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NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC-47

THE DEADLIEST ATLANTIC TROPICAL CYCLONES, 1492-1994

Prepared by:

Edward N. Rappaport, NHC Miami

Jose Fernandez-Partagas

National Hurricane Center

Coral Gables, Florida

January 1995

National Weather Service

Elbert W. Friday

Assistant Administrator

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Diana H. Josephson

Deputy Under Secretary

UNUED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Ronald H. Brown. Secretary

5992
1. 

INTRODUCTION

Perhaps the first human record of Atlantic tropical cyclones

appears in Mayan hieroglyphics (Konrad 1985). By customarily

building their major settlements away from the hurricane-prone

coastline, the Mayans practiced a method of disaster mitigation

(Konrad 1985) that, if rigorously applied today, would reduce the

potential for devastation along coastal areas (e.g., Pilkey et ale

1984; Sheets 1990).

Many storms left important marks on regional history. In

1609, a fleet of ships carrying settlers from England to Virginia

was struck by a hurricane. Some of the ships were damaged and part

of the fleet grounded at Bermuda (The Encyclopedia Americana 1994).

The passengers became Bermuda's first inhabitants and their stories

helped inspire Shakespeare's writing of The Tempest (Carpenter and

Carpenter 1993).

In several incidents, tropical cyclones destroyed otherwise

invincible colonial armadas (Millas 1968; Hughes 1987). The French

lost their bid to control the Atlantic coast of North America when

a 1565 hurricane dispersed their fleet, allowing the Spanish to

capture France's Fort Caroline near present-day Jacksonville,Florida. 

In 1640, a hurricane partially destroyed a large Dutch

fleet apparently poised to attack Havana. Another naval disaster

occurred in 1666 to Lord Willoughby (the British Governor of

Barbados) and his fleet of seventeen ships and nearly 2,000 troops.

The fleet was caught in a hurricane near the Lesser Antilles. Only

a few vessels were ever heard from again and the French captured

some of the survivors. According to Sugg (1968), the 1640 and 1666

events secured, more or less, control of Cuba by the Spaniards and

Guadeloupe by the French. More than two centuries later,

commenting on the Spanish-American War, President McKinley declared

that he feared a hurricane more than the Spanish Navy (Dunn 1971).

McKinley's concern translated to a revamped United States hurricane

warning service, forerunner of today's National Hurricane Center

(NHC) .

Some historical events left scars. In 1495, the small town of

Isabella, founded on Hispaniola by Columbus, became the first

European settlement destroyed by a hurricane (Carpenter and

Carpenter 1993). Other communities would suffer a similar fate.

1
There is even conjecture that a hurricane was responsible for the

mysterious disappearance of the original Roanoke Island settlement

(i.e., the "Lost Colony") in 1588 (Hunter 1982). More certainly,

in 1886, the town of Indianola, Texas was destroyed by a hurricane.

It was never rebuilt. The 1900 "Galveston" hurricane severely

damaged much of that city and, with it, Galveston's preeminence as

the financial capital of that part of the country (e.g., Hughes

1990) .

Surviving quantitative documentation about specific storms

generally begins late in the 15th century during the period of New

World exploration. A succession of chronologies brings the record

forward to modern times (e.g., poey 1862; Tannehill 1940; Ludlum

1963; Millas 1968).

Hebert et al. (1993) frequently update their popular

statistical summary about hurricanes that affected the United

States this century. Their study, which includes a tabulation of

the largest United States losses of life caused by those storms,

has no counterpart for earlier tropical cyclones or for casualties

incurred elsewhere. In this presentation we extend their work,

providing a catalog of Atlantic tropical cyclones1 associated with

loss of life during the period 1492-1994.

To document casualties and attendant circumstances we relied

on books and articles about the weather, newspaper reports about

storms, and accounts of shipwrecks. Some of these sources

consulted hundreds or thousands of original documents. They

provided an extensive, though admittedly not exhaustive, data base.

Indeed, if current Atlantic tropical cyclone activity is

representative of the past five centuries, then a staggering number

of those systems (upwards of 5000!) developed during that period.

Some storms were harmless. Others likely caused loss of life that

was never documented, or was recorded in documents subsequently

lost to deterioration with age, war, or fire (e.g., Marx 1983). It

is hoped that still other cases not identified here will be

uncovered in future investigations.

The catalog comprises two lists. The first list (Appendix I),

like Hebert et al. (1993), provides information about tropical

cyclones responsible for at least 25 deaths. The second list

(Appendix 2) identifies storms associated with loss of life that,

while not quantified, may have reached at least 25, according to

records about those events.

1 In this context, "Atlantic" will refer to the North Atlantic

Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico.

2
2. TROPICAL CYCLONE TERMINOLOGY

The United States National Weather Service technical

definition of a tropical cyclone (National Weather Service

Operations Manual C-41 1993) is: "A nonfrontal, warm-core, low

pressure system of synoptic scale, developing over tropical or

subtropical waters and having a definite organized circulation."

In practice, that circulation refers to a closed, counterclockwise

(in the northern hemisphere) airflow at the earth's surface.

Meteorologists generally recognize three classes of tropical

cyclones stratified by their highest one-minute average surface

wind speed. Tropical Depressions have maximum wind speed less than

39 mph (and, in practice, generally greater than 20-25 mph).

Maximum wind speed from 39 to 73 mph characterizes Tropical Sto~s.

Hurricanes have wind speeds of at least 74 mph. Of the defining

criteria, the closed nature of the circulation in weak systems, the

thermodynamic structure, and the precise intensity cannot always be

determined objectively. For this compilation, the publication

Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean (Neumann et al. 1993)

and the associated NHC "Best Track" data set2 served as the final

authorities for Atlantic tropical cyclone histories back to 1871.

These definitions are more quantitative than the terminologies

of the past. Many early reports, especially from nonmeteorological sources, referred to "hurricanes" without providing

elaboration. Sometimes, hurricane meant any storm of apparently

exceptional ferocity (such as a powerful high-latitude storm of

non-tropical origin or a "severe" thunderstorm) that, perhaps,

produced what we now consider hurricane force winds. Others used

subjective terms like "a terrific gale" or winds "blowing a perfect

hurricane" (e.g., Milner and Sowerby 1863). It is unclear in these

instances whether the current requirements for a tropical cyclone

were satisfied. Occasionally, however, an especially descriptive

account added confidence to the interpretation, as in a summary

printed in the 6 November 1761 issue of Lloyd's List3:

Capt. 

Young, arriv'd at Briftol from

Guadalupe, came out the 17th of Sept. in

Company with a Fleet of 26 Sail, moft of them

for England, under Convoy of thE~ Griffin Man

of War, who was to fee them as fa,r as Lat. 28;

but on the 27th ditto, in Lat. 22, they met

with a heavy Gale of Wind, which began at the

N. W. and veered all round the Cc,mpafs to the

2 Available from the National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC.

3 This account, like several that follow in the text and in

Appendix 2, is shown in an older style of English, presented by the

source, where "f" sometimes represents "s"o

3
S.' E. in which the Fleet were fcattered, and

feveral loft their Topmafts. ThE! next Morning

he taw only nine Veffels with the Man of War;

and the Captain adds, That by thE! Smartnefs of

the Gale, and the Wind's flyinS1 about round

the Compafs, he apprehends it was the Tail of

an Hurricane.

Information about storm duration was helpful, too. The very

long duration of the inclement weather described in the following

passage is more consistent with a "cut-off" low than with a

tropical cyclone:

Falmouth, 6th January. Arrived the Hyena,

Captain Thompfon. Left St. Kitts on the 30th

November, with about thirty faj.l of Veffels

under her Convoy; but a Tempeft: of Wind, on

the 17th of December, in Lat. 32 feparated

them; a Storm of an uncommon Sort~, that lafted

from that Period to this Day; the Damages of

the Hyena are fo great, it was with difficulty

fhe was brought into Port, and much is to be

apprehended for the Fleet. (Lloyd's List, 11

January 1782)

Accounts that included weather observations, such as ship

reports based on the Beaufort scale (introduced in 1805) or

barometric pressure measurements, helped to clarify the nature of

some rough weather events. These data were most often found in

meteorological studies, like Ludlum (1963) and Millas (1968), which

provided many well-documented and corroborating descriptions.

This study adhered to several guidelines that minimized

subjectivity and simplified the analysis. Every entry in the

Appendices had a documented association with bad weather that was,

or could reasonably be, related to a tropical cyclone. This

requirement eliminated many cases from further consideration, even

those where the remaining evidence (in the example below, the date

and location of a loss of multiple ships) tempted us to attribute

the disaster to a tropical cyclone:

The Duke of Cumberland, (Captain) Ball, a

Letter of Marque of Brifto1, laft from the

Canaries for Virginia, was 10ft in September

laft nine Leagues to the Southward of Cape

Henry; the Captain, Surgeon and twenty three

Men were drowned, and 21 faved. --about the

fame time were a1fo 10ft a Sno'~ and a Brig,

Names unknown, and all the Crew of the former

perifh'd. (Lloyd's List, 11 November 1757)

4
Wherever helpful, the data and descriptions provided by the sources

are reprinted verbatim. (Unfortunately, by doing so, we also pass

along some information that either originally [or over the years]

was [re] recorded incorrectly. Conflicting accounts were noted in,

and by, several sources and the associated uncertainties are

reflected in Appendix 1. We hope, however, that by providing all

relevant reference information, the reader will gain as thorough a

documentation of the event as possible.)

Footnotes are included to point out special conditions. For

example, the footnote "c" indicates that the tropical nature of a

storm was in doubt for at least part of the event. Often, it

applies to storms moving poleward from about 40-45°N, where weather

systems generally encounter relatively cold ocean waters «26OC)

and tropical cyclones transform to "extratropical" cyclone status.

The track data of Neumann et al. (1993) show that Atlantic

tropical cyclones are almost exclusively a warm-season event, as

implied by the mariner's poem (Inwards 1898):

June-too soon.

July-stand by.

August-look out you must.

September-remember.October-allover.

The last line may be more ambiguous than helpful. In some

Octobers, "allover" seems to describe the spatial distribution

rather than a certain cessation of activity. The NHC officially

defines the hurricane season to run from June through November.

Tropical cyclones outside that period are relatively rare and

mostly limited to low latitudes. In this study, when lacking

evidence to the contrary, storms between December and May were

eliminated from further consideration.

Only in obvious circumstances was a report purportedly about

a tropical cyclone rejected outright. The following account refers

to a "Hurricane", but the storm's date and location are

inconsistent with our expectation of a tropical cyclone:

Plymouth (England), Jan. S. Laft Night it

blew a Hurricane; almost every Ship in the

Harbour drove. (Lloyd's List, 7 January 1791)

The concept of storm track and the difference between storm

motion and circulation remained obscure until Benjamin Franklin's

conclusions of the mid-18th century (see, Ludlum 1963, p. 22) were

extended and formalized by Redfield (e.g., 1836), Reid (1841) andothers. 

In addition, with communications generally limited for

centuries to the line of sight, storms almost always moved faster

than did the information about them. The first words about "The

Great Hurricane" of 10-16 October 1780 did not appear in Lloyd's

5
List (published twice a week at that time) until the 19 December

issue, and new reports appeared through 13 April 1781.

These limitations certainly contributed to the peril of people

in the path of an oncoming storm. One impact on this study was to

introduce uncertainty in some instances about whether contemporary

storm accounts from a region referred to a single tropical cyclone

or possibly to multiple systems. (The Lloyd's List issues from

December 1780 through April 1781 describe losses in the Caribbean

Sea and adjacent islands. We now know that in addition to the

Great Hurricane, two more of this hemisphere's most notorious

storms occurred in that region during October 1780; see, Millas

1968). Another example occurred in 1785 when a storm devastated

the area from St. Croix to Cuba during the last week of August (The

Daily Universal Register). On the 2nd of September, a "savage"

storm struck the Delaware coast (Seibold and Adams 1989). Two

disturbances could be responsible for these events. Alternately,

the tracks of more recent storms suggest that a single tropical

cyclone could have been the culprit. Cases where uncertainties

persist about the number of storms involved were entered into the

catalog and assigned the footnote "z".

3. CASUALTY INFORMATION

Losses over ODen waters--An ocean ~f trouble

The period under study saw a large and widespread increase in

Atlantic coastal population. Available records, however, suggest

that the population on the Atlantic was the most vulnerable to

storms through the 18th century. These shipborne explorers,

emigrants, combatants, fishermen, traders, pirates, privateers,

slaves, and tourists made up the crews and passengers on an

uncounted, but enormous number of local and transatlantic sailings.

Most of the ships travelled to or from the ports of Spain, France,

Great Britain, and the Netherlands. They usually proved no match

for the intense inner-core region of a severe tropical cyclone.

It is doubtful if any sailing ship or any man

aboard survived in this sector of a really

great hurricane. (Tannehill 1955)

In fact, to 1825,

more than five percent of the v'essels in the

(West) Indies navigation were lost due to

shipwrecks; the biggest part due to badweather... 

(Marx 1981).

The total number of ship-related casualties associated with

Atlantic tropical cyclones is unknown, but there are clues. Some

perspective on the magnitude of ship losses worldwide is gained by

6
realizing that on the coast of England alone there have been a

minimum of 250,000 wrecks (Cameron and Farndon 1984)! On the other

side of the Atlantic, near New England, it was estimated that three

out of every five sailors drowned during the period 1790 to 1850

(Snow 1943). Of course, many of these disasters were unrelated to

the weather, while others are attributable to the brutal, cold

storms of the North Atlantic winter rather than to tropicalcyclones. 

Still, an account of one 17th century hurricane

indicates the great magnitude of some losses blamed on tropicalcyclones:

By these kind of Tempests the King of Spain

hath lost at several times near 1000 sail of

ships. (in Ludlum 1963)

Similar disasters continued for another two centuries.

late as the 1830's,

Even as

...the annual loss of life, occasioned by the

wreck or foundering of British vessels at sea,

may, on the same grounds (i.e., 'the

boisterous nature of the weather and the

badness of the ships'), be fairly estimated at

not less than One Thousand persons in eachyear... 

(Parliament Select Committee 1839).

Steamship voyages contributed increasingly to the number of lost

ships during the latter half of the 19th century. In 1875-76,

"heavy weather" was blamed for the loss of 176 steamships. Over a

longer period, 1840 to 1893, 7,523 people perished in 125 North

Atlantic steamship disasters of all types (Garrett 1986).

The large number of ship losses was partially a consequence of

the great number of ships that inadvertently encountered storms.

Redfield's (1846) analysis of an 1845 hurricane off the U. S. midAtlantic coast contains, on one weather map, information from the

logs of more than 50 ships within about 450 miles of the storm's

center. There were likely other vessels in that area. Redfield

suggested that the then-expanding electric telegraph could be used

in the Atlantic ports of the United States to alert mariners of

approaching bad weather. Unfortunately, occasional ship disasters

related to Atlantic tropical cyclones continued into ,the early

1900's. Further technological advances in meteorology,

communication, navigation, and the seaworthiness of ships makes

such losses infrequent today.

Reference materials about specific ship losses range from nonexistent to overwhelming. In some instances, where the sea claimed

a :Lone ship or even an entire fleet, record of the cause and

location of the catastrophe went down with the ship{s). Moreover,

for centuries there were virtually no official records on lost

7
ships (Cameron and Farndon 1984).

wrote that:

On the other hand, Marx (1983)

if a team of one hundred resea.rchers spent

their whole lives searching through the more

than 250,000 large legajos (bundles) in the

Archive of the Indies (at Seville), I doubt

that they could locate all the important

documents concerning Spanish mar:Ltime history

in the New World.

Either way, we learned little or nothing about many lost or missing

crews and the circumstances behind their disappearance. For this

compilation, lacking contrary evidence, the crews and passengers of

ships lost over open waters in tropical cyclones were counted as

fatalities.

Coastal deaths

While losses over open waters have decreased of late, rapid

growth of coastal communities over the past 500 years has meant an

ever-increasing population at risk to tropical cyclones. As at

sea, relatively primitive communication methods increased the

possibility of disaster near the shoreline. Not until 1909 was the

first in situ ship report of hurricane conditions received in time

to assist coastal preparations (Garriott, 1910).

There are two primary components to the danger near the shore,

coastal ship losses and storm surge disasters. It is estimated

that 98% of the ships lost in the Western Hemisphere to 1825

wrecked in waters no deeper than 30 feet (Marx 1983). Proper

disposition of many of these cases is uncertain. Undoubtedly, many

mariners lost their lives while staying with their vessel until it

was too late to reach safety. This seems especially true early on,

as noted in the following examples, with the first passage about

non-tropical cyclones:

for four winters after my appointment to the

charge of the barracks at the above named

place (Yarmouth in Norfolk, Englc:l.nd) in 1803,

I witnessed the loss of vessels with all their

crews within a few yards from t]:le shore I

witnessed His Majesty's gun-brig Snipe,

stranded within SO yards of the beach at the

back of the pier, having 67 perslons on board,

who all perished... (Parliament Select

Committee 1839)

Came to anchor in St. Thomas's harbour, and

landed the mails. Here the hur:t"icane of the

2nd (August 1837) appeareci to have

concentrated all its power, for(~e, and fury;

8
for the harbour and town were a scene that

baffles all description. Thirty-six ships and

vessels totally wrecked all around the

harbour, ~ong which about a dozen had sunk or

capsized at their anchors; some rode it out by

cutting away their masts, and upwards of 100

seamen drowned... (Reid, 1841).

In contrast, today's early warning system usually results in little

or no loss of life aboard vessels that wreck on a coast or in amarina. 

In 1992 Hurricane Andrew, for example, only two boatingrelated deaths occurred in southeast Florida despite boat damage

estimated at $0.5 billion (Mayfield et al. 1993). For purposes of

this work, cases with ships lost on the coast or in port were

excluded from the casualty lists unless explicit documentation of

sufficient loss of life was found.

Storm surge, occasionally reaching heights of 20 to 30 feet,

has been responsible for some of the largest losses of life

associated with tropical cyclone at the coastline. Storm surge is

the rise of water caused by the wind and pressure forces of ahurricane. 

These forces induce currents in the water. While the

hurricane is in deep water, these currents produce little storm

surge because converging water and the subsequent piling up is

compensated by currents at greater depths moving water away.

However, as the hurricane moves onto the continental shelf and

makes landfall, the compensating currents are eliminated by the

slope of the shelf and the shoreline, and the converging waterrises. 

This rising water may over-top barrier islands or be

funneled into bays and estuaries. In many cases, maximum storm

surge heights measured relative to mean sea level have been

recorded at the head of bays or even inland away from the

shoreline. Generally, storm surge gradually rises to a peak and

returns to normal, all in 6 to 12 hours. However, in intense or

rapidly-moving hurricanes, rapid rises and falls on the order of

minutes to an hour have been reported. Riding on top of the storm

surge are waves which cause major damage when they break against

structures.

Poor communication for many years left coastal communities

virtually without warning of storm surge. In the United States,

storm surge is blamed for 90% of hurricane-related fatalities (AMS

1973). Even with the many technological advances, much of the

burgeoning coastal population of the Americas remains vulnerable to

storm surge (Sheets 1990).

Inland deaths

Inland communities are also susceptible to tropical cyclonecatastrophes. 

There, fresh-water flooding from excessive rainfall

can lead to large numbers of deaths by drowning.

9
The number of inland deaths, indeed those near the coast and

offshore as well, were only estimated by many of the references.

Numerous entries in Appendix 1 appear rounded to the nearest ten,

hundred, or even thousand. In addition, the data from many

references suggest that the listed total is likely a lower

threshold. For example, Millas (1968) indicates that there were 60

deaths in Dominica during a 1788 hurricane. He also presents a

contemporary remark about Martinique from The Gentleman's Magazine:

...the number of persons who have lost their

lives is so great, that we dare not mention

what report est:imates it at, for fear of

exaggeration.

Furthermore, there is evidence that casualty statistics were

intentionally withheld by government officials on occasion (Perez).

Hence, in some cases the actual number of deaths could be many

multiples of the total shown in Appendix 1.

We also note that in the past several years the NHC has

distinguished explicitly between deaths directly related to the

forces of tropical cyclones (e.g., drowning due to storm surge) and

those attributable only indirectly to the weather (e.g., due to a

traffic accident on a rain-slickened road). For those systems,

this study used only the direct death toll.

4. 

STORM LISTS AND STATISTICS

The catalog consists of two parts. Appendix 1 identifies

Atlantic tropical cyclones documented as causing at least 25

deaths. Appendix 2 lists additional cases where the records

suggest that the 25 count threshold may have been reached.

Storms causina at least 25 deaths

Appendix 1 contains three columns of information about each of

250 cases. The first column indicates the areas that experienced

the greatest number of deaths. For events after 1949, it also

contains the name of the cyclone. The second column provides the

approximate range of dates4 for the losses. The third column gives

the total number of deaths and the source(s) of the information.

(We note that some of these sources used the same original

documents and, therefore, do not provide independent

documentation.) A "+" indicates that totals from multiple sources

were combined. Unless otherwise noted, the fatality totals

4 Dates based on, or converted to, our current Gregorian calendar

system which replaced the Julian calendar in the 16th century.

10
(largest) discussed below refer to the first

column of Appendix 1.

number in the third

The largest loss shown in Appendix 1 occurred in the Lesser

Antilles in mid-October 1780, during The Great Hurricane.

Estimates indicate that around 22,000 deaths occurred in that

storm, with a total of about 9,000 lives lost in Martinique, 4,000-

5,000 in St. Eustatius, and 4,326 in Barbados. Thousands of deaths

also occurred offshore. Based on Appendix i, the number of

fatalities during The Great Hurricane of 1780 exceeds the

cumulative loss in any year (except 1780) and, in fact, in all

other decades (cf. Fig. 1a).

That hurricane also caused far more deaths than documented in

any other storm. The second largest loss (the largest in the

United States) came during the 1900 Galveston hurricane. Just

after the storm, the Governor of the State of Texas estimated

12,000 fatalities (Lester 1900), but the storm summary of Ousley

(1900) provides information supporting their "official" estimate of

at least 8,000 lives lost. Three other storms killed around 8,000people: 

1974 Hurricane Fifi in Honduras; a 1930 hurricane in the

Dominican Republic; and 1963 Hurricane Flora in Haiti and Cuba. In

all, the list shows 39 instances of at least 1,000 fatalities among

the 144 cases in which at least 100 lives were lost. The available

documentation indicates that whenever there was a large loss of

life from tropical cyclones, the predominant cause of death was

drowning, not wind or wind blown objects or structural failures.

The Great Hurricane developed during mid-October. It was one

of three tropical cyclones to kill more than 1,000 people thatmonth. 

About 90% of the cases in Appendix 1 could be assigned to

a specific month without ambiguity. Of those, about 40% occurred

in September, 30% in August and 20% in October. No other month had

as many as 5% of those cases. September also had the most deaths

(40% of the total), followed by October (30%), August (15%), and

each of the other months with less than 5%. Hence, August has more

cases than October, but the large number of lives lost during the

two deadliest October storms (The Great Hurricane of 1780 and

Flora) skew the fatality statistics sharply toward October.

The years with the most entries in Appendix 1 are 1909 and

1933, which each had 5 cyclones responsible for at least 25 deaths.

Apparently, the 1780 hurricanes occurred during a 10- to 20-

year period notable for numerous deadly storms in the Atlantic

(Fig. 1b)5.

5 Lloyd's List, a source of many late-1700's entries, has not yet

been reviewed for the 1800's.

11
Figure 2 shows the number of deaths in Appendix 1 stratified

by 100-year periods. The figure indicates that the number of

deaths generally increased with time. The 1700's were anexception. 

Then, maritime losses between 1760 and 1790 dominated

the relatively large total. The 71,000 deaths in the 1900's

occurred despite improvements in hurricane forecasting, and

communication and warning systems. The increase appears to be

related to the increased population at risk along the coast andinland.

Storms that could have caused at least 25 deaths

The second list (Appendix 2) chronicles 192 tropical cyclone

cases that could be associated with at least 25 deaths. It also

provides excerpts which support that interpretation. It seems

certain that some of these candidates met the criterion, but their

losses are not quantified:

in 1553, 16 ships of the New Spain Flota were

"struck by a hurricane" and not again "ever

heard from". (Marx 1983)

in 1640, 36 ve:3sels were affected, with 4

thrown on shore; "nearly all the sailors

drowned, excepting 260 that were saved"

(Millas 1968; italics added for emphasis)

In other cases, the losses appear more modest and it is likely that

less than 25 deaths are associated with the storm:

in 1850, a "pilot boat sank" (Carney and Hardy1969; 

Stevenson 1989).

Appendix 2 excludes incidents where "few", "several" or similar

diminutive terminology was used to indicate the number of deaths.

~j. CONCLUSIONS

The areal distribution of the deaths based on Appendix 1 is

shown in the following table; but, as described below, these totals

indicate losses that are likely significantly lower than the actuallosses.

It is interesting that over 90% of the offshore losses

occurred more than 200 years ago (before 1790), as did all 12

offshore losses of more than 1,000 people. For the continental

United States, the Galveston storm was responsible for about onethird of the deaths (using data in Appendix 1 only).

Theregion. areal totals indicate a large death toll across the

They do not, however, adequately reflect the threat of the

12
Areal distribution of deaths due to Atlantic tropical

cyclones listed in Appendix 1. Totals are rounded.

Location Fatalities

45,000 (29%)

35,000 (22%)

35,000 (21%)

25,000 (16%)

20,000 (12%)

Greater Antilles

Offshore Losses

Lesser Antilles

United States mainland (Galveston storm: 8,000)

Mexico and Central America

Elsewhere (Azores, Bahamas, Bermuda, Canada, Cape

Verde Islands, South America, Ireland) 1,000 «1%)

The disposition of the many casualties from shipwrecks near shore

into offshore versus land losses is not certain.

individual intense hurricane. We note that the five tropical

cyclones at the top of Appendix 1 (1780 Great Hurricane, 1900 in

Galveston, 1974 Fifi, 1930 in Dominican Republic, 1963 Flora)

account for about one-third of all the deaths over the past 500

years in storms for which quantitative data on deaths has been

found. In fact, the 10 deadliest storms, while representing less

than 5% of the cases in Appendix 1 and less than 0.2% of all

tropical cyclones since 1492, accoMnt for almost one-half of the

deaths indicated in Appendix 1.

These statistics point to the tremendous repercussions that

small track changes have had (and will have) on population centers

at risk from a potentially deadly storm. A shift of about 50 miles

in the track of the 1900 Galveston hurricane could have meant far

fewer deaths ort that vulnerable island and (hence) overall. (This

distance is comparable to the current average NHC 24-hour "across"

track forecast error.) On the other hand, because of the growing

population, there is an increasing number of highly susceptible

regions which, only so far, have escaped such a catastrophic event

(e.g., Sheets 1990). Damage statistics also illustrate this point.

In 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused around $25 billion damage in South

Florida (Rappaport 1993). An estimate indicates that a 20 mile

northward shift of Andrew's track would have resulted in two to

three times that much damage (Doig, 1992). Alternately, a

southward shift of about 40 miles could have resulted in a

negligible monetary loss to mainland Florida (but additional

problems, including possible loss of life, for the less-populated

Florida Keys).

13
underestimate of the total loss. Using the first number in the

column on deaths for each case (except using 8,000 for the

Galveston storm), the total number of deaths obtained from the

table is around 160,000.

To this, we add several considerations.

Appendix 1

(a). Many of the entries in Appendix 1 are minimum estimates

(note the numerous ~ or > symbols).

(b). We chose the first (largest) total in each case for

Appendix 1 (except for the Galveston storm). In some cases, a

smaller total could be more accurate.

(c). Some storms with footnote c in Appendix 1 may not have

been tropical cyclones.

Overall, consideration (a) probably dominates.

that the total for Appendix 1 is around 200,000. We estimate

Appendix 2

The number of entries in Appendix 2 is smaller than in

Appendix 1 and some of these cases probably did not result in 25

tropical cyclone deaths. These storms are probably responsible for

an additional number of deaths that is considerably less than

200,000.

I Other events

(a). Greater than 25 deaths. We believe that most disasters

responsible for very large losses are already documented in theAppendices, 

and that the remaining cases probably contribute less

than 50,000.

(b) Less than 25 deaths. Based on information in Monthly

Weather Review,- the number of .deaths associated with this item in

the past 50 years is about 575. If this data is representative of

the entire study period, then these losses are less than 10,000.

Based on the above, we speculate that the number of deaths in

Atlantic tropical cyclones from 1492-1994 is between one-third and

one-half million. Factors contributing to the uncertainties noted

above include relatively few references to losses in Mexico and

Central America and incomplete information about losses from

Spanish ships in the 1500's-1700's and to slaves and natives of theregion. 

There are sources that could provide more definitive

information, including old newspapers reviewed in a more systematicmanner. 

This phase of the research is underway.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Ms. Sally Haff and Mr. Robert Britter helped identify many of

the reference materials used in this study. Mr. Brian Jarvinen of

the NHC Storm Surge Group provided information about storm surge.

14
REFERENCES IN TEXT

AMS 1973: Policy statement on hurricanes by the American

Meteorological Society. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 54: 46-47.

Cameron, A,.' ~nd R. Farndon, 1984: Scenes from sea and city,

Lloyd s L~st 1734-1984. Lloyd's List, Lloyd's of London Press

Ltd, London, 288 pp.

Carney, .C. B., and A. V. Hardy, 1969: North Carolina hurricanes.

U. S. Department of Commerce, Environmental Science Services

Administration, Weather Bureau, 39 pp.

Carpenter, S. M., and T. G. Carpenter, 1993: The hurricane

handbook. Tailored Tours Publications, Inc., Lake Buena

Vista, Florida, 128 pp.

Davis, R. A., Jr., S. C. Knowles, and M. J. Bland, 1989: Role of

hurricanes in the Holocene stratigraphy of estuaries: Examples

from the Gulf coast of Florida. Journal of Sedimentary

Petrology, 59 (6): 1052-1061.

Doig, S. K., 1992: Storm: A wobble away from greater disaster. The

Miami Herald, 6 September 1992.

Dunn, G. E., 1971: A brief history of the United States hurricane

warning service. Muse News, 3: 140-143.

Garrett, R., 1986: Atlantic disasters: the Titanic and other

victims of the North Atlantic. Buchan & Enright, London, 286

pp.

Garriott, E. B., 1910: Weather, forecasts, and warnings for the

month. Mon. Wea. Rev., 37: 539/.

Hebert, P. J., J. D. Jarrell, and M. Mayfield, 1993: The deadliest,

costliest, and most intense United States hurricanes of this

century. NOAA, Technical Memorandum NWS-NHC-31, 41 pp.

Hughes, P., 1987: Hurricanes haunt our history. Weatherwise, 40

(3): 134-140.

Hughes, P., 1990: The great Galveston hurricane. Weatherwise, 43

(4): 190-1'98.

Hunter, M. N., 1982: A watery fate for the lost colony. The State,

3 pp. Information supplemented by other documents of this

author.

Inwards, R., 1898: Weather Lore. Elliot Stock, London, p. 86.

Konrad, H. W., 1985: Fallout of the wars of the Chacs: The impact

of hurricanes and implications for prehispanic Quintana Roo

Maya processes. Status, structure and stratification: Current

archaeological reconstructions. University of Calgary,

Calgary, pp. 321-330.

Lester, P., 1900: The great Galveston disaster. Library of

Congress, 536 pp.

Liu, K., and M. L. Fearn, 1993: Lake-sediment record of late

Holocene hurricane activities from coastal Alabama. Geology,

21 (9): 793-796.

Lloyd's List. Extant issues 1741-1784

International Publishers Limited

Farnborough, Hants., England.

Ludlum, D. M., 1963: Early American hurricanes, 1492-1870. Amer.

Meteor. Soc., Boston, 198 pp.

and 

1790-1797, Gregg

(1969), Westmead,

15
Marx, R. F., 1981: Shipwrecks in Mexican waters. Pablo Bush Romero

and Club de Exploraciones y Deportes Acuaticos de Mexico, 76

pp.

Marx, R. F., 1983: Shipwrecks in the Americas. Bonanza Books, 482

pp.

Mayfield, M., L. Avila, and E. N. Rappaport, 1993: Atlantic

hurricane season of 1992. Mon. Wea. Rev., 122 (3): 517-538.

Millas, J. C., 1968: Hurricanes of the Caribbean and adjacent

regions, 1492-1800. Academy of the Arts and Sciences of the

Americas, Miami, 328 pp.

Milner and Sowerby, 1863: Shipwrecks and disasters at sea.

Halifax, 448 pp.

National Weather Service Operations Manual Chapter C-41, 1993:

Hurricane Warnings. U. S. Department of Commerce, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Weather

Service, Silver Spring, Maryland, 49 pp.

Neumann, C. J., B. R. Jarvinen, C. J. McAdie, and J. D. Elms, 1993:

Tropical cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1871-1992.

NOAA Historical Climatology Series 6-2, Asheville, 193 pp.

Ousley, C., 1900: Galveston in Nineteen Hundred -The authorized

and official record of the proud city of the southwest as it

was before and after the hurricane of September 8, and a

logical forecast of its future. William C. Chase, Atlanta,

346 pp.

Parliament Select Committee, 1839: Report from the Select Committee

appointed to inquire into the cause of shipwrecks, 15 August

1836,388 pp., and Report from/Select Committee on shipwrecks

of timber ships, August 1839,137 pp. Southampton University,

Great Britain.

Perez, O. (date unknown): Notes on tropical cyclones of Puerto

Rico, 1508-1970.

Pilkey, o. H., Jr., D. C. Sharma, H. R. Wanless, L. J. Doyle, O. H.

Pilkey, Sr., W. J. Neal, and B. L. Gruver, 1984: Living with

the east Florida shore. Duke University Press, Durham, North

Carolina, 259 pp.

Poey, A., 1862: Table Chronologique de quatre cents cyclones.

Paris, 49 pp.

Rappaport, E. N., 1993: Preliminary report on Hurricane Andrew.

NOAA National Hurricane Center, Coral Gables, Florida, 38 pp.

(Available from the National Climatic Data Center, Federal

Building, Asheville, North Carolina, 28801.)

Redfield, W. C., 1836: On the gales and hurricanes of the western

Atlantic. U. S. Naval Magazine, 1-19.

Redfield, W. C., 1846: On three several hurricanes of the American

seas and their relations to the Northers, so called, of the

Gulf of Mexico and the Bay of Honduras, with charts

illustrating the same. The American Journal of Science, 52:

162-187, 311-334.

Reid, W. 1841: Law of storms. John Weale, London, 566 pp.

Seibold, D. J., and C. J. Adams, 1989: Shipwrecks, sea stories &

legends of the Delaware coast. Exeter House Books, Barnegat

Light, New Jersey, 171 pp.

16
Sheets, R. C., 1990: The National Hurricane Center--past, present,

and future. Wea. and Forecasting,S (2): 185-232.

Sugg, A. L., 1968: Beneficial aspects of the tropical cyclone. J.

Appl. Met., 7: 39-45.

Stevenson, J. D., 1989: History of tropic~l cyclones and North

Carolina. Report from National Weather Service, Wilmington,

NC.

Snow, E. R., 1943: Great storms and famous shipwrecks of the New

England coast. The Yankee Publishing Company, Boston, 338 pp.

Tannehill, I. R., 1940: Hurricanes. Their nature and history.

Princeton University Press, Princeton, 257 pp.Tannehill, 

I. R., 1955: Hurricane Hunters. Cornwall Press, Inc.,

Cornwall, N. Y., 271 pp.

The Daily Universal Register newspaper of London.

The Encyclopedia Americana, Deluxe Library Edition, 1994. Grolier

Incorporated, Danbury, Connecticut.

17
U)

~

~t:ij

Q

Fig. 

la.

30,000

20,000

10,000

15,000

5,000

0

Atlantic tropical cyclone deaths based on Appendix 1

18

PERIOD

and shown in 10-year periods (except for 1990-94).
Fig. 

1b.

1:1:01

0

~ 10

r:LI

~

~

25

20

(/)

~

I:i1

E-i

~ 15

(/)

5

0- 0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\

O\O~NM~~~~mO\O~NM~~~~mO\O~NM~~~~mO\O~NM~~~~mO\O~NM~ I I I I I I I I I I I I I t t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO'~OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

O\O~NM~~~~mO\O~NM~In'D~mO\O~NM~~\D~mO\O~NM~In\D~=O\O~N"'~

~~~~~~~~~In~\D\D\D\D\D~'D~~\D~~~~...~~~~...=m=mm=====O\O\O\O\O\ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ""'~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~

Number of Atlantic tropical cyclones listed in Appendix

PERIOD

19

OIOI~ ...=01

I I I

000 ...=01

010101

1 (dark shading) and Appendix 2 (light shading) I shown in

10-year periods (except for 1990-94).
(J)

~

E-i

~

J::i1

Q

1500-99 1600-99 1700-99 1800-99 1900-94

PERIOD

Atlantic tropical cyclone deaths based on Appendix 1 and

shown in 100-year periods (except for 1900-94).

Fig. 

2.

20
APPENDIX 1

Atlantic tropical cy'clones causing at least 25 deaths

Lower case footnotes refer to supplementary information in Notes to

Appendices (pages 35-38). Upper case footnotes indicate sources

listed in References to Appendices (pages 39-41).

21
>600V, ~600AQ,223R,AQ,128B5

578M

550R, >509F, 390D,R

501 J,AG,AJ,z

>500H,BE

>500M,BD

>500A,cF, 500Av, >84L

496BP,c

457Y, >300BL, ~131T,BC

440M,BL,400BL, >100Y,90(AJ,BC),v

~424Av+CI, >400L

409R,408D,405R

~405R+AR, ~403R+AI+AR

>400AR

400M,AG,AJ,T,BC,Z

400A, 320x, <200s, >155L, >250B5

390D,R

>387v+AH, >383v+BH

3 83B+BB, 283B

>364R+I,t

353CB,350D,R,T

349BS+v+AN,265D+v+AN,264R+v+AN

327(G,R)+CA

318G,R,300N

304G,R

~300BD, (BF,c,al)

300L,200A,x,R

>287AM+R,x>212AM+R,60BB

284BP,c

>280M+I+AR+BN, z,av, 280BD

~279(D,R,BW,CB)+AR

275G,R,264BB,262BC

259G, 249F, 236-261 R

259R

~257R

257I,225G,I,R,BC

>(251-252)AH,>200w

250BP,150M

217R,213BC,200G

~216R, ~116R,l16G

216G,g

203-303R,200-300G

>200Y,200P

>200BA,BC, >100AG

200F,z,c,191 R,162CH,bd

200J,AG,AJ,T,BC

200w,BN,au,z

200v

200AL, >142AR, 142BB, 100G,T,Bc

200R,184D

>193v+(R,D) ,u

>188AH, >183AH+(AR+BB), >149AH+AF

184->200v

184R

~182M,182J,AG,AJ

~182cc,z

181 BQ,z

180R,c,p, ~ {86-500)AM

~179w+(D,BW),o

179A,>{150-180)R

175BD,c

>165J,z

51. W Atlantic, Nova Scotia 24-27 Aug 1873

52. Southwest Caribbean Sea 1708

53. AUDREY: SW LA, N Texas 27 Jun 1957

54. Atlantic 10 Aug 1591

55. Offshore DR 11.-12 Jul 1502

56. Offshore Puerto Rico 1720

57. Georgia, SC, NC 7-9 Sep 1804

58. Florida east coast 1683

59. Dominica 9 Sep 1806

60. Martinique 13-14 Aug 1766

61. North Carolina 11 Sep 1857

62. Florida Keys 2-3 Sep 1935

63. SE TX, Gulf MX, CU, JAM 12-17 Aug 1915

64. Jamaica 8 Sep 1712

65. Jamaica, Cayman Islands 8-9 Sep 1722

66. Louisiana 10-11 Aug 1856

67. U.S. east coast, W ATL 14-15 Sep 1944

68. Offshore SC, BAH, TUR 9/30-10/3 1866

69. St. Vincent, Barbados 10-11 Sep 1898

70. DONNA: Florida, PR, BAH 4-5 Sep 1960

71. Louisiana, Mississippi 20 Sep 1909

72. FL, N Gulf States, BAH 16-21 Sep 1926

73. GILBERT: MX, JAM, HAl 9-14 Sep 1988

74. CUba, offshore Florida 12-18 Oct 1944

75. HILDA: Mexico, CUba 11-16 Sep 1955

76. Gulf of Mexico 21 Oct 1631

77. South Carolina 27-28 Sep 1822

78. Bahamas, PR, DR, FL 23-27 Jul 1926

79. Near Cape Canaveral (FL) 1563

80. Hispaniola, PR, Jamaica 8/28-9/3 1772

81. Mississippi, LA, Jamaica 24-29 Sep 1915

82. HATTIE: Belize 26-31 Oct 1961

83. ALLEN: Haiti, US 4-7 Aug 1980

84. CAMILLE: MS, LA, WV, VA 17-18 Aug 1969

85. CHARLIE: Jamaica, Mexico 15-20 Aug 1951

86. Puerto Rico 26-27 Sep 1932

87. St. Lucia, Dominica, BAR 21 Oct 1817

88. Cuba Sep 1623

89. CLEO: Lesser Antilles 22-26 Aug 1964

90. MX, offshore GRE, JAM 16-23 Aug 1944

91. JOAN: NIC, CR, COL, VEN 14-22 Oct 1988

92. Mexico 19-20 Sep 1944

93. Guadeloupe 1 Sep 1821

94. Dominica, DR 20-23 Sep 1834

95. Upper Texas coast Nov 1527

96. Barbados 10 Aug 1674

97. St. Kitts Before 10 Nov 1758

98. CUba 23-25 Sep 1894

99. Jamaica 1,'-19 Nov 1912

100. DIANE: US NE states 16-19 Aug 1955

101. Southeast Florida, CUba 17-18 Oct 1906

102. Cayman Islands, JAM, MAR 8-15 Aug 1903

103. Tampico (Mexico) 24 Sep 1933

104. BRET: VEN, NIC, COL 7-11 Aug 1993

105. Jamaica 10/31-11/1 1744

106. Island near Nevis, CUba 17 Aug 1669

107. Delaware coast 2 Sep 1785

108. Isabel: Puerto Rico 6-7 Oct 1985

109. Cuba, TUR, S Texas 8/30-9/5 1933

110. Georgia, SC, NC 2 Oct 1898

111. North coast of Colombia 1504

112. Dominica 20 Sep 1806

22
> 164AB+AJ+L+AT+Bz+ (AK,AP) ,bb

>163 (R,AV) +BD+BN, ax, z

lS0T,A,126Bs,ao

143BX,27L,c

>142Ao, z

>141 AW+AY

140AQ,c, ~36R

13SBS,ap

134D,133-134R

>130A, 114T,R, >100T, 100AV

>130w+AR,c, >97w+AH

129R+D

~121BD

121 BY

120BN,c,z,ay

<116BR,an,c

106R,1

~10SBH+L+CI,S

~103-<940BD,c,ai

103L+CG,2SR+CG

~101w+D

101 AX, >100T

>100AR,ab

>100",100M,J,AG,AJ,AX,BC

>100AH+BP

>100AH,y

>100AH,ac

>100R,34BB

>100G,100R

~100AO

100B,z

100L, ~S3L

9SG

~97L

96R

90R

>S7w

>S4AB+v+cp,r, <=16AG

>SOR+R

SOV

SOR

SOR,C

SOR

SOR

~7SAR+R+W

76R

76R

74w,49R,T,BC

73H, >72M, 72BD

> 72R+AI+AQ+AV , > 71 R+AI+AV

~70AR

70L,z

70L,T,A,BW

6SR

6SV,BH

~63w

~62BY+AO,z

>60-<S97BD,ai

~60AM+R, SOA

~60V+R,C

70Bo,z,am,60M,I

60D,R

113. W Cuba, FL Keys, CI 10-11 Oct 1846

114. North Carolina, Virginia 2-6 Sep 1775

115. East Texas 12-13 Oct 1886

116. Massachusetts 6 Oct 1849

117. JAM, PR, Cuba, St. Croix 24-29 Aug 1785

118. Near STT, SW Atlan., PR 2-3 Aug 1837

119. Labrador coast, W Cuba 8-15 Oct 1882

120. Central Atlantic 9 Oct 1913

121. Mississippi, AL, NW FL 27 Sep 1906

122. Florida, Georgia, SC 28-29 Sep 1896

123. JAM, near HAI & DR, HAI 9-13 Nov 1909

124. AGNES: US NE states, CU 19-22 Jun 1972

125. Hispaniola 12 Sep 1724

126. Between JAM and England Aug 1803

127. Atlantic (?) Before 3 Dec 1779

128. Roanoke Island (NC) 1588

129. North Carolina, Bahamas 11 Sep 1883

130. Gulf coast, NC 3-10 Oct 1837

131. Offshore Mexico 26-27 Sep 1600

132. South Carolina, NC 15 Sep 1752

133. Cuba, Southwest Florida 13-18 Oct 1910

134. Cuba 4-5 Oct 1844

135. Jamaica 1692

136. Honduras 23 Sep 1787

137. Cuba 27-28 Aug 1794

138. Jamaica 17-18 Oct 1815

139. Puerto Rico 5 Sep 1852

140. Montserrat to VI 28-29 Aug 1924

141. FRANCELIA: Guatemala 8/28-9/4 1969

142. Belize 2 Sep 1787

143. Martinique 4-5 Sep 1713

144. Georgia 14-15 Sep 1824

145. Dominican Republic 25-28 Sep 1908

146. Charleston, SC 14 Sep 1700

147. DIANA: Mexico 5-8 Aug 1990

148. ALMA: Honduras, Cuba, FL 4-8 Jun 1966

149. Cuba 13-14 Jun 1904

150. Curacao, PA, US E coast 9/21-10/5 1877

151. Windward Islands, BER 8-15 Sep 1921

152. Near NC OUter Banks 21 Aug 1863

153. Newfoundland Banks 26 Aug 1883

154. Dominican Republic 22-24 May 1948

155. CARRIE: SW of Azores 21 Sep 1957

156. ELOISE: PR, US, HAI, DR 13-24 Sep 1975

157. Jamaica, Cuba, Florida 22-29 Sep 1917

158. BETSY: SE Florida, SE LA 7-10 Sep 1965

159. GERT: Mexico, HON, NIC 14-21 Sep 1993

160. Cuba, Bimini 23-29 Sep 1935

161. Western Cuba near end Oct 1525

162. US E coast waters, Cuba 21-24 Oct 1878

163. Jamaica 15-16 Aug 1933

164. South Carolina 16-17 Sep 1713

165. Rio Grande Valley 4-6 Aug 1844

166. EMMY: Azores 3-4 Sep 1976

167. Near St. Augustine (FL) 29 Aug 1880

168. Mexico 15 Sep 1933

169. Near Tortola, Montserrat Aug 1809

170. Offshore Mexico 12 Sep 1600

171. Off US SE coast, FL 11/30-12/2 1925

172. Maritime Provinces 22-24 Aug 1927

173. Cuba Oct 1527

174. CAROL: US NE states 31 Aug 1954

23
~59R, ~5SR+BL

~5SL,c

~57AN,ag

~57v

~56v

~56M, z

56BT,49R

55R

>52BP+AV

52BY,C

51 BN,c,az

51D,R

51BC,<=51R,AP,BL

>50R,c

~50AG

(50-70) BX,ba,c,z

50M

50L,Av,z

50V,AB

50D,R

50G,R

~47L

~46CG+AV

46D,R

~45L,z

~45v

~43L

42AV

41 D,R,BN

~40BS,as

~40R, 40A

40M,BD,aj

40A,z

40D

~3SM,I

~3 SBP

3SD,R

37-39R

37L

37v,c

~3 5BX+AV

~35s

~3 5R+N+AR

~34R+I, 34G+I, 27BC

~34 N+Z+R

~34N

34D,R,CB

~33L+(AV,CF)+H

33BY,C,Z

33R,c

~32Bv,z

31CA

30CA

~30R+v, 30BS,ar

~30B,AR, ~12AQ, 12R

30G,R

29R

>2SR+x+AI, >20AQ+AI

~2SAB+BN,h

2SR+R

~27°

~271

175. BEULAH: TX, N MX, MAR 5-22 Sep 1967

176. New England 3-4 Oct 1841

177. Martinique, SW Atlantic 7/26-8/3 1837

178. U. S. mid-Atlantic coast 15-17 Sep 1903

179. CUba 9/20-10/1 1895

180. S BAH, FL, FL Straits 15-16 Jul 1733

181. HUGO: GUA, MON, SC 17-22 Sep 1989

182. ALICE: NE MX, TX 24-26 Jun 1954

183. Offshore central FL, VA 20 Oct 1870

184. Off Bermuda 1832

185. South Texas 6-7 Sep 1921

186. SE Florida, LA, MS 17-19 Sep 1947

187. DOROTHY: Martinique, DOM 20 Aug 1970

188. Newfoundland Banks 23-24 Aug 1935

189. Bahamas 4-5 Sep 1883

190 Cape Cod (Massachusetts) 1 Nov 1778

191. Barbuda 25 Oct 1760

192. North Carolina 1 Sep 1772

193. Dominica 8/28-9/1 1916

194. Georgia, SC, NC 11-12 Aug 1940

195. Honduras 23-28 Sep 1941

196. Louisiana 11 Aug 1860

197. NC, coastal Virginia 18 Aug 1879

198. CARLA: Texas 10-12 Sep 1961

199. Louisiana 19 Aug 1812200. 

North-central Atlantic 8 Sep 1897201. 

Louisiana, MS, Alabama 27-28 Jul 1819202. 

Offshore US E coast 23 Aug 1806203. 

Velasco (Texas) 21 Jul 1909

204. Western Atlantic 6-7 Sep 1853205. 

U. S. mid-Atlantic coast 9-12 Sep 1889206. 

Western CUba 5 Oct 1634

207. St. Marks (Florida) 1758

208. Freeport (Texas) 13-14 Aug 1932

209. Puerto Rico 15 Sep 1626

210. Near Cape Florida (FL) 7 Sep 1838

211. HILDA: Louisiana 3-4 Oct 1964

212. ELLA: HAI, CU 8/30-9/6 1958

213. South Carolina 4 Sep 1834

214. Northeast Gulf of Mexico 26 May 1863

215. W Atlantic, US east coast 24 Aug 1635

216. Mississippi 15 Sep 1821

217. Trinidad, CU, VEN, JAM 6/27-7/3 1933

218. BETSY: GUA, PR 11-12 Aug 1956

219. Cuba, Florida Keys 10-11 Oct 1909

220. Gulf of MX and states 4-10 Jul 1916

221. Southwest Louisiana 6 Aug 1918

222. North Carolina, MA 2 Nov 1861

223. Western Cuba 27 Aug 1826

224. Near Maritime Provinces 19 Jun 1959

225. Southeastern Bahamas 1609

226. FRAN: Cape Verde Islands 15-17 Sep 1984

227. ALBERTO: Georgia, AL 4-7 Jul 1994

228. Offshore Yucatan 10-13 Aug 1880

229. Jamaica 18-19 Aug 1880

230. EDITH: Nicaragua, Aruba 6-11 Sep 1971

231. GILDA: Honduras 25-27 Sep 1954

232. Indianola (Texas), CUba 17-20 Aug 1886

233. Virgin Islands 13-16 Aug 1793

234. South Carolina, Florida 11-13 Oct 1893

235. Tobago 11 Oct 1847

236. Virgin Islands 21 Aug 1871

24
~27R

27BG,c

2 7V+R I 2Sv+AH

27R

~26AS

~26v,c

~26R

~26w+R

26v,aa

26R

~2SR+v

2SR

2SD,R

2SD

237. Coastal New England 9-13 Oct 1878

238. Offshore Jamaica (?) 23 Sep 1799

239. Texas, Gulf of MX, JAM 15-19 Aug 1916

240. DORA: Mexico 12 Sep 1956

241. U.S. mid-Atlantic coast 7-13 Sep 1854

242. NC, SC, offshore Bahamas 11-15 Jul 1916

243. Bahamas, Florida 14-16 Sep 1945

244. Cuba, Alabama 25-31 Aug 1950

245. SW Atlantic, CU 9/26-10/9 1873

246. ANDREW: FL, LA, Bahamas 23-27 Aug 1992

247. SC, offshore NC, GA 24-25 Aug 1885

248. Georgia, South Carolina 27-29 Aug 1911

249. Louisiana 25-26 Aug 1926

250. CONNIE: North Carolina 11-13 Aug 1955

25
APPENDIX 2

Atlantic tropical cyclones that may have cclused at least 25 deaths

Lower case footnotes refer to supplementary information in Notes to

Appendices (pages 35-38). Upper case footnotes indicate sources

listed in References to Appendices (pages 39-41).

AREAS OF GREATEST LOSS DATES NOTES

251. West Indies 1495 "When the hurricane reached the harbor, it

whirled the ships round as they lay at

anchor, snapped their cables, and sank three

of them with all who were on board. "CD

252. Bahamas Jul1500 two caravels with all their crews "swallowed

up" in a stOrmH'BO

253. Honduras 16 Sep 1502 "a boat sent to the shore was, in returning,

swallowed up by a sudden swelling of the

sea, with all on board.. ."sO,c

254. DR 12-14 Aug 1508 "...many men were lost in this city and in

the greater part of this island..."M; "destroying...the entire population of

Buenaventura" (on 3 August [Julian calendar?])AD

255. Puerto Rico Jul 15J.5 "death of many Indians"J,I

256. Near Jamaica 15J.9 18 men from caravel survived a "hurricane"CD

257. NC Jun 1526 "...Spanish brigatine was lost off Wilmington, North Carolina..."Av

258. Puerto Rico 31 Aug 1530 "Uncounted number of deaths by drowning."AY

259. Puerto Rico 1537 "many slaves were drowned"M,J,I,c,z

260. NW Cuba 1537 2 ships 10stBD.C,z

261. DR 20 Aug 1545 killed "many", "large number of" peopleM,AD,z

262. Mexico 1545 loss of life from vessel wrecked in

"norther "BD,c,z

263. Off FL Keys 1550 Spanish nao (ship) Vitacion, 200 tons, "lost

during a hurricane."sP

264. Gulf of HON 1551 "ship with many persons. ..all drowned"M

265. Texas 1553 16 ships of the New Spain Flota were "struck

by a hurricane" and not again "ever heard

from."BD

266. Cuba Nov 1554 "...the admiral's ship was sunk..."; a small

caravel sank with all but two people

drowningM' z

267. Mona Passage 1554 Spanish nao wrecked during hurricanesB,c,z

268. Off FL 19 Sep 1559 "great loss of life...by a tempest from the

north"BD,z; "great loss (less than 1,500) of

seamen, passengers"CII

269. Off NW FL 1559 6 Spanish ships lost "in a hurricane"sp,z

270. NC (?) 1564? "...none of the people survived..." from a

wreck on the coastAV

271. FL E coast 22 Sep 1565 "...surely (several French vessels) must.

have been 10st."M "In a severe storm, most

of the French vessels were lost at sea"sp

on unknown date, but apparently in same

storm. 529 surviving soldiers and sailors

accounted for from original 600.CII

272. FL coast 1571 San Ignacio, 300 tons, and Santa Maria de la

Limpia Concepcion, 340 tons, "lost on the

Florida coast during a storm.. ..only a few

survivors. "BP,c

26
273 Gulf MX, MX 1574

274. Bahama Channel 1586

275. 

FL E coast 1589

276. 

BAH Channel near 9 Sep 1589

277. BAH Channel Sep 1589

278. 

Atlantic279. 

At sea

near end Aug J.59J.

J.59J.

280. Coastal FL 1591

281. 

Atlantic mid Aug 1591

282. 

At sea 1591

1594

1605

283. 

At sea

284. HAI, DR, CU

285. Cumana (VEN)

286. Atlantic

287. Near Bahamas

288. Offshore MX

J.605

Jul J.609

4 Aug J.609

30 Aug J.6J.5

289. Puerto Rico

290. BAH Channel

12 Sep 1615

1622

291 Offshore FL 1622

292. 

Off S PR

293. Western Cuba

Oct 1638

11 Sep 1640

294. 

Hisp. to FL 24 Sep 1641

295. Lesser Ant.

296. St. Kitts

Sep 1642

1650

297. 

Leeward Is.

298. BAR, STV

23-24 Sep 1652

13 Jul 1653

299. Guadeloupe 1656

4 ships sank in a "bad storm". 5 perished

from one of the vessels; loss on others unknown. Ships were part of New Spain Flota

that left Spain on 29 June.~

Loss of two 120-ton Spanish navios attributed to hurricane.BE Six or seven others

lost, including the San Juan, 120 tons.BP

A ship of the fleet commanded by Perez de

Olesbal wrecked. "Forty of her crew were

rescued. "BP,z

4 ships "struck by a hurricane" sunk in

Bahama Channel~'z; two were the Santa

Catalina and the Jesus MariaBP

Four-day storm, "On the first day alone a

total of ten naos were swallowed by the

sea. "BE,z

22 vessels perishedJ,AG,AJ,z

"Over a hundred ships, galleons and merchant

ships...were wrecked, their crews drowned,

their riches lost. "CD,z

Encountering storms, "29 ships were lost,

many on Florida's coast"BP,Z

five or six of a group's largest ships and

all their crews were 10stJ,AJ,z

Spanish nao lost in Atlantic or Caribbean

SeaBB,C,Z

ship lost in Caribbean SeaM

"loss of three ships"; "...some men

escaped.. ."M

"four galleons" lost near Santa MargaritaM,h

one ship "sank immediately"H,Z

one ship sankL, z

San Miguel sunk in storm. "Nothing was

saved, not even the crew or passengers."~

"algunas Muertes" (some deaths)I

loss of 2 Spanish. naos attributed to

hurricaneBE, z

Spanish nao Santa Ana Maria, 180 tons,

"lost during a storm off the Florida

coast "BP,z

2 British ships lost; two known survivorsBE

36 vessels affected; 4 thrown on shore;

"...nearlyall the sailors drowned,

excepting 260 that were saved.. ."M

8 ships lost and "many people perished"M;

many ships lost in the Bahama Channel, and

no survivors from 4 wrecked ships, with

some survivors on a fifth ship along NE

Florida coast~

men in 22 ships drownedM

"...28 ships were thrown on the roadstead

of St. Christopher, the sailors

drowned. .."M; "During two different hurricanes a total of twenty-eight merchantmen, a great number of lives...lost."~

3 ships and crew missingf

1 ship and crew lost; at St. Vincent,

"death of many savages"M

"Every vessel at anchor in the roads was

wrecked and most of their crews

drowned. "J,Y,AG,AJ

"During a hurricane 2 unidentified English 300 Antigua J.666

27
Virginia 6 Sep 1667

302. Atlantic Before 23 Sep 1669

303. St. Kitts Before 9 Dec ~669

304. Offshore PR 1673

Barbados 1675

Martinique 3 Aug 1680

15 Aug 1680

307. 

DR

308. 

W Carib. Sea 1681

309. 

Nevis 1689

4 Oct 1695

1696

3J.0. FL Keys

3J.J.. NW Cuba

312. 

Virginia, MD 18 Oct 1703

313. Havana (CU) 1705

US E coast 6 Nov 1706

315. Cuba

316. Louisiana

Sep 1.71.4

1.2-1.3 Sep 1.722

2 Nov 1726

13 Aug 1728

317. 

Jamaica318. 

NC

3J.9. Jamaica 1 Sep 1730

W'ward Pass. 1731

10-11 Jul 1733

321. 

Lesser Ant.

warships were lost in English Harbor with a

great loss of lives. "BD,z

"burying in the ruins much goods and many

people "AVj many people lost their lives.. ."L

"Yesterday (26-30 Sep 1669) came in a Veffel

from Rochel, telling us of a Report in that

place that feveral New-found-land fhips have

been lately cast away by ftorm."CE,z

"...terrible Hurricane neer St.

Christophers, by which 25 of our Merchant

fhips and others have been cast away." Possibly related to 19 Dec 1670 (Julian date)

report of "violent" hurricane for around

eight hours at St Christophers "...about the

end of September last."CE,z

warship wrecked, "Most of the (500) pirates

made it ashore to Puerto Rico... "BD,c

"number of deaths...must have been considerable"s

"During a violent hurricane...over twenty

large French ships and two English ships

were totally lost in Cul-de-Sac Bay and the

loss of life was great."BD

"submerged...many vessels... (including)

twenty-five ships of France...causing the

death of most"Mj several Spanish ships lost

as well.BD

"loss of lives...considerable" from several

shipsM

"A dreadful mortality swept away one-half of

the inhabitants of Nevis. "J,AG

offshore loss of 933 ton warshipM,z

"An unidentified navio was wrecked at Playa

de Sabarimar, 7 leagues east of Havana, in

35 feet of water, during a storm..."BD,C

"several (vessels) driven to sea, and no

more heard of. "AV,L

4 men of war, "with most of their crews,

were 10st"M,BD

14 ships foundered and "others were given

up for lost. "AV,L

frigate San Juan 10stM,AP

"During a hurricane...a large number of unidentified ships were sunk at and near New

Orleans. "BD,z

"Many lives lost with at least 18 at sea."AR

All of crew lost from ship sunk off

Okracoke IslandAVj "only a few survivors"

--no dateBDj "Many ships were lost, one as

far north as few miles off Ocracoke."cF

ship of war (carrying ex-President of

Panama) 10stM

Most men on ship Bridget and Kitty perished.

May be related to one death on Dolphin upset

in 24 June squall.M

crews of multiple ships lostj other losses

on landM,AP,Zj "a total loss of lives" from

one ship at St. KittsBD

"carried away. ..negroes.. .into the sea"AG,AJ

"During an October hurricane an English merchantman. ..was sunk at Basseterre and only

one of the crew survived."BD

9 Sep 1737

Oct 1737

322. DR

323. St. Kitts

28
324. Puerto Rico

325. VI, PR

326. Jamaica

11-12 Sep 1740

27-28 Oct 1742

20 Oct 1743

Carib. Sea 1746

C Atlantic 26 Sep 1747

329. Gulf of RON 29 Sep J.749

330. MA, NC 8 Oct J.749

331. Offshore NC 17-18 Aug 1750

St. 

Kitts 24 Jul J.75J.

Cuba 26 Sep 1752

334. Off Florida 22 Oct J.752

335. 

TX, Gulf MX 4 Sep 1766

2 ships of war lostM

2 ships lostM

"...a great number of marines were

drowned."AG

13 of 21 ships on way from Brazil to Lisbon

"disappeared without a trace" in a

hurricane.BD

"The Fleet from Barbadoes, &c. on the 15th

Ult. (Julian date) met with a violent Storm

in Latitude 39 North, in which the Lyme Man

of War of 20 Guns Overfet, and all the Crew

except four Perifh'd The Homer, Gardiner,

from Barbadoes for Leverpool, and a ship for

Falmouth, Founder'd at the fame Time, and

only One Man from on board the Latter was

faved. "BN,c

"The Centaur, Snow, from the Bay of Honduras

for Leghorn, met with a violent Hurricane

foon after he left the Bay, in which he loft

all the Mafts and Sails, and put into

Carolina to Refit the 3d of November.--Capt. 

CUllam, of the Arthur, writes from

the Bay on the 18th Sept. (Julian Calendar

date) that the fame Storm put moft of the

Veffels afshore at the Bay, but he rode it

out without Damage, and that feveral Veffels

for Europe & North America, fail'd from

thence with Capt. Snow, who 'tis fear'd have

met with the like or worfe Misfortune.BN

"During a hurricane.. .seven unidentified

ships were wrecked on Martha's Vineyard and

many lives were lost." Two merchantmen

wrecked north of Ocracoke. The John & Jane

"foundered 9 leagues seaward of the Cape

Fear bar."BD

4 Spanish vessels wrecked off Outer

BanksAv,BD. No lives lost from the Nuestra

de Solidad, with unknown losses from the El

Salvador and two unidentified ships.cI

"During a violent gale" the Friendship was

wrecked and none of the crew survived.BD

Vessel identified as a brig; storm apparently also felt off Havana.BN

"During a hurricane...sixteen unidentified

ships were lost near Havana."BD The Speedwel

"fuppos'd" to have been lostBN

Ships lost in "Hurricane": Alexander,

Lancafter, Dolphin, Q. Anne, May, Rhode

Island, Stratia, a Spanish schooner, and

three other vesselsBN. Ships missing: Mary

and Prifcilla, Pompey, Phillis (7 drowned),

Three Friends, Kingfton, Ruby, Bofton, a

schooner, a ship, and a Spanish Man of Warm;

12 ships lost in "Gulf of Florida"BD; Also

affected North Carolina.BN

During a "hurricane", 5 ships wrecked on

Galveston Island, and a".. .majority of the

treasure and persons on these ships were

saved."BD One merchantman vessel from the

Spain Flota possibly lost in the Gulf of

Mexico in storm alternately indicated as on

the 1st-4th, or in the middle of

29
Guadeloupe 6 Oct 1766

337. NW FL 23 Oct 1766

338. Coastal NC 21 Sep 1767

Coastal NC 5-6 Sep J.769

340. DOM, STK 30 Aug 1772

Louisiana 2 Sep 1772

342. Caribbean 3J. Jul J.775

Caicos Is. 2 Nov 1775

Off Florida Jun 1.777

345. 

C Atlantic 10 Sep 1777

346. Cuba347. 

Louisiana

28-3J. Oct J.778

J.8 Aug J.779

348. Martinique

349. US coast

28 Aug 1.779

Before 8 Oct 1.779

350. 

Atlantic

353.. Jamaica

Before 3 Dec 1.779

1. Aug 1.781.

352. 

Atlantic 29 Oct 1.781.

Atlantic (?) Aug-Sep 1782

September.BN

"...twelve inbound slave ships from Africa

(to Isle de Saints) were also totally

10st."BD

"...all the Crew drowned except three" in

the brig Wetherill during "a moft terrible

Hurricane"BN

"number" of vessels lost in "violent

storm"BN

"The Nept~e, Watts, from N. Carolina to

London, failed on the 4th of September laft

being the day before the violent ftorm on

that coaft, and its thought that all

perifh'd."BN "...one entire street of

houses was washed away, along with several

residents."CG

"causando muertes" (causing deaths);

"matando gran numero de personas" (killing

great number of persons) I.z,av

El Principe de Orange "was struck by a hurricane...and wrecked at the entrance of the

Mississippi River, where she quickly went to

pieces, only six survivors."BD

English merchantman Gill, sailing from St.

Eustatius to St. Vincent Island, sank during

a "hurricane"BD.BN

"During a hurricane...at least eleven merchantmen and several English warships were

lost in the Windward Passage near the Caicos

Islands."BD

Spanish man-of-war foundered in "hurricane all hands lost."sP

"The Ariadne, Ruffel, from Dominica to

London, foundered at Sea in a Gale of Wind

on the 10 Ult. the Crew and Paffengers were

faved. Five others of the Fleet were miffing next Morning. "BN.c

"greatest loss of human lives by drowning"M

All but one of a fleet of Spanish warships sunk by a hurricane. BD

"many lives 10st"BD.z

"The Mary, Pippard, from St. Kitts to NewYork, was overfet in a Whirlwind, a few

Leagues from Sandy-Hook, the vessel and

Cargo entirely lost. Alfo at the fame Time

was loft, a Brig with Rum, for Antigua."BN,Z

brig lost in galeBN.c.z

"A powerful hurricane drove not less than

120 vessels ashore and destroyed a large

number. Amongst the 120 were 30 British men

of war. Many lives were lost on these

ships...and more than twenty bodies were

r-ecovered." More losses on shore.M.z

"The Peach and Plenty, , from Cork to

the West Indies, overfet in a hard Gale of

Wind the 29th of October, and all the Crew

perifhed, except one... "BN.c.z

"The Corfaire, St. Juan Nepomuzeno, Capt.

Gallardo, failed from St. Andero for the

Havannah 15th August, and foundered in a

violent Storm the fame Day in Sight of the

Port; the Crew and Paffengers all

30
354. Atlantic Oct-Nov 178:2

355. US E coast 19 Sep 1783

356. Delaware Fall 1783

357 US E coast Fall 1783

358. Jamaica 30-31 Jul 1784

359. 

Curacao J.784

360. Cayman Is.

36J.. Barbados

],785

2-3 Sep ],786

362. Jamaica 20 Oct 1786

363 Coastal NC 10 Apr 1789

364. Lesser Ant. 1-2 Aug 1792

365. Jamaica 27 Jun 1.794

366. Jamaica

367. NC, VA

30 Jul ],794,

2 Aug ].79=;

368. SW Atlantic 9 Oct 1800

369. Offshore VA 29 Sep 1.806

370. Spanish Main 17 Oct 1807

drowned. "BN,c,z

ship foundered in passage from Haiti to

EuropeBN,C,z

"The Mercury, Herpin, from Dunkirk to

Philadelphia, was lost in a furious Gale of

Wind the Night of 19th September laft on

Cape May; the Captain, Mate, and all the

Crew, except feven Men, drowned. "BN,Z Lloyd's

List has nearby ship losses on 19 September

and 11 October.

"During a gale in the fall, nine large unidentified ships were wrecked at Cape

Henlopen and many lives were lost. "AD,c,z

"The John and Nelly, Bailey, from New-York

to Charleston, left New-York the 22d of

Sept. and is fupposed to have foundered in

the feveral Gales of Wind that happened on

the Coaft the beginning of October, as fhe

has not since been heard of. "BN,c,z

"many" and/or "numerous" lives 10stM,y,AJ,AR,Z;

2 drowned from the Hanover Planter, half

crew lost from the Industry, and "most of

people perished from two unnamed vessels".BN

"During a hurricane that struck at CUracao

Island, several large ships were wrecked in

the main harbor and others forced to sea,

where they were lost without a trace. "BD,z

".. .many lives were lost. "AT,z

many persons were killed in the ruins of

their own housesM,AJ

7 deaths plus "A fmall fhallop, wrecked off

Gun Key; every foul perifhed" and all but 1

lost from a plantain boatAO

"In the Albermarle Sound area there was on

this date 'a very violent gale of wind, with

an amazing rise of tide, supposed to be

about 9 feet above common high water mark.'

A number of ships...were lost along the

Outer Banks; at least two of these wrecks

resulted in the death of the entire

crew. "CF,c

"many" lives lost in St. Kitts and

AntiguaJ,AG,BC; "great loss of life" from ten

ships in St. Barthelemy and only two survivors from a Spanish brig sunk between St.

Kitts and St. EustatiusBD

"The Prize Ships from St. Domingo to

Jamaica, met with a fevere Gale of Wind on

the 27th June, one of which was totally lost

near Kingston.. ."BN

"Lives 10st."AZ

"...a fleet of eighteen Spanish ships, sailing from Havana to Spain, was struck off

Cape Hatteras, an undisclosed number of

these ships were 10st."BD A ship sank off

Cape Charles"Av. ..with a total loss of

lives"BD

25 saved from Galgo, "upset in a squall, in

lat. 21°, long. 61° west. "BY,c

schooner Charming Mary found partially

submergedAV, z

From the Firefly, "all except the Surg. & 3

31
371. Puerto Rico

372. C Atlantic

17-19 Aug 1809

27 Aug 1809

373. 

Off PR 3 Aug 1809

1S Aug 1810

10 Sep 1811

181.2

374. Jamaica

375. SC

376. Cayman Is.

377. 

Barbados 22-23 Jul 1813

378. Jamaica

379. NC

7/31-8/1 1813

3-4 Sep 1815

380. New England 23 Sep 1815

381. Puerto Rico 1816

382. Jamaica 8-12 Nov 1818

383. VI 21-22 Sep 1819

384. Offshore VA385. 

New York

20-22 Oct 1822

4 Jun 1825

386. Coastal NC J.7-J.8 Nov J.825

387. Cuba 18215

388. 

Cayman Is. 18215

389. 

Chesap. Bay 26 Aug J.827

390. 

Near Bermuda391. 

Off STB

13 Sep 182B

26 Oct 1829

392. 

Florida 15-16 Aug 1830

393. 

BAR, DR 3 Sep 1835

394. Cayman Is. 1836

men (lost when vessel) ...foundered in a hurricane off the Spanish Main. "BY

"Great.. .death toll"AY

"The Express cutter, together with several

of the fleet, is supposed to have foundered. ...(and) several people on wrecks...

were seen to go down..."AH

"H.M.S. Lark, of 18 guns, foundered...and

all her crew, except one man,

perished. .."AJ,AO,z

"Some lives lost at sea."AR

"many were killed"o,cF

"women of East End left widowed" when husbands lost at seaAT,z

"some lives lost, numbers of persons were

killed. .."Y,z j at least 18 dead and 8

missingAH

"many lives 10st"AR,z

"...storm caused great damage and loss of

life in Onslow." 4 deaths in one storm

surge incident.CG

"the loss of life so heavy that the newspapers did not have space enough to give all

the details of the marine disasters"BIj "impossible to estimate loss of live in

Providence...but it was extremely heavy. "BY

"about twenty persons were drowned or

killed"BJj at least 20 deathsBK

2 dead on landj part of crews from 3 ships

perishedJ

"heavy loss of life on ships some loss of

life on land"AR

"serious loss of life"Yj "apprehensive that

many, many lives have been lost, in addition

to the great number already ascertained."AB

schooner foundered off RichmondAv

schooner Hornet foundered, "...with loss of

her entire crew. "AV

"The schooner Harvest was wrecked.. .and five

or more persons lost in what may have been a

late season hurricane. "cr,c 5 of 15 people on

board were lost and row boat carrying

rescuers overturned in surf.cI

"...el general Laborde perdio su escuadra en

Cuba 0 costa del sur" (General Laborde lost

his fleet in Cuba or the southern coast)AP.Z

"women of East End left widowed" when husbands lost at seaAT.Z

"...the vessel (Flag) lost all hands and the

passengers perished."Av

3 ships 10stAJ

"...two vessels slipt their anchors and went

to sea. One returned, and the other has not

since (4 Nov 1829) been heard of."AH

"...off Cape Florida...several ships were

lost.. ."AW

"The mail boat, Lady Lunn, was capsized and

sunkj one man saved." 2 boats driven to

sea from Barbados not heard from after 11

days.~ 3 deaths on Matilda near Dominican

Republic.AB

"women of East End left widowed" when hus32
395. 

NC 18 Aug 1837

MX E coast 1 Nov 1838

Coastal NC J.2-J.5 Jul J.842

7-8 Sep 1846

24 Aug 1850

18 Aug 1851

12 Sep 1851

398. Offshore VA

399. NC

400. DR

401. Offshore VA

6-8 Nov 185:!

18 Sep 1854

402. Jamaica

403. E TX coast

404. Tampico (MX) 6 Aug 18S!;

26 Aug 1855

10 Jul 1861

405. 

DR

406. W Atlantic

3 Aug 1867

407. 

US E coast

J.-3 Oct J.867

8 Sep J.869

408. E TX coast

409. New England

2-3 Oct 1871

410. 

E TX coast

W Atlantic J.9-20 Oct J.87:3

412. PR, NC 13-17 Sep 18745

DR-HAI-FL-PA 1.-1.3 Sep 1.878

Haiti 25-28 Sep 1.878

Gulf MX (?) 24-28 Oct i879

J.6-2J. Nov J.879

J.2-J.3 Oct J.880

5-6 Sep J.882

416. US E coast

417. SE TX coast

418. Cuba

bands lost at seaAT

"...several vessels have been lost, one of

them, with the crew..."; ship palambam

founderedAw

"Three United States vessels were lost, and

the crews of two of these perished."AJ

many ships lost and many persons drownedQ,CF;

"Two unknown vessels were capsized...their

entire crews lost, and seven men who went

out later...were also drowned No

authentic information has corne to light

which would give...the number of persons

drowned; it is sufficient to say that the

hurricane of July 12, 1842 was one of the

worst in the history of coastal Carolina."cI

several vessels lost offshore VirginiaAV

"pilot boat sank"Q,CF

"many casualties"AD

Schooner Free Trade capsized. "Nothing

heard from the persons on board, and it was

feared that they were 10st."AV

"many lives lost on ships in ports"AR

"Two people were killed. The steamer Kate

Ward and crew were 10st..."R

"The loss and damage done to goods was very

heavy, and the destruction of life and

property was no less severe."AS

"many casualties"AD

The Bowditch, while "...in a tremendous hurricane, washed all was hands boarded overboard." by a sea, which Only the

captain survived.v

2 deaths plus "all perished except the

captain" from a brig.Av

"many", "number" of lives 10stF,R

1 death in MA and "all except one man perished" from schooner Belen Eliza in Maine.BX

2 deaths plus steamer foundered and "all

hands were lost with the exception of one

man."R

schooner Enterprise "feared lost during the

storm"AV

"...19 deaths reported, but historians suspected the Spanish Government withheld actual damage and death toll data."AY 2 drowned

in Onslow County, NC and "from Okracoke to

Rocky Mount, reports were gathered of killed

and injured citizens."CG

"considerable loss of life"AG,AI; 9 deaths FL

to PA, plus, at Aux Cayes "...a number of

persons were killed", while "in the towns of

Aquin and Cavaillon...a large number of

lives 10st."R

"American brigatine was wrecked at Tiburon

and all hands 10st."R

schooner from Pensacola "...completely

wrecked and lost all her crew but two men."R

"some lives 10st"R

"many lives 10st"F,BW

"buen numero de victimas" (good number of

victims)AI

Jamaica 6-8 Oct 1884 "drowning at least 8 people"AR

33
17-24 Jun 1886

28-29 Jun 1886

420. Cuba

421. Cuba, JAM

422. Cuba

423. Cuba

424. Cuba

21-26 Aug 1886

11-15 Jun 1887

15-16 Jun 1889

425. Cuba 28-29 May J.890

426. W Atlantic 28-30 Aug 1890

427. Cuba 9-11 Jun 1892

428. Cuba

429. Cuba

21 Oct 1895

25-27 Sep 1897

430 Cuba I JAM 28-29 Oct 1899

431 AL-LA coast 13-16 Aug 1901

432 US E coast Sep 1904

433. Costa Rica 25-28 Jan 1905

434. Turks Is. 1.0-1.2 Sep 1.908

435. N Florida 3-4 Sep 1915

436. Jamaica

437. Puerto Rico

438. Gulf of MX

15-17 Aug 1916

22 Aug 1.916

28-30 Sep 1920

439. Bahamas, FL 24-29 Sep 1.929

440. Mexico, PR 10-16 Sep 1931

441. Off NJ 7-8 Sep 1.934

"no pocos ahogados" (not a few drowned)AI

"algunas desgracias personales en mar y

tierra" (some people died at sea and on

land) from CubaAI; "no less than 18 lives

lost" in JamaicaAR

"crushing many of their inhabitants"AG

"algunos ahogados" (some drowned)AI

"algunas...desgracias personales" (some people died) AI

"buen numero de ahogados" (good number of

drownings); rISe enviaron de la capital partidas de Bomberos, Marinos y Guardia civil.

Buen numero de estos expedicionarios perdieron la vida." (Firemen, marines, and civil

guard teams were sent from the capital. A

good number of these crews lost their

lives.)AI

10 deaths from one ship; "loss of life" from

another

16 deaths in Matanzas and "large" number in

vicinity; 1 death in HavanaV+AI

"arrebato algunas vidas" (took some lives)AI

"algunas desgracias personales" (some people died) AI

In Cuba, "algun(a)s...perdidas de vidas humanas" (some loss of human lives)AI; "many

dead" in JamaicaAR

"Only 10 persons are known to have perished,

but more lives no doubt were lost... .It is

greatly feared that the loss of life among

the fishermen and others...will be considerable."R

"A number of lives were lost.. ."T.C; "considerable loss of life"R

"very severe hurricane...causing great loss

of life"R.c

"caused destruction of life"R; at least 19

deaths with 8 missingAH+w

"small loss of life...confined to fishing

and sponge vessels" near Jacksonville.R

"At least 17 persons left dead..."AR

2 ships missing at seal

"among the vessels lost were... (two American

ships with) ...a large number of casualties"R

10 deaths, not counting "many lives lost" in

in BahamasR

2 deaths in Puerto Rico, plus 300-ton

steamer "sank with all hands lost, including

a number of passengers."R

The liner Morro Castle caught fire and was

abandoned in unsettled weather at the approach of a hurricane. "134 people died

from burning, drowning and exposure. "BS,C

"Nine lives were lost...", but the "...total

loss of life is still unclear."R

442. MX, Belize 5-11 Nov 1942

34
NOTES TO APPENDICES

a Conventional abbreviations were used for map headings (e.g., N for north or

northern) and for American states. In addition, we employed C for central and

the following: BAH--Bahamas, BAR--Barbados, BEL--Belize, BER--Bermuda,CAN--

Canada, CI--Cayman Islands, COL--Colombia, CR--Costa Rica, CU--Cuba, DOM--

Dominica, DR--DominicanRepublic, GRE--Grenada, GUA--Guadeloupe, HAI--Haiti, HON-

-Honduras, JAM--Jamaica, MAR--Martinique, MON--Montserrat, MX--Mexico, NIC--

Nicaragua, PR--Puerto Rico, STB--St. Bartholemy, STE--St. Eustatius, STK--St.

Kitts, STT--ST. Thomas, STV--St. Vincent, TUR--Turks Islands, US--United States,

VEN--Venezuela, VI--Virgin Islands.

b Alternately, 12 fewer deaths because Salivia (1970) has 300 and 312 for Puerto

Rico. Most references cite Red Cross statistics of 1836 deaths and 1870 injuries

in Florida. An additional reference (AC) with 1870 deaths in Florida may be in

error. Flament and Martin, and Soulan (1994) have 1200 deaths for Guadeloupe.

Monthly Weather Review adds 18 for Grand Turk and indicates others possible in

Caribbean. Soulan (1994) adds 3 for Martinique. Snow (1952) has 1500-2500

deaths.

C tropical cyclone status in doubt for at least part of event

d Alexander (1902) notes "17 sail with 2000 troops.. .only two were ever heard of

afterwards". Other references indicate that additional ships may have survived.

e l3 ships carried l500 people; lO ships sank

f Chapman notes "many lives were lost in New England." Alexander (1902)

indicates only l person survived from the loss of an l8-cannon ship. Marx (1983)

notes that "most of the town of Caravel (Martinique), along with the majority of

the inhabitants, was swept into the sea" in September; this month may be in

error, also disagreeing with the dates in The Miami Herald. Millas (1968)

presents several reports on effects in the Caribbean region.

9 18 people missing (according to National Hurricane Center Preliminary Report

on Joan)

h The London Times reported the loss of 28 of 42 slaves, with additional loss of

some crew on board the Bristol. Lloyd's List indicates only lO men saved during

a period when slaves were sometimes not included in the statistics. In addition,

Lloyd's List indicates "Three vessels, from Africa with slaves, are loft in the

West Indies, in the late Hurricane."

i There are many estimates of the total. This one, based on the "official"

summary in Galveston in 1900 (OUsley 1900), is: 6000 in city of Galveston, lOOO1200 elsewhere on the island west of the city and more than 1000 on the mainland.

Maximum estimates provided are 10000-12000. Monthly Weather Review indicates

"Enormous loss of life...inland", as well. Most other references indicate a loss

of at least 6000.

j "The loss of life occasioned by the storm in Galveston and elsewhere on the

southern coast cannot be less than l2,OOO lives..." Statement of Governor Sayres

on 19 Sep 1900 printed in Lester (1900).

k 17 in Texas according to Monthly Weather Review; Hasling (1982) notes 38 deaths

in Texas (some may be related to storm remnant)

153 in North Carolina according to Dunn and Miller (l964) , Stevenson (l989) , and

Barnes (1995). Mon. Wea. Rev. reported "a large number of small craft were lost;

in nearly all cases all hands peris~ed" in Domi~icc:m Republic, az:d "gr7a~ loss

of life along the Exuma Cays"; Garr10tt (1900) 1nd1cates deaths 1n Dom1n1ca.

m Garriott (1900) and Alexander (1902) indicate thousands of additional deaths

in Puerto Rico due to subsequent starvation. Stick (1952) and Chapman indicate

at least 50 deaths in shipwrecks along coastal Carolina. Barnes (1995) has at

least 30 along the coast of North Carolina and 14 inland in that state.

35
n Millas (1968) disputes accounts giving date as 25 October and deaths as more

than 1000.

040 in South Texas according to Hebert et al. (1993) and Price (1956).

P The Miam:i Herald indicates at least 55 deaths on the 7th. The National

Hurricane Center track begins at 0000 UTC on the 7th.

q Snow (1952) has 150 deaths at Indianola with the remainder elsewhere in Texas.

However, "bastantes vidas perdidas" (quite a few lives lost) in Cuba according

to Appendix of Gutierrez-Lanza in Sarasola (1928)

r in addit,ion, "al~as perdidas, de vidas" (some loss of life) in Cuba according

to Append~x of Gut~errez-Lanza ~n Sarasola (1928)j steamship Magnolia foundered

off Hatteras"CF

S numerous estimates provide (sub)totals yielding a similar statistic

t may not include 5 in Anguilla mentioned explicitly by Salivia (1970) or at

least some of 23 deaths in Leeward Islands noted in Weather Bureau Preliminary

Report

U Monthly Weather Review of 1909: "In 1906 many hundreds of laborers were

drowned..."

v Evans (1848) writes of more than 70 other deaths that year but does not relate

them to a specific storm

W Seon has upwards of 1000 deaths in Jamaica, while Evans (1848) and Millas

(1968) indj.cate 300 deaths there. Ludlum (1963) account has 200 in Savanna-LaMar and "several white people and some hundreds of negroes killed...in the whole

parish."

x The Miami Herald also reported more than 400 people missing in the Bahamas

Y total based on The London Times report that "many seamen and white people

drowned, with some hundreds of negroes." Alexander (1902), Garriott (1900), and

Evans (1848) have 28 October as date.

Z some early storms that qualified in more than one locale may have multiple

listings if the storm track is unknown

aa 26 deaths from ship Maisij in addition, "...numerous disasters were caused by

it at sea.. .", according to Monthly Weather Review, possibly including 16 deaths

in loss of schooner Maine. The New York Times reported one survivor of English

brig Gamay (possibly foundered in same storm) picked up on 9 Oct in southwestern

Atlantic.

ab "Hundreds said to be killed in a severe hurricane..." (Seon)

ac This total may come from two storms. According to the 3 November 1852 The

London Times, "In Puerto Rico, heavy thunderstorms and hurricanes had been

experienced, and over 100 lives were lost." Salivia (1970) indicates hurricanes

on 5 and 22 (or 26) September and that the first "ocasiono muchas muertes"

(occasioned many deaths).

ad Cayman Islands National Archive documents indicate 101 or 102 deaths of

islanders, excluding their residents lost on Cuba. Other references have smaller

totals for the Cayman group.

ae Tannehill (1938) indicates that this cyclone may have originated in the

Pacific.

af Clark (1988) has 2150. Reference BC has ~2000.

ag Reid (1841) reprints report that two hurricanes occurred in Santo Domingo in

1837, in some combination causing 3 drownings, plus "three Haytian vessels were

also on the coast, and only one man saved."

ah Referenc:es AG and AW have 1477 deaths.

36
37

aj Marx (J.983) is not specific about date.

M Marx (J.983) is probably describing the same storm when indicating no survivors

of 4 wrecks resul ting from" a hurricane between Serrana and Serranilla banks" in

1605.

al Marx (J.98J.) , which has many of the same accounts as Marx (1983), refers to

this storm as a "norther".

-Month not specified by Robinson (J.848).

= Hunter hypothesizes that most of the settlers of Roanoke Island were killed

by a hurricane. He indicates that of about J.16 people on the island in J.587,

some returned to England before the storm and a few of the settlers survived the

storm.

ao Snow (1952) does not specify dates of month

ap According to Snow (1952), "On October 9, J.9J.3 the immigrant ship Volturno,

with 657 people aboard, burst into flames in a wild gale at sea halfway across

the Atlantic 135 were lost." Neumann et al. (J.993)--see References in Text--

show a hurricane over the central Atlantic on that date.

aq Snow (J.952) says at least 2000 deaths.

ar Snow (J.952) has 20 August. The dates in several of his accounts conflict with

dates of other sources.

as According to Snow (1952), "scores of lives were lost and seventy-five vessels

were either sent to the bottom or dismasted." Also, a "brig was lost "O,CF. The

brig Albermarle was lost off HatterasAV,cI. This event possibly related to "Two

men overboa:rd" from Henry Horbeck in "hurricane" at 38°N 56°W on J.3 Sep.BM

at Ellms (1860) locates the disaster at 48° 33'N 430 20'W, placing in doubt the

tropical character of the storm. Lloyd's List (Oct 1782), however, has accounts

of storm from the Jamaica Fleet at 43°N 48°W, and at 43°N 44°W. At the latter

location, "...in a Gale of Wind from ESE...on the J.6th in the Evening, when on

the Morning of the 17th the Wind came out in an Inftant to N.W the storm

lafting for two hours." A very similar account from an officer on the Ramilies

at 42.3°N and 48.9OW is reprinted in Redfield (J.836).

au Reported in Lloyd's List on 10 Nov J.758. Possibly related to its later report

of "hard Gale of Wind" which drove ashore and destroyed some vessels at Barbados

on 23 August.

av Millas (1968) indicates that two hurricanes affected this area about the same

time. If so, then the number of casualties associated with each is uncertain,

e.g., Lloyd's List contains the report, "The Apollo, Manning, was totally lost

at St. Kitts, in the late hurricane, and every foul on board, except one man

drowned."

aw Lloyd's List has many accounts indicating a great many more than 500 deaths

near Newfoundland. Some of the losses occurred on the northwest coast of

Newfoundland and on the coast of Labrador. Hence, the total may be larger than

shown by Ludlum (1963), but the storm may not have been entirely tropical,

either. The dates from these sources do not match and the relationship between

this entry and the other Sep 1775 storm(s) along the U. S. east coast and the

storm reportedly at Hispaniola on the last days of August is not clear. See

footnote ax.

U Added to casualties noted in North Carolina is a Lloyd's List report of losses

to ship crews off Virginia.. They also indicate a ship lost off North caro~in~.

Dates for effects on North Carolina and Virginia may not be consistent. Th~s ~s

further confused by activity in the northwest Atlantic a few days later. See

footnote aw.
ay Lloyd's List of 3 Dec 1779 contains the accoi.mt "The Spitfire Privateer,

Captain White, foundered in a Gale of Wind, and all the Crew, in Number 120,

perished."

az Price (1956) has 51 deaths on 6-7 Sep., when the system was still a tropical

cyclone. Monthly Weather Review, however, indicates at least 215 deaths from

floods, all which came after the cyclone dissipated (and were associated with

remnants of the cyclone).

ba Loss of some crew members on Somerset in "easterly storm (of) unusual fury."

May be related to a 28-31 October system over CUba.

bb Other subtotals based in part on Garriott (1900) give smaller total.

bc Based on 21 December 1994 Report No.7 from the United Nations Department of

Humanitarian Affairs, estimating 1122 deaths in Haiti. Earlier reports vary

considerably from this figure.

~ Tebeau (1975) places this loss of a Spanish fleet in 1528.

38
REFERENCES TO APPENDICES

A Dunn, G. E., and B. I. Miller, 1964: Atlantic hurricanes. Louisiana State

University Press, Baton Rouge, 377 pp. B Depradine, C. A., 1989: Pre-1900 severe hurricanes in the Caribbean. Notes

c compiled for the Caribbean Meteorological Institute, St. James, Barbados

D Lester, P., 1900: The great Galveston disaster. Library of Congress, 536 pp.

Hebert, P. J., J. D. Jarrell, and M. Mayfield, 1993: The deadliest costliest

and most intense United States hurricanes of this century, NOAA, Technical

Memorandum NWS-NHC-31, 41 pp. E Sugg, A. L., and R. L. Carrodus, 1969: Memorable hurricanes of the United

States since 1873. ESSA Technical Memorandum WBTM SR-42, U.S. Department

of Commerce, 44 pp. F Hasling, J. F., 1982: Texas hurricanes. Printed by University of St. Thomas

Institute for Storm Research. G Clark, G., 1988: Hurricanes of the Caribbean Sea (unpublished notes compiled

by the author), National Hurricane Center, Miami. H Hughes, P., 1987: Hurricanes haunt our history. Weatherwise, 40 (3): 134-140.

I Salivia, L. A., 1972: Historia de los temporales de Puerto Rico y las

Antillas, Editorial Edil, Inc., San Juan, Puerto Rico, 385 pp. J Alexander, W. H., 1902: Hurricanes: Especially those of Porto Rico and St.

Kitts. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau, Bulletin No. 32,79

pp. K Santo Domingo. Su destruccion por el huracan del 3 de Septiembre de 1930.

Editado por las Empresa Diario del Comercio, Roques Roman Hnos, 1930, 60

pp. L Ludlum, D. M., 1963: Early American hurricanes, 1492-1870. Amer. Meteor.

Soc., Boston, 198 pp. M Millas, J. C., 1968: Hurricanes of the Caribbean and adjacent regions, ~492-

1800. Academy of the Arts and Sciences of the Americas, Miami, Florida,

328 pp. N Ortiz, R. H., 1977: Los dos huracanes mas intensos que han azotado a la

Habana en este siglo (20 de Octubre de 1926 y 18 de Octubre de 1944).

Informe Cientifico-Technico, 25, Academia de Ciencas de Cuba, Direccion

de publicaciones de la ACC, La Habana, 14 pp. 0 Unpublished excerpts from Hay, L. G., 1884: A handbook of the colony of

Tobago, Government Printing Office, Scarborough, Tobago.

Poey, A., 1862: Table Chronologique de quatre cents cyclones. Paris, 49 pp.

Carney, C. B., and A. V. Hardy, 1969: North Carolina hurricanes. U. S.

Department of Commerce, Environmental Science Services Administration,

Weather Bureau, 39 pp.

Monthly Weather Review, U.S. Signal Office, 1-18, 1872-1890; U. S. Weather

Bureau, 19-98, 1891-1970; National Weather Service, 99-101, 1971-1973;

American Meteorological Society, 101-122, 1974-1994.

Sullivan, C. L., 1986: Hurricanes of the Mississippi Gulf coast -1717 to

present. Gulf Publishing Company, Inc., 139 pp. T Tannehill, I. R., 1940: Hurricane. Their nature and history. Princeton

University Press, Princeton, 257 pp.

Admiralty Papers 1/243, Public Records Office, London (excerpt on file at

National Hurricane Center)

v The New York Times (selected issues)

Diario de la Marina of Havana (selected issues) Y Schomburgk, R. H., 1848: The history of Barbados. Longman, Brown, Green, and

Longmans. London, 695 pp. .

x Ho, F. P., 1989: Extreme Hurricanes in the Nineteenth Century. NOAA Techn~cal

Memorandum NWS HYDRO 43A, Silver Spring, Maryland, 134 pp.

Z Miami Metropolis and The Tampa Morning Tribune (12 and 14 O?tober 1909). .

M Ousley, C., 1900: Galveston in Nineteen Hundred -The author~zed and off~c~al

record of the proud city of the southwest as ~t was ~efore and aft7r ~he

hurricane of September 8, and a logical forecast of ~ts future. W~ll~am

C. Chase, Atlanta, 346 pp. .

AS Mahuma, S., 1994: Hurricanes and tropical storms of the Netherlands Ant~lles

P

Q

R

s

u

if

39
and Aruba. Meteorological Service of the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba,

Curacao, N.A., 40 pp. AC Winds and weather of the West Indian region, u.s. Weather Bureau, 1940, 190

pp.

~ Final Report of the Caribbean hurricane seminar (1956). Published in 1958 by

the Government of the Dominican Republic, Ciudada Trujillo, D. R., 395 pp. AE Analisis preliminar de la precipitacion producida por el Huracan "Fifi" a su

pa so por Honduras, 1975. Publicacion No. .1.10, proyecto Hon/72/006:

Meteorologia e Hidrologia, Sevicio Meteorologico Nacional, Republica de

Honduras, 27 pp. M Flament, P., and R. Martin. Le cyclone Allen -du 29 julliet au.12 aout .1980.

L' Association Meteorologique de la Martinique, avec Ie concours, du Conseil

General de la Maritinique, et du Service Meterologique Antilles-Guyane, 32

pp. AG Garriott, E. B., 1900: West Indian hurricanes. u.S. Department of

Agriculture, Weather Bureau, Bulletin H, Washington, D. C.., 66 pp. (This

work includes some notes of Alexander published by that author in 1902).

~ The London Times (selected issues)

AI Sarasola, S., 1928: Los huracanes de las Antillas. Imprenta Clasica Espanola,

Madrid, Spain, 1928, 254 pp. (Contains Gutierrez-Lanza Appendix: Ciclones

que han pasado por la isla de Cuba, 0 tan cerca que hayan hecho sentir en

ella sus efectos con alguna fuerza, desde 1865 a 1926.) AJ Evans, J. (Stormy Jack), 1848: Hurricanes 1493-1848. Nautical Magazine,

London. M Rodriguez-Ferrer, M., 1876: Naturaleza y civilizacion de la grandiosa isla de

Cuba. Printed by J. Noguera, Madrid.

AL Mitchell, C. L., 1924: West Indian hurricanes and other cyclones of the North

Atlantic Ocean. Mon. Wea. Rev., Supplement No. 24. U. S. Weather Bureau,

Washington, D. C.., 47 pp.

~ The Miami Herald (selected issues)

~ The Miami Daily News and Metropolis (selected issues)

AO The Daily Universal Register of London {selected issues}

~ Herrera, D., 1847: Memoria sobre los huracanes en la isla de Cuba. Imprenta

de Barcina, Habana, 72 pp.

AQ Greely, A. W., 1888: American Weather. Dodd, Mead & Company, New York, N. Y..,

286 pp.

M Seon, K.. Preliminary disaster catalog -Jamaica. Unpublished report, 31 pp.

~ New York Daily Times {selected issues}

AT Williams, N., 1992: A history of the Cayman Islands. The Government of the

Cayman Islands, Grand Cayman, 94 pp..

AU Unpublished documents of the Cayman Islands National Archive

AV Chapman, D.. J. Our southern summer storm.. Report from National Weather

Service Office, Norfolk, Virginia..

AW Reid, W., 1841: Law of storms. John Weale, London, 566 pp..

U Piddington, H.., 1852: The sailor's horn-book for the law of storms. Smith,

Elder and Co., London, 360 pp.

AY Perez, 0.: Notes on the tropical cyclones of Puerto Rico, 1508-1970.

~ The Sunday Gleaner, 29 July 1986, Jamaica

n Burns, A. C.., 1954: History of the British West Indies.. Barnes & Noble, New

York, 821 pp..

~ List of Disasters that occurred in the Caribbean. Unpublished notes at the

National Hurricane Center; date{s} of storms uncertain..

BC Hurricanes in the West Indies by country 1500-1979. CDPS Information

Exchange, 1980, 70 pp..

~ Marx, R. F., 1983: Shipwrecks in the Americas. Bonanza Books, 482 pp..

BE Cardona Bonet, W.. A., 1989: Shipwrecks in Puerto Rico's history, I, 1502-1650.

Model Offset Printing, Inc., 371 pp..

BF Marx, R.. F.., 1981: Shipwrecks in Mexican waters.. Pablo Bush Romero and Club

de Exploraciones y Deportes Acuaticos de Mexico, 76 pp.

BG Huntress, K. G., 1979: A checklist of narratives of shipwrecks and disasters

at sea to .1860. The Iowa State University Press, 194 pp.

40
41