THE U.S.

VIRGIN ISLANDS

Coral reef condition:

A status report for

2020

FAIR

Data: 2014–2017
1917

The land now comprising 

the U.S. Virgin Islands is 

purchased from Denmark.

1959

Establishment of 

Virgin Islands 

National Park.

Logo: National Park Service.

1962

Addition of nearly 9 mi2 to

Virgin Islands National Park. 

1972

Dr. Jack Randall conducts 

fisheries research at 

Lameshur Bay on St. John. 

1992

Establishment of Salt River Bay 

National Historic Park and 

Ecological Reserve.

1961

Establishment of 

Buck Island Reef 

National Monument.

1972

The Island Resource Foundation, 

a nonprofit NGO, is established in 

established in the Territory.

1989

Hurricane Hugo 

strikes the islands.

-19861983

Island Resources Foundation and partners conduct 

Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative 

reports, which establish baseline data for St. John. 

1993

Spawning site closures: 

Mutton Snapper, Red Hind.

1972

The West Indies 

Laboratory begins 

operations in St. Croix.

1978

Virgin Islands Coastal

Zone Management Act

signed into law.

Coral reefs are important

Corals break oncoming waves before they hit the 

shore. Photo: Christine Munisteri.

Healthy coral reefs are among the most biologically diverse 

ecosystems on Earth and have high cultural and economic 

significance. They provide billions of dollars in food, jobs, tourism, 

coastal protection, and other important goods and services to people 

around the world. Located in the Caribbean Sea, the U.S. Virgin Islands 

are part of an island chain in the Greater Antilles archipelago that 

include St. Thomas, St. John, St. Croix, and about 50 outlying islands 

and cays. Coral reefs are an integral part of life in the U.S. Virgin 

Islands, influencing everything from the economy and employment to 

food and island health. Even the islands' housing and infrastructure 

benefit from the reefs' capacity to protect the shoreline from 

powerful wave energy.

Bank

Coral reef ecosystems are integral to the economy of the U.S. Virgin Islands

The people of the U.S. Virgin Islands love their beaches and clear water ; so do the visitors who 

come from around the world. Healthy reefs support the islands' culture and livelihoods — both directly and 

indirectly. From banking to water sports , hotels to transportation , real estate to 

fishing , healthy reefs provide many benefits. Everyone has a responsibility to preserve these benefits for 

generations. What actions can you take so the shared benefits coral reefs provide continue into the future?
reefs are under threat

Coral reefs are declining globally, and this has significant ecological, social, cultural, and economic impacts for us. In the U.S. 

Virgin Islands, coral reefs are threatened by coral disease, pollution, climate change, and other stressors.

Coral disease

In addition to chronic threats—both local stressors like 

pollution as well as global stressors like climate change— 

an emergent coral disease outbreak known as Stony 

Coral Tissue Loss Disease, has made coral disease the 

most prominent threat to the resilience of these reefs. 

Scientists from local and federal agencies and universities 

are working together with citizen science groups and 

community partners to combat this new threat. The 

public is encouraged to report sick or dead corals to the 

USVI Department of Planning and Natural Resources and 

avoid impacted reefs.

A large coral colony is infected with Stony Coral Tissue Loss 

Disease. Photo: Leslie Marie Henderson.

Land-based sources of pollution

Land-based sources of pollution include sediment, nutrients, 

and other pollutants that run into the ocean from land, 

usually through runoff after heavy rain events. Pollution can 

hurt coral reefs by smothering corals that are accustomed 

to living in clear water. The added nutrients from pollution 

enable algae and cyanobacteria to bloom over the reef, 

limiting sunlight for slower-growing corals. Harmful 

chemicals found in pollution can also disrupt and even kill 

sensitive reef creatures. Control and prevention of pollution 

is particularly important, but is challenging to address due to 

the islands' steep hillsides, frequent, heavy rainfall, and the 

close proximity of shallow coral reefs to the shore.

Climate change

Climate change is considered the greatest global threat to 

coral reefs. Human-induced greenhouse gas emissions are 

warming the oceans, and as a result, mass coral bleaching 

events and disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent. 

In 2005, the U.S. Virgin Islands suffered a major coral 

bleaching event, followed by a disease outbreak where U.S. 

Virgin Islands lost nearly half of its corals in an extensive die 

off. Major bleaching occurred again in both 2010 and 2019.

Tektite Reef off St. John in 2004 (left) and in 2005 (right) 

during a bleaching event. Photos: National Park Service.

green = biology and hurricanes light blue governance related to marine/reef 

management = blue general historic/government events and governance pink= social/economic =

Establishment of Virgin 

Islands Coral Reef 

2001

National Monument. 

2000

Buck Island Reef National 

Monument expanded to 

include additional 29.7 mi2.

1999

Coral 

2010

bleaching

event.

2017

Hurricanes Irma and Maria 

hit the U.S. Virgin Islands. 

2008

Invasive lionfish

(Pterois sp.) introduced

to U.S. Virgin Islands.

2014

Five more stony coral 

species are listed as Threatened 

under the Endangered Species Act.

2019

2005

Coral disease 

and bleaching 

event.

Stony coral tissue disease 

identified in St. Thomas.

2012

Invasive seagrass, 

Halophilia stipulacea

first reported.

Photo: NOAA.

Grammanik Bank 

offshore fishing

closure.

2005

Corals Acropora cervicornis and

Acropora palmata are listed as 

Threatened under the Endangered

Species Act. 

2006

2006

Hurricane Marilyn

strikes the U.S.

Virgin islands.

1995

Establishment of Hind Bay 

Marine Conservation District.

Coral bleaching

event.

Harvest of 

Nassau Grouper 

prohibited.
citation needed

Shallow, nearshore coral reefs provide valuable 

protection to coastal infrastructure from storm surges 

and waves. They reduce wave energy during tropical 

storms and hurricanes, which has the potential to 

save both lives and millions of dollars every year. This 

ecosystem service highlights the importance of coral 

reefs for coastal resilience and disaster readiness. 

surveying damage 

from irma &maria

Diagram depicting how reefs decrease wave impacts 

to coastal areas. Image: The Pew Charitable Trusts.

However, the same reefs that provide protection to 

coastal communities are also susceptible to storm 

damage themselves. In September 2017, Hurricanes 

Irma and Maria hit the U.S. Virgin Islands, causing 

catastrophic damage to the islands and island 

communities. Coral reefs were also heavily damaged. 

Corals were broken and dislodged by intense wave 

energy and terrestrial debris that landed in the water. 

Shallow nearshore reefs received the most damage. 

After the hurricanes, limited emergency restoration 

was conducted at select sites. Approximately 2,500 

loose coral fragments were stabilized across the 

territory. However, this represents only a small fraction 

compared to the number of fragments lost. Additional 

restoration is critical for these nearshore reef systems 

in order for them to continue to provide the valuable 

ecosystem service of coastal protection. 

A diver recovers a large coral colony fragment. Photo: 

Leslie Marie Henderson.

restoring the u.s. 

virgin islands' reefs

Coral reefs in the U.S. Virgin Islands, with their 

inspiring coral structures, colorful fish, and 

other vibrant marine life, provide livelihoods and 

recreation for many residents. Because of their 

significant ecological, cultural, and economic 

value, healthy coral reefs improve the well-being of 

communities and the economy in the U.S. Virgin 

Islands. Therefore, it is important to conserve 

these reefs. While the data in this report were 

collected by NOAA scientists and partners in the 

U.S. Virgin Islands for the National Coral Reef 

Monitoring Program, you don't necessarily need 

to be a scientist to contribute to reef monitoring 

and restoration. These efforts typically include an 

extensive collection of ecological and biological 

data, and many scientists are eager to enlist 

concerned citizens to help with that collection.

If you want to help grow our understanding of coral 

reefs, consider getting involved in a citizen science 

project! Citizen science projects involve members 

of the public who participate in the collection 

and analysis of environmental data, often times 

in collaboration with professional scientists. One 

such example is Virgin Islands Reef Response, a 

program centered on coral restoration. Located on 

St. Thomas, 'reef responders' (scientist and nonscientist alike) work to simultaneously increase 

coral cover and diversity around the islands and to 

enable communities eager to mitigate the adverse 

impacts to marine habitat. Much of the data 

collected and used to inform reef management 

and policy in the U.S. Virgin Islands would not exist 

without the help of citizen science efforts from VI 

Reef Response, The Nature Conservancy, or diving 

groups organized by local residents.

Divers help restore coral reefs in the U.S. Virgin Islands. 

Photo: Jason Quetel.
U. S . V I R G IN I S L ANDS

u.s. virgin islands

U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS CORAL REEFS ARE IN FAIR CONDITION

The United States Virgin Islands are an unincorporated Territory located 

southeast of Florida between the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. 

The Territory consists of three major islands and a network of 

smaller ones, all of which are surrounded by fringing coral 

reefs. The U.S. Virgin Islands were divided into two 

sub-regions to evaluate condition of four categories 

as the relate to coral reef health—corals & algae, 

fish, climate, and human connections (see Key 

Themes & Indicators for descriptions). The U.S. 

Virgin Islands' coral reefs are in fair condition 

overall. Coral cover and macroalgae cover 

are impaired, while adult coral populations 

and CCA cover are fair. Fish are moderately 

to severely impacted, and the sustainability 

of fish populations is critical. The overall 

fair score for climate reflects how intensely 

climate-related impacts are negatively 

affecting coral reef health. Ocean acidification 

is a global problem and a particularly significant 

stressor for coral reef ecosystems throughout the 

Caribbean. Reef material growth is impaired in the 

U.S. Virgin Islands. Island-wide surveys show that while 

awareness of coral reef issues and support for management 

actions are moderate, pro-environmental behaviors are severely 

lacking. More work needs to be done to raise awareness and improve 

on-the-ground actions aimed at protecting and restoring coral reefs. 

Overall, the Territory is struggling against threats, such as pollution, 

overfishing, and climate change. 

st. croix

St. Thomas and St. John are two of the larger islands of 

the U.S. Virgin Islands chain. The capital of the Territory 

(Charlotte Amalie) is located on St. Thomas, the island 

home to just over half of the Territory's population. 

St. Thomas and St. John's coral reefs are impaired 

overall. Corals, algae, and climate conditions are 

fair, meaning they are moderately impacted. Fish 

are impaired overall and sustainability of fishes 

is critical. Additionally, human connections to the 

reef are impaired, meaning people's connections 

to reefs are lacking. Protecting coral reefs from 

pollution and overfishing can improve the health of 

these reefs.

Adult coral

Adult coral

Herbivory

Mortality

Diversity

Coral Cover

Macroalgae

CCA Cover

FIS

H

CORALS

& ALGAE

CL

MI ATE

C

HUMAN ONNECTIONS

Temperature Stress

Ocean

acidification

Reef material

growth

Diversity

Reef fish

Sustainability

Awareness

 Pro-environmental

behaviors

management

Support for

actions

FT

72

St. Croix is the largest island in the U.S. Virgin Islands, sitting 42 miles south of St. Thomas and St. John. While historically an 

agriculture-driven economy, St. Croix's economy is currently driven by tourism and industry (manufacturing). St. Croix's coral 

reefs are in fair condition, meaning they are moderately impacted. The corals & algae that support the overall reef ecosystem 

are in fair condition. St. Croix's fish populations are impaired by overfishing, pollution, and climate change. Human connections 

to the reef, indicated by awareness, support for management, and pro-environmental behaviors, are moderate. Protection and 

restoration are needed to improve the condition of these reefs. 

This status report provides a geographically specific 

assessment of U.S. Virgin Islands coral reef condition 

for the period 2014–2017. The U.S. Virgin Islands were 

divided into two sub-regions based on data resolution, 

geographical features, and impacts to the ecosystem. 

Data were collected by NOAA’s National Coral Reef 

Monitoring Program. For more detailed information on 

methodologies, indicators, thresholds, and scoring, visit 

http://www.coris.noaa.gov (keyword: status report).

why a status report?

Effective coral reef conservation cannot be accomplished 

without an informed and engaged public. This status report 

is part of an ongoing series of documents to track the status 

and trends of coral reefs across the U.S. and its territories. 

The USVI coral status report is part of a larger effort to 

provide the public and decision-makers with information 

about managing and conserving coral reef ecosystems.

Adult coral

Adult coral

Herbivory

Mortality

Diversity

Coral Cover

Macroalgae

CCA Cover

FISH

CORALS

& ALGAE

CL MI ATE C

HUMAN ONNECTIONS

Temperature Stress

Ocean acidification

Reef material

growth

Diversity

Reef fish

Sustainability

Awareness

 Pro-environmental

behaviors

management

Support for

actions

AFT

73

What do the scores mean?

80–89% Good

Most indicators meet reference values. 

Conditions in these locations are lightly 

impacted or have lightly declined. Human 

connections are high.

70–79% Fair

Some indicators meet reference values. 

Conditions in these locations are moderately 

impacted or have declined moderately. Human 

connections are moderate.

All or almost all indicators meet reference values. 

Conditions in these locations are unimpacted, or 

minimally impacted or have not declined. Human 

connections are very high.

90–100% Very Good

60–69% Impaired

Few indicators meet reference values. 

Conditions in these locations are very impacted 

or have declined considerably. Human 

connections are lacking.

0–59% Critical

Very few or no indicators meet reference values. 

Conditions in these locations are severely 

impacted or have declined substantially. Human 

connections are severely lacking.

Insufficient Data

Not scored.

Adult coral

Adult coral

Herbivory

Mortality

Diversity

Coral Cover

Macroalgae

CCA Cover

FISH

CORALS

& ALGAE

CL MI ATE C

HUMAN ONNECTIONS

Temperature Stress

Ocean acidification

Reef material

growth

Diversity

Reef fish

Sustainability

Awareness

 Pro-environmental

behaviors

management

Support for

actions

DRAFT

69

st. thomas &st. john

Coral Reef Habitat

Coral Reef 

Habitat

Land

Land
reefs of the deep

For this status report, NCRMP collected biological 

samples at depths of up to 100ft. However, in the 

Virgin Islands, extensive reef systems extend well 

past 100ft depth. These mesophotic reefs make 

up three quarters of available reef habitat across 

the Virgin Islands. Cooler waters at these depths 

provide a potential shield for corals from thermal 

stresses more common to reefs in the shallows. 

Additionally, mesophotic reefs are often sites where 

many economically important species of fish gather 

in large numbers at predictable times of the year to 

spawn and replenish their stock. 

what is a healthy 

reef?

Snorkeling in the Virgin Islands' blue waters today 

reveals a world vastly different from what prior 

generations saw. The health of our coral reefs has 

declined steadily over time—in part because of 

declining water quality, overfishing, climate change, 

and coral disease. Because ecosystems change over 

time, both in the presence and absence of humans, 

each successive generation of island residents has 

their own definition of what a healthy reef looks like. 

Unfortunately, as young people begin to dive and 

formulate personal impressions of these marine 

habitats, the current state of the reefs may begin to 

be normalized as "healthy." But this does not have to 

become the new normal.

It is vital to keep today’s assessment of the coral 

reefs and associated reef fisheries in the context 

of the coral reefs our grandparents knew. The days 

of an epic nearshore spearfishing trip, full of large 

grouper, snapper, parrotfish, and triggerfish may be 

in the past, but how we steward our resources today 

will have a great impact on what future generations 

may experience in the years ahead.

Man fishing with casting net, St. Thomas (1918). 

Photo: University of the Virgin Islands. 

key themes &indicators

Climate

Climate affects all components of a reef 

system. Climate change and ocean acidification 

influence reefs across the globe, but conditions 

vary at the regional and local level. The climate 

indicators are:

• Temperature stress, which evaluates the frequency and 

severity of high temperature events.

• Ocean acidification, which indicates if the water 

chemistry is suitable for the growth of corals 

and other calcifiers.

• Reef material growth, which is a calculated 

measurement of the yearly gain or loss of 

three-dimensional reef habitat. 

fish

Coral reefs serve a vital ecological role for fish 

species. Fish are important to the ecology of the 

reef, the economy, and the livelihoods of local 

communities. The indicators for fish are:

• Reef fish, a region-specific measure of density for 

selected fish species.

• Sustainability, a measure of human-related fish 

mortality relative to natural fish mortality.

• Diversity, a measure of unique fish species present.

Coral reef management agencies protect reef 

resources through management plans, public 

education, and involving communities in 

managing their resources. The indicators for 

human connections are:

• Awareness, an indicator of residents’ familiarity with 

threats to and the importance of reefs.

• Support for management actions, an indicator of 

support for reef management activities.

• Pro-environmental behavior, an indicator of residents’ 

participation in activities to protect the environment.

human connections

Corals & algae make up the base of the coral 

reef ecosystem, providing food and shelter 

for fish, shellfish, and marine mammals. The 

indicators for corals & algae are: 

• Coral cover, a measure of what percentage of the 

bottom (benthos) is living stony coral.

• Macroalgae cover, a measure of what percentage of 

the bottom (benthos) is macroalgae.

• Crustose coralline algae (CCA) cover, a measure of 

what percentage of the bottom (benthos) is crustose 

coralline algae.

• Adult coral, a measure of the density of reproductive 

age coral species. 

• Herbivory, a measure of the level of grazing pressure by 

fish on corals and algae.

• Mortality, a measure of the amount of old dead coral 

skeleton exposed as scars on live coral colonies.

• Diversity, a measure of unique coral species present.

Corals & algae
Status report working group

Jeremiah Blondeau, Marilyn Brandt, Caroline Donovan, 

Mark Eakin, Kimberly Edwards, Kitty Edwards, Peter 

Edwards, Ian Enochs, Mike Feeley, Chloe Fleming, Nate 

Formel, Erick Geiger, Matt Gorstein, Jay Grove, Sarah 

Groves, Leslie Henderson, Marlon Hibbert, Nathaniel 

Holloway, Matt Johnson, Thomas Kelley, Heath Kelsey, 

Jennifer Koss, Derek Manzello, Nathan Miller, Caroline 

Pott, Tyler Smith, Erica Towle, Shay Viehman.

About this status report

This status report is a joint product of NOAA's Coral 

Reef Conservation Program (CRCP) and the University 

of Maryland Center for Environmental Science. Science 

communication, design, and layout by Nathan Miller, 

Caroline Donovan, Heath Kelsey, Max Hermanson, and 

Annie Carew. March 2020.

Acknowledgements

The CRCP supports effective management and sound 

science to preserve, sustain, and restore valuable coral 

reef ecosystems for future generations. For more 

information, visit coralreef.noaa.gov.Cover photographed 

at Cane Bay, St. Croix in 2017 by Sarah Groves.

The views and conclusions contained in this document 

are those of the authors and should not be interpreted 

as representing the opinions or policies of the U.S. 

Government or the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation 

and its funding sources. Mention of trade names 

or commercial products does not constitute their 

endorsement by the U.S. Government, or the National 

Fish and Wildlife Foundation or its funding sources.

References

Ferrario F., M.W. Beck, C.D. Storlazzi, F. Micheli, C.C. 

Shepard, and L. Airoldi. (2014). "The effectiveness of coral 

reef for coastal hazard risk reduction and adaptation," 

Nature Communications, doi: 10.1038/ncomms4794.

Frieler K., M. Meinshausen, A. Golly, M. Mengel, K. Lebek, 

S.D. Donner, O. Hoegh-Guldberg. 2013. Limiting global 

warming to 2°C is unlikely to save most coral reefs. 

Nature Climate Change Vol 3: 165-170.

Hoegh-Guldberg O. 1999. Climate change, coral bleaching 

and the future of the world's coral reefs. Marine and 

Freshwater Research, Vol 50: 839-866.

taking action to improve 

reef health

Challenge Current Action Future Action

Lack of 

awareness 

among 

community 

members of 

coral reef health 

and threats

Ongoing 

outreach to 

communities; 

development of 

audience-specific 

messaging about 

coral reefs

Implement 

consistent 

messaging through 

audiences’ favored 

channels and 

media

Uncertainty 

surrounding 

extent of future 

climate change 

impacts

Coastal resilience 

coordinator hired 

for the territory

Begin incorporating 

resilience 

in planning; 

monitoring of 

climate change 

stressors and 

indicators

Insufficient 

enforcement 

of USVI coastal 

and marine 

regulations

Increase 

compliance 

through outreach

Increase cross 

and interagency 

response missions 

and agreements, 

cooperation and 

communication

Cumulative 

impact of 

diverse shoreline 

and marine 

stakeholders, 

and their 

priorities

Permitting 

process allows 

review and 

dialogue; 

hearings allow 

public input

Consistent 

stakeholderoriented messaging 

to clarify purpose 

of permitting

The status report working group during the workshop in St. 

Thomas, USVI, May 2019.

what you can do to help

There are many threats to coral reefs. Here are a few 

actions YOU can take to help conserve coral reefs:

There are many positive actions that we can take to 

protect and restore reefs from threats throughout the U.S. 

Virgin Islands. Local and federal governments as well as 

community groups strive to guide the public towards coralfriendly behaviors. It is a big, complex job that requires a 

variety of approaches. The table below highlights a few of 

the ongoing and future projects and programs taking place 

throughout the islands.

Don’t stand on or touch live coral. Don't 

take pieces of corals home with you.

Obey all natural reserve regulations, and 

do not drop your anchor in reef areas. 

Instead, use designated mooring buoys, 

or drop anchor on sandy bottom areas.

Only catch enough fish for you and your 

family. If you don't fish, choose seafood 

that is sustainably harvested.

Respect your island home and the 

beach you love by disposing of trash 

appropriately. Don't dump in ghuts. 

Educate yourself about coral reefs and 

the creatures they support.

Support initiatives that preserve and 

protect coral reefs.

Participate in volunteer-based/citizen 

science initiatives aimed at coral 

restoration.

Reduce single-use! Say no thanks 

to plastic drinking straws, cutlery, 

and bottles.

Be responsible for the fishing gear 

you use.

Have your septic system inspected 

annually to ensure proper functionality.

Smith T.B., R.S. Nemeth, J. Blondeau, J.M. Calnan, E. 

Kadison, S. Herzlieb. 2008. Assessing coral reef health 

across onshore to offshore stress gradients in the US 

VIrgin Islands. Marine Pollution Bulletin 56:1983-1991.