As head of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, I am

proud to be a spokesperson for how we utilize our assets to address

pressing questions about Earth and how it functions as a system. NOAA

has a distinct mission within the Department of Commerce to aid decisionmaking at all levels of society, and natural hazards is one area in which

NOAA has much to offer. This publication is important to communicating

our diverse capabilities. For example, we are now harnessing technology

for applications that take us beyond the traditional forecasting of hazards

such as tornadoes and hurricanes, to forecasting space weather, helping to

protect billions of dollars in technological assets worldwide.

NOAA, the largest agency in the U.S. Department of Commerce, carries

out a daily mission of monitoring weather, oceans, coasts, and fisheries, as

well as developing forecasts, and distributing information for economic

and public benefit. We operate a complex network of observing systems

that enable us to meet our mission. Having these technical capabilities, as

well as first class Earth scientists of all disciplines, offers enormous

possibilities for understanding and mitigating natural hazards.

As we look toward a more encompassing view of the whole Earth system,

we will focus expertise on the five areas of natural hazards outlined in this

document. NOAA will continue to work with our partners to meet our

mission of stewardship and improved understanding of the natural world.

Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., U.S. Navy (Ret.)

Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere and

NOAA Administrator

1. monitor - assess (p. 4) 1. monitor - assess (p. 4)

2. forecast - warn (p. 6) 2. forecast - warn (p. 6)

3. respond - recover (p. 16) 3. respond - recover (p. 16)

4. prepare - mitigate (p. 20) 4. prepare - mitigate (p. 20)

5. secure - protect (p. 26) 5. secure - protect (p. 26)
Early reports about the incoming storm had been sketchy. A hurricane had

passed over Cuba and was heading North. Storm-warning flags waved

quietly above the Weather Bureau building in Galveston, Texas, on

Thursday. Few took notice. The telegraph and telephone failed a few hours

after the winds began to increase in strength.

In a horse-drawn cart, Weather Bureau meteorologist Isaac Cline delivered

his forecast to those he met on the streets and at the beach. He urged

citizens to go to higher ground. Higher ground was about 9 feet above sea

level. The storm surge would be almost 16 feet.

Friday evening, after dark, chaos enveloped Galveston. Dr. Cline lost his

wife to the turbulent waters that night. At least 8,000 others joined her. The

1900 Galveston hurricane was the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history.

Gulf rising rapidly; half the city now under water.

Isaac Cline, Weather Bureau meteorologist

Last message to reach the outside world, 3:30 P.M., September 8, 1900

The battle for our lives,

against the elements and the

terrific hurricane winds and

storm-tossed wreckage,

lasted from 8 P.M. until near

midnight. This struggle to

live continued through one

of the darkest of nights with

only an occasional flash of

lightning which revealed the

terrible carnage about us.

Isaac Cline

Galveston, Texas

“Galveston; Among the Wreckage.” (Stereoview, 1900.)
Today, satellites provide continuous, global surveillance

that determines the location, size, and intensity of

developing storms. Specialized aircraft fly into hurricanes

to measure wind, pressure, temperature, and humidity,

and to pinpoint the exact location of the storm’s core.

Land-based weather networks monitor storm movement.

Predictive computer models are used to forecast weather

variables. People receive advance warnings. Events

comparable to the 1900 Galveston, Texas, storm are

handled differently today.

Despite technological advances, millions of Americans

remain in harm’s way as the Nation’s coastal populations

grow. More than 3,600 people a day move to coastal

locations. Most of our citizens have not experienced a

major hurricane, leading to a false impression of a

hurricane’s potential. The same is true for other natural

and technological hazards.

• Hurricanes • Thunderstorms • Tornadoes • Winter storms • Heat •

Drought • Floods • Winds • Solar flares • Geomagnetic storms •

Tsunamis • Volcanic plumes • Wildland fires • Airborne pollution •

Ozone variation • Algal blooms • Hypoxia • Marine mammal strandings

• Species decimation • Oil spills • Toxin release • Terrorism
In recent years, natural and technological hazards have been

costly, causing many hundreds of deaths and tens of billions

of dollars in damages. The impacts are not only in human

suffering and property loss, but also loss of livelihood,

economic deterioration, and environmental destruction.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA)—in partnership with other

organizations and emergency management responders—

provides a coordinated suite of hazards-related services for

the Nation.

NOAA’s increased environmental data-gathering efforts have

led to breakthroughs in prediction and preparedness,

enhancing the safety, and security, of our citizens.
NOAA operates the Nation’s civil geostationary and polar-orbiting environmental

satellites. NOAA also manages the largest collection of atmospheric,

geophysical, and oceanographic data in the world. These activities are critical to

monitoring the environment, and also analyzing hazards potential.

Satellite Observing Systems

Geostationary operational environmental satellites (GOES) support national and

regional short-range warnings and now-casting capability.

Positioned over the Equator at approximately 25,000 miles above Earth, these

satellites provide continuous monitoring of Earth’s atmosphere and surface over the

Western Hemisphere. Imagery from these satellites are used to monitor potentially severe

weather conditions. Infrared channels can help to detect forest fires, sea surface

temperature, fog formation, and volcanic plumes.

Polar-orbiting operational environmental satellites (POES) support global longrange forecasting and environmental monitoring. These satellites are North–South

orbiting at 500 miles above Earth, viewing the entire planet every six hours.

Data from POES support a broad range of applications including climate research,

ocean dynamics studies, drought and forest fire detection, and vegetation analyses. Data

from the U.S. Air Force’s Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) are archived

by NOAA and are used to monitor cloud density, city lights, fires, and energetic particles

from the sun (which cause aurora and other upper atmosphere phenomena).

NOAA-17 (NOAA-M) was launched by NASA for NOAA

in June 2002. Its sensors improve weather forecasting and

monitor environmental events such as El Niño, fires, and

floods. The first image from the satellite (below) showed

cloud cover over North America. NOAA and NASA work

in partnership to study Earth’s interrelated systems.
NOAA monitors and assesses: • Current & changing weather conditions • Paths

of severe weather • El Niño & La Niña • Atmospheric ozone distribution • Sea surface

temperature • Ice hazards in oceans & lakes • Vegetation conditions • Coral bleaching

• Coastal ecosystems health • Wildfire movement • The Space environment

In-Situ Observing Systems

In situ (on-site) observations are those collected from individual locations on

the ground, in the ocean, or in the air. A rain gauge at a commercial airport, a ship

report of wave height, measurements from a geomagnetic observatory, or flight

reconnaissance reports of wind speed and barometric pressure, are examples of

in situ environmental monitoring.

In situ observations are necessary for the calibration of satellite sensors, to

adjust satellite drift, and to filter atmospheric data transmission distortions.

Clouds and airborne particles in the atmosphere limit the instruments’ clear

vision of the atmosphere near Earth’s surface.

In situ data platforms are often used in tandem with satellites, providing

geographic referencing. Automated Surface Observing Systems provide minuteby-minute observations and generate information for safe and efficient aviation

operations, and are used by the public to plan day-to-day activities. The GOES

Data Collection System can receive transmissions such as those from buoys,

sensors onboard aircraft, and river gauges, and relay the information back to the

owner of the platform. This allows for near real-time use of data.

Radar Observations. NOAA operates 121 Doppler weather radars, and partners with the Department

of Defense and the Federal Aviation Administration to operate an additional 38 radars. Doppler radars

enable forecasters to observe precursors of tornadoes and violent thunderstorms, and track tropical

storms. These radars also provide estimates of wind speed and

rainfall amounts. NOAA researchers and partners are now

adapting SPY-1 radar technology (currently deployed on U.S.

Navy ships) for use in spotting severe weather. The phased array

radar system technology has the potential to vastly improve the

NEXRAD system (high resolution Doppler radar).
NOAA provides weather, water, and climate forecasts and warnings for the United

States, its territories, adjacent waters, and ocean areas. NOAA is the sole United

States official voice for issuing warnings during life-threatening weather situations.

NOAA also provides watches and warnings for non-weather hazards.

Hazards Warnings, Watches, and Advisories

NOAA “warnings” and “watches” are the two messages most familiar to U.S. citizens. A

warning indicates that a hazardous event is occurring or highly likely. A watch indicates that

conditions favor the occurrence of a certain type of hazardous event. Advisories are issued for

significant (weather) situations that cause inconvenience but do not meet warning criteria for a

major event.

NOAA issues nearly 30,000 warnings, advisories, and statements annually from its

nationwide Weather Forecast Offices. NOAA also issues hundreds of river stage and flood

statements yearly from River Forecast Centers.

U.S. Top Twelve Deadliest Natural Disasters: • Galveston Hurricane (1900) • Lake Okeechobee

Hurricane (1928) • Johnstown Flood (1889) • Chenier Caminanda Hurricane (1893) • Peshtigo Fire

(1871) • Sea Islands Hurricane (1893) • San Francisco Earthquake & Fire (1906) • Georgia & South

Carolina Hurricane (1881) • Tri-State Tornado (1925) • Atlantic-Gulf Hurricane (1919) • New England

Hurricane (1938) • Labor Day Hurricane (1935)

Lake Okeechobee Hurricane, 1928

Lake Okeechobee, and surrounding Palm Beach County, Florida

2,500+ deaths

Second deadliest U.S. natural disaster

Clean up, West Palm Beach.

(Autochrome, 1928.)

Note about death tolls: Death tolls for early U.S. disasters vary according to regional tradition and

culture. Prior to the mid-1900s, fatality counts often did not include minorities, migrant workers, transients,

recent immigrants, infants, or poor people, especially in rural areas. Mass graves or mass cremations

(both health measures) hindered careful counting of the dead. Accurate casualty figures may never be

known for most of the early events listed in this publication.

NOAA’s improved

technology and forecasting

reduces the impact of

natural hazards.
Excessive Heat and Drought

The parameters of an extreme heat watch, warning, or advisory can vary by

location, humidity levels, and duration of the forecast. Excessive heat results from a

combination of high temperatures (significantly above normal) and high humidity over

prolonged periods of time. NOAA has devised the “Heat Index,” which is a measure of

how hot it really feels when the relative humidity is added to the actual air

temperature.

Stagnant atmospheric conditions of a heat wave trap pollutants in urban areas.

This adds to the dangerous stresses of hot weather. NOAA issues heat outlooks,

watches, and warnings to assist county and city officials in preparing and responding

to excessive heat threats.

Drought occurs when a persistent lack of moisture has adverse impacts on plants,

animals, or people. It develops slowly and impacts greatly. NOAA, in collaboration

with State climatologists, Regional Climate Centers, universities, and other agencies,

monitors drought conditions over the U.S., issuing short-term and long-term forecasts.

Winter Storms

A major winter storm can last for several days and be accompanied by high

winds, freezing rain or sleet, heavy snowfall, and cold temperatures. A winter storm

can range from a moderate snow or freezing rain over a few hours to blizzard

conditions lasting several days. Extremely cold temperatures, snow accumulation, and

sometimes coastal flooding, can cause long-term hazardous conditions. The economic

impact of winter storms is high—a single event may incur billions of dollars in damage

(see page 30). NOAA issues winter storm warnings, wind chill advisories, and other

winter weather forecasts.

Extreme heat is currently the deadliest U.S. natural hazard.

The 10-year average for heat-related deaths is 235, nearly three times more

than the second deadliest, floods. Heat fatalities from 1993 to 2002 were:

Drought map for the week of July 22,

2003. Yellow areas are “moderately dry;”

dark brown areas are “exceptionally dry.”

The Drought Monitor is a synthesis of

multiple indices which represent a

consensus of academic and U.S.

government partners, including NOAA.

Close monitoring of drought conditions

leads to more useful seasonal forecasts.

1993 20

1994 29

1995 1021

1996 36

1997 81

1998 173

1999 502

2000 158

2001 166

2002 167
Thunderstorms

The typical thunderstorm is 15 miles in diameter

and lasts an average of 20 to 30 minutes. Of the

estimated 100,000 thunderstorms that occur each year in

the United States, only about 10 percent are classified as

severe.

NOAA considers a thunderstorm severe if it

produces hail at least three-quarters of an inch in

diameter, has winds of 58 miles per hour or higher, or

produces a tornado.

Lightning occurs in all thunderstorms. The rapid

heating and cooling of the air near the lightning channel

causes a shock wave resulting in thunder.

Tornadoes

A tornado is a violently rotating column of air

extending from a thunderstorm to the ground. The most

dangerous ones have rotating winds of 250 miles per

hour or more. These are capable of causing extreme

destruction.

Although violent tornadoes comprise only 2% of all

tornadoes, they are responsible for nearly 70% of

tornado-related fatalities.

There are no areas immune to tornadoes. They have

been reported in mountains and valleys, over deserts and

swamps, from the Gulf Coast into Canada, in Hawaii,

and even Alaska. More than 1,000 tornadoes are reported

annually nationwide, and as tornado detection systems

improve, more are being reported each year.

During the first 10 days of May 2003, a record 300

tornadoes were reported in eight States. Close

cooperation among NOAA forecasters, local media, and

emergency responders helped to minimize fatalities.

Advanced Prediction of Severe Storms: Forecasters

look for the development of temperature and wind flow

patterns in the atmosphere which can cause enough

moisture, instability, and wind shear for tornadic

thunderstorms. As the event gets closer, the forecast narrows

down to a more precise threat area.

“Last trains in and out of Harrisburg.”

(Photograph, 1889.)

Johnstown Flood, 1889

Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and surrounding areas

2,200+ deaths

Third deadliest U.S. natural disaster
Hurricanes

Hurricanes and tropical storms are cyclones with tropical origins. When a

tropical storm has winds which reach a constant speed of 74 miles per hour or

more, it is called a hurricane. Each year, on average, 10 tropical storms (of which

six become hurricanes) develop over the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, or Gulf

of Mexico. Many of these storms remain over the water. An average of five

hurricanes strike the U.S. coastline every three years. Of these five, two will be

major hurricanes (with winds exceeding 110 miles per hour).

More dangerous than the high winds of a hurricane is the accompanying

storm surge, a dome of ocean water that can be 20 feet high at its peak and 50 to

100 miles long. The surge can devastate coastal communities as it sweeps ashore.

This is what destroyed Galveston, Texas, in 1900. In recent years, the fatalities

associated with storm surges have been greatly reduced as a result of better

warning and preparedness within coastal communities.

As hurricanes approach, forecasters along U.S. coasts monitor storm

movements using NOAA’s land-based Doppler weather radar network. NOAA’s

National Hurricane Center and Central Pacific Hurricane Center follow these

storms and provide detailed forecasts, watches, and warnings.

Tracking Hurricanes: NOAA’s geostationary satellites provide

continuous surveillance that determines the location, size, and intensity

of developing hurricanes. Both NOAA and the U.S. Air Force Reserve

use specially-equipped aircraft to fly into hurricanes. Instruments

measure wind, pressure, temperature, and humidity, and pinpoint the

exact location of the storm’s center.

Chenier Caminanda Hurricane, 1893

Coastal Louisiana

2,000+ deaths

Fourth deadliest U.S. natural disaster

Hurricane Michelle, 2001.

The Chandeleur Islands, part of Louisiana’s

island barrier system, were once home to

thriving, multi-ethnic communities. The 1893

hurricane and storm surges destroyed most of

these settlements. Hurricane Georges (1998)

also decimated the island chain. Since that

time, NOAA and the Louisiana Department of

Natural Resources have worked together on

shoreline restoration projects.
Floods

Floods are among the most frequent and costly natural disasters in terms of human

hardship and economic loss. As much as 90% of the damage related to all natural

disasters (excluding droughts) is caused by floods and associated debris flows. Most

communities in the U.S. can experience some kind of flooding.

Melting snow can combine with rain in the winter and early spring; severe

thunderstorms can bring heavy rain in the spring and summer; or tropical cyclones can

bring intense rainfall to the coastal and inland States in the summer and fall.

Flash Floods

Flash floods occur within six hours of a rain event, after a dam or levee failure, or

following a sudden release of water held by an ice or debris jam.

Urbanization increases runoff two to six times over what would occur on natural

terrain. Streets can become swift moving rivers, while basements and viaducts can

become death traps.

Landslides

Landslides and debris flow are

typically associated with periods of heavy

rainfall or rapid snow melt, and tend to

worsen the effects of flooding that often

accompany these events. They may also be

associated with volcanic events.

Pyroclastic flows, hot ash, fallen trees,

ground water, and rain water create

destructive mudflows and flooding.

Wildfires can also lead to destructive

debris-flow activity. In July 1994, a severe

wildfire swept Storm King Mountain in

Colorado, denuding the slopes of

vegetation. Heavy rains two months later

resulted in numerous debris flows, one of

which blocked Interstate 70 and threatened

to dam the Colorado River.

Flood Forecasting. NOAA’s flood forecasting relies almost entirely upon automated data as opposed to manual observations.

Most of the river data NOAA uses for its flood forecasting services are provided by other Federal and local cooperating

agencies. Real-time data are transmitted from field sites using a variety of techniques that include line-of-sight radio, microwave,

and satellite. The data are screened for quality before being placed into computer models. Each geographic region has models

configured to its own parameters. River flood forecasting involves a skilled balance of experience, analyses of current conditions,

and analyses of model results. This leads to site-specific warnings, watches, and advisories.

Fleeing the Peshtigo Fire.

(Printed wood engraving, 1871.)

Peshtigo Fire, 1871

Peshtigo & Green Bay, Wisconsin area wildfires & firestorm

1,600+ deaths

Fifth deadliest U.S. natural disaster

NOAA provides site-specific flood warnings, watches, and advisories.
Space Weather

Space weather has a significant effect upon energy providers,

communication, transportation, and space exploration. For example,

the Sun periodically generates geomagnetic solar storms that have

caused massive power outages. Potential costs associated with power

system disruptions due to geomagnetic storms have been estimated at

$3 to $6 billion.

Instruments aboard NOAA’s polar-orbiting satellites are used to

provide a space weather storm warning system. The space

environment monitor aboard NOAA’s geostationary satellites is

designed to provide real-time measurement of space weather, flares,

solar radiation storms, radio blackouts, and geomagnetic storms.

Researchers and data modelers work together to improve information

analyses.

NOAA issues daily forecasts, alerts, warnings, and watches about

disturbances in the solar-terrestrial environment. These are distributed

by Internet, NOAA Weather Wire, email, and in technical reports. At

times of high solar activity, NOAA’s space environment Web pages

record more than one million queries per day.

Sea Islands Hurricane, 1893

Coastal Georgia and South Carolina

1,000-3,000 deaths

Sixth deadliest U.S. natural disaster

“Effects of the Storm upon an Old

Mansion on Station Creek.”

(Illustration by Daniel Smith, 1894.)
Tsunami Warnings

Tsunamis are ocean waves most often generated by

earthquake-induced movements of the ocean floor.

Landslides and volcanic eruptions can also generate a

tsunami. If a major earthquake is felt, a tsunami could

reach the beach in a few minutes, even before a warning

is issued. As the waves approach the coast, their speed

decreases and their amplitude increases. The waves can

be very destructive and cause many deaths or injuries.

As part of an international cooperative effort to save

lives and protect property, NOAA operates two tsunami

warning centers. The Alaska Tsunami Warning Center in

Palmer, Alaska, serves as the regional Center for Alaska,

British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California.

The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Ewa Beach,

Hawaii, serves as the regional Center for Hawaii, and is

an international warning center for tsunamis that pose a

Pacific-wide threat.

Volcanic Ash Advisories

The United States is third in the world, after Japan

and Indonesia, for the number of active volcanoes. Most

of our Nation’s volcanoes are in Alaska. However, the

U.S. may experience effects from volcanoes which erupt

in other geographic regions.

Volcanic ash consists of fine, glassy rock fragments

that can affect people and equipment hundreds of miles

away from an eruption. It poses an ever-increasing

threat to aviation safety as transportation expands

throughout the Pacific rim.

Airborne ash can diminish visibility, damage flight

control systems, and cause jet engines to fail. NOAA

meteorologists track volcanic eruptions throughout the

world and monitor all available satellite images for ash

plumes. In collaboration with the Federal Aviation

Administration, the International Civil Aviation

Organization, and other ash advisory centers

worldwide, NOAA develops volcanic ash advisory

statements. Pilots are warned to avoid routes with a high

probability of danger.

1906 sheet music published for

the Hearst San Francisco Relief

Fund. (Color folio, 1906.)

“The City in Flames.” April 18, 1906, 10 A.M.; five hours after the earthquake.

(Panoramic photograph, 1906.)

Postcard that shows the burning of San Francisco,

mailed by a survivor. (Color lithography, 1906.)

Portion of a newspaper (above)

published at an alternate site after the

downtown location lost power.

San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, 1906

San Francisco, California

700-3000 deaths

Seventh deadliest U.S. natural disaster
There will always be a person in the

loop—someone to oversee the data pouring

in from satellites, reconnaissance aircraft,

radar, surface observing systems,

numerical models and the like. Even with

the precision of these inputs, there will be

times when science melds with skill, a

feeling in the gut, a decision based on

experience.

Miles Lawrence

NOAA hurricane specialist

Tropical Prediction Center, Miami, Florida, 2000

Tybee Island, Georgia, on a quiet day.

The 1881 and 1893 hurricanes landed

in this geographic region.

Georgia and South Carolina Hurricane, 1881

Coastal Georgia and South Carolina

700+ deaths

Eighth deadliest U.S. natural disaster
NOAA Weather Radio stations

coverage across the conterminous U.S.

Broadcasting Information

Three systems were created with the goal of disseminating weather information. Each has

been expanded to include information on other life threatening situations, including both

natural and technological disasters. These systems operate 24 hours a day, every day.

NOAA Weather Radio

NOAA Weather Radio (NWR) is the “Voice of the National Weather Service.” NWR

provides continuous broadcasts of the latest weather information, and warnings of severe

weather and other life-threatening hazards from 122 local Weather Forecast Offices.

Broadcasts are specifically tailored to needs of people within the service area.

During an emergency, NOAA National Weather Service forecasters will interrupt routine

weather radio programming with special messages describing the threat, and actions that

should be taken. The messages are accompanied by digital coding. This code activates special

receivers programmed by the user to alarm only for specific events and for specific areas.

These receivers may have a loud siren, and visual displays that indicate the immediacy of

the threat and identifies the specific threat. Some receivers can also drive external devices such

as strobe lights, pagers, and personal computers, to alert people with special needs.

NWR broadcasts from more than 800 stations located in the United States, adjacent

coastal waters, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and Saipan, on seven frequencies. This

reaches approximately 95% of the U.S. population. A few stations also broadcast on-line.

Working with other Federal agencies and the Federal Communications Commission’s

Emergency Alert System, NWR is an “all hazards” radio network. It is the best single source

for the most comprehensive weather and emergency information available to the public.
The public-private partnership that exists in the United

States for the provision of weather services is unique in

the (entire) world, and I think, beyond a doubt, it

results in the citizens of the United States receiving the

best weather information . . . on the planet.

Ray Ban, Senior Vice President

The Weather Channel, 2001

Emergency Managers Weather Information Network

The NOAA Emergency Managers Weather Information Network (EMWIN) is a wireless

computer data broadcast system. EMWIN provides real-time warnings, forecasts, graphics,

satellite imagery, and other data to the emergency management community, television stations,

and various government and private institutions.

NOAA Weather Wire Service

The NOAA Weather Wire Service (NWWS) is a satellite-based telecommunications

network. It is designed to disseminate weather watches, warnings, and other products (more

than 6,000 in all) in the shortest possible time and with the highest possible reliability.

NOAA’s Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System integrates incoming weather

data for distribution through NWWS. Weather, hydrologic, and all-hazards warnings receive the

highest priority. NWWS delivers warnings to users in 10 seconds or less from the time they are

issued, making it the fastest delivery system available for these time-sensitive products. It is

comprised of 20 transmitting sites known as uplinks. Each site has automatic dial backup in case

of failure of any part of the system, whether it is satellite or terrestrial.

Tri-State Tornado, 1925

Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri

700+ deaths

Ninth deadliest U.S. natural disaster

Detail of storm track from Monthly Weather Review, April 1925.
During the occurrence of an extreme event or disaster, NOAA manages realtime data and communicates hazard information and warnings. This

information assists first responders in their task of emergency management. In

the recovery period after an event, NOAA documents what happened with the

goal of understanding physical processes and improving modeling,

forecasting, and warnings.

Saving Lives: International Search and Rescue Program

Cospas-Sarsat is an international, humanitarian search and rescue system that uses

United States and Russian satellites to detect and locate emergency beacons indicating

distress. The beacon transmitters are carried by individuals, or aboard aircraft and ships.

To date, more than 17,000 lives have been saved worldwide.

The search and rescue program has been used extensively during weather

emergencies, especially for locating crafts disabled by severe storms. The

system consists of a network of satellites, ground stations, mission control

centers, and rescue coordination centers across the planet. The system

operates 24 hours a day, every day, and includes 36 nations.

The United States Mission Control Center, operated by NOAA,

serves as the focal point of United States’ alert data. These data are

forwarded to the U.S. Air Force and Coast Guard who perform the rescues.

The program is jointly funded by NOAA, U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Air

Force, and National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
People from countries around the world can reap the benefits this

technology provides. The ultimate objective is to eliminate search from

the search and rescue operation.

Vice Adm. Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr. USN (ret.), NOAA Administrator

at the 20th Anniversary of Cospas-Sarsat, October 2002

Saving Lives: Personal Locator Beacons

In 2002, the Federal Communications Commission approved a request

by NOAA for frequency access by personal locator beacons in the U.S. This

contributes to emergency safety for those who enjoy wilderness activities.

The personal locator beacons have advanced features including global

positioning system technology, making it easier and quicker for NOAA

satellites to pick up distress signals and relay an accurate location to

rescuers. The beacons are small and lightweight. They are available at stores

that sell marine and outdoor gear. The new system was announced at the

20th anniversary celebration of Cospas-Sarsat (October 2002), and became

operational in July 2003.

“Dedicated to the memory of

the civilians and war veterans

whose lives were lost in the

hurricane of September Second

1935.”

Detail of Islamorada Hurricane

Monument (Key West) showing

palm trees and waves in the

storm. (Works Progress

Administration, 1937; carved

coral, bas-relief sculpture.) The Labor Day Hurricane of 1935

Florida Keys

400+ deaths

Twelfth deadliest U.S. natural disaster

New England Hurricane, 1938

600-700 deaths

Eleventh deadliest U.S. natural disaster

Atlantic-Gulf Hurricane, 1919

Florida Keys, Texas (and Cuba)

600-900 U.S. deaths

Tenth deadliest U.S. natural disaster

Personal locator beacons made by

various manufacturers.
No single federal, state, local, tribal, or volunteer agency alone can handle

all wildland fires that may occur in its jurisdiction. At the Center, branches

of seven federal agencies work together to exchange support, protection

responsibilities, information, and training, providing an efficient method for

protecting lives, property, and natural resources.

Larry Van Bussum, NOAA National Weather Service liaison

National Interagency Fire Center, Boise, Idaho

Responding to Wildfires

The objective of NOAA’s Fire Weather Program is to provide meteorological support

to land management agencies for the protection of life and property. This support

includes warnings, forecasts, on-site services during wildland fires, and meteorological

training for fire fighters.

NOAA forecasters monitor meteorological conditions continuously during the fire

season, using their knowledge of weather to assist authorities with fire suppression

strategies and related safety issues. Weather information comes from NOAA satellites,

local NOAA offices, and from NOAA’s Incident Meteorologists, who join firefighting teams

near the front lines of the blaze. These meteorologists provide accurate, site-specific weather

forecasts. Portable weather equipment is set up at base camps, along with electronic access to

local forecast offices.

Meteorologists maintain communication with the fireline. These specialists receive

training in microscale forecasting, fire behavior and fire operations, thus making them key

members of the broader fire management team.

NOAA also tracks drought conditions and dry thunderstorms (which produce significant

lightning) to identify geographic areas at risk of fire. The information is used to determine

allocation of resources when firefighters are in high demand.

Satellite data are used to detect fires, identify hot spots, and track smoke plumes.

Computer models determine air quality forecasts, important for the medical community’s

response to fire-related symptoms. All fire location data are available through Web-based

geographic information systems. The data may be viewed with other relevant information, on

customized maps.

Heat signatures and smoke plumes

visible from the Hayman Fire in

Colorado, June 2002. NOAA

scientists create imagery from

GOES, POES, and other satellites.

These high-resolution visuals are

used by emergency response

teams and also by the news

media.
National implementation of the Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service will

save lives and an estimated $240 million per year in flood losses, and will

contribute an additional $520 million per year in economic benefits to water

resources users.

Use and Benefits of the NWS River and Flood Forecasts,

National Hydrologic Warning Council, April 2002.

Responding to Flooding

Flooding may occur days or weeks after a tropical cyclone or winter storm. Wildfires can strip steep

hillsides of vegetation, increasing the likelihood of flash floods and mud slides until vegetation returns.

As extreme events unfold and local emergency response is initiated, local NOAA Weather Forecast

Offices provide forecast and warning information on potential floodwater inundation.

The Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service (AHPS) is based on computer models of rainfall,

water runoff, and river channel flow data, plus the historical record of these parameters for given

forecast points and small watersheds. The models extend the current one- to three-day river stage

forecast lead times to weeks and months in advance. These types of data are essential for risk-based

decision making in the local response community.

Responding to Spill Incidents

NOAA is the focal point for spill preparedness and response, hazardous waste site investigation,

and environmental damage assessment. NOAA guides local agencies in environmental restoration when

events occur in coastal zones or in navigable waters. This includes monitoring species populations and

modeling coastal ecosystems. NOAA provides rapid assessment of injuries to marine life from

catastrophic oil spills and at Superfund sites such as Commencement Bay in Puget Sound.

NOAA’s software, databases, and other tools help emergency organizations respond to hazardous

materials accidents and resolve contamination problems. NOAA

computer models analyze oil spill trajectory and air dispersion

of chemicals. An Incident News Web site provides timely

information to the public about current response operations for

spill incidents.
Effective preparedness and mitigation procedures include:

• Identifying users and their needs

• Use of historical data collections

• Data modeling and other assessment techniques

• Data distribution

• Partnerships at all levels

Preparedness anticipates hazards and takes appropriate countermeasures in

advance, such as issuing warnings, stockpiling supplies, or establishing

evacuation routes. Mitigation involves long-term actions to prevent or reduce a

hazardous effect from occurring, such as building structures that can withstand

the force of winds or earthquakes.

Traditionally, local governments have emergency response teams or

committees which draft hazard response plans after considering data, statistics,

or environmental indicators. NOAA data and analyses are used in these

planning efforts.
Coastal and marine waters support 28.3 million jobs, generate $54

billion in goods and services, contribute $30 billion to the U.S. economy

through recreational fishing, and provide a tourism destination for 89

million Americans each year.

Dust Bowl, 1931-1939

Worst drought in U.S. history, covering 75% of the

country, and affecting 27 States severely.

Historical environmental data are used to: • Conduct risk &

vulnerability assessments • Provide short-term warnings • Provide short-

& long-term forecasts • Promote safe navigation • Manage & protect

living marine resources • Manage & protect coastal & ocean environments

“Children of migrant agricultural

workers in California.”

(Dorothea Lange, FSA photograph, 1937.)

Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas.

(Photograph, 1935.)

Historical Data Collections

NOAA provides long-term stewardship for the Nation’s environmental data. These historical

data collections are broad in scope. Long-term data can be used to establish the past record of

hazardous event occurrences, and contribute to awareness of future risk.

Weather observations have been manually recorded at hundreds of U.S. locations since the

18th Century, providing a 200-year record of the Nation’s environment. Hydrographic and fish

surveys provide a history from the mid-1800s. Data collected by remote sensing systems, such as

radar and satellites, have been providing records for the past 40 years. Proxy data gathered from

the natural record comes from sources such as ice-core samples, ocean sediments, fossil pollen,

coral skeletons, and tree rings. Proxy data extend the understanding of the climate far beyond the

instrumental record.

Coastal Data

 Coastal hazards may include hurricanes, tsunamis, erosion, oil spills, harmful

algal blooms, and pollution. Many coastal issues involve the entire watershed area

on the land side, coastal seas including estuaries and bays on the ocean side, and the

wetlands between them. Understanding this land–aquatic interface is becoming

increasingly important due to rapid population growth in coastal areas. NOAA

provides historical data, plus new scientific discoveries and technology, to the

nation’s coastal resource managers.
An El Niño episode is a period of exceptionally warm sea surface

temperatures across the eastern tropical Pacific. Normally, the warm ocean

waters lead to atmospheric heating, and this helps to determine the overall

north-south temperature differences in both Hemispheres. The temperature

difference significantly affects the strength and location of the jet streams over

both the North and South Pacific, and can result in significant changes in

weather patterns worldwide. The El Niño event of 1997-1998 led to public

awareness of interannual climate variability and its effects. NOAA is involved

in research, assessment, monitoring, and prediction of these phenomena.

Atmospheric Data

NOAA scientists use historical data to research the atmospheric-aquatic interfaces which lead

to ecosystem disasters. For example, atmospheric deposits may intensify contamination from

sources such as fertilizers and industrial discharge. Excessive nitrogen deposits can cause red or

brown tides, which choke coastal ecosystems.

Marine Resources Data

NOAA maintains critical fisheries data used in assessing fishery stocks, determining overfished areas, and conducting habitat restoration projects. NOAA also monitors migratory

movements, habitat needs, and population dynamics of protected marine mammals. Historical

data show the long-term impact of interactions between human activities and living marine

resources.

Seismological Data

Seismological hazards, including earthquakes and tsunamis, affect both coastal and inland

areas. NOAA plays a major role in post-event data collection. NOAA has taken the lead in

collecting valuable historical tsunami data for the Pacific Rim and Caribbean.

Weather Data

NOAA’s vast weather data collection spans several centuries. Information on daily or longterm regional weather may help in the budgeting of resources from sand bags to snow plows.

Emergency agencies depend on these historical data to assess the need for equipment, supplies,

and shelter space, and to coordinate volunteer activity.
Data modeling is used to study: • Hazardous chemical dispersion • Oil spill behavior • Sediment

contaminant distribution• Near-term weather trends • Global warming • El Niño & La Niña • Sea

surface temperature • Solar events • Navigational hazards • Ecosystems characterizations • Ocean

ice analyses • Endangered marine mammals • Fish habitats • Wildfire destruction of biomass

NOAA develops models and map products using

multi-layered environmental and cultural data. This

visual information is useful in assessing geographic

risk, and in developing mitigation plans.

Data Modeling for Hazards Analyses

The needs of hazards researchers, local and

regional governments, and disaster preparedness

organizations have become more complex as data

access has improved. For example, those researching

the movement of hurricanes may need wind

measurements from land and sea, satellite data and

images, water-level measurements, and detailed

weather data.

NOAA develops computer models that

incorporate diverse types of data. The models are used

within NOAA and in the hazards community for data

analyses and forecasting. These are frequently used in

combination with satellite and in situ observing

systems.

The 1997–1998 El Niño event, one of the most

intense of the 20th Century, was successfully predicted

by NOAA. Oceanic and atmospheric data from

NOAA’s observing systems were utilized in the

dynamical and statistical models that led to the

prediction of the El Niño temperature anomaly.

Advances in information technologies make it

possible to perform disaster modeling that simulates a

wide variety of scenarios. Each adds significant value

in monitoring events and characterizing infrastructure,

high-hazard areas, and disaster zones.

The growing number of these models may present

challenges to users. NOAA provides training materials

and on-site assistance for many of the products.

Careful planning is put into product design, providing

flexibility for various uses.
Data Distribution

NOAA products and systems enhance data utilization at

all levels—from the data manager to the first responder.

Creative uses of new technology, combined with NOAA data,

have led to breakthroughs in hazards detection, assessment,

and mitigation standards.

Many types of data are integrated into useful

information about hazards. The example (right) shows data

used to initiate flood warnings and water resource forecasts.

Computer speed and functions will continue to increase

with a corresponding decrease in cost. This will enhance the

capabilities of forecasters to extract critical information and

predict hazards probabilities. This will also decrease the time

it takes for vital information to reach the public.

Information technology continues to transform the data

distribution process. Effective data distribution and

technology transfer are essential in sustainable hazards

mitigation.

Radar Data River Gauge Data

Precipitation Forecasts Snow Cover & Melt Data

Climate Predictions

Weather Observations

Reservoir Releases

The West Nile virus transmission cycle is a

complex interaction among species, ecosystems,

and climate variables. NOAA and its partners

are using novel techniques to investigate West

Nile virus and other climate-health issues. These

studies involve rapid exchange of information

at all levels of research, and across many

scientific disciplines.

West

Nile

virus

West

Nile

virus

West

Nile

virus

Mosquitoes become

infected by feeding

on infected birds

and pass the virus to

other birds, animals,

and people.

NOAA’s Advanced Hydrologic

Prediction Service uses

interdisciplinary data to

improve flood warnings and

water resource forecasts.

223 Americans died from

West Nile virus in 2003. (Source:

Centers for Disease Control)
Citizen-Assisted Programs

Cooperative Observer Program

A vital component of NOAA’s weather

data collection system is one that is made of

nearly 12,000 volunteer citizens. The

Cooperative Observer Program is the

Nation’s largest and oldest climate and

weather network.

Officially established in 1890, observers

submit daily or monthly summaries of their

manual weather observations. These

important observations are used in support

of local forecast and warning services, and

for maintaining the historical record.

Storm Spotters

Storm spotters play a critical role in

NOAA’s severe weather operations. They are

often a community’s first line of defense

against dangerous storms. To date, NOAA

has trained more than 211,000 storm spotters

nationwide. They report severe weather at

their locations to local National Weather

Service Field Offices. Most storm spotters are

volunteers, but also include public emergency

personnel such as sheriff’s deputies, police,

and firefighters. Coverage is also provided

by volunteer amateur radio operators who

are organized into “Skywarn” networks. A

central station (liaison net) controls exchange

of information among spotters, first

responders, and NOAA’s National Weather

Service.

StormReady is a grassroots program that prepares communities to survive

natural disasters by improving emergency communication and public

education. StormReady is designed to complement existing preparedness

activities. Locations with NOAA StormReady recognition have established

formal hazardous weather plans, and have met a number of criteria which

strengthen local efforts. As of October 2003, there were 659 StormReady

communities in 46 States.

Weather instrument shelter which may

have been used in the early days of the

Cooperative Observer Program. (Glass

lantern slide, circa 1915.)
Our government bears essential responsibilities in this struggle:

to wage an effective relentless war against terrorists,

protect the homeland,

and strengthen America’s economy.

We have acted on those fronts, and will continue to do more.

George W. Bush

President, United States of America

September 2002
We face challenges every day as forecasters. But when you are

charged with protecting recovery crews, it gives you new inspiration

to go beyond what you thought you were capable of doing.

Michael Wylie, NOAA meteorologist

at the World Trade Center recovery effort, September 2001

The events of 9/11/01 were clearly acts of terrorism that threatened national

security. These showed our Nation’s vulnerabilities, and also our Nation’s

strengths. National security may also be compromised by weather events,

natural disasters, and technological disasters.

NOAA’s Response to 9/11

During and following the events of 9/11, NOAA’s well-established Incident Response

Plan was put into action.

NOAA directly supported search and recovery efforts at both the World Trade Center

and the Pentagon sites, using its mapping and remote sensing tools, at the request of the U.S.

Army. NOAA provided aircraft and flight crews to produce three dimensional images of

debris fields. NOAA also provided nautical charts and other coastal information to the U.S.

Navy, Coast Guard, and other government and port sector officials. Special NOAA

enforcement agents were detailed to the FBI, U.S. Marshall Service, and Border Patrol.

NOAA assigned on-site scientific support in preparation for possible oil and hazardous

material pollution and flooding resulting from the collapse of the towers. NOAA produced

hyperspectral imagery needed in evaluating asbestos fallout.

Multiple mobile weather stations were installed near Ground Zero at the World Trade

Center to provide recovery workers with weather and air quality data. NOAA meteorologists

provided special forecasts for all three recovery sites.

At the request of the White House, national updates on potential weather and water

threats were provided by NOAA to FEMA, highlighting where potential disasters might

drain resources from the recovery sites.

September 11, 2001

New York City, New York

Arlington, Virginia

Somerset County, Pennsylvania

More than 3,000 deaths
Severe weather events can disrupt

transportation, communications, and

critical services to communities. These

communities include the Nation’s military

personnel and other security forces.

Vulnerability to weather events is reduced

through proactive measures, including precise

forecasting. Precision is increased using highly

technical weather modeling that accesses

NOAA’s important historical data while

analyzing incoming, real-time data. NOAA’s

unique contributions to weather analyses

reduce the social, economic, and natural

resource risks from severe weather events.

Chemical, Nuclear, and Biological Disasters

Chemical and nuclear materials may be released in the form of explosives,

flammable and combustible substances, poisons, and radioactive materials. Biological

disasters may include infectious microbes that are introduced into the population to

produce illness or death (such as smallpox or anthrax). Although these have been used

in acts of war or terror, most hazardous materials disasters are a result of

transportation or industrial accidents such as spills and fires.

During these emergencies, toxins may spread by air, land, or water. NOAA’s

coastal and ocean modeling show the movement of hazardous materials toward land

or marine sanctuaries. Local weather conditions provided by NOAA track surface

winds and temperatures, which affect the movement of toxins over land. NOAA’s

atmospheric models can be used to predict the direction of airborne particles.
Data Security

Much of society now depends on computers for livelihood and life itself. A

technological disaster can shut down access to emergency or other time-critical

services. State and local emergency management organizations continue to

address this complicated issue. NOAA’s goal is to provide continuous data

flow, no matter what incident has occurred.

NOAA is duplicating its data services in various parts of the U.S.,

providing seamless access to real-time and archived weather, geodetic

positioning, and satellite data. Although this initiative is related to increased

national security against terrorism, the benefits of duplicating critical data

services apply to other hazardous events as well.

Navigation Safety

NOAA provides navigation and spatial reference services that are essential to the

security of the Nation’s marine transportation systems. NOAA’s Physical Oceanographic

Real-Time System (PORTS) Program provides ship masters and pilots with accurate

information required to avoid ship groundings and collisions.

Nautical charts, hydrological surveys, and digital bathymetry models promote safe

navigation. NOAA satellite data are used to produce analyses of sea-ice conditions in the

Arctic, Antarctic, and Great Lakes. NOAA’s National Spatial Reference System provides the

framework for latitude, longitude, height, scale, gravity, orientation, and shoreline throughout

the United States.

In support of aviation safety, NOAA satellite data are used to locate and identify

hazardous plumes from explosions and volcanic events. Digital elevation models are used in

building terrain-avoidance systems.
The U.S. has sustained 58 weather-related disasters over the last 24

years, with overall damages/costs exceeding $1.0 billion or more for

each event. Forty-six of these occurred during or after 1990. The total

costs of the 58 events were nearly $350 billion, using an inflation/

wealth index.

The potential economic impact of future natural and technological

hazards affects all U.S. citizens. Hazards do not respect boundaries—

geographical, political, or sociological. NOAA’s interagency and

public–private partnerships work toward the benefit of communities

nationwide.

Billion Dollar Weather Disasters

1980–2003 Dollar amounts shown on the map are approximate damages/

costs in $ billions. Location shown is the general area for the

regional event. Damage costs for these events have not been

adjusted for population growth.

NOAA’s forecasts, warnings, and the associated emergency responses result

in a $3 billion savings in a typical hurricane season. Two-thirds of this

savings is attributed to the reduction in hurricane-related deaths, and onethird of this savings is attributed to a reduction in property-related damage

because of preparedness actions.

Dr. Hugh Willoughby

NOAA, Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, 2001
Weather map, September 1872.

NOAA monitors Earth’s atmosphere and surface using satellite and

in-situ observing systems. The data are integrated into studies of the

oceans, lakes, coasts, Sun and Earth’s surfaces, and various levels

of the atmosphere.

NOAA’s research has lead to more timely warnings for extreme

weather events and disaster scenarios such as dispersion of toxins

and other hazardous materials. NOAA also generates long-term

predictions of climate variability.

NOAA provides value-added data services to those who deploy

resources before, during, and after disasters occur. Partnerships

promote the transfer of vital information to all participants in this

process.

NOAA will continue to use innovative, interdisciplinary

approaches to meet the challenges of natural and

technological hazards in the 21st Century.

NOAA POES image of the same region, June 2001.
For more information on NOAA programs and hazards services, please visit:

http://www.noaa.gov

or contact:

NOAA Public Affairs

U.S. Department of Commerce

14th Street & Constitution Avenue, NW

Washington, D.C. 20230

202.482.6090

NOAA Oceans

http://www.nos.noaa.gov

NOAA Fisheries

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov

NOAA National Weather Service

http://www.nws.noaa.gov

NOAA Research

http://www.oar.noaa.gov

NOAA Satellites and Information

http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov
PHOTOGRAPH & IMAGE CREDITS:

All photographs and images are in the public domain. Most come from NOAA sources. Any exceptions and/or special notations are

listed below.

Front and inside cover: Lightning storm, unknown location. Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., by Dane Konop.

1. (Background) North Pacific Storm, Winter, 1989. Galveston,1900, street scene after the event; Rosenberg Library Digital

Collection, Galveston and Texas History Center. Stereoview, personal collection of C. Ike Ikelman.

2. Montage, NESDIS-A Strategic Approach for the New Millenium, 2001. "City Streets," Census 2000 (Lloyd Wolf, U.S. Census

Bureau).

3. Hurricane Floyd satellite image, September 14, 1999 (Hal Pierce, NASA).

4. NOAA-M Logo (NOAA & NASA). First image from NOAA-17. "GOES Next Generation," art by Allan Kung, 2001.

5. NEXRAD tower. Phased Array Radar diagram. Automated Surface Observing System. NOAA Ship KA'IMIMOANA servicing buoy.

6. Ice storm, Burlington, VT, 1998 (FEMA News Photo). Palm Beach Hurricane, 92 Views; American Autochrome Company, Chicago,

IL, 1928.

7. Seattle, Washington, pollution and haze, 1980.

8. Lightning storm (C. Clark). Ruins from Mississippi tornado, November 2002 (Kevin Galvin, FEMA News Photo). "Last trains in and

out of Harrisburg," History of the Johnstown Flood, Willis Fletcher Johnson, 1889.

9. Hurricane Michelle, November 2001. NOAA Aircraft Operations Center, Hangar 5 (Juan Carlos Pradas-Bergnes, 2002).

Chandeleur Islands, LA, 2001.

10. East Grand Forks, MN, April 1997 (David Saville, FEMA News Photo). Clear Fork Creek, WV, July 2001 (Leif Skoogfors, FEMA

News Photo). "Peshtigo Fire," Harper's Weekly, November 25, 1871 (University of Wisconsin).

11. Solar prominence, September 18, 1997 (SOHO-EIT Consortium, ESA, NASA). Aurora borealis near Anchorage, AK, 1977 (Dr.

Yohsuke Kamide). Solar observatory scientist. Daniel Smith illustration from "The Sea Island Hurricanes. II. The Relief," by Joel

Chandler Harris, Scribner's Magazine, Vol. 15, Issue 3, March, 1894.

12. The Stricken City by Ella Wheeler Wilcox (Historic American Sheet Music; Duke University Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special

Collection Library; Library of Congress). San Francisco Newspaper, April 18, 1906 (Library of Congress). Postcard, personal collection

of Joy Ikelman. Panoramic view from NOAA archives, original source unknown. Many items were created for relief funds, and for

personal gain, after this event.

13. Oklahoma tornado, May 3, 1999. Tybee Island photo by William Folsom.

14. Mark Trail image courtesy of Jack Elrod, North American Syndicate Inc., World rights reserved.

15. Thunderstorm out flow from storm core, unknown location, 1982.

16. Cospas-Sarsat schematic and logo.

17. Rocky Mountain National Park, CO (U.S. Department of Interior). Rescue helicopter (Joe Dye, U.S. Coast Guard). The Islamorada

Hurricane Monument was designed by Harold Lawson and sculpted by Lambert Bemelmann for the U.S. Works Progress

Administration, 1937. Photo courtesy of Historical Preservation Society of the Upper Keys.

18. Wildfire in Florida, June 1, 1998 (Liz Roll, FEMA News Photo). NOAA-15 image, June 12, 2002.

19. Flood waters, unknown location. Oil rig blow out, Timbalier Bay, LA, 1992.

20. After a flood, unknown location. Disaster personnel meet to coordinate Federal, State, and local disaster assistance programs, NY,

October 2001 (Andrea Booher, FEMA News Photo).

21. Dust storm approaching Stratford, TX, April 18, 1935. "Children of Migrant Agricultural Workers," Dorothea Lange, Farm Security

Administration photograph,1937 (Library of Congress). Waianae Coast, Southwest Oahu, HI.

22. Full Earth, El Nino conditions, 1997 (GOES). Seagull at Stellwagen Banks National Marine Sanctuary (Bob

Michelson). Waves, Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary (Dan Howard). Humpback whale, Stellwagen Bank National

Marine Sanctuary (Dann Blackwood, U.S. Geological Survey).

23. Detail of bathymetry map, Lake Erie. POES composite, Antarctic ozone hole, October 1999 (NOAA & NASA). NOAA-14

composite, sea surface temperature, 1999 (NOAA & NASA). Flood inundation map, Tar River, NC (NOAA).

24. West Nile virus graphics, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Data access chart adapted from a NOAA/NWS brochure.

25. Cumulus formation. Glass "Magic Lantern" slide photo from NOAA's amazing Photo Library.

26. World Trade Center ruins, September 21, 2001 (Andrea Booher, FEMA News Photo).
27. Exterior of the crash site at the Pentagon, September 12, 2001 (Jocelyn Augustino, FEMA News Photo). World Trade Center,

September 20, 2001 (Andrea Booher, FEMA News Photo). World Trade Center ruins with U.S. Flag, September 19, 2001 (Andrea

Booher, FEMA News Photo).

28. Mississippi River at Memphis, TN, 2000 (Larry Donald, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). Danger sign at New Bedford, MA,

Superfund site. Warehouse fire.

29. Portion of Gloucester, MA, bathymetry map, 1986. NOAA Ship SURVEYOR, ice-covered in the Bering Sea, circa 1979.

Monitoring Y2K Events (Greg Mathieson, FEMA News Photo).

30. Billion Dollar Weather Disasters, 1980-2003 (NOAA/NESDIS/National Climatic Data Center).

31. Weather map, September 1872. Aftermath, Tropical Storm Allison, June 2001; NOAA-16 image.

32. U.S. Flag (Rob Wyman, U.S. Coast Guard).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

Original Concept: Allen Hittelman

Project Coordination: Allen Hittelman, Susan McLean

Compilation, Writing, Design: Joy Ikelman

Contributors & Reviewers: David Clark, Jane D'Aguanno, Chris Fox, Greg Hernandez, Russell Jackson, LTJG Daniel Karlson (NOAA

Corps), Dan Kowal, Levin Lauritson, Neal Lott, Susan McLean, Mary Newton, Rick Ohlemacher, Rusty Pfost, Ann Reiser, David Rogers,

Tom Ross, Capt. Albert E. Theberge (NOAA Corps, ret.), Patricia Viets, Don Wernly,

Pai-Yei Whung, Greg Withee, Helen Wood, Charles Wooldridge, and others.