REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE

1. REPORT DATE (dd-mm-yy)

June 2001 

2. REPORT TYPE

Final 

3. DATES COVERED (from. . . to)

November 1999 - October 2000

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER

Cognitive Psychology Principles for Digital Systems Training

5b. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER

0602785A

5c. PROJECT NUMBER

A790

6. AUTHOR(S)

William R. Sanders (U.S. Army Research Institute)

5d. TASK NUMBER

211

5e. WORK UNIT NUMBER

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

ATTN: TAPC-ARI-IK

2423 Morande Street

Fort Knox, KY 40121

8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER

10. MONITOR ACRONYM

ARI

9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

ATTN: TAPC-ARI-IK

5001 Eisenhower Avenue

Alexandria, VA 22333-5600

11. MONITOR REPORT NUMBER

Research Report 1773

12. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

14. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words): 

As the Army transitions to modern digital technology it faces a major challenge in designing computer-implemented training to

support the acquisition, retention, and transfer of skills required to operate these systems. This report describes principles of

cognitive psychology and related training techniques that can be incorporated into the design of computer-implemented training. 

While modern computers and the Internet offer technically advanced capabilities, the training potential of these systems comes 

from their ability to vary instructional methods and media systematically according to the cognitive demands of the tasks to be

trained. The research described in this report builds on previous ARI skill retention research accomplished with the Army's

Inter-Vehicular Information System (IVIS), where it was noted that a number of cognitive psychology principles might be

applied to modify training to enhance skill retention. The products of this research are a set of cognitive psychology principles 

and related training techniques summarized in tabular form, and an outline for a training program structure. Examples of

prototype training materials demonstrating the implementation of the cognitive training techniques are provided. 

15. SUBJECT TERMS

C4I Training Cognitive Training Techniques FBCB2 Training Computer-Based Instruction

Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below Digital Skills Training Computer-Implemented Training

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF

16. REPORT

Unclassified

17. ABSTRACT

Unclassified

18. THIS PAGE

Unclassified

19. LIMITATION OF 

ABSTRACT

Unlimited

20. NUMBER

OF PAGES

38

21. RESPONSIBLE PERSON

(Name and Telephone Number)

Dr. James W. Lussier

DSN 464-2613

iii
Research Report 1773 

 Cognitive Psychology Principles 

for Digital Systems Training 

William R. Sanders

U.S. Army Research Institute 

Armored Forces Research Unit

Barbara A. Black, Chief 

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences 

5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333-5600 

May 2001 

Army Project Number Personnel Performance and 

20262785A790 Training Technology 

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited

iii
iv
FOREWORD

The Future Battlefield Conditions (FBC) Team of the Armored Forces Research Unit 

(AFRU), U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI) has a work

package (211) FUTURETRAIN: Techniques and Tools for Command, Control, 

Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) Training

of Future Brigade Combat Team Commanders and Staffs. Recent work under this work package 

has involved research and development concerning training for digital staffs. 

 This report identifies training program techniques based on principles of cognitive

psychology that could be incorporated into Computer-Implemented Training (CIT) modules to 

enhance the acquisition, retention, and transfer of future digital Command, Control, 

Communications, Computers, and Intelligence (C4I) system commander and staff skills. The

research represents a logical extension and continuation of previous ARI skill retention research

accomplished with the Army's Inter-Vehicular Information System (IVIS), where it was noted 

that theories of learning might be applied to modify training to enhance skill retention. The 

present work identifies opportunities to apply principles of cognitive psychology in developing

prototype CIT modules for the Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2) digital 

information system. 

The information provided in this report is valuable to the U.S. Army Armor School 

(USAARMS) and other organizations involved in developing CIT for soldiers and leaders. The 

cognitive psychology principles for digital information system training design identified in this 

report are applicable to a wide range of current and future systems. The results of this research 

were briefed to representatives of the USAARMS, Directorate of Training and Doctrine 

Development, and other Fort Knox agencies during an In-Process Review on 

1 February 2001. 

 

 ZITA M. SIMUTIS 

 Technical Director 

v
 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES FOR DIGITAL SYSTEMS TRAINING 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY_________________________________________________

Research Requirement:

 As the Army transitions to new digital technologies, it faces a major challenge in 

developing integrated training programs that support the acquisition and retention of the skills 

required to exploit the capabilities of these systems. The goal of the present research effort is to 

identify training program techniques based on principles of cognitive psychology that can be

incorporated into Computer-Implemented Training (CIT) modules. Incorporation of these 

techniques can enhance the acquisition, retention, and transfer of future digital Command, 

Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence (C4I) system skills. 

Procedure: 

A literature review was conducted to identify key cognitive psychology principles that 

support the acquisition, retention, and transfer of skills. The product of this literature review was 

a preliminary set of cognitive psychology principles and related training techniques applicable to 

digital skills training. A representative Army digital C4I system was identified that could be

used to identify task skill requirements. Software for the Force XXI Battle Command Brigade

and Below (FBCB2) digital information system was obtained and loaded onto computers 

provided by the Fort Knox Mounted Maneuver Battlespace Lab (MMBL). A hands-on walkthrough of selected FBCB2 tasks was conducted to refine the description of cognitive training

techniques that can be incorporated into CIT modules for digital C4I systems. 

Findings: 

The products of this research are a set of cognitive psychology principles and related 

training techniques summarized in tabular form, and an outline for a training program structure. 

The tabled principles and techniques can be easily reviewed and discussed by training developers 

to facilitate training design. The products generated in this research should be useful for training

developers in designing CIT for the FBCB2 system, and for a broad range of current and future

digital C4I systems. 

Utilization of Findings: 

 

The products and findings generated in this research should be directly applicable to 

Army efforts to develop CIT for the FBCB2 system, and for other current and future digital C4I

systems. In a parallel contract effort, the summary tables of cognitive principles and training

techniques developed in this research were used to develop prototype CIT modules for four 

FBCB2 tasks. These prototype training modules serve to demonstrate how the principles and 

techniques identified in the present research can be utilized in real world training development 

applications. 

vi
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES FOR DIGITAL SYSTEMS TRAINING 

CONTENTS___________________________________________________________________ 

 Page

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1 

 Requirement................................................................................................................... 1 

 Digital Task Environment.............................................................................................. 1 

 Cognitive Principles for Training .................................................................................. 2 

 Automated Performance Assessment and Feedback ..................................................... 2 

 Research Hypotheses..................................................................................................... 3 

 Research Approach ........................................................................................................ 3 

 Report Organization....................................................................................................... 3 

SELECTING TASKS FOR TRAINING TECHNIQUES IDENTIFICATION........................ 4 

 An Exemplar Digital Information System..................................................................... 4 

 Task Knowledge and Training Method Taxonomy....................................................... 5 

 Task Analysis................................................................................................................. 5 

 FBCB2 Tasks Selected .................................................................................................. 6 

 

LEARNING PRINCIPLES FOR TRAINING DESIGN........................................................... 7 

 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 7 

 Behaviorist Learning Principles and Techniques .......................................................... 7 

 Cognitive Learning Principles and Techniques............................................................. 9 

 Constructivist Learning Principles and Techniques ...................................................... 13 

 Summary of Learning Principles and Training Techniques.......................................... 17 

 Outline for a Training Module Structure ....................................................................... 17 

PROTOTYPE TRAINING MODULES.................................................................................... 17 

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION............................................................................................. 19 

 Summary......................................................................................................................... 19 

 Research Hypotheses...................................................................................................... 19 

 Evaluating Training Effectiveness.................................................................................. 21 

 Future Research Directions............................................................................................. 21 

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 23 

vii
CONTENTS (Continued)_________________________________________________________

 

 Page

APPENDIX A. List of Acronyms......................................................................................... A-1 

 B. Outline Of Screens for Essential Training Program Functions................... B-1 

 C. Demonstration Mode Video Screen ............................................................ C-1 

 D. Student Subject Matter Review Screen....................................................... D-1 

 E. Subject Matter Quiz Screen......................................................................... E-1 

 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1. Taxonomy of Task Knowledge Type and Training Approach ................................... 5 

 2. Behaviorist Principles and Related Training Techniques........................................... 8 

 3. Cognitive Principles and Related Training Techniques.............................................. 11 

 4. Cognitive Strategies and Related Training Techniques.............................................. 12 

 5. Constructivist Principles and Related Training Techniques....................................... 15 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1. FBCB2 Screen showing map area and navigation menu .......................................... 4 

 2. Prototype FBCB2 training screen .............................................................................. 18 

viii
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES FOR DIGITAL SYSTEMS TRAINING 

Introduction 

Requirement 

As the Army transitions to new digital technologies, it faces a major challenge in 

developing integrated training programs that support the acquisition and retention of the skills 

required to exploit the capabilities of these systems. Recent research documented concerns over 

the retention of digital procedural skills required to operate an Army digital communications 

system (Sanders, 1999). In that research, results showed a 52 percent reduction in the number of 

soldiers able to complete basic operator tasks 30 days after instruction. The need exists to 

integrate sound principles of cognitive psychology and instructional design into training

development in an effort to enhance digital skill acquisition and retention. Modern digital 

Command, Control, Communications, Computers and Intelligence (C4I) systems tasks can be 

characterized as relatively dynamic with frequent changes introduced through computer

hardware and software upgrades. The dynamic nature of digital C4I tasks thus requires the 

development of training programs that can efficiently adapt over time to evolving training

demands. 

The goal of the present research effort was to identify principles of cognitive psychology

that could be incorporated as training techniques into Computer-Implemented Training (CIT) 

modules to enhance the acquisition, retention, and transfer of future digital C4I system battalion 

commander and staff skills. This research provided guidance and support to a parallel contract 

effort to design, develop, and demonstrate prototype training modules for the Force XXI Battle 

Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2) digital information system (Deatz & Cobb [in 

preparation]). 

Digital Task Environment 

 The U. S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI) has 

studied the retention of knowledge and skills for over three decades, and has identified 

instructional strategies to enhance the retention of skills (Wisher, Sabol, & Ellis, 1999). 

Recently, Moses (2000) has identified training challenges associated with the new generation of 

digital systems to include: 

- Frequent upgrades in digital system hardware and software limit learning of skills to 

mastery levels and place great demands on refresher training. 

- The volume of ambiguous data, along with smaller operational units and novel 

situations, require methods for training junior and mid-level soldiers to be flexible and adaptive.

- Training time and resource limitations demand that training of digital procedures and 

skills including back-up and work-around skills -- are integrated into training of tactics, 

techniques, and procedures. 

- Future operations call for widely dispersed soldiers linked through electronic networks 

to perform as digital teams with new training demands. 

1
Cognitive Principles for Training 

Cognitive psychology learning paradigms include learning theories which consider the

nature of individual learning as well as how knowledge is constructed in social situations, and 

include behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. For behaviorism, learning reflects a new 

behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic, while cognitivism views learning

in terms of the thought process behind the behavior. Constructivism is distinguished by its 

premise that learners construct their own perspective of the world, based on individual 

experiences and schema (Wilhelmsen, Asmul, & Meistad, 1998). The review of theories of 

learning can provide the basis for identifying theory-driven technology-based approaches to 

meeting training requirements (Lajoie, 2000). One of the great contributions of cognitive 

psychology has been in providing a typology of different kinds of knowledge that are used in the 

conduct of intelligent activity (Samarapungavan, Beishuizen, Brazier, & Sanders, 1993). 

Taxonomies might be identified for separating digital C4I tasks into categories of like tasks for

the selective application of training techniques. Following a cognitive psychology approach, 

training development for digital C4I tasks would begin with an assessment of the cognitive

demands of the specific tasks to be trained. Instructional techniques tailored to meet these task 

demands would then be identified. 

 

With the rapid advance of computer hardware and software capabilities, a great deal of

effort is being devoted to the development of CIT to replace or supplement the traditional 

exposition-application classroom lecture education, and to provide an economical source of 

sustainment training. Researchers caution us, however, that the training potential of emerging

technologies stems not simply from technologically advanced capabilities, but from the ability to 

vary instructional methods and media systematically according to the cognitive demands of

learning tasks (Hooper & Hannafin, 1991). While advances in computer technology have led to 

the large scale introduction of multimedia digital skills training applications, examples of recent 

digital C4I training systems, even those delivered over the Internet, suggest that much of training

has not advanced far beyond computerized "page-turner" training techniques (Program Manager 

FBCB2, 2000). 

Recent research examining staff training methods for future forces has recommended the 

incorporation of instructional principles drawn from cognitive psychology in training design and 

the expanded application of embedded training to the battalion and brigade staff (Deatz, Greene, 

Holden, Throne, & Lickteig, 2000). Here, the authors have called for the incorporation of 

cognitive training techniques such as advance organizers, part-task training, deliberate practice, 

and context-based training to support future staff training needs. 

Automated Performance Assessment and Feedback 

 

While the introduction of digital systems may have led to increased training demands, 

these systems also offer great potential as hosts for training program features to address training

needs, particularly with regard to capabilities for automated performance assessment and 

performance feedback. One goal of the present research was to identify opportunities to 

incorporate automated performance and assessment into digital C4I system training. Examples 

2
of levels of digital C4I task performance criteria have been identified (Sanders, 1999) that could 

be used to assess operator procedural task training program change requirements. The prototype 

Armor Captains’ Career Course - Distance Learning (AC3-DL) program (U.S. Army Armor 

School, 2000a) provides an example of how training program techniques based on cognitive 

psychology can be incorporated into computer-based distance learning. While the AC3-DL

training does not address digital procedural skills, it does provide examples of techniques for

incorporating automated and instructor-assisted performance assessment and feedback in

asynchronous self-paced training, and synchronous collective training in virtual and constructive 

environments provided as distance learning over the Internet (U.S. Army Armor School, 2000b). 

Research Hypotheses 

Having addressed the need for incorporating cognitive psychology principles in training

design, and the importance of considering automated performance assessment and feedback in

training development, several research hypotheses can be identified for the present research. The 

success of the research effort reported in this document can be measured in part by addressing

each of the following research hypotheses:

1. A taxonomy can be identified for separating digital C4I tasks into categories of like 

tasks for the selective application of training techniques. 

 2. Cognitive principles for optimizing the acquisition, retention, and transfer of skill can 

be translated into digital C4I system prototype training techniques. 

3. Automated performance assessment and feedback training program techniques can be 

identified that support the acquisition, retention, and transfer of operator skills. 

Research Approach 

The research effort began with the identification of a representative digital C4I system

that could be used to design, develop, and demonstrate prototype training techniques. Three 

linked workstations running the C4I software were set up to examine tasks in detail. A literature 

review was initiated to identify key cognitive psychology principles that support the acquisition, 

retention, and transfer of skills. The literature review results were summarized in table form and 

used in discussions with subject matter experts to identify specific techniques that could be 

incorporated into prototype digital C4I training. Prototype training modules for four digital C4I

tasks were produced, and opportunities to incorporate automated performance assessment and 

feedback were identified. 

Report Organization 

 

This report first describes the digital C4I system selected for training techniques 

development. Next, the approach used for selecting representative C4I tasks is presented. A 

description of key cognitive principles and techniques supporting training design follows. 

Cognitive principles and training techniques are presented in table form, and annotated to 

indicate ways in which the techniques could be incorporated into C4I system prototype task 

training. Examples of prototype training which demonstrate the integration of the cognitive

3
psychology principles are presented, followed by a discussion of the present research effort and 

future directions. 

Selecting Tasks for Training Techniques Identification 

An Exemplar Digital Information System 

The FBCB2 system was selected for the purpose of identifying and documenting

cognitive training techniques applicable to a representative Army digital information system. 

The FBCB2 is a digital battle command information system for leaders and soldiers within the

mounted brigade across all battlefield operating systems (U.S. Army Armor Center, 1997). 

While the FBCB2 was selected for the purpose of identifying cognitive training techniques, it 

must be remembered that the goal of the research is to identify theory-based training techniques 

generalizable beyond specific FBCB2 training applications.

The FBCB2 is a software-based system implemented in desktop computers and tactical

computer units. The FBCB2 operator navigates through software menu options and enters data 

to create overlays and pre-formatted reports using multifunction keys, screen menus, a

multifunction keypad, and a computer keyboard (U.S. Army Armor Center, 1997) (see Figure 1). 

For the present research, software version 3.3.2. was used. A 40 hour FBCB2 Operator Training

class is provided for both officers and enlisted personnel by a New Equipment Training Team 

(NETT) using desktop computers and FBCB2 software. For example, the class would include a 

40 hour block of instruction on FBCB2 mission planning steps required to create and send a 

digital map overlay showing battlefield graphics and control measures. A three day Leaders 

Course is provided to give instruction on how to employ FBCB2 features such as filters to 

manage information. The FBCB2 software incorporates an embedded tutorial which consists of 

an illustrated version of the Program of Instruction (POI) text. After the classroom training, 

personnel are expected to maintain proficiency through hands-on practice at the unit. 

Figure 1. FBCB2 Screen showing map area and navigation menu. 

4
Task Knowledge and Training Method Taxonomy 

For the present research, it was desired to identify cognitive task characteristics related to 

specific training approaches that could be used as a taxonomy for classifying tasks. Such a 

taxonomy can facilitate the generalization of training research findings beyond the specific tasks 

examined in the research. A key contribution of cognitive psychology is that it identifies 

typologies of different kinds of knowledge used in the conduct of intelligent activity. A common 

distinction is to separate knowledge into four types: (1) declarative knowledge -- domainspecific knowledge of facts typically embodied in statements of the form "I know that...," (2) 

procedural knowledge -- knowledge of procedures as expressed in the ability to carry out the 

procedures and embodied in statements of the form -- "I know how to ...," (3) content knowledge 

or knowledge of a specific subject matter, and (4) metacognitive knowledge which is knowledge 

about general principles of thinking and reasoning that is applicable across specific content 

domains (Samarapungavan et al., 1993). 

Having identified types of knowledge that support the tasks, the next step is to identify

types of training that support each type of knowledge. One common distinction is to separate 

learning into two types, "accretion" and "restructuring." Accretion refers to learning by the 

gradual accumulation of additional units of knowledge, where the new knowledge does not 

require the reorganization of existing knowledge. Accretion is associated with learning tasks that 

require discriminations and generalization, and might support the acquisition of content 

knowledge, and procedural knowledge. In contrast, restructuring refers to learning where the 

acquisition of new knowledge requires reorganization or replacement of existing knowledge. 

Restructuring learning involves the creation of conceptual conflict and the resolution of this 

conflict, and might support the acquisition of declarative knowledge, and metacognitive 

knowledge (Samarapungavan et al., 1993). Table 1 presents a simple task classification 

taxonomy based on these principles. 

Table 1 

Taxonomy of Task Knowledge Type and Training Approach 

Task 

Knowledge 

Content Procedural Declarative Metacognitive

Training

Approach 

Accretion Accretion Restructuring Restructuring

Task Analysis 

 

 It was desired to obtain a sample of FBCB2 tasks that reflected different kinds of 

knowledge requirements (e.g., content, procedural, declarative, metacognitive) to identify where 

training techniques might support different types of tasks. Task knowledge requirements were 

assessed through discussions with experienced Army digital system instructors who had handson experience with the FBCB2 system, and a detailed knowledge of the FBCB2 Operators 

Course POI. The author also performed tasks at an FBCB2 work station to assess the cognitive

5
requirements. The “Case Study” approach outlined by Cooke (1994) was used to identify the 

cognitive demands of specific FBCB2 tasks, to include reports, overlays, a collection of

information management tasks, and orders preparation. Based on this review, four FBCB2 tasks 

were selected to represent different kinds of task knowledge requirements. 

FBCB2 Tasks Selected 

 Reports. The "Create and Send Reports" task was selected as an individual task requiring

procedural skills. The reports task represents one of the most basic capabilities of digital C4I

systems, and should be a common task for many current and future systems. The task is linear, 

requiring that the FBCB2 operator navigate menus selecting options to input data into a 

preformatted report template. The instructional goal is to train procedural skills required to 

navigate FBCB2 menus, and select data input options. Learning should primarily involve the 

process of knowledge accretion. For the specific reports task being trained in the present 

research, no subject matter knowledge was required. 

 Overlays. The "Create and Send Overlays" task was selected as an individual task 

requiring procedural skills. The overlays task also represents one of the most basic capabilities of

digital C4I systems, and should be a common task for many current and future systems. The task 

is flexible requiring that the operator navigate menus selecting and performing multiple graphics

subroutines in no specific sequence to place graphics on a map display. Task flexibility in 

selecting and performing graphic subroutines makes this a more complex task than the Reports 

task. The instructional goal was to train procedural skills required to navigate FBCB2 menus, 

and select and perform subroutines. Learning should primarily involve the process of knowledge 

accretion. For the specific overlay task selected, no subject matter knowledge was required for 

task completion. 

 Information Management. The "Information Management" task was selected as an 

individual task, requiring both content and declarative knowledge to apply rules, and review, 

synthesize, and redirect information. The task involves basic FBCB2 set-up procedures such as 

adjusting information filters, and setting up the list of stations to include the communications net. 

Learning to perform the task to proficiency could require knowledge restructuring. This task 

was chosen to expand beyond simple procedural skills training, to train the application of digital 

information system capabilities to a complex task. 

 Orders Preparation. The “Orders Preparation” task was selected as a collective task that

requires both procedural and declarative knowledge skills. Task performance requires the 

application of declarative knowledge rules, staff officer content knowledge, and the ability to 

synthesize and integrate information to perform a realistic task. Learning to perform the task to 

proficiency might require knowledge restructuring. This task was selected to expand beyond the 

individual procedural skill application task (i.e., Information Management) to address issues of 

collective/collaborative work mediated via a digital information system. 

 

6
Learning Principles for Training Design

 

Introduction 

Researchers have suggested that theories of learning provide instructional designers with 

verified instructional strategies and techniques for facilitating learning as well as a foundation for 

intelligent strategy selection (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). A central goal of the present research 

was to analyze how the principles held by different theories of learning might be translated into 

training techniques supporting digital skills training. Principles associated with three theoretical

positions on learning (behaviorist, cognitive, and constructivist) were first identified. Next, 

interviews and a hands-on review of FBCB2 tasks were conducted to identify training techniques 

derived from learning principles that could be implemented in digital C4I system training. 

The three theoretical perspectives each treat learning from differing viewpoints, with 

different goals and approaches for training design. Behaviorist theory is based on behavioral 

changes, where learning reflects a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes 

automatic. In contrast, cognitivism is based on the thought process behind the behavior. 

Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indicator to what is going on in the learner's 

mind. Constructivism is based on the premise that learners construct their own perspective of the 

world, based on individual experiences and schema. Here, learning focuses on preparing the 

learner to problem solve in ambiguous situations (Wilhelmsen, Asmul & Meistad, 1998).

In presenting learning principles and related training techniques, information was 

summarized in tables. This format was adopted to facilitate discussions and transfer theoretical 

principles to the training design team developing prototype FBCB2 training modules. The tabled 

information was used in checklist fashion to identify opportunities for incorporating

psychological principles into the design of training techniques for prototype training modules. 

Behaviorist Learning Principles and Techniques 

Behaviorist theory overview. Behaviorists typically view knowledge as passive, largely

automatic responses to external factors in the environment. Learning amounts to stimulusresponse pairings, and mastery of a complex task (such as the sequence of steps required to 

perform a procedure) involves the development of a chain or repertoire of such connections (Van 

Patten, Chao, & Reigeluth, 1986). No attempt is made to determine the structure of a student’s 

knowledge or to assess which mental processes are in use. Rather than attempting to estimate 

knowledge, the behaviorists focus on observable and measurable performance outcomes. 

Forgetting is attributed to the non-use of a response over time. Behaviorist training strategies 

center around building and strengthening stimulus-response associations through the use of 

instructional cues, practice, and reinforcement (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). 

Types of learning best explained by behaviorist theory . The behaviorist approach has 

been effective for tasks that involve making discriminations (recalling facts), generalizations 

(defining and illustrating concepts), associations (applying explanations), and chaining

(automatically performing a specified procedure) (Ertmer & Newby, 1993).

7
Training design principles. Behaviorism was used as the basis for designing many of the 

early audio-visual materials and teaching strategies, such as Skinner’s teaching machines and 

programmed texts. More recently these principles have been used in computer-assisted 

instruction and mastery learning. Training development requires the separation of tasks into 

sequential elements, and that a method be provided for the pre-assessment of students to 

determine where instruction should begin. Table 2 presents behaviorist principles identified by

Ertmer and Newby (1993), annotated with training techniques that could be implemented in the 

FBCB2 prototype training modules. 

Table 2 

Behaviorist Principles and Related Training Techniques 

Behaviorist Principles Training Techniques 

1. Observable & measurable outcomes. Behavioral objectives, task analysis, criterion 

referenced assessment.

- FBCB2 task analysis identifies required task 

performance sequencing.

- Self-assessment: Student compares FBCB2 

Overlay produced to a standard provided. 

2. Pre-assessment of students to determine

where instruction should begin. 

Learner analysis. 

- Identify previous FBCB2 training, present 

"What's new" summary of change information. 

- Identify staff position, direct student to 

FBCB2 information tailored to this position. 

3. Emphasis on mastering early steps before 

progressing to more complex levels of

performance. 

Sequencing of instructional presentation, 

mastery learning. 

- Master FBCB2 procedural tasks before

moving to Practical Exercises. 

4. Use of reinforcement to impact

performance. 

Tangible rewards, informative feedback. 

- Screen changes with correct inputs. 

- Successful completion viewed as reward. 

5. Use of demonstration, cues, shaping and 

deliberate practice to ensure a strong

stimulus-response association. 

Simple to complex sequencing of practice, use

of prompts. 

- Context-sensitive "Help" box in FBCB2 

procedural task training, "Hints" box in applied 

Practical Exercise, but less frequent (fading) as 

lesson progresses. 

Behaviorist theory training design implications. The behaviorist approach should be 

highly effective in training basic procedural tasks to proficiency in the shortest period of time

through massed practice. However, the behaviorist approach does not support the acquisition of 

declarative knowledge of the task, and thus does not support long-term retention. The 

behaviorist practice of teaching a fixed set of stimulus-response pairings does not provide an 

opportunity to explore alternative approaches to task accomplishment, and to learn error 

recovery steps, which could support the transfer of skills to changing task demands. The 

8
behaviorist approach should be successful in quickly providing the learner with one way to 

accomplish a task, but it will be necessary for the learner to have an opportunity to explore 

alternative options for task accomplishment (break the procedure into chunks of similar steps, 

identify underlying principles of task organization, translate this understanding of principles into 

declarative knowledge), to achieve long-term skill retention, and transferability.

A potential weakness of the behaviorist training approach is that it may not be an 

efficient means of training complex tasks. In particular, for many digital information system

tasks there is more than one way to accomplish the task. It would be inefficient to teach each 

variation of a task (for example 10 similar reports) as a unique task involving the chaining

together of action steps to complete a procedure. Instead, training should prepare the soldier 

with flexible skills that can adapt easily to changing task demands as equipment and software

updates are introduced. The stimulus and response approach of behaviorism does not support 

this goal of flexibility.

Automated performance assessment and feedback. Part of the appeal of the behaviorist 

approach is that the assessment of stimulus-response pairings lends itself to automated 

assessment and feedback. With respect to training the sequence of steps required to accomplish 

a procedural task, the behaviorist approach can support a simple approach to automated 

performance assessment and feedback. Applying behaviorist theory to FBCB2 procedural task 

training, the selection of each menu item in a sequence of steps can be assessed, and immediately

followed with feedback. Successful menu item selection results in a change in the interface (data

values appear, or next menu item comes up). Failure to select the correct menu item results in a

non-response from the interface, or can result in an information box appearing to indicate that the 

response is incorrect. 

Cognitive Learning Principles and Techniques 

 Cognitive theory overview. Cognitive scientists seek to identify the mental functions and 

processes that underlie behavior. In contrast to behaviorism's focus on observable behavioral 

change brought about through stimulus-response pairings, cognitive theories emphasize making

knowledge meaningful and helping learners organize and relate new information to existing

knowledge in memory (Samarapungavan et al., 1993). Cognitive theories focus on the

conceptualization of students’ learning processes and address the issues of how information is 

received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind. Designers use techniques such as 

advance organizers, analogies, hierarchical relationships, and matrices to provide an organization 

and structure to information that is intended to help learners relate new information to prior 

knowledge (West, Farmer, & Wolff, 1991). A key feature of cognitive theories is that the learner 

is viewed an active participant in the learning process, and training design seeks to facilitate the

student's active involvement. 

One way in which learners can be actively involved in their own learning is by adopting a 

preferred learning strategy. While cognitive theory identifies principles for how information is 

received, organized, stored, and retrieved, the individual learner is not necessarily aware of how 

these activities occur during learning. In contrast, the term “learning strategies” is used to refer

to a set of naturally occurring mental strategies, or ways of organizing information, that people 

9
employ while learning. The learner might select one learning strategy over another based on 

their previous experience with the material to be learned, or based on their personal goals for 

learning (e.g., task familiarization, task mastery, short, or long-term retention). Offering

multiple learning strategies within a training program allows students to become self-regulating

and actively involved in learning so that they can better achieve their learning goals (Purdie 

&Hattie, 1996). Three learning strategies were considered as modes for interacting with lesson 

material in the prototype FBCB2 training modules interface: (1) demonstration mode (a moviestyle presentation of task performance), (2) teacher mode (training system models correct

behavior and guides student through each step of the task), and (3) concurrent mode (student

engages in self-paced training using the operational FBCB2 software while being able to access 

support from the training system on demand). 

Incorporating these three modes of learning might provide a means of individualizing

training delivery to the needs of the learner, whether it is for initial skill acquisition, or a quick 

review of previously learned materials as sustainment training. Simon and Werner (1996) found 

the behavior modeling strategy to be superior to self-paced training and demonstration modes for 

both declarative and procedural knowledge associated with a basic course teaching computer

skills. However, different knowledge requirements (e.g., initial training, sustainment, and 

transitioning to updated software) might call for different learning strategies. 

Types of learning best explained by cognitive theory. Cognitive theories focus on the

conceptualization of students’ learning processes and address the issues of how information is 

received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind. This focus supports training for more

complex forms of learning associated with individual and collective reasoning, problem-solving, 

and information processing. Table 3 presents cognitive theory principles identified by Ertmer

and Newby (1993), and annotated with training techniques that could be implemented in FBCB2 

prototype training modules. 

Structuring information for training delivery. Cognitive theory places a great emphasis 

on structuring, organizing, and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing. Table 4 

presents learning strategies identified by West et al. (1991) that can be used to accomplish these 

goals, and which can be incorporated in training design to facilitate learning. Training

techniques associated with specific learning strategies were identified during the present research 

effort and are annotated in Table 4. 

10
Table 3 

Cognitive Principles and Related Training Techniques 

Cognitive Principles Training Techniques 

1. Emphasis on the active involvement of 

the learner in the learning process, to 

include learner control of training delivery

method. 

Learner selected training delivery modes:

1. Demonstration Mode: Demonstrates correct 

sequence of task steps to student. 

- FBCB2 task step performance video recorded 

and presented in movie-style fashion. 

2. Teacher Mode: Models behavior, and 

guides student through required task steps. 

- Training simulates FBCB2 software and 

guides student through correct steps to complete

a task. Can bring up informative feedback text

boxes for incorrect responses. 

3. Concurrent Mode: Student engages in task 

performance in the actual software environment

with access to training "Help" features. 

- Desirable, but not available as FBCB2 does 

not allow “Training Shell” software application 

to run in parallel with FBCB2 software. 

2. Use of hierarchical analyses to identify

and illustrate prerequisite relationships. 

Cognitive task analysis procedures. 

- Training developers perform a variety of

FBCB2 tasks, analyze these protocols to 

identify prerequisite relationships, and resulting

order for instructional content presentation. 

3. Emphasis on structuring, organizing, and 

sequencing information to facilitate optimal 

processing. 

Use of cognitive strategies such as outlining,

summaries, synthesizers, advance organizers. 

- Instructional design template incorporates

advance organizers, lesson summaries. 

- FBCB2 instructional design incorporates 

numerous cognitive strategies identified by

West et al. (1991) and described in detail in 

Table 4. 

4. Creation of learning environments that 

allow and encourage students to make 

connections with previously learned 

material. 

Recall of prerequisite skills: Use of relevant 

examples, analogies. 

- FBCB2 training could link to web-based 

course subject matter knowledge. 

 

11
Table 4 

Cognitive Strategies and Related Training Techniques 

 Cognitive Strategies Training Techniques

1. Chunking: Rational ordering, classifying,

or arranging of complex arrays preparatory to 

deeper processing. 

Linear ordering, classification taxonomies. 

- FBCB2 task content chunked into categories of

similar task steps for training (e.g., Overlay one-point

and two-point graphics grouped). 

2. Frames 1: A matrix, grid, or framework 

for representing knowledge organized by a 

spatial strategy. Facilitates comparisons and 

contrasts. Presents holistic cognitive structure 

for material. 

Visual display of substantial amounts of information.

- A summary of the chunks and supporting elements 

required for task performance, along with a visual 

display of the end product. 

3. Frames 2: A matrix organized by some 

lawful principle, allows use of logic or 

inference to fill in missing information. 

Information Matrix: Could show commonality between 

similar tasks, shared steps.

- No example identified for FBCB2 training. 

4. Concept Map: Graphics reveal the 

structural pattern in the material, provide the 

"big picture." Aids the recall of detail. 

Computers good in allowing flexible

presentation of material and relationships. 

Extract concepts and relationships from text or lecture 

and plot these visually. 

- FBCB2 training graphics can present the underlying

logic for the software menu structure. 

5. Advance Organizer: Presented prior to 

new material. A brief transition statement 

identifying connections between prior 

learning and new material. 

Connect new material to student prior knowledge. 

- FBCB2 Training can provide introductory text bullets 

identifying key points and organizing concepts of

material to be trained. 

6. Metaphor: Sensitizes student to 

similarities between something known and 

something new. Helps learner transfer prior 

knowledge to another topic. Helps sensitize 

learner to similarities across knowledge 

arrays. 

Metaphor, rich in imagery and figurative language and 

highly generalizable, connects current learning to 

previous, a bridging strategy. 

- FBCB2 training can include a graphic depicting a 

tactical operations center (TOC) that provides access to 

information needed for tasks. 

7. Rehearsal: Activities to keep material 

active in consciousness to support transition

into short-term memory. Supports deeper 

processing for long-term recall. Gets learner 

actively, intellectually engaged in processing

information, not just passively exposed to 

information. 

Repetition, questioning, answering, restating, clarifying, 

reviewing, summarizing, note taking. 

- FBCB2 training can present a quiz or information 

summary in the body of training, video demonstrations 

of task performance, and access to self-paced practical 

exercises.

8. Imagery: Cognitive strategy that aids

recall. Mental pictures learner forms to aid 

recall. A key way of storing information in 

the mind, images can hold large amounts of

information and great detail. 

Mental visualization of concrete information, objects, 

events, arrays. 

- Illustration graphically depicting FBCB2 digital menu 

architecture associated with different tasks, can be 

presented to aid menu structure recall. 

9. Mnemonics: Artificial aids to memory

used with material low in structure until 

meaningful mental structures developed. 

Keywords, chains, method of loci visualization, single

use coding (e.g., Size of unit, Activity, Location, Unit, 

Time, Equipment [SALUTE]). 

- No mnemonic devices identified for FBCB2. 

12
Cognitive theory training design implications. Cognitive theory suggests that knowledge 

is stored as organized mental representations and that training can be designed to incorporate 

techniques that facilitate the organization of new information presented in training. As an

example, using cognitive principles the training designer can introduce an organizing framework, 

and knowledge goals, for the student to use in making sense of information that follows. The 

training designer can make declarative knowledge of underlying task concepts one of the goals 

of training, and introduce assessment tools such as quizzes to determine if the learner has gained 

this concept knowledge. Likewise, informative feedback can be developed to reinforce the 

concepts being taught. 

The cognitive approach is associated with deeper (declarative) knowledge of a task, 

which is associated with long-term retention. Teaching underlying principles for tasks should 

also yield more flexible knowledge that is more adaptable to changing task demands as 

equipment, hardware, and software updates are introduced. The cognitive approach may require

more training time to bring a student to basic procedural proficiency on tasks, but can yield 

enhanced skill retention (Druckman & Bjork, 1991). Preparing materials for presentation using

cognitive approaches could be more difficult than when using a behaviorist approach because the

instructional designer needs to conduct detailed task analyses with experts to understand the 

underlying cognitive demands of the task, and so identify the mental representations to be taught. 

Automated performance assessment and feedback. With regard to performance 

assessment and feedback, the behaviorist uses feedback as “reinforcement” to modify behavior

in the desired direction while cognitivists use feedback as “knowledge of results” to guide and 

support accurate mental connections. Performance assessment can include basic measures of 

successful task completion, however, the cognitive approach also requires that the instructional 

designer incorporate measures of whether the student has learned the concepts underlying task 

performance. The cognitive approach lends itself to automated performance assessment and 

feedback through the use of quizzes and tests, accompanied with corrective explanatory

feedback. For complex tasks such as map overlay construction, students could be presented with 

the "expert solution" at various stages of the task, allowing them to self-assess their actions. 

Constructivist Learning Principles and Techniques 

 Constructivist theory overview. Constructivist theory views learning as an active process 

in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current and past knowledge. 

The learners select and transform information, and construct hypotheses to discover principles by

themselves (Bruner, 1966). Constructivist theories emphasize the importance of exploration and 

discovery on the part of each learner in the learning process. They also view the collaborative 

efforts of groups of learners as sources of learning. 

An important theme in constructivist theory is that learning is most effective when it 

takes place within a realistic task context. Researchers suggest that formal instruction in the 

"school house" can lead to a "divorce of knowledge and skills from their applications in the real 

world context" (Samarapungavan et al., 1993). Situated learning is a general theory of

knowledge acquisition which proposes that learning, as it normally occurs, is a function of the 

activity, context, and culture in which it occurs (i.e., it is situated). Employing the "cognitive

13
apprenticeship" instructional approach, students might model skills demonstrated by an expert

tutor or coach in a realistic setting. The sequence of tutorial feedback in coaching would start 

with a high degree of external support or "scaffolding" for beginning learners and move to a 

gradual reduction of support as learning progresses, an instructional technique referred to as 

"fading" (Samarapungavan et al., 1993). 

Types of learning best explained by constructivist theory. The primary goal of 

constructivism is to foster problem-solving and conceptual development (Reigeluth, 1999). The 

constructivist approach appears best suited for ill-defined or ill-structured domains of knowledge 

and thus might support the training needs of the digital C4I task environment characterized by a 

fluctuating mixture of both digital and conventional message traffic. Looking at one example of 

learning in the military context, Lussier, Ross, and Mayes (2000) have examined commander and 

staff tasks. They found that performance problems were often not due to a lack of tactical 

knowledge, instead problems arose from difficulties in applying this knowledge in complex

situations which can overwhelm a person’s ability to attend to events and to think through 

decisions under stress. These authors have developed training to facilitate "adaptive thinking" in 

response to unanticipated circumstances; this training combines the constructivist principles of 

coaching and scaffolding with the behaviorist technique of deliberate practice. The deliberate 

practice focuses on areas of weakness to create automatic habits. These automatic habits, which 

in the present instance could include tasks associated with exchanging a mixture of conventional 

voice radio and digital C4I information, could serve to reduce the requirement for attention 

resources; thereby freeing the commander and staff to focus on the content, and not the format of 

the information being presented. 

Constructivist theory training concepts and design principles. While both behaviorist 

and cognitive learning theories advocate the rational ordering, classifying, or arranging (i.e., 

chunking) of information to be presented in training, some advocates of constructivist learning

approaches contend that this blocking of material by category may aid initial acquisition, but 

may not yield optimal retention. Healy and Bourne (2000) suggests that the retention of 

knowledge is enhanced when the learner is required to first process the information as it occurs 

in a realistic task context. In their view it is the student and not the instructor who needs to do 

the processing and blocking of material into personally meaningful categories. It should be 

noted that constructivist theory calls for the creation of realistic "learning environments," and 

that recent advances in computer technology have greatly enhanced our ability to simulate 

individual and collective task environments. Table 5 presents constructivist theory principles 

derived from the preceding discussion. The principles are annotated with training techniques 

that could be implemented in a simulated C4I task environment. 

 

14
Table 5 

Constructivist Principles and Related Training Techniques 

Constructivist Principles Training Techniques 

1. Context-based training/Situated cognition. 

Knowledge needs to be presented in an 

authentic context. Problem should be illdefined, ill-structured. 

Anchoring learning in meaningful contexts. 

- C4I Learning Environment: Simulated TOC 

and realistic tasks performed collectively by

groups of students. 

2. An emphasis on learner control and ability

to manipulate information. 

Actively using what is learned. 

- C4I Learning Environment: Students roleplay commander and staff and use generic 

map and text tools to exchange information. 

3. Provide multiple modes of representation 

for instructional content.

Provide student with methods for examining

material from multiple perspectives. 

- C4I Learning Environment: Provide 

information as radio voice message traffic, 

digital text messages, simulated faxes, 

information from maps, doctrinal documents, 

and plans. Rotate assigned roles of students. 

4. Promote case based reasoning (CBR). Provide related cases or worked examples to

enable CBR and cognitive flexibility.

- C4I Learning Environment: Incorporate 

realistic vignettes that require unique 

solutions. 

5. Assessment focused on transfer of

knowledge and skills. 

Present problems and situations that differ 

from the conditions of initial instruction. 

- C4I Learning Environment: Include novel 

vignettes to assess transfer to similar but not 

identical situations. 

6. Coaching. Expertise comes from good coaching.

- C4I Learning Environment: Incorporate 

Adaptive Thinking training principles, with 

deliberate practice managing changing digital/

conventional unit communications data mix, 

evaluation and synthesis tasks. 

7. Use conflicting perspectives, and cognitive

dissonance, to force students to rethink their 

assumptions. 

Put student in an immersive problem-solving

context from the beginning of training. 

- C4I Learning Environment: Collective task 

performance and peer assessment should 

generate rethinking of assumptions, and 

restructuring of decision making knowledge. 

8. Learning requires social interaction and 

collaboration between learners, testing their

own understanding against that of others 

(social negotiation of meaning). 

Training should include collective scenariobased tasks. 

- C4I Learning Environment: Leverage peer 

assessment and peer tutoring. 

 Table Continues

15
Table 5 (Continued) 

 9. Prerequisite knowledge is provided within 

the context of higher order learning and 

application through "scaffolding" or the ability

to go back to previous information for review. 

Learning environment allows student to 

review previous information. 

- C4I Learning Environment: Students could 

access previous doctrinal information either 

through Small Group Instructor (SGI), or

through a supporting information base via the 

AC3-DL web site. 

10. Cognitive Apprenticeship. Students 

should model skills demonstrated by an expert 

tutor or coach. 

Students should model skills demonstrated by

an expert tutor or coach. 

- C4I Learning Environment: SGI serves as 

expert and coach. 

11. Scaffolding and Fading. Provide cognitive 

tools and coaching that scaffold required skills, 

including problem representation, knowledgemodeling, performance-support, and 

information-gathering tools. Gradual fading of

support as learning progresses. 

Scaffolding starts with a high degree of

external support which gradually fades. 

- C4I Learning Environment: SGI must 

assess students’ strengths, and provide 

support scaffolding as required. 

 Constructivist theory training design implications. Constructivist theory proposes that 

knowledge is individually constructed and socially co-constructed by learners based on their 

interpretations of experiences in the world. Following this principle, training should consist of 

experiences in realistic task environments that facilitate knowledge construction (Jonassen, 

1999). Constructivist theory appears to lend itself to ill-defined tasks, and seeks to address 

higher level cognitive tasks, particularly those involving collective task performance. Thus it 

might have great utility in identifying training requirements for battalion commander and staff

collective C4I tasks. A disadvantage of the constructivist approach is that it can be expensive to 

create realistic learning environments in which learners can practice tasks and derive a personal 

sense of their organization. Also, it is not known whether knowledge resulting from the 

structuring of situational factors might be highly idiosyncratic, and not generalizable beyond the 

personal dynamics of the particular group members in the learning environment. 

Automated performance assessment and feedback. Lower structure characteristic of 

constructivist environments could result in less consistency in the processes used to perform a 

task. To address this problem, structure might be incorporated following the "Think Like A 

Commander" instructional approach (Lussier et al., 2000). Using this approach probe questions 

might be inserted into training to identify learning on specific themes, and a series of sub-tasks 

might be developed to provide multiple opportunities for self-assessment and coaching. While 

automated performance assessment and feedback is a goal of CIT, the constructivist approach 

does not appear to lend itself to automation as easily as behaviorist and cognitive approaches. In

particular, individual contributions to collective performance are difficult to assess. Currently

the tasks of performance assessment and feedback would likely be performed by an instructor or 

coach. 

16
Summary of Learning Principles and Training Techniques 

The present review of behaviorist, cognitive, and constructivist theories and training

techniques provides evidence that the learning principles held by the different perspectives can 

facilitate the identification of training techniques supporting digital skills training. While nearly

all of the training principles associated with behaviorist and cognitive learning theory might be

implemented using CIT technology, it appears that most of the training techniques associated 

with constructivist theory could not be applied using a stand-alone CIT, and would require 

instead a virtual representation of the collective task environment. Specifically, the review of

constructivist theory and techniques suggests that a training environment is needed that would 

support learner control and the ability to manipulate information. This would provide an 

environment for social interaction, social negotiation, and collaboration. These processes 

represent important training needs for collective commander and battle staff planning and 

decision making tasks. 

Incorporation of cognitivist theory training techniques into C4I training design should 

facilitate skill acquisition, retention, and transfer. The cognitivist approach emphasizes a deeper 

understanding of the concepts underlying task performance, and might actually result in a longer 

time requirement for soldiers to demonstrate skill acquisition. However, the deeper processing

of task concepts during the acquisition phase is associated with greater retention of the acquired 

skills (Druckman & Bjork, 1991). Providing alternative self-selected modes of learning, 

particularly the ability to interact with the actual system software, could enhance skill transfer to 

changing tasks. Training techniques that provide the learner with more experience in non-linear 

task performance, and error recovery, should enhance the transfer of the originally acquired 

skills to FBCB2 tasks that change due to software updates. With regard to skill retention and 

transfer, it is not known whether knowledge resulting from constructivist learning environments 

might be highly idiosyncratic, and not generalizable beyond the personal dynamics of the 

particular group members in the learning environment. 

Outline for a Training Module Structure 

The present research effort sought to identify ways in which cognitive psychology could 

be incorporated into the overall training module design as well as providing recommendations 

for specific screens. As part of this research an outline for a training module structure was 

developed to support the implementation of the cognitive training techniques presented in this 

report (see Appendix B). This outline describes a series of eleven template screens designed to 

accomplish essential training program functions for CIT modules. 

Prototype Training Modules 

The present research provided guidance and support to a parallel contract effort to design, 

develop, and demonstrate prototype training modules incorporating cognitive training techniques 

for a representative Army digital C4I system (Deatz & Cobb, [in preparation]). The cognitive 

psychology principles, initial set of training techniques, and outline for a training module 

structure identified in the present research were provided to the contract team to support their 

efforts. PowerPoint graphics software was used by the contractor team to demonstrate the 

17
incorporation of cognitive theory training principles through the use of FBCB2 screen captures, 

text boxes, motion video, and simple navigation tools. The software supports what is referred to 

as "page-turning architecture" which basically presents the learner with an action requirement or 

question, the response to which will call up another page of information (Schank, 1990). Four 

FBCB2 tasks were selected by the contractor team for training module development: Reports, 

Overlays, Information Management, and Orders Preparation. Figure 2 presents an example 

training screen developed by Deatz and Cobb (in preparation) showing training information and 

navigation features surrounding an actual FBCB2 screen capture illustration. By following the 

guidance provided by the training program, a student can practice pulling down menu options, 

activating features, and entering data to complete the steps required to create and send an FBCB2 

Spot Report. 

Action

1 Click on Create tab

(if not selected)

Prepare and Send Spot Report

SpSpot R ot Reepor port pt prroocceessss::

Initial

Steps

Report

Completion

Closing

Steps

• Messages

• Create tab

• Combat Messages

• SPOT/SALUTE

• Save As

• Send Report

• Report Type and Unit

• Entity Data

• Course/Speed Data

• Observation Data

(To restart a section, click on one of the process boxes)

2 Select Reports

Note: the Create 

tab is already in 

front of the other

tabs

Previous Next

Figure 2. Prototype FBCB2 training screen. Illustration from Deatz and Cobb (in preparation). 

The training material screen shown in Figure 2 serves to demonstrate the implementation 

of several cognitive training techniques that were identified in the present research. The screen

provides an information field at the top left hand side of the screen that provides the student with 

a Concept Map of the Spot Report task. This map chunks the 40 step task into three sub-tasks 

and identifies the final product of the task. A "Note" box is illustrated which can be

superimposed over the map display along with arrow indicators to focus the student’s attention to 

key aspects of the task. The "Training Points" box provides a text description of the key

knowledge that the current screen seeks to convey to the student. The "Action" text box on the 

right hand side of the screen tells the student what specific action to perform (mouse clicks, data 

entry) to progress through the steps in the task. The "Action" text box can be removed to allow 

students to test their knowledge of the task sequence requirements or the information can be

18
called up by the student by selecting a "Hint" box. A consistent set of "Navigation" buttons are

provided at the bottom of the screen so that the student can review previous material or go on to 

the next material based on their own information needs. 

An additional feature that the contractor team integrated into the prototype FBCB2 

training module screens is the option that allows a student to select their preferred learning style. 

The student can elect to enter a "Demonstration" mode of training which starts a short 

(approximately one minute) video showing the required menu navigation actions and data entry

requirements to complete a given task (see Appendix C). Other prototype screen designs 

demonstrate training features that support student-selected training content review (Appendix D) 

and subject matter quizzes that provide performance assessment and feedback (Appendix E). 

Summary and Discussion 

Summary 

The goal of the present research effort was to identify training program techniques based 

on learning principles that could be incorporated into CIT modules for future digital skills. To 

accomplish these goals representative FBCB2 tasks were first identified that require a range of 

cognitive skills, which would likely require alternative training strategies. Second, principles of 

cognitive theory and their related training techniques were identified that could be incorporated

into the prototype FBCB2 training. Examples of training materials from a prototype FBCB2 

training program developed in a parallel contract effort by Deatz and Cobb (in preparation) were 

presented which demonstrate how the cognitive techniques can be implemented to train 

individual procedural skills. 

Research Hypotheses 

Results indicate that recent learning principles can be identified and translated into

specific training techniques that can enhance digital C4I training. The success of the research 

effort can be measured by the ability to answer each of the research hypotheses.

 Hypothesis 1. A taxonomy can be identified for separating digital C4I tasks into 

categories of like tasks for the selective application of training techniques. 

Table 1 identified a simple approach to classifying tasks in terms of their knowledge

demands which is a necessary first step in developing training to address the cognitive demands 

of tasks. The present research has suggested that the individual procedural skill components of 

the four tasks might best be trained using CIT, where task skills are acquired through a process 

of accretion, or the gradual accumulation of additional units of knowledge. In contrast, it was 

suggested that the individual and collective skill components of the Information Management 

and Orders Preparation tasks which require problem-solving, reasoning, critical thinking, and the 

active use of knowledge, might best be trained in a virtual learning environment. The virtual 

learning environment supports the acquisition of skills through a process of restructuring, where

learning requires the reorganization or replacement of existing knowledge. 

19
Hypothesis 2. Cognitive principles for optimizing the acquisition, retention, and transfer 

of skills can be translated into digital C4I system training program techniques.

Tables 2 through 4 identify specific cognitive principles for instruction, annotated with 

specific examples of where these principles can be implemented as CIT techniques for prototype 

FBCB2 training, and C4I virtual environment training. Examples of training information screens 

taken from the prototype FBCB2 training modules developed by Deatz and Cobb (in 

preparation) were provided to illustrate how the cognitive principles have actually been

incorporated into individual procedural skills prototype FBCB2 training modules. Table 5 

identified specific constructivist techniques that might be incorporated into a virtual learning

environment to train collective declarative knowledge. Using constructivist theory techniques, 

training might be incorporated into the existing AC3-DL Virtual Tactical Operations Center

(VTOC) simulation to provide training to address key digital C4I issues such as data ambiguity

and load, and coordination of mixed digital and conventional forces. Incorporation of cognitivist 

theory into C4I training design could have a significant impact on skill acquisition, retention, and 

transfer when compared to the behaviorist approach as the deeper processing of task concepts 

during the acquisition phase is associated with greater retention of the acquired skills. It is not 

known whether knowledge resulting from constructivist learning environments will show 

retention and generalizability beyond the specific group members in the original learning

environment. 

Hypothesis 3. Automated performance assessment and feedback training program

techniques can be designed, developed, and demonstrated for a future digital C4I system to 

support the acquisition, retention, and transfer of operator skills. 

Key performance assessment and feedback requirements associated with each theory of

learning were identified and opportunities to employ automated performance assessment and 

feedback were described. The design of the prototype training modules developed by Deatz and 

Cobb (in preparation) in parallel with this research demonstrates how feedback can be provided 

to the learner to indicate whether the correct behavior was executed in terms of navigating menu 

options. This type of simple feedback would support the needs of a behaviorist approach to 

training, and can be easily automated. Feedback is immediate when the system fails to provide

the anticipated system cues in response to a learner's actions. Instructive feedback is available 

from "Help" and "Hint" functions when the learner encounters problems. The prototype training

modules also illustrate how cognitive aspects of task learning can be assessed, and feedback 

provided. The "Review" window feature demonstrates how multiple choice questions can be 

presented to assess whether the learner understands basic concepts underlying task organization. 

Where the learner does not understand the concept, this information can be provided in an 

automated text message. For individual procedural skills training using CIT training modules, 

both behaviorist and cognitivist theories follow the approach of structuring training concepts for

presentation, which lends itself to automated scoring of the rules being taught. Constructivist 

theory appears most appropriate for individual and collective declarative knowledge training, and 

emphasizes that knowledge is created by the learner within the realistic task and social demands 

of the task environment. Performance assessment and feedback for constructivist learning in a

virtual task environment would require the service an instructor or coach, and might also rely

heavily on peer assessment and feedback. 

20
Evaluating Training Effectiveness

 

The present research represents a logical continuation of previous IVIS research 

(Sanders, 1999) which showed that soldiers who acquired more declarative knowledge of task 

procedures during skill acquisition training also displayed greater skill retention after a 30 day

retention interval. Similar retention estimates could be obtained by providing FBCB2 operator

skills training using the prototype FBCB2 training modules developed by Deatz and Cobb (in 

preparation), followed by an evaluation of their ability to perform tasks on the operational 

equipment. The study could include a control group of students who receive classroom FBCB2 

training, followed by an assessment of hands-on performance on tasks using the operational 

equipment. In examining whether the self-paced and cognitively oriented prototype modules 

provide better training, the role of declarative task knowledge could again be investigated to 

identify its relationship to long-term skill retention. 

Future Research Directions 

 

 Future research could investigate whether prototype training modules could be developed 

for individual and collective C4I skills requiring problem-solving, reasoning, critical thinking, 

and the active use of knowledge. The present research suggests that these skills might best be

trained in a virtual learning environment. The research should investigate whether the collective 

skills developed in the virtual environment transfer to the real task environment. In particular, 

the research should examine whether a generic C4I interface could be used, or whether a realistic 

C4I interface requiring system-specific procedural skills is required to achieve transfer of higher

level skills to the real task environment. Results of the research could suggest whether existing

low cost virtual training environments could be used to train higher level C4I collective skills 

common across a number of different communications platforms, or whether an expensive 

system-specific communications interface is required for skill transfer. Naturally, the first 

requirement in conducting this research would be to identify the high-level knowledge 

requirements associated with C4I commander and staff tasks, such as those identified by Moses 

(2000), to include information ambiguity, information load, information synthesis, and 

digital/conventional unit integration issues, and then identify cognitive principles and related 

techniques that support the training of this knowledge. 

21
22
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25
Appendix A 

List of Acronyms 

AC3-DL Armor Captains’ Career Course – Distance Learning

AFRU Armored Forces Research Unit 

ARI U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences 

C4I Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence 

C4ISR Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, 

 Surveillance, and Reconnaissance

CBR case based reasoning

CIT Computer-Implemented Training

FBC Future Battlefield Conditions 

FBCB2 Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below 

FUTURETRAIN: Techniques and Tools for C4ISR (Command, Control, Communications, 

 Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance) Training of 

 Future Brigade Combat Team Commanders and Staffs 

IVIS Inter-Vehicular Information System

MMBL Mounted Maneuver Battlespace Lab 

NETT New Equipment Training Team 

POI Program of Instruction 

SALUTE Size of unit, Activity, Location, Unit, Time, Equipment 

SGI Small Group Instructor 

TOC tactical operations center

USAARMS U.S. Army Armor School 

VTOC Virtual Tactical Operations Center 

 

A-1
Appendix B

 

Outline of Screens for Essential Training Program Functions 

A series of eleven template screens were identified for potential development that would 

demonstrate the integration of cognitive principles into the design of FBCB2 training. 

Screen 1: Demographics. This screen demonstrates how we can use information about what the 

student knows to adapt training to individual training needs: 

1. Data Capture: Student ID #. 

2. Data Capture: Experience with previous versions. 

3. Data Capture: Other.

Screen 2: Select an instruction mode. This screen demonstrates a technique for adapting to 

different student learning styles: 

1. Demonstration. 

2. Teacher. 

3. Concurrent . 

Screen 3: Select module for study. This screen demonstrates how we can let the student tailor 

instruction to his needs: 

1. Information management. 

2. Reports. 

3. Orders. 

4. Graphics/overlays. 

Screen 4: Advance organizer for this training module. This screen demonstrates use of an 

advance organizer to orient the student: 

1. Describe training goal. 

2. Describe key sub-tasks. 

3. Other. 

Screen 5: Concept map. This screen demonstrates use of a Concept Map: 

1. For complex tasks like information management we might want to provide the student with a 

 “big picture” of how info is shared across staff, and between bn, co, and plt levels. 

Screen 6: Reference to previously learned concepts. This slide demonstrates the cognitive

principle of building on previously learned material: 

1. Briefing bullets or other info display shows students’ linkages between previously

 learned material (in this case it might be menu navigation skills, and current task 

 requirements). 

B-1
Screen 7: Training of specific module task (actually multiple screens). Provides examples of 

cognitive techniques that facilitate training of specific skills: 

1. Step-by-step training of task requirements, techniques match cognitive task demands. 

2. Stress common mistakes/misunderstandings. 

3. Automated “Help” or “Hint” features. 

4. Possible role for instructor. 

Screen 8: Collective training. Provides example of “constructivist” context-based training using

scenarios:

1. Tasks such as information management might best be trained as a collective task with 

 LAN-linked students sharing information vertically across staff positions, or horizontally 

 across bn, co, plt. 

Screen 9: Practical exercise. This slide demonstrates cognitive principle of rehearsal: 

1. Screen(s) present student with opportunity to rehearse material learned in this lesson. 

2. Might provide multiple practical exercises that student can select to practice until student 

 judges that he knows the material. 

3. Incorporate assessment and feedback mechanisms as possible. 

Screen 10: Declarative knowledge assessment. This slide demonstrates assessment of 

declarative knowledge linked to long-term skill retention, automated performance assessment 

and feedback:

1. Multiple choice test of module concepts. 

2. Should be machine scoreable, automated performance assessment. 

3. Automated feedback should be possible, text describing why incorrect responses 

 are incorrect. 

Screen 11: Module navigation screen. This screen demonstrates flexible training that 

accommodates student needs:

1. Screen at end of module lets student choose to go on to next module, or return to home page. 

B-2
Appendix C 

Demonstration Mode Video Screen 

Action

1 Select continue to begin 

training

A video showing the entire process of

creating a Spot Report runs...

estimated time is approximately 40 seconds.

Training Points

The video demonstration 

provides a 40 second 

preview of the expected 

training outcomes

Prepare and Send Spot Report

SpSpoott Rep Repoortrt pprroocess: cess:

Initial

Steps

Report

Completion

Closing

Steps

• Messages

• Create tab

• Combat Messages

• SPOT/SALUTE

• Save As

• Send Report

• Report Type and Unit

• Entity Data

• Course/Speed Data

• Observation Data

(To restart a section, click on one of the process boxes)

Continue

 Illustration from Deatz and Cobb (in preparation). 

C-1
Appendix D 

Student Subject Matter Review Screen 

Action

1

Prepare and Send Spot Report

Training Points

Previous Next

You are now finished with

the initial steps of the Spot

Report process, you will

soon begin to complete the

report after the review

1. Click Message Button

2. Click on the Create tab

3. Click on the Report button

4. Click on Spot Report option

5. Click on Long Form Message

Click on Next below

when ready to continue

SSppoott Re Repoportrt pprrococeessss::

Initial

Steps

Report

Completion

Closing

Steps

• Messages

• Create tab

• Combat Messages

• SPOT/SALUTE

• Save As

• Send Report

• Report Type and Unit

• Entity Data

• Obs Equipment Data

• Observation Data

(To restart a section, click on one of the process boxes)

 Illustration from Deatz and Cobb (in preparation). 

D-1
Appendix E 

Subject Matter Quiz Screen 

Action

1 Click on the button for

the best answer

Prepare and Send Spot Report

SpSpot Re ot Reppoorrt pt proc rocess ess::

Initial

Steps

Report

Completion

Closing

Steps

• Messages

• Create tab

• Combat Messages

• SPOT/SALUTE

• Save As

• Send Report

• Report Type and Unit

• Entity Data

• Course/Speed Data

• Observation Data

Training Points

(To restart a section, click on one of the process boxes)

Previous Next

Review

After clicking on the message 

button, which tab should you

select to start a new report?

A. Manage

B. Edit

C. Create

D. Send

 Illustration from Deatz and Cobb (in preparation). 

E-1