Household Economic Studies

U.S. Department of Commerce

Economics and Statistics Administration U U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

S C E N S U S B U R E A U

Helping You Make Informed Decisions

Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: 

Spells of Unemployment, 2004–2007

The U.S. labor market is dynamic and fl exible—constantly changing as people enter 

it, leave it, or change status within it. This 

report, which looks at the incidence and 

length of spells of unemployment among 

various demographic groups, provides 

insights into the effi ciency of the labor 

market in responding to shifts in the 

economy and in the society at large.

This report uses longitudinal data from 

the 2004 panel of the Survey of Income 

and Program Participation (SIPP) on how 

often and how long individuals in the 

United States were unemployed during the 

4-year period of January 2004 to December 2007.1, 2 It updates and adds to the 

topics presented in the previous report 

from the SIPP on this subject, which was 

based on the 2001 SIPP panel and covered 

the period from January 2001 to December 2003 (Gottschalck, 2006). This new 

report contains comparisons of data on 

spell duration from the 2004 SIPP panel 

with data from the previous report. The 

tables in Appendix A display the detailed 

statistical data underlying the analysis.

The insights off ered by the data in this 

report are framed within the particular 

economic and social conditions that 

marked the years 2004 through 2007. 

1 The data in this report were collected from

February 2004 to January 2008 in the 12 waves 

(interviews) of the 2004 panel of the Survey of Income 

and Program Participation. The population represented 

(the population universe) is the civilian noninstitutionalized population living in the United States. 2 The sample for the SIPP was reduced by about 50 

percent beginning with the data for June to September 

2006 (Wave 9 of the SIPP collection schedule). For a 

discussion of the eff ect of the reduction on the analysis of this report, see Appendix B.

During the fi rst 3 years of this period, 

unemployment declined and employment 

increased. In 2007, however, employment 

growth slowed, and both the unemployment level and rate increased. The 

National Bureau of Economic Research 

identifi ed December 2007 as the start of a 

recession.3

UNEMPLOYMENT SPELLS:

BRIEF BACKGROUND

As defi ned for this report, a spell of 

unemployment for a worker is a period of 

1 or more consecutive calendar months 

throughout each of which the individual 

was without a job and was either on layoff 

or actively looking for work in at least 

1week.4 A spell involves one of the four 

types of unemployed people: those who 

lost a job or who had completed a temporary job, those who voluntarily left a job, 

those who reentered the workforce after 

an absence, and those who were looking 

for their fi rst job. A spell can be initiated 

voluntarily (quitting a job to seek a better 

job, for example) or involuntarily (such 

as being laid off ). A spell ends when the 

individual either fi nds a job or withdraws 

from the labor market. Over a suitable 

period of time, the same individual may 

3 See Morisi, 2005; Sok, 2006; Kline, 2007; and 

Borbely, 2008 and 2009. 4 The term “worker” is used loosely throughout 

this report to refer to people in the labor force, including unemployed people.

Issued July 2010

P70-120

By

Thomas Palumbo

Current

Population

Reports
2 U.S. Census Bureau

experience more than one spell of 

unemployment.5, 6

UNEMPLOYMENT SPELLS

IN GENERAL AND BY SEX

Over the 4-year period 2004 

to 2007, there were 66.4 million spells of unemployment, 

an average of 16.6 million per 

year. 7, 8 Overall, about 43 million 

people were aff ected, a mean of 

about 1.5 spells per unemployed 

worker over the entire period. The 

5 By defi nition, a minimum of 2(n) months 

is required for (n) spells (for example, a minimum of 4 months is required for a worker to 

experience two spells of unemployment). 6 Each month the Current Population 

Survey (CPS) presents data on the length of 

time in weeks (through the monthly reference 

week) that people classifi ed as unemployed 

in the month had been looking for work or on 

layoff . For example, see Table A-9 at

<www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t09

.htm>. The Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement (ASEC) to the CPS presents data 

on the number of weeks that people were 

unemployed during each calendar year. For 

example, see <www.bls.gov/news.release

/archives/work_12102008.pdf>. These data 

from the CPS, based on retrospective questions, do not necessarily represent completed 

spells of unemployment and are not comparable with the data in this report. Data on 

completed spells of unemployment have been 

constructed using CPS data. See Valletta, 2002; 

Bleakley, Ferris, and Fuhrer, 1999; Rsycavage, 

1988; Horrigan, 1987; Kaitz, 1970. 7 The estimates in this report are based on 

responses from a sample of the population 

and may diff er from the actual values because 

of sampling variation and other factors. As 

a result, apparent diff erences between the 

estimates for two or more groups may not be 

statistically signifi cant. All comparative statements have undergone statistical testing and 

are signifi cant at the 90percent confi dence 

level unless otherwise noted. 8 Spells that began prior to 2004 but 

continued into 2004 are excluded from these 

fi gures and from the data in this report. All 

spells that began in 2004–2007 of anyone 

in the labor force during that period are 

included in the statistical analysis, so individuals may be represented more than once.

Figure 1.

Median Duration of Spells of Unemployment by Sex, 

Race, and Hispanic Origin: 2004–2007

Note: Includes all unemployment spells for people in the labor force. People of Hispanic 

origin may be any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2004 panel.

(In months) 

Hispanic origin, women

Hispanic origin, men

Asian alone, women

Asian alone, men

Black alone, women

Black alone, men

White alone, 

non-Hispanic, women

White alone, 

non-Hispanic, men

Hispanic origin

Asian alone

Black alone

White alone, non-Hispanic

Women

Men

Total workers 1.8

1.8

1.8

1.6

2.1

2.1

2.2

1.6

1.6

1.8

2.4

2.5

1.8

2.3

2.0

Demographic Group 
U.S. Census Bureau 3

median length of a spell was 1.8 

months—meaning half the spells 

were shorter and half were longer 

than 1.8 months. See Table A-1 and 

Figure 1.

Men and women had the same 

median spell length of 1.8 months 

(Figure 1). The median spell length 

for a group is infl uenced by such 

things as the types of jobs the 

members of the group tend to 

seek, the extent and intensity of 

their job-search eff orts, and their 

propensity to accept job off ers.

In a typical month during the 2004 

to 2007 period, women comprised 

47 percent of all workers. For the 

period as a whole, however, they 

accounted for 35.1 million unemployment spells, or 53 percent of 

the total number. See Tables A-1 

and A-3, and Figure 2.

UNEMPLOYMENT SPELLS BY 

RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN

Among race groups, non-Hispanic 

White workers experienced the 

shortest spells of unemployment, a 

median of 1.6 months (Figure 1).9

Black workers had a median spell 

length of 2.1 months, or about 

a third longer than that for nonHispanic Whites. People of Hispanic 

origin, who can be of any race, had 

a spell length of 2.2 months, about 

the same as that of Black and Asian 

workers.10

Non-Hispanic White men had the 

same median spell length, 1.6 

months, as non-Hispanic White 

women. The apparent diff erences 

between the spell lengths for men 

and women for the other race 

and Hispanic categories shown 

in Figure 1 are not statistically 

signifi cant.

Non-Hispanic White workers comprised 71 percent of the workers 

9 Federal surveys now give respondents the 

option of reporting more than one race. There 

are two basic ways of defi ning a race group. A 

group such as Black may be defi ned as those 

who reported Black and no other race (the racealone or single-race concept) or as those who 

reported Black regardless of whether they also 

reported another race (the race alone-or-incombination concept). This report shows data 

using the fi rst approach (race-alone). The use 

of the single-race population does not imply 

that it is the preferred method of presenting 

or analyzing data. The U.S. Census Bureau 

uses a variety of approaches. Information on 

people who reported more than one race, such 

as White and American Indian, or Asian and

Black or African American, is available from 

Census 2000 through the American FactFinder 

Web site. About 2.6 percent of people reported 

more than one race in Census 2000. 10 The apparent diff erence between the 

spells length for non-Hispanic White workers 

and that for Asian workers is not statistically 

signifi cant.

THE SIPP—A LONGITUDINAL SURVEY

The Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) is a longitudinal survey that interviews the same panel of individuals every 4 

months (a “wave”) over a period of years. Data are collected by turn 

from one-fourth of the sample members (a “rotation group”) in each 

of the 4 months of a wave. Demographic characteristics, labor force 

participation, government program participation, and various income 

sources of the panel members are identifi ed for each of the 4 months 

prior to the interview, a time known as the “reference period.” The 

population represented (the population universe) is the civilian noninstitutionalized population living in the United States. The estimates 

in this report relate to the members of that population who were 15 

years and older at the end of the 2004 SIPP panel in December 2007. 

The estimates exclude the institutionalized population, which consists of people residing in group quarters such as correctional facilities and nursing homes. 

Eff orts were made during the life of the panel to ensure that it 

remained representative of the noninstitutionalized population of the 

United States. Due to budget constraints, the sample for the SIPP was 

reduced by about 50 percent beginning with Wave 9 (aff ecting the 

data for June 2006 and beyond). The longitudinal estimates presented 

here (from 2004 forward) are based exclusively on the responses of 

people who survived the reduction and were interviewed in all waves 

of the 2004–2007 period or for whom imputed information exists. If 

these people had diff erent experiences of employment and unemployment from other members of the original sample, the longitudinal 

estimates may be biased. See Appendix B for a brief analysis of the 

eff ects of the sample reduction on the estimates. 
4 U.S. Census Bureau

in an average month in the period, 

but they accounted for about 58 

percent of the total number of 

unemployment spells (38.5 million of the 66.4 million total). On 

the other hand, Black workers 

accounted for 11 percent of workers, but 18 percent of the total 

spells. The comparable fi gures for 

Asian workers were 3 percent of 

workers and 4 percent of spells 

(Figure 2).

UNEMPLOYMENT SPELLS

BY AGE

People below 25 years of age 

tended to have shorter spells than 

people aged 25 years and older 

(Table A-1). The shortest median 

spell length was 1.0 months for 

16-to-19-year-olds and the longest 

was 2.5 months for people aged 

45 to 54. Within age groups, the 

spell lengths for men were about 

the same as those for women, with 

no other obvious pattern (Figure 

3). The shorter spell durations of 

younger workers may partly refl ect 

the possession of more current or 

fl exible job skills, as well as fewer 

constraints by family or fi nancial 

responsibilities on job and residential mobility. 11

An indication of the eff ect that 

younger workers have on the 

median spell length of workers in 

general is given in Table A-1. As 

previously mentioned, the overall median spell length was 1.8 

months. In contrast, the median 

length of spells for workers aged 20 

years and over was 2.1 months. The 

median for spells for workers aged 

25 years and over was 2.2 months.

11 The apparent diff erences between 

the following median spell lengths are not 

statistically signifi cant: that for people 25 to 

34 years compared with those for people 35 

to 44 years and for people 55 years and over; 

that for people 35 to 44 years compared 

with those for people 45 to 54 years and for 

people 55 years and over; and that for people 

45 to 54 compared with that for people 55 

years and over.

Younger people are heavily overrepresented among the total 

number of unemployment spells 

(Figure 4). A quarter of all unemployment spells were experienced 

by teenagers (16 to 19 years old), 

even though they composed, on 

average, only about 5 percent of 

all workers. Similarly, people 20 

to 24 years old were involved in 

about a sixth of all spells, yet they 

constituted an average of about a 

tenth of all workers. The converse 

is observed among the three age 

groups 35 years old and over. 

People in these prime-working-age 

groups were associated with 17 

percent, 13 percent, and 9 percent, 

respectively, of all unemployment 

spells, while constituting 24 percent, 23 percent, and 18 percent, 

respectively, of all workers in an 

average month.

UNEMPLOYMENT SPELLS

BY EDUCATION

Among people 21 years and older, 

the median length of the unemployment spells for people with at least 

some college education was considerably below those for people 

with less educational attainment 

Hispanic origin

Asian alone

Black alone

White alone,

non-Hispanic

Women

Men

Figure 2.

Percentage of All Spells of Unemployment Compared

With Average Monthly Percentage of Workers by Sex,

Race, and Hispanic Origin: 2004–2007

Note: Includes all unemployment spells for people in the labor force. People of 

Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2004 panel.

Percent of spells

Percent of workers

47.0

52.6

53.0

47.4

58.1

71.4

17.8

11.0

3.6

3.1

17.3

12.2
U.S. Census Bureau 5

(Figure 5). Individuals with less 

than a high school diploma had a 

median spell-length of 2.6 months, 

which was about 35 percent 

longer than that of people with at 

least some college education, 1.9 

months. The spell length for high 

school graduates, 2.4 months, 

exceeded that of people with some 

college by about 25 percent.12

The relationship between a 

group’s representation among 

unemployment-spells and its 

average representation in the 

workforce varied positively among 

12 The apparent diff erence between the 

median spell length for people in the category 

“less than high school graduate” and that for 

people in the category “high school graduate” 

is not statistically signifi cant.

educational-attainment groups (Figure 6). People with less than a high 

school diploma had twice the representation among spells (12 percent) 

as they did, on average, among 

workers (6 percent). Conversely, 

the representation of people with 

at least some college among spells 

(57 percent) was considerably less 

than their representation (68 percent) among the average monthly 

number of workers.

AVERAGE NUMBER OF 

SPELLS OF UNEMPLOYMENT

Overall, unemployed workers experienced an average (mean) of 1.5 

spells of unemployment during the 

4 years from 2004 to 2007 (Figure 

7).13 The averages for the separate 

groups of unemployed workers 

shown in Figure 7 clustered closely 

around this overall fi gure, with 

most being in the range of 1.4 

spells to 1.6 spells. These data suggest that, even though, as previously noted, unemployment spells 

were often distributed disproportionately among the groups within 

the sex, race, Hispanic-origin, 

age, and educational-attainment 

characteristics shown in Figure 7, 

the likelihood of an unemployed 

worker experiencing multiple spells 

over the 4-year period was about 

the same regardless of group or 

characteristic.

UNEMPLOYMENT 

INSURANCE AND SPELL 

DURATION

There has long been a debate 

about whether the reception of 

unemployment-insurance benefi ts 

tends to prolong an individual’s 

spell of unemployment.14 The data 

on unemployment compensation in 

Table A-1 address this issue.

Of the approximately 38.7 million 

spells of unemployment for workers aged 25 years or older, 31 million, or 80 percent, did not involve 

the receipt of unemployment 

benefi ts.15 The median duration 

of these uninsured spells was 2.1 

months, compared with 2.8 months 

for spells in which the unemployed 

worker received unemployment 

insurance benefi ts. This diff erence 

in spell duration is not necessarily 

related to the receipt of unemployment compensation, but may stem 

from diff erences, if any, between 

insured and uninsured workers in 13 This average excludes spells that started 

prior to 2004 but continued into 2004. 14 See Ehrenberg and Oaxaca,1976. Also 

see the discussion of the research on this 

issue in the section “Econometric Evidence” in 

Nicholson and Needels, 2006. 15 The data and analysis were restricted 

to spells for older workers to attenuate the 

eff ects of non-economic factors, such as 

school attendance, on spell duration.

55+

45 to 54

35 to 44

25 to 34

20 to 24

16 to 19

Figure 3.

Median Duration of Spells of Unemployment 

by Age and Sex: 2004–2007

Note: Includes all unemployment spells for people in the labor force.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2004 panel.

(In months) 

Age (years) 

Men

Women

1.0

0.9

1.5

1.2

2.1

2.0

2.2

2.5

2.6

2.3

2.1

2.4
6 U.S. Census Bureau

such characteristics as the types of 

industries they work in and their 

levels of unionization, average 

ages, and places of residence.16

DURATION OF SPELLS OF 

UNEMPLOYMENT: 2001–

2003 COMPARED WITH 

2004–2006

Figure 8 compares data on spell 

duration for January 2004 to 

December 2006 from the 2004 SIPP 

panel with data from the 2001 SIPP 

panel for January 2001 to

December 2003. The latter data 

were published in the previous 

report from the SIPP on the topic 

of spells of unemployment (Gottschalck, 2006).

The years 2001–2003 were a 

period of weakness in the labor 

market—which began to recover 

in late 2003.17 In contrast, 2004 

through 2006 saw continued 

improvement in the labor market. The comparisons in Figure 8 

aff ord a glimpse into the eff ects on 

unemployed workers of opposite 

economic conditions.

For workers in general and for 

groups of workers by sex, race, 

and Hispanic-origin, Figure 8 

reveals that the median duration 

of a spell of unemployment in the 

2004–2006 period was almost 

always less than that of a spell 

in the 2001–2003 period. For all 

workers, the median duration was 

1.7 months in the more recent 

period and 2.4 months in the 

earlier period. For male workers, 

the diff erence between the periods 

16 For example, if insured workers tend to 

be older on average than uninsured workers, 

or if they are more likely to live in places 

experiencing strong economic growth, then 

age or residence may be more predictive than 

insurance status of spell duration. 17 See Langdon, McMenamin, and Krolik, 

2002; McMenamin, Krantz, and Krolic, 2003; 

Krantz, Di Natale, and Krolic, 2004; and 

Borbely, 2008.

55+

45 to 54

35 to 44

25 to 34

20 to 24

16 to 19

Figure 4.

Percentage of All Spells of Unemployment Compared

With Average Monthly Percentage of Workers by Age:

2004–2007

Note: Includes all unemployment spells for people in the labor force.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2004 panel.

Percent of spells

Percent of workers

24.9

4.9

16.8

9.3

20.3

20.7

16.7

24.1

12.7

23.4

8.7

17.7

Figure 6.

Percentage of All Spells of Unemployment Compared

With Average Monthly Percentage of Workers 

by Educational Attainment for People 21 Years

and Older: 2004–2007

Note: Includes all unemployment spells for people in the labor force.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2004 panel.

Percent of spells

Percent of workers

12.1

6.3

31.1

26.2

56.8 At least some college

High school graduate

Less than high

school graduate

67.5

At least some college

High school graduate

Less than high school graduate

Figure 5.

Median Duration of Spells of Unemployment by 

Educational Attainment for People 21 Years and 

Older: 2004–2007

Note: Includes all unemployment spells for people in the labor force.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2004 panel.

(In months)

2.6

2.4

1.9

Age (years)

Educational attainment

Educational attainment
U.S. Census Bureau 7

in spell duration was 1 month; for 

Black men, it was 1.5 months. For 

female workers, the diff erence was 

one-half month.18 A parallel story 

is told for the age and educationalattainment groups in Figure 8. In 

general, median spell lengths for 

2004–2006 were below those for 

2001–2003.19

REFERENCES

Bleakley, Hoyt, Ann E. Ferris, and 

Jeff rey C. Fuhrer. 1999. “New 

Data on Worker Flows During 

Business Cycles,” New England 

Economic Review July/August 

1999: 49–76.

Borbely, James. 2008. “Household 

survey indicators weaken in 

2007,” Monthly Labor Review

131(3): 3–18.

Borbely, James. 2009. “U.S. Labor 

Market in 2008: economy in 

recession,” Monthly Labor Review

132(3): 3–19.

Ehrenberg, Ronald G., and Ronald 

Oaxaca. 1976. “Unemployment 

Insurance, Duration of Unemployment, and Subsequent 

Wage Gain,” American Economic 

Review 66(5): 754–766.

Gottschalck, Alfred. 2006.

Dynamics of Economic WellBeing: Spells of Unemployment 

2001–2003. U.S Census Bureau,

Current Population Reports, 

P70-105. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Offi ce.

Horrigan, Michael W. 1987.

“Time spent unemployed: a new 

look at data from the CPS,”

Monthly Labor Review 110(7): 

3–15.

18 The apparent diff erences between the 

median spell lengths for 2001–2003 and 

those for 2004–2006 for the following race 

categories are not statistically signifi cant: 

Black women, Asian men, and Asian women. 19 The apparent diff erences between the 

median spell lengths for 2001–2003 and 

those for 2004–2006 for the “35 to 44 years” 

and “55 years and over” categories are not 

statistically signifi cant.

Figure 7.

Mean Number of Spells of Unemploymen by Sex, 

Race, Hispanic Origin, Age, and Educational 

Attainment: 2004–2007

Note: Includes all unemployment spells for people in the labor force. People of Hispanic 

origin may be any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2004 panel.

1.5

1.6

1.5

1.7

1.4

1.6

1.5

1.8

1.7

1.5

1.3

1.6

1.6

1.5

1.4

Demographic group

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.4

1.4

1.3

1.6

1.5

At least some college 1.4

High school graduate

Less than high school graduate

55 years and over

45 to 54 years

35 to 44 years

25 to 34 years

20 to 24 years

16 to 19 years

Hispanic origin, women

Hispanic origin, men

Asian alone, women

Asian alone, men

Black alone, women

Black alone, men

White alone, non-Hispanic, women

White alone, non-Hispanic, men

Hispanic origin

Asian alone

Black alone

White alone, non-Hispanic

Women

Men

Total workers
8 U.S. Census Bureau

Kaitz, Hyman B. 1970. “Analyzing 

the length of spells of unemployment,“ Monthly Labor Review

93(11): 11–20.

Kline, Sara. 2007. “Household 

survey data show labor market 

improvements in 2006,” Monthly 

Labor Review 130(3): 3–18.

Krantz, Rachel, Marisa Di Natale, 

and Thomas J. Krolic. 2004.

“The U.S. labor market in 2003: 

signs of improvement by year’s 

end,” Monthly Labor Review

127(3): 3–29.

Langdon, David, S., Terence M. 

McMenamin, and Thomas J.

Krolic. 2002. “U.S. labor market in 2001: economy enters a 

recession,” Monthly Labor Review

125(2): 3–33.

McMenamin, Terence, M., Rachel 

Krantz, and Thomas J. Krolic. 

2003. “U.S. labor market in 

2002: continued weakness,” 

Monthly Labor Review 126(2): 

3–25.

Morisi, Teresa L. 2005. “Household 

survey indicators show some 

improvement in 2004,” Monthly 

Labor Review 128(3): 3–17.

Nicholson, Walter, and Karen 

Needels. 2006. “Unemployment 

Insurance: Strengthening the 

Relationship between Theory 

and Policy,” The Journal of

Economic Perspectives 20(3): 

47–70.

Ryscavage , Paul. 1988.

“Measuring Spells of Unemployment and their Outcomes,”

U.S. Census Bureau, The Survey 

of Income and Program Participation, Working Paper No. 84, 

<www.census.gov/sipp

/workpapr/workpapr.html>.

Sok, Emy. 2006. “Lower unemployment in 2005,” Monthly Labor 

Review 129(3): 3–16.

Figure 8.

Median Duration of Spells of Unemployment by 

Sex, Race, Hispanic Origin, Age, and Educational 

Attainment: 2004–2006 and 2001–2003

(In months)

1.7

2.4

1.6

1.7

2.2

1.5

2.1

3.0

1.8

2.9

2.0

2.7

1.5

2.3

1.5

Demographic group

2.6

1.9

2.0

1.6

3.1

2.1

2.8

1.9

3.0

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

At least some college

High school graduate

Less than high school graduate

55 years and over

45 to 54 years

35 to 44 years

25 to 34 years

20 to 24 years

16 to 19 years

Hispanic origin, women

Hispanic origin, men

Asian alone, women

Asian alone, men

Black alone, women

Black alone, men

White alone, non-Hispanic, women

White alone, non-Hispanic, men

Hispanic origin

Asian alone

Black alone

White alone, non-Hispanic

Women

Men

Total workers

2004–2006

2001–2003

1.8

2.9

2.0

2.8

1.6

2.5

0.9

1.8

1.2

2.0

1.9

2.6

2.2

2.6

2.6

3.1

2.2

2.5

2.5

3.1

2.3

2.8

1.8

2.3

Note: Includes all unemployment spells for people in the labor force. People of Hispanic 

origin may be any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 and 

2004 panels.
U.S. Census Bureau 9

Valletta, Rob. 2002. “Recent Trends 

in Unemployment Duration,”

FRBSF Economic Letter 2002-35.

SOURCE AND ACCURACY OF 

ESTIMATES

Source of the Data

The population represented (the 

population universe) in the 2004 

Survey of Income and Program 

Participation (SIPP) is the civilian 

noninstitutionalized population 

of the United States. The SIPP is 

a longitudinal survey conducted 

at 4-month intervals. The data in 

this report refer to the period from 

January 2004 through December 

2007. The institutionalized population, which is excluded from the 

population universe, is composed 

primarily of the population in correctional institutions and nursing 

homes (91 percent of the 4.1 million institutionalized population in 

Census 2000).

Accuracy of the Estimates

Statistics from surveys are subject 

to sampling and nonsampling error. 

All comparisons presented in this 

report have taken sampling error 

into account and are signifi cant 

at the 90 percent confi dence level 

unless otherwise noted. This means 

the 90 percent confi dence interval for the diff erence between the 

estimates being compared does not 

include zero.

Nonsampling errors in surveys 

may be attributed to a variety of 

sources, such as how the survey 

is designed, how respondents 

interpret questions, how able and 

willing respondents are to provide 

correct answers, and how accurately the answers are coded and 

classifi ed. The U.S. Census Bureau 

employs quality control procedures 

throughout the production process 

including the overall design of surveys, the wording of questions, the 

review of the work of interviewers 

and coders, and the statistical 

review of reports to minimize 

these errors. The SIPP weighting 

procedure uses ratio estimation 

whereby sample estimates are 

adjusted to independent estimates 

of the national population by age, 

race, sex, and Hispanic origin. This 

weighting partially corrects for bias 

due to undercoverage, but biases 

may still be present when people 

who are missed by the survey 

diff er from those interviewed in 

ways other than age, race, sex, and 

Hispanic origin. How this weighting 

procedure aff ects other variables in 

the survey is not precisely known. 

All of these considerations aff ect 

comparisons across diff erent surveys or data sources.

For further information on statistical standards and the computation 

and use of standard errors, go to 

<www.sipp.census.gov/sipp

/sourceac/S&A04_W1toW12(S&A-9)

.pdf> or contact Stephen Clark of 

Spell of unemployment—An uninterrupted period 

of calendar months in which an individual was unemployed. For this analysis, an individual was unemployed in a given month if and only if the individual 

had no job all month and spent at least 1 week on 

layoff or looking for work. This defi nition of unemployment diff ers from the defi nition used for the

Current Population Survey (CPS). For example, for 

this analysis, some people who reported that they 

had a job in a given month, but that they were temporarily absent from it because of a layoff , are not 

considered to be unemployed in that month. In the 

CPS, such people could be classifi ed as unemployed.

Spells of unemployment that began prior to 2004 but 

continued into 2004 (so-called “left-censored” spells) 

are excluded from the data in this report. Spells that 

were ongoing at the end of 2007 (“right-censored” 

spells) were included—their lengths were estimated 

using the life-table method of survival analysis.

Layoff —An individual was on “layoff ” if the individual 

(1) was released from a job because of slack work, 

material shortages, inventory taking, plant remodeling, installation of machinery, or other similar reasons 

and (2) anticipated being recalled to the job.

Looking for work—An individual “looked for work” 

in a given month if the individual (1) was without 

a job during at least 1 week during the month and 

(2) tried to obtain work or establish a business or 

profession in the month.

Median spell duration—The value of spell length 

that divides the distribution of spells by length into 

two equal parts—one half being longer and the 

other half shorter than the median.

Civilian noninstitutionalized population 15 

years and older—The population 15 years and 

older that does not reside in institutions, such as 

correctional institutions and nursing homes.

Labor force—An individual is considered to be in 

the labor force if the individual (1) was employed 

in a given month or (2) was unemployed in a given 

month and actively looking for work or on layoff .

DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS
10 U.S. Census Bureau

the Census Bureau’s Demographic 

Statistical Methods Division at 

<stephen.clark@census.gov>.

Additional information on the SIPP 

can be found at the following Web 

sites:

<www.sipp.census.gov/sipp/> 

(main SIPP Web site), <www.sipp

.census.gov/sipp/workpapr

/wp230.pdf> (SIPP Quality Profi le), 

and <www.sipp.census.gov/sipp

/usrguide/sipp2001.pdf> (SIPP 

User’s Guide).

CONTACTS

Contact the Demographic Call 

Center Staff at 301-763-2422 or 

866-758-1060 (toll free) or 

visit <ask.census.gov> for 

further information on labor force 

statistics.

For further information on the 

content of this report, contact 

Thomas J. Palumbo of the Census 

Bureau’s Housing and Household 

Economics Statistics Division at 

<thomas.j.palumbo@census.gov> 

or 301-763-6263.

USER COMMENTS

The Census Bureau welcomes the 

comments and advice of users of 

its data and reports. If you have 

any suggestions or comments, 

please write to:

Jennifer Day

Assistant Division Chief for

 Employment Characteristics

Housing and Household Economic

 Statistics Division

U.S. Census Bureau

Washington, DC 20233-8500

or send an e-mail to:

<jennifer.cheeseman.day@census

.gov>.

SUGGESTED CITATION

Palumbo, Thomas J., 2010. Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Spells of 

Unemployment, 2004–2007. Current 

Population Reports, P70-120. U.S. 

Census Bureau, Washington, DC.
U.S. Census Bureau 11

APPENDIX A.

Table A-1.

Unemployment Spells by Sex, Age, Educational Attainment, Race, Hispanic Origin, Receipt 

of Unemployment Compensation, and Year Spell Started: 2004–2007

Characteristic

Total 

number of 

unemployed 

workers

(thousands)

90 percent 

C.I.(+/-)* 

(thousands)

Total 

number of 

spells of 

unemployment 

(thousands)

90 percent 

C.I.(+/-)* 

(thousands)

Mean 

number of 

spells per 

unemployed 

worker

90 percent 

C.I.(+/-)* 

Median 

length of 

spells of 

unemployment 

(months) 

90 percent 

C.I.(+/-)*

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42,951 1177 66,359 1113 1.5 0.03 1.8 0.12

Sex

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,871 813 31,205 792 1.6 0.04 1.8 0.16

Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,081 868 35,154 782 1.5 0.03 1.8 0.16

Age at start of spell

20 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33,427 1062 49,831 933 1.5 0.03 2.1 0.16

25 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,175 955 38,712 818 1.5 0.03 2.2 0.17

16 to 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,665 631 16,528 532 1.5 0.05 1.0 0.07

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,279 449 8,651 407 1.6 0.08 1.0 0.10

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,386 453 7,876 338 1.5 0.06 0.9 0.08

20 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,856 544 11,119 421 1.4 0.05 1.4 0.31

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,748 379 5,201 289 1.4 0.08 1.5 0.43

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,107 397 5,918 306 1.4 0.07 1.2 0.46

25 to 34 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,036 582 13,454 480 1.5 0.05 2.0 0.28

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,957 389 6,064 339 1.5 0.09 2.1 0.51

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,079 440 7,391 339 1.5 0.07 2.0 0.28

35 to 44 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,824 543 11,056 407 1.4 0.05 2.4 0.33

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,143 348 4,522 292 1.4 0.09 2.2 0.43

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,680 423 6,535 284 1.4 0.06 2.5 0.49

45 to 54 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,937 475 8,435 366 1.4 0.06 2.5 0.36

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,676 321 3,766 255 1.4 0.10 2.6 0.56

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,261 354 4,669 262 1.4 0.08 2.3 0.48

55 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,287 405 5,766 311 1.3 0.07 2.3 0.39

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,268 296 3,002 209 1.3 0.09 2.1 0.58

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,019 279 2,765 230 1.4 0.11 2.4 0.54

Educational attainment at start of spell 

(people 21 years and older)

Less than high school graduate . . . . . . . . 3,651 374 5,719 333 1.6 0.09 2.6 0.51

High school graduate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,762 604 14,695 515 1.5 0.05 2.4 0.28

At least some college . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,951 826 26,874 646 1.4 0.03 1.9 0.15

Race/ethnicity

White alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32,445 1049 48,989 924 1.5 0.03 1.7 0.13

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,310 727 23,412 654 1.5 0.04 1.8 0.18

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,135 767 25,576 652 1.5 0.04 1.6 0.18

White alone, non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,788 949 38,527 816 1.5 0.03 1.6 0.13

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,176 657 18,321 572 1.5 0.05 1.6 0.20

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,612 693 20,206 582 1.5 0.04 1.6 0.20

Black alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,878 508 11,789 547 1.7 0.08 2.1 0.44

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,938 342 5,158 383 1.8 0.13 1.8 0.44

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,940 390 6,632 390 1.7 0.10 2.4 0.56

Asian alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,741 259 2,357 182 1.4 0.10 2.1 0.66

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694 164 1,048 133 1.5 0.19 2.5 1.05

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,046 201 1,309 119 1.3 0.11 1.8 0.87

See footnotes at end of table.
12 U.S. Census Bureau

Table A-1.

Unemployment Spells by Sex, Age, Educational Attainment, Race, Hispanic Origin, Receipt 

of Unemployment Compensation, and Year Spell Started: 2004–2007—Con.

Characteristic

Total 

number of 

unemployed 

workers

(thousands)

90 percent 

C.I.(+/-)* 

(thousands)

Total 

number of 

spells of 

unemployment 

(thousands)

90 percent 

C.I.(+/-)* 

(thousands)

Mean 

number of 

spells per 

unemployed 

worker

90 percent 

C.I.(+/-)* 

Median 

length of 

spells of 

unemployment 

(months) 

90 percent 

C.I.(+/-)*

Hispanic origin (any race) . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,245 523 11,498 451 1.6 0.06 2.2 0.31

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,359 357 5,461 323 1.6 0.10 2.3 0.39

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,886 384 6,038 315 1.6 0.08 2.0 0.49

Unemployment compensation

(people 25 years and older)

Received unemployment

 compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,406 493 7,692 234 1.2 0.04 2.8 0.25

Did not receive unemployment

 compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,624 877 31,021 703 1.4 0.03 2.1 0.20

Year spell started

2004. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,357 834 22,264 333 1.2 0.02 1.1 0.20

2005. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,487 752 17,367 265 1.1 0.02 1.9 0.15

2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,335 701 14,848 247 1.1 0.02 1.9 0.16

2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,008 640 11,880 191 1.1 0.02 2.6 0.25

Note: Details may not sum to totals because of rounding and because not all categories are shown. * A 90 percent confi dence interval (C.I.) is a 

measure of an estimate’s variability. The larger the confi dence interval in relation to the size of the estimate, the less reliable the estimate. For more 

information, see “Uses and Computation of Standard Errors” at <www.census.gov/sipp/sourceac/S&A04_W1toW12(S&A-9).pdf>.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2004 panel, January 2004 to December 2007.
U.S. Census Bureau 13

Table A-2.

Median Length of Unemployment Spells by Sex, Age, 

Educational Attainment, Race, Hispanic Origin, and

Year Spell Started: 2001–2003 and 2004–2006

Characteristic

2001–2003 2004–2006

Median 

length of 

spells of 

unemployment 

(months) 

Standard 

error

Median 

length of 

spells of 

unemployment 

(months) 

Standard 

error

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 0.08 1.7 0.07

Sex

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 0.11 1.6 0.10

Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 0.10 1.7 0.10

Age at start of spell

16 to 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 0.10 0.9 0.04

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 0.15 0.9 0.06

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 0.13 0.9 0.05

20 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 0.17 1.2 0.20

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 0.25 1.3 0.27

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 0.14 1.1 0.30

25 to 34 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 0.15 1.9 0.13

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 0.24 1.9 0.19

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 0.20 1.9 0.18

35 to 44 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 0.16 2.2 0.21

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 0.22 2.1 0.27

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 0.22 2.2 0.31

45 to 54 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 0.15 2.6 0.23

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 0.21 2.6 0.35

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 0.33 2.5 0.31

55 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 0.27 2.2 0.24

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 0.38 2.1 0.33

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 0.38 2.3 0.36

Educational attainment at start of spell 

(people 21 years and older)

Less than high school graduate . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 0.12 2.5 0.31

High school graduate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 0.16 2.3 0.18

At least some college . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 0.12 1.8 0.10

Race/ethnicity

White alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 0.08 1.6 0.08

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 0.13 1.6 0.12

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 0.11 1.5 0.12

White alone, non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 0.09 1.5 0.09

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 0.14 1.5 0.13

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 0.08 1.5 0.12

Black alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0 0.19 1.9 0.20

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 0.15 1.6 0.29

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 0.25 2.1 0.43

Asian alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 0.44 1.8 0.37

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0 0.62 1.9 0.46

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 0.62 1.8 0.61

See footnotes at end of table.
14 U.S. Census Bureau

Table A-2.

Median Length of Unemployment Spells by Sex, Age, 

Educational Attainment, Race, Hispanic Origin, and

Year Spell Started: 2001–2003 and 2004–2006—Con.

Characteristic

2001–2003 2004–2006

Median 

length of 

spells of 

unemployment 

(months) 

Standard 

error

Median 

length of 

spells of 

unemployment 

(months) 

Standard 

error

Hispanic origin (any race) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 0.20 2.0 0.20

 Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 0.29 2.0 0.25

 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 0.28 1.6 0.31

Year spell started

First year of period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 0.06 1.1 0.12

Second year of period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 0.09 1.9 0.09

Third year of period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0 0.10 2.0 0.10

Note: Details may not sum to totals because of rounding and because not all categories are 

shown.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 panel,

January 2001 to December 2003, and Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2004 panel, 

January 2004 to December 2007.

Table A-3.

People 15 Years and Older in the Labor Force by Sex, 

Age, Educational Attainment, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 

Monthly Averages, January 2004 to December 2007

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic Monthly-average number

in labor force Standard error

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148,100 932

Sex

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77,834 692

Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70,262 718

Age

Total, 16 years and older . . . . . . . . . . 147,580 933

16 to 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,240 318

20 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,692 432

25 to 34 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,486 621

35 to 44 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,516 662

45 to 54 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34,533 654

55 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,116 580

Educational attainment

Total, 21 years and older . . . . . . . . . . 137,830 944

Less than high school graduate . . . . . . . 8,710 348

High school graduate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36,056 666

At least some college . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93,062 917

Race/ethnicity

White alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122,510 948

 White alone, non-Hispanic . . . . . . . . . . 105,870 937

Black alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,237 467

Asian alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,627 256

Hispanic origin (any race) . . . . . . . . . . . 18,097 492

Note: Details may not sum to totals because of rounding and because not all categories are 

shown.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2004 panel,

January 2004 to December 2007.
U.S. Census Bureau 15

Due to budget constraints, the 

sample for the SIPP was reduced by 

about 50 percent beginning with 

Wave 9 (aff ecting the data for June 

2006 and beyond). The longitudinal 

estimates analyzed in the body of 

this report (from 2004 forward) are 

based exclusively on the responses 

of the “survivors.” These are sample 

members who survived the sample 

reduction and who were interviewed 

or for whom imputed data exists in 

all waves of the 2004–2007 period.

For the 25-month period from 

January 2004 to January 2006 (the 

period completely covered by the 

fi rst seven waves of the 2004 SIPP 

panel), the table in this appendix 

compares the median length of 

unemployment spells for the universe of people represented by the 

survivors with those of the universe 

represented by the nonsurvivors. 20

20 The period for the fi rst seven waves was 

chosen for the comparison because it is the 

longest period before the sample reduction for 

which longitudinal survey weights are available. “Nonsurvivors” are people who were interviewed (or imputed for) in all of the fi rst seven 

waves of the survey, but were either dropped 

by the sample reduction in Wave 9 or not interviewed (or imputed for) in Wave 8 or later.

The diff erences between the groups 

in median spell lengths by sex, age 

at start of spell, and race are shown 

in the fi nal column of the table. 

None of these diff erences was statistically diff erent at the 90 percent 

confi dence level.

APPENDIX B.

MEASURING THE EFFECTS OF THE SAMPLE REDUCTION ON MEDIAN SPELL LENGTH

Table B.

Median Length of Unemployment Spells by Sample-Reduction Status:

January 2004 to January 2006

Characteristic

Survivors Nonsurvivors Difference in 

median spell 

length between 

survivors and 

nonsurvivors

Median length of 

spells of

unemployment 

(months) Standard error

Median length of 

spells of

unemployment 

(months) Standard error

 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 0.08 1.6 0.07 –

Sex

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 0.11 1.5 0.10 0.01

Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 0.13 1.6 0.09 –

Age at start of spell

16 to 19 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8 0.04 0.8 0.03 –0.04

20 to 24 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 0.06 1.2 0.15 –0.21

25 to 34 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 0.14 2.2 0.17 –0.26

35 to 44 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 0.23 2.2 0.27 0.14

45 to 54 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 0.22 2.6 0.24 0.01

55 years and older . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 0.26 2.0 0.21 0.09

Race/ethnicity

White alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 0.10 1.5 0.08 0.03

 White alone, non-Hispanic . . . . 1.5 0.10 1.4 0.08 0.03

Black alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 0.22 1.9 0.16 –0.25

Asian alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 0.38 1.7 0.33 0.22

Hispanic origin (any race) . . . . . 1.8 0.22 1.9 0.23 –0.09

 – Represents or rounds to zero.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2004 panel, January 2004 to January 2006.
U.S. Department of Commerce

Economics and Statistics Administration

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