Second Edition

Center for the Study of 

National Reconnaissance

January 2016

Second Edition
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance

The Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance (CSNR) is an independent National 

Reconnaissance Office (NRO) research body reporting to the Director/ Business Plans 

and Operations, NRO. Its primary objective is to ensure that the NRO leadership has the 

analytic framework and historical context to make effective policy and programmatic 

decisions. The CSNR accomplishes its mission by promoting the study, dialogue, and 

understanding of the discipline, practice, and history of national reconnaissance. The 

Center studies the past, analyzes the present, and searches for lessons-learned.

Contact Information: To contact the CSNR, please call at 703-227-9368 

or e-mail csnr@nro.mil.

To Obtain Copies: Government personnel can obtain additional printed copies directly 

from CSNR. Other requestors can purchase printed copies by contacting Government 

Publishing Office:

Published by

National Reconnaissance Office

Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance

14675 Lee Road

Chantilly, Virginia 20151-1715

Printed in the United States of America

ISBN: 978-1-937219-19-2

Government Publishing Office

732 North Capitol Street, NW

Washington, DC 20401-0001

http://www.gpo.gov
Table of Contents

Foreword ............................................................................................................. 1

The Concept and Origins of Reconnaissance ...................................................... 3

National Reconnaissance and Space Exploration Timeline ................................. 9

The NRO–Its Early Years ...................................................................................... 11

Directors of National Reconnaissance ................................................................. 17

Key Events in the Exploration of Space and the 

Evolution of Space-Based Reconnaissance .................................................. 19

Founders of National Reconnaissance ................................................................ 38

Pioneers of National Reconnaissance ................................................................. 40

Table of Selected NRO Launches ......................................................................... 52

Selected Sources for National Reconnaissance Research ................................... 67

Acronyms ............................................................................................................. 73

Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance ............................................... 76

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. 77
1

The Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance (CSNR) produced 

this almanac to celebrate the history, achievements and evolution of the 

reconnaissance discipline — from individuals who forged its beginnings to 

those who further shaped the vision to meet the changing threats to national 

security during the past 55 years. This publication reveals the founding of 

the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) and its continued prosperity as a 

leading intelligence organization today. The CSNR believes you will find this 

almanac informative, engaging, and practical. 

We have identified important dates in the history of reconnaissance and, to 

provide context, other key events in national security, technology, and space 

exploration. Through this historical compilation, the CSNR seeks to offer you 

an opportunity to increase your understanding of national reconnaissance 

and to develop an appreciation for the contributions of the many engineers, 

scientists, and other risk-takers whose efforts and achievements paved the way 

for space-based reconnaissance systems.

The CSNR undertakes projects such as this almanac as an enabler of NRO 

goals and objectives. We believe having an appreciation for our national 

reconnaissance heritage can inspire today’s workforce to continue contributing 

innovations that fulfill the current mission of the NRO. The NRO will 

continue a 55-year tradition of innovation as it adjusts to the challenges of 

the 21st century.

Robert A. McDonald, Ph.D.

Director, Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance

Business Plans and Operations

Foreword
2

p NRO’s classified payload on NROL-22 launches from Complex 6 at Vandenberg Air Force Base on 27 June 2006.
3

Reconnaissance refers to the conduct of an exploratory survey to gather 

information. Since their beginnings on Earth, both animals and humans 

have used their senses to acquire data from a distance for daily survival — to 

locate food, take shelter, or avoid danger. Over time, humans have learned 

techniques and developed technologies to extend their innate information 

gathering capabilities. Early examples of expanded human reconnaissance 

include: animal tracking; making use of natural or man-made observation 

posts; and using faster or higher endurance transportation to increase speed 

and expand range for scouting activities.

Early military forces used reconnaissance to gather information about the 

location, force size, activities, and resources of enemies or potential adversaries. 

Reconnaissance methods became more sophisticated as technologies evolved. 

During the Civil War, both the Union and Confederacy used manned 

balloons as platforms for aerial reconnaissance of the battlefield and enemy 

territory. With the invention of photography in the early 19th century, aerial 

observation platforms could collect, retain, and share more accurate and 

complete information without reliance on human observation and memory.

At the beginning of the 20th century, advancements in photography 

along with the invention of the airplane greatly improved the military’s 

p Left: A small cylindrical sphere, Grab was the first satellite to collect Soviet electronic intelligence. 

Middle: President Eisenhower examines the Corona bucket. Right: Professor Thaddeus Lowe’s 

reconnaissance balloon used during the American Civil War provided one of the first instances of 

aerial reconnaissance.

The Concept and Origins of Reconnaissance
4

ability to conduct aerial reconnaissance. World War I served as a proving 

ground for these extended range, higher quality information collection 

platforms. Information gleaned by U.S. reconnaissance activities generally 

flowed to tactical commanders in the field, either directly or through military 

intelligence components.

The use of reconnaissance for non-military purposes also began to evolve 

in the early 20th century. Balloons and kites collected information about the 

weather and natural disasters, such as the San Francisco earthquake on 18 

April 1906.

As technology advanced, humans began to utilize more of the 

electromagnetic spectrum with such inventions as radio, radar, and sonar. 

Scientists developed instruments to intercept the signals transmitted by these 

devices and to exploit information from the intercepted data: the direction 

from which the signal originated, the type of signal, or its content. During 

World War II, aerial and electronic reconnaissance provided both sides with 

significant military intelligence.

The Cold War created a new reconnaissance challenge for the U.S. 

To obtain information about its strategic rival behind the Iron Curtain 

with its vast area of denied territory, the U.S. initially relied on strategic 

reconnaissance flights over the periphery of the Union of Soviet Socialist 

Republics (U.S.S.R.) using military aircraft such as the RB-47E, as well 

as ground-based electronic intercept stations. These methods had limited 

success. Eventually, the U.S. turned to the high-altitude U-2 aircraft to 

overfly and collect photography of the U.S.S.R. At the same time, the U.S. 

was developing a new method of reconnaissance to achieve its intelligence 

objectives.

Emergence of the space age brought about new reconnaissance capabilities. 

The early 20th century vision and genius of Robert Goddard, known as “the 

father of modern rocket propulsion,” pioneered the concept of placing objects 

in space. For nearly 50 years, scientists built on Goddard’s ideas. The U.S. had 

an active civilian and military space program. The first successful U.S. satellite 

launch occurred on 31 January 1958 when the Army Ballistic Missile agency 

used a modified Redstone rocket to send Explorer 1 into orbit. Thirteen 

months later, following the 21 January 1959 on-pad failure of Discoverer 0 

vehicle, the U.S. Air Force (USAF) launched the Discoverer I, the first object 

intended for a polar orbit. The Discoverer series became the “scientific cover” 

under which the Corona program developed. 

The U.S. launch successes, together with the termination of U-2 airborne 

surveillance operations over the U.S.S.R., fueled the U.S. vision for a space 
5

reconnaissance program. In June 1960, the U.S. Navy (USN) launched the 

first successful reconnaissance satellite, a Sigint vehicle developed by the 

Naval Research Laboratory (NRL). The Galactic Radiation and Background 

(Grab), was designed to collect Soviet electronic intelligence and orbited for 

several months. Two months later, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and 

USAF succeeded with their jointly managed Corona program to return from 

space and recover the first photoreconnaissance film. The summer successes 

of 1960 signaled the beginning of space reconnaissance. 

To further enhance space reconnaissance, President Eisenhower, on 31 

August 1960, transferred the Air Force’s photoreconnaissance Samos satellite 

project to the newly established Air Force Office of Missile and Satellite 

Systems (SAF/MSS). Air Force Under Secretary, Joseph V. Charyk, led the 

office and reported to the Secretary of Defense. A year later, the Kennedy 

administration established the National Reconnaissance Program (NRP), 

placing all reconnaissance satellite and airborne overflight activities into 

the program. The SAF/MSS was absorbed by a new organization when on 6 

September 1961, the CIA and DoD signed a charter that formed the highly 

secretive, covert National Reconnaissance Office to manage the NRP. 

The new organization sought ways to improve its reconnaissance 

surveillance mission. Yearning to achieve information beyond the widearea surveillance of its current Corona satellites, the NRO contracted with 

industry partners for a film-return satellite that could pin point areas and 

gather information on specific and targeted objects. On 12 July 1963, within 

three years of its founding, the NRO launched the Gambit-1 satellite with its 

KH-7 camera system. This was the first successful system to conduct close-in 

surveillance of the Soviet Union’s denied territories with its stereo pointing, 

high-resolution cameras. Of its 38 missions until 4 June 1967, 36 achieved 

orbit. A year before Gambit-1 retired, the NRO also launched the Gambit-3 

(Gambit-cubed) with its KH-8 camera with vastly superior resolution over 

the Gambit-1 KH-7 camera. Its high-resolution, close-in capability was a 

complement to the Hexagon KH-9 satellite system that NRO developed 

to perform wide-area searches like Corona - but with improved resolution. 

With Hexagon’s first launch on 15 June 1971, it continued to operate with 

Gambit-3 for 13 years to give optimal coverage of denied areas and contributed 

to the U.S. negotiations for international arms-limitation treaties. Tragically, 

Hexagon’s twentieth and final mission, launched on 18 April 1986, never 

reached space with the failure of its Titan 34D rocket. 

Despite the abrupt end to this last generation of film return systems, 

their overall success during a period of over 20 years had a significant 
6

p Hexagon KH-9 sits atop a Titan ready for lift-off.
7

impact on the fate of manned surveillance systems, particularly those that 

the USAF sought to implement. Under the overt mission of performing 

military-related experiments, the Air Force, in 1963, introduced to Defense 

Secretary Robert McNamara a concept for a 41 foot long laboratory with 

an affixed Gemini spacecraft housing a two-man crew that would make the 

journey into space aboard a Titan III. This Manned Orbiting Laboratory or 

MOL would conceivably become the world’s first manned space station and 

an ideal test bed for the effects of long-duration space missions. What lay 

behind this outward purpose of the MOL was also a covert one. The Air 

Force approached the NRO about including payloads of communication 

devices, radar equipment, and optical cameras that could be operated by the 

laboratory crew for the purpose of reconnaissance surveillance. The NRO 

was particularly interested in an onboard high-resolution optical camera and 

established the Dorian project to further examine its feasibility on a manned 

mission. While studies revealed Dorian resolution would greatly exceed that 

of both Corona and Gambit and would benefit with an onboard crew to 

readily make camera corrections, critics cited concerns over crew safety, rising 

costs, and mission duration. Even a successful November 1966 unmanned test 

flight and reentry of the improvised Gemini B could not sway the nay-sayers. 

As former NRO Deputy Director Jimmie D. Hill later cited, when asked about 

MOL/Dorian deficiencies, “The problem was that during the development 

of the MOL program . . . the technology evolved to where we could make 

(unmanned) satellites live for months, if not years. So what had started out 

to be something that would enhance your ability by having a man on board 

actually evolved into something that would cause you to terminate the mission 

at the end of a month . . . “. Added to the technology boon for unmanned 

space satellites was the MOL’s lagging schedule and ballooning budget that 

resulted in its cancellation on 9 June 1969 by President Richard M. Nixon. 

Dorian, subsequently, also faded away.

The improved technology for unmanned optic imagers in the early days 

of the NRO also proved beneficial for experimental radar imaging efforts. Dr. 

Robert A. McDonald, Director for NRO’s Center for the Study of National 

Reconnaissance (CSNR) in the Foreword to a 2011 CSNR booklet explained 

about a little known radar experiment that the NRO conducted in 1964: 

“The development of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging for 

intelligence purposes began before the establishment of the National 

Reconnaissance Office (NRO). Under the NRO’s coordination, 

scientists and engineers steadily overcame the technological and 

bureaucratic barriers to achieve radar imaging’s potential. On 
8

21 December 1964, Quill, the world’s first satellite-borne SAR 

launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. Quill was a 

successful experimental program. It is remarkable that it was built 

using technology already available, saving both time and money” 

(McDonald, 2011).

The NRO, known for its early and innovative experiments and successes in 

reconnaissance surveillance, has emerged into the 21st century by continuing 

to meet U.S. intelligence, military and homeland security requirements by 

providing improved capabilities on its current and evolving assets. The focus 

of the organization has transitioned and expanded over its last 55 years from 

monitoring Cold War adversaries to providing timely information to the 

warfighter, situational awareness for first responders, and treaty enforcement 

across the globe. Space has become the location of choice from which nations, 

organizations, and industry can conduct long-range reconnaissance of the 

Earth’s surface for both military and civil applications. 

Today, the NRO continues its job of launching and operating the nation’s 

reconnaissance satellites to gather information that will reduce the unknown, 

protect vital national interests, and support human survival. Continued 

advancements in technology have provided information about the activities, 

resources, and meteorological and hydrographic data from around the globe. 

p An illuminated launch pad, against the November 1966 night sky, captures the MOL prepared for an 

unmanned flight to test the ablative shield.
9

April 12, 1981

NASA launched the first 

space shuttle from Cape 

Canaveral.

National Reconnaissance and Space Exploration Timeline

July 14, 1914

U.S. government issued 

patent to Dr. Robert 

Goddard for liquid-fueled 

rocket design, laying 

the foundation for future 

spaceflights.

July 26, 1947

President Truman signed 

the National Security 

Act, establishing the U.S. 

Air Force as a separate 

service and forming the 

CIA, the National Security 

Council, and DoD. 

November 24, 1954

President Eisenhower 

approved the U-2 

concept and appointed 

the CIA to manage its 

development. 

October 4, 1957

U.S.S.R. launched Sputnik 

1, the first artificial, 

earth-orbiting satellite and 

setting the “international 

precedence for freedom of 

space.”

May 26, 1972

Information gathered from 

Corona’s last mission permitted 

the U.S. to conclude the initial 

signing of the Strategic Arms 

Limitation Treaty.

October 1, 1974

NRO abolished Program D, 

transferring responsibility for 

U-2, A-12, and SR-71 to the 

U.S. Air Force.

July 20, 1969

U.S. astronauts Neil 

Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin 

became the first to walk on 

the moon.

November 20, 1965

CIA’s A-12 supersonic 

reconnaissance aircraft 

made its final validation 

flight, setting speed and 

altitude records of Mach 

3.29 and 90,000 feet.

NATIONAL RECONNAISSANCE AND 

December 21, 1964: 

NRO’s experimental 

synthetic aperture radar 

(SAR) imaging satellite, 

Quill, became the world’s 

first satellite-borne SAR. 
10

June 22, 1960

The Naval Research Lab 

and USAF launched an 

Elint satellite (Grab), the 

first U.S. reconnaissance 

satellite.

October 1, 1958

The National Aeronautics 

and Space Act created the 

National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA).

August 19, 1960

USAF C-119 recovered 

Corona Mission 9009 

film capsule, containing 

the first reconnaissance 

photos from space.

September 6, 1961

DoD and CIA 

established the National 

Reconnaissance Office 

to oversee the National 

Reconnaissance Program.

October 15, 2008

NRO declassified the fact 

of domestic NRO Mission 

Ground Stations and 

NRO presence at specific 

overseas locations.

February 28, 1958

President Eisenhower 

endorsed the film recovery 

satellite program (to be 

known as Corona) for 

photoreconnaissance.

September 18, 1992

The Department of Defense, 

in an official release, 

publically acknowledged the 

existence of the NRO.

May 1, 1960

Soviet missiles shot 

down Gary Powers’ U-2 

reconnaissance plane 

near Sverdlovski, U.S.S.R.

Jul. 8, 2011: 

NASA retired its Space 

Shuttle program with 

Atlantis’ final visit to the 

International Space Station.

Sept 17, 2011: 

NRO celebrated its 50th 

anniversary with the 

public declassification and 

unveiling of its Gambit 

and Hexagon film return 

systems.

Oct 22, 2015: 

The NRO announced the 

declassification of the 

Dorian program with the 

release of a compendium 

of Dorian records at a 

panel discussion of MOL 

astronauts held at the 

National Museum of the 

U.S. Air Force, WrightPatterson AFB, OH.

Nov. 12, 2014: 

The European Space Agency 

announced successful landing 

of its probe, Philae, on a 

comet’s surface. 

SPACE EXPLORATION TIMELINE
11

The establishment of the NRO on 6 September 1961 and its early management 

structure intended to build upon the early collaboration between the USAF 

and the CIA. At its beginning, the NRO was jointly directed by USAF and 

CIA officials, with both reporting to the Director of Central Intelligence and 

the Secretary of Defense. This union provided both challenges and triumphs 

for the early pioneers of the organization who operated in the highly secretive, 

covert organization. Less than six months after being named NRO co-director, 

however, Richard Bissell stepped down. The DoD and CIA retained as sole 

director Joseph Charyk who continued to also serve as Under Secretary of the 

Air Force. There was no deputy director until March 1963 when a third charter 

established that the NRO would be led by a DoD appointed director and a 

CIA-appointed deputy. 

The early NRO had a small headquarters staff that operated from Room 

4C1000 at the Pentagon. The Director and Deputy Director of the NRO 

managed four alpha-designated program offices: 

Program A managed the U.S. Air Force satellite reconnaissance efforts; 

Program B oversaw the CIA satellite reconnaissance program; 

Program C operated the U.S. Navy satellite reconnaissance program; 

Program D operated aerial reconnaissance platforms like the U-2, A-12, and SR-71.

p Left: The NRO was quite literally an office in the Pentagon. It managed all the disparate programs 

out of Pentagon Suite 4C1000. Right: The NRO relocated its various programs and facilities to its 

new consolidated headquarters in Chantilly, VA in 1996.

The NRO – Its Early Years
12

On 1 October 1974, the NRO 

abolished Program D, transferring 

control of the program’s aerial 

reconnaissance assets to the 

Department of the Air Force. 

On 31 December 1992, the NRO 

disestablished the remaining three 

alpha-designated program offices 

and replaced them with functional 

directorates and program offices 

(e.g., imagery intelligence, signals 

intelligence, communications, 

and space launch). To facilitate 

this reorganization, the NRO 

relocated its various program 

activities, initially consolidating 

them at interim facilities in the 

Northern Virginia area. In 1996, 

the NRO opened a permanent, 

integrated headquarters facility at 

the Westfields Business Park in 

Chantilly, Virginia.

Four years before moving into 

its new Westfields headquarters 

complex, the NRO began the 

process of transforming from a secret 

organization to an acknowledged 

agency of the Department of Defense. A 18 September 1992 press release 

contained the first public acknowledgement of the existence of the NRO.

Some of the formerly classified activities of the NRO became public when 

President William J. Clinton authorized the Director of Central Intelligence 

to declassify two programs. Corona, the first imagery reconnaissance satellite 

was declassified in 1995. Grab, the first Sigint-reconnaissance satellite was 

declassified in 1998. During its 50th anniversary events on 17 September 2011, 

the NRO unveiled to the public and displayed prototypes of the Gambit-1 and 

Hexagon, the last film return satellite systems that together flew over two 

decades to provide high resolution imagery over denied territories. With their 

operations becoming obsolescent and ceasing over 30 years ago, former DNRO 

Bruce Carlson formerly approved their declassification, along with Gambit-3, 

p Top: Corona was the first imagery 

reconnaissance satellite. Bottom: Grab was 

the first Sigint reconnaissance satellite.
13

on 2 June 2011. The satellite display and subsequent release of voluminous 

programmatic documents was one of NRO’s largest declassification efforts. 

Just over a year later, NRO released programmatic Quill information to the 

public in documents explaining the 1964 successful experimental launch of 

the world’s first synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellite. In yet another public 

venue on 22 October 2015, NRO announced the declassification of the 

NRO’s Dorian program and its association with the USAF Manned Orbiting 

Laboratory (MOL). 

These programs, and succeeding NRO programs, have provided U.S. 

leadership with reliable intelligence in support of national security. Early in 

the NRO’s history, President Lyndon Johnson recognized the value of the 

NRO’s overhead reconnaissance systems when, in 1967, while speaking about 

the U.S. space program, he said: “We’ve spent between 35 and 40 billion 

dollars on space. But if nothing else had come from that program except the 

knowledge that we get from our satellite photography, it would be worth ten 

times to us what the whole program cost. Because tonight, I know how many 

missiles the enemy has that I would not know (otherwise)” (Johnson, 1967). 

In recent decades, the NRO has been introduced to more challenges 

as the world has become more globalized. The Internet and international 

transportation networks have interconnected countries and persons around 

the globe, making monitoring the world an increasingly difficult task. No 

event speaks to this challenge more than that of the terrorist attacks inside 

the U.S. on 11 September 2001 — or 9/11. With the U.S. troop deployment 

response to 9/11, NRO leaders realized the immediate need to provide more 

tactical support to the warfighter. In a 2003 address to the National Space 

Symposium, DNRO Peter Teets summarized, “In the late 1950s, it was a 

rare combination of new threats, events, and circumstances that encouraged 

unprecedented innovation in defense and intelligence technologies. The 

results—realization of highly capable space systems to meet critical national 

security needs—were beyond expectation. We are, again, at the brink of another 

national need for transformation via space capabilities, in the face of a new 

threat to our homeland. Through innovation, integration, and perspiration, 

we’ll deliver that new potential.”

As the NRO moves beyond celebrating 55 years of success, it continues 

to step up to future challenges and transformational opportunities, taking 

with it lessons learned from significant historical accomplishments. It has 

transitioned from operating reconnaissance systems whose primary mission 

was to collect strategic military, political, and economic information about 

its principal Cold War adversary, the U.S.S.R., to a new and emerging 
 14

p Gambit-3 stands tall aboard a Titan IIIB.
15

mission. Today this mission includes developing information about emerging 

threats that are more diverse and widely dispersed. International terrorists, 

drug traffickers, and non-state actors intent on proliferation of weapons of 

mass destruction, have become critical NRO missions. By developing highly 

accurate military and intelligence targeting data, supporting international 

peacekeeping and humanitarian relief operations, and assessing the impact 

of natural disasters, the NRO continues to provide the nation with strategic 

and operational support that goes above and beyond. It is this vision that 

Director NRO Betty Sapp expresses in the simple but powerful Latin words, 

“Supra Et Ultra.”

References

Berkowitz, B. with Suk, M. (2015). The National Reconnaissance Office at 

50 Years: A Brief History, Washington, DC: CSNR (U.S. Government 

Publishing Office).

Johnson, L. B. (1967). Remarks as quoted in R. A. McDonald, “NRO’s Satellite 

Imaging Reconnaissance: Moving from the Cold War Threat to Post-Cold 

War Challenges,” Defense Intelligence Journal, 8-1, 66, 1999.

McDonald, R. A. (2011). “Foreword.” In J. A. Charlston, et. al., Quill—A 1964 

NRO Experiment in Off-the-Shelf Radar Technology, Chantilly, VA: CSNR

McDonald, R. A. and Widlake, P. (2012). “Looking Closer and Looking Broader: 

Gambit and Hexagon—The Peak of Film-Return Space Reconnaissance 

After Corona.” In National Reconnaissance—Journal of the Discipline and 

Practice, Spring 2012, Issue 2012-U1

Outzen, J. (2012). Critical to US Security: The Gambit and Hexagon Satellite 

Reconnaissance Systems Compendium. Washington, DC: CSNR (U.S. 

Government Publishing Office)

Outzen, J. (2012). Trailblazer 1964: The Quill Experimental Radar Imagery 

Satellite Compendium. Washington, DC: CSNR (U.S. Government 

Publishing Office)
 16

p In New York City, two towers of light pay tribute to the innocent victims killed in the 9/11 terrorist attacks. In response 

to those attacks, the NRO, together with other intelligence and DoD agencies, supported the U.S. and allied warfighters 

with collaborative, “multi-INT” that combined overhead intelligence with other data collection.
17

Dr. Richard M. Bissell, Jr.

6 Sep 1961 – 28 Feb 1962 

(Co-Director)

Dr. Robert J. Hermann

8 Oct 1979 – 2 Aug 1981

Dr. John L. McLucas

17 Mar 1969 – 20 Dec 1973

Dr. Joseph V. Charyk

6 Sep 1961 – 28 Feb 1962 

(Co-Director)

29 Feb 1962 – 1 Mar 1963

Mr. James W. Plummer

21 Dec 1973 – 28 Jun 1976

Dr. Alexander H. Flax

1 Oct 1965 – 17 Mar 1969

Dr. Hans M. Mark

3 Aug 1977 – 8 Oct 1979

Dr. Brockway McMillan

1 Mar 1963 – 1 Oct 1965

Mr. Thomas C. Reed

9 Aug 1976 – 7 Apr 1977

Directors of National Reconnaissance
18

Dr. Donald M. Kerr

26 Jul 2005 – 04 Oct 2007

Mr. Peter B. Teets

13 Dec 2001 – 25 Mar 2005

Mr. Keith R. Hall

28 Mar 1997 – 13 Dec 2001

Mr. Scott F. Large

19 Oct 2007 – 18 Apr 2009

Mr. Edward C. Aldridge, Jr.

3 Aug 1981 – 16 Dec 1988

Mr. Jeffrey K. Harris

9 May 1994 – 26 Feb 1996

Mr. Martin C. Faga

28 Sep 1989 – 5 Mar 1993

Gen. Bruce A. Carlson, 

USAF (Ret)

12 Jun 2009 – 5 July 2012

Ms. Betty J. Sapp

06 July 2012 – Present
19

1862

May 31: Professor Thaddeus Lowe 

conducted aerial reconnaissance 

from a balloon during Battle of Fair 

Oaks in Virginia.

1903

Dec. 17: Orville and Wilbur Wright 

demonstrated first flight of powered, 

heavier-than-air aircraft at Kitty 

Hawk, North Carolina.

1906

Apr. 18: George Lawrence’s “Captive 

Airship,” comprised of a kite 

“train” with an attached camera, 

photographed San Francisco’s 

earthquake devastation. 

1909

Apr. 24: A news photographer, 

flying with Wilbur Wright in Italy, 

took first motion pictures from an 

airplane in flight.

Aug. 2: The U.S. Army accepted 

its first Wright Brothers airplane, 

making it the first airplane put into 

service by any government.

1914

Jul. 7: Robert Goddard obtained 

patents for multi-staged and liquidfueled rocket designs. 

1915

Mar. 3: The U.S. government formed 

the National Advisory Committee for 

Aeronautics (NACA), regarded as the 

predecessor to NASA.

Key Events in the Exploration of Space 

and the Evolution of Space-Based Reconnaissance

p Top: Professor Thaddeus Lowe conducted 

aerial reconnaissance from a balloon during 

Battle of Fair Oaks in Virginia. Bottom: 

Robert Goddard obtained patents for liquidfueled and multi-staged rocket designs.
20

1918

Oct. 2: The U.S. successfully flighttested the Kettering Bug, the first 

pilotless aircraft, in Dayton, Ohio.

1943

Apr. 19: RAF photo interpreter 

Constance Babington Smith 

identified the V-1 pulse-jet weapon 

in an aerial reconnaissance photo 

take of test facility at Peenemunde, 

Germany.

1945

Mar. 19: The Germans abandoned 

their V-2 program, leaving rocket 

technology for capture by Allied 

Forces.

1946

Apr. 16: The U.S. Army first 

launched captured German V-2 

rocket at White Sands, New Mexico 

during missile testing.

May 2: RAND report, “Preliminary 

Design of Experimental WorldCircling Spaceship” affirmed 

feasibility of launching space satellites.

1947

Jul. 26: President Truman signed the 

National Security Act, establishing the 

U.S. Air Force as a separate service 

and forming the CIA, the National 

Security Council (NSC) and the DoD.

1950

Oct. 9: The U.S. Air Force established 

Project Gopher for development 

of a polyethylene high-altitude 

reconnaissance balloon.

1952

Jul. 5: The U.S. Air Force directed 

Strategic Air Command (SAC) to 

modify B-47B bomber to perform 

photoreconnaissance missions; the 

first mission took place in October. 

Oct. 15: A B-47B aircraft crew 

photographed northeastern 

Siberian air bases during the first 

Presidentially-authorized overflight 

of the U.S.S.R.

Nov. 2: The CIA established a photo 

interpretation unit within its Office 

of Research and Reports.

1954

Mar. 1: RAND issued “Feed back

Report” recommending the USAF 

develop a surveillance satellite 

program.

May 8: The USAF used a RB-47E to 

conduct photoreconnaissance in 

extreme northwestern Soviet Union.

Jul. 1: The USAF established the 

Western Development Division 

(WDD), considered the birthplace 

of U.S. missile and satellite 

development, in Inglewood, 

California.
21

1954 cont.

Nov. 24: President Eisenhower 

approved the U-2 concept and 

appointed the CIA to manage its 

development.

Dec. 9: The CIA signed a contract 

to develop U-2, termed the “biggest 

intelligence bargain in history.”

1955

Apr. 18: Two Soviet MiGs shot down 

a U.S. RB-47E reconnaissance 

aircraft near the Chukotskiy 

Peninsula.

May 26: NSC’s first space policy 

declared a U.S. satellite, built as part 

of International Geophysical Year 

objectives, would be for “peaceful 

uses of space” that would test the 

international principle of “freedom 

of space.”

Jul. 21: Soviets rejected President 

Eisenhower’s Open Skies proposal 

at Geneva, providing impetus for 

U-2 operations and missions over 

U.S.S.R.

p Top: A U-2 spy plane, used for overflights of 

the U.S.S.R., prepares for take-off. Bottom: 

The high-altitude, camera-carrying Genetrix 

balloon, approved to fly over interior regions 

of the U.S.S.R, helped to close the sizable 

intelligence gap.
22

Aug. 4: U-2 prototype flew its 

first test flight, just eight months 

after its contract was signed with 

Lockheed.

1956

Jan. 10: Genetrix camera carrying 

balloons began a series of 516 

releases over the next month, 

collecting intelligence over denied 

areas.

Jun. 26: RAND issued “Physical 

Recovery of Satellite Payloads” 

report recommending substituting 

film recovery for electronic 

scanning and readout in orbit.

Jul. 4: Hervey Stockman piloted 

the first U-2 overflight over 

denied Soviet airspace, flying over 

Leningrad; Soviet radar detected 

the flight.

Jul. 10: Soviet officials protested 

American U-2 violation of Soviet 

airspace resulting in President 

Eisenhower temporarily suspending 

the Soviet overflights.

Oct. 29: The USAF awarded a 

contract to Lockheed for the 

WS-117L program, an outgrowth 

of RAND studies and the only 

reconnaissance satellite effort at 

that time in the U.S. 

p Before the U-2 was shot down in 1960, the 

U.S. was already developing a replacement 

for the U-2 aircraft under the OXCART and 

SR-71 programs. 
23

1956 cont. 

Nov. 27: Requirement clearly 

defining an effort for a 

reconnaissance satellite system 

emerged from the WS-117L; 

Pentagon approved the operational 

requirement four months later.

1957

Mar. 6: Merton Davies conceived a 

“hot idea” for attaching a spin-pan 

camera to a satellite after discussions 

with Fairchild Camera employee, 

Frederic Wilcox.

May 15: The U.S.S.R. launched R-7 

ICBM, giving Soviet Union the lead 

in space race.

Oct. 4: U.S.S.R. launched Sputnik-1, 

the first artificial, earth-orbiting 

satellite setting the “international 

precedence for freedom of space.”

Dec. 6: The U.S. Navy’s Vanguard, 

anticipated as the first satellite to 

launch in the Western world in 

response to Sputnik, exploded two 

feet above launch pad.

Dec. 17: The U.S. successfully 

launched first Atlas ICBM, 

eventually leading to its use for 

payloads in space.

1958

Jan. 31: The U.S. Army’s Jupiter-C 

launch vehicle placed Explorer I, 

America’s first satellite, into orbit.

Feb. 28: President Eisenhower 

endorsed film recovery 

satellite program for satellite 

photoreconnaissance.

Mar. 10: The name “Project 

Corona” arose from WS-117L’s 

secret satellite Program IIA.

Aug. 19: National Intelligence 

Estimate (NIE) on Soviet strength 

contributed to a “missile gap” 

question that lingered until Sept. 

1961 when publication of NIE-11-

8/1-61, based on Corona imagery, 

confirmed that Soviet missile 

production lagged far behind 

originally forecast figures.

Oct. 1: National Aeronautics and 

Space Act established NASA as U.S. 

civilian space agency.

Dec. 3: Press release provided 

cover for the secret CIA’s Corona 

program, disassociated it from the 

Air Force WS-117L program, and 

attributed development and future 

launches to the Discoverer series for 

scientific exploration.
24

1959

Jan. 2: The U.S.S.R. launched Luna 

1, first Soviet attempt to reach the 

moon. Instead it passed within 

5,995 km of the moon’s surface 

two days later and went into orbit 

around the Sun.

Jan. 21: First Corona launch failed.

Aug. 14: U.S. Explorer VI 

transmitted the first image of the 

Earth from space using a television 

scanner.

Aug. 24: President Eisenhower 

approved the Grab Elint satellite 

reconnaissance program.

1960

Apr. 1: U.S. launched TIROS, the 

first experimental meteorological 

satellite, with weather imaging 

capability that would later support 

Corona.

Apr. 13: The U.S. Navy successfully 

launched and orbited Transit 1B, the 

first navigation satellite.

May 1: Soviets used SA-2 surface-toair missile (SAM) to shoot down 

Francis Gary Powers’ 

U-2 reconnaissance plane near

Sverdlovsk, U.S.S.R.

May 24: Midas II, a U.S. early 

warning satellite, launched but 

transmission failed after two days.

p Top: An exhibit displays the Soviet’s Sputnik-1, 

the first, Earth-orbiting satellite in space. 

Bottom: The NRL’s Grab satellite prepares to 

launch 500 miles above the Earth for orbit to 

collect signals emanating from ground-based 

Soviet radar antennas.
25

1960 cont.

Jun. 22: U.S. Naval Research 

Laboratory and USAF launched 

Elint satellite, Grab, the first U.S. 

reconnaissance satellite.

Aug. 10: U.S. launched Discoverer 

XIII, the first successful diagnostic 

flight in Corona series.

Aug. 11: A USN team retrieved 

Discoverer XIII’s recovery capsule 

containing an American flag, the 

first recovery of a man-made object 

from orbit.

Aug. 19: A USAF C-119 caught 

Discoverer XIV’s recovery capsule 

in mid-air; it contained the first 

reconnaissance photographs from 

space.

Aug. 20: The U.S.S.R. made its first 

successful space recovery, Vostok 

prototype (Sputnik V); all animals 

and plants aboard survived the 

flight.

Aug. 25: The National Security 

Council assigned responsibility 

for Samos satellite reconnaissance 

program to SECAF.

Aug. 31: SECAF established Samos 

Project Office on West Coast and 

Office of Missiles and Satellite 

Systems (SAF/MSS) in Washington 

D.C. to direct Project Samos; both 

were predecessor organizations of 

the NRO.

Dec. 7: USAF launched Corona 

Mission 9013, the first successful 

mission with KH-2 camera.

1961

Feb. 1: The USAF successfully 

launched a three-stage, solid fuel 

Minuteman ICBM.

Apr. 12: Soviet Air Force Lieutenant 

Yuri Gagarin became first human 

in space.

May 5: LCDR Alan Shepard became 

first American in space during a 

brief sub-orbital flight.

Aug. 30: USAF launched Corona 

Mission 9023, the first mission with 

a KH-3 camera.

Sept. 6: DoD and CIA established 

the National Reconnaissance Office 

(NRO) to oversee the National 

Reconnaissance Program.

1962

Feb. 20: Lt. Col. John Glenn, Jr. 

became the first U.S. astronaut to 

orbit the Earth, circling three times 

in a span of five hours.

Apr. 26: U.S.S.R. launched a Zenit 

2 under designator Kosmos 4, the 

first Soviet photoreconnaissance test 

satellite to orbit; it failed to return 

satisfactory images.
26

Apr. 30: CIA’s A-12, a high-altitude, 

supersonic “Blackbird” aircraft 

intended as a follow-on to the U-2, 

made its first official test flight.

Jul. 17: Robert White piloted 

the U.S. X-15 to lower reaches of 

space; first winged aircraft to reach 

stratosphere.

Jul. 23: DNRO Joseph Charyk 

organized the NRO into Program 

A (Air Force), Program B (CIA), 

Program C (Navy), and Program D 

(aircraft).

Jul. 28: The U.S.S.R. launched a 

Zenit 2 (Kosmos 7) which orbited for 

10 days and provided Soviets with 

the first clear photoreconnaissance 

images from space.

Aug. 23: NRO launched first successful 

Defense Meteorological Satellite 

Program (DMSP) satellite.

Aug. 29: U-2 imagery revealed SA-2 

and surface-to-air missile sites under 

construction in Cuba.

Oct. 14: U.S. U-2 reconnaissance 

aircraft acquired imagery of Soviet 

SS-4 medium-range ballistic missiles 

at San Cristobol, Cuba.

p A C-119 catches the Corona recovery vehicle. 

Corona was a technological marvel that 

scientists and engineers developed beyond 

expectations. The Corona saw several firsts: 

first recovery of an object in space, first midair 

recovery of an object sent into space, and first 

intelligence photograph of a target imaged from 

space.
27

1962 cont.

Oct. 22: After disclosing to leaders 

of Britain, France, Germany, and 

Canada reconnaissance photos of 

Soviet nuclear-capable missiles in 

Cuba, President Kennedy televised 

to the American people that “closest 

surveillance” of the island yielded 

“unmistakable evidence of offensive 

missile sites.”

Oct. 28: Soviet officials ordered 

removal of nuclear-capable missiles 

from Cuba. 

Dec. 13: NRO successfully launched 

second signals reconnaissance 

satellite, Poppy 1.

1963

Jun. 16: Soviet Valentina Tereshkova 

became first woman to orbit Earth; 

aboard Vostok 6, she orbited Earth 

48 times in a three-day flight.

July 12: NRO launched the first 

Gambit 1 equipped with the first 

stereo pointing, high resolution 

KH-7 camera.

p A U-2 reconnaissance photo reveals a Soviet 

SA-2 surface-to-air missile (SAM) deployment 

site just prior to the events of the Cuban 

Missile Crisis in 1962. 
28

1964 

Apr. : NRO established Project Dorian 

to assess its reconnaissance camera’s 

feasibility for use and flight aboard the 

USAF’s anticipated MOL, a Manned 

Orbiting Laboratory with astronauts 

controlling the camera.

Dec. 21: The world’s first satelliteborne radar imager, Quill, made 

orbit and returned first images as 

part of a NRO demo mission.

Dec. 22: The SR-71, the USAF’s 

“Blackbird,” a slightly larger and 

heavier version of the CIA’s A-12, 

made its first official test flight.

1965

Aug. 25: President Lyndon B. 

Johnson approved MOL for USAF 

development.

Nov. 20: The CIA’s A-12 made its 

final validation flight, setting speed 

and altitude records of Mach 3.29 

and 90,000 feet.

1966

Jan. 7: Lockheed delivered first 

SR-71 aircraft to SAC.

July 29: NRO launched the first 

Gambit-3 with improved KH-8 

camera and film resolution.

Aug. 23: NASA’s Lunar Orbiter 1 

satellite took first pictures of Earth 

from the moon using Samos camera.

1967

Jun. 4: The last of the Gambit 1 

satellites lifted off from Vandenberg 

Air Force Base atop an Atlas Agena D.

Jun. 26: The U.S.S.R. launched 

Kosmos-189, the first Soviet Elint 

satellite, but it failed to orbit.

1969

Jun. 9: President Richard M. Nixon 

cancelled the MOL program, 

essentially ending Dorian as well, 

in favor of unmanned satellite 

reconnaissance endeavors.

Jul. 20: U.S. astronauts Neil Armstrong 

and Buzz Aldrin became the first to 

walk on the moon.

1970

Apr. 24: China joined U.S., U.S.S.R., 

France, and Japan to establish a 

satellite reconnaissance program 

with the DFH-1 launch.

Nov. 6: The USAF launched 

Defense Support Program (DSP) 

satellite, the first operational missile 

warning satellite.

1971

Jun.15: A Titan IIID booster lifted 

the first Hexagon satellite into space.
29

1972

May 25: NRO launched 

Mission 1117, the final Corona 

photoreconnaissance satellite.

1973

May 14: NASA launched Skylab 1, 

the unmanned Orbital Workstation 

(OWS) and the United States’ first 

space station. 

Dec. 17: DoD approved Global 

Positioning System (GPS) 

development.

1974

Feb. 12: Manned Skylab 4 returned 

from its nearly 3 month rendezvous 

with the OWS, signaling the end of 

the Skylab program.

Oct. 1: NRO and CIA abolished 

Program D, transferring 

responsibilities for U-2, A-12, and 

the SR-71 to the USAF.

1975

Feb. 17: The U.S. Apollo and 

Russian Soyus space crafts 

docked together during the first 

international manned space 

mission.

1977

Jan. 16: FBI arrested Christopher 

Boyce, who (with Andrew Daulton 

Lee) sold secrets to the Soviets on 

a Sigint satellite reconnaissance 

system leading to their conviction in 

Spring 1977.

1978

Feb. 22: The USAF launched first 

GPS Block 1 constellation satellite.

Oct. 1: President Carter publicly 

acknowledged the use of 

photoreconnaissance satellites for 

treaty monitoring.

1981

Apr. 12: NASA launched the first 

Space Shuttle from Cape Canaveral. 

1982

Sept. 1: The USAF activated 

Space Command to consolidate 

operational space activities.

1983

Jun. 18: Astronaut Sally Ride became 

the first U.S. woman in space when 

she flew aboard the Space Shuttle 

Challenger.

1984

April 17: A Titan IIIB successfully 

launched the last Gambit-3.

Aug. 11: Jane’s Defense Weekly 

published classified photo of first 

Soviet aircraft carrier.
30

1986

Jan. 28: Space Shuttle Challenger 

exploded just after liftoff, killing all 

seven crew members.

April 18: The catastrophic explosion 

of the Hexagon on launch signaled 

the end for the last of the film 

return satellites.

Aug. 7: U.S. Court sentenced Bruce 

Ott to 25 years for his attempt to 

sell classified information on SR-71 

“Blackbird.”

Oct. 27: U.S. charged Allen John 

Davies with attempting to pass 

classified reconnaissance technology 

to Soviets, resulting in a five year 

sentence.

1989

Nov. 9: German citizens began 

to break down the Berlin Wall 

following East Berlin’s lifted travel 

restrictions.

1990

Jan. 26: U.S. Air Force retired the 

SR-71 reconnaissance aircraft from 

SAC service in ceremonies at Beale 

AFB, California.

p An aerial view of the current NRO 

Headquarters captures the four distinct 

towers at NRO’s Westfields’ complex in 

Chantilly, VA. With its programs centralized 

to streamline operations, the NRO came “out 

of the shadows” when the DoD publically 

acknowledged its existence in 1992. 
31

1991

Dec. 25: The Soviet Union collapsed 

with the resignation of General 

Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev.

1992

Mar. 24: The U.S., the States 

Parties of Ukraine and 23 other 

nations signed the Open Skies 

treaty, allowing unarmed aerialreconnaissance missions by signatory 

nations.

Sept. 18: The DoD officially 

acknowledged existence of the NRO.

1994

Apr. 28: CIA officer, Aldrich Ames 

received life in prison for giving 

imagery satellite and humint 

documents to Russia over a 9 year 

period. His wife, Rosario, received 

63 months in prison for her role. 

1995

Feb. 24: President Clinton 

declassified Corona imagery. 

Jul. 17: The first GPS satellite 

constellation became fully 

operational.

1996

Dec. 18: For the first time, NRO 

declassified a launch with public 

acknowledgment that the upcoming 

launch of Titan IV would carry an 

NRO satellite into space. 

1997

Mar. 1: The NRO declassified certain 

offices, personnel, and sites involved 

in space launch and approved 

releasing, for some launches, the fact 

that they carry NRO satellites. 

1998

Jun. 17: As part of its 75th 

anniversary celebration, the Naval 

Research Laboratory announced 

DCI George Tenet’s declassification 

of limited information about the 

Grab satellite. 

2000

Oct. 25: DCI George Tenet approved 

declassification of imagery acquired 

by KH-7 camera and the KH-9 

mapping camera. 

p An aerial view of the Pentagon shows 

extensive damage to its corridors following 

the 9/11 attack.
32

2001

Feb. 18: FBI arrested Robert 

Hanssen, a one-time FBI liaison 

officer to the NRO, for handing 

Russia large amounts of national 

security intelligence.

Sept. 11: Using commercial aircraft in 

a suicide attack that killed over 3,000, 

Al Qaeda terrorists destroyed two 

World Trade Center towers, damaged 

the Pentagon, and highjacked a fourth 

plane that passengers downed in 

Pennsylvania.

Oct. 7: Operation Enduring Freedom 

began in Afghanistan.

2002

Sept. 20: National GeospatialIntelligence Agency (then called 

NIMA) formally transferred imagery 

acquired by KH-7 camera and the 

KH-9 mapping camera to National 

Archives.

2003

Feb. 1: Space Shuttle Columbia 

(Mission STS-107) suffered 

catastrophic failure 15 minutes 

before touchdown at Kennedy 

Space Center; the seven crew 

members died.

Feb. 5: Secretary of State Colin 

Powell used satellite reconnaissance 

imagery at U.N. Security Council to 

contend that Iraq failed to comply 

with disarmament obligations.

Mar. 19: Operation Iraqi Freedom 

began.

2004

May 11: DCI George Tenet approved 

Poppy declassification. 

Dec. 17: President George W. Bush 

signed the Intelligence Reform and 

Terrorist Prevention Act creating 

the position of Director of National 

Intelligence.

Dec. 26: An unexpected tsunami 

devastated Indonesia, generating 

requirements for space-based imagery 

to aid search and rescue teams.

2005

Apr. 21: Ambassador John D. 

Negroponte became the first 

Director of National Intelligence. 

2006

Jul. 5: North Korea conducted seven 

missile tests, including the long-range 

Taepo-Dong 2 missile that failed 

shortly after launch.
33

2007

Jan. 11: China successfully carried 

out its first test of an anti-satellite 

weapon, shooting down an aging 

Chinese weather satellite.

2008

Feb. 20: U.S. Navy successfully 

shot down an errant NRO satellite 

carrying toxic hydrazine fuel.

May 25: Phoenix Lander, a robotic 

spacecraft, descended onto Mars’ 

northern polar region where it later 

confirmed that water, in the form of 

ice, exists on Mars. 

Jun. 9: NRO declassified the fact of 

radar satellite reconnaissance. 

Oct. 15: NRO declassified the fact of 

domestic Mission Ground Stations 

and NRO presence at RAF Menwith 

Hill, UK and the Joint Defence 

Facility Pine Gap near Alice Springs, 

Australia.

2009

Jan. 17: NRO launched a payload 

for the first time aboard a Delta IV 

heavy launch vehicle.

Nov. 27: In a memo to NRO, 

PDDNI Gompert approved 

declassifying the “fact of’ Quill as a 

radar imager effective 25 Nov. 2009. 

2010

Jan. 12: An earthquake struck Haiti, 

prompting need for space-based 

imagery to identify stable landing 

and rescue sites.

Apr. 15: President Obama presented 

the administration’s proposal to 

cancel NASA’s moon-mission 

program, Constellation.

Apr. 22: The USAF launched its 

first X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle 

(OTV-1), an unmanned orbital 

space plane resembling a miniature 

Space Shuttle and the first vehicle 

since NASA’s space shuttles to have 

reentry and landing capability. 

p The USAF’s X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle (OTV-1) 

resembles a miniature space shuttle.
34

Jul. 25: Website Wikileaks released 

thousands of documents related to 

the U.S. and the war in Afghanistan.

Aug. 31: President Obama 

announced the end to the combat 

mission in Iraq. 

2011

May 2 (PKT local): A U.S. Navy Seal 

team killed Al Qaeda leader, Osama 

bin Laden, in a raid on his Pakistan 

compound in Abbottabad.

Jun. 2: DNRO Bruce Carlson 

approved the declassification of 

film-return programs, Gambit-1, 

Gambit-3, and Hexagon for release 

during NRO’s 50th Anniversary 

commemoration on 17 Sep. 2011.

Jul. 8: NASA retired its Space 

Shuttle program with the launch 

and final round trip of Atlantis to 

the International Space Station 

(ISS).

Sep. 17: NRO commemorated its 

50th Anniversary with the public 

release of formerly classified Gambit 

and Hexagon film-return program 

materials and public display of 

Gambit and Hexagon artifacts at the 

Smithsonian National Air and Space 

Museum.

Sep. 25: USAF launched its Space 

Based Space Surveillance (SBSS) 

satellite to observe and track satellites 

and very small space objects.

Sep. 29: China’s first space station 

and a test bed for Chinese manned 

docking exercises, Tiangong-1, lifted 

off from Jiuquan Satellite Launch 

Center.

2012

Jan. 26: The NRO opened a 

public exhibit of Gambit and 

Hexagon film-return satellitereconnaissance program artifacts 

at the National Museum of the 

U.S. Air Force (NMUSAF) in 

Dayton, OH. This was the largest 

collection of declassified National 

Reconnaissance artifacts.

Jul. 9: NRO released programmatic 

Quill documents to the public.

Sep. 13: In NRO’s first “ride share” 

mission, an Atlas V rocket boosted 

NROL-36’s classified payload and 

in its extra capacity bulkhead, 

11 tiny satellites or “cubesats” 

developed by labs, universities, 

and other government entities 

for research, ranging from space 

weather to maritime shipping 

container tracking.
35

2012 cont.

Oct. 7: Space X, partnering with 

NASA, launched “Dragon,” the first 

commercial vehicle to support ISS 

with a round trip resupply mission.

Oct. 14: Felix Baumgartner set a 

sky-diving world record when he 

jumped from a capsule tethered to a 

high altitude balloon 24 miles above 

the earth. 

Oct. 29: Devastating Hurricane 

Sandy came ashore in northern NJ 

after skirting along the East Coast 

where it damaged NASA’s Wallops 

Flight Facility in Virginia.

2013

Jun. 5: NSA contractor and former 

CIA employee, Edward Snowden, 

released Top Secret information on 

NSA’s phone surveillance program.

Dec. 14: China’s unmanned Chang’e 

3 space probe touched down on the 

moon’s surface, the world’s first 

soft landing probe on the moon in 

nearly 4 decades.

2014

Mar. 18: Russian President Vladimir 

Putin signed treaties annexing 

Ukraine’s Crimea Penninsula.

Oct. 28: Orbital Science’s Antores 

rocket, on a resupply mission to the 

ISS, exploded shortly after liftoff at 

NASA’s Wallop Island facility.

Nov. 12: The European Space Agency 

announced successful pin point 

landing of its probe, Philae, on the 

surface of a comet.

p Senior NRO Historian, Dr. James Outzen, of NRO’s Center for the Study of National 

Reconnaissance (CSNR), speaks during the 26 January 2012 exhibit opening of — Gambit 1 KH-7, 

Gambit 3 KH-8 and Hexagon KH-9 artifacts — at the NMUSAF, Wright-Patterson AFB near Dayton, 

Ohio. (U.S. Air Force Photo)
36

Dec. 17: President Obama 

announced changes to the U.S. 

policy with Cuba and began 

normalizing relations after five 

decades of embargo.

2015

Mar. 27: The Russian Soyuz 

spacecraft, bound for the ISS, 

carried three men aboard, two of 

them designated for a one year 

mission. NASA astronaut Scott 

Kelly and Russian cosmonaut 

Mikhail Kornienko, residing on 

the ISS until March 2016, will help 

NASA understand how the human 

body adapts to long term life in 

space so NASA can prepare future 

astronauts for extended missions 

like the Mars journey. 

Jun. 28: SpaceX resupply mission to 

the ISS ended with the catastrophic 

explosion of its vehicle shortly after 

launch, prompting concern for 

the astronauts and cosmonauts’ 

continued presence on the ISS. 

Jul. 14: NASA’s New Horizons 

spacecraft photographed Pluto’s 

surface at its closest approach to 

the small planet as part of a sixmonth-long “reconnaissance flyby” 

study of Pluto and its moons. The 

spacecraft took over 9 years to reach 

its position near Pluto.

Aug. 14: In a symbolic gesture to 

begin restoring relations with Cuba, 

U.S. Marines raised the American 

flag over the newly reopened U.S. 

Embassy in Cuba. 

Oct. 22: The NRO announced the 

declassification of the NRO’s Dorian 

program and its association with the 

USAF Manned Orbiting Laboratory 

(MOL) program with the release of a 

compendium of Dorian records at a 

panel discussion of MOL astronauts 

held at the National Museum of the 

U.S. Air Force, Wright-Patterson 

AFB, OH. 

p In Havanna, Cuba, Secretary of State John 

Kerry (left) and other dignitaries pay tribute 

to the American flag as U.S. Marines raise it 

over the building that reopened again as the 

U.S. embassy. President Eisenhower severed 

diplomatic ties with Cuba in 1961 with 

hostilities remaining through the Cold War 

era and into the 21st century. It was not until 

17 December 2014, when President Barack 

Obama announced a change of policies 

with Cuba, that the United States began 

normalizing relations with the small country.
37

p NRO’s classified payload for NROL-26 lifts off from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (AFS) on 17 Jan 2009.
38

William O. Baker, Ph.D.

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1950–1980

Shaped the course of signals 

intelligence, communications, and 

encryption/decryption technologies 

as scientific counselor to NSA, 

CIA, USN, and NRO. As a “Land 

Panel” member, helped pave the 

way for the first near-real-time 

reconnaissance satellite system. 

Merton E. Davies

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1948–1975

Invented the Spin-Pan camera and 

collaborated in the film recovery 

satellite proposal for Corona. Davies 

later served on NRO and other 

advisory panels that established 

reconnaissance requirements. 

Sidney D. Drell

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1960–2000

Achieved recognition in the area of 

reconnaissance for his contributions 

in various areas of physics, from ballistic missile launches to photographing the Earth from space. 

Richard L. Garwin, Ph.D.

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1957–2000

Served as a key scientific advisor to 

NRO’s Program B, and established 

standards and found solutions for 

electromechanical design of modern 

long-life spacecraft. 

Amrom H. Katz

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1941–1976

Co-directed a project on peacetime 

overflight reconnaissance, and 

co-proposed film-recovery satellites. 

This proposal was eventually 

established as the Corona Project. 

James R. Killian, Jr., Ph.D. 

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1950–1973

Chaired the Technological 

Capabilities Panel for President 

Eisenhower that recommended 

building the U-2 aircraft and 

reconnaissance satellites. He was 

subsequently involved in shaping 

the agreements between the 

Department of Defense and CIA 

that structured the NRO.

Founders of National Reconnaissance

“These scientists, engineers, and innovators — through their technical expertise 

— shaped the emerging discipline of national reconnaissance and provided the 

confidence for creating the NRO in 1960-61.” 

Keith Hall, Former DNRO
39

Edwin H. Land

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1952–1980

Invented instant photography and 

founded the Polaroid company. Later 

served on the Technological Capabilities Panel for assessing technical 

capabilities supporting intelligence 

collection, subsequently chairing 

the “Land Panel” for reconnaissance 

capabilities. He advocated for early 

reconnaissance programs like U-2 

and Corona and played a vital role in 

advising President Nixon on capabilities of electro-optical imagery (EOI). 

Frank W. Lehan

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1965–1975

Was instrumental in the decision to 

proceed with an important signals 

intelligence satellite system, and 

contributed to the reflector designs 

for that system.

William J. Perry, Ph.D.

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1955–1997

Chaired the “Perry Panel” that 

advised NRO’s Program B on 

all overhead signals intelligence 

collection systems. He later served 

as Under Secretary of Defense for 

Research and Engineering and 

Secretary of Defense.

Edward M. Purcell, Ph.D.

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1950–1965

Worked on all early overhead 

reconnaissance projects (including 

U-2, A-12/SR-71) that operated at 

extreme altitudes. His most significant 

contribution used new materials and 

methods to ensure these vehicles, if 

not invisible to radar, were hard to 

observe with radar.

For the successful continuity of NRO as 

a key intelligence contributor from its 

infancy to its far-reaching growth in the 

21st century, the NRO recognized the 

following leader in a special ceremony 

on February 22, 2013 as a Founder of 

National Reconnaissance for the 21st 

Century.

Jimmie D. Hill 

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1965-1996

Laid the foundation for the 21st 

century NRO as a dynamic Staff 

Director and Deputy Director 

from 1978-1996. By fostering 

an innovative management and 

operational environment, he ensured 

the NRO successfully emerged from 

the Cold War era to successfully 

maintain its critical strategic 

importance in a new era of tactical 

relevance and positive responsiveness 

to national and defense security 

requirements.
40

Class of 2000

James G. Baker, Ph.D.

Pioneered the use of computer 

algorithms to model lens design and 

developed U-2 camera lenses.

C. Lee Battle, Jr., Colonel, USAF

Originated and applied the principles 

of “Battle’s Laws” to successfully guide 

day-to-day management of Corona.

John T. Bennett 

Developed innovative system designs 

for signals intelligence spacecraft 

that advanced the nation’s national 

reconnaissance capabilities.

John W. Browning, Colonel, USAF 

Pioneered a new and powerful signals 

intelligence capability and dramatically 

enhanced signals intelligence collection.

Jon H. Bryson, Colonel, USAF 

Directed the development, acquisition 

and operation of an on-orbit satellite 

system that helped reduce signals 

intelligence data processing and 

dissemination times.

A. Roy Burks 

Successfully conquered technical 

challenges dealing with Corona 

and effectively managed the vital 

relationship among government, 

military and contractor employees.

Pioneers of National Reconnaissance

A Pioneer of national reconnaissance is an individual who made a lasting and significant contribution that changed the direction or scope of the discipline of national 

reconnaissance. Each year, the National Reconnaissance Office honors a select 

group of individuals as Pioneers of National Reconnaissance.

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, Class of 2000
41

Class of 2000 cont.

Frank S. Buzard, Colonel, USAF 

Led Corona’s system integration and 

operations, ensuring the program stayed 

on track. Managed Corona’s follow-on 

program.

Cornelius W. “Connie” Chambers 

Provided the cornerstone design 

for the vehicle protective measures 

during the early development of space 

reconnaissance technologies. 

John O. Copley, Colonel, USAF 

Pioneered improvements in payload 

design and ground data processing 

and exploitation of signals intelligence 

satellites.

Robert H. Crotser 

Wrote cost and schedule management 

handbook, still used today, to deliver 

Program B’s electro-optical imaging 

satellite on time and under budget.

John J. Crowley 

Established an enduring partnership 

between NRO’s CIA and USAF elements, 

and advanced development on four 

successful satellite programs.

James C. de Broekert 

Major contributor to the successful 

development of the first low-earthorbiting electronic intelligence systems.

Gary S. Geyer, Colonel, USAF

Pioneered near real time delivery of 

products to military and civil users 

with his work in signals intelligence 

collection, data processing, and 

dissemination.

Thomas O. Haig, Colonel, USAF 

Directed the program that developed 

the National Reconnaissance Office 

meteorological satellite system 

significantly increasing the quantity of 

cloud-free pictures.

Frederick H. Kaufman 

Produced two important Sigint 

satellites, to include the first 

communications cross-link system 

in space, as director of a team for 

Program B.

Robert J. Kohler 

Developed unique imaging techniques 

and introduced photographic edge 

measurement and sharpening tools for 

evaluating and enhancing overhead 

imagery.

Ellis E. Lapin 

Contributed to the on-orbit reliability 

of the NRO’s satellite imagery 

reconnaissance systems by managing 

the design and development of the 

spacecraft and hardware.

Lloyd K. Lauderdale, Ph.D. 

Program Manager for the CIA Program B 

team that developed an advanced signals 

intelligence satellite from concept through 

first launch. 
42

Class of 2000 cont.

Richard S. Leghorn, Colonel, USAF

Major contributor to Corona camera 

development and co-founder and first 

president of Itek Corp. that built the 

first U.S. space camera. He is often 

credited with originating the “Open 

Skies” concept.

Walter J. Levison 

Designed the cameras for the 

Genetrix balloon and Corona satellite 

photoreconnaissance programs.

Howard O. Lorenzen 

Early advocate of signals intelligence 

satellites, he directed the development 

of Grab, the nation’s first such program 

at the Naval Research Laboratory.

Francis J. Madden 

Directed the design and production of 

the Corona cameras and helped solve 

technical problems that threatened the 

camera in space. 

James T. Mannen, Colonel, USAF

Introduced procedures that improved 

target tasking and significantly increased 

ground resolution and on-orbit system 

reliability.

Paul W. Mayhew, Ph.D. 

Helped lead the development of the 

payload electronic, mechanical, and 

radio frequency elements, from concept 

to verified designs.

Reid D. Mayo 

Conceived and designed the nation’s first 

operational space-bound reconnaissance 

system — the Grab signals intelligence 

satellite.

James E. Morgan 

Developed the target tasking and data 

dissemination architectures for key 

programmatic systems. 

Mark N. Morton 

Directed the General Electric team 

that developed, tested, and built the 

Corona reentry vehicle and its successful 

recovery sequence. 

Alden V. Munson, Jr. 

Introduced and developed an 

automatic, operational electronic 

intelligence collection and data 

processing system that directly 

supported U.S. military in the field.

Charles L. Murphy, Colonel, USAF 

First Field Technical Director at the 

Corona Advanced Projects Integration 

Facility, a crucial link between Corona 

operations and the Intelligence 

Community. 

Frederic C.E. “Fritz” Oder, Colonel, 

USAF 

Directed the first U.S. satellite 

reconnaissance enterprise, the 

WS-117L Program, a significant 

contribution to early military and 

national reconnaissance satellites. 
43

Class of 2000 cont.

John Parangosky 

Forged government and contractor 

team successes and the overall technical 

success of the Corona program with his 

strong team building skills.

Julius P. “Val” Peline, Ph.D. 

Served as a Lockheed system test 

director and program manager for a key 

imaging intelligence satellite program.

Robert M. Powell 

Devised a novel payload-pointing 

mechanism that greatly extended the 

lifetime of satellites in orbit.

Edward H. Reese 

Led the architecture and development 

of the ground data system for electrooptical imaging processing and added 

subsequent improvements used today.

Osmond J. “Ozzie” Ritland, Major 

General, USAF

Managed service infrastructure for early 

overflights of the U.S.S.R. as the USAF 

manager for the U-2 program, and later 

supported Corona as Vice Commander 

of the Air Force’s Air Research and 

Development Command’s Western 

Development Division.

Lee W. Roberts, Colonel, USAF 

Directed improvements in an important 

Program A satellite reconnaissance 

effort that produced high-resolution 

imagery of earth’s surface.

Charles R. “Charlie” Roth 

CIA manager in Program B for 

government/industry team that 

produced the first electro-optical 

reconnaissance satellite system.

Robert W. Roy, Colonel, USAF

Oversaw launches at Vandenberg Air 

Force Base, managed the construction 

of launch pads, and established launch 

requirements and procedures that 

became standards. 

Charles P. Spoelhof 

Directed efforts that helped 

revolutionize film recovery with the 

application of thin-based Mylar film in 

NRO camera systems. He also served 

as optical engineer for U-2, A-12, and 

Samos camera design.

Forrest H. Stieg 

CIA engineer and spacecraft operational 

specialist in Program B, devised a process 

for selecting an optimum orbit that 

balanced signals collection with vehicle 

longevity. 

Marvin S. Stone, Ph.D. 

Revolutionized overhead Sigint collection 

with innovative electronic and radio 

frequency technologies while serving as 

a payload systems engineer and project 

manager for Program B. 
44

Class of 2000 cont.

Don F. Tang 

Established a “collection scale” for 

determining which signals could be 

collected at a reasonable cost, setting 

the stage for the development of all 

future Sigint systems.

Albert D. “Bud” Wheelon, Ph.D.

Served as the first CIA Deputy Director 

of Science and Technology and was 

responsible for U-2 overflights, the 

development of the Oxcart A-12, and 

three major satellite reconnaissance 

systems.

Peter G. Wilhelm

Invented new devices and techniques that 

contributed to increased capabilities and 

improved performance on early signals 

intelligence satellites.

Roy H. Worthington, Colonel, USAF

Directed the integration and launch of 

some 200 satellites from the Western 

Test Range. He supervised new factoryto-launch procedures for moving 

satellites from R&D to operations. 

Robert W. Yundt, Colonel, USAF

Directed Program A’s Signals 

Intelligence Project Office and 

developed a low altitude multi-purpose 

Sigint satellite that became vital to the 

NRO’s early efforts in Elint collection.
45

Class of 2001

Donald L. Cromer, Lt. General, USAF 

(Ret) 

Pioneered the design, development, and 

acquisition of a new imaging satellite 

system that became a critical part of U.S. 

national reconnaissance. 

A.J. “Tony” Iorillo (not pictured)

Pioneered a new concept in spacecraft 

control and operations, which contributed 

to successful near-real-time optical 

imaging, with data relayed directly from 

space to a ground processing system. 

Vincent S. Rose 

Pioneered the design of the first Elint 

payload used in Sigint reconnaissance 

satellites, allowing receivers to collect 

radar emissions across broad frequency 

ranges.

John Walton (awarded posthumously)

Pioneered a revolutionary methodology 

that addressed the entire life cycle 

and integration for the first near-realtime EOI reconnaissance satellite and 

continues to be applied to current NRO 

programs.

Class of 2002

Vance D. Coffman, Ph.D.

Pioneered the development of a new 

satellite attitude control capability 

that provided major improvements in 

satellite-collected images. 

Lee M. Hammarstrom 

Pioneered improvements in satellite, 

ground station, and processing that 

enhanced the accuracy, timeliness, and 

volume of Elint products. He later led 

the NRO’s Technology Office and served 

as NRO Chief Scientist. 

Robert L. Paulson, Colonel, USAF 

(Ret) 

Pioneered the continued design, 

development, and sustainment of a key 

IMINT satellite system saving it from 

cancellation, and going on to develop 

its complex ground architecture as well.

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2002

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2001
46

Class of 2003

Carl L. Ferdensi, Jr.

Pioneered improvements in telemetry 

processing for foreign instrumentation 

signals intelligence (Fisint) data, aiding 

decisions on Soviet military capabilities. 

David Raspet, Colonel, USAF

Pioneered advanced methods of 

integrating spacecraft into launch 

vehicles, ensuring sustained operation of 

reconnaissance satellites.

James W. Stoner, Ph.D. 

Pioneered techniques for near-realtime processing of Elint signals and 

developed capabilities to process large 

volumes of data.

Charles C. Tevis (awarded posthumously)

Pioneered the concept of a centralized 

facility for all-source information and 

analysis through his contributions in the 

founding of the Defense Special Missile 

and Astronautics Center (DEFSMAC) 

Where he served as inaugural director 

under appointment by SECDEF. 

Class of 2004

M. Sam Araki 

Pioneered the development of the 

world’s first stabilized space platform, 

Agena, which the NRO used for the 

Corona and other satellites. 

Harvey Cohen, Lt Colonel, USAF 

(Ret) (not pictured)

Pioneered innovative National 

Reconnaissance Office security 

practices and procedures that helped 

keep NRO’s collection system covert 

during the Cold War.

Robert G. Kaemmerer 

Pioneered the development of 

the most sophisticated family of 

intelligence satellite systems during the 

Cold War. 

James W. McAnally 

Pioneered the development of a new 

imagery satellite reconnaissance 

system used during the Cold War to 

the present, supporting a wide range of 

operations.

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2004

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2003
47

Class of 2005

Robert Eisenhauer 

Pioneered techniques that changed widearea Sigint reconnaissance technology 

and dramatically improved the accuracy 

and dissemination timeliness of satellite 

intelligence products.

Roger C. Marsh 

Pioneered the construction of a secure 

facility and widely-dispersed operation 

into the present NRO headquarters. 

Edward A. Miller, Ph.D. 

Pioneered the first man-made object 

to be recovered from earth orbit–the 

recovery vehicle for Corona.

Wayne L. Proffitt 

Pioneered the design of the mechanism 

that enabled satellites to point their 

communications dishes at relay 

satellites and maintain continuous 

contact while still imaging.

Class of 2006

Ingard M. Clausen 

Pioneered efforts that laid the 

groundwork for the Corona system’s 

ability to endure the harsh environment 

of space and withstand the heat of 

reentry into the Earth’s atmosphere.

Fred V. Hellrich 

Pioneered innovations that provided 

revolutionary improvement in the 

productivity, accuracy, and timeliness of 

electronic intelligence product. 

David L. Klinger, Ph.D. 

Pioneered the development and 

deployment of a new technology that 

substantially enhanced the ability of the NRO 

to collect overhead intelligence.

Jane A. Wood 

Pioneered the development of a budget 

and accounting system that accurately 

tracked expenditures for complex 

satellite programs.

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2005

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2006
48

Class of 2007

Paul G. Kaminski, Ph.D. 

Pioneered the development of a new 

type of reconnaissance satellite system 

and introduced innovative tools for 

analysts to exploit information from 

this complex system.

Sun Yet Wong

Pioneered new technologies that 

improved the effectiveness of satellite 

systems. Developed STARDYNE, which 

enabled the NRO to analyze complex 

spacecraft and special payloads. 

Class of 2008

Raymond E. Anderson, Colonel, 

USAF (Ret) 

Pioneered the use of solid-state 

recorders in reconnaissance satellites 

to extend their operational life spans.

Howard G. Brotherton 

Pioneered advances in momentum 

management and developed 

techniques that advanced the state 

of automation for critical satellite 

missions.

Hilliard W. Paige, Sr. 

Pioneered the concept of using ICBM 

reentry technology for the recovery 

of reconnaissance film capsules from 

space, which proved instrumental in 

the successful development of the 

Corona recovery system.

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2007

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2008
49

Class of 2009

James P. Campbell, Ph.D. (awarded 

posthumously)

Pioneered, from conception through 

deployment, a new innovative imaging 

reconnaissance capability to include 

ground architecture and spacecraft 

that demonstrated unprecedented 

extended operational life.

Lacy G. Cook 

Pioneered development and 

application of a unique technology 

that enabled a new capability to fit 

into the limited space of an existing 

NRO satellite, resulting in providing 

unprecedented information to national 

policy makers.

Michael F. Maguire 

Pioneered and pushed the state of 

the art for one of the last film-based 

NRO reconnaissance systems, resulting 

in a national reconnaissance space 

constellation with greater reliability 

and operational longevity. 

Class of 2010

Robert H. Dumais

Pioneered intelligence utility of a 

new capability for an imaging satellite 

system that led to improved quality 

imagery products from space.

Jack A. Gibbs, Brigadier General,

USAF (Ret) (awarded posthumously)

Pioneered the effective use of highaltitude airborne reconnaissance for 

denied area intelligence collection 

during the Cold War through 

application of innovative engineering 

on U-2 operations and assessment for 

lower radar “detectability.”

Richard J. Randazzo, Colonel,

USAF (Ret) (awarded posthumously)

Pioneered improved satisfaction 

of mission requirements and 

increased coverage of high priority 

targets through his introduction 

and application of new operational 

techniques for NRO imaging systems.

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance,

Class of 2009

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance,

Class of 2010
50

Class of 2011

Dr. Thomas A. Brackey 

Pioneered breakthroughs in hardware, 

communications technology, and 

operational concepts for enabling 

near real-time data collection and 

dissemination.

Colonel Joseph J. Eash III, USAF (Ret) 

Pioneered the way for highly sensitive 

NRO mission development for aircraft 

and satellites with his application of 

special innovative technologies.

Dr. Michael N Parker 

Pioneered missile-tracking techniques, 

through his work in geolocation, that 

directly supported arms limitation 

treaty negotiations

Dr. John W. Shipley 

Pioneered a concept, approach, 

definition, and design for developing 

a successful and revolutionary NRO 

collection asset. 

Mr. Richard Van Wagoner 

Pioneered antenna and system design 

and performance evaluation that 

contributed to SIGINT’s successful 

mission execution and quality collection.

Class of 2012

Dr. Robert P. O’Donnell

Pioneered dramatic breakthroughs 

in signals and imagery intelligence 

collection from space by developing 

analysis and simulation techniques 

which made possible the precision 

pointing and flexible structure 

deployment and control of a new 

generation of collection satellites.

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2011

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2012
51

Class of 2013

William G. Montgomery

Pioneered innovations in precision 

control and pointing accuracies, thereby 

enhancing volume, resolution, and 

accuracy and balanced performance 

contributions for a new generation 

imagery collection system. 

Donald N. Simkins, Ph.D.

Pioneered innovative processing 

techniques to advance geo-location 

algorithms and to expand and improve 

the collection, exploitation, and display 

of target information.

Class of 2014

Thomas C. “Chris” Fitzsimmons

Pioneered the development, 

production, and test of lightweight 

optical and structural components to 

implement on electro-optical imagery 

reconnaissance systems without 

degradation to image quality. 

John R. Stavlo

Pioneered a first-of-a-kind precision 

pointing and tracking control system, 

using his devised, closed loop 

simulation and modeling technique, to 

dramatically enhance sigint collection 

sensitivity. 

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance,

Class of 2013

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance,

Class of 2014
52

This is a partial list of unclassified space launches from 1959 until 2015. 

The list has been verified by the Office of Space Launch at the NRO.

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

02/28/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

N/A Success Success Success

04/13/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

N/A Success Success Success

06/03/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

N/A Success Failure —

06/25/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Failure —

08/13/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/19/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/07/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/20/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Failure —

02/04/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Failure —

02/19/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Failure — —

04/15/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/22/60 Grab/Dyno 1 Thor-Able Star Cape 

Canaveral Air 

Station

SIGINT Success Success Failure

06/29/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

N/A Success Failure —

08/10/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/18/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/13/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/11/60 Samos 1 Atlas-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Failure —

10/26/60 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Failure —

11/12/60 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Failure Failure

Table of Selected NRO Launches
53

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

11/30/60 Grab/Dyno Thor-Able Star Cape 

Canaveral Air 

Station

SIGINT Failure — —

12/07/60 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/20/60 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

N/A Success Success Success

01/31/61 Samos 2 Atlas-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

IMINT Success Failure — 

02/17/61 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

02/18/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

N/A Success Success Success

03/30/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Failure —

04/08/61 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/08/61 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT — Failure —

06/16/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/29/61 Grab/Dyno 2 Thor-Able Star Cape 

Canaveral Air 

Station

SIGINT Success Success Success

07/07/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

07/21/61 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure — —

08/03/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Failure

08/30/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/09/61 Samos 3 Atlas-Agena A Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure — —

09/12/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/17/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Failure Failure

10/13/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/23/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Failure —

11/05/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/15/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
54

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

11/22/61 Samos 4 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure — —

12/12/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/22/61 Samos 5 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure — —

01/13/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Failure

01/24/62 Poppy 1 Thor-Able Star Cape 

Canaveral Air 

Station

SIGINT Failure — —

02/27/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/07/62 Samos 6 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure — —

04/18/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/26/62 Poppy 2 Scout Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

SIGINT Failure — —

04/26/62 Samos 7 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/28/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

05/15/62 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

05/30/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/02/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/17/62 Samos 8 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/23/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/28/62 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

07/18/62 Samos 9 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

07/21/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

07/28/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/02/62 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/05/62 Samos 10 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
55

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

08/29/62 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/01/62 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/17/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/29/62 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/09/62 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/26/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

N/A Success Success Success

11/05/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/11/62 Samos 11 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/24/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/04/62 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/13/62 Poppy 3 Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

SIGINT Success Success Success

12/14/62 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

01/07/63 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

02/28/63 Corona Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure — —

03/18/63 Lanyard Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Failure —

04/01/63 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/26/63 Argon Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Failure —

05/18/63 Lanyard Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/12/63 Corona Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/15/63 Poppy 4 Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

SIGINT Success Success Success

06/27/63 Corona Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

07/18/63 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
56

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

07/31/63 Lanyard Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/25/63 Corona J1 Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/29/63 Argon Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/6/63 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/23/63 Corona J1 Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/25/63 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/29/63 Argon Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/09/63 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure — —

11/27/63 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/18/63 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/21/63 Corona Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

01/11/64 Poppy 5 Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

SIGINT Success Success Success

02/15/64 Corona J1 Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

02/25/64 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/11/64 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/24/64 Corona J1 Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Failure —

04/23/64 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/27/64 Corona J1 Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

05/19/64 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/04/64 Corona J1 Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/13/64 Argon Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/19/64 Corona J1 ThrustAugmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
57

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

07/6/64 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

07/10/64 Corona J1 Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/05/64 Corona J1 Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/21/64 Argon Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/14/64 Corona J1 Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/23/64 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/05/64 Corona J1 Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/08/64 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure - -

10/17/64 Corona J1 Thrust Augmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/02/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/18/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/04/64 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/19/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/21/64 Quill Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

01/15/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

01/23/65 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

02/25/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/08/65 Poppy 6 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

SIGINT Success Success Success

03/12/65 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
58

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

03/25/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/28/65 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/29/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

05/18/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

05/27/65 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/09/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/25/65 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

07/12/65 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure - -

07/19/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/03/65 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/17/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/02/65 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

N/A Failure - -

09/22/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/30/65 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/5/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/28/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/08/65 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/09/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
59

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

12/24/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

01/19/66 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

02/02/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

02/15/66 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/09/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/18/66 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Failure

04/07/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/19/66 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

05/03/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure - -

05/14/66 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

05/24/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/03/66 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/21/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

07/12/66 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

07/29/66 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/09/66 Corona J1 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/16/66 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/16/66 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/20/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
60

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

09/28/66 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/12/66 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/02/66 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/08/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/05/66 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/14/66 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

01/14/67 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

02/02/67 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

02/22/67 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

02/24/67 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/30/67 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/26/67 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure - -

05/9/67 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

05/22/67 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

05/31/67 Poppy 7 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

SIGINT Success Success Success

06/4/67 Gambit-1 Atlas-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/16/67 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/20/67 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/7/67 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
61

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

08/16/67 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/15/67 Corona J3 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/19/67 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/25/67 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/2/67 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/05/67 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/09/67 Corona J3 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

01/18/68 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

01/24/68 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/13/68 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/14/68 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/17/68 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

05/1/68 Corona J3 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/05/68 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/20/68 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/06/68 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/07/68 Corona J3 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/10/68 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/18/68 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
62

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

11/3/68 Corona J3 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/6/68 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/04/68 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure Success

12/12/68 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

01/22/69 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Failure Success

02/05/69 Corona J3 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/04/69 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/19/69 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/15/69 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

05/02/69 Corona J1 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/03/69 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

07/24/69 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/23/69 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/22/69 Corona J1 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/30/69 Poppy 8 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

SIGINT Success Success Success

10/24/69 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Failure Success

12/4/69 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

01/14/70 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/04/70 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/15/70 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
63

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

05/20/70 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/25/70 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

07/23/70 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/18/70 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/23/70 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/18/70 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

01/21/71 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

02/17/71 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure - -

03/24/71 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/22/71 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/15/71 Hexagon-1 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

08/12/71 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

09/10/71 Corona J3 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/23/71 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/14/71 Poppy 9 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

SIGINT Success Success Success

01/20/72 Hexagon-2 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

03/17/72 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/19/72 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

5/20/1972 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Failure -

05/25/72 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

07/07/72 Hexagon-3 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
64

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

09/01/72 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/10/72 Hexagon-4 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

12/21/72 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/09/73 Hexagon-5 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

05/16/73 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/26/73 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Failure -

07/13/73 Hexagon-6 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

09/27/73 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

11/10/73 Hexagon-7 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

02/13/74 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

04/10/74 Hexagon-8 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

06/06/74 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

08/14/74 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

10/29/74 Hexagon-9 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

04/18/75 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/08/75 Hexagon-10 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

10/09/75 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

12/04/75 Hexagon-11 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

03/22/76 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

07/08/76 Hexagon-12 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

09/15/76 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/13/77 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
65

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

06/27/77 Hexagon-13 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

09/23/77 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

03/16/78 Hexagon-14 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

03/16/79 Hexagon-15 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

05/28/79 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/18/80 Hexagon-16 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

02/28/81 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

01/21/82 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

05/11/82 Hexagon-17 Titan IIID Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

04/15/83 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/20/83 Hexagon-18 Titan 34D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

04/17/84 Gambit-3 Titan IIIB Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success Success

06/25/84 Hexagon-19 Titan 34D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Success Success

04/18/86 Hexagon-20 Titan 34D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

IMINT Failure -

All launches between 1986 and late 1996 remain classified. After 20 December 1996, the fact that 

the rockets launched carrying NRO payloads was unclassified, but the satellites remain classified.

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LV TYPE SITE INT NROL

12/20/96 (Classified) Titan IV Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NA

10/23/97 (Classified) Titan IV Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NA

11/07/97 (Classified) Titan IV Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NA

01/29/98 (Classified) Atlas IIA Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NA

05/08/98 (Classified) Titan IV Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NA

08/12/98 (Classified) Titan IV Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NA

10/03/98 (Classified) Taurus Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NA

05/22/99 (Classified) Titan IV Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NA

08/17/00 (Classified) Titan IV Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-11

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
66

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LV TYPE SITE INT NROL

12/06/00 (Classified) Atlas IIAS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-10

05/18/01 (Classified) Delta II Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-17

09/08/01 (Classified) Atlas IIAS Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-13

10/05/01 (Classified) Titan IV Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-14

10/10/01 (Classified) Atlas IIAS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-12

09/09/03 (Classified) Titan IV Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-19

12/02/03 (Classified) Atlas IIAS Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-18

08/31/04 (Classified) Atlas IIAS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-1

02/03/05 (Classified) Atlas III Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-23

04/29/05 (Classified) Titan IV Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-16

10/19/05 (Classified) Titan IV Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-20

06/27/06 (Classified) Delta IV Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-22

12/14/06 (Classified) Delta II Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-21

06/15/07 (Classified) Atlas V Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-30

12/10/07 (Classified) Atlas V Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-24

03/13/08 (Classified) Atlas V Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-28

01/17/09 (Classified) Delta IV-H Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-26

09/20/10 (Classified) Atlas V Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-41

11/21/10 (Classified) Delta IV-H Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-32

12/08/10 (Classified) Falcon 9 Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NA

01/20/11 (Classified) Delta IV-H Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-49

02/06/11 (Classified) Minotaur I Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NA

03/11/11 (Classified) Delta IV Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-27

04/14/11 (Classified) Atlas V Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-34

04/03/12 (Classified) Delta IV Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-25

06/20/12 (Classified) Atlas V Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-38

06/29/12 (Classified) Delta IV-H Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-15

09/13/12 (Classified) Atlas V Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-36

08/28/13 (Classified) Delta IV-H Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-65

12/05/13 (Classified) Atlas V Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-39

04/10/14 (Classified) Atlas V Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-67

05/22/14 (Classified) Atlas V Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (Classified) NROL-33

12/12/14 (Classified) Atlas V Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-35

10/08/15 (Classified) Atlas V Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified) NROL-55

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
67

Available through the Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance.

Books

Andrew, C. M. (1996). For the President’s Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the 

American Presidency from Washington to Bush. New York: Harper Perennial. 

Beschloss, M. R. (1986). Mayday: Eisenhower, Khrushchev, and the U-2 Affair. 

New York: Harper and Row. 

Berkowitz, B. & Suk, M. (2015). The National Reconnaissance Office at 50 

Years: A Brief History. Chantilly, VA: Center for the Study of National 

Reconnaissance, National Reconnaissance Office. 

Bissell, R. M., Jr., Lewis, J. E., & Pudlo, F. T. (1996). Reflections of a Cold 

Warrior: From Yalta to Bay of Pigs. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Brugioni, D. A. (1990). Eyeball to Eyeball: The Inside Story of the Cuban Missile 

Crisis. New York: Random House.

Charlston, J.A., with Butterworth, R.L. & Perry, R.L (2011). Quill: A 1964 

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73

AFB Air Force Base

AFS Air Force Station

BPO Business Plans and Operations

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

CSNR Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance

DCI Director of Central Intelligence

DEFSMAC Defense Special Mission and Aerospace Center

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program

DNRO Director, National Reconnaissance Office

DoD Department of Defense

DSP Defense Support Program

ELINT Electronic Intelligence 

EOI Electro Optical Imaging

ESA European Space Agency

FISINT Foreign Instrumentation Signals Intelligence

GPS Global Positioning System

GRAB Galactic Radiation and Background Satellite

ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

IMINT Imagery Intelligence

INT Intelligence (Often used at end of descriptor: i.e. Sigint, Imint)

ISS International Space Station

KH Keyhole

MIDAS Missile Detection and Alarm System

MOL Manned Orbiting Laboratory

NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NGA National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency

NIE National Intelligence Estimate

NIMA National Imagery and Mapping Agency

Acronyms
74

NJ New Jersey

NRL Naval Research Laboratory

NROL National Reconnaissance Office Launch

NRP National Reconnaissance Program

NSC National Security Council

OTV Orbital Test Vehicle

OWS Orbital Workstation

PDDNI Principal Deputy Director of National Intelligence

RAF Royal Air Force

PKT Pakistan Time

SAC Strategic Air Command

SAF/MSS Secretary of the Air Force/Office of Missile and Satellite Systems

SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks

SAM Surface-to-Air Missile

SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar

SBSS Space Based Space Surveillance

SecAF Secretary of the Air Force

SecDef Secretary of Defense

SIGINT Signals Intelligence

TIROS Television Infrared Observation Satellite

UK United Kingdom

USAF United States Air Force

USN United States Navy

USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

WDD Western Development Division (United States Air Force)

Acronyms (cont.)
75

p A Delta IV Heavy lifts a classified satellite toward space as part of NROL-49 on 20 January 2011.
76

Research and Production Team

The Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance is proud to publish the National 

Reconnaissance Almanac on behalf of the National Reconnaissance Office. We would like 

to give special thanks to the members of the CSNR research & publication team for 

their important contributions.

Research

Faye Grubbs, Shelly Cornwell, Sharon Moreno, Jack Munson, Kelly Owen, Kimberly 

Theriault and Ginny Field.

Editing

Faye Grubbs, Emily Campbell, Noel McCormack, Patrick Widlake, Karen Early and 

Lindsay Kooiman.

Design and Production

Chuck Glover and Government Publishing Office (GPO).

Photographs

Courtesy of CSNR Reference Collection Center, NRO Media Services Center, U.S. 

Air Force, U.S. Army, NASA, National Park Service and the Dwight D. Eisenhower 

Presidential Library, Naval Research Laboratory, NRO Office of Space Launch, Eastman 

Kodak Corp., and (former) National Photographic Interpretation Center.

Acknowledgements
77

Center for the Study of

National Reconnaissance

January 2016