. 

Findings: 

Based on existing research, adaptability was defined as an effective change in response to an 

altered situation. This definition emphasizes that an individual must recognize the need to 

change based on some current or future perceived alteration in the environment and change his 

or her behavior as appropriate. 

Research has demonstrated that within this broad definition, adaptability is a multifaceted 

construct with several distinct dimensions. For this report, these dimensions were grouped into 

three overarching types of adaptability, each of which is potentially important in developing 

military leaders: mental, interpersonal, and physical adaptability. In addition to these important 

individual performance dimensions, leaders also have the added task of developing adaptability 

in their units by encouraging and rewarding adaptive behavior and by ensuring that everyone 

works together in a coordinated fashion. 

A number of personal characteristics have been related to successful adaptive performance, 

including personality traits, cognitive skills, interpersonal skills, and the extent of one’s domain 

specific knowledge and experience. Also, research suggests two training principles are 

particularly important with respect to training adaptive performance. First, that training 

interventions should incorporate as many opportunities as possible for emerging leaders to be 

exposed to situations requiring adaptability. Whether simulated or real, this exposure will allow 

v 
the individual to start to build his or her own catalog of experiences from which to draw on in the 

future thereby speeding up the acquisition of expertise. Second, an iterative process of practice, 

feedback, and practice is a necessary part of development. Individuals should have the 

opportunity to practice new skills, obtain feedback on their results, and apply what they learned 

from this feedback in subsequent practice sessions. In an adaptability context, individuals should 

have ample opportunities to practice their adaptability related skills in a variety of settings and 

obtain feedback from a variety of sources. 

Finally, research on adaptability was integrated with the research on effective training principles 

to propose recommendations for the development of adaptive leaders via institutional, 

operational, and self-development methods. 

Utilization and Dissemination of Findings: 

The first step in designing training to develop adaptability is to identify whether specific jobs 

require adaptive performance, keeping in mind that some jobs will not require adaptability. Once 

adaptable performance is defined for a given job, the information in this report provides concrete 

ideas that can be applied to enhance the development of adaptive performance, whether it is in a 

program of instruction, in the field, or as part of a self-development program. 

Developing adaptive performance in Army leaders will likely require a substantial investment in 

an integrated training system from “cradle to grave.” Junior level leaders need to be exposed to 

adaptability training at the start of their careers through classroom and field exercises, during the 

early part of their careers through operational experiences and feedback mechanisms, and 

continuing throughout their careers through ongoing professional development. Having 

prescriptive documents such as this provides an important launch point. 

This report represents the first widespread dissemination of these findings. 

vi 
TRAINING ADAPTABLE LEADERS: LESSONS FROM RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

CONTENTS

 

 Page 

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 1 

WHAT IS ADAPTABILITY? ............................................................................................. 2 

CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO ADAPTABILITY..................................................... 4 

DEVELOPING ADAPTIVE LEADERS............................................................................ 9 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................... 24 

REFERENCES............................................................................................................. 27 

APPENDIX A. Adaptability Dimensions with Sample Critical Incidents from 

 Special Forces .................................................................................... A-1 

APPENDIX B. Self Development Tool Example......................................................... B-1 

LIST OF TABLES 

TABLE 1. ADAPTABILITY IN THE CLASSROOM: THE SF OFFICER ADAPTIVE 

 THINKING AND LEADERSHIP COURSE (O-ATL)*..................................... 13 

TABLE 2. AN EXAMPLE OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS FOR LEADER DEVELOPMENT 

 IN THE SFQC* ........................................................................................... 14 

TABLE 3. EXAMPLES OF 360-DEGREE FEEDBACK AND CLIMATE SURVEYS AT 

 A U.S. ARMY COMMAND* ........................................................................ 18 

TABLE 4. TEST OF ADAPTABLE PERSONALITY (TAP) (KILCULLEN)*.................. 20 

LIST OF FIGURES 

FIGURE 1. TRAINABILITY CONTINUUM FOR CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO 

 ADAPTABILITY.......................................................................................... 8 

FIGURE 2. PORTFOLIO DEVELOPMENT PROCESS............................................... 22 

vii 
viii 
Training Adaptable Leaders: Lessons from Research and Practice 

Introduction 

In the post 9/11 environment and the subsequent Global War on Terrorism, the need for 

adaptable leaders in the military has become increasingly apparent. During Operation Enduring 

Freedom, military leaders found they were fighting a different kind of war in an unfamiliar 

culture with a dispersed, yet tenacious, enemy. In subsequent efforts in Iraq and elsewhere, 

increased operational tempo, a high degree of uncertainty, and the need to constantly shift tactics 

and approaches have all contributed to an environment in which adaptability is required for 

mission success. 

A variety of research supports the observation that the need for adaptable leaders in the military 

has increased. For example, the recent Army Leadership Development and Training Panel 

(ALDTP; Department of the Army, 2001) concluded that adaptability and self-awareness are 

critical skills for leaders. In addition, Wong, Gerrars, Kidd, Pricone, and Swengros (2003) 

describe six metacompetencies that are necessary for strategic leadership in the future. Four of 

these, Identity, Mental Agility, Cross-Cultural Savvy, and Interpersonal Maturity overlap with 

the concept of adaptability. While anecdotally many military leaders demonstrate high levels of

adaptive performance (Wong, 2004), little has historically been done to develop and maximize 

these capabilities, and some research suggests there is room to improve (Thompson, Wilson, & 

Sanders, 2003).

The increased need for adaptable leaders raises the issue of how adaptive performance could be 

enhanced. Adaptive performance is likely the result of three major factors. First, there are the 

individual characteristics that may predispose one to behave in an adaptable fashion. Second is 

the extent to which leadership training and development programs may be effective in improving 

adaptive performance. Third is the extent to which the organization’s rules, norms, climate, and 

culture permit and encourage adaptive behavior. Therefore, for leaders to behave in an adaptable 

fashion, leader candidates should be selected specifically for their individual characteristics 

related to adaptability; training and development programs should address improving 

adaptability-related skills; and organizational policies and practices should support creativity and 

appropriate risk taking among the leadership. 

This paper addresses the second component of this equation – training and development to 

promote adaptability for the next generation of military leaders: junior level officers. To date, 

little is known about whether adaptability can be trained, and, assuming it can be trained, the best 

means of doing so. However, recent research and practical applications have begun to shed 

some light on these issues, and in this paper we suggest that adaptive performance can be 

enhanced through training. 

In designing any training intervention, one must understand what behaviors are required on the 

job and the knowledge, skills, and abilities that one needs in order to perform these behaviors 

successfully. Therefore, in exploring the topic of how adaptability might be developed, we first 

describe what adaptability is. That is, the adaptability-related behaviors that are important for 

military leaders. Next, we discuss the knowledge, skills, and abilities that are needed to 

successfully perform in an adaptable fashion. As not all of these characteristics are amenable to 

1 
training, we also discuss which characteristics are most appropriate to target in a training 

program and which may be more appropriate as selection factors. Finally, we integrate research 

on adaptability behaviors, characteristics related to adaptability, and effective training 

interventions to present concrete recommendations for developing adaptable leaders via the three 

pillars of Army training: institutional, operational, and self-development. 

What is Adaptability?

Adaptability has been defined in numerous ways in the literature (e.g., Chan, 2000; Pulakos, 

Arad, Donovan, & Plamondon, 2000; Ross & Lussier, 2000; Smith, Ford, & Kozlowski, 1997; 

Zaccaro, 2001); however, at the most basic level adaptability could be defined as an effective 

change in response to an altered situation. This definition presumes that to behave in an 

adaptable fashion, an individual must recognize the need to change based on some current or 

future perceived alteration in the environment and change his or her behavior as appropriate. 

Although adaptability can be broadly defined with a single, overarching statement, research has 

demonstrated that adaptability is a multifaceted construct with several distinct dimensions 

(Pulakos, Arad, Donovan, & Plamondon, 2000). Pulakos et al. (2000) proposed a model of 

adaptive performance that is applicable to a broad array of occupations. This model was 

developed from a content analysis of critical incidents describing effective and ineffective 

instances of adaptability, many of which came from military settings. Eight dimensions of

adaptability emerged from this content analysis, describing different kinds of adaptive behavior 

that might be displayed. These dimensions are as follows: 

♦ Handling Emergencies or Crisis Situations 

♦ Handling Work Stress 

♦ Solving Problems Creatively 

♦ Dealing Effectively with Unpredictable or Changing Work Situations 

♦ Learning Work Tasks, Technologies, and Procedures 

♦ Demonstrating Interpersonal Adaptability 

♦ Displaying Cultural Adaptability 

♦ Demonstrating Physically Oriented Adaptability

More detailed descriptions of these definitions, along with behavioral examples specific to the 

military environment are presented in Appendix A. 

For ease of understanding during training and development, these dimensions can be grouped 

into three overarching types of adaptability, each of which is important in developing military 

leaders: 

♦ Mental Adaptability – adjusting one’s thinking in new situations to overcome obstacles or 

improve effectiveness. It includes handling emergency or crisis situations; dealing 

effectively with unpredictable or changing work situations, handling work stress; learning

new work tasks, technologies, and procedures; and solving problems creatively. 

2 
♦

♦ ld, etc.,

tasks, and adjusting

For off

adaptability in their teams by encouraging and rewarding adaptive behavior in the team and by 

uraging

g

ion often involve creative problem

s and

e this 

;

., McIntyre & Salas, 1995). A leader’s willingness to self-critique and 

m

es.

Tannenbaum et al. (1998) recommend that leaders hold regular briefings, both before and after 

their team performs, to improve the team’s adaptive capabilities. Specifically, they suggest that 

Interpersonal Adaptability – adjusting what one says and does to make interactions with 

other people run more smoothly and effectively. This includes demonstrating 

interpersonal adaptability, and displaying cultural adaptability. 

Physical Adaptability – adjusting to tough environmental states such as heat, co

pushing oneself physically to complete strenuous or demanding

weight/muscular strength or becoming proficient in performing physical tasks as 

necessary for the job. 

icers, it is not enough to be individually adaptable. They must also help develop 

ensuring everyone works together in a coordinated fashion. The role of the leader in enco

team adaptability suggests several specific behaviors in which a leader might engage. First, the

team leader should learn about his team, or establish a mental model about the team. Zaccaro 

(2001a) recommends that a team leader should understand “... team and subordinate resources, 

team role structure and assignments, team cohesion and morale, the communication and social 

influence patterns within the team, the tenure and size of the team, and specific performance 

protocols and norms (cf. Fleishman and Zaccaro, 1992)" (p. 145). By learning about the existin

state of the team, the leader will have a better idea of how to interact with the team most 

effectively, what changes may be needed, and so on. 

Team leaders are critical in setting a tone or climate for their teams that is conducive to 

adaptability. For example, situations requiring adaptat

solving. Better solutions tend to be developed when people feel that they can voice idea

opinions freely. Participative leadership styles rather than autocratic ones tend to encourag

type of behavior (e.g., Axtell, Holman, Unsworth, Wall, & Waterson, 2000; Edmondson, 1999

Tannenbaum, Smith-Jentsch, & Behson, 1998; West & Wallace, 1991). For example, in a study 

of surgical teams, Edmondson and her colleagues found that teams whose leaders encouraged 

people to voice their opinions, who admitted their own mistakes, and who asked for advice when

it was necessary were more successful in learning a new procedure (Edmondson, Bohmer, & 

Pisano, 2001). Further, in reference to planning within a Special Forces military team, Morrison,

Smith, Sticha, and Brooks (1995) asserted that planning must be a team activity; even though 

there is a commander with ultimate responsibility for the plan, team members have their own 

areas of responsibility and are typically given input (especially if they are more experienced than 

the commander). 

An element of being a more democratic rather than autocratic leader is a willingness to ask for 

and accept help (e.g

criticize himself sets the tone for the team and allows for greater freedom of expression 

(Tannenbaum et al., 1998); it essentially serves as a signal to other team members that they can

discuss errors and concerns without fear of punishment (Edmondson, et al. 2001). Because

covering up mistakes often compounds them, and because mistakes are often good learning 

experiences, teams who talk about their mistakes are likely to be more effective. 

Another aspect of leading a team toward being more adaptable is delivering feedback. A tea

will be able to improve its performance only if it knows where it has made mistak

3 
the leader should provide specific constructive suggestions for improving performance, discuss

teamwork as well as taskwork processes, and give positive feedback for improvement

successful performance. These are in addition to the more general principles that they suggest, 

such as asking for and listening to the opinions of others, admitting to one’s own mistakes, etc. 

Holding such briefings also helps the team leader to establish shared mental models for 

adaptation across the team (e.g., Zaccaro, Burke, Marks, & Mathieu, 1999), as does deliverin

feedback on a less formal basis. 

Characteristics Related to Adaptability

s and 

g

Currently, no evidence exists that unequivocally demonstrates that adaptive performance can be 

enhanced through trai that a) adaptive

performance is multid idual characteristics 

are related to adaptive performance (Pulakos, Dorsey, & White, in press), and c) some of these 

e

ience.

respect to

performing a specific task (Bandura, 1997) or with respect to achievement in general. 

handle new situations in a general sense, 

while others consistently doubt their abilities (Eden & Kinnar, 1991; Sherer & Adams,

♦

eers, while being resilient and learning from mistakes 

’s

♦

environments and events. That is, those who are high on Openness are likely to approach 

ning. However, research has supported the assumption

imensional (Pulakos, et al., 2000), b) a variety of indiv

characteristics are amenable to training – most notably knowledge and experience (Pulakos, 

Schmitt, Dorsey, Arad, Hedge, & Borman, 2002). Therefore, we believe that adaptive 

performance can be, at least in part, enhanced through training and development by focusing on 

the adaptability related characteristics that are most amenable to training. In this section, we 

explore the characteristics that are related to adaptability, including personality traits, cognitiv

skills, interpersonal skills, and the extent of one’s domain specific knowledge and exper

Understanding how these characteristics relate to adaptability will help us to identify which of

these attributes are the most appropriate targets for an adaptability training program. 

Personality Traits Related to Adaptability

♦ Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to one’s beliefs in one’s abilities, either with

Some people believe in their capabilities to

1983; Sherer, Maddux, Mercandante, Prentice-Dunn, Jacobs, & Rogers, 1982). This 

more generalized self-efficacy can be considered trait-like, and can therefore be 

considered a personality variable. Self-efficacy’s main relation to adaptive performance 

is thus a motivational one -- in order to adapt to their environment, people have to be 

motivated to attempt a change. 

Resiliency. Resiliency is the ability to recover quickly from change, hardship or 

misfortune (Pulley, Wakefield, & Van Velsor, 2001). The importance of resiliency can 

be seen in studies by the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) that show that resisting

change can derail executives’ car

can enhance them. “In fact, the most frequently mentioned success factor in CCL

derailment research is the ability to develop or adapt. That ability is a key component to

accepting change, which lies at the heart of the successful and resilient manager and 

leader” (Pulley et al., 2001, p. 25). 

Openness. Openness is one of the “Big Five” personality dimensions (Costa & McCrae,

1992) and refers to one’s curiosity, broad-mindedness, and receptiveness to new 

4 
a new environment or set of circumstances with curiosity and interest. This positive 

attitude, together with a greater willingness to try new things and be creative, in turn 

♦ ults

e

to frustration. As such, research has shown that 

♦ o

things).

Cogni

♦ ost realms

the prediction of

adaptive performance -- both conceptually and empirically (LePine et al., 2000; Pulakos 

et al., 2002; Zaccaro, 2001b). 

kills. Recall that adaptive performance was 

onstrates 

le

w

t

increases the chances of effectively handling changes in one’s environment (LePine, 

Colquitt, & Erez, 2000; Zaccaro, 2001b). Pulakos et al. (2002) demonstrated that 

Openness was associated with a composite measure of adaptive performance, and LePine 

et al. (2000) similarly showed that Openness predicted individuals’ performance on a 

changing decision-making task. 

Achievement motivation. Achievement motivation refers to one's desire to achieve res

and master tasks beyond others' expectations, and is a subcomponent of the Big Fiv

dimension of Conscientiousness. People who are high on Achievement Motivation are 

more likely to persist in their efforts to handle difficult situations, such as changing 

environments, rather than give in

Achievement Motivation predicts adaptation to new tasks or situations (Dweck, 1986; 

LePine et al., 2000; Pulakos et al., 2000; Schmeck, 1988). 

Other personality variables. Several other personality constructs have also been linked t

adaptability (Pulakos & Dorsey, 2000; Zaccaro, 2001b), including Internal Locus of

Control (feeling that one controls the events in one’s life), Tolerance of Ambiguity

(coping easily with environmental uncertainty), and a Willingness to Learn 

(demonstrating enthusiasm and curiosity toward learning new

tive Skills Related to adaptability

General cognitive ability (g). Just as it has been positively associated with m

of performance, general cognitive functioning has also been linked with

♦ Problem-solving and decision-making s

earlier defined as effectively responding to changes in the environment. Precursors to 

responding to the environment are figuring out how to respond to the environment 

(problem solving) and deciding on a response (decision making). More skilled problem 

solvers/decision makers are likely to respond with effective decisions and solutions for 

addressing changes in the environment. Research by Klein (1997, 2003) dem

that experts respond to situations based on a stored repertoire of responses. When peop

recognize a situation as being similar to past situations they have encountered, they dra

on the responses associated with such situations and respond almost automatically or

intuitively. This research is particularly appropriate to adaptability as it has been shown 

that such “naturalistic decision-making” processes are particularly effective in highpressure and ambiguous situations, when time pressure prohibits a more structured, 

rational approach. Although naturalistic decision making models argue that experts make

decisions and solve problems in an almost automatic or intuitive sense, there are 

identifiable elements of the process around which novices might be trained. For 

example, skilled problem solvers/decision makers are adept at such things as defining the

problem that they are facing, identifying information that is relevant to the problem a

hand, and using mental simulations to test and assess potential courses of action and

anticipate obstacles (Endsley & Robertson, 2000; Klein, 1997). 

5 
♦ ”, 

es.

d

fore

Interp

♦

formal, democratic vs. autocratic, verbal vs. nonverbal, 

bal messages in order to determine the best 

en

ural

e

what is expected at the initial stage of building a relationship in order to 

♦ Self and other awareness. To adjust one’s behaviors in interacting with others, one must 

w he currently interacts with others

inte dictated by the social setting in 

Metacognitive skills. Metacognition has been defined as “thinking about thinking

referring essentially to an awareness and regulation of one’s own thought process

Often, metacognition is described as mentally checking on one’s progress toward a goal. 

For example, someone making a difficult decision might ask himself “Have I considere

multiple alternatives? Have I considered the consequences to available options? Do I

have all the information I need?” etc. Strengthening people’s metacognitive skills 

through training may enable them to make better decisions in many arenas, and there

respond more appropriately to their environment (i.e., adapt). Endsley and Robertson

(2000) argue that better metacognitive skills lead to better situational awareness, and 

eventually to better decisions. 

ersonal Skills Related to Adaptability

Communication skills. Basic communication skills include negotiation skills, conflict 

resolution skills, persuasion skills, and collaboration skills. One important aspect of

communication skills with respect to adaptability is being able to communicate in a 

variety of ways (e.g., casual vs.

oral vs. written) to be effective with a number of different audiences. This includes 

paying attention to others’ verbal and nonver

way to relate to them (Stevens & Campion, 1994). Skilled communicators actively list

to and observe others to determine their views and how they are reacting to the 

interaction. According to Berger (1998, p. 124), communication skills in a cross-cult

context include: 

- Gauging one’s level of jargon and speed of delivery to the language fluency of th

listener, 

- Recognizing the differing cultural meanings of verbal and non-verbal behavior, 

- Listening and questioning to understand, and 

- Awareness of

build sufficient trust to work together productively. 

have an awareness of oneself, of other parties in the interaction, and even about 

constraints imposed by the situation. That is, before someone can change the way he is 

interacting with others, he must be aware (1) of ho

and why he interacts in that way, (2) what the other parties expect and want from the 

raction, from him, etc., and (3) what interactions are

which the interactions are occurring. Zaccaro [2001b] discusses these latter concepts in

terms of social perceptiveness, or a capacity to recognize the needs, goals, and demands 

of others. As Fernandez (1991) noted, “The most important technique to be successful

[in interacting with diverse others] is to know and understand who you really are ... [it 

also] demands that you have a clear understanding of the psychological mindset of the 

people you are dealing with” (pp. 242-243). In a series of studies, Gelfand and her 

colleagues have demonstrated the importance of understanding one’s own and others’ 

cultures by showing that culture impacts people’s cognitive representations of conflict 

episodes (e.g., whether conflict is about compromise or winning; Gelfand, Nishii, 

6 
Holcombe, Dyer, Ohbuchi, & Fukuno, 2001) and the scripts they use in negotiations 

(Gelfand & Christakopulu, 1999). 

in Specific Knowledge and Experience 

tion to the personality characteristics and the skills that have been described, domainknowledge is a key element in being able to respond adaptively (e.g., Ross & Lussier

For example, in order to be able to

Doma

In addi

specific ,

2000). determine a creative fix to a machine, one would need 

at least a basic knowledge of the machine. In order to respond effectively to a medical 

 medical treatment. In particular, effective 

decision making “...requires extensive domain-specific knowledge, such as mental models that 

ndsley &

in

are

the past. The more situations that people have stored in memory, the greater 

the reserves they have to draw from in establishing a match, or -- as is more likely with novel 

g

ility. Gaining the same experience repeatedly may not aid performance in a novel 

situation, and it may even hurt performance if the individual insists on approaching the situation 

eing

personal characteristics can sometimes lead people to take conscious steps to encourage or 

counteract their usual tendencies. 

emergency, one would need specialized knowledge of

describe causal relationships among events in the domain” (Cohen, Thompson, Adelman, 

Bresnick, Shastri, & Riedel, 2000, pp. 32-33). For that reason, many training programs in 

critical or adaptive thinking are specifically geared toward a particular context so that domain 

knowledge can be assumed or trained (e.g., Ross & Lussier, 2000; Cohen et al., 2000; E

Robertson, 2000). 

Experience is another critical predictor of adaptive performance, in part because of its role

enabling the acquisition of knowledge. For example, naturalistic decision making theories

predicated on the importance of experience. According to these theories, people respond to 

situations based on a process of matching the current situation they are facing to situations they 

have experienced in

situations -- in combining elements of past situations to match the current one. In turn, this 

increases the likelihood of determining an appropriate response, even under time pressure and 

stress. 

In addition to experience with many situations within a domain, it also appears that experience 

with adaptability can improve adaptive performance. In fact, Pulakos et al. (2002) empirically

demonstrated a positive link between past experience in adaptive situations and adaptive 

performance. The key here is to note that the experiences that were studied were those requirin

adaptab

from a particular mindset that might not be appropriate (Smith, Ford, & Kozlowski, 1997; 

Zaccaro, 2001b). However, experiencing a variety of situations requiring changes in action and

adjustments to the environment does appear to aid in the adaptation process. Moreover, b

successful in these experiences is consistent with Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy in which 

enactive mastery (or successfully performing in a particular situation) is the most effective

means of raising self-efficacy, and thus increases the likelihood of success in future performance.

We have discussed a number of predictors of adaptability, including personality traits, cognitive 

skills, interpersonal skills, and knowledge and experience. Not all of these are amenable to 

training, however. For example, personality traits are by definition stable characteristics of 

people that are not easily changed, and a training program should not be directed at raising 

someone’s level of Openness or Achievement Motivation. Nonetheless, an awareness of 

7 
In terms of skills, general cognitive ability tends to be stable, trait-like, and therefore largely nontrainable, but other cognitive skills like decision making and problem solving, metacognition

and creativity may be more amenable to training. Social skills, resting heavily on selfawareness, are also candidates for training. 

Domain-specific knowledge is a frequent topic of classroom training, and experiences can a

be provided to people in a training

,

lso

context. By having people participate in scenario-based 

training of various degrees of fidelity, people obtain experiences from which they can learn and 

be placed on a continuum according to their 

trainability, as shown in Figure 1. 

• Cognitive 

• Tolerance for 

•

• Problem

Solving/ 

Decision 

• Metacognitive 

Skills 

• lf-

• Communication 

Skills 

(Negotiation and 

conflict 

resolution, 

persuasion, 

collaboration) 

• Domainspecific 

K

• V

Adaptive 

Experience 

Figure 1. Trainability nuum for Characteristics Related to Adaptability

tt ar left side of the continuum in Figure 1 are fairly stable in adulthood and are 

very difficult to change. Attributes in the middle of the continuum are more amenable to 

ain much effort may be needed to effect great changes in these areas. For example, 

n individual with very poor communication skills may benefit from training; however, it is 

.

xperience. Therefore, we recommend that selection include measures of attributes from the left

and training be focused on attributes on the right. Attributes in the middle of the continuum,

such as problem solving and communication skills, should be included in both selection and 

draw upon in the future. Kozlowski (1998) notes, “Developing adaptive capabilities entails a 

long-term process that provides trainees with extensive guided experience” (p. 120). 

The attributes described in this section could

Stable Attributes 

(less trainable) 

Malleable Attributes

(more trainable) 

Ability/ 

Intelligence

• Openness 

nowledge

aried Making Skills 

• Resiliency 

General Se

Efficacy • Awareness (self, 

others, situation)

Ambiguity

Achievement

Motivation 

 Conti

A ributes on the f

tr ing, though

a

unlikely that this person will become a very skilled communicator in a short period of time

Attributes on the far right side of the continuum are entirely dependent on training and 

e

8 
training programs, as it would be ideal to select individuals with at least moderate skills in these

areas and increase these skills through training. 

Developing Adaptive Leaders 

The best way to train adaptive performance is still in question and has only recently begun to be 

addressed by researchers (Kozlowski, 1998). In this section, we combine research on 

adaptability with research on effective training principles to propose recommendations for the

development of adaptive leaders. Specifically, this section will address strategies for developing

adaptability training for leaders via institutional, operational, and self-development methods. 

There are two overriding principles f apply to any type of 

training method. The first i important predictor of 

adaptive behavior. As described in the previous section, domain specific knowledge and 

ith a new

requiring adaptability. Whether simulated or real, this exposure will allow the individual to start 

to

ty

.f.,

ft, 2004).

om training provides the basic knowledge 

and concepts that lay the groundwork for future learning. This foundation is provided in a lowknowledge and concepts are understood, they 

are reinforced through practice in higher fidelity situations such as field exercises and on the job 

learning. The theory behind this strategy is that once the individual has had enough of a 

or developing adaptable leaders that 

s based on the finding that experience is an

experience are individual characteristics important for adaptable behavior and are very amenable

to training. By developing a varied “catalog” of experiences, leaders can, when faced w

situation, review their previous experiences to find one that best matches the new situation to 

determine what an effective response would be. Therefore, training interventions should 

incorporate as many opportunities as possible for emerging leaders to be exposed to situations 

to build his or her own catalog of experiences from which to draw on in the future thereby 

speeding up the acquisition of expertise. 

The second overarching principle is that an iterative process of practice, feedback, and practice is

a necessary part of development. Individuals should have the opportunity to practice new skills, 

obtain feedback on their results, and apply what they learned from this feedback in subsequent

practice sessions. In an adaptability context, individuals should have ample opportunities

practice their adaptability related skills in a variety of settings and obtain feedback from a varie

of sources. For example, feedback from peers may be particularly valuable in a developmental 

environment to help leaders increase their awareness of strengths and development needs (c

Wisecarver, Martin, Thompson, & Cracra

Specific applications of these two principles in institutional, operational, and self-development 

activities are described in the sections that follow.

Institutional Training

Institutional training is formal and structured, typically involving classroom training and field 

training in a controlled setting. Institutional training in the military is often arrayed using a 

“Crawl-Walk-Run” strategy. In this strategy, classro

fidelity setting, but the learning that takes place is important for helping students organize and 

put future experiences into context. After the basic

9 
thorough grounding in the subject content, he or she can better profit from real world experiences 

by capturing lessons learned and working to continuously improve. 

,

and

advance organizer

clearer to students, and can also increase the acceptance of the training (Cohen et al., 2000). 

ski,

es

lar

,

people with mastery goals tend to get less frustrated in the face of failure than do those with 

e

,

ith

ery

learning helps to develop metacognitive and self-regulatory skills. 

Effective institutional interventions should incorporate the principles of advanced organizers

mastery orientation, discovery learning, and deliberate practice. Each of these concepts is 

discussed in more detail below. Following the discussion of these principles, we discuss how 

they are applied in classroom settings and in field exercises and simulations. 

Advance organizers: An advance organizer is a set of materials (verbal, quantitative, graphic, 

conceptual, or other) presented at the beginning of training that helps students organize the

information that is to be presented (Goldsmith & Kraiger, 1997; Goldstein, 1993; Howell & 

Cooke, 1989; Smith et al., 1997). Ideally, it can help link the new knowledge that students will 

be learning to knowledge that they already have. In other words, advance organizers provide 

trainees with an initial framework or structure for making connections between pieces of 

knowledge. It can be particularly effective to create advance organizers using terminology

concepts that are already familiar to students. Maintaining an alignment between the current 

training content and the student’s past training and experiences can make the

Mastery vs. performance orientation. There is also some evidence that a mastery orientation

toward adaptability training might improve adaptive performance (Smith et al., 1997; Kozlow

1998). When people hold mastery or learning goals for a task (such as a training course), their 

main objective is to master the knowledge and processes that underlie performance. These typ

of goals are in contrast to performance goals, where the main object is to achieve a particu

level of performance during training (Baldwin & Magjuka, 1997). When people hold mastery 

goals, they are more likely to look upon difficult training situations as learning experiences, 

rather than as situations to be avoided because they may interfere with performance. 

Furthermore, because a mastery orientation involves treating mistakes as opportunities to learn

performance goals. This may make them more resilient in maintaining performance out of th

training context and under demanding conditions than people learning under a performance 

orientation (Kozlowski, 1998). A mastery orientation can be encouraged in training by deemphasizing grades and quantitative performance ratings and focusing instead on providing 

feedback on how students can leverage their strengths for continuous improvement. 

Discovery learning. Discovery learning is an inductive method of instruction where students

must explore and experiment with tasks to infer and learn the strategies for effective 

performance. Thus, rather than being told how to approach particular situations, students must 

determine these strategies for themselves. The idea behind guided discovery is for students to

develop and test hypotheses about what they are learning, and this active processing of 

information can lead to knowledge that is better integrated with existing knowledge. Thus, 

rather than instructing students on how to communicate with someone of a different culture

students would practice the task in a controlled setting and devise the principles associated w

cross-cultural communication. Kozlowski (1998) has argued that active learning like discov

10 
Although the research bearing on the topic is somewhat equivocal, it has been argued that 

discovery learning is beneficial for transferring knowledge to novel situations -- a key to 

adaptability (Atlas, Cornett, Lane, & Napier, 1997; Lussier, Ross, & Mayes, “Coaching

Techniques for Adaptive Thinking”; Smith et al., 1997). Furthermore, a key principle of adu

learning is to allow people to discover things for themselves: “Adults seem to learn better wh

discovering for themselves the answers to problems, as opposed to following traditional 

classroom methods that emphasize oral communication” (London & Bassman, 1989, p.344). 

lt

en

A related method of instruction is error-based learning. Here, students not only learn from their 

g

s are

al and

d

Training Methodology, recommend a focus on deliberate practice. Deliberate practice involves 

ring

up new perspectives, etc.) 

and start (training does not continuously flow because of breaks for delivering 

♦

♦ tasks (making implicit thoughts explicit) 

ay)

♦

Classroom-based training. training should be to provide a framework of 

kno and to provide several opportunities for students 

 

own naturally occurring mistakes, but they are also forced into mistakes through the trainin

procedures. These errors then serve as opportunities for instruction and learning. Student

instructed in strategies for handling mistakes, and how to cope with the negative emotion

motivational consequences of making mistakes. Thus, students learn to deal with frustration an

setbacks, and to focus on the beneficial learning aspects of mistakes (Smith et al., 1997). 

Deliberate practice. Ross and Lussier (2000), in their development of the Adaptive Thinking

the following features, some of which have been covered in the other design principles 

discussed. 

♦ Repetition of tasks (to develop habits that will dominate in times of stress)

1

♦ Focused feedback from Subject Matter Experts (primarily in the form of questions that 

make students think about what they are doing, search productively for an answer, b

♦ Immediacy of performance (allowing students to redo a task immediately following 

feedback instead of waiting until after an After Action Review to discuss mistakes) 

♦ Stop

feedback and the redoing of tasks) 

♦ Emphasis on difficult aspects of tasks 

Focus on areas of weakness (tailored to individual) 

Conscious focus on training

♦ Work vs. play (training is more effortful than casual practice, like work more than pl

Active coaching (monitoring performance, assessing adequacy, and controlling the 

structure of the training). 

 The goals of classroom

wledge and tools for improving adaptability

1 Recall from the earlier discussion of knowledge and experience that repetition does not necessarily benefit 

adaptive performance. It does allow people to perform tasks more automatically, freeing cognitive

resources to attend to other things. Thus, repetition can be helpful in stressful conditions where many

stimuli are competing for cognitive resources. However, repetition can hurt performance if the 

automaticity of performance prevents people from noticing or appropriately addressing changes in the task 

as they occur. 

11 
to p r performance. These goals can be 

acc ach a core set of 

ada consist of a short

lect

poi that it

pro e a

“correct answer” and students should feel free to try new approaches and even fail without fear 

able 1 illustrates the topics that are covered in the Special 

g

’s

field

 The student cannot succeed in this situation by 

e

ractice their adaptive skills and receive feedback on thei

omplished by combining lectures, discussion, and structured exercises to te

ptability-related knowledge and skills. For example, a given module could

ure on a topic, using several real-world examples and vignettes to illustrate the teaching 

nts, followed by a brief discussion and an exercise. The exercise should be designed so

motes a mastery orientation and discovery learning. That is, the exercise should not hav

of reprisal or negative consequences. 

Feedback is an important component of classroom training. Students may receive feedback 

through a variety of mechanisms, including peers and instructors. One way to use feedback is to

have students rate their own performance on a task and then compare these ratings to those of 

their fellow students. It can be very enlightening for students to see that how they view 

themselves is not necessarily how others view them. These differing perspectives are important 

for self-awareness, which is important for the development of interpersonal-adaptability. 

The choice of topics should be relevant to the job requirements of the particular audience 

attending the course. As an example, T

Forces (SF) Officer Adaptive Thinking and Leadership Course (O-ATL), which occurs durin

the Special Forces Qualification Course (SFQC) (see White et al., 2005). These topics are 

particularly relevant for the Special Forces environment; however, they would likely be 

appropriate for a variety of jobs. 

Field exercises and simulations. Like classroom-based training, field exercises and simulations 

provide an opportunity to add to one’s catalog of experiences and receive feedback on one

performance in a safe environment where the consequences of errors are minimal. Ideally

exercises and simulations would build on the adaptability-related concepts learned previously in

the classroom. In the context of adaptability training, field scenarios should be tied to relevant 

adaptive performance dimensions. For example, a student may be given an exercise to plan an

impending mission. The student may initially be presented with an established plan and 

considerable information from various sources. However, the student may subsequently receive 

information that changes the situation and plan. 

using established procedures. Rather, he or she must demonstrate flexibility, solve problems, 

and change course to be effective. 

Field exercises and simulations are most effective when they closely mirror the operational 

environment: that is, when they have a high degree of fidelity. This allows for easier transfer to

the operational environment. Additionally, it is very important that instructors and facilitators b

12 
Table 1. Adaptability in the Classroom: The SF Officer Adaptive Thinking and 

Leadership Course (O-ATL)* 

The O-ATL is a three and a half day classroom-based course designed to teach adaptabilityrelated skills in the Special Forces Qualifications Course (SFQC). Although the content is 

somewhat generically focused on the concept of adaptability, the specific examples and 

exercises used in the course are tailored to the unique needs of the SF audience. The ATL 

consists of a series of short lectures, discussions, and exercises using real-world examples to 

teach the following topics: 

Introduction and Overview 

♦ Definitions of adaptability: descriptions of Mental, Physical, and Interpersonal 

adaptability.

♦ Importance of adaptability in the SF environment: specific examples of different 

types of adaptability in the SF environment. 

♦ Self-development: a development guide is presented that helps students identify key 

strengths and weaknesses and provides recommendations for strengthening 

adaptability-related attributes. 

Mental Adaptability 

♦ Switching mindsets: techniques for quickly shifting one’s frame of reference to look 

at the same situation in different ways (e.g., warrior vs. diplomat view). 

♦ Tools for critical thinking: common critical thinking errors and how to avoid them. 

♦ Decision making: rational vs. naturalistic decision making models and techniques. 

Interpersonal Adaptability 

♦ Self-awareness: knowing one’s own strengths and limitations (and how one is 

perceived by others) and how this is critical to effectively adapting behavior for 

more successful interpersonal interactions. 

♦ Other awareness: importance of understanding others’ needs, motives, and values to 

interpersonal adaptability. 

♦ Systems awareness: importance of environmental factors to interpersonal 

adaptability such as political, cultural, economic, etc. 

Leading an Adaptable Team

♦ Characteristics of effective and ineffective team leaders. 

♦ How to deliver effective feedback to enhance team adaptability. 

*See Mueller-Hanson and Dorsey (2004) and White et al. (2005) 

13 
trained to adequately observe and evaluate performance and deliver effective feedback – 

especially with regard to adaptability-related skills. 

simulations that address adaptability can again be found in the 

SFQC. In this course, there are several field exercises that closely mirror the operational 

or

nd

on.

,

a

edback on their performance from instructors and peers or team

w this feedback is captured and analyzed for one exercise is shown 

An example of field exercises and

environment and which require team leaders to be quite adaptable to perform successfully. F

example, Soldiers may be placed in an unfamiliar environment with very little information, a

they must quickly adapt to changes in their surroundings to successfully perform their missi

In Robin Sage (which is the capstone field exercise for the SFQC involving all the students)

officers must lead their teams in successfully working with a Guerrilla chief and his troops in

dynamic unconventional warfare environment (e.g., see Waller, 1994). In both exercises, the

officers receive extensive fe

members. An example of ho

in Table 2. 

Table 2. An Example of Feedback Systems for Leader Development in the SFQC* 

During field exercises, trained assessors observe the student’s performance and capture the

behaviors on an observation checklist (see the example below) 

Yes No 

Did the student:

1) Arrive on time?  

2) Accurately identify his contact?  

3) Greet the contact appropriately?  

Each of these behaviors corresponds to a particular rating dimension. For example, the first two 

behaviors might be indicators for tactical performance and the third behavior might be an

indicator of interpersonal skills. After the exercise is complete, the assessor evaluates all the

behaviors corresponding to each dimension and then uses this information to provide

performance ratings for each dimension on a four point scale (Excellent to Needs Much

Improvement). 

These ratings are entered into a database and the student receives a report that shows his overall

ratings in comparison to the average ratings for the class. Using this feedback, the student 

receives coaching and feedback from the instructors, which includes specific suggestions on how

he can improve his performance in the future.

*Description adapted from Thompson (2004) 

14 
Operational Training (on-the-job experiences) 

As a leader, much of one’s development occurs on the job, rather than in institutional settings. 

s – or

and

person who he or she is.” (p. 16). Wong (2004) presents a clear and compelling 

picture of how the environment in Operation Iraqi Freedom has provided crucible experiences, 

hich have allowed and compelled junior officers to develop adaptability-related skills. As 

Wong notes, “Operation Iraqi Freedom requires junior leaders to be warriors, peacekeepers, and 

However, not only must these leaders switch their own mindsets in this manner, they must work 

into

periences that could contribute

to increased adaptive performance, including: 

Working outside one’s area of specialization and quickly learning new skills (e.g., 

unction as civil nginee

♦ roles simultaneously. 

♦ between vastly different situations (e.g., from combat 

ial

ocent

. Not knowing who the enemy is and where he is hiding presents a significant 

challenge. This challenge is compounded when U.S. Soldiers have to abide by particular 

ements with little to no notice, based on 

constantly evolving intelligence. 

redictable and diverse reactions to U.S. troops. 

♦ Making significant decisions in the absence of close supervision and/or specific guidance 

from Higher. Rather, junior leaders must rely instead on general guidance and the 

commander’s intent. 

However, this development tends to occur by chance rather than in a deliberate fashion. Leaders 

may experience situations requiring adaptability and they may learn from their experience

they may not. The key to benefiting from on-the-job experiences is to provide the means for 

leaders to get the right kinds of experiences and to efficiently capture lessons learned so that the 

development process is accelerated. 

Key experiences are those that require the leader to behave in an adaptive fashion to be 

successful. According to Bennis and Thomas (2002), effective leaders typically have 

experienced at least one “crucible experience,” which can be defined as “both an opportunity

a test. It is a defining moment that unleashes abilities, forces crucial choices, and sharpens focus.

It teaches a

w

nation-builders – simultaneously.” (p. 4) 

with Soldiers who are often young and inexperienced to help them calmly and quickly shift

many different roles. Wong (2004) has identified several key ex

♦

infantrymen have had to f e rs).

Taking on multiple

Rapidly switching back and forth

to diplomacy and back again). 

♦ Being immersed in a foreign culture that is vastly different from that of the U.S. 

Feedback from the field indicates that this is not something one learns easily in school. 

Rather, day-to-day interaction with individuals native to that culture and learning by tr

and error produces competence. 

♦ Complex warfare: finding and neutralizing counterinsurgents among a largely inn

population

rules of engagement while the enemy is not held to the same standards. 

♦ Operating in an environment of constant change. 

♦ Responding to emerging mission requir

♦ Interacting with a populace that has unp

15 
In designing an effective operational training program, efforts should be made to provide junior 

level officers with as many of these experiences as possible. However, it is not enough for junior 

Providing a mechanism for feedback is also important in helping leaders benefit from their 

lated to

y

The AAR can be a valuable feedback tool; however, the process has several downsides, 

e, participants may be unwilling to admit their 

own mistakes publicly. For these reasons, cognitive psychologist Gary Klein (2003) 

reco

In a e ration begins, ideally during the planning

stag n is completed and that it was a dismal failure. 

The

and what they would do differently. They are then able to take these issues into account during 

the n rocess

beca e

individ

notes th

during AARs. Moreover, Klein has observed that teams have been able to improve their 

per

Other s

feedbac ach of these is

disc

The enefit 

from the experience of a more senior and experienced leader. The junior leader can share his or

her experiences with the m

bas

is that the situations encountered by the junior leader may be so novel that the mentor may not 

have had experience in a similar situation. However, even in these instances the mentor may be 

officers to merely be exposed to these situations. To truly profit from their experiences, they 

need to be able to extract lessons learned from their experiences and improve their performance 

in the future. This process should include creating a climate that allows leaders to try new 

approaches and shifting the emphasis from punishing all failures to rewarding innovation and

appropriate risk-taking (Jacobs & Sanders, 2004). 

experiences. To enhance adaptive performance, leaders would need specific feedback re

how well they performed in a situation that required adaptability. The Army has alread

established a process for capturing lessons learned from operations through the After Action 

Review (AAR) process. During the AAR, a leader and his or her team discuss the operation, 

what was done well, what could have been done better, and the lessons learned that could be

applied in the future. The goal of the AAR is for the team to critically evaluate themselves and 

the strengths and weaknesses of the operation. Often the AAR is documented in writing and

shared with others. 

including a) participants may be too close to the situation to give themselves a realistic picture of

what they could have done better, b) participants may not be completely candid in the review 

process – especially when it comes to questioning or criticizing the leader in a public forum, and

c) given the military culture of punishing failur

mmends conducting a “Pre-mortem” in addition to the AAR. 

Pr -mortem, participants meet before the ope

es. The participants imagine that the operatio

y then work backwards and try to think through all the things that could have gone wrong 

pla ning process. The Pre-mortem gets around some of the sensitivities of the AAR p

us it focuses the team on potential reasons for failure rather than blaming any one 

ual for past mistakes. Klein (2003) has used this technique extensively in his work and 

at people are much more frank and open during the Pre-mortem than they tend to be 

formance using this technique. 

ources of feedback include mentors; 360-degree evaluation tools, which incorporate 

k from subordinates, peers, and superior officers; and climate surveys. E

ussed briefly below.

advantage of mentoring is that it provides the junior leader with the opportunity to b

entor and get feedback on what could have been done differently, 

ed on the mentor’s own experience and knowledge. The challenge in relation to adaptability

16 
able

adaptab

Mentoring arrangements need not be structured or formal. However, expectations about the 

tion

gs, and subordinate ratings. Typically, the 

ratings are anonymous (except for the supervisor rating because there is usually only one 

r

ual,

ost senior leaders in the organization. Indirect feedback may include 

comments on policies, procedures, or climate, on which leaders may have an impact. Like the 

ts of a

The

edback and their progress 

toward making changes were the most likely to improve. In the adaptability context, these tools 

d

g

pment consists simply of recommended reading. However, 

in

re are a number of factors that impact whether a specific leader will be 

to provide some insight by sharing his or her own experiences in situations that required 

ility.

mentoring arrangement should be clearly communicated up front. That is, the junior leader 

should be clear about what he or she is expecting from the relationship, and the mentor should be 

clear about what his or her role will be and what the time commitment is. 

A more formal mechanism for feedback is a 360-degree evaluation. The 360-degree evalua

is a survey of a leader’s strengths and weaknesses from multiple perspectives, frequently 

including self-ratings, peer ratings, supervisor ratin

immediate supervisor) to encourage open and candid feedback. Some assistance is usually 

needed to interpret the feedback from a 360-degree evaluation, and examining the difference 

between a leader’s self-ratings and the ratings of others can be particularly illuminating. 

At a higher level of analysis, organizational climate surveys can be a valuable feedback tool fo

leaders. Although these surveys are typically for an entire organization rather than an individ

feedback from the survey often indicates how people feel about an organization’s leadership, 

directly and indirectly. Direct feedback may include comments about both immediate 

supervisors and the m

360-degree evaluation, some assistance may be needed to help with interpreting the resul

climate survey. 

In terms of development, 360-degree evaluations and climate surveys are only useful if the 

leadership is held accountable for making changes. For example, in a study by Walker and 

Smither (1999), managers received 360-degree feedback for developmental purposes.

managers who held sessions with their employees to discuss the fe

could be useful for getting feedback about the adaptive performance of individual leaders an

feedback about whether the climate is conducive to adaptability. An example of how these tools 

have been used successfully in the Army is presented in Table 3. 

Self Development 

Self-development activities are by definition activities that the leader is responsible for initiatin

and maintaining. Self-development may be important for the development of adaptabilityrelated skills in the absence of more formal training opportunities. In many leadership 

development programs, self-develo

as Wong et al., (2003) note, self-development activities for leadership competencies required

the future need to go beyond mere reading lists. 

It should be noted that the

successful in his or her self-development efforts. First, some self-development activities can be

time-consuming and may not be practical in all situations. Second, there are a number of 

individual difference variables that can contribute to one’s propensity to engage in self17 
Table 3. Examples of 360-Degree Feedback and Climate Surveys at a U.S. Army

Command* 

Since 1997, about five command climate surveys have been conducted within the U.S. Army Special 

Operations Command (USASOC). Initially a paper-and-pencil based instrument, the survey was recently

automated, vastly speeding up the time required to collect and analyze data. All command personnel are

asked to complete command climate survey, which measures the following seven dimensions: 

Satisfaction, Immediate Supervision, Senior Leadership, Training & Development, Personnel 

Management, Team Cohesion, and Communications. Two example items are: 

♦ Training requirements and opportunities are effectively communicated. 

♦ The process for selecting participants for professional development opportunities is fair and

consistent within my directorate. 

Respondents use a 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) scale to rate items. 

The results of the survey (which is provided at both the command and directorate levels) help to identify 

organization and unit-level training and development needs, create a baseline with which to measure

future progress, and help to drive organizational change and development. Feedback from the survey 

goes to everyone, and the entire workforce stays involved in the action planning that follows. Each 

directorate is responsible for developing and submitting an action plan, implementing the plan and 

monitoring progress, and briefing their progress and results to appropriate stakeholders. 

One finding from this survey was that supervision and leadership throughout the command were areas

that could use improvement. Therefore, a 360-degree evaluation effort was implemented to help leaders

develop greater self-awareness of their own strengths and developmental needs.

In the 360-degree evaluation, ratings are provided by leaders (self-ratings), their supervisors, five of their 

peers, and all of their subordinates. Peer and subordinate ratings are anonymous and the results are used

strictly for developmental purposes. In all, seven performance dimensions are assessed: Communication 

and Information Exchange, Decision Making and Problem Solving, Supervision / Leadership, 

Interpersonal and Team Skills, Self-Development and Individual Competence, Diversity, and 

Organizational Support. 

The items that are rated in the 360 system are behaviorally focused (e.g., “Gives others the opportunity to

contribute input and advice.”) and respondents rate each item on a 1 (Disagree Very Much) to 6 (Agree 

Very Much) scale. A “Can’t Rate” option was provided for each item and space was provided for openended responses. Based on the ratings, automated feedback reports are generated for each leader being 

rated and a professional facilitator is hired to help the leaders interpret their feedback and to provide 

suggestions for additional learning resources. Based on the feedback, the leader develops an action plan. 

Although the results are confidential and not shared with the leader’s supervisor, the leader is held 

accountable to his or her supervisor for following through on the development plan. 

*Description adapted from Foster Thompson and Martin (2004) and Martin, Foster Thompson, and

Barrett (2004) 

18 
development activities. For example, Boyce, Wisecarver, and Zaccaro (2005) found that 

individuals with greater work orientation, a greater career growth orientation, and a mastery 

orientation, exemplifying adult learners, were ultimately more likely to engage in selfdevelopment activities. Also organizational support, such as providing more time or resources,

can also impact the extent to which a leader will engage in self-development activities. 

Therefore, organizations should endeavor to ensure that self-development efforts are encouraged 

and rewarded and that leaders be given the time and tools necessary to engage in meaningful 

self-development activities. 

In this section we cover three related self-development tools: individual development plans and 

development guides, portfolios, and self-reflection exercises.

Individual development plans and development guides. The first step in creating an individual 

development plan is self-awareness: understanding one’s strengths and weaknesses and identity 

as a leader. Moreover, self-awareness is important for interpersonal adaptability. To be 

interpersonally adaptable, a leader must understand the perspectives, needs, and motives of 

others and change his or her behavior to have more successful interactions with others. In order 

to successfully alter one’s behavior to work better with others, one must have an accurate 

awareness of how he or she is perceived by others. This awareness can come from triangulating 

information from multiple sources. These sources may include standardized tests; feedback from

peers, commanders, subordinates, etc., “objective” data from skill and knowledge assessments; 

and self-knowledge. One standardized assessment related to adaptability is the Test of

Adaptable Personality or TAP (Kilcullen, Goodwin, Chen, Wisecarver, & Sanders, in review; 

Kilcullen, Mael, Goodwin, Zazanis, 1999). A detailed description of this assessment is presented 

in Table 4. An example of a tool that could be used to triangulate information from multiple 

sources can be seen in Appendix B. This example was taken from the self-development guide 

described in Table 1 for the O-ATL. 

Once the leader has a better understanding of his or her strengths and weakness, this information 

should be used to make a concrete plan for leveraging and enhancing strengths and overcoming 

or mitigating weaknesses. Ideally, the plan should include development goals that are specific, 

measurable, achievable, realistic, and tied to mission requirements. In addition, it may be 

beneficial for the leader to have a mentor or supervisor review the plan and provide feedback. 

A development guide can serve as a supplement to the individual development plan by providing 

suggestions for developmental activities that are targeted to a leader’s unique needs. Several 

commercially available development guides are available, such as The Successful Manager’s 

Handbook (Personnel Decisions International, 2000). Alternatively, it may be more useful to 

create a customized development guide that is specific to a particular job or role. The example 

self-development tool in Appendix B lists several specific adaptability-related self-development 

activities. 

Portfolios. Portfolios are a relatively new and innovative tool for leadership development. A 

portfolio is “A working tool that organizes information and documents for career planning and 

self-assessment” (Wonacott, 2002, p.1). Portfolios can be a powerful means of driving 

19 
Table 4. Test of Adaptable Personality (TAP) (Kilcullen)* 

The TAP is a personality-based measure of adaptability developed by the U.S. Army Research 

Institute (ARI) for special operations Soldiers. It is a paper and pencil questionnaire using 

multiple-choice questions that focus on past behaviors and reactions to work events. The TAP

measures the following six attributes: 

♦ Achievement Orientation: Giving one’s best effort and working hard to achieve work

objectives. 

♦ Cognitive Flexibility: Willingness to entertain new approaches to solving problems. 

Enjoys creating new plans and ideas. Accepts change and innovation.

♦ Fitness Motivation: Degree of enjoyment from doing physical training. Willingness to

put in the time and effort to maintain good physical conditioning. 

♦ Peer Leadership: Seeks positions of authority and influence. Comfortable with being in 

command. Willing to make tough decisions and accept responsibility for the group’s 

performance. 

♦ Interpersonal Skills – Team Player: Working well with others. Ability to establish 

supportive and trusting relationships with others. 

♦ Interpersonal Skills – Diplomatic: Being extroverted and outgoing. Able to make friends

easily and establish rapport with strangers. Good at meeting/greeting people.

Feedback from the TAP includes behavioral descriptions of strengths and potential challenges 

associated with each dimension along with suggestions for improvement. Several studies have 

shown that TAP scores are predictive of on-the-job performance in a variety of settings

(Kilcullen et al., in review; Kilcullen et al., 1999). 

*Description adapted from Kilcullen (2004) 

individual leadership development by providing a framework with which to collect, integrate, 

t should also help

guide development discussions with coaches and mentors. The following general structure is 

1. Background and Goals. This section would include background information about the 

leader to provide context: a resume, descriptions of education and training received to 

date, descriptions of past assignments, results from self-assessments, personality or other 

and synthesize information about one’s development goals and progress. Moreover, the process 

of creating a portfolio encourages the leader to reflect on his or her leadership experiences and 

developmental progress. 

There is no “right” way to construct a portfolio and no absolute requirements for what it should

contain. Regardless of what is included in the portfolio, the self-reflection that goes along with 

constructing the portfolio and considering what to include is one of its key developmental 

aspects. Not only might this lead to insight into one’s own development, but i

suggested for constructing a portfolio designed for developing junior leaders: 

20 
standardized assessments, etc. In addition, this section would contain some type o

statement about the individual’s development goals or an individual development plan

2. Developmental Activities: This section would contain items that illustrate activities in 

which the leader has engaged that have contributed to his or her own development. 

These activities may represent formal or informal activities. The purpose of this section 

is twofold: first, to help the leader identify what has been accomplished and provide 

context for reflection (discussed below), and second, these items can be used to showc

one’s skills and achie

f

.

ase

vements, which may be useful during performance reviews, in 

- Performance evaluations 

s,

l contacts and networks 

- Documentation of relevant leadership activities outside of the military (e.g., 

,

elopment plan. The purpose of this component is to increase self-awareness and to 

help leaders think through their performance in situations requiring an adaptive response. 

e

a

es.

applying for awards and decorations, and for promotion. The following is a partial list of

example items that may be included in this section: 

- Peer evaluations 

- Formal letters of appreciation, commendation, etc. 

- Letters from coaches or mentors (or documentation of significant conversations with 

these individuals) 

- Informal letters/e-mails from supervisors, customers, coworkers, etc., or other 

documentation of feedback 

- Documentation of formal training activities completed and results of training 

assessments 

- Statement of personal philosophy of leadership 

- Sample work products such as briefings, reports, technical documents, publication

prototypes, programs, web-pages, etc. (in paper or electronic form) 

- Documentation of professiona

- Professional affiliations (e.g., membership in a professional society) and evidence of 

contributions to these organizations 

- Documentation of other professional skills such as language, specialized technical 

skills, etc. 

leadership in professional organizations, civic groups, etc.) 

- Videotape of individual facilitating a meeting, delivering a briefing, providing 

training, etc. 

3. Reflections: This section would contain reflections in journal form that document events

what the person learned from each event, and how the experience contributed to the 

dev

The portfolio as a whole, and especially the reflections component, can be very valuabl

in helping the leader to build adaptability-related knowledge and expertise by providing

means for cataloging and thinking deeply about his or her repertoire of experienc

21 
Portfolio development is not a one-time activity, but an ongoing process. A leader’s 

ctivities that are completed. 

The leader will draw from the lessons learned during these activities in self-reflections, and these 

 Reflection helps leaders to examine past performance and build mental models 

at are helpful in achieving better future performance (Jacobs & Sanders, 2004). One method 

eflection as a 

dev p n

and

experie

development goals and plans will drive the types of developmental a

reflections, along with periodic self-assessments, should drive subsequent development planning

efforts. This cyclical process is shown in the Figure 2. 

Figure 2. Portfolio Development Process 

Background 

and 

Context

Self-Reflection 

Developmental 

Activities 

Self-reflection.

th

for capturing reflections is by keeping a log or journal. Self-reflection is important for 

development, but it is notoriously difficult to promote. Common concerns about reflection 

include: 

♦ The amount of time it takes, 

♦ The difficulty in making the reflection substantive rather than a mere “diary” of events, 

and 

♦ The fact that not everyone may be comfortable with this approach. For some people it 

may feel more “natural” to reflect internally rather than to keep a written journal. 

These are valid concerns that may have an impact on the effectiveness of self-r

elo ment tool. However, in a study on promoting reflection among military cadets Gustafso

Bennett (1999) found that the following practices made the reflection a more meaningful 

nce:

22 
1.

ay

3.

he right frame of mind. 

4. c ns in the Reflections – reflections may come more freely 

e writer is evaluating or critiquing a topic. Additionally, this topic 

a rnal and external – to one’s own

5.

env mfortable and free from distractions. 

6.

comfort level, reflections can be shared (before writing them down) with another person, 

may 

help in considering alternate perspectives. This input may help to add deeper insights to 

7. f

o

ith the addressee, having a

be nder to discuss one’s view of leadership at the 

m e

ior

affects the leader, what the leader would like them to do differently, etc. 

8. when the

lea back may come from a 

g

feedback that the person giving the feedback is clear on what he or she is being asked to 

It shou to

no emp

Therefo

will be

Experience –the more experience one has with reflection, the better one is at it. 

Therefore, the process may seem difficult and tedious at first, those who stick to it m

find that it will become easier and more natural. 

2. Content Knowledge – reflections are generally of higher quality when the topic is 

something that the writer is knowledgeable about. Therefore, it may be helpful for 

leaders to focus reflection efforts on areas in which they have some knowledge and 

experience. 

Mental Set – the right mental state can make reflection much easier and more natural. 

For example, reflection will probably be difficult if one is mentally and/or physically 

exhausted. It may be helpful to try and set aside a specific time for reflection each week 

and spend a few minutes just prior to this getting in t

In lude Critiques and Reactio

and naturally when th

m y promote a deeper awareness of barriers – both inte

development. 

Ensure the Physical Environment is Conducive to Reflection – naturally, the ideal 

ironment will be co

Consider Engaging Others in Reflective Discussions – depending upon one’s own 

such as a coach or mentor. This person can act as a sounding board for ideas and

the written reflections. 

Cast Reflections as Hypothetical “Letters” to Others – one of the most effective means o

pr moting reflection is for the individual to cast his or her reflections as a letter to

someone. The letter could be to a family member, close friend, commander, subordinate, 

etc. Although the intent is not to actually share the letter w

targeted topic in mind when documenting the reflection is often helpful. One idea would

to write a letter to a high level comma

Ar y and how the junior leader feels that he or she fits into this picture. Alternately, th

letter could be to someone with whom the leader is having difficulty – how their behav

Seek Feedback – learning from nearly every type of activity is greatly enhanced

rner is given meaningful feedback on his or her efforts. Feed

variety of sources, such as coaches, peers, mentors, etc. It’s important when seekin

do. For example, the person giving feedback may be asked to identify areas where the 

leader might go deeper, to suggest additional questions that should be considered, etc. 

ld be noted that the use of these self-development tools is supported by theory, but little

irical evidence exists as of yet to either support or discourage the use of these tools. 

re, it would be fruitful to conduct research on their efficacy. General needs for research 

discussed in more detail in the next section.

23 
Summary and Conclusions 

Recent changes in the military environment have highlighted the need for increased adaptability 

among military leaders at all levels. As the strategic leaders of the future, junior officers are in a 

prime position to benefit from development efforts targeted at enhancing their adaptive 

erformance. In this paper we have briefly described current research on the nature of the 

daptability construct, character en empirically related to adaptive performance, 

nd principles for enhancing adaptive nce through institutional, operational, and selfevelopment activities. 

designing programs for developing adaptability irst step is to identify the key roles and 

bs that require adaptive performance. Not every position, and perhaps not even every 

adership position, will require adaptability. Next, adaptable performance needs to be defined 

or a given job, and then training p ovide people with opportunities to learn and 

ractice these behaviors.

daptive performance is a complex construct and could not be expected to be easily mastered 

through a single course or a few training exercises. Developing adaptive performance will likely 

quire a substantial investment in a integrated training system from “cradle to grave.” Junior 

level officers need to be exposed to adaptability training right from the start of their training 

rough classroom and field exerci arly part of their careers through operational 

echanisms, and continuing throughout their careers through ongoing 

rofessional development. Self-development activities should occur continuously, and officers 

ould be held accountable for both their development efforts and their adaptive performance on 

e job.

ghout a leader’s career is to use a common set 

of performance dimensions and definitions for each major stage in a leader’s career. That is, 

imensions of leadership performance, including dimensions related to adaptive performance, 

 an officer’s career along with standards of performance. As 

egically.

ajor 

effective leadership development in the Army (Department of the Army, 2001). 

An tegration is to develop a system for warehousing data 

rela

com

record ollows him throughout his career. Consideration should be given to automating 

the

of an in well

p

a istics that have be

a performa

d

In , the f

jo

le

f rograms must pr

p

A

re n

th ses, during the e

experiences and feedback m

p

sh

th

One mechanism for integrating development throu

d

should be provided at the start of

competencies and expectations change, the leader should be provided with new performance 

standards. For example, junior level leaders may have performance standards that are more 

tactical in nature while more senior leaders would likely be expected to think more strat

The current lack of a consistent set of leadership performance standards has been cited as a m

barrier to

other mechanism for promoting in

ted to each individual’s development efforts. This system could be used to store test scores,

pletion of training courses, performance evaluations, etc. Currently an officer has a paper 

that f

se records for ease of use and to safeguard against records being damaged or lost. The value

tegrated approach to developing adaptability is not just being able to determine how

a leader is performing today, but to compare his or her current performance to past performance 

to determine how well the individual is profiting from training and experience. This type of 

feedback would be invaluable for tailoring the individual’s future development and for

identifying opportunities to improve the training itself. It should be noted that the portfolios 

24 
disc rogress

on an in

Ne

Consid

individual characteristics that relate to adaptive performance. However, much less is known 

about the psychological processe

mec

adaptiv

social a

Unders

ada

Evalua

importance as a research topic. To date, little 

benefits of conducting this

info a

adaptiv

Com o

suggest

♦

d easiest type of evaluation to conduct, but it’s potentially the 

♦

ng, not their overall job 

ussed previously are one way to keep a detailed and integrated accounting of one’s p

dividual level.

eds for Future Research

erable work has been done to define and describe adaptive behavior in general and 

s underlying adaptive performance. That is, what are the 

hanisms by which individual characteristics interact with the environment to produce 

e behavior? For example, little is known about how individual differences contribute to

wareness and the self-regulation mechanism that is inherent in adaptability. 

tanding these processes could greatly enhance our understanding of if and how

ptability might be trained. 

ting the efficacy of training designed to enhance adaptive performance is of particular

such evaluation research exists, but the potential 

 research would be substantial. Evaluation data would provide useful 

rm tion to decision makers who are faced the prospect of making major investments in

e training programs. 

m nly accepted models of training evaluation (e.g., Kirkpatrick, 1998; Phillips, 1997) 

that training evaluation data be gathered from multiple levels: 

Reactions – did the participants feel that the training was relevant and valuable? This is 

generally the quickest an

least valuable because it may have little relationship with improved on the job 

performance. 

Learning – did the participants learn the knowledge and skills they were supposed to 

learn as a result of the training? This type of evaluation is also relatively easy as it may 

be conducted by written tests or practical exercises during training. This type of 

evaluation demonstrates only whether trainees demonstrate the intended knowledge and

skills in the training setting; it does not determine whether those knowledge and skills 

will actually be applied on the job. 

♦ Application – did the participants apply what they learned by changing their on the job 

behavior? In the case of adaptability, this would translate to: did participants enhance 

their adaptability related performance on the job as a result of the training? Although 

more difficult to measure, this type of evaluation is far more informative than the two

previous types. However, it may be difficult to detect real changes from a single training

intervention. Rather, it may be more appropriate to evaluate a training program

(consisting of several, integrated activities) at this level. Moreover, the behaviors being 

evaluated on the job must be specifically matched to the behaviors that were targeted in 

the training program. In the case of adaptability training, this would mean that 

participants should be evaluated specifically on the extent to which their adaptive 

performance on their job was improved as a result of the traini

performance. 

25 
♦ Results – did the train or the organization? In the 

military context, this m cess, lives saved, dollars

ess

♦ Return-on-Investment (ROI) – did the training provide a dollar value that exceeded it’s 

t to

based solely on expert judgments, which may or may not be credible 

with stakeholders. 

s groups with participants, supervisors, and other stakeholders. Diagnostic evaluation 

could also help pinpoint the types of training activities that are most beneficial to training 

are

ing result in tangible business benefits f

ight translate to improved mission suc

saved, time saved, etc. This type of evidence is powerful, but difficult to assess in a 

rigorous manner because there are so many factors that impact an outcome such as 

mission success. In the case of adaptability training, it may be more feasible to establish a

link between training and adaptive performance and adaptive performance and busin

results, rather than attempting to establish a direct link between training and business 

results. Even an indirect link that results in small benefits, however, can translate into

large-scale benefits if the program impacts a large number of individuals. 

cost? In general, less than 5% of training programs are appropriate for this level of 

evaluation (Phillips, 1997). In the public service sector, it may extremely difficul

conduct this type of evaluation unless the benefits from the training program can be 

linked to objective data such as dollars or time saved. In the absence of this data, an ROI 

analysis would be

The choice of how to evaluate an adaptability training program will depend on many factors, 

including the cost of the program (the greater the costs, the more justifiable a rigorous 

evaluation), the resources available to conduct the evaluation, and the availability of credible

data. In addition to assessing the overall success of the program, an evaluation should also be 

conducted for diagnostic purposes. That is, the strengths and weaknesses of the training should 

be explored for the purpose of making continued improvements to the program. Diagnostic 

evaluation can be conducted through the means described above and by conducting interviews 

and focu

adaptability.

The current challenges faced by the U.S. military call for changes in the way leaders respond to

these challenges and corresponding changes in how the future leadership of the force should be

trained and developed. The Army has identified the criticality of having adaptive and self-aw

leaders in the force, but there currently exist very few established resources to develop these 

characteristics (Department of the Army, 2001). Although still in its infancy, research on 

adaptive performance and how it is developed could offer a great deal of promise for the Army

to meet its leadership challenges in the 21st century. 

26 
References 

., & Napier, H. A. (1997). The use of animation in software 

training: Pitfalls and benefits. In M.A. Quiñones and A. Ehrenstein (Eds.) Training for a 

.

. (1997). Training as an Organizational Episode: Pretraining 

influences on trainee motivation. In J.K. Ford, S.W.J. Kozlowski, K. Kraiger, E. Salas & 

Bennis, W. G., & Thomas, R.J. (2002). Geeks & geezers: How era, values, and defining 

Berger, M. (1998). Going global: Implications for communication and leadership training. 

Boyce, ent of

tributes: Understanding, Predicting, and Supporting Performance of Leader 

h

Chan, D

Co

Costa,

Departm

Dweck

Atlas, R., Cornett, L., Lane, D. M

rapidly changing workplace: Applications of psychological research (pp. 281-302)

Washington DC: American Psychological Association. 

Axtell, C. M., Holman, D. J., Unsworth, K. L., Wall, T. D., & Waterson, P. E. (2000). 

Shopfloor innovation: Facilitating the suggestion and implementation of ideas. Journal 

of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73, 265-285. 

Baldwin, T.T., & Magjuka, R.J

M.S. Teachout (Eds.) Improving training effectiveness in work organizations (pp. 99-

127). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman. 

moments shape leaders. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. 

Industrial and Commercial Training, 30, 123-127. 

L.A., Wisecarver, M.M., & Zaccaro, S.J. (2005). Propensity for Self-Developm

Leadership At

Self-Development. (Draft ARI Technical Report). Arlington, VA: U.S. Army Researc

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

. (2000). Conceptual and empirical gaps in research on individual adaptation at work.

In C.L. Cooper & I.T. Robertson (Eds.) International review of industrial and 

organizational psychology (Vol. 15, pp. 143-164). New York: John Wiley & Sons. 

hen, M. S., Thompson, B. B., Adelman, L., Bresnick, T. A., Shastri, L., & Riedel, S. L. 

(2000). Training critical thinking for the battlefield: Volume I: Basis in cognitive theory 

and research. Cognitive Technologies Technical Report 00-2. Arlington VA. 

P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Four ways five factors are basic. Personality and 

Individual Differences, 13, 653-665. 

ent of the Army (2001). The Army Training and Leader Development Panel Officer 

Study Report to the Army, http://www.army.mil/atld. 

, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41,

1040-1048. 

27 
Ede

Edmon

Edmon

Endsley M.R. Endsley

Fernan

Foster Thompson, L, & Martin, D. (2004, November). USASOC 360 Degree Leader Review. 

Presentation given at the ARI Special Forces User Review, Arlington, VA, November 17, 

1074. 

lications of structural knowledge assessment to 

tion

iculties in Promoting Learner Reflection: 

Results from a Three-Year Study. WWW: 

http://it.coe.uga.edu/~kgustafs/document/promoting.html

Howell, W. C., & Cooke, N. J. (1989). Training the human information processor: A review of 

cognitive models. In I.L. Goldstein (Ed.) Training and development in organizations 

(pp. 121-182). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. 

Jacobs, T.O. & Sanders, M.G. (2004). Principles for building the profession the SOF experience. 

The Defense Transformation in the Army Profession. Senior Conference XLI, U.S. 

Military Academy: West Point, New York. June 3-5, 2004. 

n, D., & Kinnar, J. (1991). Modeling Galatea: Boosting self-efficacy to increase 

volunteering. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 770-780. 

dson, A. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. 

Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 350-383. 

dson, A., Bohmer, R., & Pisano, G. (2001). Speeding up team learning. Harvard 

Business Review (October), 125-132. 

, M. R., & Robertson, M. M. (2000). Training for situation awareness. In

& D. J. Garland (Eds.) Situation awareness analysis and measurement. Mahwah, NJ: 

Lawrence Erlbaum.

dez, J. P. (1991). Managing a diverse workforce: Regaining the competitive edge. 

Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books. 

2004. 

Gelfand, M. J., & Christakopulu, S. (1999). Culture and negotiator cognition: Judgment 

accuracy and negotiator processes in individualistic and collectivistic cultures. 

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 79, 248-269. 

Gelfand, M. J., Nishii, L. H., Holcombe, K. M., Dyer, N., Ohbuchi, K., & Fukuno, M. (2001).

Cultural influences on cognitive representations of conflict: Interpretations of conflict 

episodes in the United States and Japan. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 1059-

Goldsmith, T. E., & Kraiger, K. (1997). App

training evaluation. In J. K. Ford, S. W. J. Kozlowski, K. Kraiger, E. Salas & M. S. 

Teachout (Eds.) Improving training effectiveness in work organizations (pp. 73-96). 

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 

Goldstein, I. (1993). Training in organizations: Needs assessment, development and evalua

(3rd edition). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. 

Gustafson , K. & Bennett, W. (1999). Issues and Diff

28 
Kilcullen, B. (2004, November). Test of Adaptable Personality. Presentation given at the ARI 

Special Forces User Review, Arlington, VA, November 17, 2004. 

Kilcull

n Extreme Environments, 4, 53-

Kirkpa

cisions

, and

nder stress:

an

London er workers for the future workplace. In 

Lussier

ng

Martin, vey

ns

p. 9-45). San Francisco, CA:

Kilcullen, R.N., Goodwin, G.F., Chen, G., Wisecarver, M.M., & Sanders, M.G. (in review). 

Psychological predictors of Special Forces leader performance. 

en, R.N., Mael, F.A., Goodwin, G.F., Zazanis, M.M. (1999). Predicting U.S. Army

Special Forces field performance. Human Performance i

63. 

trick, D. (1998). Evaluating Training Programs (2nd edition). San Francisco: BerrettKoehler Publishers, Inc.

Klein, G. (1997). The Recognition-primed decision (RPD) model: Looking back, looking 

forward. In C.E. Zsambok and G. Klein (Eds.) Naturalistic decision making (pp. 285-

292). Mawah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 

Klein, G. (2003). The power of intuition: How to use your gut feelings to make better de

at work. Currency. 

Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1998). Training and developing adaptive teams: Theory, principles

research. In J.A. Cannon-Bowers & E. Salas (Eds.) Making decisions u

Implications for individual and team training (pp. 115-153). Washington DC: Americ

Psychological Association. 

LePine, J. A., Colquitt, J. A., & Erez, A. (2000). Adaptability to changing task contexts: 

Effects of general cognitive ability, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. 

Personnel Psychology, 53, 563-593. 

, M., & Bassman, E. (1989). Retraining midcare

I.L. Goldstein (Ed.) Training and development in organizations (pp. 333-375). San 

Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. 

, J. W., Ross, K. G., and Mayes, B. Coaching techniques for adaptive thinking. 

(Discussion of TRADOC Training Initiatives for Army Transformation’s draft traini

circular of Adaptive Thinking Training Methodology.) 

D., Foster Thompson L., & Barrett, G. (2004, November). The Automated Sur

Process in U.S. Army Special Operations Command. Presentation given at the ARI 

Special Forces User Review, Arlington, VA, November 17, 2004. 

McIntyre, R. M., & Salas, E. (1995). Measuring and managing for team performance: Lesso

from complex environments. In R.A. Guzzo, & E. Salas and Associates (Eds.), Team

effectiveness and decision making in organizations (p

Jossey-Bass.

29 
Morrison, J. E., Smith, D. H., Sticha, P. J., & Brooks, J. E. (1995). Planning in Specia

Operational Detachment Alpha. Research Report 1672, U.S

l Forces

. Army Research Institute for 

the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

Muelle ). Training Adaptable Leaders: 

Development of the ATL. Presentation given at the ARI Special Forces User Review, 

Personnel Decisions International (2000). Successful Manager’s Handbook. Minneapolis, MN: 

Phillips ok of training evaluation and measurement methods. Houston, Tex: 

Gulf Publishing 

Porter, is, A. P. J., West, B. J., & Moon, H. 

(2001). Backing up behaviors in teams: The role of personality and legitimacy of need. 

Pulakos, E. D., Arad, S., Donovan, M. A., & Plamondon, K. E. (2000). Adaptability in the 

ied

Pulakos, E. D., & Dorsey, D. W. (2000). The development and validation of measures to 

Pulakons, E. D., Dorsey, D. W., & White, S.S. (In Press). Adaptability in the workplace: 

Pulako Arad, S., Hedge, J. W., and Borman, W. C. (2002). 

Human Performance, 15, 299-323. 

Pulley, action guidebook:

Building resiliency -- How to thrive in times of change. Greensboro, NC: Center for 

Ross, K rovided by Army Research 

Institute. 

Schmec

Sherer, M., & Adams, C. (1983). Construct validation of the self-efficacy scale. Psychological 

r-Hanson, R., & Dorsey, D. W. (2004, November

Arlington, VA, November 17, 2004. 

Author. 

, J. J. (1997). Handbo

C. O. L. H., Hollenbeck, J. R., Ilgen, D. R., Ell

Paper presented at the 16th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and 

Organizational Psychology, San Diego, California. 

workplace: Development of a taxonomy of adaptive performance. Journal of Appl

Psychology, 85, 612-624. 

predict adaptive job performance (Technical Report No. 347). Personnel Decisions 

Research Institutes, Inc.: Arlington, Virginia. 

Selecting an adaptive workforce. In S. Burke, L. Pierce, & E. Salas (Eds.), 

Understanding Individual and Team Adaptability. Elsevier Science. 

s, E. D., Schmitt, N., Dorsey, D. W.,

M. L., Wakefield, M., and Van Velsor, E. (2001). An ideas into

Creative Leadership. 

. & Lussier, J. W. (2000). Adaptive thinking seminar. P

k, R. R. (1988). Learning strategies and learning style. New York: Plenum. 

Reports, 53, 899-902. 

30 
Sherer, M., Maddux, J., Mercandante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R. (1982). 

The self-efficacy scale: Construction and validation. Psychological Reports, 51, 663-

671. 

Smith, e expertise: Implications 

for training design strategies. In M.A. Quiñones & A. Ehrenstein (Eds.) Training for a 

al

Stevens, M., & Campion, M. (1994). The knowledge, skill, and ability requirements for 

te

ndividual and team training (pp. 247-270). 

Thompson, J. (2004, November). Training for Performance in Unconventional Environments. 

Presentation given at the ARI Special Forces User Review, Arlington, VA, November 17, 

Thomp

t. Special Warfare, 22-27. 

West, M. A., & Wallace, M. (1991). Innovation in health care teams. European Journal of 

White, S.S., Mueller-Hanson, R.A., Dorsey, D.W., Pulakos, E.D., Wisecarver, M.M., Deagle, 

E.A., & Mendini, K.G. (2005). Developing Adaptive Proficiency in Special Forces 

tute for

Wisecarver, M. Z., Martin, D., Thompson, J., & Cracraft, M. (2004, November). Peer 

w,

Wonacott, M. E. (2001). Career Portfolios. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, 

Wong,

isle, PA: U.S. Army War College, Special Studies Institute. 

E. M., Ford, J. K., & Kozlowski, S. W. (1997). Building adaptiv

rapidly changing workplace (pp. 89-118). Washington DC: American Psychologic

Association.

teamwork: Implications for human resource management. Journal of Management, 

20(2), 503-530. 

Tannenbaum, S. I., Smith-Jentsch, & Behson, S. J. (1998). Training team leaders to facilita

team learning and performance. In J.A. Cannon-Bowers & E. Salas (Eds.) Making 

decisions under stress: Implications for i

Washington DC: American Psychological Association. 

2004. 

son, J.A., Wilson, M.A., and Sanders, M.G. (2002, Winter). Feedback from the field: The 

SF field performance projec

Waller, D.C. (1994). The Commandos: The Inside Story of America’s Secret Soldiers. New

York: Simon & Schuster. 

Social Psychology, 21, 303-315. 

Officers. (ARI Research Report 1831). Arlington, VA: U.S. Army Research Insti

the Behavioral and Social Sciences. 

Assessment and Feedback. Presentation given at the ARI Special Forces User Revie

Arlington, VA, November 17, 2004. 

Career and Vocational Education. 

L. (2004). Developing Adaptive leaders: The crucible experience of Operation Iraqi

Freedom. Carl

31 
Wong, L., Gerrars, S., Kidd, W., Pricone,, & R. Swengros, R. (2003, September). Strategic 

Leadership Competencies. Paper developed for the Strategic Studies Institute in the U.S. 

Army War College. 

Zaccaro, S. J. (2001a). Social complexity and the competencies required for effective military 

leadership. In J.G. Hunt, G.E. Dodge, & L. Wong (Eds.) Out-of-the-box leadership: 

Transforming the twenty-first century army and other top-performing organizations (pp. 

131-151). Stamford, CT: JAI Press. 

Zaccaro, S. J. (2001b). Leader Adaptability course syllabus prepared for the U.S. Army War 

College. 

Zaccaro, S. J., Burke, C. S., Marks, M. A., & Mathieu, J. E. (1999). Leadership effects on team 

mental models: Facilitating team adaptation. Paper presented at the 14th annual 

.

Zakaria the

er, 21, 492-510. 

conference for the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Atlanta, GA

, N. (2000). The effects of cross-cultural training on the acculturation process of

global workforce. International Journal of Manpow

32 
Appendix A: Adaptability Dimensions with Sample Critical Incidents from Special Forces

 

Handling Emergencies or Crisis Situations 

• Reacting with appropriate urgency in 

reatening, dangerous, or emergency 

tuations. 

eacting approp

Learning Work Tasks, Technologies, & 

Procedures 

• Demonstrating enthusiasm for learning 

new approaches for conducting work. 

th

si

• R riately in emergency 

situations, quickly analyzing options for 

im

• M decisions based on 

clea ng. 

ke

• S

da

dealing with danger or crises and their 

plications.

aking split second

r and focused thinki

• Maintaining emotional control and 

objectivity during emergencies while 

eping focused on the situation at hand. 

tepping up to take action and handle 

nger or emergencies as appropriate. 

m

and the detachment medic was mortally 

T nsured 

hi

evacuation was requested. The wounded 

he

po

• D

U

T

18

used an indigenous Soldier’s T-shirt to 

th

• Doing whatever is necessary to keep 

knowledge and skills current in a rapidly

methods, or how to perform previously 

unlearned tasks and adjusting to new 

epare self for these changes.

changing environment. 

• Quickly and proficiently learning new 

work processes and procedures. 

• Anticipating changes in the work 

demands and searching for and 

participating in assignments or training 

that will pr

• Taking action to improve work 

performance deficiencies. 

the team leader could not speak 

the language. This team leader made no

capabilities, even though he was in an 

ideal learning environment where many 

team leader. 

fit

him. He realized he was not trained on 

the radio equipment at the team level, nor 

ting

equipment, identified equipment he was 

not familiar with, and asked for and then 

equipment he was not familiar with. He 

became familiar with all team radio 

• En route to a meeting in a small village, 

one of the detachment vehicles struck a 

ine. Two men were seriously injured 

• The HN post commander curtailed routine 

communications with the SF team leader 

because

wounded. The team sergeant was initially 

stunned and disoriented due to his injury. 

his detachment commander e

attempt to improve his language 

that medical treatment was initiated, and

that communication was established with

gher headquarters, and that medical

would have volunteered to help him. The

HN personnel tactfully ostracized the 

• An 18E right out of the Q-course was 

assigned to an A-team without the bene

of a senior commo sergeant to mentor 

Soldiers were quickly stabilized and 

licopters were on their way as soon as

ssible. 

uring OCONUS (Outside Continental

S) military operations in urban terrain

(MOUT) training, this 18B saw an 

explosion in an indigenousSoldier’s hand. 

he 18D was on another range and this 

B did not have any bandages. This 18B 

was he familiar with the base opera

procedures for the battalion. On his own, 

this 18E inventoried team radio 

stop the bleeding. The bleeding was 

stopped until the 18D arrived to suture 

e wound and treat it for infection. 

received classes on all radios and 

equipment, all company and battalion 

radio procedures, and all SOPs. 

A-1
 Handling Work Stress

emaining composed and cool when

ced with difficult circum

• R

fa stances or a 

si

• M

ef

blaming others. 

of professionalism in stressful 

cir s.

th

highly demanding workload/schedule. 

• Not overreacting to unexpected news or 

tuations. 

anaging frustration well by directing 

fort to constructive solutions and not 

• Demonstrating resilience and high levels

cumstance

• Acting as a calming and settling influence 

at others look to for guidance.

• While assigned as the senior US advisor 

to a host nation battalion on a border 

screen mission, this SF officer was told 

the unit was under attack. The host nation 

battalion commander panicked and was 

ready to evacuate the area of operations. 

This SF individual lit a cigarette, asked for 

a cup of coffee, and sat down. After 

making a humorous remark to a host 

nation officer, this officer methodically 

questioned the host nation staff to 

ascertain the exact situation. Addressing

US Soldiers present, he calmly issued

instructions to prepare ODA reaction

forces and an ODA level of base security. 

Observing the SF officer’s leadership 

style, the host nation battalion 

commander began issuing 

complementary orders to his staff. The 

battalion responded efficiently to the 

limited attack and maintained its position

on the border. 

• During a vehicle movement on a major 

highway in a host nation, a group of SF 

Soldiers came upon an accident scene;

two regular Army medics were upset, 

running around and alarming the victims. 

This SF medic assigned onlookers to be

litter bearers, splinted the fractures, 

initiated IVs and talked to victims and 

onlookers to calm them down. The host 

nation troops felt confident in the SF 

medic’s abilities. 

cooperative when dealing with others. 

developmental feedback regarding work. 

•

personalities.

• Demonstrating keen insight of others’ 

Demonstrating Interpersonal Adaptability

• Being flexible, open-minded and 

• Listening to and considering others’ 

viewpoints and opinions, and altering own 

opinion when it is appropriate to do so. 

• Being open and accepting of negative or 

Working well and developing effective 

relationships with highly diverse 

behavior and tailoring own behavior to 

persuade, influence, or work more 

effectively with them. 

• A composite team was p

deployment to Africa; th

reparing for 

is new team

leader who had just graduated from the 

Q-course was placed in charge of the 

core team. This team leader did not ask 

for help from the experienced 180A on 

the team, was threatened by criticism,

and voiced his anger once by shouting 

and raving in front of HN personnel. 

• This junior NCO was given duties as a 

team sergeant even though another 

member of the team outranked him. This 

junior NCO used the input of the senior

NCO at all times. The senior NCO felt his 

opinions were important and the team’s

morale remained intact.

A-2
Solving Problems Creatively

• Employing unique analyses, and 

generating new, innovative ideas in 

e

• Integrating seemingly unrelated 

•

iss, thinking outside the 

complex areas. 

• Turning problems upside down and insid

out to find fresh, new approaches. 

information and developing highly 

creative solutions. 

Entertaining wide ranging possibilities 

others may m

given parameters to see if there’s a more

effective approach. 

• Developing innovative methods of 

obtaining or utilizing resources when 

insufficient resources are available to do

the job. 

• The ODA was short of food and still a few 

days away from exfil. With the food 

supply low, this 18E ran an antenna lead

•

l hundred thousand dollars 

e 

e,

• Taking action to learn about and 

understand the climate, orientation, 

s, or cultures. 

•

ry to comply with

•

in

oups,

to a nearby tree noted to harbor a hefty 

squirrel population. He placed a small 

amount of peanut butter on the wire to 

attract the squirrels’ attention, then keyed 

the transmitter and shocked the squirrels 

when they had the peanut butter in their 

mouths, stunning them long enough to 

have someone hastily retrieve the 

squirrels. The ODA was able to have 

sufficient food for a couple of extra days.

An SF ODA was tasked with teaching a 

foreign SF unit technical mountain 

climbing skills. Although the US SF team

had severa

worth of high speed equipment, they 

knew the other SF team would never se

such equipment. This SFSoldier taught 

the foreign students using cheap, 

fabricated equipment such as large nuts 

and bolts on ropes as pieces for 

protection. The fabricated equipment was 

cheap, easy to obtain, and very effectiv

making the technical mountain climbing

techniques applicable to these foreign 

students. 

Displaying Cultural Adaptability

needs, values, etc. of other groups, 

organization

• Integrating well and being comfortable 

with different values, customs and 

cultures. 

Willingly adjusting behavior or 

appearance as necessa

or show respect for others’ values and

customs.

Understanding the implications of one’s

actions and taking steps to mainta

positive relationships with other gr

organizations, or cultures. 

• rgeant was 

told to meet with the indigenous colonel at 

0530. This team sergeant, upon arriving 

el 

• s to 

rsonnel in a country where 

-

s 

While in Africa, this team se

at the colonel’s tent, was informed that it 

was the host nation’s tradition that the 

eldest in the village eat goat’s eyes; the 

team sergeant was the oldest and was to 

receive this great honor. This team

sergeant ate the goat’s eyes. The colon

was pleased and impressed as he knew

this was not something Americans usually

ate, particularly before coffee. 

An SF team was tasked to give classe

indigenous pe

the leadership did not like to associate 

with the enlisted personnel. The team

had to decide what to teach and who to 

train. This 17C explained to an English

speaking officer that the enlisted team

members actually did the teaching, but 

that they could work something out. He

met with the officer separately to 

determine classes to teach, times, 

numbers, etc. The host nation officer wa

able to save face and the Soldiers 

learned the necessary skills. 

A-3
Dealing Effectively with Unpredictable or 

•

or 

• easily changing gears in 

• ing plans, goals, actions, 

dynamic situations. 

• Not needing things to be black or white, 

and refusing to be paralyzed by 

uncertainty. 

Changing Work Situations

Taking effective action when necessary

without having to know the total picture

have all the facts at hand.

Readily and

response to unexpected events and 

circumstances.

Effectively adjust

or priorities to deal with changing 

situations, and doing whatever is

necessary to get the job done. 

• Imposing structure for self and others that 

provides as much focus as possible in 

•

nd

en 

• -

t

ps were in the field of fire. 

d in 

•

, etc.

•

.

A platoon-type raid was planned to 

snatch a prisoner. The plan called for a 

large force to hit the objective and grab

the prisoner under cover of darkness. The 

enemy force size was unknown, but was 

thought to be squad +. This

reconnaissance team leader set up his

surveillance team at the objective a

saw that the prisoner had been brought

out with only two guards far from the 

camp. This team leader decided to 

rescue the prisoner there and then. The 

prisoner was rescued; this mission would 

probably have failed if it had be

executed as planned. 

During an actual combat mission, the UH

ID was receiving heavy ground fire. I

was relayed to the air crew that friendly 

indigenous troo

The order was given to the gunner to 

ignore this and provide fire. This 18B 

heard the order and asked for it to be 

repeated to be sure that he was in fact

being told to fire on friendly troops. This

18B shifted his fire in the mean time so 

that it affected no one. The order ha

fact been a mistake. 

Demonstrating Physically Oriented 

Adaptability

Adjusting to tough environmental states

such as extreme heat, humidity, cold

Frequently pushing self physically to 

complete strenuous or demanding tasks

• Adjusting weight/muscular strength or 

becoming proficient in performing 

physical tasks as necessary for the job.

•

ix 

i

•

ysically climb a 

training platform without aid. He knew 

basic mountain climbing techniques but 

he was physically unprepared. He 

modified his PT program to improve his 

physical condition and didn’t quit. On the 

next mountain training exercise, he easily

climbed and maneuvered around the 

training platform.

An SF team spent two to three hours a

day preparing for its high alpine ski trip 

with foreign troops that trained in that 

environment all the time. This SF 

individual prepared by spending the 

previous two months running four to s

miles a day on mountain trails, doing sk

exercises, swimming, and doing 

ruckmarches. Even though the trip was 

extremely physically demanding, this 

individual sustained no injuries. 

During team mountain training, an SF 

Soldier was unable to ph

A-4
Appendix B: Self Development Tool Example 

ur Adapt

Step 1. Use the check boxes on the next page to id

Identifying yo ability Strengths 

entify your strengths.

• First, consider the feedback you have received on personality or other tests. In the Tests 

tests have i , if

Confidence, y

h d?” in the mn. 

• ived

from Others co

others have indicated are your strengths. (These m things you 

checked under the Tests column.) For example, if your peers tell you that you are great at 

getting into other people’s heads, you might place a check next to “Do I effectively read 

others well?” in the Feedback from Others column. 

• rself ba

ex mn, check

believe are your strengths. (Again, these may or m in

th , if you know you are always eager and willing to learn 

about new people and cultures, place a check next t ple

an umn. 

• L identify tw

st ties that have

al

Ste romi

co oxes next to what

you scored high on a measure of Selfave confidence in my abilities to succee

lumn, check the b ndicated are your strengths. For example

ou might place a check next to “Do I

Tests colu

Second, consider the feedback you have rece

subordinates, etc.). In the Feedback

from others (e.g., peers, commanders, 

lumn, check the boxes next to what 

ay or may not be the same

Third, consider what you know about you

perience. In the Self-Knowledge colu

e other two columns). For example

d cultures?” in the Self Knowledge col

ook at the checks you made above and

rengths. These are usually the activi

ways.

sed on your past performance and 

the boxes next to activities that you

ay not be the same things you checked

o “Do I keep an open mind to new peo

o or three of your most prominent 

the most checks next to them, but not 

p 2. Determine how to best use your most p nent strengths on the job.

your advantage in on the job.

th my plan. This will show the other m

• Describe how you could best use your strengths to

• Example: I am very good at critiquing my own thoughts and behaviors. As a leader, I can 

use this to set an example for my team. When deciding on a course of action, I will involve 

o may be wrong wi en

on the team the good that can come from monitoring what you are doing and carefully 

th

thers in a discussion about what

inking things through.

B-1
B-2

Identifying your Adaptability S engths tr

Do I ... Tests FB from Others Self- Knowledge 

Î 2

P

 to 3 

romi

Streng

Most 

nent 

ths 

Î 

• Maintain a go

my surroundi

od awareness of 

ngs? 

   1. 

• Have a high leve

in my abilities to 

l of confidence 

succeed? 

  

• Take a critical ey

own thoughts an

e toward my 

d actions? 

  

•

and suggestions? Keep an open mind to new ideas    2.

• Keep an open mind to new 

people and cultures? 

  

• Effectively “read” others?   • Stay calm and focused under 

pressure? 

  

• Adjust my plans to the 

environment as necessary? 

  

• Make the right decisions for the 

environment I’m in? 

   3.

• Come up with creative solutions 

to problems? 

  
B-3

lity Development Needs 

Step 1. Use the check boxes belo

Identifying your Adaptabi

w to identify your weaknesses. 

• Follow the same procedures as you did for the Strengths section above, except concentrate on 

those activities you perform less well – those that could be considered your weaknesses. 

Step esses. 

• Look at the checks you made and identify your most prominent weaknesses. These are 

usually the activities that have the most checks next to them, but not always. 

 2. Develop a plan to best address your most prominent weakn

•

•

ue method I typically use. As a leader, I 

f doing 

•

•

Describe how you plan to address each of your development needs to make you more 

successful on the job. 

Example: I’m not very open to new ideas. I will work on this by making a conscious effort to 

think of at least one alternative for every tried and tr

will identify someone on my team who is especially skilled at developing new ways o

things, and I will leverage his skills when my usual way of doing something doesn’t work.

Be specific. 

Choose challenging plans of action -- but be realistic. 
B-4

Identifying your Adaptability Development Needs 

Do I ... Tests FB from Others Self- K

Î

W nowledge 

2 to 3 

eaknesses 

Î 

• Fail to maintain a good 

awareness of my surroundings?

   1. 

• Have low confidence in my 

abilities to succeed? 

  

• Fail to take a critical eye towar

my own thoughts and actions?

d   

• Fail to keep an open mind to new 

ideas and suggestions? 

   2.

• Fail to keep an open mind to

people and cultures? 

 new   

• Do a poor job of “reading” others?   • Become agitated and unfocus

under pressure? 

ed   

• Fail to adjust my plans t

environment as necessary? 

o the   

• Make the decisions that don’t fit 

the environment I’m in? 

   3.

• Fail to come up with creative 

solutions to problems? 

  
B-5

Adaptability Development Needs 

This section provides some general guidelines for addressing your adaptability weaknesses or 

v

each characteristic. Ho

to g

Kee le to overcome 

every weakness you have. There may be some that you need to figure out how to manage 

development needs below. 

Tips for Managing Your 

de elopment needs. Several general tips are offered, followed by specific ideas for improving in 

wever, these lists don’t contain every possible idea, and you might want 

et additional ideas from your supervisor or mentor. 

p in mind that self-development is rarely quick or easy, and you may not be ab

around. Therefore, you’ll find suggestions for both “working on” and “working around” your 

Ge eral Tips n

Continue to practice and get feedback. For any new skill that you are learning: practice 

the skill, seek feedback on your performance, adjust your behavior based on this feedback, 

and repeat. This is an ongoing process – continue to practice, seek feedback, adjust your 

•

e more. 

an for your learning activities. 

Use goals and timelines to measure your progress. 

• Create a “help” system. This is the same idea as the help function on a computer; you don’t 

need to know everything about a program if you can use the help screen. For a weakness, a 

help system can enhance your skills in a given area. The system might include: 

• Cheat sheets.

behavior, and practice som

• Put your plans in writing. Develop a concrete, written pl

 For example, if you have difficulty with negotiations, develop a short list of 

the key points you want to get across in these situations. Memorize the list and practice 

communicating these key points. Then, when faced with an actual negotiation situation, at 

least you will be prepared to deliver your key points. 

• Checklists. Similar to a cheat sheet, a checklist can help remind you to do or consider things 

that you ordinarily forget. 

• Use your strengths to overcome your weaknesses. This is another way of helping yourself, 

where the help comes from one of your strengths. For example, if problem solving is one of 

your strong points, but you don’t work well under pressure, you may want to search for 

solutions that reduce the amount of pressure you are under. 

• Build on the strengths of others. In the SF environment, most of your work will be done in 

a team setting. Your team members have been carefully selected and trained, and many of 

them will have years of knowledge and experience that you won’t have yet. Capitalizing on 

this knowledge and experience will not only help the mission, it will raise the morale of your 

team by letting your men do what they do best - while you learn from them. 
Specific Tips

Maintaining Awareness 

• Pay close attention to your surroundings – including your social surroundings. 

Periodically sit down and talk with a friend or coworker about the important 

characteristics of the environment you’re operating in. See what he/she picks up on 

that you might have missed and vice-versa. 

• Talk with an expert decision maker th

nvironment he/she considers when m ons. Are these th

ame ones that you would consider? Talk through any differences. 

onsid some recent decisions you have made that have not turned out as well as 

ou had hoped. Did they not work because you failed to consider important aspects 

f the environment in making them? Don’t forget that the social/political

nvironm you work in is also important. 

at you know about what factors in the 

e aking cer

s

• C

y

o

e

tain types of decisi e 

er

ent

Self-Confidence 

• P

s

fi

• L

in

c

w

• E

li

T

fe

w

w

ep t – merely telling people they are capable of doing something increases their 

elf-c fidence for that task. You can of course, do this for yourself, and/or you can 

nd a mentor who is willing to give you positive encouragement. 

earn f er at g a ce l ro o s l o h

crease elf-confidence. The process is along the lines of “If he can do it, so 

an I!” Fi thers who are successful in the area where you want to excel, and 

atch w y do.

xperie uc – y ave ce lly ted ew k, you are 

kely t ore confident in your ability to do it successfully again in the future. 

he flip of this is that experience with failure with a new task may make you 

el less iden o, ey s wi sk ow c an n

ork up ore and more difficult ones. After experiencing several successes, you

ill be better prepared to overcome obstacle th ture. 

alks

on

rom oth

your s

nd o

s – w chin suc ssfu le m del that i ike y u can elp

hat the

ncing s

o feel m

cess once ou h suc ssfu comple a n tas

side

conf

to m

t. S the k is to tart th ta s you kn you an h dle a d

s in e fu

B-6
Criticizing Yourself 

• Ask someone you trust to critique your decision making and problem solving 

abilities. Carefully consider their feedback and come up with a list of questions to 

ask yourself that will help you avoid problems they identify. (Did I question all of 

my assumptions? Do I have all of the information I can get?) Ask yourself these 

questions before finalizing important decisions. 

• Create a regular time for reflection (such as the drive in to work) and take stock of 

recent actions you have taken/decisions you have made. What has gone well? 

Why? What has not gone well? Do you have ideas about why? This sort of 

reflection will help you get into the habit of monitoring and critiquing yourself. 

Openness New Ideas/Openness to New People and Cultures/“Reading” Others Well 

•

. Listen carefully to these alternatives and see 

• week who has a different

•

•

d motives. 

 creatively, call on these individuals for ideas and learn 

•

ate. If you are not sure

•

Bounce your ideas off other people and see if they have similar viewpoints or if they 

can offer you different suggestions

how they are similar or different from your ideas.

Make a point of talking with one new person each

background than you to gain a better understanding of his or her beliefs, values, and 

culture. 

Make of point of doing one new thing each week (e.g., eating a different kind of

food, going to a new place, etc.). 

Read books or articles by people with an opposing view from your own (e.g., if you 

are a Republican, read some Democrat opinion pieces). As you read, try to think 

about and understand the person’s beliefs, values, an

• Identify individuals on your team who are especially skilled in this area. When the 

situation requires thinking

from them as well. 

Rather than treating all your subordinates the same, learn what works best with each 

one and treat them accordingly. For example, some people like to be praised in 

front of others while others prefer that praise be given in priv

what works best, ask. 

In negotiations, ask questions to try and understand the other person’s needs and 

motives. Use this information to make your own ideas more acceptable to the 

individual. 

B-7
Staying Calm Under Pressure 

• Practice making decisions quickly and under pressure. If you have trouble thinking 

d

until

• e. Then, go back 

d

make you more 

•

iate these

xample, you might concentrate on

taking deep breaths as a calming mechanism.

when things are noisy and chaotic, try making decisions while you’re in noisy an

chaotic locations like a crowded restaurant or a busy airport. Keep doing this

you learn to tune out the distractions. 

Practice making your decisions quickly, even when you have tim

and carefully consider the information you have and what decision you shoul

make. Compare your final decision to the one you made quickly and see how they 

differ. This should help you get better at making fast decisions and

comfortable operating under pressure. 

Learn to recognize the physical cues that indicate that you are losing control (fast 

breathing, elevated heart rate, etc.). Practice techniques that will help allev

symptoms and will help calm you down. For e

Adjusting Plans/Making Decisions/Solving Problems

• Wargame potential courses of action by asking “what if” to help you develop 

contingency plans. This will prepare you for adjusting your plans when necessary. 

• When faced with a new or difficult problem, find out what others have done to solve 

• s. 

• y continually reading challenging books, solving puzzles, etc. 

similar problems. 

Use the collective knowledge of your team to solve particularly difficult problem

Stay mentally active b

B-8
List of Tables and Figures for 508 Compliance 

Figure 1. Trainability Continuum Related to Adaptability. (Page 8) 

T is ainable" on

th d.

Und ce,

ope ht side

are . Skills

such ls are in the middle.

Tab Leadership

Cou ee and a half

day Special

orces Qualification Course. In consists of four basic modules: Introduction and 

verview, Mental Adaptability, Interpersonal Adaptability, and Leading an Adaptable 

eam.

Tab C

(pag would

u e e

it m ly

iden e entered

into a database and summarized to produce a report summarizing the student's 

p f

Table 3. Examples of 360-Degree Feedback and Climate Surveys at a U.S. Army 

Com nd

c perations

Command. These instruments help to identify organization and unit-level training and 

d e help

drive back

syst -point rating scale.

 

T scribes

a pe rch

Insti rations Soliders. Six attributes are described: achievement 

o n ills –

te m t

scor

Figure 2. Portfolio Development Process (page 22). This figure uses boxes and arrows 

t h ivities,

which affects subsequent planning and reflection. This then feeds back to context and 

lessons learned. 

for Characteristics

h figure shows a horizontal line with the phrase "Stable Attributes, less tr

e left end and the phrase "Malleable Attributes, more trainable" on the right en

er the arrow on the left side are listed the following: cognitive ability/intelligen

nness, resiliency, tolerance for ambiguity, achievement motivation. On the rig

listed the following: domain-specific knowledge, varied adaptive experience

as problem solving and communication skil

le 1. Adaptability in the Classroom: The SF Officer Adaptive Thinking and

rse (O-ATL) (page 13). This table describes the O-ATL course as a thr

classroom-based course designed to teach adaptability-related skills in the

F

O

T

le 2. An Example of Feedback Systems for Leader Development in the SFQ

e 14). This table shows some of the checklist items that trained assessors

s to track student performance in the Special Forces Qualification Course. Thes

e s are things such as, Did the student arrive on time? Did the student accurate

tify his contact? The table describes how a large number of these items ar

er ormance.

mand (page 18). This table describes a number of multi-rater feedback a

ommand climate surveys that have been used within the U.S. Army Special O

ev lopment needs, create a baseline with which to measure future progress, and

organizational change and development. The items in the multi-rater feed

em are described as behaviorally focused and based on a 6

able 4. Test of Adaptable Personality (TAP) (Kilcullen) (page 20). This table de

rsonality-based measure of adaptability developed by the U.S. Army Resea

tute for special ope

rie tation, cognitive flexibility, fitness motivation, peer leadership, interpersonal sk

a player, and interpersonal skills – diplomatic. Several studies have shown tha

es on this test predict on-the-job performance in a variety of settings. 

o s ow that the leader draws from lessons learned to drive developmental act