1907-2012
LEADING THE WAY:

THE HISTORY OF AIR FORCE CIVIL ENGINEERS

1907-2012

LEADING THE WAY

THE HISTORY OF AIR FORCE CIVIL ENGINEERS

1907-2012

Ronald B. Hartzer

Lois E. Walker

and

Rebecca Gatewood

Katherine Grandine

Kathryn M. Kuranda

of

R. Christopher Goodwin & Associates, Inc.

To the Air Force Civil Engineers who have Led the Way

VII

CONTENTS

FOREWORD.................................................................................................................................. xxiii

PREFACE.........................................................................................................................................xxv

CHAPTER 1 BUILDING THE FOUNDATION, 1907-1947..........................................................1

The Army Takes Wing ..............................................................................................................1

Support for the Training Mission..............................................................................................3

Early Airfield Sites....................................................................................................................4

Facilities for the First Operational Units ..................................................................................4

Establishing Infrastructure for World War I..............................................................................6

The United States Enters the War.............................................................................................7

Oversight of the Construction Program....................................................................................7

Construction on the Home Front ..............................................................................................8

The Role of Military Engineers................................................................................................9

Engineers “Over There”..........................................................................................................10

Spin-Offs of the War...............................................................................................................12

Dreams Versus Reality............................................................................................................12

Army Reorganization Act of 1920..........................................................................................13

Air Installations in the Early 1920s ........................................................................................14

Support to Civil Aviation ........................................................................................................14

The Air Corps Act of 1926......................................................................................................15

The Air Corps Expansion Program.........................................................................................15

Heart of the Depression ..........................................................................................................18

General Headquarters Air Force Emphasis on National Defense...........................................19

The Life of a Post Engineer with the Air Corps .....................................................................21

Building for War......................................................................................................................21

Stateside Training Bases............................................................................................23

Aviation Engineers in World War II........................................................................................26

Alaska ........................................................................................................................30

Panama.......................................................................................................................32

Atlantic and Caribbean Bases....................................................................................33

Hawaii and the Pacific ...............................................................................................34

England......................................................................................................................35

North Africa ...............................................................................................................37

Sicily, Italy, and Southern France ..............................................................................39

Normandy to V-E Day ...............................................................................................42

Pearl Harbor and the Early War in the Pacific ...........................................................51

North Pacific ..............................................................................................................51

Australia.....................................................................................................................53

South Pacific ..............................................................................................................54

Southwest Pacific.......................................................................................................55

Central Pacific............................................................................................................58

Philippines .................................................................................................................65

China-Burma-India ....................................................................................................68

Iwo Jima and Okinawa ..............................................................................................75

The War’s End ...........................................................................................................76

Occupation Forces.....................................................................................................76

Lessons Learned from World War II.......................................................................................78
VIII

Setting Sights on an Independent Air Force ...........................................................................82

CHAPTER 2 ESTABLISHING INDEPENDENCe, 1947-1959....................................................84

Introduction.............................................................................................................................84

The New Air Force .................................................................................................................85

Air Staff Organization 1945-1947 .............................................................................85

Establishment of an Independent Air Force, 1947-1951 ...........................................86

Directorate of Installations at Air Force Headquarters.................................87

Programming ................................................................................................92

Beginnings of a Professional Development Program...................................95

Building the Permanent Bases................................................................................................98

Air Force Installations Representatives.....................................................................99

Construction Programs ............................................................................................101

Special Projects........................................................................................................105

Wherry and Capehart Family Housing Programs.......................................105

Radar and Communications Facilities........................................................108

Aircraft Control and Warning (AC&W) Sites...............................109

Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line ..............................................110

DYE Stations.................................................................................113

Texas Towers.................................................................................114

Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS)......................117

Into the Missile Age.................................................................................................118

BOMARC...................................................................................................120

Intercontinental Ballistic Missile and Intermediate Range 

 Missile Programs......................................................................................121

Construction of Missile Testing Facilities.....................................122

Thor ...............................................................................................125

Atlas and Titan...............................................................................126

Minuteman.....................................................................................130

Construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy.............................................131

Overseas Construction.............................................................................................136

Managing the Bases..............................................................................................................138

Air Installation Officer Responsibilities..................................................................139

Air Installation Organization and Staffing...............................................................140

Maintenance and Repair ..........................................................................................144

Real Property Inventory and Master Planning.........................................................146

Fire Protection .........................................................................................................147

Utilities ....................................................................................................................151

Base Recovery .........................................................................................................152

Early Community Relations ....................................................................................152

Education and Training.........................................................................................................153

Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT)...............................................................153

Department of Civil Engineering Training, Sheppard Air Force Base, Texas.........155

Fire Training ............................................................................................................155

The Issue of Troop Construction ..........................................................................................155

The Korean Conflict ................................................................................................159

Aviation Engineer Force (AEF)...............................................................................167

The End of SCARWAF............................................................................................170

Lebanon Crisis.........................................................................................................172

The End of the 1950s............................................................................................................174
IX

CHAPTER 3 RISING TO THE CHALLENGE, 1960-1974........................................................176

Introduction...........................................................................................................................176

Civil Engineering Air Staff Programs and Policies..............................................................177

Directors of Civil Engineering.................................................................................177

Organizational Changes, 1960-1974........................................................................182

Air Staff ......................................................................................................182

Major Command Civil Engineering Directorates.......................................186

The Continued Drive for Professional Development ..............................................187

The Engineer-Manager ............................................................................................190

Personnel Allocations and Project Prime BEEF......................................................195

Palace Blueprint..........................................................................................201

Concrete Youth Program.............................................................................201

Officer Exchange Program .........................................................................202

Personnel Firsts...........................................................................................202

The Civil Engineering Center..................................................................................204

Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve .............................................................211

Managing the Permanent Air Force Bases............................................................................213

Introduction..............................................................................................................213

Reorganization of the Base Civil Engineer Organization and 

 Work Control Center..............................................................................................214

Supplies....................................................................................................................218

Fire Protection..........................................................................................................219

Cost Reductions.......................................................................................................221

Automation...............................................................................................................221

Environmental Planning ..........................................................................................223

Air Installation Compatible Use Zone (AICUZ)........................................227

Energy Programs......................................................................................................228

Construction..........................................................................................................................229

Design and Construction Management....................................................................230

Two-Step Procurement ...............................................................................231

Industrialized Construction.........................................................................232

One-Step Turnkey Procedures....................................................................232

CONUS Construction: Major Command Programs................................................233

Air Force Systems Command and the Missile Program 1960-1974 ..........233

Military Airlift Command (MAC) Terminals.............................................236

Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC) Depot Modernization ..................236

Temporary Living Quarters ........................................................................237

CONUS Special Projects.........................................................................................238

Design of the Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility at the Arnold 

 Engineering Development Center.............................................................238

Cheyenne Mountain....................................................................................239

Construction of U.S. Air Force Museum....................................................240

Overseas Construction at Permanent Bases.............................................................242

Collocated Operating Bases (COBs)..........................................................242

TABVEE Program......................................................................................242

Ice Way Runways at Thule .........................................................................242

Education and Training.........................................................................................................246

Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT)...............................................................246

U.S. Air Force Academy..........................................................................................248
X

Department of Civil Engineering Training, Sheppard Air Force Base, Texas.........249

Fire School...............................................................................................................249

The Professional Degree Program...........................................................................250

Base Civil Engineering In-House Training Program...............................................250

Civilian Education ...................................................................................................250

Civil Engineer Wartime Readiness and Deployments..........................................................250

Berlin Wall Crisis, 1961...........................................................................................251

Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962......................................................................................252

Dominican Republic Crisis, 1965-1966 ..................................................................253

Vietnam Conflict, 1961-1973...................................................................................254

Overview of Conflict, 1961-1968...............................................................254

Organization of Air Force Civil Engineers in South Vietnam....................256

Prime BEEF................................................................................................260

The Establishment of RED HORSE...........................................................265

Engineering Construction in South Vietnam..............................................275

Beddown.....................................................................................................276

Operational Support....................................................................................278

Utilities .......................................................................................................279

Force Protection..........................................................................................279

Firefighting .................................................................................................282

New Air Bases............................................................................................282

Project Turnkey: Tuy Hoa...........................................................................283

U.S.S. Pueblo Crisis and Buildup of Forces in South Korea, 1968.........................289

Drawdown from Southeast Asia ..............................................................................291

Humanitarian ...........................................................................................................294

Civic Action Programs................................................................................294

Vietnamese Refugees..................................................................................296

Emergency and Disaster Response ..........................................................................297

Challenges Ahead ....................................................................................................300

CHAPTER 4 BUILDING ON SUCCESS, 1975-1990 ..................................................................302

Introduction...........................................................................................................................302

Civil Engineering Air Staff Programs and Policies..............................................................304

Directors of Engineering and Services....................................................................304

Civil Engineer Structural Reorganizations..............................................................309

Merger of Civil Engineering and Services .................................................310

1978 Reorganization and the Establishment of AFESC.............................314

Engineering and Services Laboratory.........................................................320

Air Staff Reorganization in the Late 1980s................................................324

Programming Budgets and Cost Programs 1975-1990 ...........................................325

Cost Programs.............................................................................................328

Wartime Manpower Studies during the 1970s.........................................................329

Quality of Life Programs.........................................................................................332

Project Image ...........................................................................................................333

Architectural Design Excellence .............................................................................334

Joint Program Participation .....................................................................................336

Managing the Peacetime Bases.............................................................................................338

Introduction..............................................................................................................338

Advances in Automation ............................................................................341

Work Information Management System (WIMS)......................................343
XI

Services Information Management System (SIMS)...................................344

Cost Containment: Contracting, Consolidation, and Early Privatization...346

San Antonio Real Property Maintenance Agency ......................................347

Base Closure ...............................................................................................350

Zonal Maintenance .....................................................................................350

Energy and Environmental Planning..........................................................353

Construction................................................................................................................357

Introduction..............................................................................................................357

CONUS Construction ..............................................................................................357

CONUS Construction – Special Projects ................................................................358

Missile-X Construction Support.................................................................359

Vandenberg Space Launch Complex..........................................................362

Project Touchdown .....................................................................................364

Air-Launched Cruise Missile......................................................................365

Construction of the Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility at 

 Arnold Engineering Development Center ................................................366

Consolidated Space Operations Center ......................................................367

Construction in Alaska................................................................................368

Arctic Renewal ...........................................................................................369

Overseas Construction.............................................................................................369

Israeli Base Construction............................................................................369

Foreign Military Sales................................................................................371

Southwest Asia Basing and NATO.............................................................372

Ground-Launched Cruise Missiles.............................................................373

USAFE Readiness Initiatives .....................................................................374

Education and Training.........................................................................................................375

Professional Development.......................................................................................375

AFIT Short Course Program.......................................................................375

Facilities Management Program.................................................................375

Education with Industry..............................................................................376

PhDs............................................................................................................377

Civilian Career Program.............................................................................377

Technical Training ......................................................................................379

Fire School..................................................................................................379

Readiness.................................................................................................................380

Contingency Forces and Training (Prime BEEF, RED HORSE,

 Prime RIBS) .............................................................................................380

Guard and Reserve......................................................................................385

Jack Frost 79...............................................................................................387

Salty Demo .................................................................................................388

Readiness Challenges.................................................................................390

Deployments............................................................................................................391

Bright Star...................................................................................................391

Proud Phantom ...........................................................................................392

Team Spirit..................................................................................................393

Civic Action Programs and Disaster Response ..........................................394

 Civic Action Programs....................................................................394

 Disaster Response...........................................................................394

The End of the Cold War ......................................................................................................397
XII

ChAPTER 5 RESPONDING TO NEW CHALLENGES, 1991-2000 ........................................400

Introduction...........................................................................................................................400

Civil Engineering Air Staff Programs and Policies..............................................................402

The Civil Engineers.................................................................................................402

Civil Engineering Structural Reorganizations.........................................................406

Defense Management Report Decision 967 ...............................................406

Reorganizations by General McPeak..........................................................408

Objective Squadron ....................................................................................413

Major Command Reorganizations..............................................................414

R&D/Laboratory Transfer ..........................................................................415

Effects of Reorganization on the Civil Engineer Office .............................415

Civilian Reduction in Force........................................................................416

Air Staff Reorganizations 1994-2000.........................................................417

Wartime Manpower Requirements..........................................................................418

Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve .............................................................420

Doctrine Development.............................................................................................421

Civil Engineer Strategic Plan, 1999-2000 ...............................................................424

AFCESA During the 1990s .....................................................................................426

AFCESA Reorganization............................................................................426

Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD)............................................428

Disaster Preparedness....................................................................429

CEMIRT ........................................................................................429

BASH.............................................................................................430

Cost Estimating Programs.............................................................431

AFCESA from 1994-2000 ..........................................................................431

Development and Use of AFCAP...............................................................433

AFCEE – Its Establishment and Development........................................................435

Managing the Peacetime Bases.............................................................................................442

Introduction..............................................................................................................442

Civil Engineer Objective Squadron Reorganization................................................443

Multi-Skilling .............................................................................................443

Zonal Maintenance .....................................................................................445

Emergency Services.................................................................................................446

Fire Protection ............................................................................................446

Disaster Preparedness.................................................................................448

Force Protection..........................................................................................449

Facilities Management.............................................................................................449

Commanders Facility Assessments ............................................................449

Air Mobility Command’s Facility Excellence Program.............................450

Demolition of Excess Structures ................................................................450

Environmental Programs.........................................................................................450

Energy Programs......................................................................................................453

Advances in Automation..........................................................................................453

Outsourcing and Privatization .................................................................................455

Outsourcing and the A-76 Process..............................................................455

Privatization................................................................................................456

Housing Privatization ....................................................................456

Utilities Privatization.....................................................................457

Base Closures - United States and Overseas ...........................................................458

Construction Programs .........................................................................................................460
XIII

CONUS Construction ..............................................................................................460

Housing and Dormitories............................................................................460

Special Projects: Space and Missile Program Support...............................461

The Eastern Range and the 45th Civil Engineer Squadron ...........461

Vandenberg Air Force Base, California.........................................462

B-2 Beddown at Whiteman AFB...................................................463

Overseas Construction.............................................................................................463

Education and Training.........................................................................................................465

Education .................................................................................................................466

AFIT ...........................................................................................................466

Graduate Educational Opportunities...........................................................469

U.S. Air Force Academy Civil Engineer Program......................................469

Technical Training ...................................................................................................470

363d Technical Training Squadron.............................................................471

Fire School..................................................................................................472

EOD Training .............................................................................................472

Readiness Training...................................................................................................472

Silver Flag and Move to Tyndall AFB........................................................472

Foal Eagle Exercises...................................................................................474

Exercise Green Flag 95...............................................................................475

Engineer Capstone Exercise 96 ..................................................................475

Readiness Challenges.................................................................................476

Deployments.........................................................................................................................479

Introduction..............................................................................................................479

Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm ................................................................479

Civil Engineers Deployed in the Gulf War.................................................482

Operation Provide Comfort .......................................................................496

Operation Pacific Haven.............................................................................498

Other Military Deployments....................................................................................499

Khobar Towers, Saudi Arabia.....................................................................499

Military Operations Other Than War.......................................................................500

Somalia .......................................................................................................501

Haiti ............................................................................................................502

Balkans and Kosovo ...................................................................................503

Expeditionary Aerospace Force (EAF)....................................................................510

Civic Action and Training Mootw ...........................................................................512

Civic Action Teams.....................................................................................513

Deployments for Training...........................................................................513

New Horizons or “Nuevos Horizontes” ........................................513

Cornerstone 2000...........................................................................515

Disaster Response....................................................................................................515

International................................................................................................516

CONUS and Overseas U.S. Air Force Air Bases .......................................516

Hurricane Andrew..........................................................................516

Typhoon Omar...............................................................................517

Tropical Storm Alberto 1994.........................................................517

Great Plains Flood 1997 ................................................................517

Hurricane Seasons 1998-1999.......................................................518

Pacific Typhoon Season 1998-1999...............................................518

Summary...............................................................................................................................518
XIV

CHAPTER 6 MEETING THE NEW CENTURY, 2001-2012 .....................................................520

Introduction...........................................................................................................................520

Civil Engineering Staff Programs and Policies ....................................................................523

 The Civil Engineers.................................................................................................523

 Department of Defense and Air Force Transformation ...........................................529

 Civil Engineering Transformation ...........................................................................530

 Major Command and Air Staff Reorganizations........................................530

Personnel Evolution....................................................................................532

 Program Budget Decision (PBD) 720 ........................................................534

 Process Evaluation......................................................................................535

 Civil Engineer Transformation Plan ...........................................................535

 Business Process Re-Engineering Initiatives .............................................537

 Civil Engineer Transformation: 20/20 By 2020 .........................................541

Civil Engineer Strategic Plans.................................................................................541

 AFCESA Developments 2001-2011........................................................................542

Airfield Pavement Evaluation Team...........................................................545

Airfield Damage Repair..............................................................................547

 CEMIRT .....................................................................................................547

 Growth of Air Force Contract Augmentation Program (AFCAP)..............548

 Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence (AFCEE).....................................551

AFCEE’s Role in Iraqi Reconstruction ......................................................552

Housing Programs ......................................................................................555

Design Programs.........................................................................................557

AFCEE’s Environmental Programs............................................................557

Changes at AFCEE .....................................................................................559

 Air Force Real Property Agency (AFRPA) .............................................................560

 Air Reserve Component (ARC) and the Total Force...............................................563

Managing the Permanent Bases............................................................................................565

 Introduction..............................................................................................................565

 Back To Bases Initiative ..........................................................................................566

 Transforming the Base Civil Engineer Squadron (CES).........................................566

 Facilities Management Strategies............................................................................568

 Asset Management .....................................................................................568

 Activity Management Plans........................................................................568

 Space Utilization and Optimization............................................................569

 Facilities Demolition ..................................................................................570

 Fire Emergency Services.........................................................................................570

 Force Protection.......................................................................................................572

 Disaster Preparedness Program ...............................................................................573

Airfield Obstructions Initiative ................................................................................573

 EOD .........................................................................................................................573

 Environmental Programs.........................................................................................574

 Energy and Water Conservation Programs..............................................................575

 Automation ..............................................................................................................579

 ACES..........................................................................................................579

Agile Installation Management and Next Generation 

 Information Technology (NexGen IT)......................................................579

 Air Force GeoBase .....................................................................................581

 A-76 Process............................................................................................................584

 Privatization Initiatives............................................................................................585
XV

 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) and Joint Basing......................................585

 Overseas Closures.......................................................................................587

Construction..........................................................................................................................588

 CONUS Construction ..............................................................................................588

 Overseas Construction.............................................................................................589

 USAFE........................................................................................................589

 PACAF........................................................................................................592

Education and Training.........................................................................................................592

 Education .................................................................................................................593

 AFIT ...........................................................................................................593

 United States Air Force Academy (USAFA)..............................................595

 Training....................................................................................................................596

 Utility Systems Training.............................................................................597

 Silver Flag Exercise Site.............................................................................597

 Readiness Challenges.................................................................................597

 Air Education and Training Command, 366th Training Squadron, Det 7..598

 Eagle Flag ...................................................................................................599

 RED HORSE Troop Training.....................................................................600

 EOD Training .............................................................................................600

 Air Reserve Component (ARC) Training...................................................601

Deployments.........................................................................................................................601

 Introduction..............................................................................................................601

 Aerospace Expeditionary Force (AEF) Personnel Deployment Challenges...........602

 Contingency Deployments.......................................................................................604

 Post-September 11, 2001 - The Immediate Aftermath ...............................605

 Operation Noble Eagle ..............................................................................606

 Operation Enduring Freedom.....................................................................606

 Sustainment and Reconstruction in Afghanistan...........................615

 Operation Iraqi Freedom ............................................................................618

 Setting the Stage for Operation Iraqi Freedom .............................618

 Operation Iraqi Freedom Begins...................................................621

 In Lieu Of Taskings ......................................................................624

 RED HORSE in Iraq .....................................................................627

 Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) Personnel ..........................630

 Iraqi Military Progress and U.S. Drawdown .................................632

 Contingency Innovations ..............................................................635

 Other Military Deployments....................................................................................638

 Humanitarian and Training Deployments................................................................640

 Combined Joint Task Force-Horn Of Africa...............................................640

 Civic Action Teams.....................................................................................641

 Deployment for Training ............................................................................642

 Nuevos Horizontes/New Horizons................................................642

 Innovative Readiness Training (IRT) Program..............................644

 Exercise Tropical Hammer............................................................644

 Base-To-Base Deployments ..........................................................644

Other Humanitarian Deployments and Responses.....................................645

 Disaster Response in the United States and at U.S. Air Force Bases......................647

Summary...............................................................................................................................651
XVI

EPILOGUE: FORGING THE FUTURE, 2012 AND BEYOND.................................................652

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...............................................................................................................657

APPENDICES..................................................................................................................................659

A. Air Force Civil Engineer Leaders ................................................................................................659

B. Outstanding Civil Engineer Units (Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin Award Winners), 1966-2013 ...661

ACRONYMS....................................................................................................................................665

ENDNOTES......................................................................................................................................675

BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................781

INDEX ..............................................................................................................................................797

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures

2.1 Director of Installations Organizational Chart, 1952.....................................................................90

2.2 Air Installation Officer Organizational Chart, 1948.....................................................................141

2.3 Air Installations Office Organizational Chart, 1956 ....................................................................143

2.4 Maintenance and Repair Branch Organizational Chart, 1948 .....................................................144

2.5 Maintenance and Repair Branch Organizational Chart, 1956 .....................................................144

3.1 Directorate of Civil Engineering, 1960........................................................................................183

3.2 Directorate of Civil Engineering, 1970........................................................................................184

3.3 Directorate of Civil Engineering, 1972........................................................................................186

3.4 Major Command Civil Engineer Staff Organization, 1965 .........................................................187

3.5 Air Force Specialty Codes in 1964 ..............................................................................................198

3.6 Civil Engineering Center Organizational Chart, 1970.................................................................205

3.7 Base Civil Engineer Organizational Chart, 1961.........................................................................215

3.8 Base Civil Engineer Organizational Chart, 1966.........................................................................217

4.1 Directorate of Engineering and Services, 1976 ...........................................................................312

4.2 Air Force Engineering and Services Center Organizational Chart, 1978 ....................................317

4.3 Directorate of Engineering and Services, 1990 ...........................................................................325

4.4 Standard Base Civil Engineer Organization, 1988 ......................................................................352

4.5 Zonal Maintenance Organization.................................................................................................352

5.1 Office of the Civil Engineer Organizational Chart, August 1991................................................410

5.2 Objective Squadron, 1992............................................................................................................414

5.3 AFCESA Organizational Chart, 1993 ..........................................................................................427

5.4 AFCESA Organizational Chart, 1995 ..........................................................................................432

5.5 AFCEE Organizational Chart, 1991.............................................................................................438

5.6 AFCEE Organizational Chart, 1999.............................................................................................442

6.1 The Office of The Civil Engineer Organizational Chart, 2004....................................................531

6.2 The Office of The Civil Engineer Organizational Chart, 2006....................................................532

6.3 Civil Engineer Transformation Governance ................................................................................539

6.4 Civil Engineer Transformation Governance Structure, 2012 ......................................................540

6.5 AFCESA Organizational Chart, 2000 ..........................................................................................542

6.6 AFCESA Organizational Chart, 2007 ..........................................................................................545
XVII

6.7 AFCEE Organizational Chart, Post-Transformation....................................................................559

6.8 Post-Transformation Base Civil Engineer Squadron Organization .............................................567

7.1 AFCEC Organizational Chart, 2012 ............................................................................................654

Tables

1.1 Construction Budgets During Air Corps Expansion Program.......................................................18

1.2 World War II Bases in the Atlantic and Caribbean ........................................................................34

2.1 Air Force Military Construction Program Appropriations, 1951-1953 .........................................94

2.2 Typical Air Force Construction Dollar (FY50-51) ......................................................................101

2.3 Sites Selected for Atlas and Titan ICBMs....................................................................................128

2.4 SCARWAF Units and Construction Projects During the Korean Conflict..................................166

3.1 Prime BEEF teams as of 1973 .....................................................................................................199

3.2 First Prime BEEF Deployment in May 1965...............................................................................254

3.3 Prime BEEF Teams Deployed to Southeast Asia.........................................................................262

3.4 Timeline of RED HORSE Formation ..........................................................................................267

3.5 RED HORSE Activity During the Vietnam Conflict, 1966-1975................................................273

4.1 Contingency Force Prime BEEF Teams and Duties....................................................................381

4.2 Contingency Force Prime RIBS Teams and Duties, 1979...........................................................381

4.3 Contingency Force Prime RIBS Teams and Duties, 1985...........................................................383

Photographs

Orville Wright flying a Signal Corps Flyer at Fort Myer.......................................................................1

The Aviation School at College Park .....................................................................................................2

Aviation post at Fort Sam Houston, Texas.............................................................................................5

Aerial view of Langley Field, 1918 .......................................................................................................6

Wilbur Wright Field, July 1923 .............................................................................................................8

Wilbur Wright Field civilian workers....................................................................................................9

Aviation Field #3, Issoudun, France ....................................................................................................11

Randolph AFB’s iconic Taj Mahal.......................................................................................................16

Quarters #1, Patterson Field.................................................................................................................17

Randolph Fire Station ..........................................................................................................................21

Lt. Col. Manuel Asensio ......................................................................................................................22

Civilians, Buildings and Grounds Office .............................................................................................26

Officers, Buildings and Grounds Office...............................................................................................26

Brig. Gen. Donald A. Davison.............................................................................................................30

Elmendorf Field Runway Construction ...............................................................................................31

Elmendorf Field Construction, 1941....................................................................................................31

831st Engineer Aviation Battalion at work in England........................................................................36

834th Engineer Aviation Battalion constructs hangar in England .......................................................37 

Aviation Engineer Emblem..................................................................................................................40

Aviation Engineers battle “General Mud” ...........................................................................................40

Aviation Engineers use wooden wine barrels......................................................................................41

Brig. Gen. James B. Newman, Jr. ........................................................................................................44

Emergency landing strips built on the Normandy coast ......................................................................45

Airfield built at St. Pierre Du Mont, France.........................................................................................46 

Engineers build an airfield using Hessian Matting ..............................................................................47
XVIII

Brig. Gen. James B. Newman and Col. Karl B. Schilling tour airfield ...............................................48

818th Aviation Engineer Battalion at Ville Coublay, France ...............................................................48

Aviation Engineers in Alaska construct pierced steel plank runway ...................................................49

Heavy equipment operator at fighter-bomber airfield in Germany......................................................50

Buildings under construction at Amchitka, Alaska..............................................................................52

Hangar under construction at 7th Air Force base in Pacific.................................................................57

Engineers construct a control tower on Tarawa ...................................................................................59

Aviation Engineers use coral to construct runway...............................................................................60

D-4 tractor clears the jungle on Saipan................................................................................................61

Engineers widen the airstrip on Iwo Jima............................................................................................61

B-29 runways on Tinian Island............................................................................................................62

Engineers construct Quonset hut on Saipan.........................................................................................63

Engineer pulls a sheepsfoot roller on Saipan airfield...........................................................................64

Rollers smooth a runway as a B-24 Liberator lands............................................................................64

Frantic activity at a Tacloban airfield...................................................................................................66

Engineers lay steel matting at Clark Field ...........................................................................................67

Airborne aviation engineers unload a specially designed tractor ........................................................69

Airborne aviation engineer uses a tractor ............................................................................................70

Airborne aviation engineers haul a glider off Myitkyina airstrip ........................................................71

Airborne aviation engineers work on the Myitkyina airstrip...............................................................72

IX Engineer Command Memorial .......................................................................................................79

Col. Marshall Nay and Brig. Gen. Oran Price .....................................................................................79

Col. Rudolph E. “Jerry” Smyser, Jr. ....................................................................................................82

Brig. Gen Robert Kauch ......................................................................................................................89

Maj. Gen. Lee B. Washbourne.............................................................................................................91

Maj. Gen Augustus M. Minton ...........................................................................................................92

Civil Engineer worldwide conference .................................................................................................97

Dallas Air Force Installations Representative Office.........................................................................100

Selfridge AFB, Michigan Barracks....................................................................................................104

Wherry Housing constructed at Mt. Home AFB, Idaho ....................................................................106

Capehart Housing constructed at Vandenberg AFB, California ........................................................108

Construction at a Distant Early Warning site.....................................................................................111

Arctic January hits a Distant Early Warning line construction camp ................................................112

Texas Tower site under construction..................................................................................................116

Air-supported tents at ballistic missile early warning system site.....................................................117

Lt. Clifton D. “Duke” Wright, Jr. at Cooke AFB, California.............................................................123

Lt. Joseph “Bud” Ahearn performs system testing ...........................................................................124

Atlas F underground silo construction at Plattsburgh AFB, New York .............................................129

Titan ICBM excavation near Denver, Colorado ................................................................................129

U.S. Air Force Academy under construction .....................................................................................133

U.S. Air Force Academy’s iconic Chapel takes shape ......................................................................133

NATO ammunition depot in Forest of Chizé near Niort, France.......................................................142

Tyndall’s Home of Preventive Maintenance......................................................................................148

Firefighters prepare for action using Model 125 vehicle ...................................................................149

Tyndall AFB fire department poses with vehicles ............................................................................150

0-11A fire truck .................................................................................................................................154

Early class of AFIT’s Air Installation Engineering students .............................................................156

SCARWAF shoulder insignia ............................................................................................................156

Workers repair Tempelhof runway.....................................................................................................157
XIX

808th Engineer Aviation Battalion transforms rice paddy into an airstrip in Korea..........................161

Air Force tests a MA-1A aircraft arresting system............................................................................162

Airman repairs a runway light at a Korean air base...........................................................................163

Aviation engineer works while C-124 “Globemaster” unloads its cargo ..........................................164

B-26 light bomber taxis alongside aviation engineers grading an airstrip.........................................165

Aviation Engineer Force emblem ......................................................................................................168

C-124 Globemaster airlifts personnel and cargo to Lebanon ...........................................................173

Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin ...............................................................................................................177

Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard................................................................................................................179

Maj. Gen. Maurice R. “Tex” Reilly ...................................................................................................180

Maj. Gen. Billie J. McGarvey............................................................................................................181

Col. William T. Meredith ...................................................................................................................196

Mr. John R. “Jack” Gibbens...............................................................................................................202

2d Lt. Susanne Ocobock welcomed by Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard.................................................203

Civil Engineering Construction Operations Group Emblem.............................................................205

Air Force Civil Engineering Center’s first home at Tyndall AFB .....................................................208

Air Force Civil Engineering Center’s Environics Laboratory...........................................................210

Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes...............................................................................................................218

P-2 Fire Truck .................................................................................................................................219

Firefighter Badge ...............................................................................................................................220

Construction inside a chamber of the NORAD Cheyenne Mountain Complex ................................239

U.S. Air Force Museum, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio .....................................................................241

14th Civil Engineering Squadron Supply building, Nha Trang AB...................................................256

Base dispensary under construction at Binh Thuy.............................................................................257

First Prime BEEF Deployment..........................................................................................................260

Prime BEEF members construct ARMCO revetment ......................................................................260

Lt. Gen. Joseph H. Moore builds aircraft revetment..........................................................................261

Prime BEEF team constructs a water tower at Da Nang AB.............................................................263

SECDEF Memo .................................................................................................................................266

RED HORSE Mascot.........................................................................................................................269

554th and 555th Emblems .................................................................................................................270

554th RED HORSE personnel take up AM-2 matting ......................................................................271

554th RED HORSE constructs Chapel at Phan Rang AB.................................................................271

819th RED HORSE Squadron constructs hardened aircraft shelters ................................................272

820th RED HORSE Squadron builds bunker at Dong Ha, South Vietnam.......................................274

Lt. Col. Francis E. Torr and MSgt Bruce F. Swafford measure AM-2 matting ................................277

122mm rocket hit revetment at Da Nang AB.....................................................................................280

Bien Hoa AB firefighters don their suits............................................................................................281

Fire trucks at Pleiku AB stand ready to respond................................................................................281

Colonel Archie S. Mayes chairs a Tuy Hoa construction meeting ....................................................283

Aerial view of Tuy Hoa site ...............................................................................................................284

Bulldozer levels the beach at Tuy Hoa AB........................................................................................285

Maj. Charles Lamb and Maj. Edwin Reinhardt monitor Tuy Hoa progress......................................287

820th RED HORSE Squadron levels site at Tuy Hoa .......................................................................288

Tuy Hoa visit by distinguished visitors..............................................................................................288

557th RED HORSE Emblem.............................................................................................................290

Tent city constructed at Andersen AFB for Vietnamese refugees......................................................297

Engineers from Ellsworth AFB assist flood relief operations............................................................299
XX

Maj. Gen. Robert C. Thompson.........................................................................................................305

Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert ............................................................................................................306

Maj. Gen. Clifton D. “Duke” Wright, Jr. ...........................................................................................307

Maj. Gen. George E. “Jud” Ellis........................................................................................................308

Maj. Gen. Joseph A. “Bud” Ahearn ...................................................................................................310

Building 1120, HQ Air Force Engineering and Services Center.......................................................318

Prime BEEF exercise at North Field..................................................................................................322

9700 Research and Testing Area, Tyndall AFB .................................................................................323

Engineering and Services Laboratory groundbreaking......................................................................324

CMSgt Larry Daniels.........................................................................................................................326

Space Launch Complex 6 at Vandenberg AFB, California................................................................362

Aeropropulsion System Test Facility under construction..................................................................367

Consolidated Space Operations Center, Falcon AFB ........................................................................368

Mr. Harry P. Rietman .........................................................................................................................378

Prime RIBS Emblem..........................................................................................................................382

Civil engineers participate in rapid runway repair training at Eglin’s Field 4...................................384

Salty Demo Rapid Runway Repair at Spangdahlem AB, West Germany .........................................389

Prime RIBS team assembles a mobile kitchen trailer during Readiness Challenge ..........................390

Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith presents Trophy to Readiness Challenge ’86 winners....................391

Civil Engineers clean up following Hurricane Hugo.........................................................................397

Mr. Gary S. Flora ...............................................................................................................................402

Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy...........................................................................................................403

Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia ...............................................................................................................404

Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II........................................................................................................405

First meeting of the Civil Engineer Founders at Andrews AFB, Maryland.......................................423

CEMIRT’s Mobil Emergency Power units at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam ...............................429

Mr. J.B. Cole ......................................................................................................................................437

Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence official emblem .....................................................440

Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence, Brooks AFB, Texas..............................................441

Air Force firefighter uses a P-23 Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Vehicle ....................................446

Firefighter from Tinker AFB surveys Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building damage ...........................448

Aviano Air Base’s $540 million dollar construction on the Aviano 2000 Program...........................464

New Civil Engineering School, AFIT, at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio ............................................466

Silver Flag ribbon cutting ceremony .................................................................................................473

General Purpose Tent event at Readiness Challenge V .....................................................................477

Air Force compound at Al Dhafra AB, UAE.....................................................................................485

Air Force tent city at Doha, Qatar......................................................................................................486

Air Force engineers build a weapon storage area at Gulf War site....................................................488

Air Force fire station at Cairo West, Egypt........................................................................................489

RED HORSE teams at Al Kharj AB waiting for airlift to deny Iraqi bases ......................................495

Damaged Khobar Towers complex....................................................................................................499

Capt. Efren V.M. Garcia at Mogadishu Airport, Somalia ..................................................................501

820th RED HORSE carpenters build tent floor in Haiti....................................................................502

823d RED HORSE builds a tent city at Tuzla Air Base, Bosnia-Herzegovina .................................504

Col. Susanne Waylett and Adm. Leighton Smith in Bosnia ..............................................................505

52d CES engineers assemble pump at Aviano AB, Italy ...................................................................507

823d RED HORSE at Rinas Airport, Tirana, Albania .......................................................................509

AFCAP’s Camp Hope built to house Albanian Kosovar refugees ....................................................510

820th RED HORSE rebuild schoolhouse as part of New Horizons-Guyana 1997 ...........................514
XXI

Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox ......................................................................................................................525

Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg .......................................................................................................................526

Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers..............................................................................................................527

CMSAF James A. Roy.......................................................................................................................534

Airfield Pavement Evaluation Team evaluates runway at Kandahar, Afghanistan............................546

Tyndall CEMIRT Technician and refurbished Mobile Aircraft Arresting System.............................548

820th RED HORSE Squadron uses AFCAP paving machine at Al Dhafra ......................................550

Iraqis complete trenching for perimeter lighting on AFCEE project.................................................553

Iraqis work to complete an enlisted barracks at Iraqi military base ..................................................554

P-34 Rapid Intervention Vehicle........................................................................................................571

Nellis AFB solar array .......................................................................................................................577

Construction of the Kaiserslautern Military Community Center.......................................................590

Firefighters participate in Readiness Challenge VII..........................................................................598

Pakistanis unload gravel trucks..........................................................................................................608

Engineers clear snow and ice at Manas International Airport, Kyrgyzstan .....................................609

200th and 201st RED HORSE Airmen repair Bagram AB runway...................................................610

MSgt Evander Andrews at Arlington.................................................................................................612

366th Expeditionary Civil Engineers pose for opening of Al Udeid AB, Qatar................................612

RED HORSE Airmen work on assault airfield at FOB Dwyer, Afghanistan ....................................616

Airman for Provincial Reconstruction Team takes measurements ...................................................617

Prime BEEF Squadron Airman secures tubing to a metal frame at Kandahar .................................618

Engineers lay AM-2 matting in a dust storm .....................................................................................619

Travis AFB Airmen support buildup of forces at Shaikh Isa AB, Bahrain........................................620

Airborne RED HORSE team poses in “Mother of all Craters” .........................................................622

Airmen and soldiers load into a Mine-Resistant Ambush-Protected vehicle ...................................626

557th Expeditionary RED HORSE Squadron builds a new supply warehouse ................................628

EOD Airmen prepare to detonate a stack of 120-mm Russian mortars.............................................630

EOD craftsman ropes off a safe area far from an uncontrolled natural gas fire ...............................631

Col Knippel Change of Command.....................................................................................................634

EOD Airman prepares to send robot to an incident site.....................................................................637

“Red Bull” civil engineers construct facilities at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba........................................639

Airman repairs hospital in Guyana, as part of Continuing Promise 08 .............................................646

Sweepers clear debris on Langley AFB following Hurricane Isabel.................................................648

Hurricane Katrina did extensive damage at Keesler AFB, Mississippi.............................................650

Mr. Joe Scibica addresses audience at AFCEC activation ceremony ................................................652

Unless otherwise noted, all photos are official Department of Defense photos.

FOREWORD

In 1941, Gen. Henry H. “Hap” Arnold said “Air bases are a determining factor in the success 

of air operations. The two-legged stool of men and planes would topple over without this equally 

important third leg.” His prescient insight has not changed over the years. But bases don’t just appear 

out of thin air, they have to be planned, built, operated, maintained, recovered and divested. That is 

the mission of Air Force Civil Engineers, who contribute to airpower by working behind the scenes 

to provide that “equally important third leg.” From dirt airstrips to sophisticated cyberspace facilities, 

bases have transformed over time to reflect changing technology and threats. Air Force Civil Engineers 

have also changed their tools, equipment, vehicles, materials, and organizational framework to adapt 

over time. What has always been unwavering is the commitment of Engineers to the mission, hard 

work and excellence. 

This year we commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Prime BEEF program, the cornerstone 

of Air Force Civil Engineers’ wartime mission since 1964. Next year, in 2015, we will also celebrate 

RED HORSE’s golden anniversary. Over the past half century, the Prime BEEF bull and the RED 

HORSE have become widely recognized symbols of excellence in agile combat support around the 

world. From Vietnam to Afghanistan, Air Force Civil Engineers have proudly worn these patches that 

represent the tradition of service built by their predecessors. 

The hundreds of thousands of men and women who have gone before us and served as Post 

Engineers, Aviation Engineers, Air Installation Officers, Installation Engineers, Civil Engineers, Prime 

BEEF or RED HORSE have paved the way for each one of us who serve today or in the years to come. 

We can learn from their experiences and be proud of their remarkable achievements. We owe a great 

debt to them and honor their service. Each is an integral part of our past and guides us in the future 

as we continue to “Lead the Way!” 

 TIMOTHY S. GREEN, Brig Gen, USAF

 Director of Civil Engineers

 DCS/Logistics, Installations & Mission Support
XXIV
PREFACE

This book has been nearly 30 years in the making. In October 1985, Maj. Gen. Clifton D. 

“Duke” Wright, Jr., the Director of Engineering and Services, met with Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer in 

his Pentagon office. Dr. Hartzer was about to assume his position as the first-ever Historian for Air 

Force Engineering and Services. General Wright, who had the foresight to capture the past before 

it disappeared, said one of his goals for Dr. Hartzer was to produce a book-length history of the 

career field. Dr. Hartzer began collecting historical documents, photos, videos, and oral histories 

from hundreds of sources. Soon a collection that began with just two folders grew to thousands 

of documents, many of which were used for this book. The Civil Engineer archives contains the 

fascinating account of the countless men and women who contributed to the proud history of Air 

Force Engineering and Services. This book tells their story and fulfills a promise made to General 

Wright back in October 1985.

The U.S. Air Force was recognized as a separate U.S. Armed Service in 1947, thus fulfilling 

the vision advanced by many military aviators since World War I. Civil engineering was recognized 

as a professional discipline critical to the success of the new Service.

Engineers claim a long and proud tradition of military service. During World War II, the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers executed the construction of overseas airfields and support facilities for 

the Army Air Forces, often under challenging conditions and with meager resources. These successes 

impressed leaders of the Army Air Forces with the critical importance of civil engineering in 

supporting Air missions through planning, operating, and maintaining air bases. Many leaders in the 

early days of Air Force Civil Engineering began their careers with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 

These leaders were eager to shape the Air Force of the future and to integrate civil engineering into 

the overall mission. 

This history is the story of the Air Force Civil Engineer organization as it grew, matured, 

and changed in response to mission requirements. Data were compiled from non-classified sources. 

The chapters are organized chronologically. Chapter 1 presents an overview of the early history of 

aviation from 1907 through the end of World War II. Subsequent chapters explore the development 

of the organization in sequential 10 to 15-year time periods. Reoccurring themes and activities in 

Air Force Civil Engineering common to each period were identified through the archival record and 

formed organizational framework for the chapters. These themes are civil engineering programs and 

policies, managing the air bases, construction, education and training, and deployments. 

During the 1950s, Air Force civil engineers focused on establishing their place and 

profession within the newly independent Air Force. They planned, programmed, and oversaw major 

construction programs to establish a network of air bases in both CONUS and overseas. The air bases 

that they constructed and managed were comparable to small cities where the base civil engineer 

administered housing areas, operational areas, fire protection, and utilities. Policies and procedures 

for effective management and maintenance of the permanent bases were established during this 

time. Air Force civil engineers also were involved in planning and programming the construction of 

additional installations to support U.S. defense programs, such as specialized communications posts 

in the Arctic and missile sites to defend the United States. Educational programs were established to 

foster professional development for civil engineering personnel to maintain a high-level of personnel 

proficiency in an ever changing, technically challenging environment. A significant responsibility for 

Air Force civil engineers was supporting Airmen during times of war or other deployments. During 

World War II, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers built the landing fields required throughout Europe and 

Asia, and this function remained with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers during the 1950s.
XXVI

Subsequent decades presented continuing challenges and opportunities as the Air Force civil 

engineer organization responded to national defense priorities and to changing Air Force missions. Air 

Force civil engineers found themselves with increasing responsibilities to operate and to maintain the 

large Air Force portfolio of facilities and real property, and to oversee construction of new buildings 

and structures required to beddown new weapons systems. Often, these missions were accomplished 

within manpower and budget constraints. To accomplish this complex task, Air Force civil engineers 

continuously re-invented, re-invigorated, and transformed their organization to maintain focus on 

critical support to the Air Force mission. Talented and innovative leaders were encouraged at all 

levels of the Air Force civil engineer organization to identify ways to execute civil engineering 

responsibilities more effectively. Air Force civil engineer leaders often adapted project and personnel 

management strategies and business models from the private sector and industry to ensure efficiencies 

at all levels of their organization. Education and professional development remained a high priority in 

developing and maintaining military and civilian capabilities. In addition, Air Force civil engineers 

continually evaluated past performance to identify “lessons learned” and revised their procedures and 

policies to improve future performance.

Air Force civil engineers confronted the tension between their peacetime role and their role 

in supporting the deployed Air Force. During the Vietnam Conflict in the 1960s, this tension was 

resolved through the development and implementation of the Base Engineer Emergency Force, known 

as Prime BEEF. The purpose of Prime BEEF was to link every military Air Force civil engineer 

peacetime job to a defined role in emergency situations and direct combat support. This fundamental 

change affected all areas of Air Force civil engineering, particularly education and training. Prime 

BEEF was followed by the establishment of Rapid Engineer Deployable Heavy Operational Repair 

Squadron, Engineer, or RED HORSE. Prime BEEF and RED HORSE gave Air Force civil engineers 

the ability to build the bases required in deployed locations and get the job done. “Can Do, Will Do” 

was the civil engineer motto of the 1960s.

 The Vietnam Conflict was followed by a decade of peace with corresponding decreases in 

military funding. The U.S. military became an all volunteer force. In response, Air Force civil engineers 

implemented programs to improve the quality of life for Air Force personnel in their working and 

living environments. Readiness training also became a major focus to keep Air Force civil engineers 

prepared for deployment. The Readiness Challenge, begun in 1986, fostered competition in training 

activities. Air Force civil engineers also faced increasing responsibilities in managing the permanent 

bases. New programs were established to comply with environmental and cultural resources laws, as 

well programs to reduce pollution and to conserve energy.

Air Force civil engineers reshaped their organization during the 1990s as part of the radical 

reorganization of the Department of Air Force. The reorganization was prompted by Department of 

Defense and Federal government directives and initiatives. Overseas deployments for Air Force civil 

engineers increased dramatically as the United States participated in Operation Desert Shield/Desert

Storm and follow-on operations. The lessons learned from Desert Shield/Desert Storm guided 

the development of the Air Force civil engineer organization throughout the decade. Deployments 

continued to support actions in Somalia and Bosnia and Kosovo. In addition, deployments for 

training increased greatly as the civic action program was combined with training activities. As a 

result, Air Force civil engineers gained valuable experiences in planning and constructing facilities, 

while improving the lives of civilian populations both in the United States and overseas. Caribbean 

and Central and South American countries, in particular, were the recipients of new medical clinics, 

schools, and water supply facilities. 
XXVII

The first decade of the twenty-first century was defined by the terrorist attacks on the United 

States on September 11, 2001. After that event, Air Force civil engineers were engaged continually in 

all aspects of the Global War on Terror – in defending the United States and in fighting terrorism in 

Afghanistan and Iraq. Air Force civil engineers adapted to new roles in the joint Service environment 

to accomplish U.S. missions. In March 2003, the United States, supported by Great Britain, initiated a 

military action against Iraq, known as Operation Iraqi Freedom. The initial fighting was over quickly 

and the United States became involved in an insurgency and nation rebuilding program that ended 

in December 2011. Air Force civil engineers adapted to new roles in nation building while deployed 

in overseas missions. Meanwhile, at the U.S. permanent bases, Air Force civil engineers engaged in 

transforming their organizational structure by adopting policies and procedures to work effectively 

within funding and manpower limits.

Throughout their history, Air Force civil engineers have demonstrated talent, innovation, 

and continual adaptation to fulfill their missions effectively. Their accomplishments truly have been 

impressive. The authors wish to extend their thanks and gratitude to all Air Force civil engineers for 

their military service. This is their history.

Authors

Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, Historian at the Air Force Civil Engineer Center (AFCEC), served as overall 

director for this book. He earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree in History from Indiana University 

and has been a historian with the Air Force for more than 31 years. He has authored a history of the 

Wilmington, North Carolina, District of the Corps of Engineers and written more than 50 articles 

for numerous journals. He led the Gulf War Lessons Learned study for Air Force Engineering and 

Services and co-authored Civil Engineering’s first doctrine manual.

Lois Walker retired from Federal Service in 2007 after completing a 27-year career as a historian and 

holds an M.A. in American History from Wright State University. While serving at Wright-Patterson 

Air Force Base, Ohio, she co-authored a widely respected history of the base. She later served at 

the HQ United States Air Forces in Europe History Office and was instrumental in producing a 50th

anniversary publication on the Berlin Airlift. She served as Historian at the Air Force Civil Engineer 

Support Agency from 1998 to 2007.

R. Christopher Goodwin & Associates, Inc., completed this project between 2008 and 2012 on 

behalf of the Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency under a contract administered by Air Force 

Center for Engineering and the Environment through the United States Army Medical Research 

Acquisition Activity. R. Christopher Goodwin & Associates, Inc., is an award winning cultural 

resources management group with a national practice specializing in the full spectrum of historic 

preservation disciplines. 

Kathryn M. Kuranda is the Senior Vice-President of Architectural and Historical Services 

for R. Christopher Goodwin & Associates, Inc, and served as editor for the book. She holds 

a Bachelor of Arts degree in American Studies from Dickinson College and a Master of 

Architectural History degree from the University of Virginia. She has directed numerous 

architectural and historical research projects and nationwide cultural heritage studies, 

including historic contexts for military properties from all the U.S. Armed Services.

Rebecca Gatewood obtained a Master of Historic Preservation through the University of 

Kentucky, College of Design. She has been professionally active in the field of historic 
XXVIII

preservation since the late 1990s. She has extensive experience in historical research and 

writing, survey, and cultural resource investigations to support a variety of clients nationwide. 

She has particular experience in conducting historical research and documenting resources 

for the United States Army, the United States Navy, the United States Air Force, and the 

Air National Guard. She currently serves as an architectural historian for R. Christopher 

Goodwin & Associates, Inc.

Katherine Grandine received a Master of Arts degree in American Civilization with 

Emphasis on Historic Preservation from the George Washington University, Washington, 

D.C. She has a Bachelor of Arts, History and Geography from the University of Delaware. 

She has extensive experience in conducting archival and historical research and writing to 

document cultural resources with a particular expertise in researching and documenting 

Army, Air Force, and Navy installations in the United States. She currently serves as a senior 

historian with R. Christopher Goodwin & Associates, Inc.

Additional Contributing Authors

Melissa Crosby has a Master of Arts in Historic Preservation from the Savannah College of Art and 

Design in Savannah, Georgia. She has a Bachelor of Arts in History from Shepherd University in 

Shepherdstown, West Virginia. She is experienced in historical research and technical report writing.

Dean Doerrfeld has a Master of Arts in Urban Affairs and Public Policy with specialization in Historic 

Preservation Policy and Planning from the College of Urban Affairs and Public Policy, University 

of Delaware in Newark, Delaware. He has a Bachelor of Liberal Studies (with distinction) with a 

specialization in Historic Preservation from Mary Washington College, Fredericksburg, Virginia.

Christine Heidenrich, received a Master of Arts degree in Public History from Loyola University 

Chicago, and a Bachelor of Arts degree in History from University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 

She has extensive experience in conducting historical research and writing on historical topics. 
CHAPTER 1

LAYING THE FOUNDATION

1907-1947

For as long as there have been military airfields, there have been military engineers dedicated 

to their design, construction, operation, maintenance and repair. Before the United States Air Force 

became a separate service in 1947, construction personnel working with the Army Quartermaster Corps 

and engineers assigned to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers worked closely with the Air Service, 

the Army Air Corps and, eventually, the Army Air Forces. Although not aviators themselves, these 

military personnel formed a dedicated cadre of experts knowledgeable in the construction of airfields 

and associated facilities critical to supporting flying operations. This knowledge became particularly 

critical in times of war when military engineers were tasked to construct, on short notice, airfields 

in war zones to support critical missions. By World War II, this specialty branch of engineering was 

known as aviation engineering and became the basis for the civil engineering function that evolved 

when the Air Force became a separate service in 1947.

The history of Air Force civil engineering is incomplete without a discussion of the early evolution 

of U.S. military aviation. This chapter explores this early history during the period from the initial 

creation of a U.S. aviation function in 1907 through World War II. This period laid the foundation for 

the creation of the U.S. Air Force and was crucial in the evolution of civil engineering as an aviation 

function. 

THE ARMY TAKES WING

The first U.S. government aviation function was established on August 1, 1907, when an Aeronautical Division was created within the Army Signal Corps. The Division was given charge of “all 

matters pertaining to military ballooning, air machines, and all kindred subjects.” Construction related 

to aviation was managed by the Office of the Chief Signal Officer. The Army purchased its first 

heavier-than-air flying machine, designated Signal Corps Airplane No. 1, from Wilbur and Orville 

1

Orville Wright flying a Signal Corps Flyer at Fort Myer, June 1909.
Airdrome (âr ́drōm): 

General term for a military 

airfield, consisting of a 

landing and take-off area for 

aircraft and facilities for the 

servicing, maintenance, and 

administration of the units 

there stationed.

2 Leading the Way

Wright on August, 2 1909. Endurance and speed tests for the aircraft were conducted on the narrow 

drill ground at Fort Myer, Virginia. Fort Myer was the first of a series of Army posts that granted the 

Signal Corps temporary permission to use their parade grounds as makeshift airfields to support the 

new and unusual mission.1

The first land leased by the Army Quartermaster specifically for a flying field was a tract owned 

by the Maryland Agricultural College at College Park, Maryland, seven miles north of Washington, 

D.C. The site was accessible by road but, more importantly, was situated on the Baltimore & Ohio 

railroad line. The location was advantageous since early aircraft typically were disassembled and 

shipped by rail. The Wright brothers instructed the world’s first military pilots at College Park. Lts. 

Frank Lahm, Benjamin Foulois and Frederic Humphreys received pilot training in the operation of 

the Army’s first aircraft in October and November 1909. The College Park flying field was short-lived 

since the military held a temporary lease.2

 

In 1910, Lieutenants Lahm and Humphreys returned 

to duty at their respective branches of the Army (the Cavalry and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers). Lt. Benjamin 

Foulois served as the Army’s only active pilot, flying from 

Fort Sam Houston, Texas, in Signal Corps Airplane Number 

One.3 He and his detachment erected a small hangar on 

the drill ground. Although modest, this temporary airdrome 

established San Antonio as a military flying center. Fort Sam 

Houston served as the Signal Corps’ sole airfield for the next 

year and a half. In April 1911, three more officers joined 

Lieutenant Foulois to form the Provisional Aero Company. 

They built a second hangar and operated the Army’s fleet 

of six aircraft (five Wright Model Bs and one Curtiss IV Model D). On May 11, 1911, Lt. George 

Kelly—for whom Kelly Field was subsequently named—crashed on landing and died when he was 

thrown from his plane. The commanding general at Fort Sam Houston banned further flying. The pilots 

and aircraft were forced to move in July, although the two hangars remained at the site. 

The Aviation School at College Park was always busy with visitors dressed in their best clothing coming to 

see the aeros up close. (Courtesy of College Park Aviation Museum)
Laying The Foundation 3

SUPPORT FOR THE TRAINING MISSION

Meanwhile, the Signal Corps recognized the need for a permanent facility dedicated to pilot 

training. On March 3, 1911, Congress authorized the first appropriation for Army aeronautics in the 

amount of $125,000 for fiscal year 1912. Most of the money was used to purchase aircraft, but some 

was spent on facilities. The Signal Corps decided to return to the College Park site and to construct 

expanded training facilities. The Quartermaster Department, historically responsible for construction 

and supply to support the U.S. Army, executed a land lease for the tract used in 1909 and an additional 

200 acres for a monthly rent of $325. The Quartermaster Department cleared the land and constructed 

four wood-frame hangars. Lt. Col. Charles deForest Chandler, Officer in Charge of the Signal Corps 

Aeronautical Division, served as commandant of what became known as the Signal Corps Aviation 

School. The school operated at College Park during warm weather and moved operations to Augusta, 

Georgia, during the winter months.4

One of the school’s more famous students in 1912 was Lt. Henry H. “Hap” Arnold, future commanding general of the Army Air Forces in World War II. He described the school’s facilities as 

comprising the hangars near the B&O railroad tracks, a small administration building and an emergency hospital tent, which was manned by Lt. John P. Kelley, recognized as the first Flight Surgeon. 

By the end of 1912, the school boasted 8 hangars, 14 flying officers, 39 enlisted men, and 1 civilian 

mechanic. In addition to experimenting with aerial photography and aerial gunnery, students devised 

the first airfield lighting system. Acetylene signal lamps were set up along the landing strip to enable 

experiments in night flying.5

In fall 1912, aviation pioneer Glenn Curtiss, who also sold airplanes to the Army, invited the 

Signal Corps to send officers to his private flying school in San Diego, California, for winter flying. 

The Signal Corps accepted the invitation and divided the winter assignments for Aviation School by 

airplane type. The pilots and mechanics assigned to Wright airplanes returned to Augusta, Georgia, 

while the Curtiss pilots and mechanics were sent to North Island in San Diego. The school at College 

Park closed on November 18, 1912 and did not reopen. Although legislation to purchase the property 

was introduced, the Chief Signal Officer recommended against renewing the lease when it expired 

in June 1913.6

San Diego offered near perfect flying conditions and became home to the Army’s first permanent 

aviation school. Five lieutenants and a detachment of eight enlisted men arrived for duty in November 

1912. The Army paid Curtiss 25 dollars a month for use of his school and hangar space. The Signal 

Corps’ quarters consisted of an old barn and a shed. The school staff eventually erected a canvas 

hangar to house its three aircraft. 

In 1913 the Signal Corps discontinued the agreement with Glenn Curtiss and negotiated directly 

with the owner of North Island, the Coronado Beach Company, for use of a new camp independent 

from the Curtiss school. Negotiations were successful and the school grew with construction assistance 

provided by the Quartermaster Corps. In December 1913, the country’s first military flying unit, the 

First Aero Squadron, was organized at North Island by War Department General Order No. 75. By 

June 1915, squadron strength stood at 30 officers, 12 civilians, and 185 enlisted men; the squadron 

maintained an inventory of 13 airplanes. Military aviation was here to stay.

7

Site improvements supported the training mission. In addition to runway work to support pilot 

training, construction of several more hangars allowed the school to offer technical courses in the 

maintenance, repair, and operation of aircraft and engines. A notable innovation developed at North 

Island was a portable field tent hangar for use during exercises and operations. The Army continued 

to lease the North Island property through World War I. In July 1919, Congress authorized $6 million 

to purchase North Island, then known as Rockwell Field.8
4 Leading the Way

EARLY AIRFIELD SITES

Utilization of a site selection board to make informed decisions on the location for the permanent 

school established an important precedent. The Army Appropriation Act of 1915 directed the Secretary of War to appoint a commission to investigate land acquisition on the Pacific, Gulf, or Atlantic 

coasts for an aviation school. Col. Samuel Reber of the Signal Corps and Capt. Richard Marshall 

of the Quartermaster Corps visited numerous potential sites on the east and west coasts in search 

of those that met the stringent criteria for flying. These criteria included obstruction-free acreage to 

accommodate the flying field, favorable weather and wind conditions, regular topography, access to 

utilities and transportation, and a cordial relationship with surrounding communities. Colonel Reber 

and Captain Marshall worked with local chambers of commerce to arrange public meetings to solicit 

sites for consideration. The experience gained through this process was applied in the development 

of guidelines and procedures for future selection boards.9

Meanwhile, the Signal Corps established its first overseas air station, which was charged primarily 

with conducting reconnaissance missions. In December 1911, the Chief Signal Officer shipped a Wright 

B airplane with enough spare parts for six months to the Philippines. The Quartermaster in Manila built 

a two-plane hangar on the edge of the polo field at Fort William McKinley to support the air station. 

The hangar, complete with a concrete floor, was the first of its kind and cost $1,809.91 to construct. 

Lt. Frank Lahm, then with the 7th Cavalry, was detailed to temporary duty in aviation with the Signal 

Corps and opened the Philippine Air School in March 1912. The school operated sporadically until 

January 1915. Another overseas aviation station also was established briefly in Hawaii between 1913 

and 1914. The Hawaii station included tents for housing, temporary wood-frame airplane sheds, and 

a rudimentary machine shop.10

Interestingly, several National Guard units, most notably in the states of New York, Missouri, and 

California, formed aviation detachments. The units purchased their aircraft or in some cases, aviationminded philanthropists donated aircraft to the units. Each unit operated on its own initiative in training 

and in the construction of facilities to support their airplanes. The Signal Corps Aviation School at 

North Island eventually admitted a limited number of National Guard pilots beginning in 1916.11

FACILITIES FOR THE FIRST OPERATIONAL UNITS

On July 18, 1914, the Army’s existing air wing received official sanction when Congress authorized 

a separate Aviation Section within the Signal Corps. Although some argued that aviation should be 

reassigned elsewhere, proponents for organizing the Aviation Section under the Signal Corps prevailed. 

Authorization of the Aviation Section gave the fledgling function official recognition and its first 

definite status. Previously, aeronautics was not among the official duties tasked to the Signal Corps.12

The Chief Signal Officer in 1914, Brig. Gen. George Scriven, promoted the establishment of an 

operational aviation center separate from the aviation school at North Island. He sought to avoid potential conflicts between operational and training units arising from shared funding and infrastructure. 

The principal criteria for selecting a site for the proposed operational center were favorable flying 

weather, an established troop presence, and available government land. The logical location was an 

old target range located four miles north of Fort Sam Houston, Texas.13

Lieutenant Foulois traveled to Fort Sam Houston to prepare plans and estimates for roads and 

buildings. Enlisted men assigned to First Aero Squadron hauled supplies from Fort Sam Houston to the 

site and worked for six months to build roads, walks, and drains, and to prepare the landing field. They 

constructed two hangars, each accommodating five planes. Lieutenant Foulois secured authorization 

to relocate the two old hangars from the drill ground at Fort Sam Houston to the new site.14

In November 1915, the First Aero Squadron officially moved from San Diego to San Antonio. 
Laying The Foundation 5

The squadron soon was ordered to Columbus, New Mexico, to join Brig. Gen. John J. Pershing in his 

pursuit of Pancho Villa on the Mexican border. This assignment presented the first opportunity for an 

Army aviation unit to operate under field conditions over a large area. The squadron made a total of 

548 flights in the United States and Mexico.15

In his after-action report, then-Major Foulois identified one of the primary factors distinguishing air operations from ground operations. While missions are conducted in the air, aircraft must 

eventually land and thus are dependent on fixed bases. He opined that “one or more aero squadrons, 

operating in the field should have a base, conveniently located, from which all supplies, material, and 

personnel should be drawn.”16 He envisioned a base capable of both supplying and receiving, with a 

maintenance capacity for testing and for building engines using materials gathered from around the 

country. Major Foulois’s vision for dedicated aircraft facilities is obvious in hindsight. He was one 

of the first to encourage and to promote fixed bases devoted to aircraft support. In his 1968 memoirs, 

published posthumously, General Foulois described his view on the future of aviation,17

I gave vent to my conviction that action had to be taken swiftly for the sake of American air power. I pointed out in great detail the immediate and general needs of the 

Aviation service of the Army and recommended reorganization of the Washington 

office of the Aviation Section, legislation for more efficient use of appropriations then 

available, a survey of all military posts to determine their use as flying schools and 

air stations, and legislation which would lead to the establishment of a flying corps, 

separate and distinct from any other corps or branches of service.18

Specifications for Army aircraft were becoming steadily more rigorous and the airplanes delivered 

over the next several years became more powerful and complex. The facilities to support aircraft 

needed to match the sophistication of the aircraft.19

Three more flying units were activated in the San Antonio area—the 3d, 4th, and 5th Aero Squadrons. Additional units required new and expanded facilities, a common challenge at each aviation 

outpost. By 1916, the 2d Aero Squadron, located in the Philippines, operated one company of aircraft 

modified as seaplanes and was preparing to add a second. The 6th Aero Squadron was organized near 

Fort Kamehameha in Honolulu, Hawaii. Capt. John Curry deployed to the islands in January 1917 

and selected a site on Ford Island in Pearl Harbor for a seaplane base. The site was purchased for 

A bird’s-eye view of the aviation post at Fort Sam Houston, Texas.
6 Leading the Way

$235,000. The 7th Aero Squadron organized by Capt. Hap Arnold was established in Panama in January 1917. All of these activities required construction support. The Chief Signal officer requested that 

the Quartermaster General fold funding for barracks for San Antonio and barracks, officer quarters, 

a machine shop, and a storehouse for each of the overseas stations into his 1917 budget estimates.20

ESTABLISHING INFRASTRUCTURE FOR WORLD WAR I

Despite significant progress, U.S. military aviation was still in its formative stages when World War 

I broke out in Europe. Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy were more advanced and visionary 

than the United States in exploiting the military potential of the airplane. U.S. aviation strength compared very poorly to the pre-war strengths of the major European powers. Based on the performance 

of the 1st Aero Squadron during Pershing’s expedition against Pancho Villa, Congress appropriated an 

additional $500,000 for military aeronautics, a paltry sum compared to the $45 million that Germany 

appropriated for military aeronautics in its last pre-war budget. In August 1916, Congress moved to correct this inequity and allocated nearly $14 million for military aeronautics. An additional $600,000 also 

was approved to purchase land for aviation sites in anticipation of U.S. involvement in the European 

War. For the first time, the Signal Corps had money to develop aviation and launched a nationwide 

search to find suitable sites.21 Land for four important Army flying fields was acquired in late 1916: 

Kelly Field near San Antonio, Texas; a New York National Guard site on Long Island which included 

Mitchel Field; Ford Island Naval Reservation in Hawaii; and a field on the lower Chesapeake Bay 

near Hampton, Virginia.22

In Hampton, Virginia, the War Department purchased 700 acres of land at a cost of $490,000 to 

establish an experimental station that became Langley Field. While many sites previously were leased, 

the Virginia land acquisition represented the first time that the government purchased land specifically 

for an air installation.23 The general locale near Hampton was identified as suitable, but site work 

and the construction of quarters and technical structures proved more difficult than anticipated. The 

Quartermaster Corps retained noted architect and industrial planner Albert Kahn to design the major 

buildings and general layout of the field. The United States entered World War I only five months 

after the land was purchased. Once war was declared, the civilian construction contractor working at 

Langley was given urgent orders to increase his work force and to accelerate operations. The pressure 

to expedite work led to confusion and inefficiency. Construction actually slowed and Langley played 

only a limited role in World War I. The Navy, which was partnering in the endeavor, grew impatient 

An aerial view of Langley Field, 1918.
Laying The Foundation 7

and moved its operations to experimental bases elsewhere. The Aviation Section of the Signal Corps 

decided to pursue a similar course and ultimately constructed a major experimental and test facility 

at McCook Field in Dayton, Ohio.24

THE UNITED STATES ENTERS THE WAR

Despite pre-war preparations, the engineering force and the basing infrastructure required to support the massive wartime buildup were inadequate to meet initial demand. Premier Alexandre Ribot 

of France requested that the United States provide a staggering 16,500 aircraft, 5,000 trained pilots, 

and 50,000 mechanics for the first six months of the 1918 campaign. Congress initially appropriated 

$4.5 million in May 1918 for the purchase and improvement of land and the construction of barracks 

and technical buildings. In June 1918, a Deficiencies Appropriation Act provided another $9 million 

to acquire land and to construct buildings and utilities at various aviation facilities. It was not until the 

July 1918 appropriation of $640 million earmarked for aviation that the construction program truly 

got underway. Section 9 of Public Law 29 addressed establishing, equipping and operating aviation 

stations. The law was an omnibus measure covering all aspects of acquisition, procurement, and 

construction, with no limits on funds that were to be expended in any area. According to historian Dr. 

Jerold E. Brown, that act, more than any other, “was the platform on which the U.S. aviation program 

was built.”25

During the course of the war, the Signal Corps Aviation Division and its successor, the U.S. Air 

Service, oversaw the development of 33 major training installations, numerous auxiliary flying fields, 

four aircraft acceptance parks, five aviation supply depots, three aviation repair depots, four balloon 

fields, and a number of special schools. The names associated with airfields established during World 

War I would become famous in Air Force history. Chanute Field at Rantoul, Illinois; Selfridge Field 

at Mount Clements, Michigan; Scott Field at Belleville, Illinois; Kelly Field at San Antonio; and 

Wilbur Wright Field at Dayton, Ohio, all served admirably during the war. More notably, the airfields 

survived the interwar period and continued to operate during and after World War II as major Air Force 

installations. Perhaps the best known engine repair depot was the one established on the infield of 

the famous Indianapolis Speedway race course. That site was chosen because it was located between 

Rantoul, Scott, Selfridge, and Wilbur Wright fields and because a landing field, complete with hangar, 

was offered to the government at no cost.26

OVERSIGHT OF THE CONSTRUCTION PROGRAM

Prior to World War I, most construction activity in the U.S. Army was the purview of the Quartermaster Corps through its Construction and Repair Division. As a result of the highly specialized 

character of aviation buildings, construction of those facilities eventually was assigned to the Construction Division of the Equipment Branch in the Office of the Chief Signal Officer. After war was declared 

in April 1917, the Construction Division was separated from the Equipment Branch. It reported directly 

to the Chief Signal Officer and was given an expanded mission that included the preparation of plans 

for the construction, maintenance, and repair of flying fields required by the Aviation Section.27

Still further changes were in store as the war deepened. In October 1917, all emergency construction, including aviation fields, was aligned under the Cantonment Division in the Office of the 

Quartermaster General. Many believed that construction should be handled by a separate, stand-alone 

organization. In February 1918, the Cantonment Division was removed from the Office of the Quartermaster General and placed directly under the Chief of Staff of the Army as part of the Operations 

Division. One month later, in March 1918, the War Department designated the Cantonment Division 

as a separate branch of the Army and renamed it the Construction Division.28

On May 21, 1918, President Woodrow Wilson transferred the Army aviation function from the 
8 Leading the Way

Signal Corps to two agencies under the Secretary of War, the Bureau of Aircraft Production and the 

Division of Military Aeronautics. Together, those two agencies constituted what was known as the 

U.S. Air Service. The Buildings and Grounds Section, which was commanded by Capt. E. I. Eagle, 

was part of the supply function in the Department of Military Aeronautics. By January of 1919, the 

office had a staff of 24 officers, 11 enlisted men, and 19 civilians. Their assigned duty was to “supervise construction and maintenance of all buildings and grounds in the Air Service, both in the United 

States and its foreign possessions.”29

CONSTRUCTION ON THE HOME FRONT

Within a few weeks after the United States entered the war, two Allied commissions visited the 

U.S. One commission, representing Great Britain, was headed by Arthur J. Balfour and the other, representing France, was headed by Gen. Joseph Joffre and M. Rene Viviana. The commissions advised 

the War Department on requirements for training facilities and flying fields to support Europe. They 

also made arrangements for the first ten squadrons of U.S. flyers to be trained at British schools. A 

reciprocal agreement allowed some U.S. flyers to train at Canadian airfields and Canadian aviators to 

use fields in the southern United States during the winter.30

Lt. Col. Clinton G. Edgar, a reservist called to active duty, was in charge of the Signal Corps 

Construction Division. A businessman and assistant superintendent of the Detroit gas works, Edgar 

again called upon fellow Detroiter, architect Albert Kahn, who had developed plans for Langley. 

Colonel Edgar wanted Kahn to design a basic layout for aviation training fields patterned on a design 

used in Canada. During a ten-day crash effort, Kahn and Colonel Edgar completed a basic design, 

created blueprints, and rushed specifications to the various on-site Construction Division supervising 

officers. The plan for a standard single-unit training field called for 54 buildings to accommodate 100 

Wilbur Wright Field, July 1923.
Laying The Foundation 9

aircraft, 150 student pilots, and the training cadre. That design was used for early fields such as Scott 

and Selfridge, but was later modified to conform to local needs and the availability of materials. The 

typical flying field built in 1917 cost just over $1 million.31

Wilbur Wright Field near Dayton, Ohio, was selected as a training airfield because it was a known 

quantity. The field served as headquarters for the Wright School of Aviation from 1910-1915. Wilbur 

Wright Field was programmed as one of the four largest U.S. aviation schools and supported four 

school squadrons, 24 hangars, 1,700 personnel (including 300 flying cadets), and up to 144 aircraft. 

Construction was expedited and began on May 25, 1917—a little more than a month after the United 

States entered the war. The first contingent of flying cadets arrived on July 15.32

Due to the urgent need for manpower, construction contractors had to cast a wide net for workers. 

At Chanute Field, for instance, carpenters and building mechanics were recruited from a 100-mile 

radius to fill the labor pool. Appropriate vehicles for transporting construction supplies were inadequate at most sites, and farm wagons were employed to haul lumber when suitable transportation 

was unavailable. Mud was a common bottleneck at many construction sites. It also took extensive 

efforts to plan for and lay railroad spurs needed to support the new training fields. With construction 

delays, it was not unusual for squadrons to arrive at the new fields before construction was complete.33

Despite difficulties, the construction program resulted in a solid network of ground installations 

spread primarily along the eastern seaboard, in the Midwest, in the Gulf Coast states, and in southern 

California. These hastily-built but effective installations allowed the United States to train thousands 

of pilots and technicians, and to test, repair, overhaul, and outfit large numbers of aircraft.

THE ROLE OF MILITARY ENGINEERS

Although contractors were hired to complete most construction projects in the United States, the 

use of troop labor did occur. In Texas, for example, troops at Fort Sam Houston awaiting training or 

transportation aided with construction in the interim. Once facilities were built, the Engineering Department was at the heart of the Signal Corps flying school. “The whole fabric of maintenance and operation 

of the field” depended on the department.34 Its main priority was procurement and maintenance of 

aircraft for the school. The Engineering Department trained airplane engine mechanics, assembled 

and repaired aircraft, maintained records on aircraft performance, and supplied aircraft with fuel and 

Wilbur Wright Field civilian workers. 
10 Leading the Way

lubricants.35 The second priority for the Engineering Department was repair and maintenance of the 

buildings on post. Much of the workload related to this latter responsibility was precipitated by poor 

construction workmanship, inferior materials, and expedited construction. Members of the Engineering 

Department also performed many functions performed by civil engineers today: surveying, drafting, 

utilities maintenance (electrical, water, and sewage), and road and grounds maintenance.36

ENGINEERS “OVER THERE”

On April 6, 1917, the United States declared war on Germany and the U.S. military forces officially 

entered World War I. The engineering component available for immediate military service numbered 

only 267 officers and 2,228 enlisted men. At the conclusion of the war, 19 months later, the force 

claimed 10,886 engineer officers.37

The bulk of engineer construction in France involved ports, roads, standard and light railroads, 

fixed and floating bridges, storage depots, water supply, sewage facilities, remount depots, veterinary 

hospitals, electrical installations, bakeries, lumbering and forestry operations, and oil and gasoline 

storage facilities. Brig. Gen. Mason Patrick, an officer in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers then serving as Chief of Construction and Forestry for the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF), directed all 

engineer construction, from the smallest to the largest projects.38

The Air Service was particularly interested in the construction of airdromes, supply depots, repair 

shops, barracks, and training centers. In addition, the Air Service required aircraft assembly plants 

where aircraft, which were delivered to France in sections, were assembled. These plants typically 

comprised an assembly shed with an adjacent motor testing area, storage sheds, and a salvage shed. The 

Air Service also needed training centers with landing fields, hangars, repair shops, and accommodations for personnel. Additional landing fields were prepared behind the front lines, which necessitated 

cutting down weeds and grubbing out sites. Fields were made as level as possible and planted in grass. 

Plows, scrapers, graders, rollers, and tractors were used when available.39

The 462d Aero Squadron was the first Army construction squadron dedicated to performing airfield work for the Air Service overseas. It was formed at Kelly Field as the 48th Provisional Squadron 

on August 4, 1917, and was converted to a construction squadron three weeks later. The squadron 

entrained for Mineola, New York, in September, and shipped out for Europe on the Cunard ocean 

liner Pannonia in October, arriving in France on November 1st. For the remainder of November, 

the squadron, then designated the 435th Aero Squadron, helped build the Third Aviation Instruction 

Center at Issoudun, the largest flying instruction center in France. They built barracks and shops out 

of lumber shipped from the U.S. and erected French Bessoneaux hangars for the aircraft, as well as 

other projects to bring the aerodrome on line. During the stay at Issoudun the squadron number was 

changed to the 462d Aero Squadron.40

In December, the 462d helped build the Second Aviation Instruction Center at Tours and also took 

on the job of building six fields around the main airfield at Issoudun. At both Issoudun and Tours the 

squadron got the reputation of being one of the best all-around construction units in the American 

Expeditionary Force. They performed whatever projects were need, from leveling flying fields and 

building barracks and roads, to erecting hangars and laying out water systems.41

In late April 1918, the squadron was ordered to the Front. At Roseires-en-Haye they helped build 

the Second Day Bombardment Airdrome, consisting of 27 French barracks, 14 Nissen huts, and 15 

Bessoneaux hangars. A force of 200 Moroccan laborers helped level the airfield. In August the squadron 

was attached to First Army and moved to Vancouleurs to build another airdrome under rushed conditions for the St. Mihiel offensive. In September they erected hangars on the airfields at Vadelaincourt, 

Feucacourt, and Lisle en Barrois and helped other construction squadrons erect hangars on other fields. 

The squadron was responsible for trucking hangars from location to location.42
Laying The Foundation 11

In the last two months of the war, the 462d built an airdrome of 12 hangars and 23 barracks at Parois 

and reconstructed a captured German airdrome. Arriving while the infantry was still on site, they had 

to wait for the doughboys to move on and then contend with airfields that were full of trenches and 

shell holes. Following the Armistice, the squadron was attached to Third Army and moved to Treves, 

where it was tasked to prepare the airfield for seven squadrons, which they did in three days. Upon 

completion of its work in Europe, the squadron returned to the United States and was inactivated in 

August 1919. The unit achieved a number of “firsts” in its short existence. The 462d Aero Squadron 

was the first construction squadron formed for overseas duty, the first to land in England and France; 

the first to reconstruct a captured German airdrome, and the first Air Service unit to enter Germany.43

The 462d and at least one other American construction aero squadron performed the same types 

of heavy construction and repair work that their successors, the aviation engineer battalions in World 

War II and RED HORSE squadrons in Vietnam, would perform. They were the earliest examples of 

construction units dedicated specifically to provide real-time airfields and aviation-specific structures 

to support combat flying operations. In recognition of their service, AEF General Order No. 29, 

dated November 21, 1918, stated that the Army Air Service commander of First Army [Brig Gen 

Billy Mitchell] wished to make a record of his “extreme satisfaction” with the conduct of the 462d. 

It read: “[The] 462d Aero Construction Squadron during the advance of our troops in the St. Mihiel 

and Argonne-Meuse offensives constructed five airdromes on the retaken territory with such alacrity 

as to enable our flying squadrons to carry on operations without delay.”44

Air Service leaders voiced concerns during World War I, which ultimately were addressed, in 

part, through the creation of aviation engineer battalions in World War II. Air Service leaders during 

World War I argued that it was “absolutely vital” that construction materiel, as well as construction 

personnel, be controlled directly by the Air Service in war zones. They observed that dedicated aviation forces were needed to prepare airfields and to relocate buildings from one airdrome to the next 

without the added delay of seeking authority from engineers further up the chain of command. When 

engineers were not dedicated to airfield construction, they often were out constructing other military 

requirements, such as bridges or roads, just when they were needed to support the Air Service. In 

those instances, non-specialized troops assigned to all skills in the Air Service often were pressed into 

service to accomplish these tasks.45

Maj. Gen. Mason Patrick, who was in charge of all construction for the AEF, eventually was 

called upon to apply his engineering acumen for the sole benefit of the Air Service. By May 1918, 

the Commander in Chief of AEF, Gen. John J. Pershing, expressed alarm at the lack of organization 

Aviation Field #3, Issoudun, France.
12 Leading the Way

within the aviation corps in Europe. Nearly 35,000 Air Service troops were in France, England, and 

Italy; another 35,000 were anticipated to arrive in France before the end of 1918. No coordinated plans 

existed for housing, equipping, and organizing Air Service men and their aircraft into flying squadrons. 

In addition, no provisions were made for support units, such as repair depots.46

General Pershing appointed General Patrick as Chief of the Air Service for the AEF and directed 

him to apply a solid engineering approach to the problem. General Patrick reorganized the structure 

of the Air Service overseas. He realigned the plan for managing, supplying, and transporting Air 

Service troops in theater and placed all operations on an efficient working basis. As the number of 

U.S. air units increased, General Patrick placed them along the French front under the Air Service, 

First Army. The units were organized into three wings—pursuit, observation, and bombardment. The 

new organization and the improved conditions at field bases contributed to the air superiority of the 

Allies and to ultimate victory.47

General Patrick’s success in organizing the Air Service overseas influenced his later career. His 

last assignment with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was as commanding officer of the Engineer 

School at Camp Humphreys, Virginia. In October 1921, he was selected as chief of the U.S. Air Service in Washington and served in that capacity until December 1927, making major improvements 

for Airmen everywhere.48

SPIN-OFFS OF THE WAR

During World War I, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers took a keen interest in a unique aviation service, aerial photography. Aerial observation squadrons were responsible for over 18,000 photographs 

of enemy positions during World War I. Photographic units used these aerial images to produce more 

than 585,000 prints for war planners and engineers. Civil engineers recognized that aviation would 

change dramatically the way wars were fought. In a 1920 issue of The Military Engineer magazine, 

one engineer wrote, “Aeroplane photography secured much of the data required for the preparation 

of new maps, and in my opinion, in future military operations, even in poorly mapped countries, the 

basic means of securing information for the production of maps will be this agency.”49

The Society of American Military Engineers (SAME) was a direct result of U.S. military experience during World War I. Following the war, military engineers recognized the pronounced need for 

such a professional organization. The primary purpose of SAME was “to conserve the teachings of the 

World War in the field of military engineering and to maintain unimpaired the assets represented by 

our late experience.” The goal of the society, founded in 1920, was to provide a professional resource 

for those who “in a future national emergency must shoulder the engineering burdens of the country.” 

By the mid-1920s, SAME chapters were active in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, 

D.C. on the east coast; in Chicago, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh, and St. Louis in the Midwest; 

and in Portland, Seattle, and San Francisco on the west coast.50 

DREAMS VERSUS REALITY

Challenges lay ahead for civil engineering in the postwar period. In spring 1919, the Air Service 

made plans for a moderately-sized aviation force of 24,000 officers and men. A budget request for 

$60 million was submitted and there was speculation concerning the establishment of a separate 

Department of Aeronautics. Congress approved approximately a third of the requested funds and the 

proposed force strength was cut in half. The War Department made it clear that the Air Service would 

remain part of the Army.

The first task in the postwar period was deciding the disposition of the properties developed to 

support the war effort. Most leased properties reverted to their original owners. Buildings erected at 

leased sites were, for the most part, temporary construction and were either abandoned or demolished. 
Laying The Foundation 13

All military equipment was salvaged, sold, or shipped to Air Service depots for storage. Only Rockwell 

airfield in California and Langley airfield in Virginia had any permanent construction at the end of the 

war. McCook Field in Dayton, Ohio offered the only hard-surfaced (macadam) runway. 

The government opted to purchase 15 World War I installations within eight months of the end of 

the war and ultimately expanded the acquisition program to include a handful of additional stations. 

Government owned property included Chanute (Illinois), Fairfield (Ohio), Kelly (Texas), Langley 

(Virginia), Mather (California), Mitchel (New York), Pope (North Carolina), Rockwell (California), 

Selfridge (Michigan), and several others, as well as the supply depot at Richmond, Virginia, and the 

repair depots at Middletown, Pennsylvania and Little Rock, Arkansas. The Air Service also retained 

McCook Field as its engineering center for research and development for aircraft, engines, and aviation equipment. Flying training was consolidated at Brooks and Kelly in San Antonio, while technical 

training was centralized at Chanute.

ARMY REORGANIZATION ACT OF 1920

On January 4, 1920, Congress passed the National Defense Act, amending the National Defense 

Act of June 1916. The Air Service became a combatant arm of the Army, with an authorized strength 

of 1,516 officers and 16,000 enlisted men. As was true throughout the services, however, assigned 

strength perpetually remained well below authorized strength until World War II. In 1926, when the 

Air Service became the Air Corps, the service only had 919 officers and 8,342 enlisted.51 

Lack of personnel had a direct effect on the number of installations that could be adequately 

manned and maintained; and postwar budgets did not support operations and maintenance. For FY21, 

Congress appropriated $3.7 million for the Air Service to maintain 25 stations. The following year, 

funds for improvements to stations were reduced by 90 percent and that budget continued to decline 

in subsequent years. In 1928, the budget for improvements to stations was $1 million.52

As part of the new organization of the Army, several separate services developed during World War 

I were eliminated. Among these services were the Construction Service, the Transportation Service, 

and the Motor Transport Corps. All three services reverted to functions of the Quartermaster Corps. In 

terms of civil engineering-related work, the Quartermaster Corps was charged with directing all work 

pertaining to the construction, maintenance, and repair of buildings, structures, and utilities. Local 

quartermasters also had responsibility for operating utilities on Army posts. 

Within the Air Service, oversight of construction and maintenance conducted by the Quartermaster 

at Air Service stations was still vested in the Buildings and Grounds Section; the section eventually 

became part of the Property Division of the Supply Group at Air Service headquarters in Washington, 

D.C. The Buildings and Grounds Section also had responsibility for real estate matters, which was a 

very time-consuming assignment in the immediate postwar period. The section acted as the Air Service 

liaison with the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps and prepared preliminary data and 

recommendations for new projects, including design of buildings and utilities.53

Despite dismal appropriations and stiff competition for resources among different sections of the 

Army, morale and enthusiasm was high in the Air Service, mainly due to exciting developments in 

the world of aviation. New technologies were being developed and tested. New endurance, speed, and 

distance records were superseded almost as quickly as they were set. The Air Service was challenging 

and exciting. High-profile pioneers like Brig. Gen. Billy Mitchell, who served as Assistant Chief of 

the Air Service from 1920 to 1925, ensured that the accomplishments of the Service were visible not 

only to the War Department leadership and Congress, but to the public as well. 
14 Leading the Way

AIR INSTALLATIONS IN THE EARLY 1920S

The story of airfields in the 1920s and 1930s was one marked by constant determination to keep 

up with technology. Aeronautics was a rapidly-evolving science. Design changes in the size, weight, 

power, speed, load capacity, and complexity of aircraft kept engineers busy developing facilities to 

house, operate, and maintain them. In some cases, engineers built hangars and test facilities designed 

to meet current aeronautical requirements only to have new developments force the immediate modification of those facilities or the construction of new ones. 

Construction of World War I facilities tended to be simple and linear. The typical early military 

airfield featured an open field for take-offs and landings, bordered by a linear development of hangars, 

warehouses, and other support buildings. In 1923, the Buildings and Grounds Office in Washington 

developed a general plan for Air Service stations that was described as “an ideal typical layout.” 

The plan made maximum use of existing property and provided the longest possible runways in all 

directions. A typical installation occupied one mile square with all support buildings concentrated in 

one corner. A standard “Figure 4” runway pattern occupied the remainder of the field. March Field 

was the first major field to implement the design during its major expansion in the late 1920s. An 

equilateral triangular configuration was another standard runway design that was implemented. This 

design assured runways within 30 degrees of the wind direction.54

In the early 1920s, the Air Service continued to focus on establishing air power outside the United 

States. In FY20, funds for overseas bases amounted to $350,000 for stations in the Philippines. In 

FY21, Congress appropriated $1.3 million for the establishment of aviation facilities in Hawaii and 

another $239,000 for aviation facilities in Panama.55

SUPPORT TO CIVIL AVIATION

The Air Service supported the parallel development of civil aviation in the United States, and 

civil engineers helped encourage that goal. Private and municipal airfields provided additional landing and servicing facilities for military aircraft when needed and also helped to support training and 

proficiency requirements for active duty pilots and reservists. In 1920, the Aircraft Year Book listed 

only 115 permanent airfields under U.S. control—including Army and Navy fields. These fields were 

located in 32 states, the District of Columbia, the Canal Zone, and Hawaii.56

In 1919, the Air Service established a prototype Model Airway, an experimental airline service that 

was the first in the nation to operate regularly-scheduled flights between fixed points. The Buildings 

and Grounds Office undertook extensive mapping and data collection to support the system and to 

ensure that all parts of the country eventually could be served under the system. Commuter service 

initially was established between Washington, D.C., and Dayton, Ohio, with an intermediate stop at 

Moundsville, West Virginia. When Warren G. Harding became President in 1921, he supported the 

development of transcontinental airways and encouraged such activity. He directed the Air Service to 

work with other government agencies to establish workable routes and to coordinate with individual 

states to construct municipal airports. This work had the dual benefit of stimulating commercial 

aeronautics and bolstering national defense by ensuring that Army aircraft could move quickly from 

one part of the country to another.57

When Maj. Gen. Mason Patrick became Chief of the Air Service in October 1921, he diverted 

funds from other activities to establish a permanent Airways Section in his office. In 1922, the Model 

Airway maintained regular service for both passengers and cargo between McCook, Bolling, Langley, 

Moundsville, Selfridge, and Mitchel fields. In 1923, a southern division was added from Scott Field 

to Kelly Field, by way of Kansas City and Dallas. By 1925, the Buildings and Grounds Office had 

compiled information on nearly 3,500 landing places in the United States.58

The Buildings and Grounds Office continued to conduct studies and to make plans for continental 

air routes until that function was transferred to the Department of Commerce under the Air Commerce 
Laying The Foundation 15

Act of 1926. In addition to the economic benefits of the Airways system, a tremendous body of information was gathered on existing and potential landing fields, weather, and topography in the United 

States.59

THE AIR CORPS ACT OF 1926

Developments in the Air Corps from 1920 to 1926 demonstrated the potential for air power to 

support national defense and helped the Air Corps slowly but steadily gain stature in the eyes of War 

Department and Congressional leaders. Several committees and boards studied the question of the 

status of the Air Service in the early 1920s. The Morrow Board appointed by President Calvin Coolidge 

studied the “best means of developing and applying aircraft in national defense.” Its findings were 

translated into legislation known as the Air Corps Act, signed on July 2, 1926. The act served as a 

watershed for the development of military aviation in the United States.

The Air Corps Act changed the name of the Air Service to the Air Corps, “thereby strengthening 

the concept of military aviation as an offensive, striking arm rather than an auxiliary service.” The 

act created an additional Assistant Secretary of War position to help foster military aeronautics and 

established an air section in each division of the General Staff for a three-year period. Significant 

internal reorganization accompanied the creation of the Air Corps. Three major divisions—Operations, 

Materiel, and Training—were each headed by a brigadier general. The Operations Division was the 

only one located in Washington, D.C. The Materiel Division eventually moved its headquarters to 

Wright Field in Dayton and the Training Division was established at the Air Corps Training Center 

at Kelly Field.60

The Buildings and Grounds Office in Washington became part of the Materiel Liaison Section in 

September 1926. In 1927, it was made an independent section under the Executive, Office of Chief of 

the Air Corps. Its mission significantly expanded over the next seven years and included supervising 

the design of Air Corps technical buildings and installations, and all real estate transactions. The office 

also acted as a liaison with the Construction Service of the Quartermaster Corps and carried out Air 

Corps policies pertaining to construction, repair, and salvage of structural improvements at Air Corps 

stations. It also was responsible for preparing estimates for all present and future construction, and 

for managing the allotment of funds to carry out projects.61

THE AIR CORPS EXPANSION PROGRAM

The Air Corps Act authorized a Five-Year Expansion Program to bring the Air Corps up to strength 

and to modernize its aircraft fleet. The expansion program called for a goal of 1,800 serviceable airplanes, 1,500 officers, and 15,000 enlisted men. As was normal with such legislation, the Air Corps 

Act did not specifically mention ground facilities. It was clear, however, that increased personnel and 

equipment would drive the growth and improvement of air stations that housed and trained personnel.62

The Chief of the Air Corps produced a comprehensive development plan for ground facilities. It 

proposed 32 fields for further development, two entirely new airfields, the development of a major 

Air Corps Training Center at Randolph Field, and the construction of an additional airfield in Panama. 

Planners estimated that $18 million in technical construction and 17,000 new housing units would be 

required to refurbish and modernize Air Corps stations. Technical requirements included 125 hangars, 

20 field shops, 8 depot shops, 24 field warehouses, 68 operations and headquarters buildings, 16 photo 

buildings, 7 school buildings, petroleum-oil-lubricant storage units, and extensive improvements to 

landing fields.63

The five-year expansion program was managed by the Quartermaster Corps. The Quartermaster 

Corps employed a group of distinguished professionals, both uniformed and civilian, to apply the latest 

theories in urban planning to the development of Air Corps posts. The team of planners, including 

George B. Ford and 1st Lt. Howard Nurse, believed that a post design should be harmonious with the 
16 Leading the Way

natural surroundings. The new permanent posts reflected the principles of the “garden city” and “city 

beautiful” movements in urban planning. Ford argued that aviation had an impact on post designs. 

The patterns formed by the buildings when viewed from the air were studied to present attractive 

post plans. The new plans maximized the use of open space near the public areas of the post, while 

integrating irregular street patterns where appropriate. The Quartermaster Corps incorporated regional 

architectural traditions into the standardized designs. Generally, the Georgian or Colonial Revival style 

prevailed in the northeastern states, while the Spanish Mission style was deemed most appropriate for the 

southern regions. Other architectural styles found at Air Corps installations included French Provincial 

and Tudor Revival.64

The Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps worked with Air Corps personnel and 

installation commanders to plan construction for Air Corps installations. Examples of this collaboration are found in the designs of Randolph Field, Texas, and Barksdale Field, Louisiana. Capt. George 

Lamb, Constructing Quartermaster at Barksdale Field, recalled that the decision to design the buildings 

using the French Colonial style was made in consultation with the Chief of Air Corps.65 The dramatic 

layout of Randolph Field is attributed to a young Air Corps officer, Harold Clark, who conceived the 

design and presented it for approval to Brigadier General Lahm.66 As reported by Maj. E.G. Thomas, 

The Air Corps furnishes requirements as to the size of hangars, shops, warehouses, 

etc.; the amount of gasoline storage needed; the size of runways to provide landing 

and take-off facilities for its airplanes, to the Construction Division, Office of the 

Quartermaster General. The relations between the services and the Construction Division, O.Q.M.G., are much the same as when private industry furnishes the architect, 

the engineer, and the contractor, with its requirements to permit of adequate plans and 

specifications being prepared and facilities constructed.67

In 1928, the Air Corps received $1 million for improvements to stations. These funds allowed for 

construction of new barracks and non-commissioned officer (NCO) and officer quarters at Selfridge, 

Maxwell, Mitchel, and France fields. In 1929 and 1930, that program was extended to three more 

fields, and technical construction was accomplished at Fairfield, Langley, March, Middletown, and 

Randolph AFB’s iconic Taj Mahal.
Laying The Foundation 17

Scott. Among other technical advancements, night lighting was installed at five bases in 1929 and 

another five bases in 1930.68

In San Antonio, the Air Corps secured title to the land that would become Randolph Field in 

August 1928, after the city offered 2,300 acres at no cost to the government, and construction began 

in October. The new headquarters of the Air Corps Training Center, touted as the “West Point of the 

Air,” was dedicated in June 1930 and received its first cadre of training units from March and Brooks 

Fields in 1931. The Taj Mahal at Randolph, originally constructed as the base administration building, 

ingeniously enclosed a 50,000-gallon water tank and soon became the symbol of flying training.69

The Materiel Division’s aeronautical development and testing complex at Wright Field benefited 

from the expansion program. Although the majority of the original technical buildings were completed 

prior to the dedication of Wright Field in October 1927, construction continued on buildings to accommodate the design and testing of whole airplanes, parts, and equipment. Facilities completed in 1929 

included the Aircraft Radio Lab, a facility to house the large wind tunnel that moved from McCook 

Field, the post fire station, and the central heating plant. Earmarked appropriations of $300,000 in FY 

1931 funded the construction of 18 buildings between 1930 and 1933 to house research, development, 

and testing functions.70 

The Five-Year Plan called for establishing a large base to house a full wing in the southern U.S. 

The city of Shreveport, Louisiana, purchased more than 23,000 acres with local bond revenue and 

donated the land to the federal government in November 1930. The Air Corps named the site Barksdale 

Field and developed it to include a gunnery and bombing range. It ultimately became home to the 3d 

Attack Group.71 

The construction at Barksdale, Randolph, and Wright Fields gave each airfield its own distinctive architectural style. This reflected the Army’s intention in the late 1920s to infuse thoughtful and 

comprehensive design into its military complexes. The Quartermaster Corps went to great lengths to 

convey the seriousness of purpose that the technical aeronautical buildings deserved, combined with 

beauty and style, especially in the case of military housing. Wright Field with its neo-Classical brick, 

factory-style design with large windows and minimal ornamentation; Randolph and March Fields 

with their Spanish Mission style, arcades, balconies, and tile appointments; Patterson Field with its 

Quarters #1, an example of Patterson Field’s English Tudor officer’s quarters.
18 Leading the Way

English Tudor officers’ quarters; and Barksdale with its French provincial architecture reminiscent 

of New Orleans, all made bold statements about the permanency and forward-looking determination 

of the Air Corps.72

As the Air Corps prepared to enter the third year of the expansion program in June 1929, Chief of 

the Air Corps James Fechet elevated the Building and Grounds Division to one of nine divisions at Air 

Corps Headquarters charged with handling the Five-Year Plan. In FY31, a Plans Division was created 

to keep the program on track; Brig. Gen. Benjamin Foulois served as chief. That division charted a 

detailed chronological program to govern the remainder of the expansion program. Charts showed 

that $12 million worth of construction was completed at Air Corps stations by the end of FY31, only 

a small proportion of the total program originally envisioned. Ultimately, two stations were added to 

the Five-Year Program—Rockwell and Middletown—and the end date for the program was extended 

to 1933.73

Until 1932, the bulk of appropriations was directed towards barracks and new housing. During 

the last two years of the program, flying field facilities and technical buildings received increased 

emphasis. Significantly, the word “runway” was mentioned for the first time in the annual report of 

the Chief of the Air Corps in 1932. The report also mentioned that hydraulic gasoline systems were 

being installed at selected airfields.74

Both housing and technical construction programs fell short of their goals and Congress cancelled 

or postponed a number of unfinished projects at the end of the program. Changing technology was 

responsible for delays; program requirements were a moving target. Larger aircraft required larger 

hangars, generally increasing hangar width from 110 to 120 feet. New fire prevention systems and 

other improvements added to the cost of design and construction.75

Despite some shortcomings, the Five-Year Plan resulted in significant gains in the number and 

quality of installations. The Air Corps oversaw the construction of more than $34 million worth of 

housing units for its personnel and $20 million in research, development, and test facilities that endured 

through the beginning of World War II.76

THE HEART OF THE DEPRESSION

When the Air Corps expansion program officially ended in 1933, the Air Corps still found itself 

with many unfulfilled requirements for modernized construction. A significant amount of construction 

was performed under the auspices of relief agencies established during President Franklin Roosevelt’s 

“New Deal.” Beginning in 1933, funds appropriated to the Civil Works Administration, the Federal 

Emergency Relief Administration, the Public Works Administration, and later the Works Progress 

Administration helped accomplish projects that otherwise might have gone unfunded during sparse 

economic times, and relief workers provided much of the labor involved. Approximately $1.5 billion 

Source: Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen II, “The Buildings & Grounds Office of the Army Air 

Corps 1918 – 1944,” Mar 29, 1944, 13-19.
Laying The Foundation 19

in relief funds was channeled to construction and maintenance of airways and airports, both civil and 

military, from 1933-1939, and monies from relief agencies continued to augment construction on Air 

Corps bases through 1941.77 

The Materiel Division at Wright Field, in particular, worked in harmony with national relief 

programs to get projects done and employed a large number of personnel under various public and 

civil works programs. In FY 1935 over $500,000 in projects was performed at Wright Field by public 

contract under supervision of the Constructing Quartermaster. Those projects included construction 

of a new static test building for aircraft structures and the large Technical Data building that became 

the home of the Army Aeronautical Museum. In FY 1937, and again in FY1938, $76,000 in projects 

was allotted to Wright Field by the Works Progress Administration (WPA). A total of nearly $120,000 

in WPA projects was performed in FY 1939 under supervision of the Chief of Maintenance, primarily 

repairs and improvements to buildings, grounds, and public utilities. In FY 1940, WPA funds allocated 

for work at Wright Field exceeded $221,000. The Civilian Conservation Corps also maintained camps 

on a number of Air Corps installations. The young men living in the camps had no official relationship 

with the military posts, but they did assist with grounds maintenance and other tasks.78

Another positive aspect of the Depression was that manufacturers, while business was at a very low 

ebb, were able to place within the reach of the construction industry many new materials, particularly 

non-corrodible alloys that retained their original luster, ceramic products in a wonderful range of 

colors, and acoustical materials that could be used for sound absorption as well as interior decoration. 

Those improvements showed up in many military buildings, especially those that featured Art Deco 

architecture.79

The first fireproof hangars were developed, involving gypsum fireproofing of steel structures, and 

were adopted for general use. A deluge-type automatic sprinkling system for protecting airplanes and 

equipment in hangars was developed from tests at the U.S. Bureau of Standards for the Chief of the 

Air Corps.80

By 1937, advancements in mechanical ventilating systems made it possible to maintain positive 

pressure for sterile environments, and the air supplied to medical facilities could be heated, cooled, 

cleansed by washing, humidified, or sterilized by ultra-violet rays. Air conditioning was beginning to 

make an appearance in buildings with specialized functions, such as equipment repair and calibration 

facilities.81

GENERAL HEADQUARTERS AIR FORCE EMPHASIS ON NATIONAL DEFENSE

The creation of General Headquarters Air Force on March 1, 1935 led to an increased emphasis 

on air bases as centers of air power for national defense. The General Headquarters Air Force concept partially fulfilled the idea of a “combat air force” separate from the Air Corps’ aviation support 

function assigned to Army units. General Headquarters Air Force did not come under the operational 

jurisdiction of the Chief of the Air Corps but existed beside it, reporting directly to the Chief of Staff 

of the Army. Brig. Gen. Frank Andrews commanded the “independent air striking force” from his 

headquarters at Langley Field. The tactical units of the Air Corps were organized under three wings. 

These wings were headquartered at Langley, Barksdale, and March fields. In July 1936, to further 

delineate responsibilities, the Air Corps was given jurisdiction over its own permanent peacetime stations. Prior to this delineation, Army Corps Area commanders were in control of those installations.82

The location of Air Corps bases increasingly became integrated with general War Department plans 

for defense. A number of boards and committees conducted studies to define the exact requirements to 

assure an effective air defense. Those efforts included analyzing the number and types of aircraft for 

procurement, and methods to build air bases. Planning and discussion culminated in the introduction of 

several bills in Congress to establish air bases for the defense of the nation. The Wilcox Act of 1935 was 

the most important piece of legislation affecting flying installations. Its provisions gave the Air Corps 
20 Leading the Way

the latitude to determine which sites should be developed within available appropriations. Almost all 

new installations and expansions of existing facilities after 1935 drew their authority from that Act.83

In December 1935, Gen. Oscar Westover became Chief of the Air Corps. Brig. Gen. Henry “Hap” 

Arnold served as his Assistant Chief beginning in January 1936. General Westover reorganized the 

office of the Chief along typical Army A-staff lines (A-1, A-2, etc.). The Buildings and Grounds 

Section came under the Supply Division of the A-4. In April 1936, General Arnold issued a memo 

to the Chief of the Supply Division suggesting that priority be given to the construction of technical 

buildings over housing. A special board of officers, including four brigadier generals, was convened to 

consider the ways and means of accomplishing essential construction. The board established priorities 

in line with Arnold’s direction. In order of importance, those priorities were: runways and airfields; 

technical and operational construction; administrative and general supply construction; and finally, 

housing and miscellaneous.84

The first major project to be approved was an air depot for the west coast in Sacramento, California. 

Construction began on the Pacific Air Depot after the constructing quartermaster reported for duty in 

June 1936. The repair facilities at the depot were the most modern and complete of their kind, featuring all the machinery required to repair and reconstruct aircraft for a large portion of the Air Corps. A 

120-foot traveling crane operated the full length of the engineering shop, and trenches and pits in the 

concrete floor allowed for distribution of utilities from main junction points.85

In 1938, the depot was renamed Sacramento Air Depot and underwent a major expansion to repair 

and overhaul P-38 and P-39 fighters. Support facilities at Sacramento, such as the administration building, the hospital, quartermaster buildings, barracks and quarters were unique and featured architectural 

styles not found at other Air Corps installations. They featured reinforced concrete walls and flat roofs, 

with a modern design aesthetic. The need for economy combined with favorable climatic conditions 

influenced the choice of architectural style and construction materials.86

The second priority was the establishment of a base to defend the Pacific Northwest. In 1937, 

the city of Tacoma, Washington, donated its municipal airfield for the purpose. The War Department 

purchased the land between the airport and Fort Lewis, and construction began in 1938 on McChord 

Field.87

Hickam Field on the eastern shore of Pearl Harbor Channel was another complex base constructed 

in the 1930s. Active development of the field began in late 1935, after a seven-year delay in purchasing 

the necessary real estate. Hangars, operations buildings, and the field’s strikingly beautiful water tower 

were built in 1937. In April 1938, the constructing quartermaster received word that the size of the 

garrison was to be significantly expanded beyond original plans, necessitating revisions to the design 

to accommodate additional barracks. Appropriations for FY39 included funds for constructing more 

runways, repairing hangars, and installing additional gasoline and oil storage. The main barracks at 

Hickam was designed for a complete 3,000-man Air Corps wing, all housed and fed under a single 

roof. One-third of the officer and NCO quarters on base were multiple units in apartment-style buildings. By the end of 1940, the transformation of Hickam was complete and it became the home station 

of the 18th Wing and the Hawaiian Air Depot.88

Other important installations established in the late 1930s were the Air Corps Technical School 

at Lowry Field, Colorado; advanced gunnery and bombing ranges in the Mojave Desert near Muroc, 

California; and facilities on the Gulf Coast near Valparaiso, Florida. Maintenance and repair depots 

were built at Brookley Field, Alabama, to serve east coast bases and at Hill Field, Utah, to service 

western bases. Many operational fields received hard surface runways and modern navigational aids. 

The first Army runways to be paved were at Barksdale, Selfridge, and Mitchel Fields in the mid-1930s. 

The mission and image of the Air Corps reflected the development of the force and its serious commitment to defending the nation.89
Laying The Foundation 21

THE LIFE OF A POST ENGINEER WITH THE AIR CORPS

Little has been written about the lives of the men who served as post engineers on Army Air Corps 

bases in the 1920s and 1930s. Serving on an Air Corps base was distinct from serving on a traditional 

Army base, which was home to an infantry, armored, or cavalry unit. Most engineers were graduates 

of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, where they had little exposure to the world of Army aviation. Their experience likely was limited to visits to Stewart Field near Newburgh, New York, which 

was the closest Air Corps installation and the site for primary training for aviation cadets from the 

Academy. Once assigned to an Air Corps base, post engineers worked within a leadership structure that 

differed from traditional Army bases—with rated pilots as commanders, a culture of technology and 

new frontiers, and a mission keenly focused on the technical aspects of flying. This was a world that 

revolved around new technologies, making and breaking records, and constantly improving aircraft 

maintenance, aviation equipment, and airfields. 

There is no evidence that future Air Corps post engineers received specialized training in airdrome maintenance at West Point, Command and General Staff School or the Army War College; the 

majority likely gained expertise through on-the-job experience. Construction and maintenance at Air 

Corps stations included responsibility for real estate and utilities, which was the responsibility of the 

Quartermaster Corps at the end of World War I. It is presumed that the post engineer either worked 

for, or very closely with, the post quartermaster. Maintaining the flying field, flight line hangars, and 

maintenance facilities would have been the highest priority followed by maintenance of administrative 

buildings, barracks for Airmen, family housing, roads, and grounds. Response to crash fires on the 

flight line, as well as to base fires, was also of critical importance. From existing records, it appears 

that firefighters were largely a civilian force and worked directly for the post commander. Guidance 

for fire marshals on military installations was provided by an Advisory Bureau of Fire Protection 

organized and maintained by the National Board of Fire Underwriters.90

BUILDING FOR WAR

The United States was stunned by the fall of Poland in September 1939 and the German conquest 

of Norway, Holland, Belgium, and France in spring 1940. In early 1940, a flood of appropriations 

reached the War Department. Congress and the White House quickly approved funds for a massive 

mobilization to defend the U.S. mainland and interests in the western hemisphere. 

Despite the productive building program of the mid-1930s, the Air Corps lacked sufficient bases to 

support the military build-up anticipated. The combined number of Air Corps bases and civil airports 

in the United States were insufficient to accommodate the growing number of aircraft in production. 

An early fire station at Randolph Field, Texas, built at a cost of $14,904 in 1930.
22 Leading the Way

Existing airfields and housing also were unable to handle the growing wave of training programs for 

pilots, crews, and technical support personnel necessary to fill the ranks of a wartime Air Corps.91

The Air Corps witnessed dramatic changes between 1940 and 1942. Army Chief of Staff Gen. 

George C. Marshall signed the First Aviation Objective on June 26, 1940. It authorized the Air Corps 

to expand from 24 to 54 combat groups by April 1942, with 12,835 aircraft and 220,000 officers and 

men. In less than a year, President Roosevelt approved the Second Aviation Objective, which called for 

a force of 84 Air Corps combat groups and 400,000 troops by mid-1942. The impact on the expansion 

of ground facilities was profound.92

Few could foresee the total number of Air Corps installations that would be required to support 

training programs and operational requirements. During 1940 and 1941, the number of facilities in 

operation or under construction for the Air Corps doubled. Development of civilian airports also 

proceeded at an accelerated pace to help meet the demand. Congress allocated $139.5 million for 

the development of 399 civilian airports to meet military specifications. Personnel involved in the 

construction of civilian and military airports learned the criteria for building an efficient airfield: good 

siting, proper drainage, high-quality runway surfaces, airfield lighting, hangars, repair shops, fuel and 

oil service, facilities for pilots, meteorological service, communications equipment, customs service, 

concessions support, and good administration. All were accomplished with the greatest economy.93

 The Air Corps program included installations both stateside and beyond U.S. borders. The new 

B-17 bomber, with its 3,000-mile range, expanded the operational area of the Air Corps. Since the mid1930s, Air Corps planning had included the North and South Atlantic, Puerto Rico and the Caribbean, 

Alaska, Hawaii, and Panama. With war on the horizon, the Air Corps began looking at potential airfield 

locations in South America to support cross-Atlantic operations. In 1939, the Air Corps encouraged 

Pan American Airways to develop civil airports in various Latin American countries. In 1940, the War 

Department entered into a secret contract with Pan American Airways to build and to expand commercial airfields in Central and South America. All development funds came from the U.S. government 

and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers oversaw the projects. Constructing the fields under the guise 

of private commercial development circumvented formal military agreements with host nations.94

Organizational changes in Washington accompanied the construction program. General Headquarters Air Force was separated from the Air Corps in November 1940 and given separate status 

under the commander of the Army Field Forces. On June 20, 1941, creation of the Army Air Forces 

brought air combat forces back under the command of air leaders and consolidated control of both 

Lt. Col. Manuel Asensio played an important role in construction 

of wartime airfields in South America. Shortly after declaration 

of war in December 1941, he was assigned as a resident engineer 

in Brazil to oversee construction by Pan American Airways for 

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. During his six-month tour, he 

was responsible for monitoring construction at 17 airfields along 

the South Atlantic Air Transport route from the United States to 

Africa. He later served as the military attaché in Bogota, Columbia, 

and as commander of the Airborne Engineer Training Center at 

Westover Field, Massachusetts. He then deployed to the ChinaBurma-India Theater. He became the staff engineer for Tenth Air 

Force in Burma, where his engineers pioneered a method for cutting 

heavy equipment into several pieces for airlifting and then welded 

them back together after offloading. His last assignment during the war was as the Air Engineer 

for the Army Air Forces in China. He had a distinguished career with the postwar Air Force, and 

retired as a lieutenant general in 1960.

Lt. Col. Manuel Asensio
Laying The Foundation 23

the Air Corps and the Air Force Combat Command. With the creation of the Army Air Forces, the 

War Department transferred direct responsibility for the selection of new stations to the Army Air 

Forces Commanding General. Previously, the War Department had appointed site boards that recommended final site approvals for Army aviation installations. General Arnold now gave the Buildings 

and Grounds Division the job of evaluating site recommendations for his approval. The Division came 

up with an elaborate scoring system based on several suitability factors, such as flying weather, terrain, 

location in relation to ranges, and availability of housing. After the adoption of the Second Aviation 

Objective, the Buildings and Grounds Division decentralized the selection process even further to 

expedite procurement of new bases. The division appointed a site board for each numbered air force 

and for each of the three Army Air Forces training centers.95

Stateside Training Bases

Great urgency accompanied the construction of training bases in the continental United States. 

Between 1919 and 1939, the largest number of Air Corps pilot trainees to graduate in a year was 246. 

Under the First Aviation Objective, the goal for trained pilots rose to 12,000 a year after June 1940, 

followed by an almost immediate increase to 30,000 a year under the Second Aviation Objective. The 

demand for mechanics and technicians similarly escalated from 1,500 to 110,000 a year between 1939 

and March 1941 to meet the goal for establishing 84 combat groups. All of those pilots and technicians underwent intensive training; by July 1940 the Air Corps only had eight advanced flying schools 

and three training centers. The Buildings and Grounds Division in Washington was responsible for 

drawing up facility requirements and estimating costs to build the airfields needed to accommodate 

the rapid expansion program.96

Fortunately, General Arnold foresaw the need for rapid training of a large number of pilots as early 

as 1938 and persuaded Congress to approve a plan establishing civilian schools as the primary provider 

of flight training for the Air Corps. Nine of the nation’s best civilian schools operated primary flying 

training programs under contract to the Air Corps in the summer of 1939. By 1941, 41 schools were 

providing invaluable training. With civilian schools handling primary training, the Air Corps turned 

its attention to military basic and advanced flying training programs. These programs were held at the 

existing schools at Randolph, Kelly, and Brooks until mobilization began in earnest in summer 1940.97

Flying training fields sprang up almost overnight, mostly in the “Sunshine Belt” of the South and 

Southwest where favorable weather permitted year-round flying. Heading the list were multiple sites in 

Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and southern California. Eight airfields were placed in operation 

under the 54-group program, and 20 more authorized under the 84-group program were completed, 

or under construction, by the end of 1941. According to General Arnold, “It was not unusual to find a 

training field with dozens of planes flying above it, bulldozers on the ground finishing the earthwork, 

cement mixers turning out concrete for runways yet to be built, and men in the open still clearing 

brush from what had been grazing land.”98 Facilities construction comprised standardized wood-frame 

temporary mobilization buildings.

By early 1941, technical training facilities began to expand into the south. The sites of Keesler 

Army Airfield at Biloxi, Mississippi, and Sheppard Army Airfield at Wichita Falls, Texas, were recommended by a selection board. Land offered by those communities included local airports developed 

with relief funds between 1935 and 1939.99

Among the pilot training airfields in the south were Tuskegee Army Airfield and Moton Army 

Airfield in Alabama, where hundreds of African-American pilots were trained for service with the Air 

Corps. Under Public Law 18, the Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA) established civilian schools for 

primary pilot training for African-Americans at the Tuskegee Institute and at three other locations in 

1939. In 1941, the Air Corps was directed to organize a “Pursuit Squadron (Colored),” and the service 

began searching for a location to set up an advanced training program. The President of Tuskegee 
24 Leading the Way

Institute, Frederick D. Patterson, urged the Air Corps to consolidate the two programs at Tuskegee 

and to expand the facility. The Air Corps agreed and requested WPA funds to build Tuskegee Army 

Airfield as a separate, segregated facility near the Institute. Between 1941 and 1945, Tuskegee trained 

over 1,000 African-American aviators for the war effort.100

A second primary training field for African-American pilots was constructed near Tuskegee in 

1941 to prepare cadets for the advanced training program at Tuskegee Army Airfield. Engineers from 

Maxwell Field provided assistance in selecting and mapping the site, and Tuskegee Institute laborers 

and skilled workers helped finish the field so that flight training could start on time. In addition to pilots, 

thousands of African-American support personnel were trained as flight instructors, bombardiers, 

navigators, radio technicians, mechanics, air traffic controllers, parachute riggers, and electrical and 

communications specialists; many were trained at Chanute Field.101

The Air Corps also was involved in training British pilots on U.S. soil under a provision of the 

Lend-Lease Act to ease pressure on over-taxed training facilities in the United Kingdom. The British 

government located land to establish six flying fields, subject to approval by the Air Corps and the 

Quartermaster General. The British then purchased the land, deeded it to the U.S. government, and 

leased the airfields. The fields were operated by civilian flying schools for one dollar a year. The U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers supervised construction by private contractors, who were hired by the British 

government. Materials purchased from Lend-Lease funds were utilized. The first contingent of British flying cadets arrived in June 1941, and in July, Britain requested additional training facilities. By 

November 1941, about 3,600 British pilots were undergoing training at schools in Georgia, Florida, 

South Carolina, Alabama, and California.102

Although impressive, the pre-war construction from 1939 to 1941 was dwarfed by the airfield 

construction program that followed the U.S. entry into World War II in December 1941. Tremendous 

effort and extensive resources were expended on training facilities and operational bases, especially 

in the first six months of 1942. All of the construction was managed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which officially assumed responsibility from the Quartermaster Corps for Air Corps wartime 

construction in November 1940.

The Buildings and Grounds Division, which became an independent division within the Office 

of Chief of the Air Corps in August 1940, worked closely with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

to monitor the massive construction effort. On June 30, 1941, the division had a staff of 50 officers 

and 75 civilians divided into six sections: Administrative, Planning and Maintenance, Airports, Real 

Estate, Construction, and Foreign Projects. In December 1941, the Division moved from the Munitions 

Building to the Maritime Building and, in June 1942, moved again to Army Air Forces Annex No. 

1 at Gravelly Point near National Airport in Arlington, Virginia. Following the creation of the Army 

Air Forces, the division became a section under the Supply and Services Division, which was under 

the Assistant Chief of Air Staff for Materiel, Maintenance, and Distribution. Adding to its multiple 

responsibilities in 1943, the section also was assigned procurement and distribution of all night lighting 

equipment for the Air Corps, the Navy, and the CAA. On October 9, 1943, Col. James B. Newman, 

Jr., the chief of the Buildings and Grounds Section, was promoted to brigadier general and became the 

first general officer to head up the organization that would later become Air Force Civil Engineering. 

He served in this position for only a few weeks before being transferred to Europe. Effective June 12, 

1944, the Building and Grounds Section was reorganized as the Air Installations Division headed by 

Brig. Gen. Robert Kauch, who arrived in September to become chief of the division.103

One of the section’s highest hurdles was providing facilities for training programs. A partial solution was found in commercial hotels. Resort hotels in Miami Beach, St. Petersburg, Daytona Beach, 

and Atlantic City were leased and converted for training programs while the famous Stevens Hotel in 

Chicago was purchased by the government for a radio school. This strategy eliminated construction 

of four new schools and saved an estimated $40 million. The facilities were available immediately, 

thus avoiding construction delays and allowing vast amounts of critical war materials and labor to be 

diverted to other urgent projects. At the peak of the war, the Air Corps had lease arrangements with 
Following the dramatic German victories of early 1940, the U.S. Congress passed appropriations 

acts totaling more than $9 billion in a five-month period. Of this money, $780 million was 

earmarked for the construction of Army installations and airfields. The Construction Division of 

the Quartermaster Corps rose to the challenge. The Quartermaster Corps had a heavy burden of 

responsibilities aside from construction. Many argued that the construction program should be 

aligned under an independent Construction Division or be transferred to the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, which was better manned and equipped to manage the massive program. 

In the political maneuvering over roles and missions that ensued, Army Chief of Staff Gen. George 

Marshall ultimately agreed that the pre-war construction load was more than the Quartermaster 

Corps could handle. He suggested that the program be transferred to the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, although not all at once. On November 19, 1940, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

inherited the construction program for all Air Corps stations in the United States. The Quartermaster 

Corps transferred 83 Air Corps construction projects to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers between 

November 1940 and April 1941. Despite initial predictions of mass disruption, the transfer went 

relatively smoothly and actually led to better cooperation on the job by both agencies. 

In the year between the initial transfer and the official U.S. entry into World War II, the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers oversaw Air Corps construction work, including 42 new airfields in 

the continental United States, complete with housing and technical facilities, and expansion of 

facilities at another 25 existing Air Corps stations. In mid-1943, General “Hap” Arnold commended 

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for completing 1,100 domestic military and civil airfield projects 

for the Air Corps and Army Air Forces over the past two and a half years, commenting that the 

work had been “prosecuted with outstanding efficiency and dispatch.”

In December 1941, Congress officially completed the transfer of responsibility by turning over all 

domestic military construction to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The President quietly signed 

the legislation on December 1, 1941. The law went into effect on December 16, just in time for the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to launch the greatest military construction effort in U.S. history.

Source: Barry W. Fowle, ed., Builders and Fighters: U.S. Army Engineers in World War II, U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers Office of History, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, 1992, 20-25, 95.

Transfer of Wartime Construction from the 

Quartermaster Corps to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Laying The Foundation 25

464 hotels. Another program for which the section took responsibility was the Flight Strip Program; 

emergency landing strips were built adjacent to existing highways across the country and along the 

Alcan Highway in Canada.104

From 1939 to 1945, facilities for the Air Corps/Army Air Forces expanded to include 783 bases and 

auxiliary airfields, 12 main depots, 68 specialized depots, and 480 bombing and gunnery ranges within 

the continental United States (CONUS). Counting other support facilities, the Army Air Forces had 

2,252 domestic installations. They covered a land mass equal in area to the states of New Hampshire, 

Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut. Army Air Force projects between June 1940 and August 

1945 totaled $3.152 billion, or 29.5 percent of the total War Department construction expenditures.105. 

The network of air installations in the continental United States was valued at $100 million in 1940 

and grew to a complex worth 30 times that amount by 1945. The dollars allotted to the Army Air 

Forces expansion accounted for almost 30 percent of appropriations spent by the War Department on 

domestic military construction during the period.106
26 Leading the Way

Pressure to build new installations in the United States eased in late 1943 as the requirements 

for training bases were met and the need for continental defense diminished. Most new construction 

beyond that date was related to the very heavy bombardment training program. The Army Air Forces 

began identifying and closing excess installations, beginning with contracted functions and leased 

properties, in 1944. By the end of 1944, Army Air Forces reduced hotel leases from a peak of 464 

to 75 and placed most surplus airfields in caretaker status. Some installations were used for POW 

camps, foreign laborers’ housing, grazing leases, and other purposes. Army Air Forces transferred 84 

stations to the Navy, which needed airfields near the coasts for carrier pilot training. From a peak of 

2,252 installations as of December 31, 1943, the number declined to 1,811 by September 2, 1945. By 

the end of 1945, the Army Air Forces retained only 429 installations in the United States, including 

auxiliary fields.107

AVIATION ENGINEERS IN WORLD WAR II

While civil engineers made critical contributions to the war effort through construction on the 

home front, it was only part of the story. The other vital role that engineers played, of course, was in 

Civilian members of the Army Air Forces Buildings and Grounds Section, October 1943.

Officers of the Army Air Forces Buildings and Grounds Section, October 1943.
Laying The Foundation 27

construction undertaken by combat engineer units in support of Army Air Forces flying operations in 

all theaters of the war. General Arnold knew first-hand the importance for Airmen to have engineers 

who trained with them, spoke their language, and understood their needs. He pushed for the creation 

of aviation engineer regiments within the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to provide dedicated construction support to the Air Forces. In all, 157 Engineer Aviation Battalions saw duty during the war, 

48 of which were segregated units composed of African-American troops. In addition, 16 Airborne 

Engineer Aviation Battalions were trained to parachute in, near, or behind enemy lines with specialized small-scale equipment. They also trained in preparing landing fields for forward operations. Their 

equipment was transported by C-47s or a combination of C-47s and CG-4A Waco gliders. Nearly 

120,000 Aviation Engineers saw action in all theaters during the war. Together they built or improved 

1,000 airfields around the world.108

Aviation engineer units were versatile. They were specifically trained to rapidly construct advanced 

airfields close to, or behind, enemy lines, but they also had the skills to maintain and improve existing 

facilities. Aside from Fort Belvoir, much of their training took place at Westover Field in Massachusetts 

and Eglin Field in the Florida Panhandle. They were masters in the art of camouflaging airfields and 

constructing defensive works such as revetments to disperse and protect aircraft. They specialized 

in rapid runway repair, quickly returning to service airfields that were damaged by enemy bombing. 

Finally, to protect themselves from air and ground attack, aviation engineers were trained and equipped 

for combat as well as construction. Each unit included trained riflemen and machine gunners who could 

take active part in the defense of airdromes. Units were armed with a variety of weapons including 

bazookas, antitank and antiaircraft guns, grenade launchers, armed half-tracks, antitank mines, and a 

full complement of small arms.109

The first such unit was the 21st Engineer Aviation Regiment, activated at Fort Benning, Georgia, 

in June 1940 under the command of Lt. Col. Donald A. Davison of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 

The initial contingent comprised a handful of officers and 80 enlisted men, who moved to Langley 

Field the same month to undergo specific training. Members of the regiment constructed their own 

barracks and grounds, conducted experimental work on runways, and learned techniques for camouflaging airdromes. The experimental runway at Langley was constructed in sections with different 

techniques to expose trainees to a range of technologies—soil-cement, soil-asphalt, two types of steel 

landing mat, and soil stabilization with Vinsol resin.110

The 21st became the parent unit for a wave of aviation engineer units. Each aviation engineer 

regiment consisted of a regimental headquarters, a service company with headquarters, and three battalions. Each battalion included a headquarters company and three lettered companies (A, B, and C 

Companies). Total strength of a regiment was 79 officers and warrant officers and 2,207 enlisted men. 

Regular engineer aviation battalions were self-contained, 800-man units. Airborne engineer aviation 

battalions had 28 officers and 500 men. A few separate engineer aviation companies, not attached to 

battalions, were organized to meet specific needs when limited personnel were available.111

Each engineer aviation battalion was authorized 220 pieces of heavy construction equipment—

diesel tractors with bulldozers, carryall scrapers, graders, gasoline shovels, rollers, paving equipment, 

air compressors—and 146 vehicles, plus standard hand tools. Sets of specialized equipment, such as 

additional asphalting and concreting equipment, rock crushers, draglines, pumps, and floodlights, 

were available when needed. With three companies and supplemental labor and equipment, a battalion 

could work on up to three airfields simultaneously. Each unit also had its own contingent of equipment 

maintenance personnel, which was essential under combat conditions.112

Before the attacks on Pearl Harbor, engineers from the 21st participated in the U.S. Army General 

Headquarters Maneuvers, which were held to prepare troops for combat. They joined Company C of 

the 810th Engineer Aviation Battalion from MacDill Field to take part in the Louisiana Maneuvers.113

Maj. Gen. Lesley James McNair, who served as Chief of Staff for the Army’s General Headquarters, 

along with his staff organized the Louisiana Maneuvers to provide the most realistic scenarios possible. General McNair supported unstructured maneuvers, where commanders were free to make their 
“Whereas a little over a year ago the term ‘aviation engineer’ had no real official significance, 

we now recognize that it would be no wiser to send a long range bomber out minus a navigator 

than to attempt to operate an air force without the specially trained aviator components of the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers that had been assigned by the War Department to work intimately 

with us.” 

 

Maj. Gen. Henry H. “Hap” Arnold, “The Air Forces and Military Engineers,” 

The Military Engineer, Vol 33, No 194, December 1941, 545.

28 Leading the Way

own decisions and judgments about tactics. In addition, General McNair abolished practices such as 

simulating the destruction of a bridge while using it for transportation. He required troops to find a 

way around bridges designated as destroyed, which added realism and forced troops to consider other 

options and strategies. He also eliminated rest periods that broke the mindset of troops from actual 

maneuvers, claiming that it “lessens realism and training value.”114 The Louisiana Maneuvers took 

place between September 15 and 28, 1941 and covered 30,000 square miles of land in Louisiana. 

Approximately 330,000 men participated in the maneuvers, which were considered one of the largest 

Army versus Army challenge in history.115

The 21st Engineer Aviation Regiment was notified of its participation in the realistic training 

opportunity. They traveled from Langley Field in Virginia to Louisiana and Texas. The engineers 

arrived two weeks prior to the actual maneuvers and aligned with Company C of the 810th Engineer 

Aviation Battalion. Their primary mission was to renovate and to provide support for landing fields 

for the maneuver. They completed work on runways and taxiways and improved roads and parking. 

They also fulfilled concealment duties, camouflaging aircraft shelters and airfields to evade “enemy” 

assaults by ground or air. Their hard work was recognized. Lt. Gen. Delos C. Emmons, then Commanding General for the Air Force Combat Command, commented on their accomplishments, “these 

exercises certainly justified the requirements for Aviation Engineers and the need for many additional 

ones becomes more and more apparent.”116

One example of their construction efforts was the expansion of runways at Monroe Airport in 

Louisiana. In order to complete the job, aviation engineers transported 1,500 cubic yards of gravel 

from 10 miles away. The gravel was placed, packed down, graded and topped with asphalt. The runway 

was increased by 500 feet within two weeks. Other work included the removal of vegetation and other 

hazards located around runways. Work at the airfield in Natchitoches, Louisiana required hauling 2,000 

cubic yards of fill-gravel from a location 21 miles away. In Beaumont, Texas, the airport runways were 

extended by 1,000 feet using 10,000 cubic yards of shell provided by the municipality. Concealment 

efforts at the Natchitoches airfield included the creation of fake hedgerows, creating the appearance of 

a divided pasture. At Camp Beauregard, the 21st Engineers Aviation Regiment simulated farm houses 

using webs of wire to mask the airfield. Another camouflage technique involved painting circles on 

the runway to create the appearance of an orchard from the air. The engineers also created “dummy 

planes” out of wood and burlap to serve as decoys for bombers flying overhead. These deception 

techniques were ideal because the imitations were not detectable as decoys by cameras at 15,000 feet 

or through visual observation from 10,000 feet. Reconnaissance flights were rarely flown below an 

altitude of 10,000 feet because of the risk of attack by the opposition.117

At the conclusion of the Louisiana Maneuvers, the 21st Engineer Aviation Regiment made its way to 

the Carolinas to join the First Army (IV Corps) Maneuvers, where it constructed the first field airdrome 

in the United States with a pierced steel plank runway. The runway was 3,000 feet long and was created 

for use by the 1st Air Support Command. It was designated the “Marston Strip” and was located in 

Hoffman, North Carolina. The runway took 11 days to complete and required 18 train cars of pierced 

steel planks. The steel planks were developed by the Carnegie Illinois Steel Company to address the 

need for transportable material for use in runway construction. When General Arnold reviewed the 
The Army Soils Control School at Harvard University was an important contributor to winning the 

air war. Sponsored by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the school was the brainchild of Professor 

Arthur Casagrande. As a consultant on airfield design during spring 1942, Casagrande realized 

the Army needed men trained in soils engineering. He established a six-week course for officers; 

the first class of 24 newly-commissioned lieutenants reported to Harvard on July 3, 1942. They 

received a rapid but intensive survey of soil mechanics and related subjects, including laboratory 

sessions, field trips, and lectures by top experts in the field. The course was given repeatedly until 

mid-1944 and graduated 400 students. The Aviation Engineers made good use of their knowledge 

at airfield projects around the world. As one general officer commented in late 1943, “What we 

have learned in our civil works program about soil strengths . . . has contributed to feats of military 

engineering that have astonished the world.” 

Soils School

Source: Lenore Fine and Jesse A. Remington, United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, 

The Corps of Engineers: Construction in the United States, Center of Military History, U.S. Army, Washington, D.C. 1989, 642-643.

Laying The Foundation 29

completed runway at Hoffman, he declared it “the year’s greatest achievement in aviation.”118 The 21st 

continued its efforts in the Carolina maneuvers, camouflaging the Laurens and Spartanburg airports in 

South Carolina and grading runway extensions at several other airfields. Afterward, the 21st Engineers 

reported that the maneuvers lived up to the 21st regimental motto: “Expect Anything.” 119

The 803d and 804th Engineer Aviation Battalions were created from the 21st Engineer Aviation 

Regiment cadres and were shipped immediately to the Hawaiian Islands in March and April 1941. 

They did not have the advantage of taking part in exercise maneuvers or receiving initial training at 

a technical training center. They became the first aviation engineers to see combat during the attacks 

on Pearl Harbor and Hickam Field in December 1941.120

Recognizing the increasing numbers of aviation engineer units, the Headquarters, U.S. Army Air 

Forces in Washington, D.C., formally established an engineer component in 1940. The position of Air 

Engineer was established by May 1941. The role of the Air Engineer was to advocate for specialized 

training and equipment for aviation engineer units in airfield construction and to monitor the overall 

functioning of the units for the Air Staff. Brig. Gen. Stuart C. Godfrey held the position of Air Engineer from May 1941 until December 1943, when he was sent to India to supervise the construction 

of B-29 bases. His successor, Col. George Mayo, then served as the Air Engineer until the end of the 

war. During an Air Staff reorganization effective March 29, 1943, the Air Engineer became a separate 

office within the AC/AS Materiel, Maintenance and Distribution office, which was one of six offices 

reporting to the Chief of the Army Air Forces. The staff office in Washington was modest in size and 

had no direct command authority over the aviation engineer units stationed in theaters of war. The Air 

Engineer maintained liaison with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the AAF Materiel Command 

concerning training and equipment issues for the aviation engineers. He also published an excellent 

journal, Aviation Engineer Notes, which served as a source of technical guidance for engineers dispersed worldwide and gave them a sense of identity and esprit de corps.

121

Command authority over aviation engineer units was vested in the respective theater-of-war commanders where the units were stationed. In Washington, D.C., the Operations Division of the War 

Department General Staff, rather than the Air Engineer, was responsible for distributing battalions on 

the basis of strategic need and availability of shipping. As the war progressed, command and control of 

in-theater aviation engineer units varied. The most common command structure in which aviation engineers served was through the Supply of Services, where aviation engineers were grouped with Navy 

and Army engineers and assigned to projects as needed, or through a theater engineer command.122

In the period between the beginning of World War II in Europe on September 1, 1939 and the 
The commanding officer of the first-ever aviation engineer unit was Col. Donald Angus Davison. 

As the head Engineer for General Headquarters Air Force, he played a major role in organizing 

aviation engineer battalions to support the Army Air Forces in World War II. 

A 1915 graduate of the U.S. Military Academy, Colonel Davison 

had a broad background not only as an engineer but also as an 

educator. He served with the 11th Engineer Regiment in Panama 

and later as the District Engineer at the Louisville District of the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers. He also spent two years as a professor 

of Military Science and Tactics at Yale University and another two 

years as Senior Instructor at the Engineer School at Fort Belvoir. 

As a major and lieutenant colonel, he served as an instructor at the 

Army Command and Staff College at Fort Leavenworth from 1932-

1936. One of his fellow instructors was Lt. Col. Lewis Brereton, 

who later became commander of the Ninth Air Force during World 

War II and a strong supporter of Colonel Davison and his wartime 

engineers. 

In June 1940, Colonel Davison was appointed commander of the 21st Engineer (Aviation) 

Regiment, which was activated at Fort Benning, Georgia, in October 1939. In 1941, while serving 

as the General Headquarters Air Force Engineer, he developed the plan to permit the Army Air 

Forces, through the aviation engineers, to build their own bases in forward areas. After the United 

States entered World War II, he served as the chief engineer under Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower 

for the Allied Force Headquarters in England. He also served under Gen. Carl A. Spaatz for the 

Northwest African Air Forces in the critical early months of the North African campaign. He 

established and took charge of the XII Air Force Engineer Command (later renamed Army Air 

Forces Engineer Command, Mediterranean Theater of Operations) in late 1943. He was the first 

aviation engineer to lead a dedicated Engineer Command. He also served as the Fifteenth Air 

Force Engineer. 

In March 1944, he was ordered to Washington, D.C. to serve as the Air Engineer at Headquarters 

Army Air Forces. He was on detached service in Bangalore, India, when he fell ill and died on May 

6. His untimely death came as a blow to his colleagues and deprived the engineering community of 

one of its brightest leaders. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery and was posthumously 

promoted to Major General. Davison Army Airfield at Fort Belvoir, Virginia, is named in his honor.

Brig. Gen. Donald A. Davison

30 Leading the Way

attacks on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the Air Corps oversaw a series of dramatic construction 

efforts throughout the western hemisphere. By 1941 the Army Air Corps was in a decidedly better 

position to train combat air forces and to engage in actual combat than the nascent air arm of the Army 

24 years earlier. 

Alaska 

The Air Corps recognized the strategic importance of the Territory of Alaska and began conducting 

aerial photography and surveys for mapping during the late 1920s. The concern that Alaska might one 

day come under attack was not new; plans for at least one military airfield in the unprotected territory 

surfaced as early as 1935. 
Laying The Foundation 31

The Air Corps was interested in the route to Alaska and in bases for the defense of Alaska itself, 

including the expansive Aleutian chain that stretched toward Japan. In 1936, General Arnold ordered 

a survey of possible sites for airway stations from Seattle to Juneau; at the time, there were only five 

landing fields more than 2,000 feet long in the entire territory. The resulting report recommended five 

sites that, if developed, would permit military aircraft to reach Alaska avoiding Canadian air space. 

In late 1936, the War Department appointed a board of officers to select a site in the vicinity of 

Fairbanks for an aviation base. As a result of funding restraints, it took three years for the plans to 

move forward. The Air Corps wanted to establish two bases in Alaska, one for operations and one 

for cold weather research. The original intention to host both missions at one base proved unrealistic. 

Anchorage, which was strategically located along the southern Alaska coast, was selected as the site 

for a main tactical base; it could be supplied much easier and had a more equable climate. Fairbanks, 

which had the climatic conditions ideal for experimental flying, was selected as the home of the Army’s 

major cold weather experimental station.

The first construction personnel arrived at Fairbanks in fall 1939 to begin building Ladd Field. To 

the surprise of all, according to General Arnold, they accomplished what was previously considered 

impossible. Concrete work and carpentry proceeded throughout the winter. By early summer 1940, 

construction was well underway. Troops began arriving to man the Air Corps’ first aerial arctic outpost 

in September 1940. They conducted tests to determine better methods of equipping aircraft for arctic 

operations.123

In June 1940, construction began on Elmendorf Field at Anchorage. The field was adjacent to 

the principal Army headquarters at Fort Richardson. Plans for Elmendorf were coordinated with 

the construction of Navy air and submarine bases in the Aleutians, at Sitka, Kodiak, and at Dutch 

Harbor in Unalaska, which the Army would also use. A temporary hangar was ready by early 1941, 

and flying units began to arrive from the United States. By fall, the field was capable of supporting 

tactical operations.124

Troop labor helped construct needed bases along the route to Alaska. The War Department collaborated with the CAA, which had a program to build and improve airfields in the territory, to construct 

two bases in the Alaska Panhandle. The first was at the southern tip of Annette Island and the second 

was near the village of Yakutat at the northern end. With fields in those two locations, aircraft could 

make the 1,500-mile trip from Seattle to Ladd Field in relative safety. Apprehensive that the CAA 

would take too long to build the fields, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers recommended that combat 

engineers build the field at Annette. It assigned the job to the 28th Engineer Aviation Regiment. 

Two battalions of the 28th Engineer Aviation Regiment accompanied by two companies of the 

Civilian Conservation Corps from Oregon and California and 35 civilian technicians began work at 

Annette in late August 1940. The regiment also sent a detachment to perform work at Yakutat. The 

(above) Construction on Elmendorf’s runway.

(right) Construction at Elmendorf Field, 1941.
32 Leading the Way

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Seattle District, supervised the construction of two 5,000-foot asphalt 

runways, concrete aprons and taxiways, a hangar, a dock, a seaplane ramp, roads, housing, and storage facilities at Annette. Work continued into 1941, when the 802d Engineer Aviation Battalion was 

occupied fully developing the airfield at Annette. Their work included lengthening the runways to 

7,500 feet. Meanwhile, the 807th Engineer Aviation Company was making improvements at Yakutat.125

The Air Corps also relied on the CAA to provide additional airfields in Alaska for emergency 

landings and observation points. In 1939, the CAA began to build airports and airway facilities in 

Alaska that conformed to military standards. In 1941, the CAA completed Class III defense airports 

with 4,000 to 6,000-foot runways at Juneau, Northway, Big Delta, and Nome; work at seven other 

sites also was underway. Construction at all of the Alaskan bases posed incredibly difficult challenges 

for engineers.126

Panama

The Air Corps considered the Canal Zone the most critical to defend of all the outlying U.S. territories. In January 1939, when Secretary of War Harry Woodring and Army Chief of Staff Gen. Malin 

Craig outlined their defense program before the House Committee on Military Affairs, they requested 

$23 million to improve air power in Panama.127

France Field on the Atlantic side of the Canal Zone and Albrook Field on the Pacific side were 

air bases of long standing. Howard Field, originally part of Fort Kobbe at the Pacific end of the 

Canal Zone, was expanded dramatically starting in 1940. Rushed to completion by the Constructing 

Quartermaster, 10,000 acres of impenetrable vegetation at Howard were transformed into a “thriving, 

highly-industrialized city of 5,000 inhabitants.” The work was completed in less than a year and it 

became an independent installation in June 1941. All structures were permanent buildings of concrete 

and steel designed to withstand the rigors of the harsh climate. The concrete runway was constructed by 

the Severin Company, which provided its own equipment and labor. The Constructing Quartermaster 

oversaw the grading and supplied the needed materials. More than 85,000 square yards of concrete 

were placed by Panamanian laborers in 21 days. The new concrete was first covered with water-soaked 

burlap, followed by a coat of black asphalt emulsion to avoid cracking caused by high temperatures 

and rapid evaporation during curing.128

The only U.S. defense installation outside the Canal Zone was Rio Hato Airfield, 50 miles southwest of the Pacific entrance to the canal. The field, which originally was a private landing strip for a 

nearby resort, was leased by the Air Corps for 200 dollars a month. By 1939, it had become so important 

for defense that Air Corps commanders in the Canal Zone urged the War Department to buy the field 

or to lease it on a long-term basis. In August 1939, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers acquired $2.5 

million to improve the road from the Canal Zone to Rio Hato, and, in late 1939, the 11th Engineers 

began to improve the airfield. Construction accelerated in the summer of 1940 when materials and 

heavy equipment arrived by sea. That year the rainy season lasted from May to December and Col. 

Earl North, the Canal Zone’s department engineer, complained that “the clayey earth became a soft 

sticky gumbo.” The 11th Engineers also built a 2,000-man camp for the 9th Bombardment Group, 

which arrived in November 1940.129

In 1941, Gen. Frank Andrews, commander of the Caribbean Air Force, pressed for the completion 

of nine auxiliary airfields in Panama. Technically, the Quartermaster Corps was still responsible for 

the construction. The Constructing Quartermaster was over-extended and the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers insisted that engineers be allowed to complete the work. Beginning in March, two companies 

of the 11th Engineers were assigned to the fields and were assisted by the 805th Engineer Aviation 

Company. Their goal was to accomplish as much work as possible before the start of the rainy season. 

By June, six emergency landing strips were graded and ready to receive aircraft.130
Laying The Foundation 33

Atlantic and Caribbean Bases 

In the North Atlantic, the United States was vulnerable to the action in Europe via Iceland, Greenland, and Newfoundland, none of which had adequate air defenses. In the South Atlantic, Natal on 

the exposed angle of Brazil, was only 1,600 nautical miles from the coast of Africa. The islands of 

the Caribbean were poorly fortified, leaving the eastern approaches to the hemisphere vulnerable to 

considerable German submarine traffic patrolling the waters.

Solidarity of the nations in the Western Hemisphere was reaffirmed in the Declaration of Lima in 

December 1938. The declaration led to a series of inter-American agreements. Unlike the Pacific, plans 

for defense in the Atlantic depended on such agreements to secure privileges from individual nations 

or from friendly European powers that still had possessions in the region. The impetus to band together 

for common defense became stronger after Germany invaded western Europe in early 1940. It appeared 

that England might also fall under the Nazi advance, denying the Allies friendly bases within striking 

distance of Germany. In August 1940, the governments of the United States and Canada established a 

permanent joint board to coordinate defense measures for North America. The board decided that Air 

Corps units should be stationed at Newfoundland Airport at Gander Lake as soon as possible, where 

U.S. troops assisted with maintenance. Eventually the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers supplemented 

Gander by building Harmon Field at Stephenville on Newfoundland’s west coast.

Construction in Iceland also received an early priority. England occupied the island in May 1940, 

following an air attack by Germany in February. The United States agreed to supplement and eventually to replace the British garrison there. Army aviation engineers ultimately worked on four airfields 

in the country. Two companies of the 21st Engineer Aviation Regiment, later designated the 824th 

Engineer Aviation Battalion, arrived in Reykjavik on July 7, 1941 as part of the first Army contingent 

on the island. They augmented the construction program begun by the British at Reykjavik Field and 

at Kaldadharnes Airdrome 35 miles southeast of the capital. Although the airfields were usable, they 

needed considerable work to conform to U.S. standards; they had to be expanded to accommodate 

heavier air traffic. The first priority was to complete troop housing, covered storage, and hospital 

facilities and to extend the docks in Reykjavik harbor. Once heavier construction equipment arrived, 

they laid the foundation for a British prefabricated hangar, paved hangar aprons, and supervised construction of perimeter roads surrounding the base. Iceland had no railroads, and the lack of roadways 

made long-distance hauling of bulk supplies impossible. Other than rock, sand, and gravel, all engineer 

supplies had to be shipped from the United States and Britain.131

In November 1941, U.S. engineers began working at the Kaldadharnes site. Survey parties began 

laying out what was to become the largest airfield in Iceland at Keflavik, 25 miles southwest of the 

capital. The Keflavik airdrome was just a grass field with a runway 1,000 yards long and 50 yards 

wide, suitable for emergency use only. Two separate fields, Meeks Field for bombers and Patterson 

Field for fighter aircraft, eventually were built and were ready for operation in early 1943.132

In mid-1941, the Air Corps Ferrying Command began ferrying American-built planes to friendly 

nations overseas as part of the Lend-Lease program. Until the bases in Iceland were fully operational, 

the northern route to Europe ran from Bolling AFB to Montreal, to Gander Lake, and then to Prestwick 

Airport at Ayr, Scotland. In 1941, the United States entered into an agreement with Denmark, granting the United States the right to construct, maintain, and operate landing fields and other facilities 

in Greenland, in exchange for limited defense responsibilities on the island. A company of the 21st 

Engineers installed a temporary 3,500-foot pierced-steel plank runway at Bluie West 1 in Greenland 

in fall 1941. The southern route to Europe initially ran from Miami to Trinidad, through Belem or 

Natal in Brazil, and on to Bathurst, Gambia. Additional bases in British and Dutch Guiana became 

available through yet another initiative.133

In September 1940, President Roosevelt announced that he had reached an agreement with Great 

Britain to transfer 50 aging U.S. destroyers in exchange for the right to establish air and naval bases 
34 Leading the Way

at eight strategic British possessions in the Atlantic and the Caribbean. A 99-year lease gave the 

United States access to Newfoundland, Bermuda, the Bahamas, Jamaica, Antigua, St. Lucia, Trinidad, 

and British Guiana. By the end of October, a board of Army, Navy, and Marine Corps officers had 

visited each location and selected sites for potential military installations. General Marshall assigned 

construction at those locations to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The Chief of Engineers formed 

a Caribbean Division to direct the work and set up four new construction districts in Newfoundland, 

Bermuda, Jamaica, and Trinidad. After the U.S. entry into the war, several more bases were added in 

the Caribbean on Curaçao, Aruba, Surinam, and Cuba.134

The greatest progress in air defense in the Caribbean between 1939 and 1941 took place in Puerto 

Rico, where the emergency strip at Borinquen Field was quickly transformed into a major air base 

(renamed Ramey in 1948). Construction also began on Losey Field. By spring 1941, sufficient aircraft 

and personnel were on the island to activate a composite wing. By the time Pearl Harbor was bombed, 

Gen. Frank Andrews commanded 300 Army aircraft in the Caribbean area, but all heavy bombers and 

most of the best fighters were stationed at bases in Panama.135

Hawaii and the Pacific

The United States had maintained air stations in Hawaii and the Philippines since the early years of 

military aviation. By 1940, Wheeler and Hickam were the two major Army airfields located on Oahu 

in the Territory of Hawaii. Army air units stationed there—the 18th Bombardment Wing at Hickam 

and the 14th Pursuit Wing at Wheeler—existed primarily for defense of Pearl Harbor and other naval 

and military installations on the island. Oahu also had an observation squadron at Bellows Field, 28 

miles from Hickam, and a pursuit squadron in training at Haleiwa in the northern part of the island.136

Planners knew that significant development and expansion of facilities would be required, both 

to provide defense for the territory and to allow Hawaii to provide transit services for aircraft being 

ferried to the Philippines and points in the Pacific. The Honolulu District of the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers drew up plans to expand runways to at least 5,000 feet. Eight runways were to be enlarged 

and modernized and two new ones were added. The Hawaiian Department commander lacked resources 

and progress was slow. Engineers made up only three percent of his garrison, versus the more typical 

eight to ten percent. The Department especially needed aviation engineers. The 804th Engineer Aviation 

Company arrived in April 1941, followed by the 34th Engineer Combat Regiment in June. The 804th 

was soon raised to battalion strength. By mid-summer work was underway on five military airfields: 
Laying The Foundation 35

three on Oahu, one on the island of Hawaii, and one on Kauai. With the help of the CAA, emergency 

and auxiliary fields also were established on each island in the Hawaiian group.137

In fall 1941, the United States began deploying B-17 bombers to reinforce the Philippines. The 

existing ferrying route that traversed Midway, Wake, and Guam risked exposure to Japanese forces in 

the Mandated Islands (former German possessions in the Marianas, Carolines, and Marshalls). The 

Army Air Forces received approval to develop a more secure route via the South Pacific and Australia. 

The War Department allotted an initial $5 million, and in mid-October 1941 construction was ordered 

for Christmas Island, Canton Island, Fiji, and New Caledonia. Construction was also planned for 

Australia at Townsville and Darwin, and at Fort Stotsenburg in the Philippines. The project received 

the highest priority rating of A-1-a to meet an anticipated completion date of January 1942.138

Each location initially had one 5,000-foot runway suitable for heavy bombers and all were eventually expanded to include three runways at least 7,000 feet long, with gasoline storage facilities and 

buildings for servicing crews. Australia, New Zealand, and the Free French collaborated to complete 

much of the initial construction, but the 804th Engineer Aviation Battalion aided by civilians completed most of the work on Christmas Island. The largest obstacle for all of the projects was delivery 

of supplies and equipment to the remote Pacific outposts, particularly given the priorities system in 

the military procurement chain.139

In the Philippines, there were only two Army airfields in 1940, Nichols Field south of Manila 

and Clark Field about 50 miles northwest of the capital. Nichols had a paved runway but, like the 

turf strips at Clark, was too small to handle B-17s safely. By October 1940, $4 million was allotted 

to develop a network of modern airfields—four on Luzon, two on Mindanao, and a score of smaller 

fields to disperse B-17s throughout the islands. The scope of the project was overwhelming for the 

small engineer department in the Philippines, which struggled to get construction underway before 

the start of the rainy season in June. With no construction troops available, the department retained 

local construction firms. Work began in April 1941 on four projects on Bataan Field. In June, work 

began on Kindley Field on Corregidor, and within the next three months ground was broken on new 

airfields at Del Monte and Malabang on Mindanao and O’Donnell on Luzon. Crews battled mud and 

torrential rains throughout the monsoon season and were hampered by the 7,000-mile supply line 

from the United States.140

The arrival of aviation engineers in July boosted the airfield construction program. The 809th 

Engineer Aviation Company reported to Nichols Field with a complement of modern equipment. 

The engineers worked around the clock operating their own machinery and managed 800 unskilled 

local laborers working on the project. At Clark Field, the 803d Engineer Aviation Battalion arrived in 

October 1941 and began extending the turf runways. Company A of the 803d took over the project at 

O’Donnell Field, and Company B of the 803d worked on Del Carmen Field on the Bataan peninsula. 

Effective December 1, the 809th became Company C of the 803d. By late 1941, five airfields in the 

Philippines stood ready to handle B-17s, three on Luzon and two on Mindanao. They would see action 

much sooner than they anticipated.141

England

The first aviation engineers arrived in England in late spring 1942. Their mission was to help 

general service regiments build bases for the scores of U.S. aircraft that were soon arriving. They then 

turned their attention to how to support air operations for the invasion of the continent. The number of 

bases required to bed down the U.S. force became a moving target, especially after planners decided to 

base two numbered air forces in England (Eighth and Ninth); one was strategic and one was tactical.

In four short months, the number of aviation engineers in the country grew from 2,150 in July 1942 

to over 40,000 in November, but nearly 19,000 of them were soon drawn off to support the war in 

North Africa when that theater opened.142
36 Leading the Way

The engineers faced two principal challenges. The first was that they lacked sufficient training to 

do the job. The number of recruits assigned to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers doubled in the first 

six months of the war and they deployed almost immediately. Many units were brought up to strength 

only at the port of embarkation. Aviation engineers were lucky to receive even basic training, much 

less specialized training. For example, the 830th Engineer Aviation Battalion received 82 percent of 

its enlisted men and 50 percent of its officers in just ten days between July 29 to August 9, 1942; they 

were en route to Fort Dix for embarkation on August 11. The hope persisted that basic training could 

be completed in England and that troops could learn their special skills on the job. Aviation engineers 

gained general construction experience; however, they were so busy building permanent bomber bases 

they had no time to learn how to build rudimentary emergency airfields in forward areas, much less 

specialized skills, such as removing mines and booby traps.143

The engineers’ second challenge was lack of equipment. Generally, their Class II equipment (tractors, power shovels, road graders, etc.) did not reach them until weeks after they arrived in England 

because it came by slower freighters. The 817th Engineer Aviation Battalion, which arrived in July 

1942, reported that it had one transit, 100 axes, and 100 shovels for 800 men. They began clearing 

land with hand tools. Two months after arriving in late summer, four battalions had received less than 

one-third of their heavy equipment, which they had yet to learn how to operate. They borrowed British 

equipment when it was available, but such loans were limited. It wasn’t until the end of 1942 that Army 

engineer units in England had 90 percent of their heavy construction equipment and 70 percent of their 

vehicles. Fortunately, the quality of equipment provided to the engineers was generally acceptable. 

With their heavy graders, bulldozers, paving machines and other equipment, U.S. engineers usually 

outperformed British engineers, who primarily used lighter equipment.144

Mud became a real problem when autumn rains began in mid-October 1942, turning fields into 

bogs and company areas into quagmires. During the summer, units worked double shifts to take 

advantage of the long northern days. With the shorter days of fall, they worked under lights. Two, 

and sometimes three, shifts kept heavy equipment running day and night. Lack of timber also posed 

Members of the 831st Engineer Aviation Battalion at work in England.
Laying The Foundation 37

problems for construction. In the United Kingdom virtually no construction was wooden and every 

piece of timber was under the control of the British Timber Control Board. One aviation engineer unit 

traded food for enough lumber to build concrete pouring forms. Many structures at British airdromes 

were of brick construction, which required training a large number of engineers as masons and conscripting men who were experienced in the trade as teachers.145

The Army Services of Supply controlled all construction matters in England. Despite repeated 

efforts, the Eighth Air Force was unable to gain control of the aviation engineers who were supporting 

its needs. The most telling aspect of that arrangement was the lack of training that engineers received in 

preparation for the upcoming invasion of Europe. The Services of Supply kept them so fully employed 

that they were only allotted one hour a day for combat training. They also were assigned to perform 

non-construction duties such as loading and unloading ships. Fortunately, that situation was rectified 

by the creation of IX Engineer Command prior to the Normandy invasion.146

North Africa

Three task forces spearheaded the campaign to break the Axis hold on North Africa in November 

1942. The aviation engineer units supporting those task forces were the first to see combat and prove 

their skills under combat conditions. The Western Task Force sailed directly from the United States to 

Casablanca in Morocco. Its goal was to take the port and adjacent airfield at Casablanca then establish 

communications with the Center Task Force, which had the primary mission of capturing the port of 

Oran in Algeria. An Eastern Task Force, largely British, had responsibility for seizing Algiers and its 

two airfields at Blida and Maison Blanche. 

Strung out like notes on a musical score, members of the 834th Engineer Aviation Battalion construct a 

hangar in England. 
38 Leading the Way

The 21st Engineer Aviation Regiment accompanied the Western Task Force and landed directly 

from the United States, as did two airborne aviation engineer units, the 871st Airborne Engineer Aviation Battalion and the 888th Airborne Engineer Aviation Company. The latter two units were hastily 

formed and trained at Westover Field just weeks before joining the convoy to Europe. Despite the lack 

of experience of any of the engineers, and their complete unfamiliarity with the conditions of forward 

airfield construction in a fluid campaign, they helped capture Port-Lyautey Airfield on November 10. 

After Navy destroyers silenced enemy artillery, the engineers began repairs on the airfield.147

Four engineer aviation battalions from England—the 809th, 814th, 815th, and 817th—accompanied the Center Task Force assault forces at Oran. Problems with equipment transportation quickly 

became evident. The 809th’s equipment was on a ship that developed engine trouble and was forced 

to return to England. When the 809th finally received its trucks, they had been stripped of spare tires 

and tools. The 814th had its heavy equipment appropriated by another unit after it came ashore. The 

ship carrying the 815th’s equipment was torpedoed by the Germans and sank. The 2d Battalion of the 

21st Engineer Aviation Regiment found itself using secondhand French tools and improvised equipment. Brig. Gen. Stuart C. Godfrey, Air Engineer, visited North Africa in January 1943 and reported, 

“The outstanding factor as to the aviation engineer units is their shortage of heavy equipment.... It 

cannot be too strongly emphasized that engineer troops without equipment are about as useful as pilots 

without planes.”148

Initially, U.S. units busied themselves resurfacing damaged runways near the larger cities and 

supporting air operations along the coast west of Algiers. Few runways were capable of handling the 

heavy invasion air traffic and they had to be maintained at all costs. Engineers also constructed six 

airfields in Spanish Morocco, to counter any German intentions of attacking the Allied bridgehead 

through the Spanish dependency.149

The aviation engineer units faced the obstacle of mud when they began work in earnest to build 

additional fields for the influx of aircraft. The engineers had landed during the rainy season. Brig. Gen. 

Donald A. Davison, chief engineer of the Allied Force Headquarters, described efforts to expand the 

airdrome at Tafaraoui in Algeria. “To any aviation engineer in North Africa, the word Tafaraoui does 

not mean an airport alone, it means also a malignant quality of mud; something like wet concrete and 

of bottomless depth. We still speak of any bad type of mud as Tafaraoui.”150

Meanwhile, to give maneuvering room to the aircraft mired at Tafaraoui, Twelfth Air Force flew its 

B-26 medium bombers to Maison Blanche, where the 809th Engineer Aviation Battalion began work 

on a second runway. The engineers faced the same insidious mud, but were able to lay gravel-clay 

taxiways and hardstands in a large dispersal area. In December 1942, Maj. Gen. (later General) James 

Harold “Jimmy” Doolittle, the Twelfth Air Force Commander, called for additional fields in eastern 

Algeria to bring Allied air power closer to the front lines. Acting on French advice that dry weather 

prevailed at Telergma, General Davison flew to that airfield, located on a 3,500-foot-high plateau in 

the mountains of eastern Algeria. There he found a platoon of the 809th Engineer Aviation Battalion 

already working, having come by forced march from Maison Blanche. The 809th, assisted by Algerian 

and French troops, prepared an earth runway to handle B-26s in just ten days and went on to develop 

a complex of medium bomber fields in the Telergma area.151

 The aviation engineers that were specially trained for airborne operations got their first taste of 

action at Biskra, a resort town farther south in Algeria on the fringes of the Sahara desert. General 

Doolittle wanted an all-weather airfield to base B-17s and B-24s closer to the action in Tunisia. French 

train control was so badly disrupted, he called on the 887th Airborne Engineer Aviation Company to 

bring its air-transportable equipment from Morocco, a thousand miles away. A convoy of 56 transport 

planes carried the engineers and their specially-designed miniature equipment to Biskra on December 

13, 1942. Twenty-four hours later, the first B-17 arrived from Oran. Within four days the company 

completed two new fields of compacted earth to give the heavies a dry home within easy striking 

distance of the enemy. The main runway was so wide that three B-17s could take off abreast to launch 
Laying The Foundation 39

attacks on targets in Tunis and Bizerte in northern Tunisia.152

The airfield at Bone, Algeria, the easternmost port available to the Allies, was perhaps the most 

difficult, but probably the most rewarding, to build. The only possible site for the all-weather airfield 

was a delta in the Seybouse River mouth, but the area was pure mud. Sand was available along 

the coast, but the sand dunes were on the opposite side of the river from the construction site. The 

engineers constructed a causeway across the river, a roadway on the delta, and began to haul sand 

for construction. A rare dry spell allowed them to transport the sand and finish the runway just hours 

before a rainstorm washed away the causeway. Shortly thereafter, they received the most gratifying 

of rewards. A B-26 returning from a mission became lost and was running out of fuel. While headed 

to ditch his plane in the Mediterranean Sea, the pilot happened to glance down and see “the longest 

runway he had seen in North Africa.” He made one sharp turn and landed at Bone without enough gas 

left to taxi the plane off the runway.153

Through active planning and cooperation between engineers and planners, the aviation engineers 

were almost always on the front lines; sometimes they were even ahead of them. One night General 

Davison was looking for the engineers of B Company, 814th Engineer Aviation Battalion. He was 

stopped by sentries, who wanted to know if he was aware that he was going out in front of their 

patrols. He said no but asked if a certain engineer company had come through and if they were out in 

front. The sentries replied, “Yes, if you mean those damn fools who wouldn’t pay any attention to us 

and took those big machines out, we think they are about 10 or 15 miles down the road.” He found B 

Company dug in with its defensive weapons already at work.154

The aviation engineers proved themselves in North Africa. During the campaign, ten aviation 

engineer battalions and two separate companies built or improved 129 airdromes. Gen. Carl Spaatz, 

commander of the Northwest African Air Forces, reported to General Arnold that the aviation engineers 

had proven themselves “as nearly indispensable to the Army Air Forces as is possible to ascribe to 

any single branch thereof.”155

Central to their success was the close working relationship forged between engineers and fliers in 

North Africa. One lesson learned from the early days of the North African campaign was that aviation 

engineer units were best aligned under the operational control of a single agency subordinate only to 

the air forces. Otherwise, the engineers often received conflicting orders and experienced frustrating 

delays between the time when airfield requirements were identified and when construction could 

actually begin. General Davison convinced General Spaatz of the efficacy of streamlining the chain of 

command. He was given permission to establish a separate aviation engineer command, which became 

known as XII Air Force Engineer Command, Mediterranean Theater of Operations (Provisional). On 

January 1, 1944, the name changed to Army Air Forces Engineer Command, MTO (Provisional). 

That decision played an important part in the later creation of Ninth Engineer Command prior to the 

Normandy Invasion. General Davison was appointed commanding general on November 4, 1943. 

He appointed area engineers for Northwest Africa, Sicily, West Italy, East Italy, South Italy, Sardinia, 

and Corsica.156

Sicily, Italy, and Southern France

At Casablanca in January 1943, Great Britain and the United States agreed that Sicily would be 

the next objective in the Mediterranean. A major objective was to capture airfields so Allied air forces 

could reach profitable targets in northern Italy, Germany, Austria, and the Balkans. The chief airfields 

in Sicily were clustered on the northwest portion of the island near Palermo and on the opposite end 

of the island on the southeast coast. Combat engineers were given the job of preparing landing strips 

as soon as possible after the assault, having the runways at Comiso and Ponte Olivo Airfields ready 

by D+8. They were also responsible for building bulk fuel storage and pipelines to supply aircraft that 

would use the airfields.157
Bucking Bulldozer

40 Leading the Way

Aviation engineers prepare to go to battle with “General Mud” at an airfield near Anzio, Italy.

The Aviation Engineer’s 

“Bucking Bulldozer” first 

appeared in the summer of 1943 

and represented the essence of 

engineering support to the Army 

Air Forces during World War 

II. A rather ferocious-looking 

bulldozer, with eyes, teeth, and 

wings, holds a piece of pierced 

steel planking, the material 

used to construct hundreds of 

runways, taxiways, and parking 

aprons around the world. The 

engineer riding the bulldozer 

wears a shovel on his back and 

is ready to fire his weapon. This 

was clearly a prototype for the 

RED HORSE emblem adopted 

in the 1960s.
Laying The Foundation 41

Information on Operation Husky was slow in flowing to the engineers. Unit commanders were 

briefed only after embarking for Sicily on July 10, too late for realistic pre-invasion training. They 

belatedly learned that the main assault had been redirected to the southeastern beaches of the island 

instead of Palermo. Nevertheless, the aviation engineers from the 809th, 814th, and 815th Battalions 

were able to keep up with the whirlwind campaign, repairing captured airfields at Comiso, Biscari, 

Ponte Olivo, Gela, and several other fields. At Gela they also built dummy airfields to attract German 

bombers. On the northern coast, the 815th cleared a captured airdrome near Palermo and scratched 

out bases for fighters and transports east of the city. Once the Germans withdrew, engineers prepared 

13 fields dispersed over Sicily to support projected troop-carrier operations. Permanent airfields were 

completed at Comiso, Ponte Olivo, Borizzo, and Palermo.158

The next goal in the Mediterranean was to eliminate Italy from the war. The first invasion forces 

came ashore south of Salerno as part of Operation Avalanche on September 3, 1943. A detachment of 

the 817th Engineer Aviation Battalion constructed three temporary landing strips for fighters, repaired 

Montecorvino Airfield and moved air force supplies from beaches to airfields, to support fly-in squadrons of fighters.159

The tough Italian land campaign lasted throughout the winter. U.S. aviation engineers laid emergency airstrips for fighters again in Calabria and for the campaign at Anzio. They assisted British 

engineers in building two all-weather bases in the Naples area. At Cercola, near the base of Mt. 

Vesuvius, engineers experimented with fresh volcanic ash from the brooding volcano as a substitute 

material for paving runways. When Mt. Vesuvius later erupted, immobilizing 82 B-25s, engineers 

cleared a road so that the stricken aircraft could be taxied away. From late October until January 

1944, they enlarged and strengthened six airfields and constructed eight others for heavy bombers in 

Aviation engineers used every available source of materials. Here they construct aircraft revetments using 

wooden wine barrels filled with dirt and sandbags near Anzio.
42 Leading the Way

the Apulia region, near Foggia and Cerignola. In both locales the heavy winter rains of “sunny” Italy 

caused serious but not insurmountable difficulties.160

The Allied offensive into northern Italy over the summer of 1944 was supported by the 815th, 

817th, and 835th Engineer Aviation Battalions. They built a dry-weather field on the former Anzio 

beachhead, rehabilitated a captured air base after removing several hundred Teller mines left by the 

Germans, and followed ground forces into Rome. They also readied three airfields for transports and 

medical evacuation aircraft. The 815th then continued northward, repairing cratered runways and doing 

whatever was required to make captured airdromes usable by Allied forces.161

The burden on aviation engineers became even heavier when the decision was made to develop 

airfields on Sardinia and Corsica. Again, rain and mud were their constant enemies. In Corsica, they 

faced extreme difficulties transporting supplies and equipment because the Germans—as they had 

in Italy—had destroyed every bridge and most roads. Engineers found themselves with insufficient 

equipment and personnel to accomplish their work, which ranged from repairs and drainage to building 

steel-plank or paved runways up to 6,000 feet in length. They augmented their limited personnel by 

employing small numbers of French aviation engineers on Corsica and appropriating large numbers 

of Italian prisoners of war in Italy and Sardinia. Despite all their difficulties, during November and 

December they completed, or were in the process of completing, more than 45 airfields. Construction 

of a medium bomber base at Decimomannu included widening the runway to more than 1,000 feet to 

permit six B-26s to take off simultaneously.162

All of southern Germany, including two of the largest German aircraft factories that produced 

almost 60 percent of its aircraft, was within comfortable range of the bases in southern Italy; Ploesti 

in Romania also was easier to attack. North of Naples, the aviation engineers built three new fields, 

adding to eight already available. As the Allied front moved north, Pisa, Florence, and Pontedera 

were captured and their airfields were repaired and enlarged. Aviation engineers prepared 45 tactical 

airfields and 25 bases for heavy bombers in Italy. Air operations from Italian bases split the German 

defenses. This became particularly important after the Normandy Invasion when the Eighth Air Force 

began striking deeper into the heart of the Reich.163

Normandy to V-E Day

As the campaigns waged in North Africa and Italy, the Royal Air Force and the U.S. Eighth Air 

Force prosecuted the Combined Bomber Offensive against Germany—the British flyers by night and 

the U.S. flyers by day. At the same time, the planning staff at Ninth Air Force was finalizing calculations for Operation Overlord, the campaign to liberate Europe starting with the invasion at Normandy. 

Advanced airfields clearly would be a determining factor in the success or failure of the mission 

and aviation engineers would have to construct them as rapidly as possible. They had to consider such 

factors as procedures for stockpiling materials in England and getting them delivered to France. French 

harbors silted up during the German occupation so port conditions had to be determined. Ship-to-shore 

pipelines would be needed to deliver fuel for vehicles, and the condition of local roadways, bridges, 

and inland waterways also were a concern. 

Initially, no separate engineer command was planned. In light of experience in North Africa where 

aviation engineers functioned as an integral part of the air force, the Ninth Air Force commander, Lt. 

Gen. Lewis Brereton, strongly pressed for an engineer command. He directed the engineer section 

of the Ninth Air Force headquarters to assume the functions of a command. The Ninth Air Force 

Engineer established a provisional command. Engineer aviation battalions and regiments in theater 

under the control of the Services of Supply since 1942, were transferred to the command beginning 

December 1, 1943.164

Early organization, planning, and training for the Normandy Invasion was carried out under the 

direction of Col. Karl B. Schilling until the IX Engineer Command was officially activated on March 
Laying The Foundation 43

30, 1944. The new organization, commanded by Brig. Gen. James B. Newman, Jr., had four regiments, 

each with four battalions of engineers. In addition, IX Engineer Command headquarters retained control of three airborne battalions and a camouflage battalion. They also oversaw miscellaneous smaller 

units, for a total of 20,000 men. Most battalions were veteran organizations with more than a year of 

heavy bomber airfield construction experience in the United Kingdom.165

The aviation engineers were assigned hefty goals in support of the invasion. The first was to go 

ashore with the invasion force on D-Day, together with their equipment. Their mission was to establish 

two emergency landing strips by the end of the first day, one on Utah Beach and one on Omaha Beach. 

Members of Company A of the 819th Engineer Aviation Battalion were selected to land at Utah Beach. 

Elements of the 820th and 834th Engineer Aviation Battalions were assigned to land on Omaha Beach. 

Once the emergency landing strips were in place, battalions would concentrate on building refueling 

and rearming strips on Omaha Beach by D+3 and multiple advanced landing grounds on both Omaha 

and Utah Beaches by D+14. A total of 35 advanced landing grounds were called for in the first 40 

days of combat to accommodate the operation of 58 squadrons of aircraft. A briefing officer at the 

assembly area in England set the tone for the operation when he told members of the 834th Engineer 

Aviation Battalion, “you engineers have the vital job of paving the way for the air cover to back us up 

all the way to Berlin. Each base you build will be a stepping stone toward victory because the faster 

you move and work, the faster ‘the air’ moves and gets at the enemy—up close where it counts.” The 

engineers set out with purpose and determination, but soon were enmeshed in the reality of combat.166

At 1050 hours on June 6, 1944, Lt. Herbert H. Moore led the first squad from Company A of 

the 819th onto Utah Beach. They waded the final 200 yards from their landing craft to the beach in 

waist-deep water with their waterproofed D-7 tractor close behind. Two more squads landed shortly 

afterward, bringing with them two motor graders, a 21⁄2 ton truck, and another tractor. Men and equipment dispersed on the beach with only one casualty from shrapnel and waited for the infantry to capture 

the site of the emergency landing strip they were to build. As it turned out, they had dispersed their 

equipment on mud flats, but they were able to extricate it and moved to the construction site by 1800 

hours. In a little over three hours, by 2115, they completed their mission and finished the landing strip. 

The weary engineers dug foxholes and spent their first night in France avoiding constant sniper fire.167

The landings at Omaha Beach did not go as smoothly. Elements of the 834th made repeated 

attempts to land but it was not until D+1 that they were able to beach at the nearest feasible location, 

several miles east of the planned site. The remaining elements of the unit landed up and down the 

coast. The scattered troops met at their in-transit area but found the planned sites for airfields still 

under enemy control. The lead party of the 820th likewise did not make it ashore until the second day 

of the invasion. On D+2, the two units found another suitable location near St. Laurent-sur-Mer. They 

rapidly scraped out an emergency landing strip while waiting for the other sites to be captured. In the 

meantime, the Army made an urgent request for an airstrip to evacuate wounded soldiers and to receive 

emergency supplies, so the engineers developed the emergency landing strip into a transport strip. By 

2100 hours on D+2 they had constructed a 3,500-foot by 140-foot runway that received its first aircraft 

the following morning. Although unplanned, St. Laurent-sur-Mer became the first operational U.S. 

airfield in France. For the next several weeks, an average of 100 C-47s landed at the airfield daily. 

With nearly 15,000 wounded evacuated from the airfield, it was considered the principal transport 

field in Normandy until mid-July.168

Engineers began constructing more extensive fields as soon as possible, and aircraft began flying 

sorties under the roulement process. They departed from a base in England, completed a first mission, 

and then flew one or more missions from a continental field before returning home. Fortunately, planes 

could operate from continental bases when the airfields of southern England experienced bad weather. 

Eventually, the engineers themselves received badly-needed cargo. They received critical spare parts 

by June 20 and a shipment of 5,000 rolls of Hessian mat for runway surfacing on June 27. By the end 

of June, 11 U.S. fields were in operation, with five more under construction. By August 5, the aviation 

engineers had built or improved 17 fields in the liberated area.169
44 Leading the Way

Original plans called for approximately two-thirds of the runways to be built to fighter specifications, 3,600 feet long. Given the Luftwaffe’s ineffectual reaction to the invasion, the Ninth Air Force 

decided to base fighter-bombers in France. The bombers required 5,000-foot runways of stronger 

construction to take off with full bomb loads. Fighter-bombers began operating from Normandy on 

June 19, just 13 days after the invasion. The success of the air campaign was attributable, in large 

part, to the fact that the aviation engineers were able to build and rehabilitate airfields in proximity 

to the front lines. They moved in right behind the ground forces under conditions that were uncertain 

and often dangerous. Engineers reported that they frequently came under enemy small arms fire or 

artillery attack and, occasionally, air attack. In one location, they left a hedgerow standing at the end 

of the field to screen their bulldozers from enemy snipers. Fortunately, casualties were few.170

As the First and Third Armies moved across France, it became harder to exercise control over the 

engineer units and keep them adequately supplied. To improve matters, IX Engineer Command was 

split into the 1st and 2d Engineer Aviation Brigades, with its four regiments divided evenly. Operation 

Dragoon, the invasion of southern France in August 1944, gave aviation engineers an opportunity 

to demonstrate the expertise they gained in rapid airfield construction during the Italian campaign. A 

pre-invasion bombing program began on August 10, with aircraft primarily launching from 14 airfields 

on Corsica that had been prepared by the aviation engineers. The actual invasion touched off with an 

airborne assault on August 15. Six battalions of aviation engineers went to work clearing everything 

from mines to grapevines in order to construct four new airfields and to convert 21 existing bases for 

Allied use. By the end of the first week of the operation, fighters and fighter-bombers were operating 

from bases in southern France.171

Brig. Gen. James Newman brought a wealth of experience to 

the position of Commander, IX Engineer Command. A native of 

Talladega, Alabama, he graduated from the U.S. Military Academy 

during World War I in 1918. By the time the United States entered 

World War II, he had worked in five different district engineer 

offices, had been a professor at two different universities, and 

led the design and construction of Washington National Airport. 

His first assignment with the Air Corps came in 1941, when he 

served briefly as the District Engineer at Wright Field. In October 

1941 he was transferred to the Office of the Assistant Chief of Air 

Staff, where he was appointed chief of the Buildings and Grounds 

Division. In November 1943, he joined Eighth Air Force in England 

and, in March 1944, was appointed to head the newly-created IX 

Engineer Command. Under his leadership, the engineers assigned 

to IX Engineer Command assured the success of the Normandy 

Invasion and the conquest of Europe by building, repairing, and maintaining nearly 250 airfields 

and performing essential engineer services for all U.S. and French air units. He retired in 1946, 

only to be recalled to active duty two years later for service with the new U.S. Air Force. He served 

as the Director of Installations from May 1949 to May 1950 in the rank of major general. The 

Society of American Military Engineers’ Newman Medal is named in his honor.

Brig. Gen. James B. Newman, Jr.

Source: Department of Defense Office of Public Information Press Branch, “Major General James Bryan 

Newman, Jr.,” June 5, 1950, 1-3, Files of AFCEC History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida.
Laying The Foundation 45

In August, airfields around Paris were reconnoitered 

while the Germans were still withdrawing. Engineers were 

ahead of the infantry and working under sniper fire, which 

resulted in the unfortunate deaths of two key IX Engineer 

Command officers as they investigated Le Bourget Field 

north of Paris. Col. Augustine Patterson Little, Jr., was a 

regimental commander for the IX Engineer Command. On 

August 27, 1944, Colonel Little, Col. James W. Park, Lt. 

Col. Gil Hall, and their driver, Corporal Gordon Farr, were 

completing reconnaissance efforts in an open vehicle at 

the airfield when they came under machine-gun fire from a 

wooded area. Corporal Farr was hit. In a rescue effort, the 

others attempted to move Corporal Farr from the vehicle 

An emergency landing strip built on the Normandy coast by members of the IX Engineer Command.

Hessian Matting: 

Prefabricated Hessian 

Surfacing, known as Hessian 

Matting, was a Hessian cloth 

(a type of burlap) coated 

with bitumen. It had no load 

bearing capacity, but served 

as a waterproof cover for 

runways.
46 Leading the Way

to refuge in a ditch and to administer first aid. Both Colonel Little and Colonel Hall were fired upon. 

Colonel Hall died instantly; Colonel Little was hospitalized and died days later. The French government 

created a memorial plaque to honor Colonel Little and Colonel Hall; it was hung in the main terminal 

of the airfield. During the 1970s, the plaque was damaged and subsequently lost when the building 

was rehabilitated. These men were not forgotten; in 2002 the Le Bourget Lions Club initiated efforts 

to have the plaque replaced and rededicated.172

During the fall and winter, engineers focused on enlarging and winterizing airfields with large 

quantities of pierced steel planking (PSP), the only surfacing, other than concrete, that would stand up 

through the winter. Maintaining quickly-built airfields was a serious issue, as fields steadily deteriorated 

under constant use. In August 1944, IX Engineer Command organized, out of its own resources, the 

1st Airfield Maintenance Regiment (Provisional) and attached it to the IX Air Force Service Command to maintain airfields in the rear areas. Some 10,000 French and Belgian civilians assisted in 

the maintenance work to help ease the burden. In Holland, local laborers helped the engineers build 

runways the Dutch way—out of brick. It took approximately nine million bricks to lay one runway, 

which was done expertly by the Dutch under the supervision of Airfield Construction units. By the 

end of August, six airfields were ready in the Orleans-Paris areas, and aircraft from England began 

delivering food to the residents of a liberated Paris.173

By the end of October, more than 90 percent of Ninth Air Force’s total strength was deployed on 

continental bases thanks to the efforts of the aviation engineers. Even the Germans were impressed 

by the early work of the engineers in France and Belgium, commenting that the rapid, large-scale 

construction of airfields was a notable achievement of the Allied air forces. The engineers worked a 

grueling schedule—seven days a week, 16-17 hours a day. In spite of the backbreaking work, morale 

was high because the results of their efforts were evident immediately and clearly of tremendous 

benefit to the overall campaign.174

An airfield built by the 834th Engineer Aviation Battalion at St. Pierre Du Mont, France. 
Laying The Foundation 47

As more and more fields were constructed and demands continued to increase, it became obvious 

that providing continental airfields was more than just a IX Engineer Command problem—it was a 

theater air force problem. In October, Gen. Hugh Knerr established an Engineer Command (Provisional) at Headquarters U.S. Strategic Air Forces (USSTAF). In February 1945, IX Engineer Command 

was transferred from Ninth Air Force to USSTAF. This placed all U.S. aviation engineer units under 

one command and established the construction and maintenance of airfields as a responsibility of the 

theater air force rather than of Ninth Air Force. By then, there were about 23,000 aviation engineers 

in theater. Colonel Mayo, Army Air Forces Air Engineer, described the organization “as nearly ideal 

as is practicable for a theater of this nature.”175

In March 1945, Ninth Air Force followed the advancing Allied armies across the Rhine River and 

to the Elbe. The greatest demand on aviation engineers from March to May 1945 was for supply and 

evacuation strips immediately behind the U.S. armies. In April, 13 engineer battalions worked east 

of the Rhine and another five worked west of the Rhine. They built 126 operational fields east of the 

Rhine, 76 of which were used exclusively for supply and evacuation. Developing fighter-bomber fields 

in Germany required large quantities of prefabricated surfacing materials, which had to be transported 

by truck since the German railroads could not be used.176

Overall, from D-Day until V-E Day, the activities of the aviation engineers were intimately 

entwined with those of the tactical air forces and with those of the ground troops. Supply and transportation posed continual problems, and aviation engineers struggled to keep up with the breakneck 

pace of the ground troops. Major adjustments were required to build more fighter-bomber fields than 

had been predicted and to base medium bombers on the continent. By V-E Day on May 8, 1945, the 

aviation engineers had constructed or reconditioned 241 airfields in France, Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg, and Germany. During the peak of the offensive, IX Engineer Command put an airfield into 

service every 36 hours. The easternmost field in Germany was constructed at Straubing in southeast 

Members of the IX Engineer Command build an airfield using Hessian Matting in Normandy, France.
48 Leading the Way

Brig. Gen. James B. Newman (right), Commander, IX Engineer Command, and Col. Karl B. Schilling, Com- mander, 1st Engineer Aviation Brigade, tour an airfield near LeMole, France, where a Butler Building is 

under construction.

With snipers in the vicinity of the Ville Coublay airfield in France, members of the 818th Engineer Aviation 

Battalion keep their weapons stacked nearby.
The Development of PSP

Laying The Foundation 49

The steel landing mat used by aviation engineers was developed by the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, in cooperation with industry, over a period of almost two years. Although elegantly 

simple in design, it turned out to be more complex to develop than originally anticipated. 

In summer 1939, illustrations in European publications showed metallic grids being used to 

surface aircraft runways in France. The British were using an industrial wire mesh, stretched and 

anchored over a graded surface. The Chief of the Air Corps asked Carnegie-Illinois Steel to study 

specifications for the European technology and suggest modifications for production in U.S. shops. 

The matter was turned over to the U.S. Army Chief of Engineers in fall 1939 for further study and 

development. A formal conference on the subject in December 1939 resulted in the submission 

of numerous designs and configurations for testing. The project was turned over to the Engineer 

Board at Fort Belvoir. In May 1940, the Chief of the Air Corps asked the Chief of Engineers to 

“exert every effort to secure something usable at once rather than strive for perfection at some 

later and determined date.” 

The landing mats had to have sufficient surface irregularity to provide skid resistance for large 

aircraft tires, yet had to be regular enough to allow vehicle and foot traffic. They had to be thick 

enough to ensure reasonable life under corrosive tropical conditions and to minimize kinking or 

continued

Aviation engineers in Alaska construct a runway using pierced steel plank.
50 Leading the Way

damage. Developers eventually hit on the concept of a bayonet hook and with removable clips 

that allowed for rapid assembly and disassembly. 

Several conferences during 1940 and 1941 led to the conclusion that the plank did not need a 

solid surface and that sufficient bearing on the soil would be available if the plank were pierced 

with holes. Depressed rimmed holes would improve skid resistance. Holes would let rainfall seep 

into the ground and also permit drying of the subgrade. Vegetation could grow through to provide 

natural camouflaging. 

In late spring 1941, the Chief of the Air Corps expressed satisfaction with the product and the 

Chief of Engineers arranged for production. Contracts were let, and over four million square feet 

were delivered in time for the Army maneuvers in the Carolinas in September and October 1941. 

The universal planks that were finally developed were 15 inches wide and 10 feet long and weighed 

about 65 pounds per plank. They were one-piece stampings with interlocking and fastening devices 

along both edges. They were manufactured of low carbon soft steel sheets to facilitate straightening 

and reconditioning in the field. The soft steel eliminated the spring and bounce of harder steels. 

The final product was known as USS Air-Dek and received a coat of standard Army olive drab 

primer before being packed and shipped. 

Prior to Pearl Harbor, only two manufacturers produced the mat. One year later, 29 plants were in 

operation. By the end of World War II, two million tons of PSP had been manufactured, enough 

to build nearly a thousand 150 x 5000-foot runways.

Sources: G. G. Greulich, “Pierced Steel Landing Mats for Airplane Runways,” The Military Engineer, Vol 

35, September 1943, 445-452; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Expedient Runway Materials of World War II,” Air 

Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 7, November-December 1994, 23; Richard K. Smith, “Marston Mat,” Air 

Force Magazine, April 1989, 84-88.

The Development of PSP continued

A heavy equipment operator of the IX Engineer Command works on a fighter-bomber airfield in Germany.
“I should say that the Aviation Engineers, along with the Combat Engineers, were among 

the most important people we had in the European War.” 

 

General Dwight Eisenhower, 

Talk to the 925th Engineer Aviation Group, Fort Richardson, Alaska, July 30, 1947

Laying The Foundation 51

Germany. Near Pilsen, Czechoslovakia, elements of the 834th put an airfield into operation on May 

8, 1945. On V-E Day engineers put the first strip in Austria into operation at Salzburg. Behind the 

aviation engineers was an array of stepping stones stretching westward to the coast of Normandy; a 

constellation of airfields, exactly as predicted by the unnamed briefing officer just prior to D-Day. With 

the campaign in Europe drawing to a close, all eyes turned toward the Pacific.177

Pearl Harbor and the Early War in the Pacific 

When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the 804th Engineer Aviation Battalion was hard at work. The 803d had already arrived in the Philippines. No engineers died during the 

attacks but a considerable amount of engineering equipment was destroyed. As soon as the raids ended, 

aviation engineers began clearing and repairing the runways at Wheeler and Hickam. Hickam was 

especially important because it was the only airfield in the islands capable of safely handling B-17s. 

The 804th responded to Bellows Field as well. One of 12 B-17s that happened to arrive in Hawaii 

during the attack made an emergency landing there. Before day’s end on December 7, contractors 

began lengthening the second runway to accommodate additional B-17s anticipated from the mainland 

in the next few days. Within five days, the runway was lengthened from 2,200 to 4,900 feet.178

The attacks at Pearl Harbor had the unexpected effect of reversing the defensive roles of the Army 

and the Navy. The islands had to rely mainly on land-based aircraft for protection. Maj. Gen. Clarence 

Tinker, commander of the Hawaiian Air Force, realizing the critical need for more protective and strategic airfields, ordered a speed-up of work on Oahu and on the outlying islands. On Oahu, engineers 

built 15 large bases within a year of Pearl Harbor, with revetments carved out of volcanic mountains, 

underground shops, miles of tunnels hewn in rock, tremendous aviation gas storage farms, and even 

a complete bomber runway nestled in a deep ravine for protection against enemy air action.179

Until the Battle of Midway in June 1942, when the threat of a Japanese invasion nearly was 

eliminated, engineers also focused on airfield denial to eliminate the potential for usable runways 

falling into enemy hands. Mine chambers were placed on the runways at Hilo Airport and Upolo Field 

on the island of Hawaii, but were not armed. On Kauai, they also installed mines at Burns Field and 

Barking Sands to prevent the Japanese from utilizing runways in the event of capture. After Midway, 

emphasis shifted to developing Hawaii as a base to support offensives and as a staging area to move 

troops westward.180

North Pacific

The attack on Pearl Harbor greatly diminished U.S. Navy presence in the northern Pacific. It was 

unknown whether the Japanese would attack Alaska and with what force. Defenses for Alaska and the 

Aleutians had to be strengthened as quickly as possible without detriment to work in other theaters. 

No new construction was contemplated in the Territory but the War Department directed expedited 

completion of approved and planned projects. Improvements were approved for Ladd, Elmendorf, 

Annette, and Yakutat Fields. Storage for aviation gasoline and for bombs and ammunition was programmed for all airfields, including those built by the CAA. Eleven aircraft warning stations were to 

be completed, and work was planned for an airfield and an Army post on Umnak in the Aleutians.181
52 Leading the Way

On January 18, 1942, 64 officers and enlisted men from the 807th Engineer Aviation Company 

arrived at Umnak. Winter was not the best time of year for unloading supplies or for building an 

airfield. Equipment was moved in rough seas and bulldozer operators leveling the flying field were 

sometimes lost for hours in blinding snow storms. By mid-March, the entire 807th, then an aviation 

battalion, was working on the airfield. By March 31, a steel mat landing strip was completed and in 

use for the first time.182

On June 3, 1942, two Japanese aircraft carriers launched an attack on Dutch Harbor in the Aleutians, demolishing barracks and killing approximately 25 men. A repeat attack on June 4 caused 

considerable damage and claimed the lives of eight men from Company C of the 151st Engineer 

Combat Regiment. Meanwhile, two Japanese occupation forces approached the Aleutians. On June 

7, one force landed on Attu, the most remote island in the chain. The other came ashore at Kiska on 

June 8.183

To meet the threat, the Joint Chiefs of Staff ordered airfields constructed on Atka and Adak and on 

St. Paul Island in the Bering Sea. The 807th Engineer Aviation Battalion amassed men and supplies 

at Unalaska and launched a “motley collection of some 250 craft, including tugboats, barges, fishing 

scows, and a four-masted schooner” for the five-day trip to Adak.184 Under difficult conditions, they 

built a sand landing strip covered with 3,000 feet of landing mat to accommodate B-18 bombers. On 

September 13, 43 aircraft took off from Adak to bomb Japanese-occupied Kiska. A second runway 

was completed five days later.185

The 42d General Service Regiment completed a fighter strip on St. Paul, while Company A 

of the 802d Engineer Aviation Battalion prepared the landing field at Atka. Construction began on 

September 17 and a 3,000-foot steel mat runway was ready for operations two days after Christmas. 

In early 1943, the 813th Engineer Aviation Battalion helped build a fighter strip and bomber runway 

Buildings under construction at the southern tip of Amchitka, Alaska, 1943. 
Laying The Foundation 53

to preclude Japanese occupation. The site was near Constantine Harbor on the island of Amchitka, 

between Kiska and Adak.186

In May 1943, 29 engineers were killed during attacks and counterattacks between U.S. forces and 

the Japanese, who were entrenched on Attu Island. Afterwards, aviation engineers helped build an 

airfield on Attu and on Shemya Island. By early June, both islands featured fighter strips; the runway on 

Shemya later was lengthened for bombers. Although permanent expulsion of the Japanese effectively 

ended any immediate danger to the Aleutians and Alaska, work continued at Ladd and Elmendorf 

Fields on the mainland. Engineers built through the long Alaskan winter, encountering winds up to 

100 miles an hour, heavy snow, and extreme sub-zero temperatures. Despite warnings that work would 

be impossible during the winter, the engineers prevailed. They poured concrete at minus 15°F and 

erected steel at minus 20oF. After suffering frostbitten fingers and toes, the engineers adopted apparel 

from indigenous Eskimo culture to stay warm—boots were discarded in favor of three pairs of socks 

and locally-produced hide moccasins.187

Necessity became the mother of invention in coping with the extreme conditions. Building designs 

for airfield structures were modified to improve structural efficiency and conserve heat. Adaptations included increasing the thickness of structural members, installing additional bracing, applying 

diagonal sheathings, installing vapor barriers, and decreasing the distance between studs to combat 

the wind. Air exhaust systems were added to large heating units to eliminate downdrafts in chimneys, 

and vestibules or storm entrances were added to buildings as a buffer from the environment. Engineers 

learned construction for areas with permafrost and how to maintain freezing temperatures to retain 

load-bearing capacity.188

Australia

Australia assumed great importance in Allied strategy after Pearl Harbor. The decision was made 

to establish a U.S. base of operations on the continent to supply the Philippines and to provide regional 

air support. Unfortunately, very little planning data existed for the region. Before the war, few envisioned the unique problems that confronted commanders in the Southwest Pacific. Immense distances 

complicated all facets of operations. Long distances were compounded by shortages of shipping to the 

area, production lags in the United States, and the priority of the war against Germany. 

With a population of only seven million, mobilizing for war with Japan put a heavy strain on 

Australia’s resources. In January 1942, Maj. Gen. George Brett of the U.S. Army Air Corps met with 

the Commonwealth Chiefs of Staff to discuss plans for strengthening the continent and establishing 

a base for operations against the Netherlands Indies and the Philippines. Gen. Brett’s program called 

for the construction of air bases at Darwin, Brisbane, and Townsville. U.S. engineers counted on a 

measure of support from the Royal Australian Engineers, the Royal Australian Air Force Engineers, 

and from the Allied Works Council; however, the air base construction program was so ambitious 

that the United States assumed the bulk of the work. The limited manpower and resources of Australia’s military and civilian construction industry already were engaged in the country’s own extensive 

construction program.189

The 808th Engineer Aviation Battalion was assigned to build airdromes in the Darwin area. The 

battalion landed at Melbourne on February 2, 1942, just five months after it was activated. The battalion arrived with three dump trucks, two tractors, and haphazard training. The nearly 2,000-mile 

trip across the continent from Melbourne in the south to Darwin in the far Northern Territory was an 

odyssey in itself.190

At Melbourne the battalion boarded a special train to Terowie, the terminus of the broad gauge 

railroad. It transferred to the narrow gauge line that ran through the desert to Alice Springs, 1,000 

miles to the north. The train operated at a top speed of 20 miles per hour. The railroad ended at Alice 

Springs and trucks carried the troops to Larrimah, 635 miles away. At Larrimah, troops boarded yet 

another train that comprised “cattle cars for personnel, small open cars for baggage, and a small 
54 Leading the Way

wheezy locomotive which looked as though each hour of existence would be its last.” On February 

19, the battalion finally left the train at Katherine, the site of one of the new bomber fields. Deep in the 

Australian “Never-Never Land,” the battalion felt completely isolated but knew it had an important 

mission to accomplish.191

The 808th’s first assignment was to convert the civilian airdrome at Katherine into a medium 

bomber field and to locate sites for constructing new fields in the area. The engineers were severely 

handicapped by their lack of equipment but eventually obtained 11 cargo trucks and two old bulldozers 

at Darwin. Seven trucks were dedicated to keeping the battalion supplied with food and water. The 

remaining four trucks were used to haul gravel for the Katherine runway; the cargo trucks were emptied 

by hand. In addition to completing the runway, the battalion improved the road so that supplies could 

be trucked from Alice Springs. In the hot tropical sun, men only worked six hours a day and their 

efforts were periodically interrupted by Japanese bombings. Despite the challenging conditions, the 

Katherine runway was lengthened and surfaced with gravel within a month. They also began clearing 

sites for three more airstrips. During mid-1942, a series of fields were built along the rail line between 

Darwin and Birdum. The battalion departed for Port Moresby, New Guinea, in July 1942.192

On March 17, 1942, Gen. Douglas MacArthur and his staff from the Philippines reestablished their 

headquarters at Melbourne. Rather than wait for the Japanese to come to Australia, General MacArthur 

decided to meet them in the islands north of Australia. MacArthur planned a major hub at Port Moresby 

on the large island of New Guinea. He recognized aircraft would be essential for the movement of 

troops and supplies in the mountainous jungle terrain. Airfields and ports were prerequisites to success; 

the aviation engineers and the Seabees had to build these facilities from the ground up.193

General MacArthur anticipated an arduous drive to Japan accompanied by overwhelming engineering demands and an inadequate supply of resources. He insisted on the consolidation of all engineering 

resources under Brig. Gen. Hugh J. Casey, who had accompanied him from the Philippines. Aviation 

Engineers, regular Army combat engineers, and even Seabees worked on all types of engineering 

projects—runways, roads, and harbors. Although commander of Allied Air Force, Maj. Gen. George 

C. Kenney, complained bitterly, he could not persuade General MacArthur to change his mind about 

the consolidation. The requirement for two engineering organizations and logistical supply channels 

seemed a waste of resources. Engineers were a precious commodity in short supply. Their skills were 

essential, prompting General MacArthur to comment, “Because of the nature of air and amphibious 

operations, [this] is distinctly an Engineer’s war.”194 

For Port Moresby to serve as the main air base for operations, a string of supporting airfields was 

needed along the coast of northern Queensland. Construction of these airfields fell primarily to the 46th 

Engineers, who sailed into Melbourne in late February. After two weeks training in Melbourne, the 

group began clearing and grading the three runways of a giant airfield at Woodstock near Townsville. 

The first airplane landed four days after construction commenced. Company A built a 2,500-foot steel 

mat runway at Torrens Creek southwest of Townsville in just five days, a possible record for the time. 

Companies B, C, and F built a third airfield at Reid River.195

Despite the challenges faced while building airfields in the bush country of northern Australia, the 

experience provided excellent training for the troops, who lived under the most primitive conditions 

and accomplished their work with minimal machinery. This was only a taste of the challenges to come.

South Pacific

Early in the war, the United States promised to strengthen Canton and Christmas Islands to reinforce defenses in the South Pacific. The U.S. also offered to support New Caledonia and Fiji, should 

Australia and New Zealand be unable to offer protection. In February 1942, task forces began arriving on the islands, accompanied by a sizeable force of engineers from the 810th and 811th Engineer 

Aviation Battalions. 
Laying The Foundation 55

New Caledonia was the linchpin in the South Pacific. By the end of 1943, the island had 12 Army 

airfields—five major airdromes and seven satellite fields. The 810th built an additional runway at 

Plaines des Baiacs and maintained a base to launch heavy bomber attacks against enemy forces moving 

south from the Japanese base in the Solomons. The 811th took over the airfield at Tontouta in early 

April 1942. It continued to rebuild, improve, and maintain the base until March 1944, assisted by the 

873d Airborne Engineer Aviation Battalion and the 131st Engineers. Their efforts made Tontouta the 

most important base on New Caledonia and one of the most highly developed in the South Pacific 

theater. The 811th also built a fighter field further north at Bourake and completed additional work at 

Oua Tom.196

On December 28, 1942, the all-important South Pacific ferry route was declared officially open. 

Engineers constructing airfields at Canton Island, Tontouta (New Caledonia), and Nandi (Fiji) had 

achieved sufficient progress to accept heavy bombers. On January 12, 1943, the first flight of B-17s 

completed the route, stopping at the three fields and finally landing at Townsville, Australia. Pilots 

reported excellent runways. The airstrip on Christmas Island was added to the route in late January. 

In May 1943, construction began to support a second southern ferry route via the Marquesas, the 

Society, and Tonga Islands. Those areas were deemed less likely to be overrun by Japanese forces. 

Meanwhile, the 822d and 828th Engineer Aviation Battalions worked with Seabees, Marines, and local 

natives to improve airfields and to reinforce the New Hebrides. Construction in Fiji was boosted by 

the 821st Engineer Aviation Battalion.197

Sites for airfields were sometimes selected with minimal information. Supply and equipment 

transport was incredibly difficult. These challenges made for unorthodox field engineering; standards 

for airstrips in the South Pacific were far different than those demanded in the European theater. The 

strips laboriously hewn out of jungles or laid on coral islands under enemy fire usually stood up to 

the pragmatic test of hard use. 

Road construction frequently became a necessary adjunct to airfield construction. As a result, 

aviation engineers performed tasks bearing little relation to the air war. Establishing airfields also 

involved considerable associated building construction for hangars, shop facilities, and housing. The 

shortage of competent construction workers was a problem and engineers from all trades were sometimes pressed into duty. At one base undergoing expansion, General MacArthur observed a sea of 

carpenters erecting hangars, warehouses, and camp buildings. When he asked the commander where 

he got all the carpenters, the officer replied, “We gave each of the men a hammer and some nails. 

Anyone who hit his thumb more than once out of five times trying to drive a nail was eliminated. The 

rest became carpenters.”198

Southwest Pacific

Army and Navy engineers, including aviation engineers, played a critical role in halting Japan’s 

aggressive advance in the Southwest Pacific. They supported the slow, but sure, push of Japanese forces 

back across the island of New Guinea and into the Philippines. Engineers were so valuable that they 

accounted for 100,000 of the 700,000 troops in the Southwest Pacific by late 1944.199

In preparation for the drive to the Philippines, aviation engineers constructed massive basing 

complexes at Port Moresby, New Guinea. After firmly securing the Port Moresby area and Milne Bay 

on the southeastern tip of the island, engineer forces hop-scotched northwestward across New Guinea 

toward Wewak and Lae, then on to the Japanese stronghold at Rabaul on the island of New Britain. 

The offensive against Rabaul involved at least 24 squadrons, which would be based in New Guinea. 

An additional 12 airdromes with dispersals and sealed runways capable of taking heavy bombers 

were required. 

The first engineers to arrive at Port Moresby were members of the 96th Engineer General Service 

Regiment. Together with Royal Australian Engineers, they patched and extended runways heavily 
56 Leading the Way

damaged by the Japanese. Using hand tools, they scraped out extensions at both ends of the runway 

and created additional taxiways and hardstands. The group worked without specifications and without 

construction instructions; as usual, it had no equipment. The engineers were led by officers with little 

experience in airfield construction. The commander of Company D later described the operation as 

“building fields with our fingernails.” Air raids were frequent and the men spent much time jumping 

in and out of slit trenches.200

A major airfield was needed near the southeastern end of New Guinea to intercept enemy ships 

rounding the tip of the island. MacArthur chose Milne Bay for the construction of a fighter field due to 

the availability of fresh water, coral gravel, and native labor. Company E of the 46th Engineers, augmented by 500 Australians, completed that first airfield. It soon came under attack by the Japanese.201

During summer 1943, engineers labored to meet Lt. Gen. (later General) George C. Kenney’s 

request for yet more airfields to support the long campaign to conquer New Guinea. Construction of 

four fields near Port Moresby, four near Milne Bay, and another four near Buna on the northeastern 

coast of the island proceeded through the summer with help from the 808th Engineer Aviation Battalion. Conditions were much tougher than those encountered by the 808th in the Northern Territory 

of Australia. Dense growths of timber had to be cleared. Trees, more than 75 feet high with trunks 

two feet in diameter and large, deep roots, had to be chopped down or dynamited. The climate was 

abominable and hordes of mosquitoes made life miserable. Air raids were common and the engineers 

understandably became nervous and irritable from loss of sleep and personal discomfort.202

General Kenney ordered a total of nine fields and 227 revetments completed at Port Moresby by the 

end of August. Work also needed to be done to upgrade the fields for all-weather operations before the 

rainy season in November. General Kenney was frustrated with the speed of normal supply channels 

and began procuring materials for air force projects himself and flying them directly to his units in 

New Guinea. Outmaneuvering the supply process caused heartburn with the combat engineers but got 

their attention, and additional troops were assigned. Originally, engineers were called upon to build an 

enormous number of revetments on islands in the Southwest Pacific. The design called for hardstands 

with 15-foot earthen walls extending along three sides. Experience demonstrated that it took three 

D-8 tractors about three days to produce one such revetment. The structures were impractical to build 

and eventually were eliminated from many airdrome plans.203

During October 1943, great strides were made toward completing the New Guinea airfields but 

the strain of the pace and enormity of the task had taken its toll. Men and machines were wearing out. 

Engineer troops were tired and large numbers reported for sick call suffering with malaria, dengue, 

dysentery, and skin ailments. When the autumn rains began, downpours made fields temporarily 

unserviceable. Although the airstrips nearly were finished, the dispersals, hardstands, and access roads 

were not. General Kenney once again pressed for operational control of the 808th Engineer Aviation 

Battalion. He was unsuccessful but the ruckus he raised broke loose additional shipping to support 

the engineers.204

While construction was progressing in New Guinea, aviation engineers provided essential support 

to Marines engaged in the battle for Guadalcanal. Allies captured and repaired the Japanese field on 

Guadalcanal, which they named Henderson Field. The 810th Engineer Aviation Battalion then worked 

on a second bomber field known as Carney. It also built a strip on Espiritu Santo, which was operational 

during the early part of the battle. It then was used by bombers and reconnaissance aircraft and as a 

staging point for transports. Seabees completed a bomber field at Pallikulo, near the southeastern tip 

of the island; aviation engineers constructed a second one, with a 5,500-foot runway and two miles of 

taxiways, at nearby Pekoa. Both undertakings, conducted during the heat of battle on the island, were 

made difficult by frequent enemy bombings. In November 1942, the 822d Engineer Aviation Battalion 

joined the work, building hardstands, taxiways, and a control tower at Pallikulo. Organized resistance 

on Guadalcanal finally ceased in February 1943. Japan’s southward expansion had been stopped and 

aviation engineers made a substantial contribution to the effort.205
Laying The Foundation 57

Operation Cartwheel, the two-pronged campaign against Rabaul along the coasts of eastern 

New Guinea and western New Britain and through the Solomons, was launched in June 1943 and 

extended into the fall. U.S. and Australian troops were tasked with seizing a large portion of northeast 

New Guinea, which involved capturing Salamaua, Lae, Nadzab, the Markham Valley, Wewak, and 

Finschhafen. Meanwhile, the Sixth Army was to seize Kiriwina Island and Woodlark Island. Airfields 

were built at all sites. The engineers, including two airborne engineer aviation battalions, made major 

contributions to the success of the campaign.206 

The airborne aviation engineers performed yeoman duty at Tsili Tsili. Aviation engineer Lt. Everette Frazier penetrated enemy territory on foot with an Australian officer and several natives. In the 

dense rain forest along the Watut River, they found an old field that could handle transport planes. With 

native labor, they cleared the field well enough for C-47s to land. Over a span of 10 days a company of 

airborne engineers transported their mobile bulldozers, graders, carryalls, and grass cutters to the site, 

where they graded a 4,200-foot runway for transports and began another 7,000–foot runway. Engineers 

also had the natives clear bogus airstrips in the vicinity to attract Japanese attention. The fake strips 

were bombed, while the construction at Tsili Tsili went undetected. Airborne engineers likewise laid 

A hangar under construction at a 7th Air Force base in the Pacific.
58 Leading the Way

out four usable airstrips in an area that collectively became known as Gusap. An all-weather runway 

eventually was constructed by January 1944 to support two fighter groups and a medium bombardment group.207

The Hollandia Operation took place in April 1944. It was the largest landing on the island of New 

Guinea. Engineers comprised 41 percent of the task force’s troops. Of the 25,000 engineers at Hollandia, 7,500 were aviation engineers. After the invasion, four aviation engineer battalions improved the 

three captured Japanese runways and converted the area around Hollandia into a large air and supply 

base. The 931st Engineer Aviation Regiment and the 836th Engineer Aviation Battalion improved 

Japanese-built airfields in the Admiralty Islands and engaged in both combat and construction on 

Bougainville. In the Palau Islands of the Caroline group, the 1884th and 1887th Engineer Aviation 

Battalions hacked out a tangled jungle with 90 foot trees to build a 6,000-foot runway within striking 

distance of the Philippines. In the summer and fall of 1944, the Southwest Pacific theater had a total 

of 37 engineer aviation battalions in action.208

Central Pacific 

In late 1943, offensives began to capture islands in the Central Pacific that the Japanese held for 

many years. The first objective was the Gilbert Islands, about 2,500 miles southwest of Hawaii. Critical preliminary operations were necessary before the islands were attacked, including occupation and 

construction of airfields on three small islands east and southeast of the Gilberts. The U.S. Marines 

and Seabees were sent to two of the islands, and the 804th Engineer Aviation Battalion was tasked to 

build an airfield on Baker Island. The field was complete within seven days, with 3,000 feet of pierced 

steel plank in place; it eventually was lengthened to 5,500 feet. The battalion built hardstands and 

parking mats to accommodate 25 fighters and 24 heavy bombers. Bombers launched from the field 

could reach the western Marshall Islands.209

An airfield on Makin Island, captured on November 20, was the next task for the 804th. In just 

over two weeks, the battalion conquered a swampy area in the interior, built a compacted sand runway 

surfaced with coral from the lagoon and Marston mat, and constructed a parallel coral taxiway. Fighter 

aircraft arrived four days later and the 804th continued to develop the site. The runway was extended 

to 7,000 feet and the engineers prepared hardstands, revetments, and some 40 prefabricated buildings. 

Makin was one of many coral atolls that engineers encountered on the road to Tokyo. The airfields on 

the little-known islands of the Central Pacific became stepping stones—in effect, stationary aircraft 

carriers—which allowed the campaign toward Japan to move forward.210

The Japanese retaliated violently to the seizure of the Gilbert Islands. Despite several air attacks, 

the U.S. grip remained secure. By mid-January 1944, preparations were well underway for further 

attacks against Japanese strongholds in the Central Pacific. These strongholds included the Marshall 

Islands where the 854th Engineer Aviation Battalion, known as “The Spearheaders,” built a major airfield for four medium bomber squadrons on Kwajalein. The island-hopping campaign across the Pacific 

was a continuous struggle for air bases. Aviation engineers and Seabees worked together in healthy 

competition to provide airfields on newly-captured islands. U.S. aircraft often were flying missions 

from these new facilities before the Japanese were even aware that construction was underway. The 

bases were critical because they practically eliminated the need for vulnerable Navy aircraft carriers 

to linger in enemy-infested waters to support planes and eventually made possible the opportunity for 

bombers to directly attack the Japanese homeland. The nature of the Pacific campaign often made it 

difficult to anticipate the types of aircraft that would be assigned to particular airfields. As a result, an 

expedient runway for fighters was constructed first, followed by a second permanent runway, located 

parallel to the first, to support the largest anticipated aircraft.211 

Carrying the war to the Japanese required a staggering logistical effort. Aviation engineers were 

faced with constructing airfields in the heart of virtually impenetrable jungles. Hangars, shops, and tank 
Laying The Foundation 59

farms were erected rapidly on coral atolls where every stick of lumber and every bar of steel crossed 

three thousand miles of water. Heavy equipment was off-loaded rapidly through pounding surf and 

without harbors. Potable water had to be secured on desert islands where fresh water was nonexistent 

and attempts to dig wells were complicated by sea water at a depth of four feet. Engineers demonstrated 

their ingenuity by solving these problems and many others, including the not-so-humorous task of 

felling coconut trees without being bombarded by coconuts.212

With the capture of the Marianas in summer 1944, one phase of the Pacific war ended and another 

began. While battles still raged in the Southwest Pacific, Seabees and aviation engineers landed on 

Saipan, Guam, and Tinian to begin construction. The bases they established supported B-29s assigned 

to the Twentieth Air Force to bombard the Japanese homeland. Five giant airfields were built in the 

Marianas in late 1944 and early 1945 to support the heavy bomber fleet: two on Guam, one on Saipan, 

and two on Tinian. Aviation engineers constructed the airfields on Guam and Saipan, while Seabees 

built the runways on Tinian. In all, these airfields supported five B-29 wings, totaling some 720 aircraft. Among that fleet were the Enola Gay and Bockscar, the aircraft used to drop atomic bombs on 

Hiroshima and Nagasaki.213

Lt. Gen. Millard Harmon, commanding general of the Army Air Forces for the Pacific Ocean Areas, 

was the driving force behind the program. He convinced General Arnold that the Pacific Islands Area, 

only 1,500 miles from Tokyo, was the area to launch early mass bombing on Japan. He constantly 

argued for higher priorities in shipping and construction. He impressed upon General Arnold his 

belief that the engineering and logistical problems could be solved in time for five bomb wings to be 

established and operating from the Pacific islands before the Philippine campaign was completed.214 

Engineers construct a control tower on Biteo, Tarawa, January 1944.
Constructing with Coral

Aviation engineers became experts at constructing roads and runways out of coral, which was 

the only material readily available on the coral atolls of the Pacific. Coral had a hardness that 

sometimes required mining operations using dynamite. Once quarried, engineers used sheepfoot 

rollers to break down pieces sufficiently and fill interstices. After it was spread, sprinkled lightly 

with water, and rolled several times, coral produced a smooth, hard runway capable of withstanding 

heavy operational loads. Coral had to be kept 

wet continuously to prevent it from becoming 

dusty and blowing away. 

Roads and runways subjected to heavy use 

were surfaced with asphaltic concrete. In 

some cases, engineers first applied a binder 

or sprinkled the coral and immediately paved 

over it. In other cases, they rolled a surface 

until it was hard and tight and then applied 

a coating of oil, which bound the surface 

temporarily and made it waterproof. Such 

runways had the disadvantage of requiring 

considerably more maintenance. 

Sources: Karl C. Dod, United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers: 

The War Against Japan, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington D.C., 

1966, 385-386; Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineer- ing Wartime and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis 85S-23, Air University, AFIT, 

WPAFB, Ohio, September 1985, 72-73.

60 Leading the Way

Original plans called for most of the airfields to be operational by October 1944. Japanese resistance delayed the construction schedule somewhat and delays were compounded further by weather 

during the rainy fall months. On Saipan, the schedule partially was met, with a temporary airstrip 

in place by August. Five 800-man aviation engineer battalions—the 804th, 805th, 806th, 1878th, 

and 1894th—labored around the clock for two months to extend the strip to 8,500 feet and widen it 

to 200 feet. The first B-29 arrived in theater on October 12. Tropical rains pummeled the engineers 

throughout the summer. For months they were without fresh food. Roads from the coral pits virtually 

became impassable; men and equipment were diverted to construct a hard-surface road to keep trucks 

in service. Hard coral formations just beneath the surface made blasting necessary for all cuts. In 

October, a typhoon threatened the newly-arrived bombers. Aviation engineers devised rings in their 

welding shops to anchor the aircraft. In the end, their persistence was rewarded. On November 24 the 

first bombers took off from Saipan for a successful raid on Tokyo.215

Construction of Depot Field on Guam began in September, with an estimated completion date of 

November 1. Torrential rains and the diversion of construction units slowed the work. The extraction 

of coral on Guam was just as difficult hard as it had been on Saipan. Despite the challenge, a 7,000-

foot runway was operational by November 10. The first of four runways at North Field on Guam 

was completed in early February 1945 and the first combat mission was flown the same month. The 

remaining runways were not completed until May, June, and July, in time to host some of the final 

missions of the war.216

Airdromes on Tinian were built by the 6th Naval Construction Brigade. The first runway at West 

Field was completed in March and the second in April. By the end of April, taxiways, hardstands, 

and storage facilities for fuel and bombs were substantially ready. The principal tenant was the 313th 
Laying The Foundation 61

At East Field, Saipan, a seven-ton D-4 tractor clears the jungle to provide parking space for P-51s. 

As P-51s fly overhead, engineers widen the south end of Number 1 airstrip on Iwo Jima, March 1945. 
62 Leading the Way

Bombardment Wing, which crowded 122 B-29s onto the small island. The 509th Bombardment Group, 

which was charged with delivering the atomic bombs, moved to the island in June and July. On July 

20, the group began a series of combat strikes over Japan to familiarize crews with the target areas 

and tactics for the final missions.217 

Runway Construction for Heavy Bombers

Designing runways to accommodate 

the giant B-29 heavy bomber was 

among the most difficult technical 

missions accomplished by the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers during 

World War II. The long-range bomber 

had a gross weight of 140,000 pounds 

when fully loaded and required 

smooth, finished runways of asphalt 

or concrete 8,500 long and 200 feet 

wide. To complicate matters, runways 

often had to be constructed under 

combat conditions in remote regions 

of the Pacific and China-Burma-India 

theaters. Depending on the availability 

of resources, specifications for 

both rigid (concrete) and flexible 

(bituminous) pavements were employed. 

Design standards for such runways were non-existent prior to World War II. The heaviest prewar aircraft weighed only 25,000 pounds and standard highway methods served well enough in 

pavement designs. As late as 1939, the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps had 

not developed detailed engineering criteria for paved runways. When the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers inherited the aircraft program from the Quartermaster Corps in late 1940, it also inherited 

a complex and urgent technical problem that required significant research. 

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers consulted leading experts in pavement design at the Civil 

Aeronautics Authority, the Public Roads Administration, the Portland Cement Association, the 

Asphalt Institute and in the academic world. In January 1941, it hastily compiled a manual, Design 

of Airport Runways, covering grading, drainage, runway layout and design of both rigid and 

flexible pavements. At the same time, the Waterways Experiment Station (WES) at Vicksburg, 

Mississippi mobilized a crash research and testing program of impressive proportions. WES also 

assembled data on rainfall rates in prospective battle zones and prepared reports for the Joint Chiefs 

of Staff on the bomber base potential of various Pacific Islands. 

Lt. Col. James Newman, Jr., the district engineer serving Wright Field in early 1941, conducted 

a series of experiments on reinforced concrete. Similar tests were conducted at Langley Field, 

Lockbourne Field and Dayton Municipal Airport. The WES test site in Mound, Louisiana, 

conducted studies of base course requirements under steel planking and Hessian mat.

The Boeing plant personnel at Marietta, Georgia, also participated in the runway development 

program. At a test section established near the plant, they experimented with a variety of materials

 continued

B-29 runways on Tinian Island
Laying The Foundation 63

never before considered for very heavy bombers. These included old fashioned hand-set Telford 

stone, water-bound macadam, and sand-clay and sand-asphalt bases surfaced with bitumen or steel 

landing mat. Based on results, blueprints were prepared and shipped directly to units overseas. 

Thus, by the time Boeing began delivering the first B-29s in July 1943, stateside as well as deployed 

engineers had the specifications they needed in hand. The training of very heavy bombardment 

groups in the United States took place at four fields near Salina, Kansas. By late spring 1945, 

operations had expanded to 40 major air bases. Overseas engineers constructed or extended 

numerous runways to accommodate B-29 operations in the Pacific and CBI theaters.

Sources: Lenore Fine and Jesse A. Remington, United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, 

The Corps of Engineers: Construction in the United States, Center of Military History, U.S. Army, Washington, D.C. 1989, 446-447, 614-616, 641-643; Anthony F. Turhollow, “Airfields for Heavy Bombers,” in 

Barry W. Fowle, ed., Builders and Fighters: U.S. Army Engineers in World War II, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Office of History, 1992, 207-214; “Specifications for B-29 Air Bases,” Aviation Engineer Notes, No 34, April 1945.

Aviation engineers construct steel frame for the roof on a Quonset hut on Saipan,

Runway Construction for Heavy Bombers continued
64 Leading the Way

An aviation engineer pulls a sheepsfoot roller during construction of an airfield on Saipan.

Rollers smooth a runway surface as a B-24 Liberator lands following a long, overwater strike. This blacktopped airstrip gave an all-weather capability for the aircraft in the Bonin Islands. 
Laying The Foundation 65

Philippines 

Japanese fighters and bombers struck the Philippines on December 8, 1941, just hours after the 

attack on Pearl Harbor. Engineers assigned to the 803d Engineer Aviation Battalion were deployed, 

reinforcing engineers who were straining to build heavy bomber bases and strengthen fortifications. 

The 803d had just completed a five-month journey from Hawaii to the Philippines, arriving only 

weeks before the Japanese attack. The Japanese inflicted the greatest damage at Clark and Iba Fields. 

The engineers immediately responded to repair the runways there and at Nichols Field. They also 

accelerated completion of Del Carmen and O’Donnell Airfields.218

Once the Japanese invasion started in earnest, the aviation engineers found themselves heavily 

involved in the fighting. They served as infantry troops during the defense of Bataan and turned back 

a Japanese suicide attack. Two companies of the 803d became prisoners of war with the surrender of 

Bataan on April 9, 1942. Company A of the 803d reached Corregidor, where they kept Kindley Field 

in operation, in the hope that aircraft would arrive. Planes never came. The remnants of Company 

A were among the last Americans to surrender at Corregidor on May 6, 1942. At least 20 men from 

Company A and the company commander lost their lives in the fighting.219 

Combat engineers from the 61st, 81st, and 101st Battalions composed the Visayan-Mindanao force 

during the battle for the southern Philippines. Most eluded the enemy by retreating into the mountains 

of the southern islands. They helped organize guerilla forces that destroyed roads and bridges, making 

overland transport by the Japanese almost impossible. They also gathered intelligence, which was 

Engineers on Saipan Respond to Japanese Attack

Aviation engineers building the airfields on Saipan contended with many challenges, including 

enemy attack. On November 24, 1944, the first flight of B-29 heavy bombers took off from Saipan 

to conduct a successful raid on Tokyo. Retaliation was inevitable and, three days later, Japanese 

Zeros bombed Isley Field on Saipan during the daylight hours. Engineers from the 804th Engineer 

Aviation Battalion shot down one enemy airplane as it strafed their bivouac area. 

On November 29, the Japanese returned and caused considerable damage. They struck a B-29 being 

loaded for a 0515 takeoff. Bombs and burning wreckage were strewn all over the field, together 

with the small anti-personnel fragmentation bombs dropped by the Japanese Zeros. Brig. Gen. 

Haywood Hansell, commander of XXI Bomber Command, gave an eyewitness account of the 

event in a letter to General Arnold, describing it as “the most violent explosion I have ever seen.” 

General Hansell’s praise of the engineers was effusive. “Our engineers and our fire people did a 

job that would warm your heart—the engineers in particular I cannot speak too highly of. They 

took their large equipment, the big bulldozers and scoops and went to work immediately on the 

flaming bomber and gas truck in spite of personnel bombs and exploding ammunition. They 

piled the debris of the bomber into two heaps and pushed dirt on it. Later they drove their 20-ton 

bulldozers over these flaming heaps. The flames came up through the tractors and all around the 

drivers but it didn’t stop them.” 

By 0230 the fires were under control, and the engineers were “cleaning up the mess.”

Sources: Karl C. Dod, United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers: 

The War Against Japan, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington D.C., 1966, 

518; Wesley Frank Craven, and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II, Vol 7: Services 

Around the World, Office of Air Force History, Washington, D.C., 1983, 305.
66 Leading the Way

forwarded to General MacArthur in Australia. The guerillas still were harassing the enemy when U.S. 

troops returned to the Philippines late in 1944.220

The return to the Philippines necessitated the capture and rehabilitation of numerous Japanese 

airfields. New airfields were constructed on Wakde Island, Biak, Vogelkop, Owi Island, Morotai, 

Kamiri, and other islands stretching from the coast of New Guinea to the southern Philippine islands. 

Campaigns were launched throughout June and July 1944. Stiff Japanese resistance, rough terrain, 

heavy vegetation, worn equipment, and delays in receiving equipment made the engineers’ job difficult. 

The Japanese airstrips on Noemfoor and Kamiri were in shambles. At Kamiri, the engineers resorted 

to dragging lengths of Japanese railroad rails behind trucks to smooth ruts and used abandoned rollers 

to compact the airstrip. The 1874th Engineer Aviation Battalion worked around the clock to lay a coral 

surface in order to open the airstrip for transport aircraft by mid-July.

221

The landing at Morotai turned out to be one of the most difficult in the Southwest Pacific. What 

appeared on aerial photographs to be beaches of white sand or coral proved, instead, to be three feet of 

gray mud. The engineers built ramps and piers into the water to offload their equipment ashore. Within 

40 days, three engineer aviation battalions and two Australian construction squadrons constructed a 

fighter runway and a bomber runway on Morotai. They also completed 90 percent of a second bomber 

strip and storage for 40,000 barrels of aviation gasoline.222

In the steady northward progression from New Guinea to Leyte, Mindoro and, finally, to Luzon, the 

Southwest Pacific Air Forces bypassed substantial enemy garrisons. Air attacks reduced the enemy’s 

capacity to pose a serious threat to Allied operations and effectively isolated enemy forces from the 

Japanese homeland.223

The 1944 campaign against Leyte unfortunately coincided with the rainy season and the months 

most prone to typhoons, October and November. Leyte was mountainous and heavily vegetated, except 

for two principal lowlands marked by streams and numerous rice paddies. Engineers had little time 

to plan and there were an insufficient number of bridging units and equipment available to conduct 

bridging operations to support construction. Despite these difficulties, the assault was launched on 

October 19 with the goal of capturing Tacloban airdrome and four fields in central Leyte as quickly 

as possible.224

At Tacloban, the 1881st Engineer Aviation Battalion and two other units bivouacked on the peninsula alongside the runway to be near their work. For five days they pumped coral from the ocean floor 

to establish a sub-base solid enough to support steel mats for a 7,000-foot runway, in spite of hundreds 

of aerial attacks. One night they withstood 71 separate passes by enemy aircraft. Air support virtually 

was non-existent because of the major naval battle raging off Leyte. Many U.S. aircraft attempted 

crash landings; most planes cracked up on the loose coral and sand of the runway. The engineers 

bulldozed 25 wrecked airplanes into the ocean. Recruiting Filipino laborers was difficult owing to 

Frantic activity at a Tacloban airfield as aviation engineers continue their work.
Laying The Foundation 67

their reluctance to work under air attacks. Working around the clock with lighting generated on site, 

the engineers managed to ready the runway for fighters on the sixth day of the battle.225

Thirty-five inches of rain fell during the first 40 days of fighting on Leyte. The island’s roads 

disintegrated rapidly under military traffic, severely impeding supply routes. Construction of airfields 

was restricted to Tacloban and Dulag. The air forces insisted on the completion of all four airfields in 

central Leyte, but conditions made meeting their request impossible. With great difficulty, the engineers 

finally were able to open the airfield at Dulag on November 18. They installed 4,100 feet of landing 

mat. Headquarters, Sixth Army agreed to move from the relatively dry site that they occupied near 

the town of Tanauan, one of the few other locations suitable for an airfield. Three aviation engineer 

battalions completed a second steel mat runway by mid-December, thus removing a major obstacle 

in the campaign against Mindoro and Luzon.226

During the landing at Mindoro, the 1874th Engineer Aviation Battalion worked with an Australian 

airdrome construction squadron to complete two B-24 airfields; both were ready for emergency use 

Engineers of the 1913th Engineer Aviation Battalion lay steel matting at Clark Field, Luzon, Philippine Islands. 
68 Leading the Way

by December 25, 1944. Japanese kamikaze pilots launched a week of attacks in an attempt to deny the 

Allies use of the island; these attacks resulted in significant losses in stocks of supplies, equipment, and 

rations. Nevertheless, Fifth Air Force had made a commitment to bomb Formosa during operations on 

Okinawa and continued to move air units forward as quickly as the engineers completed work. The 

first 7,000-foot runway was ready by the end of January. Without steel matting, engineers improvised a 

clay and gravel subsurface and coated the runway with gravel chips shot with asphalt. Sufficient PSP 

was available to build a heavy bomber strip at Murtha Field, which opened in early March. Both bases 

were heavily used during operations in the Philippines in summer 1945.227

The landing on Luzon began on January 9 at Lingayen Gulf. The 836th and 1879th Engineer 

Aviation Battalions had seven days to build a 5,000-foot steel mat runway before Navy aircraft carrier 

support was withdrawn. With the help of 400 Filipino civilians, they met the goal and began work 

on a second runway two miles south near the town of Dagupan. They were assisted by the 828th and 

864th Engineer Aviation Battalions. The 1876th Engineer Aviation Battalion built another strip near 

the town of Mangaldan.228

The airfields constructed for Far East Air Forces at Lingayen and Marcelino were adequate for 

the assault campaign on the Philippines, but were not adequate to support continued operations of 

any magnitude. As the Allies made the drive down the Central Plains to Manila, they secured five 

all-weather fields—Clark, Porac, Floridablanca, Nichols, and Nielson. Clark and Floridablanca had 

dual heavy bomber runways capable of being extended for B-29s. Work began on all fields early in 

March, and they were practically complete in May.229

Many other requirements demanded attention besides airfield construction on Luzon. Fourteen 

of the 36 aviation engineer battalions concentrated in the Philippines were commandeered to work 

on other projects, primarily bridge building and repair. By the end of the Philippines campaign, over 

half of the work performed by aviation engineers was estimated as construction unrelated to the air 

forces. The conquest of Luzon further accelerated the Japanese retreat and paved the way for the Allied 

attacks on Formosa, enemy airfields on the China coast, and, ultimately, on Iwo Jima and Okinawa.230

China-Burma-India

Although the war against Japan was fought and won primarily in the Pacific, the United States 

also provided significant assistance via India and Burma. The goal was to keep China in the war and 

to prepare for both ground and air offensives against enemy forces in eastern China and Japan. With 

the Japanese controlling most of Burma by the end of May 1942, the Allies launched a campaign to 

build seven airfields for transport aircraft. The airfields, primarily proposed in Assam Province in 

northeastern India and Yunnan Province in southwestern China, were intended to support airlift operations over “The Hump” of the Himalayas. A series of bomber fields also were planned across northern 

India to defend the sub-continent. Supplying the airlift to China meant building the most extensive 

military pipeline system ever constructed across 2,000 miles of hostile territory.

231

At the Quadrant Conference in Quebec in August 1943, the United States and Great Britain 

strategized to capture the northern part of Burma to increase flight safety over The Hump and to 

restore overland communications between India and China. Aviation engineers, under Army Air Forces 

control, supported the campaign in Burma and developed the important complex of bases around Myitkyina. Once northern Burma was secure, effort shifted to construction of the Ledo Road. The road was 

planned to extend from northeastern India across northern Burma and intersect with the Burma Road, 

which linked Burma with China. Col. Lyle Seeman became the first theater air engineer stationed at 

headquarters for the CBI Air Service Command near Calcutta. He was responsible for support to the 

Tenth Air Force in India and Fourteenth Air Force in China.232

The airborne aviation engineers played an important role in the pacification of northern Burma. 

On December 25, 1943, the 900th Airborne Engineer Aviation Company was flown to Shingbwiyang, 
Laying The Foundation 69

beyond the head of the Ledo Road. It proceeded to construct an airfield behind enemy lines. In March 

1944, members of the same unit accomplished a difficult and stunning feat. They descended by gliders 

at night deep into enemy territory to build five airstrips. Construction was undertaken in support of 

commando operations led by Col. Philip Cochran and British Gen. Orde C. Wingate. General Wingate 

led specially-trained guerilla forces called Chindits; they included British, Gurkha, and Burmese guerrillas. Loaded on the gliders were four bulldozers with attached blades, two scrapers, a grader, a jeep, 

and hand tools. The equipment was smaller than typical machinery, making it easier to transport.233 

The heavily-laden gliders were towed over the 7,000-foot-high mountains of the Indo-Burmese 

border. Due to their weight, the gliders were forced to approach the landing clearing at high speeds. 

Unfortunately, what previously had been identified as a grassy clearing during air reconnaissance turned 

out to be crosshatched with ruts from logging operations. The ruts tore the landing gear off some of 

the gliders and pile-ups occurred due to the numbers of craft landing. Capt. Patrick Casey, commander 

of the 900th Engineers, was killed and about five percent of the landing force was lost. A bulldozer 

and a scraper were wrecked. Nevertheless, the engineers leveled the clearing as rapidly as possible. 

By the next night, approximately 70 C-47s safely landed to deliver troops and supplies on the runway, 

which was already equipped with lights, radios, and radar. That same night, another detachment of the 

900th successfully prepared another landing strip 50 miles further south. General Wingate’s brigades 

were sent to two fields to push forward and dynamite the Burma Railway.

234

On March 21, a third airborne engineer operation established a landing strip for the Chindit forces 

80 miles southwest of Mogaung. The engineers raced against time to construct the landing field for 

land assault forces before the Japanese could respond to the incursion. The engineers won the race 

Airborne aviation engineers unload “Lucille,” a specially designed tractor, from a C-47 at Tamu, Burma. 
70 Leading the Way

by two hours, in just enough time for Chindit guerrillas to intercept the approaching Japanese. Part of 

their efficiency was due to the fact that the airborne engineers were trained in loading, lashing, and 

unloading all of their own equipment into gliders and aircraft. Airborne engineer units received their 

training at Westover Field, Massachusetts; Fort Benning, Georgia; and at the Airborne Center at Camp 

Mackall, North Carolina. They were expected to be able to march continuously for 15 to 20 hours at 

an average rate of six miles an hour and to be ready for combat at the end of such marches. They were 

capable of sustained effort and prolonged physical exertion on limited rations, in addition to their 

engineering skills. They received their final training at Troop Carrier Command airfields, where they 

trained with the aircraft and personnel who transported them in theater.

235

On May 17, 1944, Company A of the 879th airborne engineers launched an operation to build 

airstrips near Myitkyina. All of the gliders crash-landed but only four men were hurt. Under Japanese 

attack, the engineers rallied and fought back. They successfully scraped out airstrips, which remained 

in service throughout the summer. By early June, all of the 879th were at work on the airfield. Casualties during the fighting were heavy and approximately 150 engineers were killed. The Tenth Air Force 

eventually deployed four regular aviation engineer battalions with heavy equipment to the airfields. 

They cut equipment as large as D-7 caterpillar tractors into pieces in order to fit it into C-47s; the tractors were welded back together on the other end. Myitkyina became the only area in the CBI Theater 

where the aviation engineers worked in strength under air force control.236 

Although the airborne engineers achieved great successes in Burma, other campaigns were not as 

positive. Theater commanders tended to doubt their reliability, primarily because of the inefficiency 

of their light equipment. Some of the airborne troops began to regard themselves as orphan units. Late 

in 1944 most of the airborne battalions turned in their undersized equipment for heavier machines or 

were absorbed into conventional battalions.237

Early construction of airfields in India was conducted by native laborers under British supervision, 

An airborne aviation engineer uses a tractor he just unloaded from one of the Waco gliders in the photo.
“[Gen Orde] Wingate and I think you should tell Godfrey that his airborne engineers 

are superb, repeat superb.”

 Air Marshall John Baldwin, Aviation Engineer Notes 24, Jun 1944, page 7.

Laying The Foundation 71

but the United States was soon called upon to provide logistical and construction support. In December 

1943, Brig. Gen. Stuart Godfrey, the Air Engineer in Washington, was transferred to the CBI theater 

to supervise construction of B-29 bases in the Bengal area for the Tenth Air Force. He also kept tabs 

on construction in China under the auspices of the engineering staff at Fourteenth Air Force, all part 

of Operation Matterhorn.

238

The 853d, 879th, 1875th, and 1877th Engineer Aviation Battalions enlarged and improved five 

existing airfields in the flatlands west of Calcutta, using mostly borrowed equipment. The 853d experienced tragedy during its transfer from Algeria to India. More than half the battalion was lost when an 

aerial torpedo launched by a German airplane struck its ship, the HMT Rohna, near Sicily on November 26, 1943. In mid-April 1944, the 1888th Engineer Aviation Battalion arrived, along with more 

machinery, and progress on the fields in the Bengal region accelerated. Soon engineers were building or 

maintaining some 45 airfields in India. In addition to runway construction, engineers erected hangars, 

housing, and operational buildings salvaged from the Mediterranean theater. The first B-29s left for 

Bangkok on June 5 to bomb railway shops, and the airdromes were fully complete by September.

239

Five African-American aviation engineer battalions—the 823d, 848th, 849th, 858th, and 1883d—

arrived in theater during 1942 and 1943. Sixty percent of the 15,000 U.S. troops assigned to construction 

of the Ledo Road were African-American. The 45th Engineer General Service Regiment, like the 823d 

Engineer Aviation Battalion, previously worked on airfields in Assam and elsewhere in India. By April 

1945, 111,012 African-American engineer troops served overseas, including more than 50 separate 

Aviation Engineer battalions. The 823d Engineer Aviation Battalion was dispatched to the critical 

but remote Assam region in July 1942. The battalion helped with airfield construction before joining 

combat engineering battalions in constructing the Ledo Road.240 Begun by the British in early 1941, 

Gen. Joseph Stilwell’s plan called for the United States to resume work on the road, which began on 

December 25, 1942.241 

Glider-borne aviation engineers use their equipment to haul the glider off the airstrip at Myitkyina in Burma.
72 Leading the Way

Construction of the Ledo Road was one of the great engineering feats of the war. The rudimentary 

road ran east from Ledo, through the Patkai Mountains on the Burmese border to Shingbwiyang, then 

veered south to the towns of Myitkyina and Bhamo, and east from Bhamo to the Burma Road. The 

route spanned a total distance of 500 miles and ran through rugged country from Ledo to Myitkyina. 

Approximately 275 miles extended through an area of largely uncharted jungle and through some of 

the most difficult terrain in the world. Weather posed a further challenge. During the monsoon season 

from May to October, northern Burma received an average of 140 inches of rain in the mountains and 

120 inches in the valleys.242

Getting to India and then to the construction site was a rigorous journey in itself. With no time to 

bring new battalions from the United States, General Arnold recommended that the War Department 

divert construction units from previous assignments. Battalions from North Africa traveled overland 

across Africa, boarded ships to Bombay, and then journeyed for days on slow trains across India to 

the Bhramaputra River. Steamers took them up river to a rail connection to Burma.243

The 823d Engineer Aviation Battalion and the 45th Engineer General Service Regiment first built 

warehouses, barracks, hospitals, and base roads at Ledo. By New Year’s Day 1943, the engineers were 

making good progress on the road toward the Patkai Mountains. The 823d cleared a road trace and 

the 45th followed, completing grading and applying gravel or crushed rock to stabilize the road. By 

February, they reached the Pangsan Pass, where they were forced to increasingly rely on explosives; 

they pushed on for the Burmese border. As the lead bulldozer crossed into Burma on February 28, the 

823d and the 45th Engineers erected a sign—“Welcome to Burma, This Way to Tokyo.”244 

In March, the engineers were joined by the Chinese 10th Independent Combat Engineer Regiment. 

March brought early monsoon rains; by April the monsoon was in full swing. Equipment skidded off 

the road and even pack animals could not be used to transport food and gasoline to the road head. 

Resupply was accomplished by airdrop. During the early monsoon season, March to May, the road 

advanced only four miles. The engineers were plagued by equipment maintenance problems, shortages 

of spare parts, and lack of trained supply personnel.245

Airborne aviation engineers work on the Myitkyina airstrip for use by 10th Air Force pilots.
Laying The Foundation 73

 THE AIRBORNE ENGINEER’S SONG

(Sung to the tune of “The Man on the Flying Trapeze”)

Oh, once I was happy but now I’m Airborne

Riding in gliders all tattered and torn

The pilots are daring, all caution they scorn

And the pay is exactly the same.

We glide through the air in our flying caboose

Its actions are graceful, just like a goose

We hike through the jungles ‘til joints have come loose

And the pay is exactly the same.

We glide through the air in a tactical state

Jumping is useless, it’s always too late

No chute for the soldiers who ride in a crate

And the pay is exactly the same.

We fight in fatigues, no fancy jump suits

No bright leather jackets, no polished jump boots

We crash land in gliders without parachutes

And the pay is exactly the same.

Once I was happy and now I’m a dope

Riding in gliders attached to a rope

Safety in landing is only a hope

And the pay is exactly the same.

We glide through the air with “Jennie” the jeep

Held in our laps unable to leap

If she ever breaks loose our widows will weep

And the pay is exactly the same.

We hike and we sweat, we load and we lash

We tie it down well, in case of a crash

We take off and land and climb out like a flash

And the pay is exactly the same.

We glide through the air with the greatest of ease

We do a good job and we try hard to please

The Finance Department we pester and tease

And the pay is exactly the same.

OH, . . . once I was happy, but now I’m Airborne

Riding in gliders all tattered and torn

The pilots are daring, all caution they scorn

BUT . . . the pay is exactly the same.
74 Leading the Way

Several new regiments were added to the workforce and the monsoon season finally came to a 

close. The road progressed a mile a day. Around the same time, the engineers were placed under the new 

leadership of Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Pick. As new units arrived—including the other African-American 

aviation engineer battalions—General Pick dispatched one, and then another, beyond the road head 

to open road sections and to blaze the way. By the middle of November, thanks to new equipment, 

additional troops, and General Pick’s around-the-clock schedule, the road head connected with an 

advanced section about 40 miles from Shingbwiyang. By the end of the month, another 20 miles was 

complete. In addition to roadwork, detachments from the aviation engineer battalions also built a 

number of landing strips alongside the route so that supplies could be delivered.246

On December 27, 1943, five days ahead of schedule, General Pick announced that the 117-mile 

section of road from Ledo to Shingbwiyang was open to truck traffic. He congratulated the men on 

opening 54 miles of trace in 57 days. A convoy rolling over the road to Shingbwiyang delivered 

candy, doughnuts, and 9,600 cans of beer to the troops. Brig. Gen. William E. R. Covell, the head of 

the U.S. Task Force in China, responded that the Ledo Road would “stand forever as a monument to 

the unstinting labor, courage, determination and ingenuity of both the living and those who gave their 

lives in this remarkable accomplishment.”247

Progress from Shingbwiyang south to Myitkyina was slowed by Japanese resistance and the 

diversion of engineers to support the campaign in Myitkyina. That section of the road required the 

erection of bridges across streams and rivers, especially difficult during the 1944 monsoon season. 

After reaching Myitkyina, engineers were involved in a two-month combat campaign. The Japanese 

finally capitulated and abandoned the town in early August. All engineers in the fight at Myitkyina 

received the Presidential Unit Citation.248

The Ledo Road was completed to the junction with the Burma Road in autumn 1944. On January 

12, 1945, General Pick led the first convoy of 113 vehicles—driven by representatives of all of the 

engineer units that worked on the road—from Ledo to Kunming, China. Some 65 radio, magazine, and 

newspaper correspondents accompanied the units. The convoy was welcomed by the Chinese Minister 

of Foreign Affairs on January 28; the governor of Yunnan Province hosted a banquet in their honor.249

After finishing touches, General Pick announced the formal completion of the Ledo Road on May 

20, 1945. It was an assignment that he called the toughest job ever given to U.S. Army engineers in 

wartime. At the suggestion of Chiang Kai-Shek, the road was renamed “The Stilwell Road;” to engineers who built it, the road affectionately was known as “Pick’s Pike.” With the road finished, eight 

construction battalions moved into China, transporting their heavy equipment over the famous road 

they helped build. The 858th and 1891st Engineer Aviation Battalions were among those that made 

the journey, stopping occasionally to patch the road as they went along.250

In China, airfield construction had been underway since 1943. Only a handful of aviation engineers 

advised Maj. Gen. Claire L. Chennault, commander of the Fourteenth Air Force. Col. Herman Schull, 

Jr., headed the Engineer Section at Chennault’s headquarters at Kunming, China, beginning in August 

1943. He was later succeeded by Col. Henry “Hank” Byroade. Construction of B-29 bases at four 

sites in Szechwan Province, northwest of Chungking, began in late 1943. By April 1944, Colonel 

Byroade was overseeing maintenance of eight major fighter and bomber fields in eastern China, and 

construction was underway on eight additional fields. Eventually, 25 fields were built or improved. 

The Chinese Military Engineering Commission controlled the construction program. U.S. engineers 

mainly performed engineering staff work. They also assisted in organization, administration, and 

payment of the 300,000 to 500,000 local workers conscripted by the governor of Szechwan to work 

on the airfields.251

Airfield construction was conducted by hundreds of thousands of Chinese laborers, using whatever 

methods were available. Chinese men and women carried heavy loads of earth, stone, or other building 

materials in twin baskets slung from poles across their shoulders. Rollers to compact airfields were 

drawn by teams of Chinese, often a hundred or more to each roller. Excavation was completed using 
Laying The Foundation 75

hand tools. The U.S. principle of installing drainage first to protect the subgrade from the softening 

effect of standing water was often difficult to enforce. The Chinese engineers, accustomed to installing 

the drainage system last, clinched the argument with the inscrutable reply, “We’ve been doing it like 

this in China for two thousand years.”252

During summer 1944, aviation engineers had the heartbreaking experience of performing airfield 

denial against some of the newly-built fields in eastern China. A major Japanese offensive in late May 

resulted in attacks on the airfields used by Fourteenth Air Force to strike Japanese shipping. As the 

offensive advanced, Chennault’s engineers had the painful duty of destroying the fields before they 

were overrun. They detonated bombs in the taxiways and runways, while other air force personnel 

burned buildings. The loss of those airfields created the need for new ones in central and southern 

China. In October 1944, the Fourteenth Air Force engineer arranged with the Chinese to build two 

medium bomber bases west and northwest of Kweilin.253

After the Ledo Road was open in early 1945, aviation engineers reached China in significant 

numbers with heavy equipment. Unfortunately, by then the B-29s had moved out of China. In the final 

months of war, no new large scale engineering projects were undertaken. Meanwhile, the war in the 

Pacific rapidly was reaching its conclusion.254

Iwo Jima and Okinawa 

Iwo Jima was seized between the two major invasions of the Philippines and Okinawa. The island 

was valuable strategically as a staging base for B-29s attacking Japan and as an emergency landing 

site for crippled aircraft returning from bombing runs. The initial schedule for capturing and expanding airfields on Iwo Jima was predicated on securing the island after a three or four day battle; it took 

four weeks to clear the island. Heavy spring rains caused significant delays once construction began; 

engineers faced other problems, such as volcanic steam pockets that had to be avoided when laying out 

runways and gasoline lines. The volcanic ash on the island was easier to work with than the coral often 

encountered in the Pacific; however, the ash eroded easily, even when compacted, and asphalt could 

only be laid on a thoroughly dry ash base. In June, an asphalt area approximately 80,000 square feet in 

size was ruined by water penetrating into the sub-base, causing significant delay. Construction on Iwo 

Jima was assigned to the 9th Naval Construction Brigade and the 811th Engineer Aviation Battalion.255

Once completed, airfields on Iwo Jima covered nearly four square miles and half the surface of the 

island. Fighter strips at North and South Fields were paved and augmented by taxiways and hundreds 

of hardstands. The main B-29 runway was paved and extended 9,800 feet. A second strip was graded 

to 9,400 feet by V-J Day but was never surfaced. An old east-west runway served as a 6,000-foot 

fueling strip. During the six months between the landing of the first B-29 on Iwo Jima and the formal 

surrender, the island was in constant use by long-range bombers. Its function as a recovery base also 

proved important. By the end of the war, B-29s made an estimated 2,400 emergency landings on its 

runways.256

Construction plans for Okinawa and other islands in the Ryukyus were initially massive in scope, 

involving 93 aviation engineer battalions and extensive airfield construction to support the anticipated 

invasion of Japan. If Japan had not surrendered, many of the veteran aviation engineer units from the 

European theater would have been assigned to the mammoth construction program. 

When the attack on Okinawa lagged after the initial April 1, 1945 landings, priority shifted to 

seizing nearby Ie Shima and its three Japanese airstrips. Ie Shima became known as the “most valuable 

eleven square miles of land in the western Pacific.” By April 30, Japanese airstrips were restored, and 

by May 12, an all-weather strip was ready. In June, two all-weather strips with crowded parking for 

over 450 planes were operational.257

On Okinawa, engineers found that the old Japanese airfields were surfaced lightly and badly damaged. At Kadena Field, they exerted great effort to haul coral for resurfacing the runways. One airstrip 
76 Leading the Way

was ready for dry weather use in two days, and by May 1, converted to an all-weather runway despite 

continuous bombing, strafing, and shelling. By June 22, only 31,400 of 80,000 scheduled construction 

troops had reached Okinawa. General Arnold interceded with Admiral Chester Nimitz and aviation 

engineer shipments were accelerated. On July 11, General Kenny wrote to General Arnold that new 

fields were “appearing like magic and construction is going on faster than I have ever seen it before.”258

Air Force and Marine flying units, some redeployed from Europe, moved into the Ryukyus as 

quickly as airfields were ready. Three bombardment groups began flying missions in early July. They 

concentrated on attacking shipping lanes, and destroying or neutralizing installations in Kyushu and 

western Honshu. They also provided air protection for naval forces. Some bomb groups used Kadena 

until Machinato could be captured and repaired. Heavy bombers were based at Yontan, while fighters 

were crowded onto airfields at Ie Shima. The aviation engineers in the Ryukyus, like the air crews, 

seemed to come from everywhere—the Philippines, Guadalcanal, Alaska, Guam, and the United 

States.259

The War’s End 

By July 1945, 33 aviation engineer battalions were assigned to the Army Air Forces Pacific Ocean 

Areas. They were organized into the 927th Engineer Aviation Regiment on Guam, the 933d Engineer 

Aviation Regiment on Okinawa, and the 935th Engineer Aviation Regiment on Ie Shima.260

The air campaign against Japan steadily increased in intensity during spring and summer 1945. 

It climaxed with the atomic bomb attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9. The Allies 

declared August 15 as V-J Day, and the occupation of Japan began with the landing of U.S. paratroops 

at Atsugi Airfield on August 30. The official surrender on September 2 came as engineers were still 

building the garrison in the Ryukyus. On Okinawa, 26 battalions were finishing construction on six airfields, which totaled 25 miles of paved runways and enough taxiways, hardstands, and parking aprons 

to equal 400 miles of two-lane highway. The long war against Japan was over. Aviation engineers 

were an integral part of the effort, building airfields to support Army Air Forces operations from the 

barren reaches of Alaska to the deserts of Australia, and from the remote islands of the Central Pacific 

to India and China. Hundreds had given their lives to achieve a timeless victory.

261

The experiences of aviation engineer battalions in the Pacific and CBI theaters were notably different from those of battalions that served in Europe, the Mediterranean, and North Africa. In those 

theaters, engineers were under the direct control of Army Air Forces commanders and were used almost 

exclusively on airfield construction. The chain of command in the Pacific resulted in the consolidation of engineers from all services in general support of the combat effort. Aviation engineers worked 

closely with Navy Seabees to build more than 200 runways from Australia to Okinawa. They were 

diverted from aviation-related construction to unusual projects such as the Ledo Road, and bridge and 

road projects in the Philippines and New Guinea. They saw considerably more direct combat than 

their comrades in Europe. In an immense theater, they performed remarkable engineering feats in the 

face of almost unspeakable obstacles. Their superhuman effort played a major role in winning the 

war in the Pacific and set a standard for all future expeditionary engineers to admire and to emulate. 

Worldwide during World War II, the number of U.S. aviation engineers peaked at 117,851 personnel in February 1945. This number accounted for approximately five percent of the total Army Air 

Forces.262 In all, U.S. aviation engineers serviced, built, or improved 1,435 airfields for the Army Air 

Forces in 67 foreign countries.263

Occupation Forces

The majority of aviation engineers returned to the United States and were mustered out of service. Many remained in theater as part of the Armies of Occupation in Germany and Japan into 1946 
Laying The Foundation 77

and even 1947. Temporary airfields that supported combat operations needed to be dismantled and 

huge depot facilities had to be maintained to accommodate the vast quantities of war materiel being 

processed and dispersed. Airdromes that the Army Air Forces retained as the base of permanent operations in Europe and Asia required post engineer organizations to assume responsibility for day-to-day 

operations and maintenance. At the same time, several aviation engineer battalions remained on board 

to perform major repairs and accomplish additional construction.

In Europe, Operation Eclipse outlined plans for the occupation of Germany following the defeat 

of Nazi military forces. The U.S. Occupation Air Forces (OAF) required a balanced combination of 

bomber, fighter, and transport bases—some existing and some new. Decisions awaited action on the 

Occupation Zones among the Allies. Tasks facing the aviation engineers included identifying bases 

and divesting them of camouflage networks, repairing runways and taxiways, extending runways at 

those bases projected to host heavy bomber units, reclaiming or building housing for troops, restoring 

rail facilities and roadways, and constructing depot and storage facilities. 

The IX Engineer Command remained responsible for construction in Germany following V-E Day, 

until the command was succeeded by the European Aviation Engineer Command (EAEC) in January 

1946. In April 1946, the commander of the EAEC activated three Air Engineer Districts to supervise 

and to coordinate construction activities: Frankfurt, Nuremberg, and Munich. In November 1946, 

the Air Engineer Section of the U.S. Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) assumed responsibility for the 

construction program on European air bases. When the USAFE Air Engineer took over, he reduced 

the districts to two, the Eastern Air Engineer District at Landsberg Air Base and the Western Air 

Engineer District at Wiesbaden Air Base. Engineer Aviation Battalions assigned to accomplish major 

construction in Germany were the 831st, the 850th, and the 862d. They were augmented initially by 

500 prisoners of war, 8,500 local civilians, and the 332d General Service Regiment.264 

Overall, 33 OAF airfields were built or rehabilitated in Germany. Original plans called for nine 

heavy bomber bases, three light bomber bases, one medium bomber base, four major transport bases, 

a generous number of fighter bases, and airfields to accommodate liaison and reconnaissance units. 

Firm planning was difficult as a result of the fluid postwar situation and because basing plans shifted 

as missions evolved.265

Engineers encountered a new set of problems in conducting postwar construction. By directive, 

they were supposed to employ German civilian labor and materials from German stocks or production 

to the maximum extent possible. Although these objectives were good in theory, engineers did not know 

which manufacturing plants would be restored to production in time to meet construction demands. 

Reparation demands of the Allied powers also hindered the availability of resources.

Cement was a key requirement for construction. Aside from finding plants to manufacture cement, 

very little rail transport was available in the early months following the war. Materials had to be trucked 

forward from the Rhine River. By summer 1945, basic rail service was restored to the Nuremberg, 

Stuttgart, and Munich areas, although local track and sidings still needed to be laid. Engineers developed their own cement production capability to meet the total demand.266

Labor was a continuing problem. Although plans called for using German civilian labor to supplement aviation engineer battalions, in summer 1945, no one knew how many qualified German workers 

were available. By mid-1946 the program hit its stride; that summer, EAEC units performed construction on 50 major projects. Battalion commanders focused first and foremost on finishing runways and 

taxiways. They then turned their attention to support facilities and troop housing, which was in short 

supply and had its own impact on operations.267

In fall 1946, the rehabilitation of Rhein Main airport to create a major transportation hub had the 

highest priority. In October, 2,500 men were employed on the project, making it the largest construction project in the U.S. zone of occupation. The other project of great significance was Tempelhof 

Airport in Berlin. The 852d Engineer Aviation Battalion was given the job of constructing an east-west 

runway out of pierced steel planking. The PSP was laid over a rubble base topped with concrete. It 
78 Leading the Way

was completed in September. The 852d was withdrawn by the end of 1945; a force of 1,400 largely 

German civilians carried out rehabilitation work on the seriously damaged airport buildings and 

facilities for the next two years.268

By the time the Air Force gained recognition as a separate service in September 1947, most major 

construction in Germany was complete. The work transitioned from a higher percentage of heavy 

construction to a higher percentage of small-scale repair projects accomplished by the installation 

squadrons assigned to the respective operational bases. 

Meanwhile in Asia, postwar reconstruction began first in the Philippines and followed General 

MacArthur’s re-capture of the islands in spring 1945. Much energy was put into restoring facilities 

in and around Manila, not only to reverse wartime damage but to prepare a main staging area for 

the anticipated invasion of Japan. The Engineer reconstruction mission in the Philippines was more 

robust than in Germany or Japan. As a former U.S. commonwealth, the Philippines also received 

more assistance than the defeated enemies. As the war in Europe drew to an end, the redeployment of 

significant engineer resources from Europe to the Pacific was a boon to construction in the Southwest 

Pacific, but had a negative impact on postwar construction in Germany.

269

An Engineer Construction Command (ENCOM) was established on March 9, 1945 under the 

Services of Supply for the Southwest Pacific. The two existing engineer districts on Leyte and Luzon 

were assigned to ENCOM. The Luzon district peaked at 20,000 engineer troops and a similar number 

of civilian laborers in July 1945. Engineers in the Philippines, including aviation engineer battalions, 

simultaneously worked on restoring port facilities destroyed by the Japanese, who left 600 sunken vessels in the Manila harbor. They also assisted with public utilities and roads and repaired or constructed 

20 airfields on Luzon and 25 on the rest of the islands. They built extensive new fuel storage facilities 

and hospitals, installed 500 miles of pipeline, constructed nine million square feet of covered storage, 

and created a staging area for 350,000 soldiers.270

ENCOM transferred from the Philippines to Japan on September 1, 1945. The projects of greatest 

immediate concern were airfields and troop housing. Engineers found that Japanese airfields were 

poorly constructed and could not accommodate heavy use by forces. Although many Japanese barracks 

were available, they suffered from inadequate heating since boilers and radiators had been removed 

to provide scrap for the Japanese war effort.271

Aviation engineers also divided their efforts between Japan and Korea. At the request of theater 

commanders, the Chief of Engineers established a separate Western Ocean Division with four districts. 

Manila, Okinawa, Honolulu, and Guam were designated to handle construction outside the occupied 

areas. As in Europe, by 1947 the major construction program ramped down, and repairs and maintenance became the responsibility of small installation squadrons assigned to Far East Air Forces units 

on Japanese and Korean bases.272 

LESSONS LEARNED FROM WORLD WAR II

Aviation engineers made a concerted effort to capture all of the lessons learned through hardwon, and sometimes painful, experiences during the war. In late June 1946, nine senior officers with 

extensive wartime aviation engineer experience were appointed by the Secretary of War (at the request 

of the Army Air Forces) to a special Board of Officers assigned to compile and analyze those lessons. 

Their task was forward looking in nature. The ultimate purpose of their report was to recommend the 

most effective doctrine, organization, and policies to govern future aviation engineer support to Air 

Force operations. The report board was specifically asked to “make appropriate recommendations as to 

organization, equipment, employment, and control of Aviation Engineers in support of an autonomous 

Air Force.”273 

Probably the most direct lesson learned from the war was that centralized control of aviation engineer construction forces was required to ensure the efficient prosecution of major projects. Dispersing 
“The centralization of command of all Aviation Engineer units under one Engineer 

Command, directly responsible to the Air Force Commander was the only method of control 

which would and did enable the construction, rehabilitation, and maintenance of airfields to 

be performed in accordance with the overall requirements of the Air Force commander in his 

area of responsibility.”

“Report of a Board of Officers on Aviation Engineers,” submitted to the Commanding General, 

Army Air Forces, July 29, 1946, Tab B, 4.

Laying The Foundation 79

IX Engineer Command Remembered

On May 30, 1946, a bronze plaque commemorating 

the accomplishments and sacrifices of the IX Engineer 

Command was dedicated at the headquarters for 

the European Aviation Engineer Command at 

Schlangenbad, Germany. The plaque lists the names 

of 31 aviation engineers who gave their lives in the 

line of duty while assigned to the command. Among 

the IX Engineer Command members present at the 

ceremony was Col. (later Maj. Gen.) Robert H. Curtin. 

He later served as the Air Engineer for U.S. Air Forces 

in Europe and completed his career as the Director of 

Civil Engineering at Headquarters USAF from 1963 

to 1968. 

The plaque remained in place until 1963, when the 

building was scheduled to be returned to the German 

government. Brig. Gen. Oran O. Price, the USAFE 

Director of Civil Engineering at the time and a former 

IX Engineer Command member, was preparing to 

leave Europe to become General Curtin’s 

deputy at Headquarters USAF. He transported 

the plaque to Wright-Patterson AFB, where 

it found a new home in the lobby of the 

School of Civil Engineering at the Air Force 

Institute of Technology. General Price helped 

rededicate the plaque on June 6, 1963, the 19th 

anniversary of D-Day. Twenty-two years later, 

it was rededicated again on May 16, 1985 to 

commemorate the 40th anniversary of V-E Day. 

Once again, General Price attended to bring 

the legacy of IX Engineer Command to life for 

attendees. In December 1994, the plaque moved 

to its current home in Building 643 at AFIT, 

home of the Civil Engineering and Services 

School.

Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., dean of the School of Civil 

Engineering in 1985, and Brig. Gen. Oran Price 

(USAF, ret) examine a map showing the locations of 

air bases built by the engineers of IX Engineer Command following the Normandy Invasion.
80 Leading the Way

engineer forces under subordinate commands led to inefficient employment of construction forces 

and to delays in completing vital operational projects. When engineers were pooled in a theater, in a 

Services of Supply construction agency, or under Air Service Command, Army Air Forces commanders 

were dissociated from construction programs being conducted specifically to support their missions. 

On the other hand, when Theater Air Forces had direct control of aviation engineer units, as they did 

in the Twelfth and Ninth Air Forces, results were vastly improved. Establishing a separate Engineer 

Command illustrated the value of having a senior aviation engineer with dedicated staff to advise and 

assist Army Air Forces commanders. When the Engineer Commands were involved in tactical and 

logistical planning, the Chief Engineer was able to coordinate engineer activities in support of operations. Chief Engineers could also monitor the supply status of units in the field, and use their influence 

as members of the Command Staff to secure essential supplies.274

Other key lessons learned identified by the Board of Officers are summarized as follows:

● There was a tendency to approve construction projects for the aviation engineers 

based on what was desired, without considering what was actually possible. Failure to include aviation engineers in initial planning resulted in underestimations 

of engineering efforts and the equipment support requirements needed to support 

operations.

● Theaters lacked a clear, published construction policy that spelled out for operational commanders the capabilities, limitations, and responsibilities of aviation 

engineers, as well as the channels and procedures for submitting construction 

requests and setting priorities for different types of projects. When policies 

did exist, they were not effectively enforced by the Army Air Forces theater 

commanders.

● Reconnaissance and site selection procedures were not well coordinated, and there 

was insufficient cooperation between ground and air elements. Engineers on the 

ground were not qualified to look for potential restrictions to flying operations, 

and pilots were generally not qualified to identify potential engineering difficulties. Reconnaissance parties ideally included a flying officer, an aviation engineer, 

and a weather officer.

● Aviation engineers learned that they needed their own organic equipment maintenance capability. Significant downtime for maintenance occurred due to rugged 

terrain, 24-hour operations, and vehicle abuse by inadequately trained operators. 

Equipment maintenance units were largely assigned to organizations not involved 

in supporting Army Air Forces operations. Other major problems with equipment 

included coordinating deployments of men and equipment so they arrived at the 

same time and avoiding theft or diversion of equipment and supplies en route or 

at construction sites. 

● Training for aviation engineers was deficient in a number of areas and was not 

timely. Subject areas where training was lacking included: operation and care of 

equipment, planning for around-the-clock operations, technical practices such 

as preparation and drainage of subgrades and surfaces, erection of prefabricated 

facilities, site selection procedures, and bomb and mine removal.

● The premise that there would always be enough local labor to supplement small 

military construction forces proved to be false, particularly in remote areas. Project planning should stipulate sufficient numbers of skilled, trained engineers to 

do the job.

● Extensive experience in heavy construction was obtained only from actual work. 

More effort was needed to recruit men from industry who were already proficient 
Laying The Foundation 81

and to ensure that enlistees with experience were channeled to the engineers. 

Heavy operations should be accomplished only by experienced, mature commissioned and enlisted personnel.

● Acquisition, storage, and issue of engineer supplies needed to be controlled to 

protect assets and expedite transportation, based on the Theater Air Commander’s 

priorities. The Services of Supply controlled the distribution of common items 

such as lumber, asphalt, and corrugated sheeting. The Air Force Service Command 

controlled special construction items peculiar to the Army Air Forces, such as steel 

planking and portable hangars. Even when materials were successfully ordered 

and received in theater, there was generally not enough rail space authorized for 

the Air Forces to transport heavy supplies to aviation engineer units in the field. 

The units themselves did not have sufficient organic transport to haul supplies 

from the depots to their sites. 

● Building revetments required extensive effort and then provided reasonable protection only against general-purpose bombs. The decision to construct revetments 

should be carefully weighed against the advantages afforded by construction of 

better dispersal facilities or even additional airfields.

● Aviation engineers needed a comprehensive plan for gathering information on new 

developments in the engineering field, as well as regular channels for disseminating information on new developments and lessons learned through experience.

● Engineers suffered from a number of health problems due to poor living conditions, long hours or rigorous work (10-12 hours a day, 7 days a week, for 3-4 

years), harsh environments and climates, lack of food and clean water, and diseases such as dysentery and malaria. Those areas needed to be addressed, and 

engineers should be allocated extra rations to help them sustain heavy construction 

for extended periods. 

● Engineer units should be maintained intact and not be required to surrender skilled 

personnel to perform other duties, such as fill vacant infantry positions. It was also 

inefficient to divert troops specially trained for airfield construction to perform 

road, bridge, and other miscellaneous construction projects. Ensuring control of 

aviation engineer units by the Army Air Forces was the best way to counter that 

problem.275

The list of specific recommendations submitted to the Commanding General of the Army Air 

Forces contributed greatly to discussions already underway at the highest levels. At the heart of those 

recommendations was the assumption that any engineer force needed to be immediately available for 

participation in operations. Waiting for engineer troops to be organized and properly trained prior to 

deployment was not an option given the fast-paced nature of air operations. That message was clearly 

reinforced by the Army Air Forces major commands when they coordinated and commented on the 

draft recommendations. Projecting U.S. air power to the far reaches of the globe called for prompt, 

effective engineer support. Although it would be years before a dedicated emergency engineer force, 

the Prime Base Engineer Emergency Force (Prime BEEF) and Air Force Civil Engineer Rapid Engineer 

Deployable Heavy Operational Repair Squadron, Engineer (RED HORSE), were created using many 

of the lessons learned during World War II.276
82 Leading the Way

The major command engineers were also forward-looking in their analysis when they recommended that any future planning for engineer support should be “polar-minded” to support strategic 

defense of the nation. They also recommended that every consideration be given to establishing an 

Aviation Engineer organization in the Air Reserve capable of meeting the requirements of sudden 

emergencies.277

SETTING SIGHTS ON AN INDEPENDENT AIR FORCE

The dream of Airmen to see an Air Force established as an autonomous service, co-equal with 

the Army and the Navy, was at last within sight at the end of World War II. Army Air Forces leaders 

felt their wartime record clearly demonstrated, once and for all, the effectiveness of air power and 

had earned them an equal position in the national defense establishment. Support for the change came 

from several important quarters. Army Chief of Staff Gen. George Marshall had worked closely with 

General Arnold during the war and backed the concept. Gen. Dwight Eisenhower, who succeeded 

General Marshall as Chief of Staff in November 1945, was convinced of the strategic value of air power 

from his wartime experience and also supported the drive for independence from the Army. He was 

quick to remind people that the successful invasion of Europe would have been impossible without air 

superiority. Moreover, President Truman, who clearly articulated that he wanted the services unified 

under a single department of national defense, felt that the air arm should have parity.

278

As early as 1943, General Arnold began setting the stage by appointing formal groups to engage 

in postwar planning. They primarily looked at the force levels required in the postwar era and how 

Army Air Forces headquarters and the major commands should be organized. In August l945, the 

Army Air Forces adopted a “70-Group Objective,” which became the foundation for the postwar Air 

Force. In March 1946, Army Air Forces Chief of Staff Gen. Carl “Tooey” Spaatz instituted a major 

reorganization that ultimately resulted in functional changes for many installations. The reorganization 

was based on extensive planning and was done in such a way that when the Army Air Forces became 

an independent service, it would not have to immediately revamp its major commands once again.279

With General Eisenhower’s concurrence, three major combatant commands were established: 

One of the key members of the Board of Officers convened to study Aviation Engineer lessons 

learned was Col. Rudolph “Jerry” Smyser. He had recently returned to the United States from 

his post as commanding officer of the European Aviation Engineer Command (EAEC). The son 

of a career Army officer and a 1928 graduate of the U.S. Military Academy, Colonel Smyser 

had been involved in organizing and defining the role of Aviation 

Engineers from the very beginning. As executive officer to Col. 

Donald Davison at General Headquarters Air Force and later 

Assistant Engineer for Air Force Combat Command, he helped 

define the structure and proper equipping of aviation engineer 

battalions in preparation for their wartime support role. He served 

as chief of the Engineer Section at Eighth Air Force for two 

years, where he worked on Operation Overlord plans and helped 

establish IX Engineer Command. He then served as the A-4 for 

Ninth Air Force, before succeeding Brig. Gen. James Newman as 

commanding officer of IX Engineer Command. He became the 

first EAEC commander in January 1946. With nearly five years of 

service with the aviation engineers in Europe, he brought a wealth 

of corporate memory to the Board of Officers’ deliberations. 

Col. Rudolph E. “Jerry” Smyser, Jr. 
Laying The Foundation 83

Strategic Air Command, Tactical Air Command, and Air Defense Command. Eleven of the 16 wartime 

numbered air forces were assigned to these commands. Five other major commands and three theater 

commands rounded out the force. At Headquarters Army Air Forces, General Spaatz organized his 

staff into a structure analogous to the War Department General Staff system, including five assistant 

chiefs of air staff. The Director of Air Installations, Brig. Gen. Robert Kauch, reported to the AC/AS-4 

(Materiel), formerly known as the AC/AS for Materiel, Maintenance, and Distribution. Separate from 

the Director of Air Installations, the Air Engineer also reported to the AC/AS-4. The Air Engineer was 

concerned with aviation engineer battalions and troop construction rather than post engineer operations 

and responsibilities.280

Between mid-1947 and September of that year, Strategic Air Command began its dramatic era of 

growth. It expanded from 6 air bases to 11 in the United States, with an ultimate goal of 25 bases to 

house the strategic deterrent force. Engineers at those bases and at others across the country struggled 

to maintain facilities and housing, most of which had been constructed as temporary wartime structures. 

Postwar dollars were scarce, and manning was headed to an all-time low. Regardless of whether they 

belonged to the Army or Air Force, post engineers who elected to stay in the service after the war 

knew that they had a tough job ahead of them.281

As the march toward independence progressed, the Army Air Forces looked forward to new missions, a new basing structure and new organizations—in general, new horizons. The future looked 

exciting as an independent Air Force prepared to take control of its own destiny. The Army engineers 

who had been serving the air arm since 1907 did not know exactly what shape their future would take, 

but they knew for certain that engineers would play a big role in determining the success of the new 

Air Force’s endeavors.
84 Leading the Way

CHAPTER 2

ESTABLISHING INDEPENDENCE

1947-1959

Introduction

On July 26, 1947, President Harry S. Truman signed the National Security Act into law. This act 

created the U.S. Air Force as an independent branch of the U.S. armed forces and established the office 

of the Secretary of National Defense. The authorization of the separate Air Force marked a major, and 

long anticipated, achievement. 

The period from 1947 to 1959 was a time of unprecedented challenges for Air Force engineers. 

Engineers assigned to the newly formed Air Force began careers as air installation personnel, then 

installations engineers; by 1959, the function formally was renamed civil engineering. Air Force 

installations engineers welcomed the opportunity to forge a distinct identity within the new branch of 

the U.S. Armed Services. While mindful of their Army heritage, engineers took pride in defining the 

role and mission of Air Force civil engineering and in crafting the internal regulations and procedures 

to support new functions. 

The Cold War dramatically impacted the engineering community. The hardline stance of the 

U.S.S.R. and U.S. foreign policy response led the United States to maintain a sizeable overseas military 

presence and to reaffirm commitments to the defense of Europe and Asia. Basing decisions during 

the Cold War relied heavily on civil engineer support. Air Force installations personnel managed an 

increasing number of permanent bases in the continental United States (CONUS) and in Europe, North 

Africa, the Middle East, Iceland, Greenland, Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. From 1950 to 1953, Air Force 

installations engineers and Army combat engineers assigned to the Air Force also built and maintained 

the bases needed to support air power during the Korean Conflict. 

Civil engineers joined aeronautical engineers in supporting a wave of new technologies adopted by 

the Air Force in the 1950s. The advent of nuclear weapons and missile technology was accompanied 

by a new perspective on national defense. Civil engineers became involved closely in the development 

of radar early warning systems across the Arctic and oversaw planning and programming for complex 

facilities to deploy successive generations of missile systems. Engineers were indispensable in the 

development of new weapon systems; in many cases, support facilities were integral to the operation 

of these systems.

At the same time, civil engineers improved and maintained bases for the Air Force. Air Force 

size peaked in 1956 and included 183 wings (143 combat wings) located on 162 major operational 

installations. Air Force civil engineers met myriad challenges related to increasingly more powerful 

jet aircraft – fighters, nuclear-capable bombers, and transports – and growing Air Force communities. 

They redefined the world of fire-crash rescue. They implemented the Wherry and Capehart housing 

programs to provide modern, affordable housing for Air Force personnel and their families. From 1954 

to 1958, they planned and oversaw construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy.1

Air Force civil engineers were keenly aware of their professional role in the growth and development of the postwar military. Successful Air Force careers were assured through commitment, 

educational advancement, and professional development. Leaders of the Air Force civil engineering 

community strove to implement a wide range of engineering programs to advance the growth and 

maturation of the new Air Force. 
Establishing Independence 85

THE NEW AIR FORCE

Air Staff Organization 1945-1947

The civil engineer organization at Headquarters U.S. Army Air Forces from 1945-1947 was similar 

in structure to that which existed at the end of World War II. Two separate departments were in place; 

both reported to the Assistant Chief of Air Staff for Materiel (AC/AS-4). The Air Engineer, Brig. Gen. 

Samuel D. Sturgis, Jr., was responsible for aviation engineer units and troop construction in the overseas theaters of war. After September 1944, a new organization was established to oversee the repair 

and maintenance of real property and to operate utilities at CONUS Army Air Forces installations. 

The Director of Air Installations, Brig. Gen. Robert Kauch, was responsible for matters pertaining 

to construction, real estate, repairs, utilities, fire protection, and other post engineer responsibilities.2

General Sturgis argued vehemently in favor of a comprehensive engineer force, not only to build 

and to maintain Air Force bases, but also to perform all functions previously assigned to aviation 

engineer units. He advanced his position in correspondence with the Air Board and with the secretarygeneral of the board, Maj. Gen. Hugh Knerr. In May 1947, General Sturgis submitted an Air Engineer 

Plan that called for the creation of an Air Engineer Service with clearly defined functions.3

The Army Air Forces argued for maintaining an organic construction capability within its engineer 

organization based upon several valid assumptions. The first assumption was that the next war would 

begin with a sudden attack. Oceans and distance no longer safeguarded the United States. Mobilized 

forces within striking distance of potential enemies were required to be ready to project force at a 

moment’s notice. A large engineer force was needed to support these requirements. The pre-World 

War II concept of maintaining an engineer component at five percent of the total force was too low 

to meet projected Air Force requirements. Most importantly, wartime experience had demonstrated 

the importance of centralized control by the Air Force over the engineers who built and maintained 

air bases, so that those engineers functioned as a strong organic part of the Air Force fighting force.4

General Sturgis’s Air Engineer Plan addressed both the requirements for engineer forces on the 

home front and in expeditionary environments. He proposed creation of an Air Engineer Service, 

headed by the Air Engineer in Washington, and comprising elements at all levels of the Air Force command structure. The Air Engineer Service would be responsible for constructing all bases and facilities 

in active theaters of war and in occupied areas in time of peace. The engineer aviation battalion would 

form the basic unit. The Air Engineer Service also would be responsible for training and coordinating 

all manning, activation, and movement of Air Engineer units. For construction in CONUS, General 

Sturgis’s plan advanced the establishment of a new Engineer Force at the National Defense level to 

execute construction for all three U.S. Armed Services. Under this scenario, new construction for the 

Air Force would continue to be undertaken through the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers until the new 

Engineer Service was created.5

General Sturgis proposed a manpower structure that called for 33 Engineer Aviation Battalions 

with subordinate aviation engineer maintenance companies, depot companies, firefighting detachments, 

and several other supporting companies. He called for a parallel structure in the Guard and Reserve. 

The total manpower requirement was149,434 troops - 43,674 in the active Air Force and the balance 

in the Guard and Reserve. His estimates for the active force were close to the figure projected by other 

leaders planning for the independent Air Force. The proposed 70-group structure for the new Air Force 

called for a 400,000-strong active force, including 46,958 slots designated for the Engineer Service.6

Unfortunately, the Air Engineer Service proposed by Sturgis had little chance of being realized. 

The Army Air Forces, like the other U.S. Armed Services, based postwar planning on the pragmatic 

military experience of World War II. The political reality of postwar America was influenced by 

the sentiments of a country tired of war and national budgets that had been stretched to finance the 

recent world conflict. Demobilization, economy, and reduced duplication among the Services were 

the watchwords of the day. 
86 Leading the Way

Establishment of an Independent Air Force, 1947-1951

The creation of the independent Air Force was made possible through three legislative acts: the 

National Security Act of 1947, the Army and Air Force Authorization Act of 1949 passed in July 1950, 

and the Air Force Organization Act of 1951. These laws addressed the structure of defense forces, 

the organizational framework of the branches of the military, and the reallocation of aviation assets 

and personnel. 

The National Security Act of 1947 (Public Law 253), signed by President Harry S. Truman on 

July 26, 1947, provided “a comprehensive program for the future security of the United States” and 

established “integrated policies and procedures for the departments.”7

 The Act established a National 

Military Establishment with three departments: the Department of the Army, the Department of the 

Navy, and the Department of the Air Force. Each department had its own civilian secretary. The first 

Secretary of the Air Force was W. Stuart Symington, who previously served as the Assistant Secretary 

of War for Air. On September 18, 1947, Symington was sworn into office and the Air Force came 

into being.8

However, the National Security Act did not assign functions to the separate Air Force that were 

equivalent to those assigned to the Army and the Navy. Initially, the Secretary of the Air Force assumed 

only those functions that had been assigned to, or had been under the control of, the Commanding 

General of the Army Air Forces. The transfer of functions and personnel was completed through a series 

of Transfer Orders, which were Army-Air Force agreements submitted to the Secretary of Defense for 

approval. Transfer orders occurred between September 1947 and July 1949.9

Civil engineering functions assigned to Air Force were detailed under Section V of the initial 

implementation agreement dated September 15, 1947. The Air Force, as expected, was granted 

authority to operate and to maintain its own airfields. This function had been under the control of 

the Army Air Forces pursuant to War Department Circular 388 dated September 27, 1944. The Air 

Force gained responsibility to “administer, direct, and supervise repairs and utilities activities at its 

own installations.” Technical standards for repair and operations of utilities were to be developed by 

each department acting jointly, if feasible. The Air Force was required to formulate requirements for 

real estate and construction, to provide budget estimates, and to justify those estimates to the U.S. 

Congress.10

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was designated as the construction contracting agent for 

permanent Air Force construction overseas and CONUS and for all contingency situations. This role 

was formalized in Transfer Order 18 dated July 7, 1948, and Air Force Regulation 88-3 dated July 31, 

1950.11 The Air Force role in facilities construction was limited to programming funds; to preparing 

specifications, site layouts and architectural designs; and, to reviewing and approving contracts prior 

to award. The transfer order specified that if Air Force requirements were not met, the Air Force had 

the option to undertake the job internally or to contract for the work. Selected functions were retained 

by the Army and gradually transferred to the Air Force over the next several years. For example, 

although the Air Force had lobbied for responsibility for real estate affairs, the agreement stipulated 

that the Army initially would continue to act as agent for the Air Force in the acquisition and disposal 

of real property.12

The division of troop construction responsibilities between the Air Force and the Army during 

peace and wartime also were addressed. The agreement provided that service units organic to Air 

Force wings automatically became Air Force units, while units that performed services common to 

both the Air Force and the Army, such as engineer aviation battalions, remained Army units attached 

to the Air Force. Simply stated, the Army retained the responsibility for troop construction forces for 

the Air Force until the Air Force and the Army hammered out an agreement to the contrary.13

An agreement specific to troop construction was not forthcoming for several reasons. As previously 

noted, the American public and U.S. Congress supported reductions in military forces and the defense 

budget. Army construction battalions appeared capable of meeting the peacetime needs of both the 
Establishing Independence 87

Army and the Air Force. This contention was reinforced by the position advanced by the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, which held that its construction troops were established, well-trained, and accessible worldwide wherever the Air Force might need them. On the Air Force side, the engineering force 

was not yet well established. Almost all Air Force engineers had transferred from the Army and the Air 

Force did not possess the personnel to oversee its own construction program or to manage construction troops. The Air Force faced the immediate challenge of building an organizational structure and 

recruiting engineers to staff all echelons. Air installation officers (AIO) and personnel for installations 

squadrons at Air Force bases particularly were needed. Recruitment was challenging due to the keen 

competition for civil engineers among the military and private sectors in the postwar years.14

Although the National Security Act of 1947 established the U.S. Air Force, the legislation provided 

no statutory authority for Air Force operations, which later was established under the Army and Air 

Force Authorization Act of 1949, and became law in July 1950. This Act addressed the shortcomings in 

the National Security Act. Title II of the Act defined the Air Force as comprising the regular Air Force, 

the Air National Guard (ANG) while in the service of the United States, and the Air Force Reserve. 

The Act set the authorized manpower for the active-duty Air Force at 502,000 personnel and 24,000 

serviceable aircraft organized into 70 groups.15 Research and development activities were identified as 

legitimate Air Force activities in Section 205 of Title II. This law also renamed the National Military 

Establishment as the Department of Defense (DoD).16

The Air Force continued to fight for its own civil engineer force. In late 1950, the Director of 

Installations prepared a detailed rebuttal to the “Vinson Proposal” contained in the draft Air Force 

Organization Act of 1950. One proposal in this draft legislation was the transfer of the Air Force engineering function to the Department of the Army.17 The legislation enacted, the Air Force Organization 

Act of 1951, provided the statutory framework for the internal organization of the Air Force. The Act 

codified organizational and management policies through administrative action and established the 

three major Air Force commands: Air Defense Command (ADC), Strategic Air Command (SAC), 

and Tactical Air Command (TAC). The legislation also codified the internal organization of the Air 

Force. The Air Staff was established and comprised the Chief of Staff and the Vice Chief of Staff. 

The Chief of Staff was given command over the major commands. The Air Force Organization Act of 

1951 completed the creation of the Air Force as a separate and distinct branch of the U.S. military.18

Directorate of Installations at Air Force Headquarters

The importance of installations engineers in the new postwar Air Force was acknowledged by 

Secretary Symington:

As air power grows in importance and complexity, it becomes increasingly dependent 

upon the facilities and services provided by the military engineer...The elements of 

Air power are constantly changing. The techniques and equipment of World War II 

are already obsolete. Our new bombers are bigger; our new fighters are faster. In the 

air world of tomorrow, we must work with such things as atomic weapons, guided 

missiles, supersonic jet speeds, jet and rocket propulsive devices, and ever-longer 

ranges. These, in turn, will require air bases and testing facilities on a much greater 

scale than ever. With each passing day it becomes more apparent that the nature of our 

air world of tomorrow depends to a large degree on the skill, energy, and resourcefulness of the military engineer. Air power can never be greater than the construction 

power that backs it up.19

The October 1947 organization of Air Force Headquarters integrated engineering duties into the 

overall organizational structure. Air Force Headquarters comprised three deputy chiefs of staff administering personnel, operations, and materiel. Engineering functions were placed in the Directorate of Air 
88 Leading the Way

Installations within the office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Materiel. By March 1948, the directorate 

was named simply Directorate of Installations. This directorate corresponded to the U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers and the Navy Bureau of Yards and Docks. The Directorate of Installations supervised 

and planned building acquisition, construction, utilization, preservation, repair, and disposal, and provided and maintained utilities. The Air Force planned and oversaw construction through its Air Force 

Liaison Offices, renamed Installations Representative Offices in 1951, while the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers acted as the Air Force’s agent for contract construction and for the acquisition and disposal 

of buildings and improvements.20 Although the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers oversaw Air Force 

design and construction projects, the Air Force identified the need to establish its own cadre of expert 

engineers to ensure that engineering specifications were appropriate for bases and support facilities. 

This “in-house” engineering expertise was particularly important due to the increasing complexity of 

sophisticated jet aircraft, new weapons, and guided missiles.

The Director of Installations was the staff officer with authority to supervise, approve, and disapprove engineering projects and functions. The directorate was organized into three divisions and two 

offices. 

• Engineering Division oversaw installation planning, construction, repair, 

 and preservation; 

• Facilities Division handled acquisition, use, evaluation, and disposal of 

 buildings and improvements; 

• Operations Division oversaw strategic war plans, units, personnel, and 

 equipment related to the Directorate. 

• Cost and Budget Office 

• Policy Office.21

On March 19, 1950, the Operations Division was designated the Troops Division and was divided 

into three branches: Mobilization Planning, Operations and Training, and Organization and Equipment. 

This division was responsible for the formulation and establishment of policies and procedures, and 

staff supervision over all matters pertaining to the utilization and equipping of engineer aviation units.22

Engineering functions were organized by command below the Air Staff. Each major command 

had an organization similar to the Air Staff. Air Installation officers served in the command level 

headquarters and had control over technical and administrative matters related to engineering on the 

bases under their major command. At the installation level, the AIO served on the staff of the Wing 

Commander. The AIO oversaw construction requirements, repairs, maintenance of base facilities, as 

well as utilities, services, and fire protection/crash rescue services. The day to day work at the bases 

was performed by the air installations squadron. The squadron staff usually comprised four officers, 

supervising 80 to 100 enlisted and 100 to 200 civilian personnel.23

The Air Force actively recruited personnel to fill engineering positions. By October 1948, 53 officers had transferred from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to the Air Force. These included 14 colonels, 

23 lieutenant colonels, 12 majors, and 4 captains. Approximately 100 Engineer Reserve officers also 

transferred from the Army to the Air Force. Air Force engineer staffing was further augmented through 

temporary duty assignments of 170 regular and 900 reserve officers from the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers. Three hundred fifty vacancies for AIOs remained.24 “Giving up the castles,” the symbol of 

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, was a major career decision. Officers transferred to maintain or 

improve their permanent rank. One officer, then-Col. William E. Leonhard, learned of his transfer to 

the Air Force when his commanding officer bought him a blue suit.25 The decision to transfer from the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was made often with regret, but with excitement about new opportunities offered in the Air Force.26 Personnel transfers from the Army to the Air Force were completed in 

1949. In FY50, Air Force civil engineering manpower numbered 25,572, comprising 5,050 officers 

and 20,522 enlisted personnel.27
Establishing Independence 89

The directors of Installations during this time period were seasoned officers who had served during 

World War II in either the Army Air Forces or with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Brig. Gen. 

Robert Kauch became the first director in 1944 and oversaw the transition from the Army Air Forces 

to the independent Air Force. The air installations squadrons were organized under his leadership. 

Between June 1948 and December 1952, four officers rotated through the director position: Maj. Gen. 

Colby M. Myers, Maj. Gen. Grandison Gardiner, Maj. Gen. James B. Newman, and Lt. Gen. Patrick W. 

Timberlake. Generals Myers, Newman, and Timberlake were graduates of the U.S. Military Academy 

at West Point. Generals Myers and Newman held university degrees in civil engineering.28 General 

Newman, who had retired in 1946 after having commanded the Ninth Engineer Command in Europe 

during World War II, returned to active duty to serve as Director of Installations between March 1949 

and May 1950. He went on to become the president of the Society of American Military Engineers 

(SAME). In 1956, General Newman instituted the first annual award to recognize the most outstanding 

Air Force installations engineer or civilian contribution to military engineering through achievement in 

design, construction, administration, research or development connected with military engineering.29

The award was presented by SAME and named the Newman Medal. The first Newman medal was 

awarded in September 1956 to Mr. William T. Smith, Chief of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning 

Section, Maintenance Division, Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations.30

During its early years, the Directorate of Installations continued to expand. In July 1949, the Housing Office was established to oversee the Wherry family housing program. In March 1950, the Air 

Staff structure was reorganized into five divisions: Real Estate (new), Troops (formerly Operations), 

Construction (formerly Engineering), Maintenance (branch elevated to division), and Installations 

Planning (new) (Figure 2.1). The Control Office assumed the functions of the former cost and budget 

and policy offices. The Directorate of the Installations was the largest organization at Air Force HQ at 

the time; personnel totaled 242 and comprised 60 officers, 4 Airmen, and 178 civilians. The mission 

of the directorate was planning, acquisition, development, utilization, preservation, repair, construction, and disposal of property, as well as providing maintenance and utilities services. The Directorate 

Brig. Gen Robert Kauch
90 Leading the Way

of Installations also was responsible for Air Force family housing provided by private enterprise or 

by other governmental agencies. On April 3, 1951, the Troops Division was discontinued and its 

components were folded into the Plans Division and the Aviation Engineer Office.31 By May 1951, 

the number of personnel in the Directorate of Installations increased to 327 to direct the expanding 

multi-billion dollar Air Force construction program.32

The Directorate of Installations was relocated within the Air Staff administrative structure on January 1, 1952. The directorate was transferred from the Deputy Chief of Staff, Materiel to the Deputy 

Chief of Staff, Operations to reflect the close ties between operational readiness and base development.33 This move facilitated collaboration between the Directorate of Plans and the Directorate of 

Operations in developing facility requirements for an expanding number of installations.

In June 1952, Maj. Gen. Lee Bird Washbourne became Director of Installations and served in 

the position until July 1957. General Washbourne was born in the Cherokee Nation, Indian Territory 

(now Oklahoma). General Washbourne graduated from the U.S. Military Academy, West Point, in 

1927 and served in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. He earned a civil engineering degree from 

the University of California at Berkeley and completed the Engineer School at Fort Belvoir, Virginia, 

in 1930. He attended the Air Corps Primary Flying School at Brooks AFB, Texas, in 1931. In 1940, 

General Washbourne served with the 20th Engineers (Aviation) at MacDill Field, Florida. In 1941, he 

assumed command of the 805th Engineering Battalion and was stationed in Panama as engineer staff 

officer with the Sixth Air Force. By the end of 1944, General Washbourne was serving in the Pacific 

Theater, where he commanded the 933d Engineering Aviation Regiment. General Washbourne was 

stationed in Japan at the end of World War II. He transferred to the Air Force in April 1948 and became 

the AIO for the Strategic Air Command headquartered at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland. When 

the SAC headquarters moved to Offutt AFB, Nebraska, General Washbourne moved with the command 

headquarters and served as Director of Installations for SAC between June 1948 and June 1952.34

Changes to the organizational structure of the Directorate of Installations continued under the 

direction of General Washbourne. In mid-1952, the dual deputy director structure was adopted. The 

Office of the Deputy Director for Engineering and Construction was established July 31, 1952. Col. 

(later Maj. Gen.) Robert H. Curtin was appointed deputy director and Lt. Col. C. A. “Bud” Eckert 

was named assistant. The new deputy director coordinated the efforts of the Construction Division, 

the Architectural and Engineering Division, and the Real Estate Division. The Architectural and Engineering Division was established in August 1952 to execute effective architectural, engineering, and 

research and development functions. The Office of the Deputy Director for Planning and Programming was established July 21, 1952. Col. J. F. Rodenhauser served as deputy director and oversaw 

the Planning and Programming, and Maintenance Divisions. The Public Works Program, renamed 

Military Construction Program (MCP) in February 1955, and supplemental appropriations programs 

were prepared under this deputy director.35

Source: Air Installations, Vol 1, Continental Air Command Manual 50-10, January 1952, 5.
Establishing Independence 91

In late 1953 and early 1954, a comprehensive study was completed on the relationship of the 

Directorate of Installations to the command and staff elements at all echelons. The purpose of the 

study was to determine the most efficient and effective organizational position for the Directorate 

of Installations within Headquarters, Air Force. The position of the Directorate of Installations as a 

subordinate organization within a deputy chief of staff did not allow the directorate to have authority 

commensurate with its delegated responsibility. General Order No. 9 issued on March 16, 1954 elevated 

the directorate within the Air Staff structure and established the Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff, 

Installations with three directorates: Construction (divisions: Air Force Installations Representative 

(AFIR) Office, Engineering, Construction); Real Property (divisions: Real Estate, Plans and Programs), 

and; Facilities Support. The Directorate of Construction was responsible for “engineering, design, and 

construction of Air Force real property facilities and the development and preparation of engineering 

manuals, criteria, plans, and specifications.” The Directorate of Real Property was responsible for 

the “planning, programming, and acquisition of real property.” The Directorate of Facilities Support 

was responsible for the “management and preservation of Air Force real property facilities.” The Air 

Force Academy Construction Agency also was part of the office. In the Office of the Secretary of 

the Air Force, a Special Assistant for Installations was established, as well as an Office of Properties 

and Installations in the Office of the Secretary of Defense. By June 1954, the number of personnel 

authorized for the Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations increased from 455 to 531.36

When Maj. Gen. Augustus M. “Gus” Minton succeeded General Washbourne in July 1957, the 

Directorate of Installations again was restructured.37 On July 1, 1957, the directorate was realigned back 

under the Deputy Chief of Staff, Operations.38 The director was supported by the Deputy Director of 

Installations, Brig. Gen. William E. Rentz, and deputy directors who oversaw four divisions: Real Property, Construction, Facilities Support, and Air Force Academy Construction. The Air Force Academy 

Construction Agency was located in Colorado Springs, Colorado. Air Force Installations Representatives in nine offices operated as extensions of the director’s office to oversee and coordinate Air Force 

construction projects.39 The authorized personnel strength of 629 for the Directorate of Installations 

Maj. Gen. Lee B. Washbourne
92 Leading the Way

was reached in June 1957.40 Worldwide, Installations Engineering personnel numbered 97,800 and 

included 1,800 officers, 37,000 Airmen, 36,000 U.S. civilians, and 23,000 foreign nationals.41

Programming

The early days in the Air Force were exciting and challenging. New systems and procedures were 

developed for nearly every task, but the parameters for performance constantly were changing. In 1947, 

the Air Force inherited approximately $6 billion in real property from the Army. The initial operating 

budget for the Air Force was $2 billion.42 The few permanent bases in the Air Force inventory were 

constructed for the Army Air Corps during the 1930s. Most bases inherited by the Air Force were 

established during World War II and built with temporary structures. Complicating matters further 

was the dynamic mission, which affected the size and role of the new Air Force. New or updated 

facilities were needed on all installations and new classes of installations were necessary to support 

the missions assigned to the Air Force.

Initially, the newly independent Air Force was authorized to implement a program encompassing 

48 combat wings. In September 1950, the Joint Chiefs of Staff approved a 95-wing program. President 

Truman endorsed a 143 combat wing program at the end of 1951. Each program was accompanied 

by vastly different requirements for fighter, bomber, transport, and training forces and for bases to 

support those forces.43

Within this dynamic environment, programming of funds and contracting for new construction 

were continuous challenges. During 1950, the Air Force prepared its first separate budget for presentation before the U.S. Congress. The FY52 budget included funding requests for new construction and 

operations and maintenance activities.44 Capt. (later Brig. Gen.) William T. Meredith was instrumental 

in programming in those early years as the Officer in Charge of Master Planning at HQ Military Air 

Transport Service (MATS) at Andrews AFB, Maryland. His job was to assemble the construction 

program to expand operations at 27 Military Air Transport Service (MATS) bases worldwide. He 

Maj. Gen. Augustus M. (Gus) Minton 
Establishing Independence 93

recalled, “Of course, no one had experience with programming, because after the war (World War II) 

all the budgets were shut down and they weren’t authorizing anything.” Captain Meredith quickly 

learned about wind roses and the lengths of runways required by specific aircraft. As he reflected, 

We applied all the different criteria we knew, with specific types of aircraft, maintenance facilities, support facilities, and we made up a program list. I guess it took it 

about month. Then we overlaid it on all those MATS bases worldwide. We developed 

our first go at a program based on those criteria. I went back in to my boss and gave 

him a quick rundown on it. He looked at it and said, “It looks good to me. Take it to 

the Pentagon.”45

At the Pentagon, Captain Meredith explained the MATS construction program to the head of 

Programming, Mr. John R. “Jack” Gibbens. Gibbens had worked in the Installations Directorate 

since 1946 after serving in World War II with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. During the 1950s 

and early 1960s, Gibbens oversaw the Air Force construction program and would later become the 

Associate Director.46 MATS was the first major command to develop a program and the directorate of 

installations was interested in how the construction program was crafted and its interface with base 

master planning. After the Pentagon meeting, Captain Meredith was directed to submit the MATS 

programming package to the U.S. Congress. Gibbens called the House Armed Services Committee 

and sent Captain Meredith to the Capitol Building. Captain Meredith conferred with two congressional 

staff members followed by a Congressman. As he recalled, 

I said, “What do I have to do to get Armed Services approval?” He said, “You just 

got it.” Ended up we didn’t talk about the program, other than I told him what was 

in there and what it would do and why we needed it. He said, “We’ve got to start. 

We’ve got a 48-wing buildup. We’ve got to start on the existing bases and then expand 

those bases.”47

Captain Meredith met with the same positive reception at the House Appropriations Committee and in 

the U.S. Senate. The entire $10 million MATS program was approved. Other major commands soon 

presented their construction programs to the Pentagon for review and approval.48

Between 1950 and 1954, the Directorate of Installations sought to establish an orderly internal 

programming process to develop integrated packages to support Air Force requests for funding under 

“acquisition and construction of real property.” The period from 1950 through the summer of 1953 

also was a time of escalated expansion precipitated by the Korean Conflict, the increased number of 

authorized combat wings, continuous changes in base missions, and the urgent construction requirements for the major commands. While the numbers of aircraft and personnel increased rapidly between 

1950 and 1953, the preparation of bases lagged.49

The Air Force construction program was defined by the military missions established at the highest 

level of the military hierarchy. The resulting policy directives and instructions then informed decisions on facilities requirements at each base for inclusion in the military construction program. The 

Air Force engineers, from the Air Staff through the installation-level, identified the physical facilities 

necessary to meet the Air Force missions. Until the FY53 budget, funding requests for the Air Force 

construction programs were presented as line items for specific projects tied to specific locations and 

air bases. New programs, such as the communications systems, were initiated from planning through 

programming and construction, while air base facilities required continuous upgrades to meet the 

advancing technologies and operational requirements for sophisticated aircraft and to support the 

increasing numbers of Air Force personnel. The construction program was balanced against competing 

funding priorities for facility requirements.50
94 Leading the Way

The process for developing the annual military construction program incorporated multiple levels 

of review. The Directorate of Installations issued design directives to guide base development of 

projects and budget estimates. Major commands prepared requests for facilities based on the needs 

identified by the air bases under their command. On the base level, construction projects were proposed 

and submitted for review by the base Installations Planning Board. The board reviewed each project 

proposal for compliance with the base master plan and the capacity of the existing inventory of base 

facilities. Each major command compiled base-level program requests, which then were reviewed by 

the major command review panel. The resulting program was hand delivered to the Directorate of 

Installations.51

The Directorate of Installations received all proposed programs from the major commands. All 

submittals were reviewed by working groups to ensure that the proposed projects complied with Air 

Force policies and guidance, supported base master plans, and included accurate cost projections and 

thorough justifications. Following review by the working groups, the proposed program was reviewed 

again by the Ad Hoc Committee of the Installations Board. Higher echelons of review included the 

Installation Board, the Budget Advisory Committee, and the Air Council. Once these reviews were 

complete, the Air Force Public Works Program was subjected to review by the DoD, the Bureau of 

Budget, and then by the U.S. Congress. The estimated time for the preparation and review of an Air 

Force military construction program was approximately 10 months. The programming phase was followed by the legislative phase, during which the budgets and justifications were reviewed and approved 

by the U.S. Congress. Once the funds were authorized, projects were designed, approved, and contracts 

were issued for construction. The final phase of the process was construction and acceptance of the 

completed facility by the Air Force.52

Prior to 1950, approximately $310 million was appropriated to expand and to modernize Air 

Force bases. Approximately 20 percent of this total appropriation was available at the beginning of 

the Korean Conflict. By June 1951, appropriations rose to $1.65 billion and the Air Force had approximately $1 billion of work under contract. In the FY52 programming cycle, the Programs Branch of 

Source: Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis submitted 

to the faculty of the Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 96-102.
Establishing Independence 95

the Construction Division submitted an internal request for $7.7 billion to address deficiencies at Air 

Force bases and for construction required to accommodate the expanded Air Force size of 95 combat 

wings. During internal reviews, the Air Staff reduced this amount to $5.5 billion; the DoD further 

reduced the amount to $3.58 billion. The FY52 Air Force appropriation approved by Congress totaled 

$2.173 billion.53 Table 2.1 presents Air Force military construction program appropriations between 

FY51-FY53. 

The amount of funding appropriated for construction, the large number of facilities required, and 

continuous changes in base uses overtaxed the Air Staff procedures to program, design, contract, and 

monitor construction work. The announcement to increase the number of combat wings to 143 by 

1955 prompted a comprehensive review of the current Air Force MCP in early 1952. Adopting the 

name Operation Snowball I, the Air Staff, AFIR offices, and major command staffs reviewed the 

appropriated MCP budgets line by line and project by project and determined that half of the projects 

required revisions to support the increased number of combat wings and charges in base missions. 

Under Operation Snowball II, design directives were revised and reissued. In fall 1952, construction 

projects were ready to be fielded. As a result of the FY52 program review, management controls were 

strengthened and funding restrictions imposed. Thorough justifications for expenditures were made 

mandatory and greater attention was paid to management and cost containment.54

Time constraints for the preparation of the FY53 budget, submitted in April 1952, necessitated that 

expenditures be justified after the budget approval. The Air Force was afforded maximum flexibility 

in allocating the appropriation, provided that an average of $120 million in funds was contracted 

per month. Failure to meet this contracting average would result in a zero appropriation for FY54. 

Operation Snowball III was activated to support this goal. Between October and December 1952, a 

total of only $265 million of construction contracts was awarded. In January and February 1953, the 

numbers of construction contracts rose as projects were cleared and design directives were sent to 

the field. However, the Eisenhower administration imposed a freeze on all construction projects in 

February 1953. Directed by the Bureau of Budget and the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the freeze 

affected all projects not yet under contract and projects under 20 percent completed. The purpose of 

the freeze was to review all programs for “essentiality.” This review delayed Air Force construction 

projects for several months. As funding was released for contracting, the number of Air Force wings 

was revised downward to 127. This change in overall size of the Air Force necessitated yet another 

round of redesign and reprogramming of the available construction funds.55

During 1954-1955, the Air Staff worked to commit the $5 billion in funds appropriated between 

FY51 and FY53. In FY55, the MCP received a new authorization to expend $398.7 million and the 

authority to reprogram $436.5 million.56 For the FY56 budget cycle, the Air Staff implemented a 

change in procedures. Beginning with this cycle, the Air Staff programmed complete project packages that included construction costs, as well as supporting costs for each facility. Supporting costs 

included such items as parking lots, sidewalks, and utility connection costs.57 A further improvement in 

programming process was introduced with submittal of the FY61 MCP prepared in 1959. Each major 

command presented its program to the Air Staff MCP panel, which greatly assisted in justifying the 

overall program to the DoD and the U.S. Congress.58

Beginnings of a Professional Development Program

Maj. Gen. Lee B. Washbourne’s vision for the Air Force installations engineers was one of professionalism. Civil engineers were “no longer just the plumbers and things like that. His vision was 

that the civil engineers were as important to the Air Force as other functions and they needed to build 

themselves up into that posture.”59 General Washbourne convened the first worldwide Installations 

Command Conference in November 1954 in Washington, D.C. Installations engineers from all major 

commands attended. The purpose of the conference was to familiarize all command engineers with the 

latest developments in personnel, equipment, construction, real estate, programming, maintenance, and 
96 Leading the Way

related functions, as well as to facilitate discussion through question and answer sessions.60 When the 

second worldwide conference was held in 1955, 72 officers and civilians participated in a three-day 

event.61 General Washbourne also instituted a monthly newsletter for circulation among all installations 

engineers entitled the Installations Engineer Beacon. 

A major restructuring of the installations engineering officer career field occurred during 1955 and 

1956. A study conducted in late 1955 found that professional training requirements in the installation 

officer career field were inadequate and that the field lacked Air Force Specialty Codes (AFSC) commensurate with its widely varied duties. As a result of the study, the AFSC 5524-Installation Officer 

was withdrawn and replaced with five new AFSCs: 5525-Installations Engineer; 5534-Construction 

Engineer; 5544-Maintenance Engineer; 5554-Utilities Engineer; and, 5564-Planning Engineer. Brig. 

Gen. C. Brown Pratt, Deputy Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations, praised the expansion of the 

career field classifications. The move, he said, was designed to “give more professional status to our 

Installations Engineers, provide higher educational opportunities for them and generally make our 

career field more attractive [for recruitment]. We also expect that these changes to the career field will 

identify our engineering talents and enable us to better classify our people, better assign them and get 

the right man on the right job.”63

The new AFSCs carried the requirement that officers have a Bachelor of Engineering degree. An 

advanced degree in either engineering or management became a prerequisite for advancement in some 

fields. By 1958, only 46 percent of officers held bachelor degrees and only 5 percent of officers had 

advanced degrees. Another study of the Air Force civil engineer career field revealed an imbalance 

between the numbers of military and civilian personnel. A plan to correct the problem within three years 

was developed. The plan was designed to make the installations engineer officer and Airman career 

fields more attractive in an effort to retain personnel. The study also revealed an imbalance between 

low and high skill level authorizations in CONUS to support overseas requirements.64

During the mid-1950s, efforts were made to improve 

communication among Air Force engineers. One effort was the 

monthly newsletter entitled Installations Engineer Beacon. The 

first issue was published in March 1954. Assembled and published 

at Air Force Headquarters, the purpose of the newsletter was 

to “spread vital knowledge of the latest developments in the 

Installations Engineering field” to far-flung field personnel. The 

newsletter informed Air Force installations engineers about the 

latest policies, procedures and trends in planning, design and 

engineering, and facilitated the exchange of ideas and solutions 

to common challenges. The 8-to-12-page newsletter contained 

announcements of the publication of new regulations and 

updates in the areas of planning and programming, architectural 

engineering, construction, maintenance, and real estate. The 

newsletter was published monthly between March 1954 and 

August 1958. After that, the number of pages increased, but the frequency of publication decreased 

to every two to three months from late 1958 and through 1959. In February-March 1959, the 

newsletter was renamed Civil Engineering Beacon to reflect the new name of the Directorate of 

Civil Engineering. In all, 61 issues were printed between 1954 and 1959. In its final issue dated 

November-December 1959, the Beacon described its replacement, Air Force Civil Engineer, as “a 

new technical publication of professional caliber, aimed directly at the Civil Engineer throughout 

the Air Force.”62

Installations Engineer Beacon
Establishing Independence 97

The focus on increasing professionalism in the career field intensified after Maj. Gen. Augustus M. 

“Gus” Minton was appointed Director of Installations in July 1957 and continued through his tenure 

as Director of Civil Engineering. General Minton transferred to the position after serving as base 

commander at Chanute AFB, Illinois. Though educated as an engineer, General Minton received a 

Bachelor of Science degree in education. He held a Master of Science degree in business administration 

conferred by the Harvard Business School. General Minton also was a registered mechanical engineer. 

During World War II, he was instrumental in building the Army Air Corps training program. He then 

served as deputy chief of staff of administration for the Twentieth Air Force stationed in Guam.65

During his tenure, General Minton continued the worldwide conferences. Beginning in 1958, the 

worldwide conferences were held at Ramey AFB, Puerto Rico. General Minton also established the 

new professional publication entitled Air Force Civil Engineer. He led a concerted effort to instill all 

civil engineers with the values of professional development, higher education, continuing education, 

and professional registration. Reflecting on the training level and role of civil engineering, General 

Minton noted “a frightening decline in educational quotient of our people, and it has become evident 

at a time when the volume and complexity of the Civil Engineering tasks are increasing profoundly. 

The situation has become quite serious; for I regard education, competence and capability as somewhat 

synonymous.”66

On November 20, 1958, General Minton, at the direction of Headquarters U.S. Air Force, inaugurated a formal professional development program. In a letter to all major commands, General Minton 

requested each major command civil engineer “to undertake and pursue an active plan to have our 

eligible engineers become registered as Professional Engineers and affiliated with professional societies.”67 The professional development program was a major topic at the 1958 World-Wide Installations 

Engineer Conference held at Ramey AFB, Puerto Rico. There, Col. Clarence A. Eckert, Director of the 

A group photo from an early Air Force Civil Engineer worldwide conference at Ramey AFB, Puerto Rico.
98 Leading the Way

Installations Engineer School at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, outlined a program which comprised 

four components:

1. Establishment of professional goals and standards;

2. Improved availability of educational opportunities to reach established standards;

3. Control over input and upgrading of all officers; and,

4. Effective utilization of skills obtained through professional education.68

In 1959, the Air University Civil Engineering Center unveiled two resources to support officers 

and civilians interested in formal registration as Professional Engineers. The center targeted recent 

engineering graduates and engineers active in the Civil Engineer career field; both were encouraged 

to prepare for the State Professional Engineer Examination, to qualify for an Engineer-in-Training 

Certificate, or to pursue a Professional Engineer License. One resource offered by the center was a 

two volume “Self Study Guide;” the second resource was professional engineer preparatory courses. 

The study guide was intended for those requiring a refresher course to prepare for the exam. The 

guide offered general information on applying for registration as well as sample questions gleaned 

from state exams.69

Preparatory courses covered conventional engineering topics. Students selected from a variety of 

courses, depending on their interests and needs. One group of courses was categorized as refresher 

courses and included electricity II, hydraulics II, mathematics and measurements II, and a course in 

reinforced concrete. The second group of courses focused on the application of engineering principles 

and included chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and land survey. A course 

in engineering economics and practice was recommended to students, since the subject applied to many 

aspects of engineering covered in the examination. Students and practicing engineers were supported 

as they prepared for professional registration. They were encouraged and afforded the guidance necessary for registration to be an achievable goal.70

BUILDING THE PERMANENT BASES

On June 30, 1950, the 210 Air Force installations supported 48 groups. By June 30, 1951, the Air 

Force maintained 232 major installations and was requesting authorization for 77 additional bases to 

accommodate the 95-wing program. When the expansion to a 143-wing Air Force was announced in 

late 1951, the Air Force found itself “sadly behind in its installations, both in the United States and 

abroad.”71 The inventory of CONUS bases included the 232 active air bases, 33 industrial plants, 45 

inactive bases, and 14 excess bases; 85 bases were located overseas. Only a handful of permanent air 

bases in CONUS were constructed prior to World War II. Most World War II air bases were designed 

for training and not suitable for conversion to operating bases, particularly for highly specialized 

SAC and ADC facilities. In addition, surviving World War II air bases were not strategically located 

to support then-current national air defense objectives or within efficient striking distance of potential 

enemy targets. 

The building stock on the World War II bases comprised temporary wood-frame mobilization 

buildings, which did not meet the design criteria to support the sophisticated aircraft in use by the 

modern Air Force of the early 1950s. High-performance jet aircraft, long-range heavy bombers, and 

military transport aircraft required long runways, strong pavements, large taxiways and parking aprons, 

runway overruns, long clear zones and established approach corridors, and large hangars; these features 

were not available on the World War II temporary bases. Fuel consumption rates of high-performance 

aircraft were nearly three times that of World War II aircraft necessitating large fuel storage facilities 

and high-speed refueling systems. In addition to operating bases, modern training bases also were 

needed with facilities for individual and combat crew training, including classroom buildings, and link, 
Establishing Independence 99

bomb, and navigational trainers. Troop and family housing, operating and administrative facilities, 

medical facilities, and shops also were required to support the modern Air Force. New facility design 

criteria also included climate controls, advanced fire suppression systems, and noise controls. Applying the minimum requirements for contemporary air bases, every CONUS and overseas base required 

substantial expansion and/or facility improvements to accommodate new aircraft, new missions, and 

the new Air Force. The first base to be developed following modern design criteria was Limestone 

AFB, Maine (renamed Loring AFB in 1954), which was under construction in 1950.72

Air Force Installations Representatives

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers or the U.S. Navy acted as construction agents for the Air Force 

MCP. The MCP relied entirely on contracts with architect-engineer firms and construction firms to 

execute projects. Ninety percent of Air Force construction was contracted through the U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers. Approximately 85 percent was handled by state-side district Corps offices, while the 

remaining 5 percent was administered through overseas Corps offices, such as the Joint Construction 

Agency in Europe or the Okinawa Engineer District in Japan. The remaining 10 percent of Air Force 

construction was administered through Air Force major commands, primarily the Air Materiel Command (AMC), the Far East Air Forces (FEAF), and the U.S. Air Forces in Europe (USAFE). AMC 

contracted directly with firms for the construction of specialized test facilities, such as engine test cells 

and other highly technical maintenance facilities.73 As the 1950s progressed, the Bureau of Yards and 

Docks of the U.S. Navy assumed approximately 10 percent of the Air Force construction program.74

Air Force Installations Representatives (AFIR) served as liaisons between Air Force units, which 

developed the project construction requirements, and the construction agents, who contracted the work. 

Known as Air Force Liaison Officers during World War II, the AFIRs played an increasingly important 

role in executing the Air Force MCP. The AFIRs’ primary responsibility was to ensure that funds 

appropriated through Congress were used properly and that Air Force construction was completed 

according to specifications and within budgets. The AFIR offices originally were co-located with the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers District offices. During 1951, 10 AFIR offices were operational and 

located in Boston, Massachusetts; New York, New York; Atlanta, Georgia; Cincinnati, Ohio; Omaha, 

Nebraska; Dallas, Texas; Portland, Oregon; San Francisco, California; Casablanca, Morocco; and, 

Anchorage, Alaska.

Staffing levels were increased substantially. In 1950, 13 officers and 8 civilians served as liaison 

officers; by May 1951, AFIR staff was increased to 64. By the end of 1951, AFIR field offices were 

manned by 60 officers and 65 civilians. Field offices typically were directed by a Colonel who oversaw 

an average of 7 officers and 13 civilians. Additional AFIR offices were established to meet growing 

construction demands related to the Korean Conflict.75

In March 1952, AFIRs were placed under the Operations Branch in the Construction Division 

within the Directorate of Installations; the following month, AFIRs were re-aligned to report directly 

to the Chief of the Construction Division.76 Among the responsibilities vested with AFIRs was the 

“authority for the approval of site location plans, preliminary construction plans and outline specifications for Air Force construction financed from ‘acquisition and construction of real property’ funds.”77

In 1952, the Vice Chief of Staff for the Air Force authorized an expanded number of AFIR offices 

and increased the staff size. This action raised the number of personnel in AFIR field offices to 77 

officers and 129 civilians to keep pace with the increased construction demands. A new office was 

established in Paris. The duties of the AFIR offices were expanded on 10 March 1952. AFIRs were 

given the final review authority for preliminary plans and specifications, and authorized to approve 

line item cost modifications to awarded contracts within a 20 percent ceiling.78

AFIR responsibilities were codified in Air Force Regulation (AFR) 93-17, which was first issued 

in December 1953, and re-issued in 1954. Selected responsibilities detailed in this AFR were:
100 Leading the Way

• General field surveillance of construction being carried out by a construction agent;

• Assigning priorities to the construction agent;

• Ensuring that Air Force design criteria were received by the construction agent;

• Approving site selection for facilities in accordance with installation master plans;

• Reviewing installation master plans;

• Coordinating all phases of design and planning of facilities with the construction agent and 

 major commands;

• Approving preliminary construction plans and cost estimates;

• Reviewing bidding documents;

• Authorizing and approving design and program adjustments and change orders;

• Conducting field visits to monitor construction progress; 

• Maintaining adequate and continuous surveillance of project costs; and,

• Reviewing monthly reports on the progress of maintenance projects for installations.79

A major addition to AFIR responsibilities was writing design instructions for the construction 

agents. While this function increased the workload within the offices, it also increased efficiency in 

communicating directly with the construction agents. The South Atlantic AFIR was the first office to 

issue a written design instruction in April 1954. By June 30, 1954, that office issued over 390 design 

instructions and/or modifications for 825 line items for new construction. AFIRs also became more 

involved in the overall programming process. AFIR personnel assisted base and major command 

personnel in developing program submissions, project siting, and design criteria. AFIRs were heavily 

involved in formulating the FY55 and FY56 military construction programs. The advance knowledge 

Members of the Air Force Installations Representative Office, Southwestern Division, Dallas, Texas, 1954.
Establishing Independence 101

of proposed projects gained through this involvement was an advantage to the AFIRs once funds were 

approved to contract selected projects.80

By 1954, AFIR offices were located in the Missouri River Region, New England Region, Ohio 

River Region, Southwest Region, South Atlantic Region, North Atlantic, North Pacific Region, South 

Pacific Region, East Ocean Division, and Mediterranean Division.81 As the range of Air Force construction programs expanded, so did AFIR responsibilities. Additional programs included the construction 

of communications stations and family housing.82 AFIR responsibilities in the family housing program 

extended to the coordination of real estate acquisition, approval of siting, consultation on utilities 

requirements, and technical advice on engineering problems.83 In 1959, AFIR was renamed Air Force 

Regional Civil Engineer (AFRCE).

Construction Programs

All major commands required the addition of new installations or new or improved facilities at 

existing air bases to execute their missions. Between 1951 and 1953, the Air Force MCP was allocated over $5 billion in appropriations. Of this total amount, 56 percent was spent in CONUS and 46 

percent was spent for construction overseas. Fifty-five percent was spent on permanent construction 

while the remaining 45 percent was directed towards temporary facilities.84 A breakdown of Air Force 

expenditures per dollar is detailed in Table 2.2. In CONUS, work in the Northeast and Atlantic areas 

accounted for a higher percentage of the total construction budget.85 In 1951, the Air Force MCP was 

compiled on a few sheets of letter-sized paper. By 1954, the Air Force MCP comprised “volumes 

of machine record productions that listed the hundreds of locations and the scores of line items of 

construction” planned for each location.86

The Directorate of Installations formulated construction standards, definitive designs and outline 

specifications, installations facilities requirements, standard nomenclature and coding for facilities, and 

costing instructions to manage the MCP during the early 1950s. Permanent construction was defined 

based on a life expectancy of 25 years. The useful life of semi- permanent construction was 10 years. 

These construction standards were introduced in the FY51 2d Supplemental Program.87

The development of definitive designs and outline specifications supported the Air Force MCP. 

The first design manual for standard definitive designs was issued by the Architectural Branch of 

the Construction Division in 1950.88 In 1951, the Architectural Services Branch of the Directorate 

Source: Col. Robert H. Curtin,“Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis submitted to 

the faculty of the Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 107.
102 Leading the Way

of Installations released definitive design drawings developed by Mills & Petticord. The U.S. Army 

Quartermaster Corps historically employed standardized designs during peacetime for a variety of 

permanent common cantonment buildings. Standardized plans also were developed by the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers during World War II for temporary mobilization construction to facilitate rapid 

construction and economy in materials. The purpose of Air Force definitive drawings was to develop 

standardized floor plans, building requirements, and space allotments to guide final design and construction. The definitive drawings and outline specifications provided the Air Force instructions to 

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and to the architect under contract for each project. Architects 

selected for projects were responsible for developing site plans, working drawings, utility layouts, 

and detailed specifications. The outline specifications provided general guidance for the selection 

of building materials within the parameters of function and budget. Functional and efficient designs 

without embellishments were preferred. Prefabricated construction was encouraged, as well as the use 

of new materials and construction methods. The Outline Specifications in Air Force Manual (AFM) 

88-15 also directed:

It is not considered essential that new structures conform with the established style at 

existing installations. It is desirable instead that the designs be consistently economical 

and generally in harmony with the simple contemporary architectural trends, devoid 

of any details or ornamentations, applied purely for the sake of embellishment. Full 

advantage should be taken of the use of the natural textures and color of the materials 

employed as well as of the variety afforded by the properly selected color schemes 

where paint is applied.89

Definitive designs were issued for common building types found at typical Air Force bases. These 

building types included dormitories, mess halls, guardhouses, chapels, theaters and administration 

buildings. Operations buildings included a wide range of buildings to support new aircraft. Unlike 

the single, all-purpose hangar design used throughout World War II, definitive designs were prepared 

for various hangar types: alert, readiness, double cantilever, and nose. New building types included 

the armament and electronics building, aircraft maintenance building-engine build-up building, and 

celestial navigation trainer building. Specialized building types included communications buildings, 

operations buildings, and technical training buildings. Designs for the range of building types were 

developed using modern materials with minimal ornamentation.90 The definitive designs were distributed to all U.S. Army Corps of Engineers district offices and AFIRs. Definitive designs were 

implemented with the FY51 construction program and published in AFM 88-2.91

Following the Korean Conflict, the Air Force’s definitive designs were substantially revised based 

on field experience and peacetime facilities requirements. In December 1954, the Assistant Chief of 

Staff, Installations initiated the review of existing definitive drawings and the preparation of revised 

definitive drawings and standard working drawings, as appropriate. The revised plans emphasized 

improved livability standards and more aesthetically pleasing architectural designs for personnel 

support buildings, including dormitories, chapels, post exchanges, theaters, and other community 

buildings. In 1956, 200 definitive drawings were scheduled for development or revision by the seven 

architect-engineer firms engaged in the program. The architect-engineer firms prepared definitive working drawings and other studies to support the development of designs for facilities included in the MCP. 

Definitive designs were prepared for standard Air Force family housing, hospitals, Air Force Reserve 

facilities, and support facilities for guided missiles and other engineering structures. New and revised 

design criteria also were released for alert hangars, shelter ready fighter aircraft, maintenance docks, 

and aircraft weapons calibration shelters. By mid-1957, nearly all the definitive drawing designs were 

completed, approved, and distributed to field agencies. Units in the field reported that the drawings 

were satisfactory and contributed to substantial savings in construction costs.92
Establishing Independence 103

Selection of the appropriate plans from the definitive drawings for construction on specific air 

bases was guided by the publication entitled USAF Installations Facilities Requirements issued in July 

1951. The requirements book specified facilities by mission and base function.93 The book contained 

data on the quantitative fixed facility requirements for specific missions at Air Force installations. 

These data were used throughout the Air Force as a yardstick for developing the FY53 budget. This 

publication was continuously revised.94

Standard nomenclature was introduced to facilitate consistent recordkeeping for the entire Air 

Force construction program using business machines. The nomenclature was published in AFM 93-2: 

Installations Facilities and Structures Manual, which was retitled in 1956, Real Property Standard 

Codes and Nomenclature.95

Accurate cost estimates were critical in managing the Air Force MCP. Budgeting concerns included 

estimating methods and the calculation of cost escalations to adjust budgets for cost increases from 

the construction estimate and actual construction. Initially, national average unit costs were adopted; 

these averages were later refined to account for area cost factors. Overseas construction was linked 

to an overseas cost index. In some situations, on-the-ground costing methods were employed by the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the AFIRs.96

The MCP and operations and maintenance funds financed new construction and modernization 

programs instituted by the Air Force in response to changing mission requirements. As the 1950s 

progressed, several major factors affected the construction program. One was the 1954 adoption of 

the Emergency and Long-Range Dispersal policy that affected the positioning of SAC and ADC units 

in the United States. The objective of this policy was to reduce the vulnerability of U.S. aircraft to 

enemy attack by limiting the number of aircraft at each base and by widely dispersing units at strategically located air bases. The dispersal strategy was intended to increase the number of intact aircraft 

available to launch in a retaliation following a nuclear attack. New air bases were required to adhere 

to this policy, particularly in the northern United States. In April 1955, a program was proposed to 

implement the Emergency and Long-Range Dispersal policy. The proposed program would disperse 

the strike force based on a formula of one heavy bomber squadron per base or one medium bomber 

reconnaissance wing per base; SAC, alone, needed 34 new bases for implementation of the program. 

The total estimated construction cost for the 69 new installations necessary to support the complete 

program was $786 million for facilities and $58.5 million for family housing. Air bases were examined 

for their potential to support multi-mission capabilities.97

The Air Force also worked to upgrade and modernize airfields throughout the 1950s. Runways and 

support facilities were vital to all Air Force operations. During the 1950s, runways were reconfigured 

radically and support facilities were expanded. The intersecting runway configurations favored prior to 

1945 were replaced by straight runways of greater length. Jet aircraft required runways measuring 200 

feet wide by 10,000 feet long, while bombers required runways measuring 300 feet wide and extending 

11,000 feet. In the early 1950s, asphalt was the primary material used to construct permanent runways. 

As new aircraft exceeded the weight limitations of the material, the asphalt runways failed. The largest aircraft flown in World War II, the B-17, weighed 75,000 pounds, while the B-52, which entered 

service in 1955, weighed over 385,000 pounds. Aircraft tire pressure increased from 65 pounds per 

square inch to 300 pounds per square inch for some aircraft. In addition, heat blasts from jets caused 

pavement to break down and broken pavement damaged aircraft engines. Fuel spills contributed to 

asphalt failure. In response to these problems, the Air Force unveiled a policy on January 18, 1956 

to build all primary airfields in concrete using Portland cement. On May 25, 1956, airfield pavement 

criteria were refined to incorporate standards for heavy duty load pavement. Such pavement accommodated a dual-tire B-52 aircraft weighing 456,000 pounds. Runway construction was expensive and 

often reached $3 million per air base. Air Force civil engineers examined the problem and proposed 

a cost effective solution. Engineering requirements did not mandate a consistent concrete thickness 

throughout a runway. A successful structure only needed a thick center keel of approximately 50 feet 
104 Leading the Way

in width and keels of similar dimension along each side of the runway to support wing gear. This 

design modification saved money and reduced downtime for base operations.98

Modernization of Airmen dormitories was another long-term project initiated by the Air Force civil 

engineers. Until the 1950s, Airmen occupied traditional Army barracks. Airmen lived in large, open 

squad rooms and shared communal showers and bathrooms. The Air Force Directorate of Installations 

campaigned for quarters affording privacy and an end to communal bathrooms. SAC designed and 

constructed a barracks prototype in steel with semi-private baths shared by flanking rooms. The Air 

Force requested permission from the DoD to develop a masonry version of the SAC dormitory. The 

DoD initially granted approval to the Air Force and a finite number of new style dormitories were 

constructed between 1953 and 1955.99

In 1955, the DoD completed a tri-service study of dormitories and rejected the dormitory design 

with bathrooms flanked by dorm rooms. The ceilings for dormitory construction in FY55 were $1,700 

per man for permanent and $1,400 per man for semi-permanent dormitories.100 The Air Force continued 

to argue for modern dormitories. The DoD authorized the Air Force to procure bids for two dormitory 

designs, including the SAC steel type dormitory, at three representative locations. Construction bids for 

the preferred Air Force option, masonry dormitories with bathrooms flanked by dorm rooms, were the 

lowest bids received for two sites. In March 1957, the Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations presented 

the cost evaluation of all bid abstracts to the DoD with the request for authorization to proceed with 

construction of the masonry SAC type dormitory. The Secretary of Defense ultimately denied the 

request.101 In 1959, the Directorate of Installations again requested permission to construct dormitories 

with semi-private baths as opposed to the traditional communal toilets. The DoD authorized a pilot 

project to secure cost data for the two designs through competitive bid. The pilot study revealed that 

construction costs for dormitories with semi-private baths were $2,018 per man versus $1,823 per 

man for communal toilets.102

Since permanent replacement dorms were removed from the MCPs, the Directorate of Installations 

initiated an extensive modernization program for existing facilities. In early 1959, a prototype dormitory modernization project was underway at Bolling AFB, Washington, D.C. A Barracks Modernization 

Barracks constructed in 1959 at Selfridge AFB, Michigan.
Establishing Independence 105

Program further was developed in fall 1959, from requirements identified by the major commands. The 

objective of the program was to produce high standard living quarters for Airmen at approximately 

half the cost of new construction. In 1959, 386 buildings containing quarters for 15,109 men were 

modernized at a cost of $15 million secured from the O&M appropriation.103

Air Force civil engineers also pushed for the use of pre-fabricated buildings during the 1950s. In 

1951, a study was conducted to assess the utility of pre-fabricated structures; it was concluded that 

such structures were suitable for shops, warehouses, and general purpose buildings. By the end of the 

1951, 1,200 prefabricated structures were purchased at a cost of $3.3 million and installed. Policies 

for appropriate use and revised criteria for pre-fabricated buildings were formulated during 1953 and 

published in 1954.104

Special Projects

Air Force civil engineers at the directorate and major command levels were involved in planning, programming, and monitoring for a variety of special projects throughout the 1950s. These 

projects included family housing, communications facilities, missile facilities, and the U.S. Air Force 

Academy. In some cases, such as family housing and the U.S. Air Force Academy, Air Force civil 

engineers assumed responsibility for all aspects of the project. In others, they served as part of the 

team that planned and supported the completion of facilities critical to U.S. national security. In all 

cases, Air Force civil engineers managed and maintained all facilities that were encompassed under 

the Air Force mission.

Wherry and Capehart Family Housing Programs

Following World War II, military service personnel faced severe family housing shortages. Several 

factors contributed to this shortage. One factor was the increased number of personnel required to 

maintain the post-World War II permanent U.S. military establishment. These numbers were much 

larger than in any previous time of peace. At the same time, the number of families increased, particularly after the higher ranks of enlisted personnel were allowed to serve accompanied by families. In 

addition, personnel serving in the Air Force supported increasingly sophisticated weapons systems that 

required high levels of technical skills. Providing military family housing comparable to contemporary 

civilian housing was one strategy used to attract and retain qualified personnel in military service.105

The newly created Air Force had the least number of family housing units at air bases. In 1949, the 

Air Force inventory contained 17,954 family housing units at its air bases; 6,397 of these units were 

deemed substandard. In comparison, the Air Force estimated that 121,000 family housing units were 

required to house its personnel. This housing had to be supplied against the backdrop of supplying 

an estimated 20 million homes to the civilian population over a twenty-year period. By 1949, only 

5,225 new housing units had been constructed for the Air Force through Congressional appropriations, 

and the necessity for a new housing program was recognized fully.106 The Air Force Family Housing 

program of the 1950s became the largest housing effort ever directed by a single Federal entity.107

The military family housing shortage attracted the attention of Senator Kenneth Spicer Wherry 

of Nebraska when military installations located in his state were affected by the housing shortage. On 

February 21, 1949, Senator Wherry proposed a bill to encourage private sector developers to construct 

military family housing. Wherry’s bill authorized the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) to insure 

private rental housing on or near permanent military installations. Previously, the FHA had determined 

that rental housing developments near military installations presented unacceptable mortgage risks 

due to continuous military transfers and the uncertain status of military installations. Senate Bill 

1184 established a Military Housing Insurance Fund administered by the FHA to underwrite loans 

for projects near military installations certified as meeting a genuine need for housing at a long-term 
106 Leading the Way

installation where no personnel cuts were anticipated. Senate Bill 1184, Wherry Act, was signed into 

law on August 8, 1949 by President Harry S. Truman and extended to July 1, 1951.108

While Congress debated the Wherry Act, the Air Force developed guidelines during 1949 to 

implement the anticipated legislation. Many of the preliminary guidelines were codified formally in 

AFR 93-7, Installations-Control Procedures, Air Force Implementation of Title VIII of the National 

Housing Act. The AFR outlined responsibilities for all parties involved.109

Once the Wherry Act was officially adopted, installation commanders appraised their base housing 

situations and estimated the number of Wherry units needed to satisfy housing demand based on current 

and past demographics. Air Force installations were found eligible for the program following formal 

approval by the Vice Chief of Staff of the Air Force and high-level deputies. The Housing Office in 

the Directorate of Installations monitored the program closely. Initially, 39 Air Force installations were 

selected for the program. Following formal approval, bids were solicited to construct Wherry projects. 

Private contractors were selected based upon the proposal that best met cost and design requirements. 

Initially, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers acted as the construction agent and manager for Air Force 

projects. In November 1953, the Air Force successfully lobbied to transfer responsibility from the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers to the Secretary of the Air Force. Under DoD Directive No. 4165, the Air 

Force assumed responsibility for selecting successful bids and for contracting for architect-engineer 

services for Wherry housing projects. These responsibilities included preparing bids, soliciting bids, 

and processing payments to architect-engineer firms. The process authorized under DoD Directive No. 

4165 expedited schedules and reduced overhead expenses by about $5,000 per project.110

The majority of Wherry housing was constructed on government-owned land that was leased to 

the sponsor for a period of 50 to 75 years. The sponsor owned and maintained the Wherry units, which 

were not classified as government housing. Military personnel rented the Wherry units using their 

base housing allowance.111 The average size of a Wherry housing unit was 959 square feet. The first 

Wherry project comprised 250 units at Maxwell AFB, Alabama, which were constructed in 1950. By 

August 31, 1951, the Air Force inventory included 9,050 Wherry family housing units; an additional 

17,788 units were under construction.112 By June 1954, 33,217 Wherry family housing units were 

added to 55 Air Force installations. An additional 800 units were sponsored prior to the expiration of 

the Wherry Act on June 30, 1954.113

Notwithstanding the construction of Wherry housing units, the Air Force still confronted a family 

housing shortage due to manpower levels necessitated by increased Cold War tensions. Senator Homer 

Earl Capehart of Indiana sought to correct shortfalls identified in the implementation of the Wherry 

Wherry Housing constructed in 1956 at Mt. Home AFB, Idaho.
Establishing Independence 107

Act and to renew private sector interest in investment in housing for the military. The Capehart Act 

was signed into law on August 11, 1955. Under the Capehart Act, family housing was constructed on 

government-owned land and completed units were turned over to the government for administration 

as public quarters.114 

The DoD required that all military branches purchase Wherry units from the sponsors under the 

Wherry Acquisition and Rehabilitation program enacted in 1956 prior to the initiation of the Capehart 

housing program. Col. Rio G. Lucas, chief of the Family Housing Programming Branch from 1957 

to 1962, explained, “When we realized we weren’t getting the kind of service out of contractors who 

owned them for maintenance and upkeep, we decided to try to buy them.... They just didn’t get any 

kind of maintenance at all and were in very bad shape.”115 By December 30, 1959, the Air Force had 

acquired 31,380 Wherry units and Congress allocated $3.6 million for acquisition of an additional 

1,754 units.116 Wherry housing construction often was substandard due to the modest budgets established by the legislation. Once acquired, the Wherry housing units were upgraded to accommodate 

more amenities. Congress ultimately appropriated $70 million for all military branches to renovate 

Wherry housing through the Wherry Rehabilitation and Improvement program.117

Col. (later Maj. Gen.) Guy H. Goddard was assigned to the Air Staff in 1957 to lead the family 

housing division. He was given strict orders by Maj. Gen. Augustus Minton, Air Force director of 

Installations,

I told him, in just a few words, that we wanted every dollar spent on every house that 

you could spend on it. We wanted to get them air-conditioned where they should be 

air-conditioned. In those days, there was a line of demarcation drawn for air conditioning. I told him, “Do whatever we can to get that changed. We don’t want any straight 

streets; make them curved.” The [U.S. Army] Corps of Engineers would build them 

straight. “We don’t want the houses all white. We don’t want any gaudy colors, but 

tasteful blending, with winding streets.”... He worked out very well. We had the best 

housing program—there’s no question about it, air-conditioning, and so forth. And 

the other services complained.118

General Goddard’s assessment of the available military housing inventory was not favorable. The 

oldest housing stock was inherited from the Army and comprised masonry houses constructed between 

the late nineteenth century and the 1930s. The 35,000 Wherry units “were built under a very low 

standard...and were in need of renovation and air conditioning.”119 General Goddard became the 

foremost advocate for improving Air Force family housing and earned the moniker, “Mr. Family 

Housing.” Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, director of Engineering and Services from 1978 to 1982, 

noted, “[General Goddard] did more for housing in the Air Force than any other human has done in 

the history of the Air Force.”120

The Air Force, through the Housing Office, supervised all facets of the Capehart housing program 

rather than relying on the services of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The Air Force established the 

general design criteria, including site design, exterior design, interior layout, construction standards, 

and utilities. The Air Force established the number and types of housing based on occupant rank 

required at each air base.121 The process was successful according to Colonel Lucas, who summarized 

the Capehart housing program,

We would advertise for architects and engineers from the region where the housing 

was going to be built, so that we would be able to get the right kind of construction 

for the climate and for the area. We would have a review committee and select the 

architect/engineers, and we would indicate the area and the number of houses we 

needed and what the types would be, based on the rank that would be living in those 
108 Leading the Way

houses. Then we would get them to draw up the plans. And then we would advertise 

for a civilian contractor, generally again in that area if we could.122

Commanding officers continued to review and to manage the projects through the construction 

phase. During 1959, nearly 22,000 Capehart units were erected at Air Force bases.123 When the Capehart housing program expired in 1962, the number of housing units added to the Air Force inventory 

totaled 38,014 Wherry and 62,816 Capehart units.124

Radar and Communications Facilities

Air Force civil engineers were called upon to support the construction of a series of complex radarbased detection and warning systems, which were developed in response to increasingly sophisticated 

military armaments. From the early years of the Cold War to the mid-1950s, the threat of Soviet 

attack evolved from that posed by World War II-era bombers armed with conventional weapons to the 

threat posed by hundreds of turboprop and jet bombers armed with nuclear weapons attacking from 

different directions. Early detection of potential attack became critical to U.S. national defense. The 

communications technology to support the early warning mission advanced rapidly. The sophisticated 

communications systems necessitated that civil engineers design and oversee the construction of 

complex facilities and infrastructure. The establishment of several networks of radar facilities represented a national investment of billions of dollars and presented significant construction challenges, 

particularly for construction in remote arctic areas. 

Rows of Capehart Housing constructed in the late 1950s at Vandenberg AFB, California.
Establishing Independence 109

Aircraft Control and Warning (AC&W) Sites

The earliest detection system, the Radar Fence Plan, was designed in 1947 and comprised a series 

of 85 radar stations and 11 warning centers located in CONUS and Alaska. President Truman signed 

Public Law 30 on March 30, 1949, authorizing $85.5 million to construct this system of aircraft 

control and warning stations. Congress appropriated an additional $54.3 million in October 1949, and 

construction was initiated in accordance with an aggressive schedule approved by the Joint Chiefs of 

Staff. At Headquarters, U.S. Air Force, the Architectural Branch of the Construction Division at the 

Directorate of Installations oversaw preparation of the criteria and definitive plans for the stations. 

Most sites were built under contracts awarded to the private sector; the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

in cooperation with the AFIR offices managed the construction effort.125

Construction of the AC&W sites went into high gear following North Korea’s attack on South 

Korea in June 1950; the majority of the sites were completed by the end of 1950. Work in Alaska, 

however, lagged behind construction in CONUS. Site selection proceeded slowly due to the rugged 

terrain. Construction was plagued by obstacles. One contractor’s financial failure forced contract 

changes and substantial budget increases to correct construction deficiencies, mainly in heating systems. Three AC&W sites were located north of the Brooks Range and were built by the Navy. Despite 

these challenges, 12 stations in Alaska were operational in 1953 and an additional 10 stations were 

completed by 1955.126

Each AC&W site comprised a complex of 10 to 15 wood-frame buildings that were connected by 

enclosed passageways. The buildings included geodesic radar domes known as radomes, operations and 

administrative space, dormitories, a power plant and utilities, and storage for fuel, food, and supplies.127

Special Category Army Personnel with Air Force (SCARWAF) troops built two AC&W sites in 

the interior of Alaska. The 813th Engineer Aviation Battalion built the three-way tropospheric relay 

station located atop Mt. Sparrevohn, 200 miles west of Anchorage, to link the sites on Big Mountain, 

Aniak, and Tatalina. The site, perched on the 3,400-foot peak, was accessible only by air. In June 

1951, Engineers, who had been transported by helicopter, used an air-dropped D-4 bulldozer to carve 

out a runway. The cleared airstrip sloped 12 degrees and a sheer cliff marked one end. Because the 

area was so poorly mapped, survey equipment was dropped on the wrong summit at least once. On 

another occasion, a D-9 Caterpillar was hurled onto the top of the mountain during an air drop when 

the lowering cable snapped. Despite difficulties, the 813th completed work in just six months, and the 

mobile radar went into operation on December 13, 1951. Five days later, 100-mile-per-hour winds blew 

the antenna down. Geodesic domes were constructed to protect the radar sites from future damage.128

The 807th Engineer Aviation Battalion established the radar site on top of Indian Mountain, 

Alaska. An existing airstrip that had once served a gold mine was upgraded and an eight-mile road 

to the mountain top radar site was built. Construction began in July and was completed in November 

1951. The SCARWAF units completed the Indian Mountain and Sparrevohn sites for a unit price of 

$1.5 million, approximately half the cost of sites built by private contractors.129

Although the majority of AC&W stations were built in the United States, these sites were part 

of a worldwide radar warning network that included facilities in many other countries. Ten stations 

were built in the Northeast Command area in Canada. In Asia, 25 radar stations were built in Japan 

and another six on Okinawa and outlying islands. In North Africa and the Middle East, construction 

of 28 stations was approved for French Morocco, Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, and Saudi Arabia. Another 

12 sites were built in Spain, 4 in Iceland, and 3 in Greenland. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and 

AFIR offices were involved in these projects, all of which were completed by 1954. Stations were also 

a high priority for the Special Projects Branch in the Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations. Regular 

quarterly field conferences, attended by Air Defense Command, the AFIRs, the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, and Headquarters, U.S. Air Force representatives, were held in each Air Defense Force 

area beginning in July 1954. These conferences were very effective in speeding completion of the 

entire AC&W program.130
Engineering Research in the Arctic

The Army and the Army Air Forces had undertaken research in the Arctic since before World 

War II. Aviation engineers building wartime airfields in Alaska and Army engineers building the 

Alaska Highway confronted problems associated with permafrost, or perennially frozen ground. 

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, renowned soils engineer Karl Terzaghi worked on the physics 

of permafrost to support the construction of airfield foundations in Alaska. By the early 1950s, 

the Air Force also benefited from the work of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research Area 

near Fairbanks, Alaska, which conducted intensive studies of the structure of permafrost and had 

developed designs for airfield runways, buildings, and facilities in that delicate environment. The 

engineers worked with the knowledge that the Russians had been conducting organized research 

on permafrost for 15 years, particularly in Siberia where they experienced failures along the TransSiberian Railroad. Not all permafrost was created equal and it varied considerably depending on 

the type of soil that was frozen.135

110 Leading the Way

Construction of the Pinetree Line, another series of radar warning sites, was undertaken as a joint 

program with the Canadian Air Force, which partnered with the United States to build the radar detection facilities and to train and equip effective air defense squadrons. The Pinetree Line comprised 33 

stations built across southern Canada to support warning and ground control/intercept activities. The 

United States funded 22 stations; 12 were financed by the Canadians. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers contracted for the construction of 10 stations in northeast Canada. All were completed by 1954.131

Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line

The DEW Line was yet another joint U.S.-Canadian radar system. Construction of the system 

faced formidable challenges due to its location inside the Arctic Circle to provide the earliest possible 

advance warning of an attack. The DEW Line followed an irregular path approximating the 69th 

parallel from Cape Lisburne on the western coast of Alaska below Point Barrow, across the northern 

reaches of Canada to Cape Dyer on the east coast of Baffin Island near Greenland. It was the largest 

construction project ever attempted in the arctic.132

In December 1953, the Air Force awarded a contract to Western Electric Company (WECO), a 

subsidiary of the Bell System, to manage the entire project, including all site construction and installation of equipment. The Office of the Secretary of Defense approved a Management Fund for all 

project funds, with an initial construction authorization of $42 million. The project became a primary 

effort of the Special Projects Branch in the Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations, which was tasked 

with accelerating construction for the radar program in 1954. The deadline for transfer of the DEW 

Line to the Air Force was July 31, 1957. The estimated cost of the system was almost $400 million.133

Working with the Lincoln Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the Air Force 

conducted preliminary tests in the vicinity of Point Barrow, Alaska, to determine the feasibility of 

constructing the DEW Line so far north. In early 1953, airfields were scraped into the ice and snow 

so that cargo planes could deliver tractors, machinery, building materials, and other supplies. When 

the ice broke in summer, the Navy transported the bulk of the construction materials by sea through 

the Bering Strait. Work began on six preliminary radar stations in August 1953; the stations were 

completed and tested by the end of 1954. The results were promising, and work continued.134

The Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations provided programming and planning support. Rufus D. 

Crockett, who then served as Deputy Chief of Construction Division of the Special Projects Branch at 

Air Staff, was instrumental in the success of the project. Crockett appeared before Congress to request 

funding for the DEW Line. He calculated project cost estimates based on the use of metal pre-fabricated 
Establishing Independence 111

structures. According to Crockett, “At one point we had all the aluminum factories in the United States 

tied up with just that one project. We tied up the aluminum industry for quite a while.”136

In February 1955, the job of selecting sites and constructing the main stations of the DEW Line 

was under way. The DEW Line project was divided into three sections: an Alaskan section, a western 

Canada section, and an eastern Canada section. Site selection was difficult, due to the arctic dark and 

limited topographic data. The 3,000-mile route passed through a variety of terrains from the flat tundra 

of the arctic slope in Alaska and western Canada, to rugged mountains on Baffin Island. Engineers 

used available aerial photographs, but photo coverage was limited. Many maps were inaccurate or 

incomplete. Extensive aerial reconnaissance was conducted over a number of alternative routes to 

select suitable sites. Each area then was surveyed for landing strips, building locations, and to identify 

sources for gravel used in construction. Ground crews were flown into the area using ski planes and 

made final site selections. Site data were used to generate site plans for construction purposes.137

Construction began on approximately one-third of the stations by June 1955. Three types of stations were built: small, unmanned “gap filler” sites that were checked by aircrews every few months 

during the summer; intermediate stations manned by a chief, a mechanic, and a chef; and, larger stations 

manned by a variable number of operators and employees. Each main DEW Line facility comprised a 

main building to house equipment, power plants, and living accommodations for personnel. A garage 

housed motor vehicle equipment. The remainder of the site was devoted to towers for the antennas, 

fuel storage systems, roadways, the airstrip, and, at selected locations, hangars to protect supplies and 

maintain aircraft.138 David Neufeld, Yukon and Western Arctic Historian for Parks Canada, documented 

one typical station of the system:

Construction at a Distant Early Warning site.
112 Leading the Way

The station consists of a main building including residences, mess hall, radar, workshops, and power generators. A large warehouse and a fully equipped garage supported 

the station’s activities. These buildings, a network of connecting roads, a year’s supply 

of fuel oil and diesel, and an airstrip are built on a three-meter-thick pad of gravel 

floating on top of the permafrost. The station is visually dominated by the various 

radar and communication antennae surrounding it.139

One innovation in building the radar sites was the use of modular, prefabricated building units. 

Main buildings were erected by assembling a number of modular units end to end in train-like fashion. 

Each modular unit was made of factory-built pre-insulated panels designed for easy assembly and 

to withstand arctic ice, snow, and wind conditions and to conserve heat. The modular sections were 

shipped to the site, and assembled to meet the design requirements of the station. Gap filler sites used 

5 modular buildings, intermediate stations had 25, and main stations required 50.140

The Bureau of Standards conducted extensive tests on the buildings used for the DEW Line, 

including fire tests, vapor barrier tests, and decomposition value tests for 30 combinations of surface 

materials. The structures also underwent climatic and structural tests under the supervision of engineers 

at Eglin AFB, Florida.141 Testing on acceptable pre-fabricated alternatives for replacement structures 

for the DEW Line continued throughout the 1950s. 

Construction of the main portion of the DEW Line from Cape Lisburne to Cape Dyer was completed by July 1957. A total of $297 million was expended in construction. The Air Force took beneficial 

occupancy at 40 DEW Line stations between July and December 1956; 20 stations were accepted by 

May 15, 1957. The system was operated under a modified industrial-type contract by AMC until the 

completion of facilities, then turned over for operation to ADC. Transfer of operational facilities of 

the DEW Line was complete by May 1958.142

The arctic January hits a Distant Early Warning line construction camp.
Establishing Independence 113

The Pinetree and DEW Lines were integrated into the Semi-automatic Ground Environment 

(SAGE) system through a system of relay stations. SAGE was an automated system for the collection, dissemination, and display of radar data that was developed concurrent with the DEW Line for 

an estimated total construction cost of $300 million. The entire United States eventually was covered 

by the system. The Air Force awarded a comprehensive contract to the Western Electric Company for 

the design and construction of the SAGE sites. A Joint Project Office was established to monitor the 

DEW Line and SAGE projects, with representation from all interested commands. The North Atlantic 

Region AFIR office served as the AFIR for both projects. Construction at the first two SAGE sites 

began in late 1954, and the system was declared operational on June 26, 1958, when the New York 

sector came on line. Air Force enthusiasm for SAGE led to the planning of an intricate network of eight 

air defense regions within the CONUS and 32 SAGE direction centers. Information from the various 

radar networks fed into the headquarters for the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) at 

Ent AFB, Colorado, where command of the air defense network was linked to 54 fighter-interceptor 

squadrons backed up by 66 Nike-Ajax missile battalions.143

DYE Stations

As the DEW Line neared completion in May 1957, the DoD decided to extend the project east 

from Baffin Island across the Davis Strait to Greenland and then on to Iceland. Despite the knowledge 

gained through past work in the far northern reaches of North America, construction on Greenland’s 

polar icecap was accompanied by a new set of challenges.144

The eastern extension included five stations: DYE-1 on the west coast of Greenland near Sondrestrom AB, DYE-2 and DYE-3 on the icecap, DYE-4 located 35 miles off the east coast of Greenland 

at the southern tip of Kulusuk Island, and DYE-5 on the southern coast of Iceland near the U.S. Navy 

base at Keflavik. Engineers contended with arctic conditions and high elevations. DYE 1 was sited 

at an elevation of approximately 4,800 feet, DYE 2 and DYE 3 at 7,600 and 8,600 feet respectively, 

and DYE 4 at an elevation of only 1,100 feet, but on the rugged east coast where the shipping season 

began and ended in the month of August.145

Design of the two coastal stations began in early 1957. At the same time, a feasibility study was 

conducted to inform decisions on construction on the icecap. The top 60 feet of the icecap comprised 

compressed snow with a dry, crust surface. Beneath the snow was solid ice extending to an estimated 

depth of two miles at the center. The rim of the icecap rose sharply, was deeply crevassed, and dangerous to traverse.146 In the interest of increased efficiency, engineers developed designs for two-story 

buildings for the stations. The building measured 107 x 176 feet and consolidated station functions in a 

single structure. A radome was mounted on a seven-story central tower to enclose the four tropospheric 

reflector antennas. A separate survival building was located at a safe distance from the main station 

to serve as a personnel shelter in the event of emergency. Construction oversight was handled by the 

East Ocean Division of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, whose jurisdiction extended from British 

Columbia to the Azores and from the North Pole to Bermuda.147

All labor and materials for the construction in Greenland were imported from the United States 

and Europe. Tilt-up construction techniques were employed, similar to those used previously for the 

construction of warehouses at Goose Bay Air Base in Canada, to reduce construction time to a minimum. Aluminum-clad plywood wood-frame panels, known as Clement panels, were assembled in the 

field. An exhaustive search for suitable prefabricated buildings eventually identified the Schokbeton, a 

modular, reinforced concrete panel-and-frame structure. Panels, beams, girders, and truss members for 

station buildings were cast in modular molds using pre-stressed high-strength, reinforced concrete in a 

factory in Holland and then shipped to the DYE sites accompanied by erection equipment and crews.148

Engineers also addressed unique climatic and site conditions during the project. Snow accumulation, which averaged three to four feet per year on the icecap, presented a particular design challenge. 
114 Leading the Way

Wind tunnel tests revealed that structures elevated on stilts allowed snow to pass underneath the 

buildings, thus minimizing structural damage from drafting snow. As a result, the main DYE buildings 

were elevated structures that were raised annually to accommodate the rising surface level of the ice 

pack and to compensate for settlement in the structures.149

The main structures at each installation were supported on massive columns along each elevation 

designed to extend 30 feet below the icecap surface. The columns rose approximately 90 feet above 

the surface of the ice. Lateral movement was controlled by interconnecting steel trusses. Each pair of 

columns enclosed two 350-ton jacks. The building load was transferred to the jacks and “floated” to 

correct differential settlement and to raise the structure, as necessary, above the snow. Prefabricated 

column extensions made raising a building possible to a height of 30 feet, or a level sufficient to 

accommodate 10 years of anticipated icecap build-up.150

Each site also was equipped with four 100,000-gallon storage tanks for fuel oil. These tanks were 

installed in the icecap and designed to withstand the pressure associated with 15 to 10 years of snow 

accumulation. Fuel was delivered to the sites by air in collapsible rubber storage tanks. The icecap, 

itself, was the source of potable water. Snow harvesters, consisting of cables and drag-line buckets, 

operated from inside the buildings. The snow was dumped into hoppers and fed into snow melters. 

Electric power at the sites was provided by 150 kW diesel generators. Nine generators were employed 

at DYE 4 and six at each of the other sites.151

Construction of the two coastal DYE stations began in 1958, and work on the icecap stations was 

underway in 1959. Fixed fee contracts were awarded to Danish Arctic Contractors for construction of 

the coastal DYE stations and to Peter Kewit & Sons for the icecap stations. Contract provisions specified that construction equipment used in Greenland was to be provided by the government, while local 

labor and materials obtained by the contractor were to be used in Iceland. Roads, airstrips, helipads, 

and beaching areas were constructed during summer 1958; construction equipment and material were 

purchased to initiate station construction in 1959. Contract personnel arrived on-site in early July 1958 

and worked until mid-November.152

Construction work resumed in early April 1959 with foundation excavations. The short construction season necessitated an intense work schedule—two 10-hour shifts a day, seven days a week. All 

outside construction work was completed on schedule by October 1. The stations were 63 percent 

complete by that date. Interior work continued throughout the winter months. During the 1959 construction season, about 13,000 tons of materials were airlifted from Sondrestrom to the icecap sites. 

The contractor was responsible for maintaining the snow runways.153

All five DYE stations were completed during the 1960 construction season. Following the installation of antennas and operating equipment, the complexes were turned over to the Air Force on 

December 30, 1960.154

Texas Towers

Despite excellent radar coverage to monitor air traffic from the north, the United States still lacked 

radar coverage to ensure adequate warning of air traffic approaching from the east. Sea-based radar 

platforms located 100 miles off the coast of New England provided a solution. These stations were 

known commonly as the Texas Towers, because their designs resembled oil-drilling rigs used in the 

Gulf of Mexico. 

The Air Force proposed the construction of five off-shore platforms; three were built. They were 

designed by the U.S. Navy Bureau of Yards and Docks, which also acted as the construction agent. The 

New England Region AFIR monitored the project. The contract for the Texas Towers was awarded to 

Raymond-Delong, a joint venture with extensive prior experience in erecting docks and oil drilling 

platforms using equipment known as the Delong Air Jack.155
Establishing Independence 115

The selected sites were located along the continental shelf where the elevation of the ocean floor 

was shallow enough to permit construction of the platforms and far enough at sea to be strategically 

important. In contrast to the medium-range radar sets used aboard Navy picket vessels, the fixed 

installations made possible the installation of heavy duty, long-range radars identical to those used 

at land sites. In conjunction with the other AC&W sites, the Texas Towers extended contiguous east 

coast radar coverage approximately 300 to 500 miles seaward, affording at least 30 extra minutes of 

warning time of an inbound enemy bomber attack.156

Lincoln Laboratory had recommended the installation of five Texas Towers and identified the sites 

best suited for positioning the radars:

TT-1 Cashes Ledge

TT-2 Georges Shoal

TT-3 Nantucket Shoal

TT-4 Unnamed Shoal

TT-5 Brown’s Bank

In autumn 1953, the Secretary of the Air Force, on ADC’s recommendation, authorized construction of all five. Funds were budgeted in fiscal years 1954 and 1955. The Bureau of Yards and Docks was 

vested with the authority to conduct ocean surveys, execute design engineering, develop specifications, 

and perform other services requisite to issuing a construction contract.157

Each platform comprised three decks, configured as equilateral triangles. The sides of the decks 

measured 210 feet providing an overall surface area of approximately one-half acre. The top deck was 

fitted with three pressurized radomes and a 23 x 60-foot deckhouse, which housed the radar operation 

and equipment rooms. The second deck contained quarters for 54 Air Force personnel, a large mess 

hall and recreation room, and two engine rooms for the four 100 kW diesel generators. The lower 

deck was elevated 63 feet above sea level and out of reach of the highest anticipated storm seas. This 

level housed operating equipment, such as pumps, boilers, evaporators, and storage tanks for fresh 

water and fuel oil.158

The superstructure of the first Texas Tower (TT-2) was completed by the Bethlehem Steel Company 

at its Quincy, Massachusetts, facility and was launched on May 20, 1955. The superstructure was 

towed by Raymond-DeLong to the platform site on the Georges Shoal, 110 miles east of Cape Cod 

with a depth of 56 feet of water. The first stage of the installation involved sinking three permanent 

steel caissons 48 feet below the ocean floor. Once the caissons were sunk to grade by jetting and 

excavating, the outer shells and the inner caissons were filled with concrete to a depth of 40 feet. A 

steel tube measuring six feet in diameter was then anchored inside each 10-foot diameter caisson and 

the concrete was placed between the two tubes. The inner circular well of the caissons housed utilities, 

such as salt-water intakes, sanitary discharges, and connections for supplying fuel oil and fresh water 

from tankers. The steel supports extended approximately 140 feet to support the main deck level.159

Despite hurricane-force winds and high seas during the erection of TT-2, the platform performed 

successfully and met design expectations. The Air Force assumed beneficial occupancy and the site 

began operation in December 1955. By that date, off-shore radar coverage was anticipated to be 

expanded by coastal AC&W squadrons in the vicinity of Cashes Ledge and Brown’s Bank, leading 

the Secretary of the Air Force to cancel the fabrication and installation of the TT-1 and TT-5.160

By November 1955, bids for the next two towers, TT-3 and TT-4, had been accepted. Construction 

contracts for both platforms were awarded to J. Rich Steers, Inc., in collaboration with MorrisonKnudsen, Inc. The platform and legs for TT-3 were launched for installation in August and towed to 

Nantucket Shoal. ADC assumed beneficial occupancy in November 1956. The TT-4 platform was 

constructed at South Portland, Maine, and towed to sea and placed at Unnamed Shoal in June 1957. 

ADC assumed occupancy in November of that year. Eventually, all three towers were converted from 

manual operation to SAGE control.161
116 Leading the Way

On January 15, 1961, in the wake of a severe winter storm, 28 members of a caretaker crew aboard 

TT-4 were killed when the tower collapsed to the ocean floor. This tragedy sealed the fate of the two 

remaining Texas Towers. Both towers were phased out as more sophisticated systems were installed 

aboard airborne early warning aircraft, thus eliminating the need to assume the risk and expense of 

operating the towers. In January 1963, the Joint Chiefs of Staff authorized inactivation of the Texas 

Towers, and ADC ordered them dismantled. TT-2 was decommissioned in January 1963 and TT-3 

was decommissioned in March.162

Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS)

While highly sophisticated in detecting aircraft, the DEW Line was not designed to detect incoming 

missiles. Following the Russian launch of Sputnik in October 1957, this shortcoming became a major 

concern. The experience gained in building the DEW Line was invaluable during the construction of 

the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS), which began in 1958 and was completed in 

1963. The three detection sites in the system were located at Clear Air Station in Alaska, Thule AB in 

Greenland, and RAF Fylingdales in England. These three sites were able to detect a missile 3,000 miles 

away and track it from a distance of over 1,000 miles. The infrastructure of the earlier radar detection systems helped provide coverage. The rearward communication system for BMEWS involved 

a sub-marine cable extending from Thule to Cape Dyer, with communication links from Cape Dyer 

to Melville and Newfoundland. The communication links from Clear Air Station in Alaska extended 

to Pedro Dome and Tok Junction, and from Boswell Bay to Annette Island. ADC was the design and 

construction agent for all rearward communication sites with the exception of Cape Dyer.163

One of the Texas Tower sites under construction.
Establishing Independence 117

Congress approved $1 billion for the construction of BMEWS in late 1957 and construction funds 

for the first warning station near Thule AB were issued to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in February 1958; construction began in June. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers served as the design and 

construction agent, using criteria furnished by the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), the systems 

engineer. An Air Materiel Command project office in New York City was charged with implementing 

the entire system. Design and construction activities were under the supervision of the North Atlantic 

Region AFIR and the Alaskan Air Command.164

Both the design and construction aspects of BMEWS were pioneering efforts. The system featured 

four billboard-type detection radars, each larger than a football field turned on edge and weighing 

more than 1,000 tons. The scale and weight of the BMEWS equipment required advanced construction 

techniques. Building on permafrost required that the foundations be maintained in a frozen state using 

mechanical refrigeration. The structural stability of the scanner buildings was critical. Safeguards 

were implemented to avoid sinking or settlement due to melting of the permafrost. The massive radar 

screens were designed to withstand winds up to 185 miles per hour.165

The Alaska and Greenland BMEWS stations were completed ahead of schedule and became 

operational in 1961. The station in England was not completed until 1963. In addition to the major 

construction at the three detection sites, limited construction to support communications for the system 

was undertaken at 26 locations in Alaska and Canada.166

Hot air inside an air-supported tent protects construction workers from falling temperatures at a base of the 

Ballistic Missile Early Warning System.
118 Leading the Way

Into the Missile Age

The development and fielding of missile systems during the 1950s was driven by international 

politics and the urgency underlying national security policy during the Cold War. Defensive systems, 

such as the Air Force’s BOMARC and the Army’s Nike and Nike Hercules, were linked to early warning systems designed to intercept U.S.S.R. heavy bombers en route to the United States over the polar 

cap. The goals of offensive ballistic missiles, such as the Thor, Atlas, and Titan, were to strengthen the 

nation’s military posture and to serve as deterrents to adversaries considering attack. 

Rapid change in military technology as the United States entered the nuclear age marked this period 

of excitement tempered by concern over domestic security. In this climate, Air Force civil engineers 

were afforded new opportunities to support the Air Force mission. Through the design and construction of facilities for emerging missile systems, Air Force civil engineers participated closely in the 

development of each weapon system. To do so, Air Force civil engineers advanced their education to 

master the engineering intricacies of missile technology. Many attended schools offered by the missile 

manufacturers—Boeing, Convair, and Douglas. Some returned to college to study aligned fields, such 

as advanced soil mechanics. All learned on the job and gained invaluable experience. The missile field 

was a challenging assignment that broadened skill sets significantly. The opportunities influenced the 

direction of many Air Force officers’ careers. Most officers associated with the program proudly wore 

the Missileer badge on their uniforms.167

Missile development for the Air Force was managed by the Western Development Division (WDD) 

of Air Research and Development Command (ARDC), located in Inglewood, California. Gen. Bernard 

Schriever became the first commanding officer of the organization in August 1954. He was given complete control and authority over all aspects of the Air Force missile program. His unprecedented and 

extraordinary powers included the authority to bypass Headquarters ARDC and communicate directly 

with other Air Force major commands, the Air Staff, and the Secretary of the Air Force. He was also 

given latitude to hand-pick the engineering officers who managed facility design and construction for 

the missile programs under his command.168

In 1956, General Schriever selected Col. (later Brig. Gen.) William E. Leonhard as his assistant for 

installations following his astute questions during a Pentagon briefing. When approached by General 

Schriever, Colonel Leonhard was working at the Pentagon as chief of the construction division and 

as deputy director of construction. In April 1958, Colonel Leonhard became the Deputy Commander, 

Installations, and was later named Deputy Commander, Civil Engineering and Assistant for Site 

Activation. Colonel Leonhard organized the civil engineering staff to mirror the missile development 

organization, with a senior officer in charge of construction for each individual missile system.169

General Leonhard summarized his responsibilities at WDD between 1956 and 1961:

I was the senior engineer [Assistant for Installations]. Not for the missile but for the 

facilities – the test stands, the launch pads, all of that stuff...I had budget responsibility for all funds that we got from the Congress for engineering services and for 

construction. That was my job, to get the money, and I made all the presentations to 

congressional committees, and the House and Senate Armed Services Committee, and 

the House and Senate Appropriations Committee. I got to know all of those people 

extremely well.

Then I had responsibility for all the engineering and design work for the test facilities 

at Cape Canaveral, Florida, and test facilities out at Vandenberg Air Force Base on 

the West Coast. It was my job to get the money for the design work and to get the 

money for the construction.
Establishing Independence 119

When I got into the deployment of an operational force, I was responsible for planning, selecting, and constructing deployment sites for the Atlas, Titan, and Minuteman 

ICBMs. I was not very involved in the selection of the parent Air Force Base or 

anything like that, but in situating the launch sites and so forth. That was my job— 

acquiring the real estate for every one of these. And remember, we had a thousand 

minuteman sites and 50 to 100 Atlas and Titan sites. 

The site construction process was complicated by the fact that the missiles’ specifications seemed to change weekly. Atlas, for example, was a stage and a half, burning 

kerosene and liquid oxygen. Titan had two full stages and burned a hypergolic mixture 

of two fuels that burst into flame when they came in contact with each other. The 

Minuteman had solid fuel. A launch platform designed for one missile could not be 

used by another.

Then the construction contracts were placed by—most of them were placed by the 

[U.S. Army] Corps of Engineers in the various districts where the work was to be 

done, and I would transfer money then to that district for the construction. I kept the 

engineering. All the engineering work was done out of my office. We had to place 

contracts with engineering firms throughout the country for engineering services, but 

that was done directly out of our office.

When I would sit down with the district engineer in whose area we were going to build 

facilities—launch facilities, I said, “Our schedule calls for us to move in and occupy 

this site, and have it online by June of next year,” whatever the date was. And if they 

said, “No, we can’t do that because that’s too quick, we need another three years for 

construction,” I said, “You’re not going to do the construction.” And in those cases, 

I handled—placed the construction contracts myself.170

General Leonhard remained active in oversight during the construction of launch facilities. According to General Leonhard, the majority of personnel working in WDD were civil engineers:

the organization was structured such that one group looked after the Atlas facilities, 

another group looked after Titan facilities, another group looked after Minuteman, 

and another group looked after Thor. At the height of the WDD program, I had 100 

people working directly for me. My domain included design, engineering, and budget 

responsibility for all ground facilities.171

In 1954, the original WDD staff numbered 12 officers and 3 enlisted personnel. In just over a year, 

by December 1955, the staff had grown to 166 people. In the next three years, the missile program 

grew exponentially. In June 1957, the WDD was redesignated as the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division (AFBMD). By early 1959, AFBMD had a military and civilian staff of 1,200. The job of the civil 

engineers assigned to the organization was to work closely with the aeronautical engineers developing each missile type to design the ground support facilities that each system required. Once designs 

were completed and approved, the Air Force turned them over to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

to contract for the actual construction.172

Each missile program required unique ground support facilities. In addition, successive generations 

of missiles developed under a program also required different ground support facilities. The following 

narrative summarizes major elements of the programs.
120 Leading the Way

BOMARC

During the first half of the 1950s, national security concerns focused on the potential threat from 

manned bombers from the U.S.S.R. rather than the threat posed by long-range missiles. As a result, 

early emphasis was placed on developing anti-aircraft missiles. The Air Force’s long-range anti-aircraft 

missile was the BOMARC, a joint U.S.-Canadian effort named for the two organizations that supported 

the development of the missile, Boeing and the Michigan Aeronautical Research Center. Design of 

the missile began in 1946 and it was ordered into production in 1955.173

Testing and training for the BOMARC was conducted at Eglin AFB, Florida. Missile tests were 

undertaken using the Eglin Test Range over the Gulf of Mexico due to the prohibition on firing missiles 

at operational bases except in the event of enemy attack. The first test flight of a BOMARC occurred 

in February 1955. The following spring, the Air Force issued instructions to construct an Operational 

Suitability Test and Training Facility for the BOMARC program on Santa Rosa Island at Eglin AFB. 

Lessons learned during the design and construction of the Santa Rosa facilities were incorporated 

into design for the first tactical BOMARC base. Three different architect-engineer firms adapted the 

Eglin AFB plans for use in the construction of the first three BOMARC bases. The U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers developed standard plans for subsequent site adaptation based on Air Force criteria.174

The BOMARC program pioneered several firsts in relation to support facilities. It was the first 

large-scale missile program that was critically dependent on complex support facilities procured 

through the MCP. It also marked the first time that the Air Force, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 

and a weapon system contractor worked collaboratively to execute a complex missile program. As 

the first such large-scale program, BOMARC addressed a number of compatibility issues between 

the missile and the launch facilities that foreshadowed challenges encountered during the Atlas and 

Titan intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) programs. The development of a process to resolve 

such issues was one of the valuable contributions of the BOMARC program.175

In early 1958, the Air Staff approved the establishment of 10 BOMARC units, and site surveys 

were completed to identify the appropriate locations. The first four BOMARC complexes were sited 

at Dow AFB, Maine; Suffolk County AFB, New York; McGuire AFB, New Jersey; and Otis AFB, 

Massachusetts. Eight BOMARC squadrons eventually were deployed along the eastern seaboard and 

in the Midwest. The additional four complexes were sited at Niagara Falls, New York; Kincheloe AFB, 

Michigan; Duluth AFB, Minnesota; and Langley AFB, Virginia.176

Model “A” of the BOMARC used a liquid-propellant rocket, while the more advanced “B” model 

employed a solid-propellant booster rocket. All BOMARC sites included a missile launch area, an air 

munitions building, and one or two buildings to house gas compressors. Model A sites contained a 

chilled-water generating and distribution system, a propellant acid facility for storing and dispensing 

inhibited red fuming nitric acid (IRFNA), a propellant fuel facility for storing and dispensing JP-X and 

80-octane gasoline and Aniline Furfuryl Alcohol (ANFA), and a decontamination facility for purging 

liquids from the missile. The transition to the solid-fueled rocket eliminated the need for liquid fuel 

facilities. These facilities were extremely troublesome in the “A” program and required high-pressure 

helium, which was expensive and had to be tightly controlled to minimize losses.177

The shelters designed to house both models of the missile were similar in size and featured a 

distinctive roof design incorporating two cantilevered planes that were controlled by a hydraulicallydriven rolling system to open and to close the roof during launchings. The Model A shelter was marked 

by massive, reinforced-concrete longitudinal walls that supported the rolling roof and were designed 

to resist acceleration and deceleration forces. Model A shelters included tight weather seals on the 

end doors and roof to support an interior controlled environment. In the Model B shelter, steel frames, 

precast-panel walls, and other improved design features, including the elimination of environmental 

controls, were introduced to reduce costs.178
Establishing Independence 121

The complex, automated launch system for the BOMARC comprised sensitive controls that were 

easily fouled by contaminants in gas or hydraulic systems. Stringent cleaning protocols for the piping 

system were imposed that exceeded those normally employed in the construction industry. After initial 

cleaning, the clean piping system was maintained until all components were connected to form the 

complete subsystem. Gas piping was maintained through positive pressure with nitrogen; hydraulic 

piping was filled with hydraulic fluid.179

The first BOMARC operational base was completed at Dow AFB, Maine, in late 1959. The general 

contractor on the $9 million, 56-missile project was the John A. Volpe Construction Company. The 

missile area containing the launch shelters and shops was supported by a separate area for utilities, 

security, and storage. A new element, the utilidor, was installed beneath the missile area and comprised 

a series of reinforced concrete tunnels that housed the network of wires, pipes, and tubing that supported the missile system.180 Despite challenges, all BOMARC “A” sites were operational on schedule. 

In 1959, the Air Force’s new air defense master plan reduced the number of BOMARC operational 

bases from 32 to 16. Each base was armed with 60 missiles.181

This first large-scale missile program was a milestone for Air Force civil engineers and their 

involvement in the weapon system acquisition process. Several key lessons were derived from the 

experience that informed the development of future programs. First, early participation by Air Force 

civil engineers in the weapon system program was critical to assure timely consideration of fully supporting real property requirements. Second, aggressive participation by engineers in all phases of the 

weapon system program was desirable from development, to design, and through implementation. 

Third, indoctrination in the weapon system management concept and keen awareness of the unusual 

facility requirements were important to the success of Air Force civil engineer personnel. Finally, 

clear and effective communication between developers and civil engineers was necessary to ensure 

the appropriate development and prioritization of elements within support facilities.182

Intercontinental Ballistic Missile and Intermediate Range Missile Programs

Intelligence reports in the early 1950s indicated that the U.S.S.R. possessed not only atomic 

weapons, but also was developing ballistic missile capability. In 1953, Trevor Gardner became special 

assistant for research and development to the Secretary of the Air Force. He organized a “Strategic 

Missile Evaluation Committee,” commonly known as the Teapot Committee, to review the Air Force’s 

long-range missile program and to make recommendations for improvements. The committee’s report, 

submitted to the Secretary of the Air Force in February 1954, identified technical and managerial 

problems related to the Atlas Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) program. That report gave 

Gardner and General Schriever leverage to accelerate the program. In May 1954, Air Force Vice Chief 

of Staff Gen. Thomas D. White assigned Project Atlas as the highest Air Force priority.183

The results of an overall assessment of the nation’s defenses were issued in the February 1955 

Killian Report, which was compiled by the Technological Capabilities Panel of the Science Advisory 

Committee established by President Eisenhower. The Killian Report warned of the consequences 

of the U.S.S.R. achieving an operational ICBM force before the United States. The report urged the 

National Security Council (NSC) and the President to recognize the ICBM development program as 

a “nationally supported program of the highest order,” with the goal of achieving a full-scale test of 

an ICBM by 1958. On September 8, 1955, President Eisenhower approved NSC Action No. 1433, 

which designated the ICBM program as the nation’s highest R&D priority and directed the Secretary 

of Defense to prosecute the priority with maximum urgency. Three months later, on December 1, 

President Eisenhower assigned the highest national priority to the Thor intermediate range ballistic 

missile (IRBM), as well.184
122 Leading the Way

Construction of Missile Testing Facilities

Testing facilities at Cape Canaveral, Florida, and Vandenberg AFB, California, were among the 

first elements constructed to support the missile programs. While selective missile testing had occurred 

at Cape Canaveral as early as 1950, the ballistic missile program led to rapid and extensive expansion 

of facilities there and at Vandenberg AFB. In later years, as the missile program grew in size and complexity, time was a priority in bringing new test facilities on line. As a result, the Air Force assumed 

responsibility for overseeing the design and construction at Cape Canaveral and Vandenberg AFB.185

Cape Canaveral had been under Air Force jurisdiction since 1948. In May 1949, President Truman 

authorized the establishment of a joint long-range proving ground at the site. In 1950, the Long Range 

Proving Ground Base was renamed Patrick AFB in memory of Maj. Gen. Mason Patrick. Cape Canaveral, about 20 miles north of Patrick AFB, became the Cape Canaveral Missile Test Annex, also known 

as Station No. 1 of the Atlantic Missile Range.186 The Air Force sought Congressional approval to apply 

$44 million from a general authorization to urgent construction at Patrick AFB, Cape Canaveral, and 

downrange auxiliary bases in the Caribbean and South Atlantic, and to engine test facilities at Holloman AFB, New Mexico. The construction program at Cape Canaveral continued to grow, peaking at 

nearly $50 million a year in 1957 and 1958.187

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville District, was responsible initially for construction at Cape Canaveral and Patrick AFB. In 1950, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers built the first 

concrete missile launch pad, which was used to test a World War II surplus V-2 rocket. Between 1950 

and 1960, Cape Canaveral and Patrick AFB were transformed into a city of launch facilities, control 

centers, and assembly buildings serviced by miles of underground utilities.188 To accommodate larger 

missiles with more powerful engines, civil engineers designed complex launch stands, which were 

supported by robust foundations. On such stands, missiles were housed on concrete and steel structures 

elevated approximately 30 feet above grade. Launch stands were built to withstand up to one million 

pounds of thrust; up to 13,000 feet of steel piling were used to anchor a single pad. Engineers designed 

static test towers at Cape Canaveral to enable the test firing of large missiles while secured firmly in 

place. All of these new facilities required the development of detailed specifications for construction, 

as well as maintenance.189 By 1960, approximately 20 launch complexes were constructed at Cape 

Canaveral. These facilities were used to launch almost every type of missile in the Army, Navy, and 

Air Force inventories.

The IRBM and ICBM programs also necessitated reactivation of several Caribbean installations 

to support the downrange missile program. These installations were inactive since the end of World 

War II, but retained by the United States under a 99-year lease agreement with the United Kingdom. 

Several bases were transferred from Caribbean Air Command to ARDC for facility upgrades. Potable 

water was a challenge in the islands. ARDC used P313 Military Construction design funds to investigate the best methods of providing permanent fresh water to all off-shore stations with help from the 

U.S. Geological Survey. In 1954, the U.S. Navy began construction on 5 of the 12 off-shore auxiliary 

bases in the Caribbean and the South Atlantic.190

As IRBM and ICBM development accelerated, the Air Force sought a location for testing missiles 

under operational conditions. A nationwide search of 100 potential locations concluded in 1956 with 

the selection of Camp Cooke, later renamed Vandenberg AFB, California. Located on the Pacific Coast 

about 120 miles northwest of Los Angeles, the 65,000-acre site afforded favorable weather for launch 

operations year-round in an area that was relatively remote, yet within commuting range of southern 

California’s aerospace industry.191

In early 1957 a small contingent of civil engineers lead by Lt. Col. Fred Smith literally reopened 

the gate at Camp Cooke to begin master planning, design and construction of infrastructure, support 

and very soon operational missile complexes. Lt. Col. Smith reported directly to then-Colonel Bill 

Leonhard at AFBMD in Inglewood, California. At the time, Camp Cooke consisted of hundreds of 
Establishing Independence 123

World War II mothballed, temporary mobilization buildings. Many of the existing buildings were 

moved, connected, and renovated to meet the new architectural program as expediently as possible. 

Groundbreaking for the first new facilities took place in May 1957. Construction was managed through 

the cooperative efforts of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, San Francisco District, the AFIR office 

in San Francisco, and the WDD (later AFBMD).192

With the help of Holmes & Narver, a Los Angeles architect-engineer firm, the civil engineers at 

Cooke reconfigured the existing building stock into a headquarters complex for the 1st Missile Wing, 

operational and training facilities, a community center, a base exchange and commissary, a motor 

vehicle maintenance complex, and other facilities. This effort, combined with the construction of the 

Thor, Atlas, and Titan launch facilities during 1957 and 1958, rendered the base one big construction 

site.193 Over the next three years, the Air Force expended over $200 million on new construction and 

upgrades to existing support facilities. The project was a monumental effort.194 Two young lieutenants, 

Clifton D. “Duke” Wright and Joseph A. “Bud” Ahearn, were among the first civil engineer officers 

to be assigned to Camp Cooke in 1957 and 1958. Later in their careers, they both became two-star 

general officers and leaders of Air Force Civil Engineering.195

The intense construction program led to repeated discussions between civil engineers and missile 

developers regarding the classification of real property installed equipment (RPIE) and systems-related 

equipment, owing to the close integration of weapon systems and the buildings. Such classifications 

defined operations and maintenance responsibilities for equipment and had implications on future 

budgets. The integrated system associated with the weapons projects at Vandenberg AFB were the 

first to be operated and maintained by the base installations engineer. This responsibility typically fell 

to an aircraft maintenance squadron.196

Many facilities at Vandenberg were sited in the dunes close to the Pacific Ocean. These landforms 

presented technical challenges in construction. Initial surveys documented that the contours of the 

dunes shifted as much as 20 feet per week during strong winds. General Leonhard identified stabilization of the sand dunes as an objective and assigned the project to a young Air Force engineer named 

Capt. (later Brig. Gen.) John Peters, who developed a solution to the shifting dunes using sustainable 

vegetation. Working with a colleague who was employed at an oil company, Captain Peters assembled 

a team that built a small wind tunnel using an old tank sweeper, a pitot tube, and an old airspeed 

indicator from the junkyard. Through trial and error, it developed a process for spraying a mixture of 

Lt. Clifton D. “Duke” Wright, Jr. in front of his first home at then-Cooke AFB. One of his first assignments 

was as the on-site project officer for the first Atlas ICBM training and launch complex. (Courtesy of Maj. 

Gen. Wright)
124 Leading the Way

water, sticky resin emulsion, liquid fertilizer, and grass seed onto the salt-rich sand. The grass cover 

stabilized the dunes and the thorny problem of the “Galloping Sand Dunes” was solved.197

Seven launch pads and three blockhouses for Thor IRBM testing were the first facilities completed 

at Vandenberg. The first Thor was launched on December 16, 1958. Prototype launch pads, control 

facilities, and silos for every generation of ICBM eventually were built and tested at Vandenberg 

Lt. Joseph A.“Bud” Ahearn performs system testing at the Atlas missile launch complex at Vandenberg AFB, 

California, 1958. (Courtesy of Maj. Gen. Ahearn)
Establishing Independence 125

AFB. By the late 1950s, attention was focused on the construction of the Atlas and Titan complexes. 

Complex 576A at Vandenberg was outfitted with three above-ground gantries for the Model D, while 

Complex 576B included three above-ground coffin launchers. Each complex had its own launch control center. The first Atlas launcher was completed by the contractor and accepted by the Air Force in 

October 1958; the first Atlas D missile arrived on base in February 1959. The Atlas D first was fired 

from Vandenberg on September 9, 1959.198

Missile development required extensive testing of rocket engines. In the late 1950s, civil engineers 

oversaw the construction of massive engine test facilities in the Mojave Desert at Edwards AFB, California. The first static test stand for handling rocket engines with up to one million pounds of thrust 

was completed at a cost of $10.1 million. The 200-foot-long test stand was similar to a reinforced 

concrete bridge in design and protruded 150 feet above the flame deflector pit. The test stand included 

a 54-foot concrete cantilever anchored some 60 feet into solid rock. A multi-story instrumentation and 

control building was connected to the test stand by a 300-foot underground tunnel.199

Thor

The 1955 Killian Committee had recommended the development of a class of intermediate range 

ballistic missiles with a 1,500-mile range as a stop-gap defense measure until the ICBM program was 

operational. In December 1955, the Air Force awarded the contract to develop this type of missile, 

named Thor, to the Douglas Aircraft Company.200

After undergoing missile testing at Cape Canaveral and operational testing at Vandenberg AFB, 

Thor entered the active inventory in September 1958 and was deployed to four bases in England. The 

commander of SAC’s 7th Air Division at Royal Air Force (RAF) South Ruislip near London was 

designated as the executive agent for the Thor site activation program in England. Civil engineers 

assigned to 7th Air Division worked intensively with representatives from the British Air Ministry 

Works Directorate and with engineers from Third Air Force, who were responsible for the design and 

construction of Thor facilities.201

Four RAF installations were selected as sites for the Thor: Feltwell, Shepherds’ Grove, Tuddenham, 

and Mepal. Sites were selected through strict application of stringent criteria. A sense of urgency was 

introduced by the short two-year schedule for construction and activation of the missiles. Sixty missiles were to be sent to the U.K. The RAF activated 20 missile squadrons; each squadron controlled 

three missiles. President Eisenhower and British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan reached accord in 

1957 regarding the Thor missiles. Under the agreement, the rockets were the property of the British 

government and missile sites were manned by British troops. Warheads, however, remained under 

U.S. control. A dual key system allowed the RAF to initiate a countdown, but missile launch required 

that a U.S. Air Force officer arm the warhead.202

The 65-foot Thor had a single-stage liquid oxygen rocket motor that provided 150,000 pounds of 

thrust. It was launched from a combination transporter-erector vehicle, which required an absolutely 

level surface during operation. The amount of excavation and fill required at each missile site varied 

according to ground conditions and topography. Overall construction of the four complexes required 

the excavation of approximately 600,000 cubic yards of earth and the installation of 80,000 cubic 

yards of base concrete, 60,000 yards of vibrated concrete, and 90,000 cubic yards of high-quality 

concrete. Once the concrete was cured, the erection of a steel frame for the retractable missile shelter 

and installation of 18,000 feet of steel rails followed. All construction work was executed within very 

exacting tolerances.203

Electrical service to the launch pads included standby generating 200 KVA frequency changers, which converted U.K. electrical current to U.S. standards. An aircraft hangar at each base was 

renovated to house maintenance and technical facilities and included full air-conditioning and dustproof floors. Electrical service to the hangars was provided by several sources as a safeguard against 
126 Leading the Way

power outages. The hangars also were fitted with overhead cranes and high-pressure air and nitrogen 

systems.204

The first complex was completed in December 1958. The second and third complexes were 

finished in April and September 1959, and the fourth in January 1960. The first Thor missile arrived 

in England in September 1958 aboard a C-124 Globemaster. To prepare for their new mission, RAF 

missile squadrons completed training at the Douglas Aircraft Company school in Tucson, Arizona, 

and operational training at Vandenberg AFB. The first launch of a Thor missile by a RAF strategic 

missile squadron occurred at Vandenberg AFB on April 16, 1959.205

Deployment of the Thor IRBM was intended as an interim security measure. As the Atlas and 

Titan ICBMs entered the arsenal and were placed on operational alert in 1960, IRBMs gradually were 

withdrawn from service. The Thor missiles in England were removed from operational alert in August 

1963 and the RAF Thor squadrons were disbanded. The program had achieved its objective as an 

interim security measure and provided in-field experience for a number of Air Force civil engineers 

who later made valuable contributions to the ICBM program.206

Atlas and Titan

In August 1957, the U.S.S.R. successfully tested the world’s first ICBM, the SS-6, following the 

launch of the satellite Sputnik. These launches demonstrated that the U.S.S.R. possessed the rocket 

technology that made a nuclear strike on the United States possible. The United States was alarmed 

to learn that its own missile development program lagged behind that of the Soviet Union. As a result, 

a new “emergency” ICBM plan was approved by President Eisenhower and the NSC on January 30, 

1958.207

The first U.S. ICBMs, the Atlas and the Titan I, were large, liquid-fueled missiles. The one-anda-half stage Atlas and the two-stage Titan shared many interchangeable systems. One objective of 

the newly adopted plan was to broaden the knowledge base and stimulate competition to turn out a 

weapon in the shortest time possible. The Convair Division of General Dynamics held the contract to 

develop the Atlas, a missile with a military application that also advanced the manned space program. 

The contract to develop the Titan ICBM was awarded to Glenn L. Martin Company in late 1955, as a 

safeguard against failure of the Atlas. Titan ultimately became the Air Force’s principal liquid fueled 

missile and remained on alert with SAC well into the 1980s.208

Brig. Gen. Bernard Schriever at AFBMD was authorized to implement an innovative policy, 

which he called concurrency, to expedite missile development. Under the policy, many aspects of the 

plan were conducted simultaneously—missile development, testing, production, crew training, and 

base construction. General Schriever described the new policy as “moving ahead with everything 

and everybody, altogether and all at once, toward a specific goal.” Program developers compressed 

schedules from an estimated 13 years to 5 years. The typical sequence of designing ground facilities following the final missile design was abandoned; construction of ground facilities proceeded 

concurrently with missile development to meet the overall program deadline. Technology advanced 

with dazzling speed. Weapons systems often were obsolete and replaced by the next generation before 

support facilities were completed.209

Concurrent development expanded the challenges faced by Air Force civil engineers as plans, 

programs, and designs for site facilities proceeded on a parallel track with missile development so 

that launch and support facilities would be operational as soon as missiles came off the assembly line. 

Construction was initiated using untested, and sometimes incomplete, plans with the expectation that 

construction documents would be revised and refined as development of the missiles progressed. 

Construction on several Atlas and Titan bases preceded the first full test firing of either missile. 

The cost of concurrent development was unavoidably high. Change orders mounted rapidly and 

were a source of concern and frustration for Air Force civil engineers and contractors alike. During 
Establishing Independence 127

construction of the Atlas base at F.E. Warren, for example, 70 design changes were issued in the 30 

days between the issuance of initial construction plans to prospective bidders and the opening date for 

proposals. As construction advanced, change orders often required alterations to completed work.210

Under the Atlas program, technological advances and improvements led to the production of 

several successive generations of weapons. The A, B, and C missile models and initial development 

and test vehicles, were followed by three operational missiles, the D, E, and F models, each with its 

own specialized launch and control facilities. Atlas D missiles were stored horizontally above ground 

in containers called “coffins” that provided blast protection against overpressures of only 5 psi. They 

had to be raised upright to load fuel and liquid oxygen prior to launch. The Atlas E was also deployed 

horizontally, but the majority of the semi-hardened launcher was buried underground. The coffins 

were of heavier construction and had concrete overhead doors that were flush with the surface. They 

were designed to withstand overpressures of 25 psi.211

The Atlas F was stored vertically in underground silos measuring 174 feet deep and 55 feet in 

diameter. Built of heavily-reinforced concrete, the huge silos protected the missiles from overpressures 

of up to 100 psi. The Atlas F had fuel stored on board the missile. It was loaded with liquid oxygen 

at the beginning of the countdown and raised to ground level by elevator for launch. The hardened 

silos increased survivability, but also raised the complexity of construction. Approximately 2.7 million cubic yards of earth were moved. Construction materials included almost 100,000 tons of steel 

and 565,000 cubic yards of concrete. Site excavations to the depth of 60 feet were required to reach 

the level where the launch control center was constructed. The shaft for the silo then was mined to its 

final depth of 174 feet. Contractors erected the silo walls using steel beams, wire mesh lagging, and 

sprayed-on concrete. A monumental steel frame equivalent in size to a 15-story building then was 

installed in the silo to support the missile and its ancillary equipment. The underground Titan complexes 

had separate launch control center silos that measured 40 feet wide and 40 feet deep; personnel tunnels 

and cableways connected the missile and control center silos.212

The unique requirements of the ICBM program and the compressed program schedule affected the 

construction effort beginning with the site selection process. Dozens of survey teams, comprising Air 

Force civil engineers, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers representatives, members of architect-engineer 

firms, and AFBMD personnel, combed the country in 1956-1957 during the selection process. Over 

250 possible sites were investigated for the Atlas program alone. The teams surveyed sites from 

Washington State to Georgia and from New Mexico to New York.213

Site selection criteria were demanding and uncompromising. Optimum soil and geological conditions were required to enable the construction of underground silos that housed the Atlas F and 

the Titan missiles. Geography also was a criterion. Requirements established an 18 mile minimum 

distance between the missile complex and support base and between the missile complex and towns 

with populations of more than 25,000. Silos were spaced at seven mile intervals to ensure that each 

site constituted a separate target for incoming missiles. In addition, minimum buffers of 1,875 feet 

from inhabited dwellings and 1,200 feet from public highways were maintained.214

Final sites were selected from among the potential sites meeting technical criteria based on economic feasibility. Cost factors included a range of considerations such as the cost to dewater a silo or 

to construct roads. Costs for dewatering a silo could range from $50,000 to $200,000. Securing water 

in remote arid areas, such as eastern New Mexico, increased costs. Road construction could run as 

high as $70,000 per mile. Missile complexes located in remote areas from main bases necessitated 

extensive and costly expansions of base utility systems, and, in some instances, the construction of 

independent systems. Occasionally, construction at remote sites required upgrades to access roads 

and bridges used for construction equipment and to transport missiles to the finished silos. Final site 

evaluations entailed detailed analysis of all factors involved.215

On November 21, 1957, DoD announced that F.E. Warren AFB, Wyoming, would become the 

nation’s first ICBM base, hosting six Atlas D missiles housed in two above-ground launch complexes. Each complex contained three launchers, known as a 6 x1 configuration. Bid packages for the 
128 Leading the Way

construction of the launch and control facilities, located 23 miles northwest of Cheyenne, were opened 

seven months later on July 15, 1958. The Omaha District of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers oversaw 

construction. The George A. Fuller Company was selected as the prime contractor. New construction 

techniques, the remote location, a compressed 190-day schedule, harsh weather, and constant design 

modifications combined to increase the difficulty of the assignment. Despite these challenges, the 

first Atlas D missile was delivered to the site on September 15, 1959 and the complex was declared 

operational on August 9, 1960.216

In February 1959, bids were opened for a second three-site missile complex near F.E. Warren. 

The Blount Company of Alabama submitted the winning bid to build Annexes B, C, and D. Each site 

accommodated three launches in the first 3x3 configuration. A third complex, under the jurisdiction 

of F.E. Warren, hosted nine Atlas E missiles built in the 9x1 configuration. Work began on December 

7, 1959.217 The selection of other ICBM sites followed (Table 2.3).

Three Atlas D locations associated with Offutt AFB near Omaha, Nebraska, were built as part 

of the FY59 MCP. ICBMs were to be deployed at three sites in the area, at Arlington and Mead in 

Nebraska and Missouri Valley in Iowa. The Malan Construction Company of New York City won 

the contract for the support facilities in March 1959. The main contractor subcontracted work to 46 

subcontractors creating challenges in project coordination. The deteriorated condition of access roads 

to the sites caused delays in transporting equipment and workers. Labor unrest resulted in 20 work 

stoppages and delayed progress by at least a month. Construction also was affected by the nationwide 

steel strike in summer 1959. Despite these difficulties, the project was completed July 28, 1960. The 

schedule delay of only four months was a testament to the excellent working relationship between the 

Air Force and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 218

Two problems confronting engineers during the Atlas program related to power for the launch sites 

and the design of the overhead doors for the Atlas F silos. Engineers evaluated several alternatives for 

power generation, including diesel engines, nuclear, fuel cells, batteries, gas turbines, and various combinations available from commercial sources. The power supply had to be highly reliable, constant, and 

self-contained within the launch complex. The power supply source also had to be designed to absorb 

extremely high accelerations from nuclear blast-induced ground shock, or designed to be mounted on 

shock mounts. Both initial cost and on-going operating and maintenance costs were considered in the 

evaluation of potential systems. Reliable diesel engines were selected to provide the principal power 

to the sites. A typical Atlas site was powered by four 1,000 kW units supporting a cluster of missiles.219
Establishing Independence 129

The design of the overhead doors for missile silos also posed a special engineering problem. The 

doors sealing the 300-square-foot opening for the Atlas F silo protected the missile from extreme 

weather, from nuclear blast waves and radiation, and from structural rebound. The doors could not 

affect the firing and guidance of the missiles, had to open fully within 30 seconds, and operate in 

sequence with the missile countdown procedure. The design also had to enable assembly, installation, and testing in the field. Many door designs were evaluated, but all had drawbacks that led to 

their elimination. Finally, a double-hinged, double-leaf, flat door design was accepted. A secure seal 

between the two door leaves was achieved through a wedge design. The door seal was reinforced by 

An Atlas F underground silo under construction at Plattsburgh AFB, New York, ca. 1961.

This mammoth excavation near Denver, Colorado, will soon be an almost invulnerable underground launch 

site for the Air Force Titan ICBM.
130 Leading the Way

a step mesh with a neoprene gasket. Heavy instantaneous loads on the main actuating mechanisms 

were eliminated by four short-stroke hydraulic actuators that operated in sequence prior to the main 

actuators and broke the door seal. The small actuators were effective particularly in icy weather or 

similar conditions leading to extremely tight seals in the door units.220

The Titan ICBM introduced a further level of sophistication in underground construction. A Titan I 

complex was a self-contained, underground village. Hardened to survive a nuclear attack, the complex, 

including the silos, control center, power house, and other support facilities, was constructed more than 

40 feet underground and connected by over a half mile of tunnels. The tunnels comprised corrugated 

steel tubes 10 feet in diameter. Joints within the tubes gave the tunnel system flexibility and made it 

less vulnerable to damage from earth shock or blast. Blast locks with massive blast-resistant doors 

were installed at critical points in the tunnels to isolate shock waves.221

In March 1958, the Air Force selected Lowry AFB to be the first Titan I base. A joint venture led 

by Morrison-Knudsen was awarded the construction contract and work on three, three-silo complexes 

began May 1, 1959. Morrison-Knudsen completed the project on schedule and achieved the lowest 

construction costs of any ICBM base in the country at the time. SAC activated the first Titan I squadron 

at Lowry in 1960, construction was completed in August 1961, and the first Titan I missile squadron 

was declared operational on April 18, 1962.222

Construction to support the missile program extended beyond the launch bases. The FY58 and 

FY59 budgets for the Directorate of Installations also included provisions for facilities to support 

control operations at Sunnyvale, California; tracking and telemetry in Hawaii; Alaska; Point Mugu, 

California; and New Boston, New Hampshire; and, a defense alarm readout station in Alaska.223

Minuteman

As the Atlas and Titan programs unfolded, the Air Force recognized that that first generation of 

cryogenic liquid-fuel missiles developed under these programs was of limited use. The early Atlas 

and Titan missiles were dangerous to operate, expensive to maintain, and difficult to deploy due to the 

hazards of their caustic, volatile liquid-fuel systems. The silos that housed the missiles were oversized 

to accommodate the complicated propellant-loading system, which included storage tanks, piping, 

and pumps to handle hundreds of thousands of pounds of gaseous helium, liquid oxygen, and RP-1 

fuel. It took 15 minutes to pump 249,000 pounds of propellant aboard the “quick firing” Atlas F.224

By 1957, propulsion engineers at the WDD were convinced that solid fuels were superior propellants for future missiles. Col. Edward Hall designed a family of relatively small, low-maintenance, 

solid-fuel missiles of tactical, intermediate, and intercontinental range, dubbed the Minuteman. In 

February 1958, Colonel Hall briefed the Secretary of the Air Force, the Secretary of Defense, and SAC 

commander Gen. Curtis LeMay that an arsenal of 1,600 Minuteman missiles could be manufactured 

and deployed by 1965. Typifying the speed of the missile program, the Air Force authorized AFBMD 

to begin limited R&D on the Minuteman within 24 hours.225

The Minuteman relied upon solid fuel in each of its three stages, thus eliminating many of the 

storage and handling problems associated with liquid fuels. Minuteman missiles launched immediately from silos, which were considerably smaller than the Atlas and Titan silos. The Secretary of 

Defense approved construction of the R&D test facilities of the Minuteman program at Patrick AFB 

and Edwards AFB in January 1959. In September 1959, the Boeing Airplane Company was selected 

as the Minuteman assembly and test contractor.226

Surveys for possible locations to base the Minuteman were initiated in late 1959. The majority 

of the strategic Soviet targets fell within the range of Malmstrom AFB, Montana, making the former 

World War II airfield the logical choice for conversion into a missile control base. The Air Force 

selected Malmstrom AFB to host the first Minuteman ICBM wing on December 23, 1959. The U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, Seattle District, handled land acquisition for the required base expansion. 
Establishing Independence 131

Some 5,200 separate tracts scattered across 20,000 square miles of north-central Montana were secured. 

Groundbreaking for Minuteman construction at Malmstrom took place in March 1961.227

Air Force civil engineers executing the missile facility programs, from early anti-aircraft missiles 

to the complex ICBMs, demonstrated their professionalism, engineering acumen, and ability to meet 

complex engineering challenges within demanding schedules. Their stellar performance expanded 

the role of civil engineering in support of the Air Force mission, as well as enhanced the professional 

profile of Air Force civil engineers among their counterparts in the other U.S. Armed services.228

Construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy

The U.S. Air Force Academy (USAFA) established two important precedents in Air Force Civil 

Engineering. For the first time, the Air Force was authorized to act as its own design and construction 

agent for a major construction project. The U.S. Air Force Academy also marked the first time that a 

service academy was designed and built in its entirety as a holistic project.229

Since its inception, Air Force leaders had promoted the establishment of a separate Air Force Academy to educate young people for service as Air Force officers and leaders. In August 1948, a board was 

formed to discuss the creation of an air academy. The recommendations issued by the board included 

the creation of an undergraduate air academy that did not include flight exercises. In 1949, Secretary 

of Defense James Forrestal appointed a Service Academy Board to study the proposal. The board was 

chaired by Dr. Robert L. Stearns, president of the University of Colorado. Dwight D. Eisenhower, then 

president of Columbia University, served as vice chairman. Completing the membership of the board 

were the superintendents of West Point and Annapolis and several leading U.S. educators. The board 

heartily endorsed the proposal for a separate academy for the new service.230

The Engineering Standards Branch of the Planning Division at the Directorate of Installations was 

involved initially in site planning; investigational engineering and advance design for the academy 

commenced soon thereafter. All efforts came to fruition on April 1, 1954, when then President Eisenhower signed Public Law 325, officially establishing the USAFA. The law authorized the appropriation 

of $126 million for the school’s construction.231

Communities across the country vied for selection as the permanent home of the USAFA. The Site 

Selection Committee traveled more than 20,000 miles and inspected potential sites in 22 states. The 

committee eventually narrowed the field of candidates to three locations, which were recommended to 

Secretary of the Air Force Harold E. Talbott for final action: Lake Geneva, Wisconsin; Alton, Illinois; 

and Colorado Springs, Colorado. Following numerous surveys and engineering studies, the Secretary 

announced the selection of a 15,000-acre site north of Colorado Springs in June 1954. Secretary Talbott 

also announced that interim classes would be held at Lowry AFB, Colorado for the first three classes 

of cadets while construction of the USAFA was underway.232

The Air Force created a new organization to oversee the high-profile project: the Air Force Academy Construction Agency (AFACA). Activated on June 4, 1954, the AFACA was assigned to the 

1130th Air Force Special Activities Group, 1020th Air Force Special Activities Wing, Fort Myer, 

Virginia, for administration, with operational control vested in the Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations, Maj. Gen. Lee B. Washbourne. The AFACA’s mission was to “direct the planning, designing, 

and construction of an Air Force Academy and to simultaneously assist in the provision of facilities 

for the interim Academy.” Col. Leo J. Erler, formerly the Director of Construction for the Assistant 

Chief of Staff, Installations, became the first AFACA Director. Lt. Col. Clarence A. “Bud” Eckert and 

Mr. John P. Huebsch also were reassigned to the new agency. Col. James A. Barnett served as chief 

of the AFACA’s Construction Division from 1954 to 1958.233

In October 1954, AFACA personnel was authorized at 15 military and 58 civilians, but that 

number soon increased to 17 military and 88 civilians, who worked from two offices—Washington, 

D.C., and Colorado Springs. At the end of January 1956, Colonel Erler stepped down as Director and 
132 Leading the Way

was succeeded by Col. Al Stoltz, who remained in the job until the USAFA was complete. Colonel 

Erler retired from active duty and later accepted a civilian position as Liaison Representative in the 

Washington, D.C. office of the AFACA.234

Although a location had been selected, real estate acquisition proved to be a lengthy process. The 

State of Colorado, which enthusiastically had lobbied to become the home of the USAFA, created the 

Colorado Land Acquisition Commission to secure the required land and property rights. The Colorado legislature generously authorized $1 million to acquire land through purchase or condemnation, 

which would be subsequently donated to the Federal government. The Air Force agreed to cover all 

acquisition costs over $1 million.235

More than 300 architect-engineer firms expressed interest in the USAFA project. A board of key 

officers and civilians reviewed proposals and heard presentations from numerous companies. On 

August 15, 1954, Secretary Talbott selected the firm of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SO&M) of 

Chicago, Illinois, as the architect-engineer for USAFA. Three other firms were associated with SO&M 

on the project: Syska & Hennessy; Moran, Proctor, Mueser & Rutledge; and, Roberts and Company.236

AFACA personnel established the project requirements, which served as a guide for the design 

and construction of the USAFA. Members of the agency and representatives of the architect-engineer 

team visited other U.S. institutions of higher learning, including the U.S. Military Academy and U.S. 

Naval Academy, to gather data that informed planning for the facility.

On May 14, 1955, SO&M presented the USAFA’s architectural concept to the public. In attendance 

were more than 100 members of the media and more than a dozen congressmen and senators. The 

architect-engineer firm showcased architectural renderings and a scale model at the Fine Arts Center 

in Colorado Springs. Some 25,000 people viewed the exhibit during the month that it was on display. 

The architectural vision for USAFA was rooted in the International Style and captured the public’s 

interest. Glass, masonry, and aluminum were the principal materials of the building facades, while 

reinforced concrete and steel were used as principal structural materials. The buildings, although 

monumental in scale, were dwarfed by the majesty of the towering Rocky Mountains and augmented 

the natural beauty of the site.237

The International Style was a compatible image for the Air Force, the country’s newest military 

service and one that defined itself by looking to the future and new possibilities. The modernist aesthetic 

spoke to that vision. The overall design was based on a seven-foot grid. Variations on the grid united 

the USAFA campus and created linear connections throughout its buildings that extended even to the 

buildings in the support area. The heating plants were described as being among the most handsome 

buildings at USAFA.238

Comments on the design generally were favorable and the concept design received critical support 

from the nation’s leading architectural magazines. However, as the official history notes, “the model 

representing the cadet chapel stimulated some criticism.” The extensive use of glass in USAFA’s design 

prompted the House of Representatives to withhold approval for construction funding for fiscal year 

1956 until the design could be further reviewed and “more firmly established.” Plans were revised and 

the Air Force presented an acceptable design to Congress before final passage of the 1956 appropriations bill; an initial $20 million for construction was appropriated.239

Meanwhile, work to support the interim academy at Lowry AFB proceeded. Almost all of the 

buildings necessary to support the interim academy existed, although many required modification for 

academic use. The Denver office of Wilson & Company of Salina, Kansas, received the architectengineer contract for the work at Lowry AFB. The majority of the contracts were awarded by the end 

of December 1954. Construction was completed on schedule by June 1, 1955 and within the $1 million 

budget. The first class of 306 cadets was sworn in and enrolled in July.240

The Air Force began to award contracts for utility and road construction at the USAFA site in June 

1956. This initial work included the construction of the first 25 of the anticipated 70 miles of roads and 

three 800,000-gallon potable water reservoirs, as well as the construction of a 400-foot tunnel through 
Establishing Independence 133

the Rampart Range, which was part of the water supply system. Water to the site was provided by the 

City of Colorado Springs; the high-temperature hot water system for USAFA, when complete, was 

expected to be the largest of its kind in the United States.241

As work progressed, it became clear that the original design and construction schedule established 

by AFACA, and agreed to by the architect-engineer, was completely unworkable. After a lengthy 

analysis, which included review of the construction industry capability and the availability of critical 

materials, all parties agreed to a revised schedule. With the concurrence of the Secretary of the Air 

Force, the opening of USAFA was rescheduled from 1957 to September 1, 1958.242

The all-important work on roads and utility systems continued throughout 1956. Graders carved 

roads into the forested mountainsides. New water lines and sewer mains formed an underground 

network throughout the site. Land acquisition neared completion as the final tracts were acquired 

through condemnation. In all, 18,514 acres were acquired and included 632 acres of right-of-way 

for two railroad lines, U.S. Highway 85-87, and the City of Colorado Springs. The total cost of land 

was approximately $4.75 million, of which, about $4 million was reimbursed to the Colorado Land 

Acquisition Commission by the Federal government.243

The Secretary of the Air Force approved the final exterior designs for nearly all buildings in the 

academic area in March 1956. Final designs for the chapel were not selected, but its general size and 

location were approved. The revised site plan called for the chapel to be located among the academic 

buildings, rather than isolated on a hillside as initially proposed. The Secretary toured the site in early 

1957 and approved the final design for the chapel on May 15, after receiving the joint approval of his 

consultants.244 

 USAFA was designed for a cadet wing of 2,500, although the initial number would be much 

smaller. The principal buildings in the academy included a dining hall, cadet quarters (Vandenberg 

Hall), academic complex (Fairchild Hall), administration building (Harmon Hall), theater (Arnold 

U.S. Air Force Academy under construction with the Colorado Rockies as a dramatic backdrop.
134 Leading the Way

Hall), physical education facility, and chapel. In addition, 1,200 family housing units (650 enlisted 

and 550 officers) under Title VIII Capehart were planned as dwellings for faculty members and to 

house the officers and Airmen of the support organization. Plans also called for an athletic area, a 

hospital, and a community center. A jet-capable airfield to support cadet flying training was eliminated 

from the original construction program due to cost. Luckily, the USAFA property encompassed the 

former Pine Valley Airport, which was adequate for basic flight training. An early agreement provided 

that Federal funds would not be used to build the football stadium. Fundraising for the stadium was 

undertaken primarily by the Air Force Academy Foundation, which was chartered in July 1954. The 

renowned designer Robert Trent Jones, Sr., was commissioned to design the golf course, which was 

financed by non-appropriated funds.245

Construction accelerated rapidly with the award of contracts. By mid-1957, 2,400 people were 

working on the site. The number grew to 5,500 in mid-1958. Congress increased the authorization 

for USAFA construction to $133.5 million; work under contract in the last half of 1957 rose from 

$75 million to $118 million. Construction experts from all over the United States helped build the 

nearly self-sufficient city capable of supporting a population of more than 10,000 students, faculty, 

and operations staff. Colorado Springs, normally a quiet city during the winter months, became a 

year-round boom town. Thousands of construction workers, many accompanied by families, swelled 

the local population. With the influx, local merchants began to appreciate the economic benefit that a 

permanent Air Force presence would bring to the larger community.246

The challenge of relocating the roadways and railroads previously established on the USAFA site 

led to innovative solutions. Pre-stressed concrete girders with 120-foot spans and weighing 96 tons 

were fabricated and shipped to the site. The girders, billed as the world’s largest at the time, were used 

to create one of the longest span railroad bridges in the United States.247

Extraordinary construction techniques also were employed to construct the cadet dining hall, 

which featured a unique 1,150-ton roofing system. The roof was supported by 16 monumental columns 

spaced with 266-foot spans to create a large unobstructed space to accommodate the assembly of the 

entire cadet corps at one time. With overhang, the roof covered 308 feet square. Workers assembled 

12-foot trusses on the dining hall floor and then raised the roof in January 1958 using the concrete 

slab method. It was reported to be the first time that the process was applied in the construction of a 

large steel structure.248

Contractors faced numerous obstacles as they worked to meet the September 1, 1958 deadline. 

The weather did not cooperate and 1957 was one of the wettest years in the region’s history. Precipitation totaled 25.07 inches, compared to normal annual totals of 14.26 inches. Two April snowstorms 

deposited 36 inches of snow on the high-altitude site, and May was the fourth wettest month on record. 

During one of the heavy snows in April, members of the Academy Board of Visitors, composed of 

prominent civic and government leaders appointed by President Eisenhower in February 1956, visited 

the site by helicopter. They expressed concern over the approaching deadline, but AFACA assured 

them that obstacles would not affect the overall schedule.249

High public interest in USAFA translated to a large volume of official and unofficial visitors. An 

estimated 125,000 people visited the construction site in 1957 alone. Another notable challenge in 

1957 was posed by a five-week steel strike that caused delays in delivery of steel columns and girders. 

February 1957 was marked by the death of Lt. Gen. Hubert R. Harmon, the first superintendent of 

USAFA, who oversaw the completion of the interim campus at Lowry AFB and welcomed the first 

class of cadets. A decorated World War II veteran, General Harmon had retired twice from the Air 

Force, but returned to active duty at the request of fellow West Point classmate, President Eisenhower, 

in November 1953 to serve as the special assistant to the chief of staff for academy matters. General 

Harmon retired as superintendent in July 1956 and died at Lackland AFB the following February. He 

was succeeded as superintendent by Maj. Gen. James E. Briggs.250
Establishing Independence 135

The pace of construction accelerated in 1958 as AFACA directed efforts toward completing sufficient facilities to permit operations to begin by September. On January 1, the value of completed 

construction work stood at $60 million. Six months later, that figure reached $90 million—an average 

of $5 million of completed work per month. On December 31, the total of the work completed had 

risen to $108 million.251 During 1958, work focused on the principal academic area buildings. Most 

major facilities, such as the cadet quarters, academic complex, science building, cadet dining hall, 

heating plants, parade ground, and support personnel facilities, were completed or nearing completion 

by the end of the year. Rapid progress continued on the Capehart housing complexes in Pine Valley 

and Douglass Valley, which were built at a cost of $19 million through a joint venture between the 

Del E. Webb and Rubenstein Construction companies.252

Gradually, AFACA turned responsibility for facilities over to USAFA. In early 1957, the USAFA’s 

7625th Support Squadron was activated as the base support organization. The unit began receiving 

and storing supplies and equipment and assumed the job of operating and maintaining permanent 

facilities. On June 30, 1958, command jurisdiction of the site was officially transferred to the USAFA 

superintendent. On the same date, the AFACA contract with the General Services Administration for 

interim security and fire protection was terminated, and the USAFA assumed full responsibility for 

those services.253

Labor Day weekend in 1958 was a memorable occasion for the Air Force, especially for those 

Air Force engineers who had worked on the USAFA since 1954. Over that weekend, General Briggs 

and the entire Cadet Wing moved to the USAFA from the interim campus at Lowry AFB. The first 

graduating class completed its final year in the new academic complex and graduated in June 1959. 

The festivities attracted hundreds of thousands of visitors.254

The U.S. Air Force Academy’s iconic Chapel takes shape as the spires are set in place. 
136 Leading the Way

Behind the scenes, construction continued in the housing areas and contractors put the finishing 

touches on the cadet physical education complex, the cadet social center, and the USAFA’s landscape 

plan. By the end of 1959, all but two projects had been completed: the chapel and the hospital. B.H. 

Baker, Inc. of Colorado Springs was awarded the $3.5 million contract for the hospital.255

The USAFA chapel continued to attract controversy. Bids were opened on July 21, 1959 and 

AFACA awarded the $3.33 million chapel construction contract to Robert E. McKee, General Contractor, Inc. The chapel would become the dominant feature of the campus and an architectural icon. Work 

began in September 1959, but was plagued by defective aluminum roof panels. Selected interior work, 

financed by Chaplain funds, was rescheduled to coordinate with the building construction sequence.256

AFACA extended the construction contract by 97 days. The beneficial occupancy date was set 

for December 31, 1961, then moved to February 1962, and reset for March 17, 1962. Construction 

deficiencies in the weather tightness of the structure delayed final acceptance of the building. After 

extensive review of the proposed remediation, a final solution to water penetration into the chapel was 

identified and a change order in the amount of $237,550 was negotiated with the contractor. Formal 

dedication of the chapel took place on September 22, 1963.257

During 1960, AFACA decreased its staff commensurate with the level of outstanding construction 

work. From a high of more than 120 personnel, the staff had shrunk to 8 civilians and 9 military by 

mid-1961. The remaining personnel closed out projects and completed as-built drawings and operations 

and maintenance manuals for the last few outstanding buildings. The agency incrementally ceded office 

space in the Bradford Building in Colorado Springs, its home since 1954, to Air Defense Command, 

which shared the building. AFACA officially was inactivated on June 30, 1962. SO&M closed its local 

office and the major effort of building the USAFA came to an end.258

Construction of the USAFA was a source of great pride for the Air Force. The project involved 

complex acquisition of land and more than 100 major building contracts. Effective and efficient management demonstrated the skill of Air Force civil engineers in handling extended and complex design 

and construction projects. The final total cost of the USAFA was approximately $141.8 million, plus 

the cost of projects that were sponsored privately.259

Overseas Construction

During the early 1950s, the Air Force oversaw a robust overseas construction program monitored 

by the Construction Division in the Directorate of Installations. In response to the expanding program, 

the Overseas Section became a separate branch within the division in 1952. By 1954, that office was 

overseeing a program valued at approximately $2 billion.260 Overseas bases were of particular concern 

for SAC and MATS. MATS required a worldwide basing system to provide air transport for people, 

materiel, mail, strategic materials, and other cargo through regular flights or flights scheduled on an 

as-needed, emergency basis. MATS flew the largest aircraft in the Air Force inventory. SAC required 

overseas bases to launch bomber strike forces against enemy targets. At that time, no aircraft launched 

from the U.S. could reach enemy targets in the U.S.S.R. without stopping to refuel at intermediate 

bases. Initially, SAC stationed its bomber crews overseas on a rotational basis. By 1954, SAC recalled 

all bombers in the United States and stationed aerial refueling tankers in the northeastern United 

States, Canada, Bermuda, and Greenland. Overseas bases continued to be important as landing sites 

for aircraft that had completed their missions and for launching follow-on missions.261

While the U.S. already had acquired a number of overseas air bases during World War II, many 

were not in strategic locations and all bases needed substantial upgrades to support newer, heavier 

aircraft. In 1952-1953, the Air Force construction program focused on completing air bases in the 

United Kingdom, Europe, and northern Africa. One high profile project was the construction of four 

bases in French Morocco. Other bases were constructed across the northern tier of Africa and included 

Sidi Slimane, Tunisia; Wheelus, Libya; and, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Still other bases included the 
Establishing Independence 137

construction program were located in Canada, Iceland, and Greenland; Thule Air Base in northwestern 

Greenland was constructed during this time. While the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers oversaw much 

of the overseas construction work through its district offices, the Air Force also was involved through 

the AFIR offices in Casablanca, Morocco, and Paris, France. In the Far East, all construction work 

was delegated to the Far East Air Force Command.262

The Joint Construction Agency (JCA) was officially established by the DoD on January 15, 1953 

to oversee all construction in Europe with the exception of Germany. While projects proceeded on 

schedule in Germany, construction had come to a halt in the remainder of Europe despite funding 

and support from the U.S. Congress. The JCA, with an initial staff of three officers representing the 

Air Force, Army, and Navy, was aligned directly under the United States European Command. The 

DoD established the JCA with the objective of achieving economy and efficiency. Joint effort among 

services replaced the potential for competition. In addition, needless duplication of construction could 

be avoided and uniformity in criteria, standards, designs, and construction could be implemented.263

The JCA was modeled after the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; military officers controlled the 

agency, but civilians staffed the majority of positions. JCA Headquarters was responsible for the 

general supervision of construction and cooperation with the local government and agencies. Each 

service commander identified sites and negotiated land acquisitions.264

The JCA initially focused on construction in France. From the beginning, the JCA encountered 

problems with French authorities, DoD, and within the program. The first year was devoted to transferring construction responsibilities to the JCA.265 Within the first two years of the agency’s existence, 

the DoD enforced two freezes on construction projects in France. These freezes challenged the authority and credibility of the JCA. Construction in France further was hampered by negotiations during 

1950-52 that placed oversight of all U.S. military construction under three French agencies. The 

French government was adamant that projects be presented to one of the agencies at each phase of 

work. Additional problems arose over differences in administrative techniques between the United 

States and France. Within the JCA, continual delays occurred with constant revisions to construction 

plans and criteria.266

Brig. Gen. John D. Peters described the JCA project, which he supervised as a captain, 

The project that I had, under the Bordeaux district, was to build an ammunition depot 

in the forest of Chizé, which is about 400 kilometers south of Paris....The depot was 

an Air Force facility for bomb storage and ammunition storage and rework. It consisted 

of some 150 or 200 ammunition shelters, made out of corrugated metal, a cantonment 

area, a motor pool area and motor pool repair, a water tower, and the administrative 

buildings that went with this cantonment area, with the barracks and the mess hall 

and the officers’ quarters.... The whole project was about $20 million. Most of the 

facilities were built out of concrete block, and it wasn’t supposed to be painted. The 

roads in the forest of Chizé were designed for heavy loads. The design was the same 

in the cantonment area, with two-and-a-half inches of asphalt, even though we weren’t 

going to have anything heavier than cars and light trucks in that cantonment area. I 

negotiated with the contractor to trade a half-inch of asphalt in the cantonment area 

for enough money to paint all the buildings inside and out. The buildings were all 

white with a pretty forest green trim. We painted the insides with a colored fleck in 

it. As far as I know, when it was finished it was the first painted complex that had 

been built in that district. It was the first project finished on time, and it was the first 

project that had money left on it.267

Operations were initiated outside of France in 1954 when the JCA assumed responsibility for 

Army and Air Force construction in Austria and Italy. However, the Engineer Division of United States 

Forces, Austria, maintained management. On May 15, 1955, the Austrian State Treaty was signed and 
138 Leading the Way

recognized Austria as a sovereign state. Under the treaty, evacuation of all occupying militaries was 

required. U.S. forces withdrew to Italy, a move that necessitated the rehabilitation of several bases. 

The JCA assisted the Army command in Italy, Southern European Task Force (SETAF), as well as 

supervised the construction of five Air Force bases and facilities on two naval bases. Also in 1954, 

the JCA opened an office in Athens to oversee construction in Greece and Turkey. The United States 

Engineer Group (TUSEG) established in Turkey during 1950 was placed under the authority of the 

JCA. Construction, primarily for the Air Force, continued in Turkey.268

By the mid-1950s the demand for military construction in Europe abated. The DoD determined 

that the JCA was no longer necessary and that previously completed projects met the immediate needs 

of the military. On August 1, 1957, the JCA was disbanded. During its short history, the agency had 

succeeded in organizing construction programs in France and Europe and had completed several large 

projects, including essential billeting, POL systems, and hospitals. Responsibility of military construction in Greece, Italy, and Turkey shifted to the Mediterranean Division under the Office of the Chief of 

Engineers in Washington, D.C., while construction in France was passed to a new agency, the United 

States Construction Agency under the United States Army European (USAREUR).269

MANAGING THE BASES

The Air Force was assigned repair and maintenance responsibilities for air bases under War Department Circular 388 dated September 27, 1944. However, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers retained 

practical supervision over the performance and funding of air base maintenance until 1946, when 

all technical supervision was transferred to the Army Air Forces.270 These functions subsequently 

transferred to the newly established independent Air Force in September 1947. The Air Force faced 

immediate challenges with establishing and staffing base-level organizations. The first requirement 

was to define responsibilities, and then to establish effective procedures to maintain the bases in light 

of the ever-growing effort necessary to support Air Force missions. The Air Force created these new 

organizational structures through an ever-expanding series of Air Force Regulations (AFRs). During 

its first two years of existence, the Air Force issued joint regulations with the Army for contract 

The Joint Construction Agency constructed a NATO ammunition depot in the Forest of Chizé near Niort, 

France, in 1947.
Establishing Independence 139

construction and real estate. By 1950, the Air Force was issuing its own regulations to establish the 

base organization and to guide base maintenance and management operations.

The role of the AIO changed dramatically between 1947 and 1960. At the beginning of the time 

period, the AIO was considered primarily as a custodian of the buildings and grounds that the Air Force 

inherited after World War II. By the early 1950s, the AIO, later renamed the installations engineer, 

assisted in siting new facilities through the master planning process. Installations engineers also kept 

pace with the increasingly sophisticated engineering requirements to support the Air Force mission. 

Whatever facilities that the Air Force built, the installation engineers maintained and operated. Technological changes had dramatic impacts on facilities maintenance and operation. Jet aircraft required 

longer and wider runways and stronger pavements. Refueling facilities evolved from tanker trucks to 

high-speed underground hydrant systems. Aircraft wing spans increased, requiring the construction of 

wider hangars. By the early 1950s, Air Force installations numbered approximately 2,000, including 

500 major bases. The types of installations overseen by installations engineers included operating 

bases, depots, headquarters, aircraft plants, bombing ranges, radar and early warning missile tracking 

stations, missile silos, research facilities, and space-related installations. The environment in which 

the installations engineers operated comprised CONUS and far-flung worldwide locations ranging 

from tropical jungles, to arid deserts and polar regions. The value of the facilities inventory overseen 

by the installations engineers increased from $3.1 billion in 1950 to $8.9 billion in 1958.271 As Maj. 

Gen. Lee B. Washbourne summarized the job of the installations engineer:

he is a city manager with such additional duties as fire chief, water commission, 

street commission, building inspector, chief plumber, landscape consultant, mosquito 

eradicator, and father-confessor to his squadron. In his more leisurely moments (if 

any) he clears runways of snow and ice, and advises the station commander about 

new construction progress and Wherry housing for families.272

Air Installation Officer Responsibilities

Early regulations for Air Force base-level organizations were patterned after Army regulations. 

Army Air Forces Regulation 20-42 dated July 13, 1944 identified the Post Engineer as an officer on 

the staff of the air base commander, who was responsible for repairs and utilities work.273 By 1945, 

the primary duties of the Post Engineer were defined in a revised two-page regulation as:

• Procurement of utilities and repair, maintenance, and operation of utilities, plants, and their 

systems;

• Maintenance and repair of buildings, structures, civilian war housing on installations, roads, 

runways, utility distribution systems, airfield lighting systems;

• Duties of base fire marshal with oversight of the base firefighting and prevention programs;

• Maintenance, repair, and operation of power-operated or immovable kitchen equipment, 

ventilation and air conditioning equipment, and shop equipment used for maintenance and 

repair;

• Construction, maintenance, repair, and operation of shops to accomplish all installation 

repairs and utilities activities;

• Performance of insect, rodent, and pest control measures; and,

• Establishment of procedures for preparation of current real property records and reports, 

cost accounting, and for the storage, receipt and issue of all materials, supplies, and equip 

ment pertaining to maintenance, repair and operation of structures, grounds, and utilities.274
140 Leading the Way

In 1946, the position was renamed as the air installation officer (AIO) and maintenance activities 

became a command function under the oversight of the AIO. Additional responsibilities assumed by 

the AIO included the management of real estate and custodial services.275

The five-page AFR 20-42 issued in February 1948 detailed the responsibilities of AIOs in the 

newly established Air Force. The overview statement of the AIO’s duties read as follows:

The air installation officer will, as a staff officer of the installation commander, 

supervise, direct, and coordinate real estate management; fire protection and aircraft 

crash-rescue activities; air installation facilities rehabilitations, alterations, extensions 

or additions, deletions, relocations, and restoration of damage caused by disasters; and 

repair, maintenance, or operation of buildings, structures, grounds facilities, utilities, 

or other real property improvements, including new construction under the jurisdiction 

of the installation commander at any Air Force installations.276

Other duties included oversight of installation master planning; performing technical inspections of 

new construction and existing building and grounds; furnishing electric, water, sewage, and other utilities; pest control; custodial services; refuse collection and disposal; and, snow removal.277 In addition, 

the AIO commanded the installations squadron within the air base group and wing base structure.278

The fundamental duties and responsibilities assigned to the AIO remained consistent throughout 

the 1950s; follow-on regulations were developed to define those duties in greater detail. On January 

1, 1952, the AIO job classification was renamed “Installations Engineer” in the AFSCs in the Officers Classification Manual.279 The management of the base-level organization continued to grow in 

complexity as did the number and specialization of the facilities on the bases. The 1956 revision to 

AFR 20-42 addressed the administration of the branches of the installations engineer organization in 

great detail. For example, management of the shops and work flow control procedures were outlined. 

Selected new duties were added, such as responsibility for a preventive maintenance program and base 

recovery following attack, which was included by 1956, and traffic engineering, which was included 

in 1957.280

Air Installation Organization and Staffing

A standardized administrative structure to support the base-level air installation organization was 

described in AFR 20-42. The AIO was assisted by two deputies: Deputy for Installation Engineering and Deputy for Installation Management. Installation engineering services encompassed master 

planning; project development and design planning; project preparation and submission to major 

commands; preparation of contract and project specifications; drafting services; survey of sites for 

current and proposed facilities; performance of technical maintenance inspections for all buildings 

and grounds type of facilities; and, preparation of work orders to accomplish engineering projects. 

Installation management comprised the administration of real estate, cost and funds control systems, 

the inventory control system, and personnel, including fire protection and aircraft rescue personnel.281

The AIO oversaw three branches: Installation Maintenance and Repair, Utilities, and Fire Protection and Aircraft Crash Rescue (Figure 2.2). The Installation Maintenance and Repair Branch was 

responsible for the construction and repair of buildings, structures, grounds, utility systems, and field 

lighting systems, as well as maintenance of buildings, structures, and utility shop equipment. The 

operation of the shops to execute the work was administered under this branch. Base installation 

personnel were authorized to complete minor new construction, and modification and alteration of 

existing facilities; limits on installation authorization for in-house construction activities were established through cost ceilings. The Utilities Branch oversaw all base utility plants, and water and sewage 

treatment plants. This branch also was responsible for all heating, refrigeration, and air conditioning 
Establishing Independence 141

systems. The Fire Protection and Aircraft Rescue Branch was responsible for base fire prevention 

programs, firefighting, and crash rescue activities.282

During the late 1940s, the Air Force intensified recruiting efforts to attract an increased number 

of AIOs. Successful candidates needed a wide and sophisticated skill set in such fields as mechanical, 

electrical, civil, structural, sanitary, and management engineering, as well as agronomy and entomology. Faced with 350 officer vacancies, the Air Force recruited Air Reserve and Air National Guard 

officers who possessed the appropriate education and experience to transition to active duty with the 

Air Force. Recruits were sensitized to the wide diversity of engineering duties necessitated by air 

installation activities. These duties extended to firefighting and air crash rescue and personnel management. Officers eligible for additional training through the Air Installations Engineering Special Staff 

Officer Course were assured assignments at bases “representing a multi-billion dollar investment. The 

opportunity to work with modern equipment and experienced technicians and to manage personnel 

and equipment will add appreciably to the experience sheet and the ability of the officer ordered to 

this duty.”283 By 1956, Air Force installations engineers from the Air Staff through the commands to 

the installations numbered 1,500 officers, 30,000 Airmen, and 20,000 civilian employees. The typical 

staffing of the 144 installations squadrons comprised the installations engineer supported by 3 to 14 

officer assistants, 150 Airmen, and 200 to 500 civilian employees. Civilians were employed in administration, at fire stations, and in technical areas, such as the maintenance trade shops and utilities.284

AIOs also served with major commands and as regional representatives. Each major and subordinate air command included an installations office similar in scope to that included in the Directorate 

of Installations at the Air Staff. At each CONUS and overseas command, the Director of Installations 

exercised technical and administrative supervision over the base-level air installation organizations 

in their respective commands. Additionally, one regional representative served in each of 11 regions 

of the world.285

Brig. Gen. John D. Peters recalled his experience in 1949 as a de facto assistant AIO. After enlisting in the Army in 1944, he reported for basic training at Fort Belvoir, Virginia. Since he had college 

experience, he was selected to attend the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Officer Candidate School 

and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in March 1945 and sent to the Pacific Theater with 

the 47th Engineer Construction Battalion to build a road on Okinawa. After rejoining the Army in 

1947, Lieutenant Peters was assigned to Japan and served in a succession of aviation engineer units 

to support Air Force bases as part of Special Category Army Personnel with Air Force (SCARWAF). 

In 1949, he transferred to the Air Force and reported for duty as the assistant AIO at Fairchild AFB 

in Washington.286

After working for several weeks with minimal supervision and few formal assignments, Lieutenant 

Peters took control of the situation: 

Source: AFR 20-42, Organization, Air Installation Officer, February 6, 1948.
142 Leading the Way

I moved my desk into the middle of the secretary’s pool. I discovered that there were 

drawers full of work order requests that had never been processed. Some were over 

a year old. I ran a notice in the daily bulletin stating that every organization that had 

submitted work orders that were more than 90 days old should resubmit them, if the 

work was still needed. I began going out to see what was requested, then approved 

or disapproved work orders and worked with the shops to schedule the work. I notified the client when the work would start or, if it was disapproved, the reason for the 

disapproval and suggested an alternate solution. 287

That worked fine for about two months, until I received a work order signed by the 

98th Bomb Group commander. It was a request to move a light in an office in one of 

the concrete hangars from one corner of the room diagonally to another corner. The 

justification was “to get the light over the desk.” It occurred to me that it would be 

easier to move the desk, so I disapproved the request and suggested the desk be moved. 

In about three days the base commander called my boss and asked what he had me 

doing. He answered that he didn’t know what I had been doing. The base commander 

asked him to come to his office and bring me with him. When we arrived, he asked 

what I had done to the 98th Bomb Group commander, so I recounted the story of the 

rejected work order. I also told him that I was examining all work order requests and 

scheduling them to the shops to get the work done. I recounted the number and age of 

the work orders I had thrown out and explained that I had run the notice in the daily 

bulletin. The base commander said to me, “Keep on doing what you’re doing,” and 

dismissed us. We went back to the office and that afternoon I became the de facto 

Deputy Air Installation Officer.288

The structure of the AIO organization continued to evolve during the 1950s through experimentation with processes and procedures. By 1956, the Installations Engineer organization comprised six 

branches: Management, Engineering, Maintenance and Repair, Preventive Maintenance, Utilities and 

Services, and Fire Protection and Aircraft Rescue (Figure 2.3). The Management Branch performed the 

administrative work of the organization, including work orders and work control functions, personnel 

management, and reporting. The Engineering Branch prepared the annual military construction and 

The Home of Preventive Maintenance, Tyndall AFB’s 3625th Air Installation Squadron, 1954.
Establishing Independence 143

maintenance and repair programs for the base, technical project data and current data on conditions 

of facilities, real property records, and engineering drawings. This branch conducted inspections of 

construction projects on base and interfaced with construction agents and higher commands on construction projects. The Maintenance and Repair Branch oversaw the maintenance and repair of base 

facilities; the shops were organized under this branch. The Preventive Maintenance Branch, which 

was a concept introduced in the mid-1950s, established cyclical maintenance schedules for facilities 

and conducted systematic inspections to identify and undertake small routine repairs before they 

became larger problems. The Utilities Branch oversaw the procurement, generation, and distribution of 

utilities, including electricity, and water and sewage. The Fire Protection and Aircraft Rescue Branch 

continued its functions in providing firefighting and aircraft rescue services and overseeing the base 

fire prevention program.289

Maintenance and Repair

The maintenance and repair of facilities were overseen by the Installation Maintenance and Repair 

Branch. This branch was divided into two sections: Services and Shop, and Grounds (Figure 2.4). The 

Services and Shop section was responsible for construction and repair of structures and utilities. This 

section oversaw personnel organized by trades into the following specific shops: carpentry; plumbing; 

electricity; tin, blacksmith and welding; refrigeration maintenance; and, liquid fuel storage unit.290

By 1956, the maintenance and repair branch expanded to include the following sections: scheduling; 

petroleum facilities maintenance; pavements maintenance: ground maintenance; railroad maintenance; 

carpenter shop; electric shop; refrigeration and air conditioning shop; sheet metal shop; plumbing and 

steam-fitting shop; paint shop; and, heating shop (Figure 2.5).291

Maintenance and repair activities were guided by AFR-85-5, Maintenance of Installations, which 

originally was issued in June 1950 and updated in June 1951. This regulation was one of the most 

important for installations engineers. The regulation defined activities involved in the maintenance 

Source: AFR 20-42, October 24, 1956, 9.
144 Leading the Way

of installations, described basic functions, and detailed Air Force policy for employing civilian and 

military personnel in the maintenance, repair, alteration, and new construction of real property on 

Air Force bases. The regulation also established basic standards for maintenance and administrative 

responsibility in the major commands for supervising engineering management. The regulation delegated responsibility to the major commands for supervision of engineering management functions 

at installations.292

Source: AFR 20-42, February 6, 1948, 9.

Source: AFR 20-42, February 6, 1956, 12.
Establishing Independence 145

As General Peters recalled when he was an assistant AIO in 1949: 

[air installations squadrons] primarily operated under the guidance of the very first 

version of Air Force Regulation 85-5. That was kind of our Bible. It told you what 

to do and how to do it in kind of a cookbook way, but without many procedures. 

Procedures had to be developed. There was very little on things we think of today as 

being routine. There was a work order system—not a very good way of handling work 

orders. There was no logistics system that amounted to anything, no material control 

system. It was fine to get a work order into the system, but the manner of assigning 

priorities and making sure the work got done and quality assurance, all of that had to 

come later. It was a developing system and it was in its very early stages.293

During the 1950s, Lt. Col. (later Brig. Gen.) Archie S. Mayes earned a reputation for crafting the 

standards and regulations that came to define the base-level installations engineer organization and its 

operations. Colonel Mayes worked as an installations engineer on SAC bases for the majority of his 

early Air Force career. He served as an AIO at Castle AFB, California, from 1949 to 1952. In 1952, he 

was assigned to Fairchild AFB, Washington. He remained at Fairchild for two years before relocating 

to Loring AFB, Maine. He introduced innovative management solutions and developed creative ways 

to achieve base missions for installations engineers.294

Colonel Mayes was noted for his talent for developing working organizations in the midst of 

chaotic situations. At Fairchild AFB, Colonel Mayes found an installations squadron comprising 

approximately 700 military and 200 civilian personnel that was unprepared for its alert missions. 

Personnel were assigned to jobs for which they were not qualified. Shortly after his arrival at the base, 

Colonel Mayes assembled the personnel and presented a list of “40 Do’s and 40 Don’ts.” He informed 

the crowd, “This is how we’re going to run this railroad.” Colonel Mayes worked with Captain Peters, 

who was already stationed at Fairchild AFB as Deputy AIO, to evaluate job descriptions. The two future 

general officers together shook up the office by notifying individuals of their actual job descriptions. 

Some personnel, including the chief engineer, quit as a result. Others welcomed the change and asked 

to be reassigned to positions that better fit their qualifications. When Colonel Mayes left his position 

at Fairchild AFB in 1954, he observed that “instead of 900 people we had 500 and some-odd and we 

were doing 10 times the amount of work they were doing with 900-odd people, because people were 

doing their jobs.” 295

The continuous expansion of the Air Force since 1951 resulted in a substantial increase in the 

number of physical facilities requiring maintenance. Installations engineers and the Air Staff continually strove to develop effective methods to accomplish maintenance and to control costs at the 

installation level. From mid-1954 to December 1955, field tests were conducted on new methods and 

procedures for preventive maintenance, transportation, organization, cost and property accounting, and 

effective controls of work flow. Results were disseminated to the installation-level through technical 

manuals, directives, and instructions.296

The preventive maintenance program became a particularly effective tool. Preventive maintenance 

was a command responsibility in accordance with AFR 85-5. On August 1, 1955, Air Force Manual 

85-2, entitled Organization and Management of P/M, was issued.297 By 1956, an organizational chart 

for the Preventive Maintenance Section was included in AFR 20-42.298 The purpose of the Preventive 

Maintenance Section was to complete systematic inspections of Air Force facilities and to make minor 

repairs to real property on a “Find it-Fix it” basis. Installations were divided into maintenance zones 

comprising between 50 and 200 buildings. Combined teams of skilled maintenance workers worked 

out of mobile trailers. Specialty sections under preventive maintenance included kitchen equipment, 

plumbing and steam fitting, refrigeration and cooling, and locksmith.299

Another important regulation that affected maintenance was AFR 93-3, Maintenance, Repair, 
146 Leading the Way

Alterations and Minor Construction Projects. This regulation defined funding limits and the types of 

projects that could be undertaken in-house by installations engineers. An important change occurred in 

the 1958 revision to this regulation. The revised regulation vested commanders with greater authority 

and flexibility in processing and approving major repair, modification, and minor construction projects. 

Larger project budgets now could be approved at lower command levels, thereby delegating maximum 

approval authority to the lowest possible echelon. Commanders were empowered with up to twice the 

authorization authority they formerly had under old procedures.300

The increased number and complexity of Air Force facilities and systems requiring maintenance 

necessitated accelerated operator-maintenance training programs. Recommendations for achieving 

higher skill levels and realistic training programs were made to training organizations. Conferences 

and training courses were conducted in selected areas. Consultants and technicians from industry 

contributed to the training sessions at no charge to the Air Force.301

Real Property Inventory and Master Planning

Maintaining accurate real property inventory records and base master plans were major responsibilities for the AIO. The real property inventory provided a wealth of data for the AIO: the total 

facilities available on the installation, facility age, square footage, and basic construction materials. 

The master plan mapped the locations of facilities, structures, and utilities on the base and identified 

areas available for new facilities. All new construction projects were linked to the master plan. The 

master plan provided graphic and tabular data on the current conditions at the base and also provided 

data for orderly base expansion and development.302

The development of base master plans was programmed in the FY50 Air Force budget. The Master 

Planning Branch in the Directorate of Installations initiated a phased program to develop master 

plans for all Air Force installations worldwide. Detailed data on geographic conditions of bases and 

facilities was collected under the first phase of the program. Preliminary master plans were prepared 

by contracted architect-engineer firms during the second phase.303 In 1950, the Air Force published 

AFR 86-5, Installations Planning and Development, which detailed criteria and standards for the 

development of airfields.304 The master plans of the 1950s typically comprised a series of drawings 

and overlays that detailed the locations of current facilities, utilities, and base data.305

The massive construction program completed between 1951 and 1953 overwhelmed the master 

planning process. All base master plans required review by major commands and received final approval 

by the Directorate of Installations at Air Staff. This approval was a prerequisite to new construction on 

a base. During the early 1950s, final approval of master plans presented a challenge due to the rapid 

expansion anticipated by the Air Force and the continuously changing number of wings. By July 1, 

1951, approximately 60 percent of CONUS and 40 percent of overseas bases had approved master 

plans. When the existing 48 wing organization transitioned to the 95 wing, followed by the 126 wing 

expansion plan, many air bases with existing master plans experienced a change in mission. Changing 

missions necessitated revisions to master plans and $2.5 million was contracted to architect-engineer 

firms to update the documents. By the end of 1951, master plans were received from 154 of the 184 

installations with authorized master planning; 107 of those master plans were approved.306 When the 

number of bases was increased under the 143 wing plan in July 1, 1953, 70 percent of CONUS and 

75 percent of overseas bases claimed approved master plans.307

In March 1954, the inventory of facilities on Air Force installations worldwide was completed. 

The data was forwarded to the Director of Statistical Services, Deputy Chief of Staff/Comptroller. 

This office compiled the data on punch cards for record keeping using an early automated system. The 

1954 effort was the basis for a real property inventory of active installations that was kept current by 

the Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations.308
Establishing Independence 147

In June 1954, a new set of instructions was issued to detail the quality, quantity, and type of data 

appropriate for inclusion in Master Plans. The revised procedures resulted in a marked increase in the 

cost of developing and preparing master plan reports, but the net result was more accurate and efficient 

master plans. A major Air Staff decision was issued to adopt a “Multi-purpose Air Base Planning” concept for master planning wherever practicable, particularly in the design of installations for dispersed 

elements of tactical aircraft units. The multi-purpose air base concept allowed more flexibility in the 

arrangement and spacing of air base facilities to meet substantially increased mission requirements.309

Installations engineers played an important role in new construction on the bases. Base installations engineers worked with construction agents and higher commands on facility siting applying 

the base master plans. Often, on-base personnel were the best informed about local conditions that 

might impact construction. General Mayes, recalled an incident while he was the AIO at Castle AFB, 

California, between 1949 and 1952,

When I was at Castle [AFB, California] we got the first military construction program. 

I think the first time we had it, it was a munitions area and a barracks. That was a long 

story, because the [U.S. Army] Corps of Engineers came in and their attitude was that 

Air Force officers didn’t know a damned thing. I mean it was a really terrible attitude. 

The resident engineer there looked down his nose at me. They built a munitions area, 

and we kept telling them it was going to have to stop, because they weren’t pouring 

the concrete right. “You all don’t know anything about it,” he said...When we proved 

it to them on the spot, they stopped the job and did a bunch of core drillings. The 

core drillings were supposed to break at 2,000 pounds, or something like that. They 

couldn’t even get the cores out in one piece—they just shattered. They stopped the 

whole thing and broke that contractor. But the Air Force did it.310

Fire Protection

Fire protection was critical to maintaining Air Force bases. Fire loss continually was monitored 

and improvements in fire protection to decrease losses were emphasized throughout the organization. 

During World War II, fire protection services were assigned to the post engineer. Army Air Forces 

Regulation 20-42 dated July 18, 1944 described the post engineer’s responsibilities related to fire 

protection:

Preparation of all plans for structural firefighting and prevention to insure [sic] 

technical sufficiency; the provision, training and supervision of necessary personnel pertinent thereto; the provision, maintenance, repair, and operations of structure 

firefighting and fire-prevention equipment, apparatus, sprinkler systems, and alarm 

systems; and the performance of other duties as more specifically defined by AAF 

Regulation 20-48. The post engineer is the base fire marshal.311

In January 1945, War Department Circular No. 36 transferred all crash rescue and firefighting 

activities and equipment from the Army Service Forces to the Army Air Forces. At Headquarters, 

Army Air Forces, fire protection was assigned to the Assistant Chief of Staff, Materiel and Services, 

Air Installations Division. On the base level, structural firefighting was under the post engineer, while 

aircraft crash rescue personnel reported to the aircraft maintenance officer. Aircraft rescue functions 

officially were consolidated with fire protection in September 1947 and both activities became the 

responsibility of the AIO, although both activities typically were conducted by the base firefighting 

staff.312
148 Leading the Way

The objective for base fire protection was to form a team of professionals who were constantly on 

alert to prevent fires, to control fires when started, and to undertake aircraft crash rescue operations.313

During World War II, fire protection services expanded greatly as the number of bases increased. The 

potential for fire was a concern in light of the large number of temporary, wood-frame, mobilization 

buildings constructed during the war. The fire protection program at Langley AFB during World War 

II, for example, incorporated both prevention and operations. Prevention included distribution and 

inspection of fire extinguishers and automatic fire alarm systems, as well as on-going staff education 

to eliminate fire hazards. Firefighting operations were conducted from five stations. Firefighters had 

14 pieces of equipment at their disposal, including a specially outfitted jeep and a 26-ton Cardox 

truck used for crash rescues.314 Protein foam was used during aircraft crash rescues, while carbon 

dioxide foam and dry chemical agents were used in fighting structural fires. The typical crash kit in 

1946 contained a rescue knife, sledge hammer, hunting knife, tinner’s snips, cold chisel, gooseneck 

wrecking bar, offset wrecking bar, hack saw blades, hack saw, pipe cutters, wood and metal saw, bolt 

clipper, ball peen hammer, axe, and lineman’s pliers.315

By 1948, the AIO duties related to fire protection were described as:

Fire Protection and Aircraft-Crash-Rescue Activities to include discharge of duties 

and responsibilities of installation fire marshal as follows:

Fire Prevention including development and supervision of fire prevention 

and protection standards, establishment and supervision of necessary fire 

prevention regulations; hazard inspections and fire and crash experience records.

Firefighters prepare for action using their Model 125 vehicle.
Establishing Independence 149

Fire Fighting and Crash Rescue including operation of apparatus, equipment, and 

systems; operation and training of fire department personnel; and development supervision of firefighting and aircraft-crash-rescue methods.316

In 1948, the Fire Protection and Aircraft Crash Rescue Branch was a single department that 

oversaw the fire stations assigned to individual bases. By 1956, the Fire Protection and Aircraft 

Rescue Branch had evolved into five sections: Administrative Services, Fire Prevention and Protection 

Engineering, Operations, Training, and Maintenance. Individual fire stations located on the base were 

overseen by the Operations section.317

The organization was typically led by a civilian fire chief, who directed a staff of assistant chiefs 

and 40 to 60 personnel. Airmen were assigned primarily on those installations organized as Air Force 

combat wings, while civilians were retained on other types of installations. The mix of Airmen and 

civilians was dependent on the base. All fire department personnel were trained equally in fire prevention, structural fires, and appropriate crash and rescue procedures.318 Staffing proved problematic 

during the early days of the Air Force. Airmen were not screened for firefighting duties and offered 

few incentives to join the field, since the top position of fire chief typically was held by a civilian. 

Most training for Airmen was provided on the job, although suggestions were made to send Airmen 

for formal firefighting training at Lowry AFB prior to their joining base firefighting stations.319 In 

1955, an on-the job training manual was issued to the firefighting community to increase functional 

knowledge in the field.320

Fires continued to present very real problems as Air Force operations expanded, resulting in loss 

of life and damage to facilities. Responses to this ever-present danger were pursued on several fronts 

and included increased fire prevention efforts, reduction of structural fire hazards through limitations 

on combustible and toxic building materials, installation of automatic sprinkler systems, and the 

introduction of new firefighting and crash rescue equipment.321 Fire prevention efforts were publicized 

during annual national fire prevention weeks.322

The Air Force historically invested heavily in the best firefighting equipment and protective clothing. During FY48, $2.1 million was authorized for fire prevention and fire protection programs.323

Research and development in the field was conducted at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. 

Members of the Tyndall AFB fire department pose with their vehicles, 1954. 
150 Leading the Way

One of the first trucks accepted by the Air Force was the O-10 Crash Truck. The O-10 was tested 

for operational suitability at the Air Proving Ground in early 1951 and the first trucks arrived at the 

installations by March 1951. By the end of the year, 65 trucks were delivered to the Air Force. One 

advantage of the O-10 truck was a turret capable of spraying different streams of foam agent. Another 

advantage of the model was that it was air transportable. In all, 1,058 Type O-10 crash trucks were 

manufactured, but the performance of these trucks was not satisfactory. The trucks were prone to 

numerous mechanical failures and replacement parts were unavailable. 

A second crash truck, the type O-11A, was under development in 1951 and 1952. This truck was 

larger than the type O-10, carried 1,000 gallons of water, and was equipped to produce approximately 

7,500 gallons of expanded fire-smothering foam. The agent was discharged through a system of 

remotely controlled turrets, ground sweeps, and hand line nozzles at a rate of 3,750 gallons per minute. 

The truck had a gross weight of over 40,000 pounds and could be transported by air in the giant C-124 

Globemaster.324 After several months of delays, the type O-11A crash truck was accepted and 890 trucks 

were manufactured for the Air Force. This truck also required high maintenance costs.325

At approximately the same time, the 530A and the 750 fire trucks entered the Air Force inventory. 

These trucks were used to fight structural fires. During 1952, Class 500 and 750 fire trucks had undergone acceptance tests and were scheduled for production. Twenty-five 530A trucks were delivered for 

use in the first year. The 530 and 750 fire trucks remained the primary structural firefighting vehicles 

for the Air Force until the early 1970s.326

Aircraft firefighting and rescue practices were complex operations due to the increasing intensity 

of flying operations and concentrated mass parking, fueling, and servicing activities. New aircraft 

technologies, including the introduction of the aircraft ejection seat system and new nuclear aircraft 

weapons, posed new challenges to firefighters. In addition, firefighters were charged with the protection 

of new classes of facilities, such as missile sites and communications facilities.327

By the late 1950s, several new initiatives were underway. The Air Force planned for the next generation of firefighter vehicles and equipment anticipated in the early 1960s. A new Airman firefighting 

The 0-11A fire truck. 
Establishing Independence 151

career field was established in fire protection to elevate the career field to a higher level of skill and 

prestige.328 In 1957, the Air Force initiated the development of a helicopter designed to support fire 

suppression and rescue. The helicopter was part of an airborne fire suppression program known as 

PEDRO for the HH43 PEDRO helicopter model. The goal of the airborne fire suppression program 

was early arrival at remote crash sites and suppression of fire to enable personnel rescues.329

Utilities

The 1950s witnessed a dramatic rise in the level of use and costs associated with utilities, especially 

electricity. Utilities, including electric, water, sewage, gas, refrigeration, and steam services, were a 

major area of responsibility of the installations engineers. Often this duty entailed negotiating contracts 

from commercial companies as well as operating base utility plants. Utilities were overseen by the 

Utilities Operation Branch. This branch was divided into three sections: Custodial Services, Mechanical and Electrical, and Sanitary. The Mechanical and Electrical Section oversaw electrical power, 

natural or manufactured gas, heating, air conditioning and refrigeration, and utility fuel distribution. 

The Sanitary Section oversaw water supply, sewerage disposal, refuse collection and disposal, and 

insect and rodent control. By 1956, the organization was renamed the Utilities and Services Branch 

and comprised the following sections: Water Plant and System, Sewage Plant and System, Heating 

Plant and System, Power Plant and System, Insect and Rodent Control, Custodial Services, and Refuse 

Collection and Disposal.330

The increased number of Air Force installations with larger numbers of facilities and family housing was accompanied by increased demand for utilities. Electricity use skyrocketed to accommodate 

facilities requiring stringent temperature control and uninterrupted power. Power to sensitive warning systems was assured through backup power generations, which served as failsafe measures for 

primary power supplies. Air conditioning became a necessity with the introduction of heat-generating 

electronic systems. In addition, the Air Force regulations now allowed for the widespread use of air 

conditioning in both operations facilities and family housing.331 The rise in energy consumption was 

dramatic during the decade. Between 1950 and 1958, air conditioning consumption rose from 95,000 

to 240,000 horsepower; heating consumption rose from 400,000 to 1.8 million horsepower.332

In 1958, the Air Force utility bill for electricity, water, gas and sewage services was $60 million. 

Because of the completion of Capehart family housing, SAGE, and other missile programs, the Air 

Force’s annual expense for purchased utilities grew to $90 million in FY60. During the 1950s, the 

Air Force gained the responsibility to negotiate utility contracts; earlier utility contracts were negotiated through the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers as the Air Force construction agent. The negotiations 

typically were conducted on the installation level, where the installations engineer was responsible for 

determining service requirements, checking the adequacy of supplier’s power plants, providing technical assistance in the negotiating process, and approving the reasonableness of rates and connection 

charges. Assistance for these activities was available through the major commands and the Directorate 

of Installations at the Pentagon. Annual review of utility contracts became a new responsibility for 

the base installations engineer.333

By the end of the 1950s, the aging base utilities systems required modernization. Maintenance of 

the World War II systems was increasingly costly and was undertaken through individual maintenance 

and repair projects. Expenditures of P-400 Repair, Rehabilitation and Modification funds for utilities 

were rising and needed containment. In 1959, the major commands surveyed their bases for a proposed 

utilities modernization program. From this review, it was determined that $4.5 million were required 

to upgrade utility systems.334
152 Leading the Way

Base Recovery

By the end of the 1950s, the installations engineers focused attention on the development of base 

recovery plans for CONUS bases. The 1956 AFR 20-42A contained the following directive on the 

installations engineer’s role in base recovery:

The installations engineer will provide shelter, demolition, area decontamination, 

damage control, disaster firefighting and rescue, emergency repair, and ultimate restoration of installation real property subject to damage or destruction by enemy attack 

and other disaster.335

The base recovery plan effort was advanced through a Headquarters U.S. Air Force letter dated 

October 31, 1956 regarding the “Assignment of Additional Function of Bomb Damage Repair to 

Installations Unit Mission.” The topic of emergency repairs also was included on the agenda of the 

October 1956 installations command conference. 

The Air Staff supported authorizing CONUS installations engineers with directing all base construction and repairs during emergencies. The installations engineer utilized military personnel from 

the base, military personnel from other active air bases, base civilian personnel, civilian contractors, 

and Reserve and Air National Guard units in this effort. Assigning Reserve personnel to installation 

damage control units also justified retention of Air Force personnel trained in minor construction and 

repair functions to support projected war plans.336

Recovery following a nuclear attack was an important aspect of the late 1950s base plans. A direct 

attack would destroy a base completely. A “near miss” scenario, however, required plans for emergency 

repairs to critical facilities and to counter radioactive fallout. Base recovery procedures also were 

necessary for installations possessing aircraft outfitted with nuclear weapons to address the potential 

for accidents. By the late 1950s, manuals, letters, briefings, and reference materials were available to 

installations engineers on base recovery planning after attack and other disasters.337

Early Community Relations

The proximity of civilian populations to Air Force bases became a source of concern during the 

early 1950s. The increasing noise levels generated by jet aircraft and the hazard posed by an aircraft 

emergency attracted the attention of the Air Force and surrounding communities. By 1953, property 

owners adjoining Hunter AFB, Georgia, filed a lawsuit contending that the operation of noisy jet aircraft 

caused great annoyance and property damage. Noise problems were related to jet aircraft taking off 

at low altitudes over populated areas. As early as 1951, Air Staff personnel began to monitor noise 

levels, to collect data to quantify noise hazards created by jet engine aircraft, and to develop strategies 

to reduce the problem. In 1954, the Air Force adopted a policy requiring a buffer zone between base 

housing areas and the flight line. This policy typically increased the acreage required for existing air 

bases.338

The Air Force also formulated plans for clear zones, and approach and takeoff corridors. Clear 

zones were spatial buffers at the ends of runways that provided room to maneuver safely in the event 

of aircraft failure during takeoff or landing. The addition of clear zones was problematic at bases 

where existing runways terminated at property lines shared by the Air Force and civilian communities. Approach and takeoff corridors addressed the air space surrounding air bases. These corridors 

extended over the surrounding communities and typically were defined as four miles wide by seven 

miles long. The surrounding communities were informed to expect aircraft noise in these corridors and 

to limit possible obstructions to the air space. For these reasons, the Air Force subsequently adopted 

the policy to establish new air bases 15 miles from the nearest major community.339
Establishing Independence 153

In 1955, the U.S. Congress House of Representatives Appropriations Committee directed that 

DoD conduct a thorough study of the problems related to operating air bases in proximity to populated 

areas prior to congressional consideration of the FY56 MCP. The Secretary of the Air Force appointed 

a committee of general officers chaired by Maj. Gen. Herbert B. Thatcher to investigate the current 

situation, to develop long term projections, and to identify the problems associated with air base operation in populated areas. The committee’s report, entitled Report of Air Base Bases and Civil Airports 

to the House Appropriations Committee, documented the problems of noise and the potential hazards 

posed by aircraft accidents, as well as identified measures to minimize those problems. These measures included the reorientation of runways, relocation of bases, and changes in base missions, where 

feasible. The Air Force also worked with architect-engineer firms to reduce noise levels at selected 

critical facilities. By 1956, the Air Force had introduced a soundproof structure for semi-portable jet 

engine test stands. The structure was developed by AMC and was available beginning with the FY57 

MCP. Design guidance and directives to control noise were issued. As a result of the study, the Air 

Force committed to the following actions: review of operational procedures to ensure that only the 

dictates of a vital mission overrode public interest and convenience; improvement of community relations by addressing the concerns of affected communities through publicizing precautionary measures 

adopted; and, establishment of outreach programs to explain the requirements of national defense and 

to raise public understanding of the valid reasons underlying the existence and the deployment of the 

Air Force.340

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT)

When the Air Force was created as a separate branch of the military in 1947, the former Army 

Air Force Institute of Technology was re-designated the Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) 

under AMC. AFIT, located at Wilbur Wright Field outside of Dayton, Ohio, was renamed the United 

States Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) in 1948. During this period, Wright-Patterson AFB 

was created through consolidating Wilbur Wright Field and Patterson Field.341

In 1948, AFIT was granted permission to institute the Air Installations Engineering Special Staff 

Officer Course and the Air Installations School. The first Air Installations Engineering Special Staff 

Officer Course began in spring 1948 and graduated 31 students in May 1948. The students ranged in 

rank from first lieutenant to lieutenant colonel; 22 were members of the Air Force and nine were from 

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. At the close of the following year, 326 pupils had completed the 

12-week class.342

Coursework for the Air Installations Engineering Special Staff Officer Course included topics 

relevant to the duties of an AIO, including buildings and structures, master planning, cost accounting, 

property and supply, and preventive maintenance. In addition to classroom sessions, students were 

exposed to the realities of base maintenance shops and AIO organizations through field trips. A college degree originally was not required to enroll in the course, but previous college coursework was a 

prerequisite. The course of study was extended to 20 weeks in 1950. The prerequisites for admittance to 

the course also were raised to a bachelor degree in a related field, such as “city planning, architecture, 

architectural, civil, mechanical, or electrical engineering or industrial management.” Experience in 

the civilian workforce could be substituted for academic achievements. In many cases, the educational 

requirements were waived. 343

In 1950, AFIT was transferred from AMC to Air University, which had been created in 1946. In 

1951, the Air Installations School was renamed the Installations Engineering Staff School and later 

became the Installations Engineering School. The first Advanced Engineering Management Class of 

eight officers was enrolled that same year. In 1953, the 20-week Air Installations Engineering Special 
154 Leading the Way

Staff Officer Course was replaced with two courses—an eight-week basic course and a 20-week 

advanced course. The basic course, which was later extended to nine weeks, was geared to officers 

who were new to the Installations Engineering Occupational Field; the basic course also provided a 

review and update for active duty officers who had completed engineering assignments on air bases. 

The curriculum was described as “devoted primarily to the administrative and managerial responsibilities of the installations engineer.”344 The length of this course and whether its principle audience of 

new second lieutenants should attend the course before being assigned to a base was hotly debated. 

Installations engineers contended that time spent in base organizations without the management knowledge acquired in the Basic Course was essentially wasted and required excessive, inefficient time in 

on-the-job training. AFIT countered that the last thing of interest to newly graduated engineers who 

had focused on design, was to learn about process and formality of project approval or maintenance 

and repair rules and regulations. The arguments waged on with sound reasoning on both sides.

The advanced course built upon the instruction of the basic course and was designed to enhance 

the skills of practiced installations engineers. The course description maintained that, “in addition 

to the subjects of administration and management, considerable emphasis is given to increasing the 

knowledge of the student in the fundamentals of electrical, civil, mechanical, and other fields of engineering with which the installations engineer is concerned in his work.”345 By 1956, 623 students were 

graduated from the basic course and 173 students were graduated from the advanced course. In 1956, 

the advanced course was extended to 37 weeks of study. The curriculum of the 21-week course was 

maintained with added emphasis on “management subjects and the solution of practical installations 

engineering problems.”346

In 1954, President Eisenhower signed a Senate bill allowing AFIT to grant academic degrees.By 

1955, AFIT was renamed, Institute of Technology; the following year, the institute granted its first 

degrees.347 In fall 1958, Gen. Curtis LeMay, who then served as the Air Force Vice Chief of Staff, 

contacted each major command for assistance in identifying officers who met the criteria for admission 

to AFIT. General LeMay directed commanders to urge strongly those qualified to apply for enrollment. 

The number of applicants increased, but not to the desired level of 5,000.348

An early class of AFIT’s Air Installations Engineering students, 1948. 
Establishing Independence 155

During this same period, AFIT commander Maj. Gen. Cecil Combs advocated for new facilities for 

the school. The existing buildings, many of which were considered inadequate, were spread across the 

installation causing logistical and efficiency issues. In response to a request for construction funding 

for the school, Congress suggested that AFIT relocate to a base with adequate facilities. AFIT already 

had completed an analysis of other possible locations and determined that Wright-Patterson AFB was 

the appropriate location. Funding for new buildings was not immediately forthcoming.349

Department of Civil Engineering Training, Sheppard Air Force Base, Texas

When the Air Force was created in 1947, the Air Training Command (ATC) operated at 13 installations and included 49,321 personnel. Headquartered at Barksdale AFB in Louisiana, ATC provided 

training through three divisions: Flying Division, with seven units; Technical Division, with five units; 

and Indoctrination Division, with one unit. In 1947, a budget decrease led to the elimination of some 

of its civilian instructors. This reduction in force impacted the quality and scope of technical training 

courses.350

In 1947, ATC initiated generalized technical training where instructors used basic machinery in 

their curricula. Advanced training was gained on the job. In September 1947, the premier course was 

offered in airplane and engine repairs. Other training offered by ATC included aviation career planning, a course offered to high school graduates who planned to join the service. Jet fighter training, 

basic flying training, fighter gunnery training, and flight engineer training also were offered through 

the command. ATC also was responsible for instructional materials that were circulated to various 

Air Force offices.351

Geiger Field, located near Spokane, Washington was used by ATC as an Aviation Engineer Training Center as early as 1947. In spring 1947, Headquarters, U.S. Air Force transferred training from 

Geiger Field to Fort Francis E. Warren, located in Wyoming. Training activities were reactivated at 

the new location by June 1947. ATC began using Sheppard AFB, Texas, for various technical training 

in February 1949. Civil engineering technical training was relocated to Sheppard AFB in 1957. The 

Department of Civil Engineering Training was organized by ATC at Sheppard AFB in July 1958.352

The department operated from a single building and began with a course in utilities.353

Fire Training

During World War II, formal firefighting training was established by the Army Air Forces. In 

1943, the first firefighting school was established at Geiger Field, Washington. The following year, 

the firefighter school was relocated to Buckley Field, Denver, Colorado. In 1946, the school moved 

to Lowry AFB a few miles away from Buckley Field. Chief Jasper W. Patterson led the majority of 

classes and instruction at Lowry AFB. Training under Chief Patterson focused on field training with 

80 percent of instruction occurring in live demonstrations and practices.354

Throughout the 1950s, the basic firefighting and advanced training courses were revised continually to meet modern needs. Special structural training facilities were introduced at Lowry AFB to teach 

structural firefighting techniques in a realistic environment. A training film about aircraft firefighting 

and rescue techniques was completed and a comprehensive handbook and chart series on the features 

of all first-line aircraft to support to effective firefighting was nearing completion. Data were automatically revised in coordination with aircraft procurement and modification programs.355

THE ISSUE OF TROOP CONSTRUCTION

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers initially retained the responsibility of providing troops to 

undertake Air Force construction for overseas contingency and wartime situations. The Engineer 

Aviation Battalions formed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers during World War II had performed 
156 Leading the Way

well in a variety of challenging situations. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers argued effectively that 

it retained the capability to continue to provide services to both the Army and to the Air Force. Thus, 

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers established the Special Category Army Personnel with Air Force 

(SCARWAF) to support Air Force contingency needs. Under SCARWAF, the Air Force furnished 

funding and manpower authorizations, while the Army recruited, organized, trained, and equipped the 

units prior to assignment to Air Force control.356 SCARWAF units began working for the Air Force in 

both Europe and the Pacific in 1947. Lt. John D. Peters served in four SCARWAF units between 1947 

and 1949 while on assignment in the Pacific. He ended up working in a SCARWAF unit assigned to 

Harmon Field, a large depot, on Guam.357

Not all Air Force personnel were pleased with the new arrangement. A lesson learned by the Air 

Force during World War II was that airfields were most effectively built by construction troops under 

Air Force control. Nevertheless, the Directorate of Installations worked closely with the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers to ensure that the Air Force got the support that it needed. Brig. Gen. Oran Price, 

a veteran World War II engineer who transferred to the Air Force in 1947 and worked at Headquarters 

U.S. Air Force from 1946 to 1949, summarized the situation: “There were a whole lot of us that were 

disturbed when we started losing that warfighting capability after World War II. There was a lot of 

pressure to civilianize, a lot of pressure to contract, and we simply could not convince the manpower 

people to give us the slots for any kind of units that might be capable of operating in the field and 

operating on their own. We fought a losing battle on that score over the years.”358 The Air Force submitted a proposal to the Secretary of Defense in fall 1949 to transfer the aviation engineer units to the 

Air Force. The Secretary of Defense rejected the proposal in spring 1950.359

For the first year or so, SCARWAF aviation engineer units worked under the direction of the Air 

Engineer at Headquarters U.S. Air Force. The Air Engineer was a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers officer 

who reported to the Air Force Chief of Staff on all matters pertaining to SCARWAF units, including 

engineer planning related to Air Force air war plans. Brig. Gen. Samuel D. Sturgis, Jr., served in that 

capacity from 1946 to 1948. His job as the Air Engineer was to ensure that there was “available to 

the Air Force an adequate Aviation Engineer component organized, manned, equipped, and trained 

so that, in the event of hostilities, this construction force [could] be promptly deployed and [could] 

effectively accomplish the aviation engineer mission.”360

Under the March 19, 1950 reorganization of the Directorate of Installations, all responsibilities 

formerly performed by the Air Engineer were vested in the Troops Division of the directorate. Although 

the staff in the Troops Division likely worked with a liaison at the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the 

list of duties reassigned to the Troops Division was comprehensive and mirrored the responsibilities 

previously assigned to the Air Engineer:

In October 1952, a SCARWAF shoulder insignia was officially established. 
Establishing Independence 157

In June 1948, the U.S.S.R. halted ground access to West Berlin, stranding military contingents 

from the U.S., England, and France. Two million German citizens were left without access to food, 

fuel, and other vital supplies. In response, British and U.S. forces initiated an airlift of an estimated 

4,500 tons of supplies per day to the city. The work horses of the airlift were the 3-ton capacity 

C-47 and the 10-ton capacity C-54 aircraft. These aircraft flew from four airfields outside the 

U.S.S.R. zone through two, in-coming air corridors to West Berlin. West Berlin had two airfields, 

but only one usable runway, which was constructed by aviation engineers after the end of the war. 

Aviation engineers from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers worked closely with the U.S. Air Forces 

in Europe (USAFE). The aviation engineers were vital in the construction and maintenance of 

airfields in West Berlin and the airfields from which supplies were airlifted. Lt. Gen. Curtis LeMay, 

the USAFE commander, mandated that airstrips remain operable. Between flights, engineers 

and crews patched the runways to keep aircraft flying. Aviation engineers organized work crews 

who swarmed onto the runway after a plane touched down and quickly repaired the PSP mats. 

The engineers then raced off the runway to avoid the next incoming aircraft. Additional runways 

were needed in West Berlin, so a second runway was completed at Templehof between July and 

September 1948. New runways also were completed at a third airfield at Tegel in December 

1948 and March 1949. Heavy construction equipment needed for runway construction was not 

available in Berlin and was flown in from the Army Engineer depot at Hanau near Kaiserslautern. 

Approximately 40 pieces of heavy equipment, including rollers, graders, bulldozers, and scoop-type 

carryalls, were disassembled or cut apart to fit into cargo bays, flown to Berlin, and reassembled. 

Two complete rock crushing and screening plants also were transported. From June 24, 1948 

through September 30, 1949, U.S. and British aircraft delivered over 2.3 million tons of cargo to 

West Berlin in almost 300,000 flights.361

Col. (later Brig. Gen.) William Leonhard was serving with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers as 

the Director of Installations for USAFE and stationed at Wiesbaden. General Leonhard recalled 

supporting the Berlin Airlift: “We built two new runways at Rhein-Main, an extension at Wiesbaden 

Air Base, opened two bases in 

the British Zone at Fosburg 

and Celle, two new runways 

at Templehof in Berlin and 

built a new International 

Airport at Tegel in the French 

Sector of Berlin. It was a very 

exciting year or more.” During 

that time, General Leonhard 

transferred from the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers to 

the Air Force.362

Role in Berlin Airlift, June 1948 to May 1949

While the new runways were built, the old ones had to be repaired. 

Workers repair the runway at Tempelhof using hand tools. 
158 Leading the Way

• Monitor the flow of officers and enlisted men to and from engineer 

 aviation units,

• Handle training of engineer aviation units and procurement of 

 tables of operations and equipment,

• Establish policies and procedures for all matters pertaining to use 

 and equipping of engineer aviation units [as well as installations squadrons],

• Develop the Directorate of Installations portions of war and 

 mobilization plans,

• Develop construction materials requirements in support of the 

 Air Force Mobilization Plan, and

• Arrange field tests of equipment at Eglin AFB, under the 809th 

 Engineer Aviation Battalion.363

The Troops Division remained in control of SCARWAF units until mid-1951, when another 

headquarters reorganization split the division and moved responsibility for SCARWAF to the Aviation 

Engineer Office. In late 1951, the Aviation Engineer Office was realigned directly under the DCS for 

Operations (DO), rather than under the Directorate of Installations. From that time forward, the DO 

took responsibility for activating, manning, equipping, training, and deploying SCARWAF units, while 

the Installations Directorate played a supporting role by establishing standards and criteria, developing materials and equipment, and making recommendations with regard to organization, manning, 

equipping, and training.364

The Army did its best to organize and train SCARWAF units and to assign them to the Air Force, 

but battalions were utterly dependent on equipment to perform their mission. By 1950, the Air Force 

was responsible for equipping units. Administrative delays in budgeting, placing orders, and getting 

equipment delivered meant that SCARWAF units were not combat ready for deployment, or even 

properly trained, until the equipment was available. To address this situation, the Troops Division 

changed the precedence status of some units and adjusted the length of training for others. The Air 

Force also centralized control of all SCARWAF units under one command—Continental Air Command 

(ConAC). ConAC then developed one single regulation that governed the employment of SCARWAF 

units on major Air Force construction and rehabilitation projects.365

The majority of peacetime SCARWAF construction projects on air bases were conducted in remote 

locations, such as Alaska; the Air Force Missile Test Range in the British West Indies; and, at air control and warning sites in northern Canada for Northeast Air Command. Those jobs were conducive to 

unit training under different climatic conditions and accomplished significant, cost-effective work for 

the Air Force.366 During summer and fall 1947, two engineer aviation battalions deployed to bases in 

Greenland and on Baffin Island off of Labrador, Canada, to rehabilitate five bases that had fallen into 

serious disrepair since the end of World War II, but that the Air Force needed to keep open for strategic 

reasons. At Bluie West 1, Bluie West 8, Crystal I, II, and III, the aviation engineers, reinforced by a team 

of 105 civilian specialists, rehabilitated airfield pavements and roads; repaired electrical, plumbing, 

and heating systems; installed water tanks and distribution systems; erected a new crash fire station at 

one site; and, rehabilitated a large hangar at another. In 1949, the 806th Engineer Aviation Battalion 

completed yet more construction and rehabilitation projects at bases in the North Atlantic. In 1949, 

aviation engineers also assisted in the phase down of three Caribbean Air Command bases—Atkinson, 

Beane, and Coolidge AFBs—that were scheduled to be returned to the British.367

SCARWAF troops were also employed in Europe to accommodate the dramatic increase in troop 

deployments as part of U.S. support to NATO. In Germany, 7th Army was activated in early fall 1950, 

with headquarters at Stuttgart-Vaihingen. It became the first fully operational field army to exist in 

Germany since February 1947. On February 24, 1951, the 7th Engineer Brigade was organized and 

redesignated as the 7th Engineer Aviation Brigade and was designated as a SCARWAF unit. Stationed 
Establishing Independence 159

at Rhein-Main AB near Frankfurt, the 35,000 troops of the brigade assumed responsibility for all 

aviation construction in Italy, France, and Germany. To accomplish construction in France in June 

1952, Continental Air Command reassigned two engineer aviation groups with subordinate battalions 

to Headquarters, USAFE: the 322d Engineer Aviation Group (EAG) stationed at Toul-Rosiéres AB 

and the 924th EAG at Bordeaux AB. Other SCARWAF engineer aviation battalions performed air 

base construction and renovation in the United Kingdom. In late 1949, a SCARWAF construction 

force comprising one engineer aviation group, three battalions, a maintenance company, and a depot 

company deployed to rehabilitate four medium bomber bases in the U.K.368

Despite the valuable work performed by engineer aviation battalions, both Army and Air Force 

engineers recognized that split responsibility for the SCARWAF program was a source of difficulties. Most complaints were voiced on the Air Force side. While the Air Force officially controlled 

the units assigned to it, the Air Force had little control over the selection of SCARWAF personnel or 

the quality of their training. Adequate funding and timely procurement and delivery of equipment for 

SCARWAF units exacerbated the situation. Those issues, although not critical in peacetime, had real 

mission impacts during wartime operations. 

In addition, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers acknowledged that it was falling behind in its efforts 

to balance the aircraft design and base construction necessary for any future overseas conflicts. The 

runways built by aviation combat engineers during World War II were, by 1948, insufficient to support long-range bombers at intermediate bases overseas or in inhospitable areas, such as Alaska and 

northern Canada. In addition, the Air Force’s increasingly heavy aircraft and swift jet aircraft required 

thicker and longer runways. These runways took longer to build and surpassed what was feasible in 

terms of time and materials for troop construction at intermediate bases in forward combat situations.369

The Korean Conflict

The first wartime mission of the independent Air Force was the Korean Conflict between 1950 

and 1953. Korea, which had been part of the Japanese empire since 1910, was jointly occupied by 

troops from the U.S.S.R. and the United States after World War II. The U.S.S.R. troops occupied the 

northern half (above the 38th parallel) of the peninsula, while U.S. forces occupied the southern half. 

The 38th parallel split the Korean peninsula in half and served as the line of demarcation until elections 

could be held and occupying forces withdrawn.370 It was anticipated that a new government would 

unify the peninsula. 

Although occupying forces left the Korean peninsula in 1948 and 1949, peninsula-wide elections 

did not take place. United Nations-sanctioned elections were held in the Republic of Korea (South 

Korea); the Democratic Republic of Korea (North Korea), which was supported by the U.S.S.R., did 

not hold elections. Each government claimed legitimacy and threatened to cross the 38th parallel. 

However, neither government could act without assistance from its respective supporters.371

Tensions culminated when the North Koreans took decisive military action against the South. With 

U.S.S.R. approval, the North Koreans crossed the 38th parallel on June 25, 1950. The United Nations 

(UN), with the support of the United States, came to the aid of the South Korean government. The 

hostilities on the Korean peninsula represented the first time that the recently-created UN intervened 

in military action. The U.S.S.R., boycotting the UN for its failure to recognize the People’s Republic 

of China, was absent from the Security Council during the vote to commit troops to South Korea. 

The Korean Conflict presented several challenges to Air Force personnel. Whereas Air Force 

flying units were operational from the first day of the conflict, engineering services were not available 

to support the flying mission. Indeed, lack of trained aviation engineer support proved detrimental to 

Air Force operations. As summed up by Air Force historian Robert Futrell, “In two years of war in 

Korea no single factor had so seriously handicapped the Fifth Air Force operational capabilities as the 

lack of adequate air facilities.”372
160 Leading the Way

At the start of the conflict, Air Force civil engineers initially were ordered to construct six airfields 

in South Korea. The construction task was turned over to SCARWAF units. In June 1950, SCARWAF 

was undermanned with 3,500 authorized and only 2,322 personnel assigned to the Far East Air Forces. 

These SCARWAF units comprised two Engineer Aviation Groups (EAG), the 930th and the 931st, 

stationed in Japan; five Engineer Aviation Battalions, including the 811th in Guam, and the 839th, 

802d, 808th, and 822d in Okinawa, Japan; and, one Engineer Aviation Maintenance Company, the 

919th in Japan.373 In total, the available personnel were only 80 percent of the strength allowed during 

peacetime. They were only 46 percent of the strength allowed during wartime. Even more staggering, 

commanders of the 930th and the 931st EAGs assessed their troops to be 10 to 15 percent as efficient 

as they were during World War II.374

The first SCARWAF unit to arrive in South Korea was the 802d Engineer Aviation Battalion 

Company A. This unit traveled by ship from Okinawa and landed on the beach at Pohang in July 

1950.375 Since the 802d was the first engineer unit assigned to South Korea, personnel were forced 

to contend with a lack of airfield facilities. They also faced the daunting task of utilizing equipment 

leftover from World War II with few spare parts available.376

Company A of the 802d was assigned the duty of renovating the Pohang airfield to accommodate 

fighter airplanes. The unit was small and undertrained, and equipment was scarce. As a result, portions 

of the four Engineer Aviation Battalions located in Okinawa were relocated to Pohang to provide 

assistance. The company enlarged the existing runway by 500 feet using pierced-steel plank (PSP) 

and installed a taxiway stretching 40 feet in width with 27 hardstands. By August 1950, the company 

was required to abandon its construction mission and to defend the airfield against the North Koreans. 

Eventually, Company A was honored by the Far East Air Force with a Distinguished Unit Citation for 

its work as builders and also as infantry personnel.378

Initially, SCARWAF engineers focused on upgrading South Korean and Japanese World War 

II bases using expedient measures. The first units to arrive were often surprised by the condition of 

pre-existing South Korean airfields, such as the airfields at K-1 (Pusan West) and K-2 (Taegu). K-1’s 

airfield was nearly level with the surrounding flooded rice paddies and lacked a cantonment area; K-2’s 

1 Earth auger

3 Air compressors, 315 CFM

3 Air compressors, 105 CFM

1 Crane, 20 ton

8 Crane-shovels

1 Crushing and screening plant

2 Asphalt distributors, 800 gallons

6 Water distributors, 1,000 gallons

1 Ditching machine

4 Electric sets, 5 kW

1 Electric set, 15 kW

9 Motorized road graders

1 Towed road grader

2 Asphalt heaters, 42 HP

3 Asphalt repair kettles, 165 gallons

4 Lubricators

2 Concrete mixers, 16 cubic ft

1 Rotary till soil stabilization mixer

1 Quarry set

3 Road rollers, 10 tons

1 Road roller, 8 tons

1 Road roller, 50 tons

3 Sheepsfoot rollers

1 Road rooter

18 Road scrapers

3 Motorized shops

4 Aggregate spreaders

4 Rotary sweepers

16 Crawler tractors

22 Wheel tractors

34 Trucks, 1⁄4 ton

18 Trucks, 3⁄4 ton

27 Trucks, 2 and one half ton

54 Dump trucks, 5 tons

14 Truck tractors, 6 tons

4 Truck tractors, 12 tons

List of Major Equipment Items per SCARWAF brigade, 1951377
Establishing Independence 161

airfield was originally a 3,800-foot long sod runway with gravel and had been used by the Japanese 

during World War II.379 Only two South Korean airfields could accommodate high-performance aircraft: 

K-13 (Suwon) and K-14 (Kimpo). K-14 (Kimpo) had been improved by U.S. troops at the end of 

World War II, and was South Korea’s most modern airfield.380 As heavier and larger aircraft utilized 

these bases, the runways quickly deteriorated through constant use. World War II runways were built 

to withstand 80 psi, yet the newer aircraft required 200 psi.381

The Korean terrain provided difficult obstacles to overcome. The mountainous topography considerably narrowed the selection of suitable land for new airfields. Appropriate lands were often 

terraced by farmers and continually flooded to propagate rice. The poor drainage and high water 

table combined with seasonal monsoons caused numerous delays in construction. Proper runway 

construction oftentimes required excavating the rice paddy soil to a depth of up to 15 feet.382 Heavy 

construction equipment was easily mired in the water-logged land.383 The Korean winters presented 

additional challenges to engineers. At K-6 (Pyontaek) engineers of the 1903d Engineer Aviation Battalion worked in 12 degree F temperatures during winter 1952. The 1903d was forced to ignite four 

100 lb. charges of dynamite to clear the frozen rice paddy which comprised a depth of 10 feet and an 

additional 15 feet of peat.384

While PSP was an expedient material, it did not hold up under constant use by a wide variety of 

aircraft. It buckled under the wheels of heavy aircraft, creating rough runways and tire hazards.385

Nevertheless, PSP was indispensable. Only a few months into the war, by December 1950, an estimated 

8.3 million square feet of PSP was installed in South Korea and Japan; another 10 million had been 

requested by the Far East Air Force.386 The majority of construction problems that occurred with PSP 

runways, taxiways, and aprons were related to improper subbase preparation prior to laying PSP. In 

many instances, the matting was laid directly upon the ground. The underlying subbases were susceptible to erosion by oil spills and jet blasts, causing an uneven operating surface. One C-45 aircraft had 

Members of the 808th Engineer Aviation Battalion transform a rice paddy into an airstrip in Korea. 
162 Leading the Way

nine false starts at Taegu AB during a safety test due to the PSP runway conditions. Not only was it 

difficult for aircraft to land and take off, but damaged matting sliced tires and damaged aircraft engines. 

PSP maintenance required routine straightening of individual planks; replacing clips; welding breaks 

in the matting; and, patching the subbase.387 Until construction directives were in place, engineers 

attempted to remedy the problems by several different means. Rice straw bags or burlap bags were 

layered on the subbase beneath the PSP as a way to avoid soil erosion; in other instances, the ground 

was asphalted and then laid with PSP.388 By May 1951, the Air Force decided that building permanent 

concrete runways at large bases was more cost effective than maintaining PSP runways.389

The aircraft arresting system for Air Force aircraft was introduced during the Korean Conflict. 

This system was adapted from the Navy’s aircraft carrier system. 

World War II-era runways were employed in-country during the Korean Conflict. The aircraft of 

the period, however, were heavier than that flown in the earlier war and required longer runways. 

As a result, aircraft over-runs of the 1940s runways were common. Even the construction of longer, 

9,000 foot runways did not address adequately the over-run problem for more powerful aircraft, 

such as the F-86 Sabre. Installation of an aircraft arresting system was identified as the solution 

to the problem.

The first arresting system developed by the Air Force was MA-1A.390 The MA-1A employed nylon 

webbing, which was stretched across the runway and anchored to heavy chains. Aircraft hit the 

webbing and were halted by the weight of the chains as they were dragged down the sides of the 

runway.391 The major disadvantage to the system was the potential for aircraft damage from the 

impact with the web. Tests of the system were completed at Johnson Air Force Base, Japan, on 

March 21, 1953. MA-1A systems were installed at several South Korean air bases by May 1953.392

A variation of the MA-1A included a steel cable supported by rubber disks running parallel to the 

web that arrested tail hook-equipped aircraft such as the Century Series of fighters. The MA-1A 

still remains in use at some installations as a back-up system. 

As aircraft increased in size and speed, the chain system used in the MA-1A was not effective in 

stopping the planes. The Barrier Arresting Kit 6 (BAK-6), or “Water Squeezer,” was designed to 

arrest aircraft with or without arresting hooks. The BAK-6 employed two tapered tubes filled with 

water. When the cable was engaged by the aircraft, a piston was pulled down the tube, and as the 

diameter decreased, hydraulic pressure slowed, and stopped the plane.393

In early 1959, the Air Force contracted with 

the All American Engineering Company 

to purchase 50 BAK-6 systems.394 While 

the BAK-6 was one of the simplest and 

easiest to maintain arresting systems, it 

had drawbacks. After an arrest, five men 

and three vehicles returned the pistons to 

the original location. In freezing weather, 

the piston manually moved a few feet each 

day and the antifreeze level of the solution 

required frequent checking.395 The Air Force tests a MA-1A aircraft arresting system 

using an F-86 “Sabre” jet at a base in Japan. This system 

used heavy ship’s anchor chain to slow down the aircraft. 

Development of Aircraft Arresting Systems
Establishing Independence 163

The operation and maintenance of equipment assigned to SCARWAF battalions in South Korea 

also posed a major challenge. The overwhelming requirements for engineering capabilities in the 

early months of the war demanded the highest availability of training and equipment. Operators had 

little more than a two-week familiarization course in observing the operation of the equipment and 

were generally unqualified to operate it. High accident rates and vehicle abuse were common. A report 

analyzing SCARWAF support stated, “in-commission rates as low as 0-15 percent on critical items of 

equipment during peak operational periods were the rule rather than the exception.” Depot overhaul 

was normally required after 5,000 operating hours, but SCARWAF equipment sometimes required 

it after fewer than 500 hours. Vehicle maintenance personnel had to work in mud and snow under 

extremely adverse conditions. In addition, SCARWAF units were plagued by the issue of non-standard 

equipment and a lack of spare parts, making maintenance problematic.396

An Airman repairs a runway light at a Korean air base.
164 Leading the Way

In addition to the task of runway construction, aviation engineers also constructed maintenance and 

support facilities and troop housing.397 Installations squadron personnel also worked on these projects 

and the definition of construction activities became blurred under mission requirements. Air Force 

personnel were quartered in tent cities until the arrival of more permanent facilities such as Quonset 

huts, Tropical Shell kits, and stucco buildings. Tropical Shell kits were prefabricated wood frames 

covered with metal sheeting or wood shipped to South Korea from Japan and typically constructed 

by contracted labor overseen by installations squadron personnel.398

Installations squadron personnel also had the opportunity to test how their base-level skills fared 

when deployed to manage and maintain air bases in South Korea. Initial units were made up of individuals or small detachments comprising 10 to 25 Airmen from installations squadrons throughout the 

Far East Air Forces. These units were equipped with only the minimum hand tools, trucks, and crashrescue and water purification equipment. Lack of equipment and spare parts hounded every deployed 

civil engineer. In many instances, installations squadron personnel worked alongside SCARWAF units 

to finish construction tasks. Then, they were faced with maintaining runways and, often, with completing extensive renovation and alteration of buildings and other facilities. Providing water and electric 

power proved to be the two biggest challenges, as well as finding and maintaining equipment. For 

example, Osan AB ran exclusively on generators. In addition, installations squadron personnel were 

responsible for conducting firefighting and crash rescue operations at the bases. Personnel shortages 

in installations squadrons were augmented through employing 300-400 South Koreans per installation 

and contracting local firms to complete many tasks.399

At the outset of the war, the Air Force air bases had no set guidelines for construction. The initial tasking for installations squadrons was “to repair and maintain buildings and grounds, operate 

and maintain base utilities, provide structural and crash fire protection, and provide maintenance on 

assigned ground powered equipment.”400 During September 1951, the Air Force wrote and distributed 

“Construction Criteria for Korean Theater of Operation Air Bases.” With the new policy, the Air 

With an Air Force Douglas C-124 “Globemaster” unloading its cargo, an aviation engineer on a heavy road 

grader repairs a runway at a base in Korea. 
Establishing Independence 165

Force was now responsible for “the construction, reconstruction, rehabilitation,” as well as repair and 

maintenance, of its air bases in South Korea.401

The Far East Air Force acquired additional SCARWAF units in 1951 and the amount of construction in South Korea grew. The following table (Table 2.4) lists some of the many projects completed 

by SCARWAF units during the Korean Conflict.402

A cease-fire to end the Korean Conflict was negotiated in July 1951; however, fighting did not 

end until July 1953 when China, the United States, and North and South Korea agreed to an armistice. 

The North Koreans, Chinese, and U.S.S.R. continued to refuse peninsula-wide elections. The conflict 

did not result in a clear victory for either the United States and its allies or the U.S.S.R. and its allies. 

The boundary between North and South Korea essentially was unchanged.404

By the end of the Korean Conflict, SCARWAF had constructed or renovated 55 airfields that supported the flights of 700,000 combat missions. At the close of the Korean Conflict in July 1953, the 

performance of SCARWAF was assessed. As a result, the Far East Air Force reported that “the Korean 

experience also demonstrated that the Air Force had a vital need for engineer aviation forces which 

were not combat engineers nor construction engineers but specialists in the art of building airfields...

Absence of training on complex equipment and shortages of properly qualified engineer aviation 

personnel...were the principal causes of engineer aviation ineffectiveness in Korea.”405

Lessons learned by the Air Force civil engineers were reminiscent of those learned during World 

War II. Among those important lessons were:

• Engineer aviation units needed to be integrated into the Air Force and be self-supporting in 

terms of wartime construction and maintenance abilities.

• Self-supporting units meant that they had to be adequately and realistically trained with 

 appropriate skill sets and equipment with sufficient spare parts to do their jobs from day 

 one in a contingency situation.

• Personnel had to be trained individually to do their jobs and to function as a cohesive unit. 

All personnel, from officers to Airmen, had to be experienced, flexible, and innovative to 

get their jobs done.

As a B-26 light bomber taxis alongside, members of the 808th Aviation Engineer Battalion continue grading 

an airstrip to support air operations.
Source: Lt. Col. Floyd Ashdown, “A History of the Warfighting Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering,” 

Research Report, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1984, 25-28.

166 Leading the Way

• New construction techniques and materials had to be developed to build runways and can 

tonments to keep pace with aircraft technology. The use of PSP for runways was no longer 

viable. New designs for supporting structures also were required.

• The use of local contractors and laborers was vital to constructing and maintaining airfields 

in contingency situations. Required skills for installations personnel included personnel 

management, oversight of work crews, and experience in contracting.406
Establishing Independence 167

Aviation Engineer Force (AEF)

The intense pressures of the early months of the Korean Conflict quickly revealed the inadequate 

readiness of the initial SCARWAF battalions that deployed. SCARWAF units were undermanned, 

poorly equipped, and described as “totally untrained.”407 To remedy the situation in the short-term, 

the Air Force contracted with the Vinnell Corporation to provide personnel and equipment to augment SCARWAF troops in South Korea and to train them in construction methods and equipment 

maintenance. It was a stop-gap measure, at best, and contractors eventually ended up doing some of 

the construction work themselves.408

A more permanent solution was proposed in March 1951. Continental Air Command, which 

assumed responsibility for all stateside SCARWAF units in early 1951, activated a special headquarters-level unit known as the Aviation Engineer Force (AEF) at Wolters AFB, Texas, on April 10, 1951. 

Upon activation, 10 SCARWAF aviation engineer units were assigned to the AEF—one engineer 

aviation brigade, two engineer aviation groups, four battalions, and two maintenance companies. 

Thus, the AEF exercised centralized control over all aviation engineer units operating and training in 

CONUS. AEF’s principal job was to train and equip SCARWAF units to ensure that they were ready 

for immediate deployment overseas, and to confirm that they were trained to the proper level of readiness to accomplish their construction missions.409

The AEF existed from 1951 to 1956. During that time, 57 SCARWAF units were assigned to it, 

of which 33 ultimately deployed overseas. Approximately 60,000 troops passed through the AEF 

during its five-year history, for an average turnover of 12,000 troops per year. The average strength 

of the AEF during that time was 10,593 troops, with an average construction force of 11 battalions.410

Col. (later Brig. Gen.) Herbert W. Ehrgott served as the first commander of the AEF from April 

1951 to August 1953. The person who played a dominant role in operation of the AEF, however, was 

Col. (later Maj. Gen.) Guy H. Goddard, who served as the AEF Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations 

from November 1951 to June 1956. These officers faced a daunting task, but they were able to draw 

on their long experience with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and aviation engineer units to achieve 

notable results in a relatively short period of time.411

Prior to the establishment of the AEF, the Air Force had made arrangements to use the infantry 

training center at Fort Huachuca, Arizona, to train SCARWAF aviation engineers for the Korean Conflict. The Air Force took possession of the fort on February 1, 1951, making it the only active Army 

installation that had an existence, albeit for a very short time, as an Air Force base. Six weeks later, on 

March 15, control of the reservation transferred to the Sixth Army at the Presidio in San Francisco. In 

June 1951, under the auspices of the AEF, an Engineer Aviation Unit Training Center was established 

at the fort. Units that trained there in 1952 were the 45th, 304th, 327th, and 923d Engineer Aviation 

Groups and the 69th, 71st, 820th, and 844th Engineer Aviation Battalions. As part of their training, 

several units built Libby Army Airfield at Fort Huachuca. The AEF training center was inactivated by 

the end of the Korean Conflict.412

Once the AEF was established in April 1951, it organized extensive training programs both at 

its home station at Wolters AFB and at Beale AFB, California. The training program provided units 

experience in major air base construction projects to be performed by a deployed battalion. Trainees 

learned how to work together as a unit to organize and accomplish large projects ranging from bridges 

to airfields. They carved out hundreds of miles of roads and learned to create runways using pierced 

steel planking. Sometimes their training involved participating in disaster relief efforts, such as fighting 

forest fires, managing flood control, and conducting clean-up operations after tornados.413

One problem that plagued SCARWAF units was the fact that they were organized under the 

Department of the Army Tables of Organization and Equipment (TO&E), with little regard for the Air 

Force mode of operation. Training organized by the AEF gave units a good feel for the types of work 

that they would actually be performing once they deployed.414
168 Leading the Way

Another problem that became immediately obvious was that the troops arriving for training had 

not received any significant level of individual training. From the very first, the Army was unable to 

provide qualified individuals to aviation engineer units. During the first six months of training operations, AEF officials ascertained that only 28 percent of incoming SCARWAF troops had the proper 

Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) training. A later survey disclosed that only 23.8 percent of 

SCARWAF personnel assigned had been school trained, and that 82.4 percent had less than five months 

of experience in their primary MOS. To complicate the situation, the AEF received very few quotas 

to send personnel to attend Air Force schools to make up the difference.415

Because the operational readiness of units depended greatly on the quality of individual training, 

the AEF realized it had to provide individual specialist training to bring units up to speed. Unfortunately, the mission and organization of the AEF was set up to accommodate unit training, rather than 

individual training, so Colonel Goddard and his staff had to change gears quickly. They persuaded Air 

Training Command to expand its technical training at F.E. Warren AFB, Wyoming, to include such 

courses as woodworker, powerman, water supply and sanitation technician, and heating specialist.416

As time passed, emphasis on formal training decreased and greater emphasis was placed on onthe-job (OJT) training. At first the OJT program primarily augmented the formal school program, 

but ultimately the AEF staff realized the importance of institutionalizing the program. It developed 

and published a series of 90 different MOS course outlines and guides and made the OJT program 

an organic part of the training process. Staff members also recognized the importance of validating 

the progress that individual troops were making and developed an intensive program of proficiency 

testing.417

The AEF staff slowly but surely strengthened the criteria for relevant unit training. AFR 50-20, 

“Aviation Engineer Training,” written in 1950, stated that the primary mission of SCARWAF units 

was to maintain a status of training to “ensure an aviation engineer force capable of acceptable early 

mobilization employment.” It noted, however, that training could, as a by-product, contribute to 

peacetime construction, repair, and maintenance operations. The idea was to accomplish two objectives with one action: to use construction troops on large, meaningful projects for the security of the 

The Aviation Engineer Force emblem.
Establishing Independence 169

country, while at the same time helping to stretch the defense budget and give troops the beneficial 

experience they needed. As well intended as the regulation was, it sometimes allowed troops to be 

used on small projects that were of questionable benefit when it came to enhancing the unit’s real-life 

military capability.418

In 1952, the AEF drafted a new regulation, AFR 306-3, that tightened the criteria for training 

exercises, stating that, “The unit proficiency necessary to fulfill construction needs in areas of operation is best acquired and maintained through the employment of engineer aviation units in peacetime 

projects similar to those which they will be called upon to accomplish in time of war.” Projects were 

supposed to lend themselves to accomplishment by a unit of company size or greater, and they were to 

clearly contribute to the training of the unit for its wartime mission. The ultimate aim was to acquire 

battalion-sized jobs where the command and staff could function in a realistic atmosphere. Better yet, 

a project that could employ a group headquarters and two or more battalions was ideal.419

It took some time before the battalion training concept could be realized. Personnel in the program 

were continuously siphoned off to fill overseas quotas and insufficient equipment was available for 

newly activated units. Despite the new regulation, the AEF continued to receive pressure from the major 

commands for SCARWAF units to perform a diversity of non-combat-related jobs. They also faced 

resistance from local communities in the vicinity of military bases, who preferred that any construction 

work be contracted to provide jobs for local companies. As a result, many large, battalion-size jobs 

were in remote areas, and AEF units were deployed to places in Alaska and the Caribbean to fulfill 

their training requirements. The 820th Engineer Aviation Battalion, for instance, received training at 

Beale AFB and gained some experience building roads to the rocket test facilities at Edwards AFB 

and laying a landing mat runway at Norton AFB, California, but then deployed to Elmendorf AFB, 

Alaska, to gain the bulk of its hands-on experience. They expanded runways and parking aprons at 

Cape Newenham and Northeast Cape Air Force Stations and constructed roads and a bridge at Galena 

Air Force Station.420

Large-scale deployments for training had the benefit of training engineers in all aspects of their 

mission. They learned the intricacies of packing up the unit, loading their equipment for sea or rail 

shipment, and then transporting, unloading, and unpacking their equipment, vehicles, and supplies 

on the other end. They employed flexibility and improvisation when their equipment did not arrive. 

Such training exercises brought into play the need for planning, engineering, and construction while 

using the entire command structure.421

In addition to training troops on construction equipment in the active inventory, the AEF felt it 

should play a role in determining the suitability of and acceptance testing of equipment destined for 

aviation engineer units to improve standardization and to ensure that units got the most effective 

equipment possible. In April 1954, the AEF finally received authority to get involved in the functional 

and operational suitability testing of three 50-ton crushing and screening plants. Requirements for the 

equipment were submitted in broad form to the Wright Air Development Center (WADC) at WrightPatterson AFB, Ohio, where they were researched and developed in detail, with regard to engineering 

standards, materials, components, and parts. The detailed specifications that emanated from WADC 

were then handed to AMC for factory acceptance testing. After acceptance, equipment went to the 

Air Proving Ground Command at Eglin AFB for operational analysis and suitability testing, prior to 

returning to AMC for final acceptance and production procurement. The AEF argued that this arduous 

process was not always in the best interest of the Air Force and that standard commercial equipment 

would, in many cases, satisfy aviation engineer requirements. Aviation engineer units, for instance, 

did not need equipment with multi-purpose characteristics, such as a combat engineer unit might need. 

The aviation engineer workload was specialized to airfield construction - earth moving, compaction, 

and surfacing, structures, utilities, and services peculiar to air bases.422
170 Leading the Way

One important by-product of the AEF’s work was the standardization of an Operational Readiness 

Reporting System for Engineer Aviation Battalions. Detailed reporting on training-related construction 

activities — such as earth moving, paving, and heavy construction capability — gave the AEF a basis 

on which to develop and measure units. Three of the five categories for determining a unit’s readiness 

were the result of arithmetic computations, allowing commanders to make fact-based decisions on 

their unit’s capabilities. By 1955, the AEF was well on its way to refining a system that rated units 

objectively and on established criteria, a precursor of the Status of Resources and Training (SORTS) 

system later adopted by the Air Force.423

Another important contribution made by the AEF was toward the training and equipping of Air 

National Guard and Reserve engineer aviation battalions. Although the AEF had no direct responsibility for training Guard and Reserve units, it did try to monitor the readiness of units and maintain 

contact with them, mainly because the AEF would be the gaining command for such units if and when 

they were mobilized. In early 1955, the AEF visited units in 13 states to gather data on their overall 

operational status. They found that many units were less than five percent manned, without equipment, 

and had very limited training facilities. Other units were struggling to develop a nucleus around which 

an operating unit might be built. In general, all were poorly equipped and few had trained aviation 

engineer officers to serve as instructors.424

Following the visits, the AEF made a concerted effort to establish a relationship with units and 

provide them with technical assistance. It placed all aviation engineer units in the Guard and Reserve 

on the AEF mailing list for technical and standard publications. In summer 1955, the AEF sent liaison/

observer teams to all five Air National Guard encampments. The goal was to establish a liaison with 

the various Guard state adjutants generals to develop encampment training programs geared to the 

aviation engineer mission. The AEF also encouraged reserve engineer units to take advantage of the 

training facilities at Wolters and Beale AFBs, which some did.425

In the two years after the end of the Korean Conflict, the AEF training program grew in strength 

and was just hitting its stride in 1955. The program, as it stood at the end of 1955, could provide 

battalion-size jobs for six of the 12 operational battalions assigned. During its five-year existence, the 

AEF conclusively proved the effectiveness of unit training on large-scale construction projects. The 

SCARWAF battalions of 1956 were much better prepared to construct air bases overseas than their 

earlier counterparts. The AEF also pointed proudly to the fact that it had provided approximately $190 

million of in-place construction and disaster relief work for the Air Force.426

The End of SCARWAF

Following the end of the Korean Conflict, SCARWAF personnel included 1,750 officers and 

30,000 enlisted personnel. Of these, 1,245 SCARWAF troops were assigned to NATO and working in 

Europe to construct housing, mess halls, offices, a service club, theatre and pre-fabricated structures.427

In June 1953, the Secretary of the Air Force proposed again to the Secretary of the Army to transfer 

the SCARWAF units to the Air Force. Lt. Gen. George E. Stratemeyer, who served as Commander 

of the Far East Air Forces, argued that “the low combat effectiveness index of these units prior to 

the emergency has been confirmed under combat conditions. Had the Engineer Aviation units been 

operationally ready as were our fighter and light bomber units, the Engineer Battalions could have 

been utilized immediately in Korea as were our combat units. Had they been United States Air Force 

units, I feel certain they would have been operationally ready. I am left no alternative but to strongly 

urge the transfer of all responsibilities pertaining to Aviation Units to the Air Force.”428

The Secretary of the Army agreed to the proposal in January 1954 and it was sent to the Secretary 

of Defense for signature in February 1954.429 According to Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard, “we had hopes 

that eventually it would be an all blue-suit unit, but the crunch of spaces precluded that and it never 

came about.”430 The fate of SCARWAF lay in the Office of the Secretary of Defense. A three-person 
Establishing Independence 171

working group was established in the Office of the Secretary of Defense to study the problem. General 

Washbourne briefed the working group in March 1955 and both the Army and the Air Force answered 

extensive questions about the workings of the program. The Department of the Army withdrew its 

previous concurrence with the transfer and instead proposed that aviation engineer functions remain 

assigned to the Army.431

On December 2, 1955, the Deputy Secretary of the DoD Reuben B. Robertson, Jr., made the 

decision and issued a memorandum declaring that SCARWAF would be eliminated and that the Army 

would retain all aviation engineer personnel. Maj. (later Brig. Gen.) William T. Meredith described 

the meeting when General Washbourne learned of that decision, 

In the 1955 or 1956 timeframe, when it was time to transfer those troops over, I was 

with General Washbourne the day he went to see the new Secretary of the Air Force, 

Dr. [Donald A.] Quarles. He had the order all typed. He briefed the secretary and laid 

the order in front of him on the desk. The secretary looked at him and said, “I don’t 

believe in this. It’s a function that belongs to the Army.” Washbourne dropped his 

charts in the middle of the floor, turned around and walked out. I was the chart carrier, 

so I picked up the charts and got out of there.432

The December 2, 1955 memorandum signed by Deputy Secretary Robertson abruptly stated: “I 

have been advised that the SCARWAF arrangement is unsatisfactory because it is administratively 

cumbersome, is not sufficiently responsive to the needs of either the Air Force or the Army, and its 

costs are excessive and not commensurate with values received.” The specifics of the elimination 

of SCARWAF were stated in the memorandum: “(1) the SCARWAF category is abolished and all 

SCARWAF units and Army personnel will be returned by the Department of the Air Force to the 

operational direction and control of the Department of the Army, (2) the Department of the Army 

will be responsible for providing overseas military construction support to the Air Force.” The letter 

further specified that these two requirements be completed by March 1, 1956.433 Four SCARWAF units 

remaining in Europe were inactivated in February 1956; the remaining 10 were reassigned to the Army 

in March 1956.434 Twenty-four thousand engineers detailed to the Air Force returned to the Army.435

During the dissolution of SCARWAF, the Air Force and the Army discussed their respective 

roles in troop construction in overseas contingency situations and the numbers of troop requirements 

forecast by the Air Force. For FY58, the Air Force requested the support of six Army engineer battalions during peacetime. The Army questioned this requirement as too large. Yet, even while the Army 

argued vigorously to retain the role of providing troop construction to the Air Force, it was reducing 

manpower and the overall number of its engineer battalions due to budget cuts and the implementation 

of a new plan.436 The new plan authorized 7,500 Army engineers to support both Air Force and Army 

needs during contingency situations. Air Force requirements needed to be met in the earliest stages of 

a typical contingency situation, while Army needs occurred later in time. Therefore, the 7,500 Army 

engineers were calculated to be enough personnel to meet the maximum requirements of both the Air 

Force and Army at any one time after mobilization began.437 The remaining troop spaces previously 

used by the Air Force were placed in the Army Reserves.438

In a memo dated September 29, 1955, the Secretary of the Air Force informed the Secretary of Defense that it was incumbent on the Air Force to incorporate within its structure the 

capability to restore combat operations on a limited emergency basis following enemy attack. 

A new organizational concept was outlined in the memo that allocated 7,000 additional spaces to the 

Air Force to implement a bomb damage recovery plan. In a January 3, 1956 meeting with the Director of Operations and the Director of Logistics Plans, the chief of the Installations Engineer Division 

agreed to provide a detailed plan to develop Air Force bomb damage repair capabilities. The plan 

submitted for staffing on January 5, 1956 proposed augmenting installations squadrons at a number of 
172 Leading the Way

war mission bases and placing additional cadres of supervisors and technicians at several non-primary 

target bases. These personnel would be equipped with equipment from the SCARWAF program and 

reserved for Air Force use in case of enemy attack, emergency, or natural disaster.439

The proposed plan submitted to the Secretary of the Air Force to gain additional personnel authorizations to develop an internal capability for bomb damage repair was unsuccessful because of higher 

priority requirements. The Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations then turned to the major commands to 

establish the new mission within current personnel allocations. An installations engineer conference 

was held in October 1956 in Washington, D.C., where various aspects of the new mission assignment 

were discussed and ideas exchanged. An outline of a base recovery plan was developed and presented 

at the conference. A letter dated October 31, 1956 was distributed to major commands that provided 

initial data to assist in developing requirements for feasible recovery operations. The Table of Allowances for Installations Engineer equipment was amended to include 22 items for the effort by November 

1956. Although it was recognized that other Air Force elements were involved in implementing a full 

scale disaster recovery plan, the Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations pressed forward to establish 

Installation Reserve units, emergency survival component items, new disaster-survival standard airfield 

criteria, and training for installations personnel in post-attack decontamination and repair procedures.440

In February 1957, DoD Directive 1315.6 entitled Responsibilities for Military Troop Construction Support of the Department of the Air Force was issued to clarify the responsibilities for airfield 

construction and maintenance in overseas contingency situations. This directive stated:

A. The Department of the Army is responsible for providing military troop construction support to the Air Force overseas, including:

1. Organizing, manning, training, equipping, maintaining, directing, and 

 controlling all units and personnel, including those of the reserve 

 components, required to provide this support.

2. Budgeting and funding for the required units.

B. The Department of the Air Force is responsible for developing and maintaining 

a capability for the emergency repair of bomb damaged air bases within the organic 

capability of air installations resources. A limited number of specialists may be provided and additionally to supervise development of this capability.441

Once again, the Air Force was without dedicated construction units and was forced to rely upon 

the Army during times of war. But the window of opportunity was given to the Air Force engineers 

to develop an organic capability for emergency repair to Air Force installations apart from Army 

assistance.

Lebanon Crisis

Although an official directive was in place that directed the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to 

provide military troops construction support to overseas Air Force bases in contingency situations, 

how that directive worked in reality was still to be field tested. In 1958, the Air Force experienced the 

limits of that directive.

In July 1958, the Air Force encountered a contingency in Lebanon. Amid tensions between Egypt 

and Lebanon’s political factions, the Lebanese government was threatened with a coup. Answering 

Lebanese President Camille Chamoun’s call for help, President Dwight D. Eisenhower deployed 

5,000 Marines on July 15. Incirlik AB, Turkey, was designated as the staging base for all operations 

during the conflict. Problems quickly arose at the air base. The base installations squadron was small 
Establishing Independence 173

in size and base maintenance was performed by civilian contractor personnel who had been at the 

base for only 15 days. Base facilities were constructed to support a minimal operating force and the 

rapid buildup of troops stretched available utilities and POL facilities beyond their capacity. Electric 

generators and potable water supply were particularly in short supply.442

The situation at Incirlik AB quickly deteriorated. Runway repairs were needed due to constant 

aircraft use; water systems were greatly overburdened; and some Airmen had to sleep on the ground 

until tents or other housing was made available. After the contract was modified, the civilian contractor 

pulled workers from other construction sites to supervise temporary teams of local labor to support 

24-hour contingency operations. Supplemental tents and electric generators were airlifted in from other 

USAFE bases. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was requested to provide construction support to 

install a four-inch water pipe to alleviate the water supply problems. One engineering unit was diverted 

to the base to complete the construction project.443 Despite all of the shortages, Incirlik AB was able 

to provide continual support to the Marines during the Lebanon Crisis. 

A history done by the Air Force Historical Division in 1962 described the difficulties, “Most of 

the problems encountered by the Air Force resulted from the lack of adequate facilities and procedures 

to meet either scheduled or unscheduled requirements....The fundamental problem underlying the 

operational and logistical difficulties was the lack of bases in the operational area.”444 In the aftermath 

of the Lebanon Crisis, USAFE officials recognized the urgency to develop and maintain a capability to 

manage further contingencies to augment support from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and without 

relying solely on contractor support. USAFE’s Directorate of Civil Engineering surveyed all USAFE 

air bases to study all operations and maintenance capabilities. Two proposals were made. The first 

proposal was to contract maintenance and construction support with NATO host nations. The second 

proposal was to establish a USAFE Civil Engineer Mobile Team. The Civil Engineer Mobile Team 

Concept was based on the following principles:

1. Team composition was limited in size. (Airmen comprising the team had to come 

from available USAFE personnel resources).

2. The team comprised detachable cells capable of providing limited emergency operation and maintenance services at forward operating bases.

Air Force Douglas C-124 Globemaster airlifting personnel and cargo during the 1958 Lebanon Crisis.
174 Leading the Way

3. The entire team supported only essential operation and maintenance functions.

4. The team had no construction capability. (The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers would 

provide needed construction services).

5. The team had to be highly mobile and fast reacting.

6. Finally, the team’s role was to augment an existing civil engineer force. In the 

event of withdrawal of a civilian work force, the team required a capability 

to provide the most essential utilities and facilities operation until augmented 

by a military personnel build-up.445

USAFE adopted the Civil Engineer Mobile Team Concept and teams were formed for prompt deployment when required. These teams were the forerunner of the Prime Base Emergency Engineering Force 

(Prime BEEF) program that was established during the 1960s.

THE END OF THE 1950s

By the late 1950s, Air Force civil engineers found themselves facing new challenges and levels 

of responsibility that required a commensurate increase in professional development. As Maj. Gen. 

Lee B. Washbourne stated the challenge:

The bases and facilities supporting our air power reflect the technical and professional 

ability of the engineer to match the ever-increasing performance of weapon systems. 

The installations engineer can never rest on his laurels; he must plan our Air Force 

support operations with vision, ingenuity, and skill, if our air power is to maintain a 

dominant position in the world. The military engineer will maintain his place in the art 

of war by keeping his techniques sharp, his imagination vivid, and his understanding 

adequate.446

About a year and a half after becoming Director of Installations in July 1957, Maj. Gen. Augustus 

M. “Gus” Minton presided over a session at the Worldwide Installations Engineer Conference at Ramey 

AFB, Puerto Rico. General Minton made a presentation on the evolution of the role of engineering 

in the Air Force. He pointed out that technological developments in aircraft and their servicing and 

support facilities required that aviation engineers be familiar with many branches of the engineering 

profession. One important aspect of engineering in the Air Force, General Minton recalled, was:

building confidence on the part of our people and pride in the job they were doing. 

I had always had the feeling that the base engineering people were considered kind 

of the base handyman. He was the guy you called when the toilet wouldn’t flush. 

Too often they thought he would show up with a bulldozer in the front lawn, digging 

up the lawn. That was the feeling that I think most people had about the installation 

officer on the field at that time.447

At the end of the presentation, General Minton proposed that the organization be renamed civil engineering. He proposed that the name “civil engineering” to connote “professionalism and a background 

of educational experience that makes it a profession.”448

On March 7, 1959, the Directorate of Installations was redesignated the Directorate of Civil 

Engineering. As part of this change, the title of the Director of Installations was changed to Director 

of Civil Engineering. Two other job titles also were redesignated. The Installations Engineer Staff 

Officer became the Civil Engineering Staff Officer, and the base Installations Officer became the Base 

Civil Engineer.449
Establishing Independence 175

The span of time between 1947 and 1959 was pivotal for the Air Force and Air Force Civil Engineering. The Air Force was created as a separate branch of the U.S. military and proceeded to define 

its role in air defense. Air Force civil engineers established policies and procedures to accomplish 

Air Force construction programs and maintain and operate a growing number of permanent air bases 

both in the United States and overseas. In particular, through their involvement in the Berlin Airlift, 

the Korean Conflict, and the Lebanon Crisis, Air Force civil engineers demonstrated their abilities 

and established themselves as a valued branch of the Air Force in support of contingency situations. 

The performance of SCARWAF during the Korean Conflict reinforced the theory that the Air Force 

needed a dedicated contingency capability. In addition, missile development, the creation of early radar 

systems, and the construction of the USAFA were giant leaps for the Air Force civil engineers and 

further illustrated their capabilities. By the close of the 1950s, the Air Force was a seasoned member 

of national military establishment. Although they still faced challenges ahead, Air Force civil engineers 

had progressed from handymen to professionals.
176 Leading the Way

CHAPTER 3

RISING TO THE CHALLENGE

1960-1974

INTRODUCTION

Contingency deployments to Vietnam and Southeast Asia dominated Air Force civil engineering activities from 1960-1974. Throughout the period, Cold War tensions remained high between 

the United States and Communist nations, most notably the U.S.S.R. and China. Several incidents 

led to military alerts that strained international relations. These events included the construction of 

the Berlin Wall in 1961, the Cuban missile crisis in 1962, the U.S. involvement in the Republic of 

Vietnam between 1961 and 1973, and heightened tensions on the Korean peninsula in 1968. 

While Air Force civil engineers supported the U.S. military response to all of these events, the 

Vietnam conflict necessitated a particularly long-term and high profile commitment on the part of 

Air Force civil engineers. The involvement of Air Force civil engineers in Southeast Asia greatly 

influenced the organization, impacted individual personnel, and shaped civil engineering activities. 

Many career Air Force civil engineering personnel, who had joined the Service during World War 

II, served in leadership roles during the Vietnam Conflict. For the younger generation of Air Force 

personnel, the Vietnam conflict became their war. Air Force leaders of the 1980s and early 1990s 

forged their careers supporting the Air Force mission in Southeast Asia. The Air Force Civil Engineering motto “Can Do—Will Do” clearly was internalized during the Vietnam conflict.

Ongoing deployments to the Republic of Vietnam and other areas in Southeast Asia spurred 

innovation at all levels of the Air Force civil engineering organization. Throughout the period, Air 

Force civil engineers functioned in dual roles. Engineers served as engineer-managers for a variety 

of diverse projects and maintained the hands-on capabilities necessary to support the Air Force mission at bases in the United States and overseas. Innovations were introduced during the period in 

the operation of the permanent Air Force bases, in personnel management, in design and construction, and in contingency preparedness and planning. New challenges for the Air Force and civil 

engineers required flexible and dynamic responses. The engineering lexicon expanded to include 

such terms as “missiles,” “space program,” “bare base,” “relocatable housing and structures,” and 

“turnkey construction projects.” 

Among the most important developments of the period was the expanded role of Air Force 

civil engineers in expeditionary construction during contingency situations. Nearly simultaneously, 

the Directorate of Civil Engineering implemented the Base Engineer Emergency Force, known as 

Prime BEEF, and troop construction capability, known as Rapid Engineer Deployable Heavy Operational Repair Squadron, Engineer or RED HORSE. The implementation of Prime BEEF aligned 

Air Force civil engineers to support Air Force contingencies and base emergencies. RED HORSE 

squadrons undertook troop construction in contingency situations, thus reducing reliance on Army 

support that historically proved problematic. Prime BEEF teams and RED HORSE squadrons were 

deployed immediately to Southeast Asia and South Vietnam where they successfully completed a 

wide range of projects critical to the support the Air Force mission. 

Air Force budget levels during the period varied greatly and were dependent upon national policy 

and Congressional approval. In 1964, the Department of Defense ordered base closures and the realignment of military units, both in the United States and overseas. As U.S. involvement in Vietnam 

escalated, construction budgets in the continental United States (CONUS) were frozen in October 

1967; funds were directed towards construction projects in Southeast Asia and the development of 

new weapons systems. By 1968, the Air Force had relinquished 110 obsolete missiles sites, obsolete 

radar stations, and six air bases in CONUS. Overseas, 64 installations in France were closed following 
Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin

Rising to the Challenge 177

that country’s withdrawal from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1966. In September 

1969, President Richard M. Nixon imposed a 75 percent reduction in Federal construction, eliminating 

$146 million earmarked for the Air Force. During the early 1970s, President Nixon continued dramatic 

reductions to defense expenditures and ended U.S. involvement in South Vietnam. Nixon adopted the 

policy that the United States would not commit ground forces to address conventional threats to the 

security of allied countries, aside from South Korea and NATO allies of Western Europe. 

CIVIL ENGINEERING AIR STAFF PROGRAMS AND POLICIES

Directors of Civil Engineering

Five Directors of Civil Engineering led the organization during this period: Maj. Gen. Augustus 

M. Minton (1957-1963), Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin (1963-1968), Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard (1968-

1971), Maj. Gen. Maurice R. Reilly (1972-1974), and Maj. Gen. Billie J. McGarvey (1974-1975). Each 

director shaped the organization through procedures and policies rooted in his professional experiences. 

General Minton was the longest serving director, followed by General Curtin. After General Minton, 

subsequent directors typically were chosen from among the deputy directors within the directorate. 

The succession of deputy director to director was pragmatic and assured continuity in implementing 

programs and initiatives within the Directorate of Civil Engineering as well as maintained corporate 

knowledge of current processes, procedures, and working relationships within the Pentagon and the 

U.S. Congress. Some directors retired from the office, while others assumed command or higher 

headquarters positions.

Maj. Gen. Augustus M. “Gus” Minton served as Director of Civil Engineering until July 1963 

and held the distinction of the longest serving director. His longevity contributed to his pivotal leadership in establishing the structure and mission of the Air Force civil engineering organization. General 

Minton recognized the changing role of the Air Force civil engineer from “handyman” charged with 
178 Leading the Way

maintaining Air Force bases, to professional, meeting the technological challenges of basing an aerospace force.1

General Minton was a strong proponent of continuing education and professional registration as 

a means to support the responsiveness of Air Force civil engineers to the evolving challenges faced in 

accomplishing the U.S. Air Force mission. As part of this drive for professionalism, General Minton 

continued the annual world-wide civil engineering conferences, founded the Air Force Civil Engineer, 

and established in 1960 an annual award for the best article appearing in the magazine. The award 

became known as the Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton award.2 General Minton also supported Air Force 

education programs and sponsored Operation Cool School, an annual inspection of Arctic sites by 

educators in the United States.3

As director, General Minton oversaw the construction of a variety of technologically complex 

facilities associated with the early warning system and intercontinental ballistic missiles, and family 

housing units under the Capehart program. He also supported the adoption of advanced base-level 

management strategies for operations and maintenance, such as the establishment of the work control 

center and new cost accounting controls. General Minton was noted for his thorough and persuasive 

presentations in defense of Air Force construction programs before Congress and “earned the admiration and respect of all who worked for and with him.”4

In July 1963, Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, a graduate of the U.S. Military Academy at West 

Point, became Director of Civil Engineering. General Curtin’s previous positions included Deputy 

Director for Real Property, Deputy Director for Civil Engineering Operations, and Deputy Director 

for Construction under General Minton. General Curtin served as Director of Civil Engineering until 

May 1968. The major buildup of U.S. forces in the Republic of Vietnam occurred during his tenure 

as director. Air Force civil engineers were assigned as part of regular tours of duty to operate and 

to maintain the bases that supported the Air Force mission. Under General Curtin’s direction, civil 

engineering embarked on a major restructuring and reorganization effort known as Project Prime 

BEEF for Base Engineer Emergency Force. In 1965, the first two Rapid Engineer Deployable Heavy 

Operational Repair Squadron, Engineer (RED HORSE) squadrons were formed to undertake heavy 

repair and maintenance work. Both Prime BEEF teams and RED HORSE squadrons were vital to 

support Air Force contingency operations in South Vietnam and Thailand. Their projects included 

revetments, hardened aircraft shelters, roads, runways and aprons, troop housing, and other facilities. 

Under General Curtin, the Air Force was appointed the construction agent for all phases of Tuy Hoa 

Air Base (AB), Republic of Vietnam, which was completed on time and within budget during 1966 and 

1967. Prime BEEF teams also were deployed to assist bases during natural disasters, thereby establishing a stateside role for Prime BEEF teams in base recovery. In 1966, General Curtin established the 

Civil Engineer Construction Operations Group (CECOG) at Wright-Patterson AFB to oversee Prime 

BEEF and RED HORSE operations.5

As director, General Curtin continued support for the base level civil engineer. He advocated for 

professional development among the civil engineers and supported the “Can Do-Will Do” spirit with 

enthusiasm. General Curtin worked to improve civil engineering participation in the budget processes 

for the military construction program (MCP) and the operations and maintenance (O&M) account. 

While financial resources were directed to support contingency operations, budgets for stateside base 

operations were reduced. General Curtin initiated procedures to improve budget justifications through 

“Total Programming” and successfully defended budgets before the U.S. Congress. He supported the 

initial development of automated data processing systems to improve management techniques that 

subsequently led to the creation of the Base Engineer Automated Management System (BEAMS).6 He 

also oversaw the beginning of the Air Force response to the remediation of environmental pollution 

after Executive Orders were signed supporting the cleanup of water and air pollution.7
Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard

Rising to the Challenge 179

The annual Curtin Award was established to recognize the contributions of base level civil engineering organizations. As General Curtin recalled, 

It got established...because I was concerned about several things, one of them 

being that we weren’t paying enough attention to the base engineers. We were more 

worried about construction and those kinds of things, rather than the day-to-day 

activities that base engineers performed. I started it because I wanted to give more 

recognition to the base engineers.8

The Curtin Award remains the Air Force Civil Engineering’s most prestigious award. It is presented 

annually by the Society of American Military Engineers (SAME) to the most oustanding large, small, 

and Air Reserve Component civil engineer units.9

 [See Appendix B]

Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard served as Director of Civil Engineering from May 1968 through 

December 1971 after serving as Deputy Director for Construction from 1965 to 1968. General Goddard was a 1941 graduate of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. General Goddard oversaw the 

Air Force Capehart family housing construction program from 1957 to1962, and the construction of 

air bases in Southeast Asia between 1965 and 1968. He also served as the Air Staff monitor for the 

construction of Tuy Hoa AB in the Republic of Vietnam while deputy director.10

During his time as director, the directorate underwent a significant reorganization as the civil 

engineering workforce was reduced from 100,000 to approximately 80,000 at the end of the Vietnam 

conflict. Budget requests received intense scrutiny and appropriations were impacted by rising economic inflation. “Doing more with less” became a continuous refrain.

General Goddard implemented more effective management strategies throughout the Air Force 

civil engineering organization, including at the base level. He supported improved cost control procedures and the adoption of new construction techniques to maximize military construction dollars. 

A proponent of ”management by objectives,” he published annual objectives in the Air Force Civil 

Engineer. He implemented a top-to-bottom management review of policy objectives and instituted 
Maj. Gen. Maurice R. “Tex” Reilly

180 Leading the Way

performance goals and standard management tools through such programs as BALANCE and total 

programming. General Goddard also oversaw the implementation of BEAMS on the base level to 

strengthen the reporting tools to improve base management.11

General Goddard counted the establishment of the Civil Engineering Center at Wright-Patterson 

AFB, Ohio, among his greatest accomplishments as director. Another of General Goddard’s accomplishments was revitalization of the military family housing construction program. As Director of Civil 

Engineering, General Goddard designed and implemented the Turnkey housing program. In addition, 

he supported two-step procurement and the adoption of industrialized construction techniques to 

streamline new construction. Another of his priorities as director was to strengthen the role of the Air 

Reserve forces in support of Air Force missions.12

General Goddard was also a proponent of Air Force civil engineer participation in national societies. While director, he also served a term as president of SAME. During his time as president, Air 

Force participation in SAME greatly increased. The Goddard Medal was established in his honor to 

acknowledge the accomplishments of Air Force civil engineers. Three medals are presented annually 

to one active duty, one Reserve, and one Air National Guard individual for outstanding contributions 

to military engineering, including military troop construction, base maintenance, and contingency 

engineering.13

Maj. Gen. Maurice R.“Tex” Reilly served as the Director of Civil Engineering from January 

1972 to March 1974. General Reilly previously served as deputy director from 1968 through 1971 

and Director of Civil Engineering at the Air Force Systems Command from 1965 to 1968. Among the 

challenges met under General Reilly’s tenure were compliance with new environmental regulations, 

particularly those designed to limit and control air, water, and noise pollution. General Reilly also 

provided leadership during the energy crisis of the early 1970s. Energy reduction and conservation 

programs, including the modernization of the Air Force infrastructure to increase energy efficiency, 

were advanced to counter anticipated fuel shortages. Concern increased over the encroachment of 
Maj. Gen. Billie J. McGarvey

Rising to the Challenge 181

civilian construction on previously undeveloped land immediately surrounding major air bases during 

General Reilly’s tenure. Concerns were raised by neighboring residential and commercial development 

about potential noise pollution and accident hazards associated with normal Air Force flying operations. The Directorate of Civil Engineering responded to these concerns through the Air Installation 

Compatible Use Zone (AICUZ). This program established a regional community planning process 

for areas surrounding air bases and fostered a new era of cooperation between Air Force bases and 

civilian communities. General Reilly also presided over a shift in construction priorities and associated budgets. New construction fell in importance as fewer new facilities were needed to bed down 

new weapons systems, while improvement and modernization of existing Air Force facilities rose in 

importance. Budgets were adjusted accordingly. In FY74, nearly 65 percent of construction funds 

were spent on modernization, repair, and upgrades to facilities as compared to 20 percent in FY70.14

During the downsizing that followed the Vietnam conflict, General Reilly sought to strengthen 

contingency planning and to retain the engineering capability embodied in Prime BEEF and RED 

HORSE. “We must sustain what the war in Southeast Asia set in motion. We cannot afford to have 

another lull in progress such as that which occurred between the end of World War II and the mid 

1960s,” he forcefully reasoned. General Reilly foresaw that projected budget cuts in the coming 

years would result in pressure to diminish or disband the Prime BEEF and RED HORSE programs. 

The transition to an all-volunteer military also represented a major military-wide change with future 

ramifications for Air Force civil engineering. General Reilly acknowledged the new reality when he 

reiterated the mission of Air Force civil engineering,

Without ground facilities, aircraft and missiles don’t fly. On the personnel side we 

should consider the intimate daily association one has at an air base with facilities 

and the related activities of civil engineers. The morale, well being and job effectiveness of Air Force people are closely tied to their facilities environment.15
182 Leading the Way

Maj. Gen. Billie J. McGarvey assumed the office of Director of Civil Engineering on March 1, 1974 

and served until April 1975. General McGarvey had served as deputy director since 1972. Previous 

assignments included tours of duty as the Deputy Chief of Staff for Civil Engineering at Headquarters 

Pacific Air Forces and Deputy Chief of Staff at Air Force Logistics Command. Prior to major command 

assignments, General McGarvey served as Chief, Construction Division, Air Staff. In 1966, he worked 

as the special assistant to the Director of Construction for the Tuy Hoa Turnkey project. 

At the beginning of his tour as Director of Civil Engineering, General McGarvey identified the 

challenges before him as managing a “declining manpower structure sandwiched between the constraints of reduced operating budgets, aging facilities and unyielding mission responsibilities.” In 

addition, the challenges associated with the energy crisis, environmental regulations, and air base 

encroachment continued. At the end of his service, General McGarvey reported, “we are making significant inroads on many of these issues—our AICUZ program is well underway to preclude further 

encroachment on our air bases; our engineering designs for construction strive to minimize energy 

consumption, while providing optimum functional facilities; and we have become the front runner in 

the use of environmental impact assessments for decision making.” Work also progressed on streamlining procedures and introducing workable management innovations and improvements. On April 1, 

1975, General McGarvey was reassigned as Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff, Programs and Resources.16

Organizational Changes, 1960-1974

Air Staff

Between 1960 and 1974, the Directorate of Civil Engineering at the Pentagon underwent several organizational changes. Flexibility, initiative, and overall professionalism were tested as the 

organizational structure and personnel assumed added responsibilities in CONUS and overseas. The 

organization strove to fulfill its mission to provide, operate, and maintain the facilities required to 

support U.S. air power at home and world-wide.17

The Directorate of Civil Engineering was responsible for the establishment of policies and procedures, real property maintenance and management, fire protection and aircraft-missile rescue services, 

formulation of the military construction program and its presentation to the U.S. Congress, engineering, design, and construction of Air Force real property facilities, and, administration of the Air Force 

housing construction program. In 1960, the military construction budget included $750 million for new 

construction and $750 million for maintenance and operations.18 Staffing strength for the Directorate 

in 1961 was 411.19

In 1960, Air Force civil engineering personnel serving at the Pentagon, major commands, and 

at the bases world-wide included 2,000 officers, 38,000 Airmen, and nearly 60,000 civilians. These 

personnel operated and maintained Air Force facilities at 250 major bases and at over 3,200 other 

installations. The total value of Air Force facilities maintained by Air Force civil engineers was over 

$11 billion.20 By 1963, that value had increased to $15 billion.21

In 1974, Air Force civil engineering personnel, including military and civilian, numbered 76,000. 

These personnel managed a physical plant with a replacement value of over $55 billion. Air Force civil 

engineering personnel managed annual budgets during the early 1970s ranging between $1.5 and $2 

billion for the acquisition of new facilities and the maintenance of existing facilities.22

In February 1960, the Directorate of Civil Engineering, Headquarters, U.S. Air Force, was reorganized under the Director of Civil Engineering, Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton. General Minton was 

assisted by an Assistant Director of Civil Engineering and an executive staff. The number of deputy 

directors was reduced from three to two; the position of Deputy Directorate for Facilities Support was 

abolished. The two remaining deputy directors oversaw six divisions.23 The Deputy Director of Civil 

Engineering Operations headed by Brig. Gen. Robert H. Curtin oversaw the Programs, Real Estate, 
Source: Directorate of Civil Engineering Organizational Chart, Files of AFCEC History Office.

Rising to the Challenge 183

and Base Maintenance Divisions. The Fire Protection Group also reported to General Curtin. The 

Deputy Director of Construction headed by Brig. Gen. Harold K. Kelley oversaw the Construction, 

Engineering, and Housing Divisions. The nine Air Force Regional Civil Engineer offices reported 

directly to the Director of Civil Engineering (Figure 3.1).24

By July 1961, the divisions under the two deputy directors were realigned. The Deputy Director 

for Operations, Col. Winston Fowler, assumed responsibility for the Fire Protection Group and the 

Housing, Base Maintenance, and Real Estate Divisions. The Deputy Director for Construction, Brig. 

Gen. Robert H. Curtin, oversaw the Civil Engineering Control Group, and the Construction, Engineering, and Programs Divisions.25 In 1962, the Directorate of Civil Engineering was moved from 

Deputy Chief of Staff/Operations to Deputy Chief of Staff/Programs and Resources (DCS/PR) in the 

Air Force organizational chart.26

Effective January 1, 1963, the Real Estate Division was renamed the Air Force Real Estate Agency 

and became a field extension office of the Directorate of Civil Engineering. The agency was located 

with the 1132d Air Force Special Activities Squadron at Bolling AFB, Washington, D.C. The new 

agency assumed the functions and authorized personnel strength of the former division.27

In 1964, the Engineering Systems Branch was established. This branch was responsible for 

research, development, and control of civil engineering management systems.28 The establishment of 

the Engineering Systems Branch was prompted by the introduction of automated systems for budgeting and engineering applications. One of the first objectives of the Engineering Systems Branch was 

conducting a comprehensive study to compile data to support the development of a standard civil 

engineering management system for use by all Air Force civil engineers world-wide. Such a system 

was proposed to improve the decision-making process.29

In 1968 under General Goddard, the organizational structure of the Directorate of Civil Engineering again was reviewed extensively. As a result, the directorate was reorganized effective June 17, 

1968.30 Major organizational changes included realigning upper management, changing the number 

and functions of the directorate’s divisions, reducing the number of the Air Force Regional Civil 
Source: Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard, “Concepts of Operations: New AFOCE Organization,” Air Force Civil 

Engineer, Vol 11, No 2, May 1970, 10.

184 Leading the Way

Engineer offices, and forming the Civil Engineering Center (CEC).31 The reorganization centralized 

management, streamlined communications among divisions and base personnel, provided single point 

programming for policy management, and empowered division chiefs with greater authority and 

responsibility in their respective areas. The Director of Civil Engineering, Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard, 

was assisted by Mr. John R. “Jack” Gibbens as associate director. The deputy directors of Construction 

and Civil Engineering Operations were eliminated and a single deputy director was established, so 

that the divisions, groups, and agencies interacted directly with the director’s office and more closely 

with each other. Brig. Gen. Maurice R. “Tex” Reilly became the deputy director. Mr. Rufus “Davey” 

Crockett and Mr. Louis A. Nees served as the two associate deputy directors. The role of the associate director and the associate deputy directors was to assist in formulating policy and to coordinate 

special projects and committees.32 In 1970, Mr. Crockett became the associate director and Mr. Harry 

P. Rietman and Mr. Nees served as associate deputy directors.33 In 1973, Mr. Rietman was appointed 

the third civilian associate director of civil engineering. The Air Force civil engineer annual award for 

outstanding senior civilian civil engineers was named in his honor following his retirement in 1985. 34

The directorate was divided into five divisions under the 1968 reorganization: Housing, Maintenance (renamed Management by 1970), Programs, Plant Engineering, and Construction. The Housing 

Division was responsible for all aspects of family housing, including planning, funding procurement, 

construction, operations and maintenance, and disposal. Family housing was funded through a single 

Congressional appropriation and tracked separately by the Office of the Secretary of Defense. The 

Programs Division was responsible for all other programming. These responsibilities included approving and distributing funding allocated to civil engineering through MCP and minor construction, 

non-appropriated, and operations and maintenance funds. This division also was a member of the Air 

Staff’s Program Review Committee, which allocated the overall Air Force budget. The division was 

represented on the Budget Review Committee and served as the chair of the Facilities Review Committee that advised the Director of Civil Engineering on allocations for the MCP. The Plant Engineering 

Division oversaw the management processes and controls required to maintain, operate, and update 

the growing and diversified inventory of Air Force facilities. This division also oversaw engineering 

criteria and standards for air conditioning, pavements, and structures. The Construction Division 
Rising to the Challenge 185

monitored all construction management from final design through construction. Previously, the division 

had focused exclusively on the MCP; these duties now were expanded to include non-appropriated 

funds, major and minor repairs, and major and minor maintenance. The Management Division was 

responsible for automation, cost accounting, quality control, and force levels (Figure 3.2).35

The Real Estate Agency, the Fire Prevention Group, the Air Force Regional Civil Engineer offices, 

and the Civil Engineer Center reported to the Director of Civil Engineering. The Real Estate Agency 

managed real estate acquisitions, current inventory, and disposal. The Fire Prevention Group developed 

policies, programs, standards, and technical procedures for fire prevention, protection, and air crash 

rescue. The number of Air Force Regional Civil Engineer offices was consolidated from eight to four, 

and selected functions were reassigned to major commands. The four consolidated offices were the 

Western Region in San Francisco, California; the Central Region in Dallas, Texas; the Eastern Region 

in Atlanta, Georgia; and the Canadian Region in Ottawa, Canada. The three U.S. offices were staffed 

by 25 to 30 persons who worked with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Navy to define design 

parameters to meet Air Force construction requirements within reasonable costs.36 The Canadian 

Regional Office was subsequently closed June 30, 1971.37

The Civil Engineering Center at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, was the largest entity reporting to 

the Director of Civil Engineering. The center was created to support field activities and to perform 

contingency planning. It was responsible for ensuring civil engineering mobility to respond to air 

base emergencies and contingencies world-wide. Duties of the center included the assessment of 

personnel, training, and equipment needs, with special emphasis on Prime BEEF and RED HORSE 

programs. The center also responded to base requests for specialized technical support in the areas of 

pavements evaluation, corrosion control, forestry management, snow and ice removal, fire protection, 

and procurement of specialized services.38

The Environmental Protection Group was established in the Directorate of Civil Engineering 

on July 24, 1970, following the designation of the Directorate of Civil Engineering as the lead for 

environmental protection matters on the Air Staff. The new group comprised three officers and eight 

civilians.39 The Environmental Protection Group developed policies, programs, and procedures for the 

protection of environmental quality and management of natural resources conservation programs.40

In 1971, the number of divisions in the Directorate of Civil Engineering was reduced from five 

to four: Housing, Civil Engineering Programs, Plant Engineering, and Management. The former 

Construction Division was merged into the Plant Engineering Division to improve the management of 

Air Force design, construction, and maintenance. The Plant Engineering Division’s expanded mission 

encompassed criteria and policy development, design, construction, maintenance, and utilities systems 

operations. The division was organized into three branches: Engineering Operations, Structures, and 

Utilities.41

This reorganization also resulted in a physical relocation of some divisions. Previously, sections 

of Air Force civil engineering were dispersed among several locations in Washington, D.C., and its 

suburbs. The Housing Division and the Fire Protection Group moved from Temporary Bldg T-8 to the 

Pentagon and acquired space previously occupied by the Construction Division. The Plant Engineering 

Division was moved to Building 626 at Bolling AFB, already occupied by the Real Estate Agency.42

In 1972, U.S. Air Force Headquarters required that the Air Staff shed all field extensions and the 

Directorate of Civil Engineering (AF/PRE) again underwent reorganization. The former Real Estate 

Agency became the Real Property Division (AF/PRER), one of six new divisions. The other five 

divisions were Engineering (AF/PREE), Maintenance/Management (AF/PREM), Civil Engineering 

Programs (AF/PREP), Housing (AF/PREN), and Construction (AF/PREC) (Figure 3.3). The Real 

Property, Engineering, and Construction divisions all resided at Bolling AFB at this time. The three Air 

Force Regional Civil Engineer offices became detachments of the 1137th Special Activities Squadron 

of Headquarters Command. The Civil Engineering Center was transferred to the Air Force Systems 

Command in June 1972. Nineteen policy functions formerly executed by the center reverted to Air 
186 Leading the Way

Staff. Among these functions were fire protection, corrosion control, contingency planning, policy, 

and personnel training for Prime BEEF and RED HORSE, aircraft arresting systems, and applications 

engineering and investigational engineering programs. As a result of this last reorganization, staffing 

in the Directorate of Civil Engineering was reduced to approximately 300 persons.43

In September 1974, the Environmental Protection Group became the Environmental Planning 

Division (AF/PREV) under the Directorate of Civil Engineering. The purpose of the new division 

was to “provide integrated management of environmental protection, master planning for air base 

development, and land-use planning.” The new division contained two branches: Air Base Planning 

and Development and Environmental Policy and Assessment.44 This reorganization was a milestone 

and the first major step for the re-creation and importance of air base facility planning in a new era 

of environmental concerns expressed in part by the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 as 

“all agencies of the Federal Government shall—(A) utilize a systematic, interdisciplinary approach 

which will insure the integrated use of the natural and social sciences and the environmental design 

arts in planning and decision-making which may have an impact of man’s environment.”45 Up until 

the time of the Air Staff reorganization of September 1974, this aspect of the law was not widely or 

fully understood to require implementing actions focused on integrated systematic interdisciplinary 

approach for decision-making as well as environmental protection and quality criteria. 

Major Command Civil Engineering Directorates

Civil engineering at the major command level also was reviewed and reorganized to reflect Air 

Staff changes. A standard staff organization for civil engineering at the major command level was established in AFR 23-4 revised June 1965 based on a recommendation from the Directorate of Manpower 

and Organization. Brig. Gen. Oran O. Price commented, after reviewing the existing civil engineering 

structure in the major commands, “It is like 15 doctors performing an appendectomy in five different 

parts of the hospital with 10 of the doctors identifying the operation by various names.” AFR 23-4 was 

revised after soliciting comments from the major commands, regional civil engineer offices, and Air 

Staff divisions. The new structure eliminated confusion over assignments and responsibilities in major 

commands, facilitated communication among major commands, and ensured effective and efficient 

staff performance through consolidation of similar activities and responsibilities.46

Source: “The ‘New Look’ at AF/PRE,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 14, No 1, Feb 1973, 3.
Source: AFR 23-4, “Civil Engineer Staff Organization,” June 1965.

Rising to the Challenge 187

Under the standard organizational structure, the Deputy Chief of Staff Civil Engineering led the 

organization under the command element. The command civil engineering organization was responsible for base facilities planning and programming for active and proposed missions; engineering, 

design, construction, repair, and alterations of facilities funded through all sources; operation and 

maintenance of bases; real estate activities; fire protection; and, procedures and resources planning for 

effective major command mission support. The Deputy Chief of Staff, Civil Engineering oversaw four 

directorates: Programs, Engineering and Construction, Operations and Maintenance, and Resources 

Planning. Fire Protection and Utilities Divisions were under the Directorate of Operations and Maintenance (Figure 3.4).47 This organizational structure was reconfirmed in 1973.48

The Continued Drive for Professional Development

All Air Force civil engineers were encouraged to keep abreast of changes in technology, especially 

construction technology, in order to remain responsive to the needs of the Air Force mission and to 

maintain Air Force real property assets on bases. General Minton identified three key skills necessary 

for the success of an Air Force engineer: “professional competence, keen managerial ability, and 

effective salesmanship.”49 For General Minton, professional competence extended beyond increased 

engineering knowledge and technical ability to a commitment to engineering as a profession and 

active participation in professional engineering activities. Management ability encompassed effective 

oversight of personnel, facilities, and budgets for the operation and maintenance of Air Force real 

property assets. General Minton described salesmanship as the ability to chart a course of action based 

on good engineering practice and to convince Air Force superiors of the soundness of the course.50

The professional development program extended to many areas. Education and training were 

key elements of the program and included formal degree programs, training with industry and correspondence courses. General Minton viewed engineering registration and specialized certification 

as important tools for promoting and maintaining professionalism, directing engineers “I want it [the 

professional certificate] right there behind your desk, so when somebody is sitting there talking to 

you, they will see that certificate and any others you have.”51 General Minton convinced the National 

Society of Professional Engineers to accept engineering experience in the military as credit toward 

registration as a Professional Engineer. He also supported expanded educational opportunities at the 

civil engineering school at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.52 In addition, he created a civilian advisory 

committee to enhance the proficiency and reputation of Air Force civil engineers. The committee 

formed groups on electronic data processing, education, professionalism, technical operations, and 

public relations to discuss and analyze current trends.53

One goal of the professional development program was the cost-effective use of professional 

skills within the Air Force. General Minton argued that, wherever possible, in-house engineering skills 

should be used to the maximum and wrote, 
A new publication entitled Air Force Civil Engineer debuted on 

February 1, 1960.58 Published by the Civil Engineering Center of 

the Air Force Institute of Technology at Wright-Patterson AFB, 

the inaugural issue contained 32 pages. Five thousand copies 

were distributed among 100,700 personnel assigned to Air Force 

civil engineering activities.59 The new periodical was designed 

to be the equivalent of other military engineering journals with 

the broader mission of promoting increased professionalism and 

facilitating communication among civil engineers at the director’s 

office, major commands, and the bases. The purpose of the new 

magazine, General Minton wrote in the inaugural issue, was 

“to provide a medium of exchange of professional ideas and 

information which will result in a more effective civil engineering function in the Air Force.”60

General Minton wanted a journal that would encourage civil engineers to seek professional 

registration, to serve as a forum to share management improvement ideas, and to promote Air 

Force engineering achievements and challenges.61 

The magazine was published four times per year at Wright-Patterson AFB. One notable feature 

of the magazine was the use of color introduced in the November 1961 issue.62 General Minton 

recalled, “It was an OSD [Office of Secretary of Defense] policy that there would be no color 

in publications such as that. Colonel [Wallace “Wally”] Grubbs, [who was General Minton’s 

Executive] made it part of the professional development program and got approval to publish

 continued

Civil Engineer Professional Publication

188 Leading the Way

Many relatively minor engineering studies, estimates and designs are all too 

frequently being accomplished by contract. These include such things as electrical power studies, fuel conversion analyses, building relocation projects, smaller 

drainage projects and the like. The evidence is clear that a larger portion of our 

engineering and design work can and should be done in-house....The result will be 

an upgrading of our over-all professional capability as well as better maintenance, 

improved accomplishment of O&M projects, better surveillance of major construction, and a saving in resources which can then be applied to other pressing needs. 

Where we have good engineering capability, let’s use it prudently and fully. Where 

we don’t have a minimum level, let’s develop it as fast as we can.54

Using in-house engineering capabilities as opposed to engineering contracts was also stressed by 

General Curtin when he became director of civil engineering.55 By 1967, in-house design capability in 

civil engineering was at a high level. General Curtin reported that “we are designing in-house over 75 

percent of our minor construction, repair and other projects under Air Force cognizance. This means 

that we finally have in-being the strong engineering backbone we must have to effectively carry out 

our other day-to-day responsibilities.”56

The professional development program also stressed professional publications and presentations. 

The regular publication of the professional journal, Air Force Civil Engineer, which debuted in February 1960, was a direct result of this emphasis.57 General Minton and succeeding directors continued 

the annual meeting for senior Air Force civil engineers, known as the World-wide conference. These 

conferences were a way to disseminate policies and plans, as well as to share ideas and to discuss 

challenges faced by major commands and bases.
Civil Engineer Professional Publication continued

in color. We had a drawing of a heat plant that required some way to illustrate the difference 

between hot and cold water and steam. He went over and talked to the right people in the right 

way and in about 24 hours we got authority to use color.”63 Color was used in illustrations and 

to add interest to typefaces and page layouts.

The magazine’s first editor was a civilian, Graham T. Horton. In 1962, General Minton hired 

Steve Canton, a professional editor. Canton’s first assignment was to travel to Homestead AFB 

to cover the Air Force buildup prior to the Cuban missile crisis. At one time, the magazine 

employed six professionals, including a creative art director. Subsequent editors included 

George K. Dimitroff (1967-1980), H. Perry Sullivan (1982-86, 1988-95), Letha Cozert (1998-

2003), and Teresa Hood (2003-present). 

From the first, General Minton encouraged authorship of articles and gained sponsorship of 

an award for the best article published each year. The yearly award was named in his honor.64

Between 1960 and 1972, 52 issues of the Air Force Civil Engineer published 599 technical 

articles written by Air Force civil engineers, both military and civilians.65

Throughout the years, the magazine has changed its name and format several times. In August 

1975, the magazine’s name became the Engineering and Services Quarterly following the 

merger of Services and Civil Engineering. Publication of the quarterly magazine ceased in 1986 

during a period of cost reduction. The Air Force Engineering and Services Center began to 

publish a modest newsletter in August 1988. This newsletter initially was titled the Engineering 

and Services Update, and later the CE Update. In April 1993, the Air Force Civil Engineer 

magazine debuted. Full color illustrations were introduced in summer 1995. In 2007, the firstever Almanac issue was released. This annual publication quickly became a useful reference 

tool for civil engineers throughout the Air Force.66

Rising to the Challenge 189

General Minton and succeeding directors of Civil Engineering advocated strongly for civil engineers to join national engineering groups, such as SAME. This organization served as an information 

forum among engineers from all U.S. Armed Forces. General Minton became the president of SAME 

in 1960. The presidency of the organization typically rotated among engineers from the Air Force, 

Army, and Navy. One of General Minton’s stated objectives as president was to encourage younger 

civil engineers to join and to participate actively in the organization either through local chapters or 

on the national level.67

The professional development program was strongly supported by Generals Curtin and Goddard, 

the succeeding Directors of Civil Engineering. General Curtin urged all Air Force civil engineers 

to pursue professional advancement through education, professional registration, and participation 

in local and national professional societies.68 General Curtin also issued ten commandments for job 

performance. General Goddard recommended that, in addition to professional registration, all civil 

engineers undertake independent study in both technical specialties and management, as well as 

participate in professional societies, publish in the field, and take advantage of formal and informal 

educational opportunities, such as seminars and correspondence courses.69 These activities were necessary to keep civil engineers’ skill sets current with changing technologies in the field of engineering, 

and personnel and project management.

Maj. John J. Lieb, who served as the Control Center Chief in the 3201st Civil Engineer Group at 

Eglin AFB, Florida, summarized the importance of professional registration: 
1. We will produce effective and fully useful work in the first instance.

2. We will call upon our experience and apply the test of logic and common sense where 

 judgment is needed.

3. We will accept full responsibility for our work and its accomplishment without flaw.

4. We will eliminate any shortcomings in “communication” by correlating our work with others 

 concerned.

5. We will not accept substandard work from others and we will help others to eliminate 

 substandard work.

6. We will advise our superiors of any substandard work coming under or emanating from our 

 control.

7. We will constantly strive to improve the quality of our work.

8. We will evolve faster means to eliminate defects in our work.

9. We will hold our heads high as we leave work each evening knowing that we have done our 

 very best.

10. We CAN DO and WILL DO.70

Our Ten Commandments of Job Performance

190 Leading the Way

Registration and professional prestige are synonymous. It gives the engineer a 

distinction; it gives evidence of ability by certifying an individual’s competence 

according to a recognized standard...We, as Civil Engineers, provide, operate and 

maintain Air Force facilities, and our success, to a great extent depends upon our 

competence. We are, in fact, guardians of life, health and property at our bases. The 

public expects a trusted profession to maintain high standards of qualifications and 

to clear its ranks of those who do not meet the standards. No profession can gain 

respect unless its minimum standard is high. Registration provides the means to 

reach this goal. We should not accept a lesser goal, but be leaders in attaining it.71

Emphasis on professionalism in civil engineering continued through the early 1970s. In 1971, 

Air Force civil engineers were encouraged to have PRIDE, or Professional Responsibility in Daily 

Engineering.72

The Engineer-Manager

During the 1960s, the description “engineer-manager” came to characterize the job of the Air 

Force civil engineer. The engineer-manager not only maintained technical engineer proficiency, but 

also acquired managerial skills to coordinate teams on major projects or to manage air bases with 

the size and complexity of small cities.73 During the 1960s and early 1970s, Air Force civil engineers 

implemented new management controls to increase operational efficiencies, to improve personnel 

productivity and quality, and to track and control costs. Management principles drawn from the private 

sector were applied to the Air Force civil engineering organization. As expressed by General Minton, 

“The well-rounded Air Force Civil Engineer must be a good executive and a good manager. As an 

engineer, he has a professional responsibility for keeping himself informed on the latest technological 

developments—new products, processes, and scientific tools. As an executive, he has an associated 

responsibility for keeping himself informed on the latest development in the management sciences.”74

In 1961, a new cost accounting system was adopted by the Air Defense Command to meet the 

day-to-day need for realistic cost information at all levels of civil engineering. The complexity of base 

management, which included operations and maintenance for a wide variety of facilities at a diversity 

of bases, required an accessible and accurate system to track costs. Development of the system began 
Rising to the Challenge 191

in late 1959 and was field tested at Tyndall AFB, Florida. The system provided the capability to capture 

new and detailed cost data at base level and to compile data appropriate for reporting to headquarters.75

In 1962, the Critical Path Method (CPM) was introduced as a scheduling tool that incorporated 

graphs and diagrams illustrating project planning, scheduling, and time/resources relationships.76 CPM 

was a method of applying a network scheduling technique to projects. The technique divided a project 

into major tasks, i.e., planning, scheduling, and time/resources relationships. Each task was subdivided 

into the actions, activities, events required to accomplish the task. Charting these steps assisted in 

overall project planning and in organizing personnel, materials, and scheduling. While construction was 

a major area of application for CPM, the technique also held promise to support contract schedules, 

critical operations within the organization, and assessing progress status.77 During 1962, Directorate 

of Civil Engineering personnel were briefed on CPM and the related Navy-developed Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT). Briefings were also given to civil engineering personnel at the 

Air Force Regional Civil Engineer Offices and at major commands.78

In March 1963, CPM was adopted by the North Pacific Air Force Regional Civil Engineer office. 

By March 1965, CPM was employed on 66 projects, totaling over $15 million in new construction.79 By 

1966, CPM was applied as a management tool to assist planning on the base level and at headquarters. 

The method was used in military construction projects and maintenance operations.80 In July 1967, 

CPM was used to support planning to implement the reorganization of Directorate of Civil Engineering. CPM came to stand for Complete Project Management.81

General Curtin introduced several programs to increase operational efficiencies and manpower 

productivity through improved management in response to declining budgets. Austere budgets for 

stateside bases became the norm during the mid-1960s, as defense resources were directed to the 

conflict in Southeast Asia. Between FY65 and FY68, funding directed for activities in Southeast Asia 

increased fourfold. In that same period, funds available for facility maintenance by contractors at the 

stateside bases decreased by 60 percent. In addition, funds available for supply procurements for inhouse maintenance and repair also decreased.

One program initiated under General Curtin and continued by General Goddard was BALANCE, 

which stood for Basic and Logically Applied Norms-Civil Engineering.82 The goal of the program 

was to examine basic civil engineering responsibilities and logically determine immediate areas for 

emphasis, then apply them through “the expression of norms for evaluating civil engineering effectiveness.”83 Air Force civil engineers operated under approximately 185 manuals, regulations, and 

pamphlets, in addition to Air Force procurement, supply, and other rules. Questions arose on how to 

determine acceptable performance levels for civil engineers in light of the large volume of technical 

and substantive requirements. The BALANCE program was initiated as a self-evaluation process 

tailored to the civil engineering organization in all major commands. Instead of analyzing the missions 

of major command, BALANCE scrutinized the civil engineering functions necessary to support those 

missions. Three objectives were derived:

1. Provide major commands with a self-evaluating and uniform measuring 

 technique to assess effectiveness of civil engineering.

2. Isolate problem areas and channel management effort.

3. Improve communications between Headquarters U.S. Air Force and the major 

 commands.84

The program developers identified 26 areas for evaluation. The evaluation indicators were modified 

over time to emphasize areas of Air Staff concern. BALANCE teams comprising senior members of 

the Directorate of Civil Engineering visited major commands. The first BALANCE team was led by 

Mr. Rufus “Davey” Crockett, Associate Deputy Director of Civil Engineering. By 1968, the program 

was expanded to encompass all levels of the civil engineering organization and management by results 

was incorporated into AFR 85-21.85
1. Work Force Productivity: Increase the productivity and effectiveness of the work force by 

 15 percent.

2. Inventory Use and Condition: Obtain a credible posture on the use, condition, aggressive 

 disposal and proper reporting of our inventory.

3. Supply Support: Determine the dollar amount of locally purchased supplies required to keep 

 our work force gainfully employed and see that the Air Force Operations and Maintenance 

 budget and supply system provide this amount.

4. Annual MCP Level: To attain and maintain an annual MCP level of $750 million for the next 

 five years.

5. Projects by Contract-EE520: To determine the optimum annual level of funding for projects 

 by contract to adequately complement the in-house work force capability in 

 accomplishment of the maintenance and repair requirement and to reduce the backlog of 

 maintenance and repair to an acceptable level within the next five years.

6. Family Housing New Construction: Increase the level of new family housing construction 

 to 10,000 units per year beginning with the FY70 Military Construction Program, 

 and continuing for the next 10 years. 

 continued

FY69 Civil Engineering Objectives

192 Leading the Way

A corollary program to BALANCE was Program Evaluation and Assistance-Civil Engineering 

(PEACE). This program was conceived in November 1967 as a way to examine base-level implementation of revised regulations, new programs, and new directives issued by the Directorate of Civil 

Engineering. In January 1968, the first PEACE team visited Bolling AFB, D.C., and Andrews AFB, 

Maryland. PEACE teams were handpicked by the Director of Civil Engineering and comprised personnel with hands-on experience from all divisions in the directorate in grades ranging from master 

sergeant through colonel. The PEACE team sought to observe the real working conditions on the 

bases with a minimum of disruption to base day-to-day activities. Another major objective was to 

strengthen communication between directorate personnel and base-level personnel. During the twoday visit, PEACE team members met with their base counterparts. At the end of the visit, the results 

and observations of the PEACE team were delivered orally to the base civil engineer and individual 

organization areas. During 1968-1969, 22 bases were visited, representing a sample of approximately 

10 percent of major Air Force installations. The overall findings of the PEACE team identified areas 

for improvement both in base level procedures and through revised regulations.86

Beginning in FY69, General Goddard established a Management Review Panel that met in a Management Review Center and comprised selected leaders from throughout the organization. This group 

provided general guidance for evaluating all elements of the ongoing comprehensive management 

improvement program, including BALANCE, PEACE, automation efforts, and total programming. 

This group also assisted in establishing annual Civil Engineering objectives and developing a management review program.87 For FY69, General Goddard and the Management Review Panel defined 13 

major civil engineering objectives. These broad-based policy and performance objectives addressed 

the entire spectrum of civil engineering resources management. The objectives were a major item on 

the agenda of the December 1968 World-wide conference and were published in the Air Force Civil 

Engineer magazine.88 

In January FY75, the Directorate of Civil Engineering directed that each major command and base 

civil engineering organization establish a Management by Objectives program. The Management by 

Objectives program was designed as a decentralized management tool tailored by civil engineer managers at each level to their unique concerns, challenges, organizations, and missions. All objectives and 

tracking were conducted at the organizational level and oriented to the current needs and concerns of 

the organization. Objectives were not, however, established by headquarters and no formal reporting 
FY69 Civil Engineering Objectives continued

7. Modernization of Existing Family Housing Inventory: Increase the level of funding 

 for improvement to existing family housing units to approximately $20 million per year 

 beginning FY70 MCP and continue this level until all existing inventory is brought to a 

 level of comparability.

8. RED HORSE Force Level: Retain on a permanent basis a RED HORSE force level of 

 approximately 3,000.

9. Civil Engineer Research and Development: Recognize and program Civil Engineer 

 Research and Development requirements within the Civil Engineering Technology Program 

 Element established in FY70 and expand the applications engineering capability to 

 take greater advantage of the experience of industry and other Government agencies.

10. Civil Engineering Vehicular Equipment: Obtain urgently needed Civil Engineering vehicle 

 replacements and implement a multi-year modernization program.

11. Professional Engineer Force: To maintain a viable, efficient and mobile organic 

 Professional Engineer Force (GS-9 and above) capable of supporting the Air Force 

 worldwide mission in peace and war through a variety of work accomplishments that will 

 assure top proficiency.

12. Fire Prevention: Reduce the dollar loss of the Air Force physical plant due to fire and 

 the number of incidents which could lead to fire loss to a level not in excess of either 80 

 percent of the past three years average or 95 percent of the past year’s experience, 

 whichever is less.

13. Design and Construction: Reduce in FY70 the design execution time and cost by 25 

 percent and the construction execution time and surveillance cost by 10 percent.89

Rising to the Challenge 193

was required. The sole program requirements were that the Management by Objectives program be 

formal and visible.90

The Directorate of Civil Engineering introduced the Standard Base Civil Engineer Management 

Review Program to assist base civil engineers in utilizing base data generated by studies and compiled 

in automated data bases. The purpose of the program was to provide the base civil engineer with the 

basic data that described “the status of his programs, personnel, finances, workload, vehicles, engineering design and construction so that he can make the best decisions based on the best information 

available.” The program also provided standards and tables to facilitate self-administered base evaluations. The directorate further generated annual management targets. By late 1969, the first materials 

were distributed to the bases through each major command. The Management Review Program was 

designed to complement the BALANCE program. The program was described in AFR 85-20 published in July 1969.91 In early 1971, AFM 85-38 entitled Civil Engineer Management Review was 

published. This manual presented the basic concept and process for base civil engineer management 

review, self-evaluation, and problem solving, as well as provided specific guidance for the Industrial 

Engineering activity.92

In October 1969, General Goddard renamed the PEACE Team the Management Review Team. 

The team’s function was to evaluate the capability and performance of base civil engineering and supporting organizations. Quarterly base-level reviews and evaluations of civil engineer operations and 

management were proposed. PEACE teams comprised representatives from each division.93 By May 

1970, the Management Review Team had visited four bases.94 The 11-person Management Review 

Team was re-chartered in early FY71. Its mandate called for conducting total performance evaluations 

of selected base civil engineering organizations. Of the 17 base visits scheduled during FY71, four 

visits were completed between October and November 1970.95 The team’s purpose was to evaluate 

use and effectiveness of directives, systems, and programs; resource capability of base civil engineer 

organizations; support provided to base civil engineers; and major problems identified in the field.96
194 Leading the Way

During the late 1960s, efforts also were made to impose greater controls on the programming 

process for new construction, minor construction and repair under $200,000, and operation and maintenance funds. The emphasis on programming was driven, in part, by new funding processes instituted by 

the Office of the Secretary of Defense. During the early 1960s, the MCP operated on a five-year cycle 

with operations and maintenance funds allocated on a yearly basis. In fall 1963, General Goddard, then 

command civil engineer of AFLC, instituted the concept of total programming, which incorporated 

a five-year planning cycle for operations and maintenance funds. In 1964, the base civil engineer at 

Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, was assigned the task to test the program and to develop procedures to 

prepare and to manage the five-year operations and maintenance phase of the program.97

In October 1966, Project Top Theme was initiated at the Air Staff to improve Air Force civil 

engineering programming efforts. By late 1967, the concept had evolved into total programming.98

Total programming was designed to maximize construction and maintenance from available dollars. 

As explained by General Goddard,

Total programming exemplifies an integrated systems approach to comprehensive 

work planning and resource utilization.... It is having an enormous impact on 

our base-level operations...for without adequate determinations of our total work 

requirements, our resources and their planned use, and our current and projected 

deficiencies and limitations, we cannot adequately define our current total management role, much less perform it.99

Total programming, simply stated, was single point programming. The process consolidated the 

analysis of relevant data on facility requirements and available funding to prioritize projects for 

execution during a one to five year period. Implementation of total programming required five steps:

1. Identifying work and resource requirements

2. Estimating resources, including labor hours, material dollars, and contract 

 dollars

3. Developing the program for new facilities or maintenance and repair projects

4. Gaining program approval

5. Accomplishing the work as funded100

The initial step of total programming required field verification and condition assessments of 

buildings, structure, and infrastructure on bases. This verification process further assisted in identifying assets in need of repair, replacement, modernization, or upgrading. AFLC tested a total facility 

study in 1966 at Hill AFB, Utah, then required implementation of the procedure on all its bases in 

September 1966.101 By 1968, the process was in use Air Force-wide. Engineers examined the structural 

sufficiency and economic viability of existing facilities to determine their condition and capacities. 

Corrective actions to remediate civil engineering concerns also were identified. Project documentation 

files, known as “jacket files,” were developed for each major facility and contained the engineering 

evaluation and all documents pertaining to proposed or completed work. Responsibility for single-point 

programming was assigned at each base, major command, and directorate of civil engineering. All 

facility programs were reviewed by the same office under a single manager to improve coordination of 

the military construction program, operations and maintenance, and non-appropriated funds projects.102

By 1970, an automated version of total programming was under development.103 The automated 

program was implemented in 1972.104 During 1973, the Air Staff conducted an in-depth study of 

total programming to determine if the concept generated data for effective resource management 

commensurate with the level of effort expended. Feedback from the major commands, bases, and 

the Inspector General indicated that, in many instances, aspects of the total programming program 
Rising to the Challenge 195

were not working as effectively as originally intended.105 By December 1975, total programming was 

eliminated from base-level procedures and AFR 85-1. Total programming was found not to be cost 

effective since few automated products were used widely and little of the work identified through total 

programming was accomplished.106

Other management initiatives addressed improving worker productivity and instituting quality 

control and evaluation functions. By 1967, quality control program guidelines were published in 

AFM 85-1, paragraph 4-7. The general guidelines directed monthly random inspections of in-service 

work managed through the base work control center, as well as bi-annual inspection of all work center 

management activities. In implementing these guidelines, AFLC noted problems in the execution of 

the quality control program. Air Staff, which was committed to the quality control program, responded 

with a review of the entire program. The resulting study revealed a wide variety of problems, including 

lack of support for the program, ill-defined credentials for inspectors, problems in sampling methods, 

and a lack of standardized checklists to assure consistent data collection. AFLC redesigned the program, standardized sampling methods and reporting requirements, and tested the program from July 

through December 1969.107 The quality control program continued to be supported by the Air Staff 

through the early 1970s.108

Personnel Allocations and Project Prime BEEF 

Manpower presented a continual challenge throughout the Air Force civil engineer organization. 

Manpower reviews, known as blue suit reviews by the 1990s, were conducted periodically to evaluate 

total personnel numbers required to support war fighting scenarios defined by the DoD. Personnel 

on active duty, in the Air National Guard and in the Air Force Reserves were included in manpower 

totals. The reviews determined strength in specific categories of positions as defined under Air Force 

Specialty Codes (AFSC) and Unit Type Codes (UTC) for contingency operations. The ratio and mix 

of officers and enlisted personnel also were assessed. Such reviews provided the Air Force with a 

firm grasp of the classifications of available military personnel. These evaluations typically resulted in 

repositioning military personnel, redefining personnel responsibilities, and often eliminating unneeded 

or dead-end career fields.

During the early 1960s, Air Force civil engineer personnel numbered 100,000, including 2,000 

officers, 41,000 Airmen, and 57,000 civilians.109 Discussions were initiated to revise the AFSCs established in 1957, which were becoming outdated and did not reflect the current roles of Air Force civil 

engineers.110 Each major command differed in organization, as did the mix of military and civilian 

personnel within each command.111 In addition, while the overall number of officers stood at 93 percent of requirements, a severe imbalance existed between senior and junior officers. The number of 

lieutenants represented 165 percent of requirements, while the number of captains filled 50 percent 

of requirements.112

Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin was Director of Civil Engineering at the time. As he told the story, 

The Air Force Organization and Manpower office raised the question regarding the 

size and organization of our force. [Maj. Gen.] Benjamin Davis brought it to me. 

I’d never really thought about it in the terms he pointed out. He said, “We have 

to do something, or we’re just going to lose a lot of the military because of the 

demands on them.”...It was mainly related to the question of why did we have “X” 

number of military on one base and “Y” number of military on another. It didn’t 

seem to relate to the flying units. The idea of Prime BEEF was to establish some 

organization and standardization of things and recognition of the fact that there 

were a certain number of people required to do the jobs that we did. And we had to 

create a closer relationship with the flying capabilities, or the wartime capabilities, 
Col. William T. Meredith

196 Leading the Way

if you will. That’s when we started looking at how many people do you need over 

here, really, and who’s going to set up the camps. We did a lot of planning on how 

to deploy.113

In December 1963, the Civil Engineering Manpower Study Group was formed. Representatives 

from Civilian and Military Personnel were added to the group when the goal became to manage total 

manpower requirements for civil engineering personnel. The purpose of the group was to “determine 

the distribution, alignment, reliability, credibility, and skills required in the Civil Engineering Manpower resource to perform essential Civil Engineer functions in support of the Air Force mission.” The 

group also worked within DoD and Air Force manpower guidelines, including AFM 26-10 Manpower 

Utilization that stated that military personnel would be used in direct combat situations, while civilians 

would be used in indirect combat support functions.114

The study group addressed questions raised by the U.S. Congress in regards to the military manpower of the Air Force civil engineers. According to Lt. Col. (later Brig. Gen.) William T. Meredith, 

who served as Chairman of the study group, Brig. Gen. Oran Price, Deputy Director for Civil Engineering Operations, Air Staff, approached him with the following assignment: “Congress has raised 

the question, probably caused by the unions, why the Air Force has 44,000 blue suit troops in civil 

engineering, predominantly in Strategic Air Command, instead of those being civilian spaces. Two 

questions have got to be answered. Do we need combat support, or don’t we? And if we do, what do 

we need?” General Price assigned Colonel Meredith the tasks of forming a study group and presenting 

the results for the U.S. Congress. He was given an 18 month deadline.115

The study group combined the questions into one: “Is the present Civil Engineer Force properly 

aligned and is the distribution of this resource adequate to perform the essential real property facility functions in support of the Air Force mission today and tomorrow?” Part of the study included a 

one-week visit to the Department of Civil Engineering Training at Sheppard AFB, Texas. The object 

of the visit was to gather information from major commands related to their specific procedures.116
Rising to the Challenge 197

The Formal Report of the Civil Engineering Manpower Study Group defined five key issues within 

the existing Air Force structure in 1963.117 These issues showed:

1. No appreciable rapid mobile response capability for Tactical Air, Special Air Warfare, 

 or contingencies...

2. The civilian/military mix developed without any uniformity between major commands,

 or between similar type installations within the same major command...

3. Little or no relationship between the skills identified for military authorizations and the 

 tasks which this ‘hard core’ resource must perform in its combat support role...

4. The career progression in many areas was inadequate...

5. The skill level requirements in many cases were not adequate to meet the skill 

 requirements of the job...118

The Air Force was without reliable dedicated wartime or emergency construction capability based 

on the 1957 DoD Directive 1315.6 that defined the separate roles of the Air Force and the Army in 

overseas contingency operations. Recent experiences, such as the 1961 Berlin crisis, the Cuban Missile crisis, and the early years of the Air Force involvement in Southeast Asia, demonstrated to Air 

Force civil engineers that “there was insufficient military capability to provide continuity of essential 

services under emergency conditions.”119

Changes in weapons systems and the role of civil engineers were major factors in the issue of 

manpower allocations. “The role of the civil engineer has changed to one of Direct Combat Support. 

For the first time, major weapons systems became dependent of Civil Engineering support to get off 

the ground or to exist in their ground environment...The complexity of our facilities, as they relate to 

the weapons systems, requires maximum assurance of continuing operations.”120 The report marked 

the official recognition of the significant changes that had occurred in the late 1950s and early 1960s. 

Official recognition of these changes further confirmed the appropriateness of General Minton’s push 

for professionalism and the critical importance of civil engineers in support of new CONUS weapons 

systems, such as missiles, and the defensive systems, Semi-Automated Ground Environment (SAGE) 

and Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS). The study also acknowledged that the skill 

sets of military personnel must include those required for combat support and not be limited to the 

skills for maintaining peacetime bases.121

General Meredith recalled how the results of the study group were formulated,

we began studying and considering what kind of teams we needed to carry out the 

scenarios in those postulates. Like major base support, regardless of whether it 

was combat or not, i.e., supply or whatever. Then we went through the makeup of 

the force—carpenters, plumbers, power production, firefighters, etc., and we set 

up a scale. We said for a contingency team, for instance, we would need about a 

60-man team. We had an M-type team for missiles that was a 60-man team. An R 

team was for recovery. We took those numbers and overlaid them on the manpower 

documents, base by base. Jeanne Holm, Ken Jacobson, and I sat down and in those 

days, you’ll remember, Xerox had just started. We didn’t have computers. We sat 

there for over 72 hours. We only broke enough to get a bite to eat and go to the 

bathroom. We took the Air Force manning document, every damned page in it, and 

we went through and made a separate sheet for each one of those bases, indexed it 

back to that manning document, put the revised manpower onto it, including every 

slot as to what it should be—military or civilian, what the grade should be, and 

what the skill level should be. After we finished, we tidied it up. We came up with, 

as I recall, a requirement of 37,000 or something like that.122
MECHANICAL/ELECTRICAL

541X0 Missile Facilities 

542X0 Electrician

542X1 Electric Power Line

543X0 Electrical Power Production

544X0 Cryogenic Fluids Production

545X0 Refrigeration & A/C

546X0 Liquid Fuels System Maint

547X0 Heating System

SANITATION

563X0 Water & Waste Processing

566X0 Engineering Entomology

Figure 3.5 Civil Engineering Air Force Specialty Codes - 1964

STRUCTURAL/PAVEMENTS

551X0 Pavement Maintenance

551X1 Construction Equipment

552X0 Carpentry

552X3 Masonry

552X4 Protective Coating

552X5 Plumbing

553X0 Site Development Specialist

554X0 Cost and Real Property

555X0 General Maintenance Mechanic

556X0 Work Control

FIRE PROTECTION

571X0 Fire Protection

Source: Files of AFCEC History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida.

198 Leading the Way

The results of the study group had far reaching effects on military and civilian Air Force civil 

engineer personnel allocations. The study group demonstrated that restructuring military and civilian 

staffing of the Air Force civil engineering organization was necessary in order to “fulfill adequately its 

direct combat support role.” Skill specialties were redefined and revised as a result of the study. AFM 

39-1 issued in September 1964 explained the new structure (Figure 3.5). One result of the restructuring was to establish specific areas of training to build skill sets necessary for disaster and emergency 

recovery and combat missions. According to Lieutenant Colonel Meredith in a 1964 article in Air 

Force Civil Engineer magazine, “often, prior to the career structure revision, there was no relationship between the skills identified for military authorizations and the skills needed for direct combat 

support.”123

In addition to supporting a focused training element, the restructuring also abolished dead-end 

career tracks, thus creating opportunities for promotion within specialized areas of the civil engineer 

career structure. The overall career structure was divided into four areas: Mechanical-Electrical, 

Structural-Pavement, Sanitation, and Fire Protection and encompassed 21 career ladders and ten 

superintendent positions.124

The most significant result of the manpower study was the creation of the Base Engineer Emergency Forces, known as Prime BEEF. The name was coined by General Price. According to General 

Meredith, 

I said to General Price, “We’ve got to come up with a name for this thing.” He said, 

“I’ve been thinking about it.” And he’s the man who named Prime BEEF. He said, 

“Prime BEEF.” I said, “Tell me what it stands for.” He said, “Prime, meaning the 

first force, prima. And BEEF—base engineer emergency force.” And that’s where it 

stuck.125

The 1964 Formal Report of the Civil Engineering Manpower Study Group explained the three 

military missions of Prime BEEF:
* Personnel came from existing R teams, not included in total. 

Source: Maj. Hubert S. Nethercot, “Prime BEEF Base Recovery Forces,” Research Study submitted to the 

Faculty of Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1973, 33.

Rising to the Challenge 199

1. A minimum force of military civil engineers must be maintained at each air 

 base, missile squadron/wing, depot or station, world-wide to maintain 

 essential O&M services during and immediately following enemy attack, 

 periods of imminent attack, major fires, floods and other emergency conditions.

2. A force of military civil engineers must be attached to each flying unit which 

 is designated for performance of emergency missions from an unoccupied, 

 bare or dispersed operating base. This force of civil engineers must maintain 

 its integrity and be prepared to proceed or accompany the flying unit for 

 which it will provide essential O&M services under emergency conditions.

3. A force of Military Civil Engineers must be trained in pioneer environments 

 and be prepared to participate in unforeseen Contingencies and Special Air 

 Warfare operations such as occurred during the Berlin, Cuba, and Southeast 

 Asia crises.126

Originally, Prime BEEF was organized with two major operational concepts: Base Engineer 

Emergency Team Concept (BEET) and Mobile Combat Support Team Concept (MCST).127 By 1965, 

Prime BEEF comprised four groups: BEEF-R, Recovery Team; BEEF-C, Contingency Team; BEEFF, Flyaway Team; and BEEF-M, Missile Team.128 The Recovery Team fulfilled the emergency team 

concept and a recovery team was formed from military personnel stationed at each CONUS and 

overseas base. Recovery Teams ensured base maintenance and operations during, and immediately 

following, an attack, major emergency, or natural disaster. Recovery teams implemented the base 

disaster recovery plan and provided the following comprehensive services: work control, structural 

and crash fire protection, water supply and distribution, sewage collection and disposal, liquid fuels 

system, electric power production and distribution, refrigeration, debris and snow removal, pavements 

repair, and structural damage control. Recovery teams, working in two shifts, were responsible for 

maintaining base operations for up to 36 hours.129

Mobility combat support was provided by the other three teams. The Contingency Team was 

created to handle unanticipated exigencies and special wartime air operations to support Air Force 

missions world-wide. Contingency Teams were not assigned to specific air units. Flyaway Teams were 

attached to air units, typically TAC or Military Air Transport Service (MATS) and were responsible for 

supporting those units. Members of the Contingency Team and the Flyaway Team deployed rapidly. As 

a result, the teams maintained ready kits that included tools, suitable clothing, and personal records. 
200 Leading the Way

Both the Contingency Team and the Flyaway Team could be activated as a unit or as a partial unit. 

The Missile Team was created to offer support to the missile maintenance organization, particularly 

in projects exceeding daily missile upkeep. The Missile Team also provided depot level support for 

real property.130

The Prime BEEF program was initiated through a September 27, 1964 letter to all major commands on the subject of “Civil Engineer Military Manpower Requirements from the Directorate of 

Civil Engineering.” The schedule proposed for implementing Prime BEEF was April 1965, but the 

program took years to implement. The U.S. Congress approved the program in October 1964.131 By 

1965, 70 BEEF-C and BEEF-F teams were formed. General Curtin opined that “full realization of the 

program will require 4 to 5 years.”132

The ongoing conflict in South Vietnam provided an impetus for rapid implementation of project 

Prime BEEF. As Brigadier General Meredith recalled, “[Brig. Gen.] Oran Price called me late one 

night. The day before we had been sitting in his office talking, and he was saying how well this thing 

[Prime BEEF] was structured. He said, ‘My God, we need something to happen.’ He called me that 

night and he said, ‘Bien Hoa [in Vietnam] has just been hit. Deploy three teams.’” Three Prime BEEF 

teams deployed to South Vietnam in August 1965.133 (Prime BEEF deployments are discussed in 

greater detail below).

Prime BEEF continued to evolve. By the mid-1960s, another mobile Prime BEEF team (BEEF-LS) 

was added to meet the logistic support requirements of AFLC.134 By 1970, the engineering assistance 

team, or E-team, was introduced. The E-team comprised engineers and technicians representing special 

functions, such as master planning, site selection, engineering layout, and design and construction 

management.135 By 1973, the Prime BEEF program was 92 percent implemented.136 Prime BEEF 

statistics are presented in Table 3.1.

Project Prime BEEF was a major success in realigning Air Force manpower in emergency and 

contingency situations and expanding the civil engineer role beyond the maintenance and operations functions associated with stateside Air Force bases. In the early years of the program, Mobile 

Prime BEEF teams were employed widely to support civil engineering activities in South Vietnam. 

In CONUS, all major Air Force bases had a Prime BEEF Recovery Team trained as first responders 

in natural disasters. Recovery Teams provided support to their home bases, other Air Force bases and 

the surrounding community. General Curtin reiterated,

Prime BEEF is not an exercise directed solely, or even primarily, at sending select 

military teams to SEA...it is an Air Force-wide program to assure that our total 

Civil Engineering force is in proper balance and can provide responsive support 

to all short-term emergencies as well as meet our normal day-to-day needs. Prime 

BEEF comprises the military manpower base in support of the Civil Engineering 

function.138

Between its implementation in 1964 and 1975, 318 mobile Prime BEEF teams comprising 9,402 

military personnel were deployed world-wide. 139 Fifty teams were deployed to the Republic of Vietnam 

and to Thailand between 1965 and 1968. An additional 13 teams were deployed in 1968 directly to 

South Korea or in support of missions in South Korea. Other overseas deployments included the civic 

action program to the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands and annual maintenance projects in Antarctica. Stateside Prime BEEF deployments occurred following Hurricane Camille, and the 1967 floods 

in Alaska. Prime BEEF also participated in the Air Force Weapons Laboratory testing programs.140

During the late 1960s, job classifications and descriptions for sectors of Air Force civil engineering personnel were realigned. In 1968, new AFSCs for civil engineering officers were published in 

AFM 36-1, Officer Classification Manual. Under the revised officer classification system, base civil 

engineer and staff engineer classifications were consolidated to enable personnel rotations between 
Rising to the Challenge 201

base and higher headquarters levels. The AFSCs revised the job qualifications, level of knowledge 

and experience for the positions. For the first time, a degree in engineering, architecture, agronomy, 

forestry or graduation from a service academy became a prerequisite for entry into the Air Force civil 

engineering field.141

A program to standardize civilian job descriptions across the Air Force civil engineering organization began during the early 1970s. The purpose of the program was to define civilian, professional, and 

technical positions critical to the civil engineering mission in the field. Job descriptions were developed 

to allow officials to assign work within work centers, to ensure that compensation was commensurate 

with levels of responsibility, and to ensure that work was completed. By 1971, 33 standard base engineering position descriptions were completed, including 11 supervisory and 22 non-supervisory jobs. 

The draft descriptions were reviewed by the Directorate of Civil Engineering and then submitted to 

the Directorate of Civilian Personnel for classification; finally, approval was issued by the Directorate 

of Manpower and Organization.142

Between 1970 and 1972, Air Force civil engineering underwent a 20 percent reduction in manpower. In 1968, the civil engineering personnel staffing level stood at approximately 100,000. By 

1972, the civil engineer workforce was reduced to 80,000. Despite the reduction in force, Air Force 

civil engineers met an increasing workload on CONUS bases and overseas.143

Palace Blueprint

In 1966, a special study directed by the Air Force Chief of Staff found that personalized career 

management encouraged long-term staff retention. General Goddard, the Director of Civil Engineering, 

supported the adoption of personalized career management and worked directly with the Air Force 

Military Personnel Center (MPC) at Randolph AFB, Texas, to fund two positions to improve career 

management for civil engineer officers.144 The resulting program, Palace Blueprint, was introduced 

officially in October 1969 and was staffed by four officers who matched available assignments in the 

major commands to the qualifications and interests of civil engineering officers. Originally envisioned 

as a two-year pilot program, Palace Blueprint was adopted permanently within a year. The program 

guided career development and coordinated end assignments. The objectives were to establish a 

career development unit within MPC, to use qualified officers as career counselors, to interface career 

development into the assignment process, and to assure effective communication among officers, the 

career development unit, and assignment activities. Officers were supported in planning their civil 

engineering careers through direct consultation with qualified civil engineers in the career development unit. The ultimate goal was to meet the staffing objectives of the Air Force, while encouraging 

individual career objectives.145

Concrete Youth Program

By the late 1960s, a large number of civil engineers were approaching retirement. Air Force civil 

engineering faced a pending exodus of corporate knowledge and experience. The Directorate of Civil 

Engineering responded with “Concrete Youth,” a program to train young engineers for the positions 

about to be vacated. The program recruited recent engineering graduates who were groomed through 

an intensified development program. The program was designed to enable rapid professional advancement for recent graduates in the civil engineering organization. In addition to addressing the immediate 

staffing need, the program also significantly improved the ability of the Air Force to compete effectively 

with private industry and other services for qualified engineers.146
Mr. John R. “Jack” Gibbens Associate Deputy Director for Construction, 1962-1969.

202 Leading the Way

Officer Exchange Program

Air Force Civil Engineering had an officer exchange program with the Royal Canadian Air Force 

in the 1960s. Air Force officers spent three years at the RCAF headquarters working projects with the 

Continental Air Defense Integration North program. In the 1970s, the exchange program was broadened to include other Services.147 The Civil Engineering Officer Exchange Program was proposed 

by the Directorate of Civil Engineering in 1973. The program was developed through an agreement 

signed by the Army, Navy, and Air Force authorizing the exchange of officers between the services on 

a one-for-one basis for two-year assignments. The goals of the program were to expose each branch 

of the military to the civil engineering practices of other branches, to share procedural information, 

to enhance the professional development of the participants, and to encourage participants to pursue 

higher positions within their home services. A 1975 article in the Air Force Civil Engineer magazine 

recounted the personal experiences of officers during the early years of the program. Lt. Col. Ronald 

W. Brass, an Army engineer officer who served with HQ Strategic Air Command at Offutt AFB in 

Nebraska, reflected positively on his experience in the program. Lt. Col. Brass commented, “My 

original reservations as to the limit of an exchange officer’s effectiveness, due to the obvious lack of 

intimate knowledge of the sister service’s procedures and policies, are not valid. The practice of the 

engineering profession and the principles of management are universal in and out of the government, 

and a firm background will serve a military engineer well regardless of the arm to which assigned.”148

Personnel Firsts

The 1960s and early 1970s was a period of personnel advancements. During the early 1960s, John 

“Jack” R. Gibbens was promoted to the Senior Executive Service and became the highest ranking 

civilian in the Directorate of Civil Engineering. After managing the Air Force construction program 

during the 1950s and early 1960s, Gibbens was appointed as the Associate Deputy Director for Construction in 1962 and served in the position until 1969. He essentially served as the first deputy Air 

Force civil engineer.149
Sue Waylett achieved a 

number of “firsts” throughout 

her 29-year Air Force 

career. In 1971, she had the 

distinction of being the first 

woman to enter the Air Force 

Civil Engineering career 

field. A native of Michigan, 

Lieutenant Waylett received a 

Bachelor of Science degree in 

industrial engineering from the 

University of Michigan before 

attending Officer Training 

School at Lackland AFB, 

Texas. She was first assigned 

to Kelly AFB, Texas, where 

she spent as much time doing 

public relations as she did 

working. In fact, the Secretary 

of the Air Force and Chief of 

Staff invited her to come to Washington on a public relations recruiting visit. By 1972, she 

made first lieutenant, and, by 1975, she became captain. Between 1975 and 1979 she served in 

the Air Force Reserve. She returned to the active duty Air Force in 1979 and was stationed at

 continued

2nd Lt. Susanne Ocobock (later Waylett) is welcomed by Maj. Gen. 

Guy H. Goddard, Director of Civil Engineering, 1971.

Sue Waylett, First Woman Civil Engineer

Two members of Prime Beef Team 75 became the first Air Force personnel to reenlist on the 

continent of Antarctica and at the South Pole. The team was participating in Operation Deep

Freeze 69. SSgt. James B. Tarr of the 3020 Civil Engineer Squadron reenlisted on October 28, 

1968 in Scott’s Hut, a historic building near McMurdo Station. SSgt. Theodore Babin of 2852 

Air Base Group, McClellan AFB, California, reenlisted on November 10, 1968. The temperature on that day was -43 degrees Fahrenheit. The ceremony was held outdoors, but the papers 

had to be signed indoors because the ink froze in the pen.150

Antarctica Reenlistments

Rising to the Challenge 203

By the late 1960s, Air Force enlistments and re-enlistments were recorded on almost every continent. In 1968, personnel re-enlisted in the Air Force on the continent of Antarctica for the first time. 

Women rose in profile among the engineering force. While they previously worked in administrative positions as secretaries and clerks, civilian women joined the professional engineering ranks 

during the 1960s. In 1971, 2d Lt. Susanne Ocobock Waylett became the first female military Air Force 

civil engineer. Air Force regulations and policies were revised and personnel structuring adjusted to 

reflect the role of women in Air Force civil engineering. In December 1975, the Air Force issued a 

policy decision to assign women to mobile and recovery Prime BEEF teams; women initially were 

not assigned to RED HORSE squadrons.151 RED HORSE squadrons were opened to women on June 

8, 1988.152 Air Force civil engineering recognized the talent and accomplishment of their female civil 

engineers through career advancement. Susanne Waylett became the first female civil engineer in the 

Air Force to advance to the rank of colonel and the first female commander of a RED HORSE squadron. 
Sue Waylett, First Woman Civil Engineer continued

Eglin AFB, Florida. In 1983, Captain Waylett advanced to major. The same year, she enrolled 

at the Wright-Patterson AFB Air Force Institute of Technology in Ohio to complete a master’s 

degree in engineering management. In 1987, Major Waylett traveled to her new assignment 

in Zweibrucken, Germany, where she became the first female to command a civil engineering 

squadron. This was not the last first for Major Waylett. In 1992 she returned to America and was 

stationed at AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida; there she became the first female civil engineer 

colonel in the Air Force. In 1994, she became the first female commander of the 823d RED 

HORSE Squadron at Hurlburt Field, Florida. Colonel Waylett led the squadron to Bosnia to 

build tent cities for the Army in Operation Joint Endeavor and to Saudi Arabia to build a bare 

base at Prince Sultan AB. Colonel Waylett continued her service with the Air Force through 

2000, serving as the USAFA civil engineer when she retired.153

204 Leading the Way

The Civil Engineering Center

The Civil Engineering Center (CEC) was established as a field extension to support the work 

of the Directorate of Civil Engineering. The organization also played an increasingly important supporting role for managing the bases. The CEC was established on May 15, 1968 to expand on the 

activities previously assigned to the Civil Engineering Construction Operations Group (CECOG). 

General Curtin had organized CECOG on April 1, 1966 at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, as a field 

extension of the Air Staff. General Curtin selected Wright-Patterson AFB for its proximity to the civil 

engineering school.154 Col. (later Brig. Gen.) William T. Meredith commanded the new organization. 

CECOG was responsible for “the field organization, training, deployment, use, and logistical support 

of civil engineering forces to meet heavy repair and minor emergency construction requirements in 

support of the Air Force mission worldwide.”155 CECOG coordinated the assignment of Prime BEEF 

teams, assembled and activated RED HORSE squadrons, and oversaw the assignment of officers and 

enlisted personnel for both groups. In addition to managing and training personnel, CECOG ensured 

the availability of equipment and materials for jobs assigned to Prime BEEF teams and RED HORSE 

squadrons, particularly during deployments to Southeast Asia. This mission involved CECOG in 

contingency planning and logistics, as well as field testing of equipment.156 General Meredith recalled 

the formation of CECOG, 

Right after the work we did to establish Prime BEEF was when the Pentagon 

recognized that we needed something like CECOG. I think Curtin was behind it, 

because he was traveling in the Pacific at that time, and he sent a message back. He 

said, “Get this done. Meredith, you move out there [to Wright-Patterson AFB]. Get 

whoever you need.” I knew where [Col. Truman] O’Keefe was then.157

Colonel O’Keefe served as the deputy of the organization and directed a staff of 50. General 

Meredith credited General Curtin with the name. “We asked, ‘What are we going to call it?’ He said 

CECOG, ‘Civil Engineering Construction Operations Group.’”158 As summarized by General Meredith, 

“CECOG’s total spectrum was combat support, whatever combat support was. It was total control of 

the combat support forces and the necessary logistics and training to support them.”159

The 1968 reorganization study by the Directorate of Civil Engineering identified overlapping 

responsibilities between CECOG and other Air Staff divisions. General Goddard, therefore, made the 

decision to consolidate several functions in an expanded organization. General Goddard characterized 

the new organization as field oriented and involved with people and equipment. The organization had 

the responsibility to match “personnel skills, training, posture and grade distribution with the type, 

functionability, maintainability, and durability on the equipment side.”160
Civil Engineering Construction Operations Group Emblem

Rising to the Challenge 205

On May 15, 1968, CECOG was renamed as the CEC. Its organizational structure was approved 

on July 19, 1968. The new organization was authorized with a staff of 73 comprising 28 officers, 16 

civilians, and 29 Airmen, who served in three branches: Operations and Plans, Field Engineering, and 

Equipment and Materials. CEC’s first commander was Col. Robert G. Gardner. The CEC assumed 

responsibility for managing and monitoring the Prime BEEF and RED HORSE programs and training 

personnel. Other responsibilities assigned to the new center included: contingency planning guidance 

and assistance; career development; special studies and programs for noise abatement, bird control, 

conservation, sonic booms, bomb damage repair, and vulnerability, including the shelter program; 

guidance on specifications and validation of programming criteria for construction materials; technical 

support for research and development and applied engineering; technical writing services; liaison with 

manufacturers, other services, and major commands regarding tests of equipment; and, the forestry 

program.161

In 1968, CEC initiated several specialty and training changes in the Airman career fields. Revisions to exterior electrical work, heating, pavements, site development, real estate and cost analysis, 

maintenance and control were approved and scheduled for publishing.162 In addition, the Field Engineering Branch was charged with creating and maintaining a program for site selection for air bases 

using in-house expertise suitable for deployment anywhere in the world. The center also maintained 

a roster of military personnel with technical expertise for special projects.163

By 1970, the CEC was reorganized into eight branches: Procurement, Administration, Reserve 

Forces, Operations Analysis, Operations and Plans, Equipment and Materials, Field Engineering, and 

Field Activities (Figure 3.6). The center served as the Air Staff’s arm to establish policy ensuring 

Source: Col. Robert G. Gardner, “The Civil Engineering Center: Two Years Old, Mobility Is Our 

Mission,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 11, No 3, Aug 1970, 31.
206 Leading the Way

that civil engineering personnel possessed the capabilities for contingency and emergency situations 

while supporting Air Force installations, both CONUS and overseas.164 Colonel Gardner described 

the center as “a bridge between the Air Staff and major commands. Because of this, total civil engineering resources can be used to resolve common planning, personnel, operational, equipment, and 

engineering problems.”165

The Center’s organizational accomplishments after two years were noteworthy, particularly in 

the areas of contingency planning, base assistance, and the testing and evaluation of equipment. The 

center became a focal point for contingency planning. CEC was focused heavily in concept development and testing of mobility equipment, specifically under the Harvest Bare and Bare Base Program. 

In September 1971, CEC initiated the first World-wide U.S. Air Force Civil Engineering Contingency 

Planners’ Conference at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. Eighty participants attended representing the 

Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Air Staff, unified commands, and all major commands. The main objective 

of the conference was to assure that the direct combat support mission of Air Force civil engineering 

was supported through appropriate contingency planning documents governing service missions. 

One day of the conference was dedicated to discussions divided among six panels: civil engineering 

force posture/training/sourcing, civil engineering intelligence requirements, joint base development 

planning, use of modular relocatable structures, criteria for accomplishing civil engineering joint base 

development plans, and disaster preparedness and base recovery planning. Thirty-four recommendations were developed as a result of the conference.166

In 1971, CEC was assigned the operational responsibility to review all base development plans 

(BDP) for unified commands.167 A BDP was defined as “a detailed document outlining facility requirements, existing assets, deficiencies and construction forces required to overcome the deficiencies in a 

time frame acceptable to support the contemplated military operation on a given airfield.”168 Preparation 

of BDPs required data on site selection in the theater of operation, on the theater weapon system, on 

the requirements to support the weapons system, and on personnel requirements for deployment in 

appropriate sequences within prescribed time frames. In addition, planners factored in the potential, 

as in the case of the Vietnam conflict, for short-term contingency operations supported by airlifted 

prefabricated units, which might evolve into a long-term sustained deployment requiring durable 

pre-engineered structures. Baseline data were analyzed and translated into the standard base planning 

factors, (manpower and equipment force packaging system, unit type codes, DoD category codes) 

using a time-phase deployment approach recently adopted by the Air Staff. In 1971, all standard base 

planning factors were individually calculated; the CEC was charged with identifying a mechanized 

system to support the process. In 1972, the Tactical Air Command deployment scheduling package 

was adopted Air Force-wide.169 In 1971, the Pacific Command was the first command to include the 

use of RED HORSE squadrons to erect expedient facilities in its BDP.

170

CEC offered several additional services to Air Force bases. By 1970, the center assembled 14,000 

resumes of Air Force military and civilian technical experts who were available for consultation on a 

wide range of Air Force problems.171 Airfield pavement was a particular area in which bases required 

expertise and support. By the early 1970s, aircraft weighing nearly 800,000 pounds were landing on 

pre-1955 airfields designed to accommodate aircraft weighing less than 400,000 pounds. The Air Force 

operated from over 500 million square yards of pavement, including runways, taxiways, and parking 

aprons. The replacement cost for airfield pavement alone was estimated at $7.5 billion. Maintaining 

these runways in serviceable condition was critical to the Air Force’s flying mission.172

In 1970, CEC established an in-house pavement evaluation team and initiated a program to survey 

all operational air bases to evaluate pavement and to assist with pavement issues, as well as to generate 

data for studies to evaluate pavement roughness.173 By 1972, the pavement evaluation team conducted 

38 studies. By late summer 1971, the expert team was equipped with portable field testing equipment 

for both destructive and non-destructive techniques for evaluating airfield pavements and access to a 

full laboratory for analyses. The demand for the pavement team’s expertise grew so great that CEC 
Rising to the Challenge 207

prioritized evaluations to greatest-need partial pavement evaluations with programmed maintenance 

and repair funding or cases where radical mission changes were anticipated.174

Fire protection/aircraft rescue was another area in which the CEC developed expertise to support 

the bases. In a March 1971 letter to the major commands, Lt. Gen. George Boylan, Jr., DCS/Programs 

and Resources, called for action regarding aircraft fire protection. This letter read in part: 

The deficiencies which continue to surface during the Air Force Inspector General 

(IG) no-notice inspections of the base aircraft fire protection and crash-rescue activity are a matter of concern to the Chief of Staff...To assist the major commands 

in self-evaluation and objective analysis, and to give direction to the total Air 

Force aircraft fire protection and crash rescue program, a new capability is being 

established at this headquarters under the Civil Engineering Center (AF/PREC) at 

Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.175

On March 29, 1971, the first of three Aircraft Rescue Field Assistance and Evaluation Teams 

(ACRFAET) was formed. The first team reported for a four-week training course at the Fire Protection 

School at Chanute AFB, Illinois. The first evaluation and assistance visit was conducted from May 25 

to June 3, 1971 at Travis AFB, California. A thorough evaluation of the entire fire protection functional 

area was conducted, and assistance was provided in areas found deficient. The second ACRFAET 

team reported to Chanute AFB for training on June 21, 1971. The second and third ACRFAET teams 

became operational during the first quarter of FY72. In September 1971, CEC assumed functional 

responsibility for fire protection, which was previously assigned to the Fire Protection Group at the 

Air Staff. The latter group was inactivated September 30, 1971.176

The three ACRFAET teams provided assistance to major commands and to base firefighting 

organization in self-evaluation and objective analysis, as well as provided direction to the overall 

Air Force aircraft fire protection and crash rescue program. The four-member ACRFAET teams were 

composed of two civil engineering officers and two NCOs who were experienced firefighters. By 

December 1972, ACRFAET teams had made 24 unannounced visits to bases with high-value mission 

aircraft. The teams normally visited each base for a week. Four exercises and drills, two crash rescue 

exercises utilizing a mission aircraft, a hot fire drill at the fire training area, and one structural drill on a 

complex facility were held during each visit. The teams also provided in-depth analysis of the base’s fire 

prevention program, firefighting vehicle maintenance and operations, and the fire department training, 

operations, and management activities. On March 8, 1972, the additional task of evaluating aircraft 

arresting systems was assigned to the ACRFAET teams. The teams were praised for their success in 

advancing the performance of base firefighting departments, improving communications between Air 

Staff and bases, and solving long-standing issues.177

In July 1971, a six-member Corrosion Analysis Team was established at CEC to conduct field 

corrosion surveys of facility and utility systems to quantify corrosion problems at the bases. Team 

members received formal training in cathodic protection analysis, water treatment, and gamma radiography. After training, the team conducted field tests of cathodic protection systems, water analysis 

systems, and non-destructive inspection of pipe systems. By 1972, the Corrosion Analysis Team had 

conducted approximately 12 visits. Training for base-level corrosion engineers and technicians was one 

area addressed by the team. In 1973, CEC held a series of regional workshops to provide instruction 

on current technology, theory, and field testing procedures in corrosion analysis to base personnel.178

CEC also provided assistance in base recovery planning, an area involving all civil engineers at 

bases throughout the Air Force, particularly in recovery efforts following natural disasters. Air Force 

Manual 93-2 entitled Disaster Preparedness and Base Recovery was published in June 1970. By 1971, 

CEC fielded recovery capability evaluation teams to assist bases in developing disaster recovery plans 

that provided practical and realistic guidance in a single, unified document. Earlier base recovery 

plans often lacked detail on utility operations functions, did not address emergency equipment and 
Building 548, Air Force Civil Engineering Center’s first home at Tyndall AFB, Florida.

208 Leading the Way

materials, and did not fill key recovery team positions with Prime BEEF recovery team personnel. 

Prime BEEF-Recovery (R) teams had to meet specific staffing requirements, and personnel also had 

to be trained to implement recovery plans effectively.179

In the area of test and evaluation, CEC personnel were involved actively in evaluating equipment 

for potential purchase. CEC personnel conducted tests on snow removal equipment, and assisted in 

developing and acquiring the new P-4 crash truck for firefighters. Since January 1969, the center 

maintained an inventory of surplus equipment, including generators, for distribution among Air Force 

bases. The CEC also worked in the area of bomb damage repair and contracted for tests on a backfill 

system designed for one hour crater repair. Center personnel managed a contract to increase the number 

of modular facilities available to the Air Force.180

The decision to move CEC to Tyndall AFB in Florida was announced on December 10, 1971; 

relocation was scheduled for the summer of 1972. At the time of the announcement, then Col. William 

D. Gilbert served as Director of CEC and the center had an authorized staff of 206 personnel. The 

center had outgrown the facilities at Wright-Patterson AFB. Additional office space, expanded laboratory space, and greater land to accommodate Prime BEEF and RED HORSE training were required. 

Relocation to Tyndall made physical expansion possible. In addition, assigning additional military 

missions to Tyndall AFB was supported by the area’s Congressional Representatives. Colonel Gilbert 

traveled to Tyndall AFB to inspect available space and selected the new, but unoccupied, flight training 

building (Building 548) over the objections of the base commander.

181

As plans for the move advanced the Air Staff renamed the CEC as the Air Force Civil Engineering Center (AFCEC) and transferred the organization to the Air Force Systems Command (AFSC). 

This transfer was a result of a study on the Air Staff organization that recommended dismantling field 

extensions. The CEC had an established and effective evaluation and testing capability, which was 

more aligned with AFSC than with the Directorate of Civil Engineering.182 Transfer to AFSC enhanced 

AFCEC’s role in research, development, testing and evaluation of new equipment and technologies 

for products to support Air Force civil engineering requirements world-wide. All responsibility for Air 

Force policy along with 20 personnel slots reverted to the Air Staff as part of the transfer. Col. (later 
Rising to the Challenge 209

Brig. Gen.) Paul Hartung organized the physical move to Tyndall AFB, which occurred in phases 

between June and August 1972. Colonel Hartung served as the organization’s commander until June 

1973. The AFCEC commander reported directly to the AFSC commander to accomplish the mission.183

AFSC had a long record of research into civil engineering topics through the AFWL at Kirtland 

AFB, New Mexico. In 1950, the Special Studies Office of the Design Branch, Installations Engineering Division under the Air Materiel Command at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, was established to 

undertake research into civil engineering topics. This office supported research in damage assessments 

from nuclear weapons and in design criteria for structures to withstand nuclear attack. In 1956, the 

office was transferred to the Air Force Special Weapons Center at Kirtland AFB, and became the 

Structures Branch in the Research Division. Throughout the 1950s, civil engineering research and 

development was focused on the physical damage posed by nuclear weapons and the development of 

protective structure design.184

In late 1963 and early 1964, the Air Staff authorized a study to identify the best structure for the 

Air Force civil engineering research program. AFWL was directed to complete the study and prepared 

a detailed plan for managing, implementing, and executing civil engineering research and development. 

This plan was approved in May 1964. The drivers for civil engineering research during the early 1960s 

were future construction and equipment demands for space and missile facilities. The Structures Branch 

in AFWL was renamed the Civil Engineering Branch and transferred to the Development Division in 

1965. In December 1965, AFWL was charged with the responsibility to plan, manage, and conduct 

all civil engineering research programs. The number of personnel in the Civil Engineering Branch 

increased to 56 by May 1966 and the branch operated with a budget of over $2 million in FY66. In 

December 1966, AFWL was designated as the lead laboratory and central manager for civil engineering 

research and development. The Civil Engineering Branch was organized with the following offices: 

Protective Construction, Facilities Technology, Experimental, and Special Projects. Protective Construction continued the work on nuclear weapons effects. Facilities Technology undertook research 

in the areas of structures, soils and pavements, and environics. The Experimental office supported the 

research programs of the other two offices and worked to improve field testing procedures through 

state of the art techniques. Special projects provided administrative support and operated the Civil 

Engineering Technical Information Service. Research also was conducted at the Eric W. Wang Civil 

Engineering Research Center operated by contract at the University of New Mexico.185 Research 

during 1966 included field tests associated with the Minuteman missile sites, protective revetments 

and other structures to survive conventional weapons, testing of locally manufactured building blocks 

to support construction in remote areas using local materials, the use of drywall construction, and the 

spring mounting system for the Cheyenne Mountain complex.186

Research proposed by AFWL in 1967 was informed by experience in South Vietnam and included 

“wind load analysis of prefabricated buildings, sonic boom effects, non-nuclear aircraft shelters, bomb 

damage repair of airfield pavements, aircraft landing mats, unimproved landing areas, and aircraft 

revetments.”187 By May 1968, 76 personnel were assigned to the Civil Engineering Branch, including 

50 professionals. Research and development activities were augmented by 85 contractors employed at 

the Eric C. Wang Civil Engineering Research Civil Engineering Research Center. In 1970, the branch 

was renamed the Civil Engineering Division. Total funding for civil engineering research reached 

nearly $5.1 million in FY70; nearly $1.7 million was allotted to research in seven areas: nonnuclear 

protective systems, site selection and planning, environmental engineering, airfield surfacing and 

foundations, mission support systems, structural systems and materials, and base support systems.188

AFCEC was transferred officially to AFSC on June 29, 1972. It was organized into the following directorates: Equipment Systems, Procurement, Operations, Field Technology, Laboratories, and 

Engineering. Staffing was authorized at 186, comprising 46 officers, 124 enlisted, and 16 civilians. 

AFCEC occupied five facilities totaling 46,000 square feet. Of the total space, 10,000 square feet 

were dedicated to laboratories for soils, asphalt and concrete, wet chemistry for water analysis, and 

radiography.189
Air Force Civil Engineering Center’s Environics Laboratory at Tyndall AFB, Florida.

210 Leading the Way

AFCEC continued to assist bases in the areas of corrosion control and prevention surveys, airfield 

pavement evaluations, aircraft crash rescue and fire protection, site selection surveys, equipment 

evaluations, snow and ice removal, and inventory control of contingency materials, such as revetments and modular relocatable facilities. AFCEC also, upon request, monitored and assisted Prime 

BEEF and RED HORSE teams with organizing, training, manning, and equipping needs. Research 

and development at the new center was focused on air base vulnerability/survivability, air mobility, 

environmental engineering, and air base support.190

Among the tasks accomplished during AFCEC’s first year was formulating the research and 

development program for inclusion in the FY74 budget cycle. Research conducted during the period 

was related to bomb damage repair procedures for incorporation into a revised AFM 93-2, Disaster 

Preparedness and Base Recovery Planning. Equipment evaluations were conducted for a concrete 

batch plant and a laser system to control grading equipment. AFCEC also developed a machine to 

reshape steel arch panels used to construct hardened aircraft shelters in Europe to house F-111 aircraft. 

AFCEC personnel evaluated the properties and effectiveness of three commercial ice-control chemicals 

for Air Force use.191 The FY74 research and development budget request for $1.1 million was not 

fully funded. Tasks established for research included air base survivability/vulnerability, air mobility, 

environmental engineering, and air base support.192

Bomb damage repair and rapid runway repair were two areas of early research. Bomb damage 

repair and rapid runway repair took too much time, required extensive equipment, a large number of 

personnel, and often resulted in an impermanent repair.193 Based on the successful results in South 

Vietnam, pierced steel planking (PSP) was investigated for initial repairs followed by an evaluation 

of AM-2 matting.194 AM-2 matting proved the best option for emergency repairs after alternative 

materials testing by AFWL. Research also was focused on assessing the roughness of pavement 

surfaces to eliminate structural damage to aircraft, as well as research into alternate launch surfaces 

using unconventional materials such as sod. Other initiatives undertaken by the AFCEC included the 

investigation of camouflaging bases and the runways using smoke screens and vegetation.195

In March 1975, civil engineering research and development activities conducted by the Aerospace Facilities and Environics Branches of the AFWL were reassigned to AFCEC to consolidate 

responsibility and coordination under a single manager. Relocation of personnel and equipment was 
Rising to the Challenge 211

authorized in September 1975. The AFCEC organization was expanded to seven directorates through 

the addition of the Directorate of Programs.196 By December 1975, the mission of AFCEC was twofold. 

The organization:

1. Provided HQ Air Force, Directorate of Civil Engineering, and other Air Force 

 civil engineering units and activities, including Reserve forces, with specialized 

 technical services and planning assistance in the civil engineering and environ

 mental planning areas that require specialized equipment or knowledge beyond 

 that normally possessed or economically/technically feasible to maintain in the 

 major commands...;

2. Functioned as lead center for research and development related to Air Force 

 civil engineering, and environmental quality, including exploratory, advanced, 

 and engineering development, as well as lead testing agency for civil engineer

 ing related systems, techniques, materials, and equipment.197

Major research projects for 1975 included air base survivability studies for aircraft, personnel, 

runways, and fueling facilities; development of a research program to study pressing environmental 

problems in the Air Force; development and testing of air mobility shelters; corrosion and pavement 

studies; fire protection; special equipment improvements; and, studies related to energy conservation. 

AFCEC’s role in providing assistance to major commands and bases expanded to include environmental planning assistance, such as support in mapping noise irritant levels around air bases to support the 

AICUZ program, and in the development of environmental impact statements required under NEPA.198

On July 1, 1975, AFCEC established a Bird/Aircraft Strike Hazard (BASH) team. The team conducted 

ecological surveys of flora and fauna at Air Force bases. Surveys were prioritized based on the base 

history of bird-strikes. The team issued reports that recommended control measures and operational 

procedures to reduce bird-strike hazards. Survey data were computerized for future environmental 

and operations planning.199

Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve

Air Force Reserve Forces, including Air Force Reserve and ANG civil engineering personnel, 

became increasingly integrated into the manpower allocations that supported the Air Force mission. 

Civil engineers in the Air Reserve Forces numbered a few hundred in the early 1960s and increased 

to 2,800 by 1967. In 1960, Air Force Reserve civil engineers were redesignated as Civil Engineering Squadrons (CES). In the Air Force Reserve, these personnel were assigned across 15 Air Force 

Reserve Troop Carrier Wings. Civil engineers at ANG installations typically were installation based 

and served with their state units during training sessions. By 1966, ANG operated 91 flying and 49 

non-flying bases.200

ANG civil engineers also served with the National Guard Bureau. The total ANG real property 

inventory in 1966 was valued at $350 million; the average military construction program budget 

was $20 million yearly and the average operations and maintenance budget was $2.5 million. The 

ANG MCP budget was developed from project estimates submitted by bases and states to the Air 

Civil Engineering Division at the National Guard Bureau. The Air Civil Engineering Division at the 

National Guard Bureau was staffed by 12 persons, including the division chief, deputy chief, three 

civil engineers, two construction management engineers, a real property specialist, an engineering 

technician, a draftsman, and two clerk/typists. This group reviewed proposals for more than 1,200 

construction and repair projects per year.201

Civil engineers assigned to ANG flying bases typically accounted for the only full time military 

staff at the base. The base civil engineer was supported by a small number of full-time state employees 
212 Leading the Way

who performed custodial duties. The staff level of the typical 85-man ANG CES rose to full strength 

during weekend training sessions. Twenty-nine of the CES staff were firefighters; the remaining 53 

personnel of the ANG CES comprised 3 officers and 50 Airmen. The latter represented a wide variety 

of skill sets in the architectural and engineering fields. The typical ANG base maintained by the ANG 

civil engineer comprised a runway, headquarters building, dormitory, dining hall, civil engineer facility, 

base supply and equipment warehouse, hangar, aircraft operations support buildings, jet fuel storage, 

ammunition storage, fire station, and utilities.202

Beginning in 1964, civil engineer reservists were incorporated into the Prime BEEF mission and 

included in training exercises to measure skills. However, the wartime role of Reserve civil engineers 

was ill defined; it was recommended that their assignments be restricted to emergency response teams 

in times of natural disaster.203 The first test of Reserve and ANG civil engineers occurred during 

the 1968 U.S.S. Pueblo Crisis. Reserve civil engineers were activated along with their units. The 

civil engineer elements attached to the ANG fighter units assigned to TAC were deployed in 20-to30-person crews to stateside Air Force bases for a modified Prime BEEF training program. Reserve 

civil engineers whose units were deployed by MAC also participated in the training program, which 

comprised practical training projects in real situations and assisted the command with high priority 

construction work. Both TAC and MAC leaders recognized the skills of individual Reserve engineers. 

The Reserve and ANG engineers put in long working days, displayed aggressiveness to get the jobs 

done, and performed their tasks with skill. Displaying the “can-do” attitude of RED HORSE units, 

these units were dubbed the “Pink Pony” of the Air Force.204 This training experience was credited 

with contributing cohesiveness in the overall Reserve engineering program.

Notwithstanding the successful performance of individual Reserve civil engineers, the 1968 exercise identified the need for greater direct management and training designed for team building. Maj. 

Gen. Guy H. Goddard made one of his priorities providing ANG and AFRES civil engineering units 

with appropriate training and equipment to supplement the Air Force mobility forces.205 He approved 

the following proposals based on input from ANG and Reserve managers, MAC, and TAC:

• Each unit had to be organized as a separate flight attached directly to a flying 

 unit instead of being an integral part of a support unit.

• Each unit had to be trained under a time-phased specialized training program to 

 common standards established by the Air Force.

• During annual active duty training periods, units had to deploy either to active 

 duty bases for project training or to specialized training sites for training under 

 field conditions. 206

In 1969, an advisory office for Reserve Forces was created at CEC, and Prime BEEF planning and 

management agencies were established at both the Air Force Reserve and the ANG headquarters.207

In February 1970, CEC was assigned as the training coordination agency for the Air Force Reserve 

and ANG civil engineer units. The program was conceived with two objectives: to provide training 

in Air Force civil engineering operations and to identify meaningful projects for the units. The first 

project in the formal training program was undertaken between May and July 1970, when three ANG 

Prime BEEF teams traveled to Nellis AFB, Nevada, to dismantle and repackage 14 modular relocatable dormitories in use since 1968. Five relocatable dormitories were prepared for shipment to Castle 

AFB, California. The job was scheduled for completion over three successive two-week periods. The 

three teams completed work four days ahead of schedule.208 Similar training programs were instituted 

for the Air Force Reserve civil engineers. In FY73, Air Force Reserve civil engineer Prime BEEF 

teams were deployed on projects in Alaska, Germany, Spain, Hawaii, and several AFBs in CONUS.209

Training for the Reserve Forces became more critical with the policy change making the Reserves 

an integral part of the Total Force. Under Total Force, Air Force Reserves and ANG units now were 
Rising to the Challenge 213

deployed directly to a contingency as opposed to replacing deployed Air Force civil engineers at 

stateside bases. By 1973, Air Force Reserve civil engineers were organized into 34 civil engineering 

flights and 60 Prime BEEF-C teams staffed by 85 personnel.210 The ANG had 93 civil engineering 

flights. Unofficially known as Air National Guard of the United States, or ANGUS, Prime BEEF, 

these personnel were divided among flying teams (F), independent teams (C), firefighters (FF), and 

recovery teams (R).211 By the end of the 1972 training season, the Air Force Reserves Prime BEEF 

teams completed a three-year training schedule and a combat simulation program. The training program 

resulted in well-trained, capable teams and improved facility support to home stations.212

In 1971, the ANG civil engineering program expanded through the formation of two RED HORSE 

units. The 200th Civil Engineer Squadron was stationed at Camp Perry ANG Station, Ohio, while 

the 201st Civil Engineer Flight was stationed at Fort Indiantown Gap, Pennsylvania.213 By 1975, the 

approximately 12,000 Air Reserve Force civil engineers included 4,000 in the Air Force Reserves and 

8,000 in the ANG.214

MANAGING THE PERMANENT AIR FORCE BASES

Introduction

The base civil engineer served as staff officer under the base commander and planned, supervised, 

directed and coordinated the maintenance and repair of real property; the operation of utility plants; 

design, construction and alteration of real property facilities; real estate actions; fire protection and 

rescue; pest control; traffic engineering; and, maintenance and repair of all government-owned or 

leased equipment. In addition, the installation recovery from damage or destruction by enemy attack 

or other disaster was assigned to the base civil engineer.215 General Minton acknowledged that, while 

design and construction of new facilities held much more glamour, 

A greater challenge, and one of perhaps even more importance, is the maintenance 

and operation of our plants. Additions, modifications and major repairs are constantly required to keep them operational. The job of maintaining and operating an 

installation, however, does not start with its completion. The Engineer’s responsibility begins when a project is conceived and continues through the design and 

construction phase. He should have low maintenance cost potential and operating 

efficiency as his goal. The base engineer’s professional knowledge determines the 

best siting of the facility, insures [sic] technical review of plans and competent 

inspection of construction. Familiarity with all phases of the project permits more 

effect M&O [maintenance and operations].216

The base civil engineer’s responsibilities comprised oversight of facilities that averaged 4,000 

acres in size during the early 1960s. Typically, the base had 2 million square yards of hangar and shop 

space, and 500,000 square feet of administrative, warehousing, and community support buildings, all 

of which required utility services. The typical base supported 8,800 people who either worked on the 

base or lived in base-provided family housing. Utilities included electricity, water and sewage disposal. 

The typical base budget for operation and maintenance was nearly $2.5 million.217

By the early 1960s, number and value of Air Force real property had increased dramatically from 

the mid-1950s. In 1955, Air Force real property assets were valued at $6 billion; by 1960, old and new 

facilities were valued at $14 billion. These dollar figures illustrate the increased number of buildings, 

structures, and infrastructure maintained and repaired by the base civil engineering organization.218

Family housing completed under the Wherry and Capehart programs represented a large addition to 

the Air Force inventory. Technologically complex facilities, such as dispersed missile installations 

and radar listening posts, also were added and required specialized technical skills to maintain and 
214 Leading the Way

to repair. Operations and maintenance budgets, though increased over late 1950s levels, did not rise 

sufficiently to fully maintain the increased number of facilities.219

The base civil engineer typically led an extensive organization of personnel who oversaw the 

administration, operation and maintenance of fixed base assets, as well as planned for base improvements, alterations and upgrades to existing facilities. The shops were vital to maintenance activities. 

Maintenance crews available 24/7 provided for all types of maintenance and repairs to maintain mission requirements. The typical base civil engineering force numbered approximately 300. On a large 

base, the civil engineering staff could number 900 persons, including both military and civilians.220

Managing this expanding organization effectively, efficiently, and within reasonable costs was a 

continual challenge. As General Minton wrote, “Our responsibilities in the M&O (Maintenance and 

Operations) area are increasing tremendously. Manpower resources and dollars are not increasing 

proportionally. To accomplish the civil engineering mission this gap must be filled with quality of 

management rather than quantity of resources.”221 Efforts were made on the base level to streamline 

the civil engineering organization through the introduction of the work control center, adoption of 

automated data processing, and experimentation with organizational and personnel management techniques used in private industry. In addition, base civil engineers complied with a growing number of 

environmental laws related to base operations and land use planning. A number of Air Force initiatives 

were issued to control energy costs.

The consequences of the 1972 transition to an all-volunteer force were felt by the Air Force in 

the mid-1970s. Declining personnel numbers related to the elimination of the military draft prompted 

plans to contract out nontechnical tasks previously performed by Airmen, especially custodial services. 

The FY72 operations budget included $3.1 million to outsource such services. It was estimated that 

the total cost of contracting custodial services would reach $52.5 million per year.

222

Reorganization of the Base Civil Engineer Organization and the Work Control Center

During the early 1960s, a major change was instituted in the base level civil engineering structure 

to streamline productivity and increase the efficiency of maintenance and repair activities to control 

mounting workloads. Credit for the concept was given to Col. (later Brig. Gen.) Henry “Fritz” J. 

Stehling.223 In July 1961, the base civil engineer control center was formally established through 

revisions to AFM 85-1, Maintenance Management for Real Property Facilities. The purpose of the 

control center was to increase “efficiency in the direction and control of materiel support, procurement, transportation and plant modernization.” Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton noted, “This is a real 

advance, with far reaching possibilities for increasing the effectiveness of our base maintenance work 

forces.”224 The work control center grew out of SAC procedures implemented in 1958, which provided 

base civil engineers with a central structure for directing and managing their work force.225

Air Force Regulation 23-33, Base Civil Engineer Organization and Functions, dated December 

1961, defined the realignment of the base civil engineer organizational structure to accommodate 

the work control center (Figure 3.7). The base civil engineer oversaw the control center, as well as 

the directorates of accounting and analysis, engineering and construction, and fire protection. The 

Accounting and Analysis office, renamed Industrial Engineering in 1964, performed the administrative work for the base civil engineer organization, provided statistics and cost information to support 

base maintenance and operations, assembled and analyzed cost data, studied performance data, and 

maintained the current real property inventory. Engineering and Construction prepared technical 

project data, engineering studies, and evaluations of facilities and systems; monitored development of 

military construction programs on the base level; prepared engineering drawings, surveys, and maps; 

performed technical inspections of all construction work; coordinated engineering activities with 

higher command and construction agencies; reviewed bids for contracts construction and repair; and, 

negotiated utilities rates contracts. Fire Protection operated the fire and aircraft crash rescue services, 

as well as performed fire inspections, developed base fire regulations, and investigated fire incidents.226
Source: AFR 23-33, “Base Civil Engineer Organization,” 1961, 3.

Rising to the Challenge 215

The control center was established as a centralized office to apply the “techniques of planning, 

scheduling, and work measurement” to all jobs undertaken by Air Force civil engineers on the base. 

Planning, estimating, scheduling, and tracking of work and service orders occurred in the control 

center. The director of the control center reported directly to the base civil engineer. The control center 

comprised two offices: Requirements and Planning, and Work Control. Elements under Requirements 

and Planning were Inspection, Planning, and Material Control. This office planned and estimated 

proposed work, made on-site investigations to plan the proposed work; planned labor and materials 

for each job order; forecast personnel scheduling; and, inspected facilities for maintenance and repair 

needs, controlled inventories and procured job supplies. The Work Control office operated the control 

room, processed work requests into work orders, prioritized and scheduled jobs based on materials 

and manpower availability, operated the service call system, and controlled scheduling of vehicles.227

Three branches reported to the director of the control center: Maintenance and Repair, Preventive 

Maintenance, and Utilities Operation. Maintenance and Repair oversaw the shops, which were organized by construction specialty. Shops included plumbing, electrical, carpentry, painting, sheet metal, 

heating, liquid fuels, refrigeration and air conditioning, pavements, grounds, railroads, and instruments 

and controls. The Preventive Maintenance branch oversaw the preventive maintenance program. This 
216 Leading the Way

program was executed by maintenance crews working from mobile trailers within established work 

zones on a base. The Utilities Operation branch oversaw the following areas: water plant and systems, 

sewage plant and systems, heat plants and systems, power plant and systems, insect and rodent control, 

custodial services, and miscellaneous services, such as solid waste disposal.228

The hub of the work center was the work control room, the physical nerve center staffed by personnel who received all service calls and work requests, translated the work requests into job orders, 

prioritized and scheduled the work, and communicated and coordinated the requests with the appropriate shops. In the control room, the status of each work or service order was posted on display boards 

and charts around the room for all to see. Display boards showed the installation map, the work load 

charts, status boards for all projects, and the status of the vehicles. The display boards were updated 

continually.229 A model control room was created at Andrews AFB, Maryland, to demonstrate actual 

working concepts and conditions for the Air Staff and major commands.230

As implementation of AFR 23-33 and AFM 85-1 progressed, the need for an aggressive training 

and immersion program became apparent. A Model Base Program was established. In 1964, two oneweek training sessions on the central work control center were conducted at Wright-Patterson AFB, 

Ohio. Base civil engineers from seven bases received instruction in the effective operation of central 

control centers for civil engineering activities, as well as training in maintenance management concepts and procedures. The bases represented were Hamilton AFB, California; Sheppard AFB, Texas; 

Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota; Seymour Johnson AFB, North Carolina; Andrews AFB, Maryland; 

Bunker Hill (name changed to Grissom in 1968) AFB, Indiana; and, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. Once 

trained, the civil engineers returned to their bases to institute upgraded civil engineering systems and 

procedures and these bases became model bases to illustrate the new management concept. These bases 

tested new systems and procedures prior to Air Force-wide implementation. Once certified, the model 

bases provided examples for other nearby bases.231 The Model Base Program and the implementation 

of the work control center led to the formal revision of AFM 85-1, Maintenance Management for Real 

Property Facilities, published in July 1967.232

Implementation of the work control center improved base-level maintenance operations, enhanced 

preventive maintenance operations, and introduced efficiencies in procedures and management. Centralized control made possible improved scheduling and work flow for shop personnel. Centralized 

control also assured the availability and efficient use of materials. Economies were achieved as fewer 

work orders were interrupted or delayed due to insufficient materials. Scheduling of vehicles to transport work crews to job sites was improved through centralized control.233

During 1965 and 1966, attention was turned to revising AFR 23-33. Major command civil engineers were requested to submit suggestions for changes to the regulation. Recommended changes then 

were circulated among leadership. Six bases from four major commands were selected to field test 

the proposed organizational changes prior to finalizing the regulation. The proposed organizational 

changes introduced several new offices and reorganization of the shops. The base civil engineer oversaw administration, industrial engineering, operations and maintenance, programs, engineering and 

construction, and fire protection. The work control center and the shops for pavements and grounds, 

structures, mechanical, electrical, electric power production, and sanitation were organized under 

operations and maintenance (Figure 3.8). The duties of the work control center were refocused on 

scheduling, executing, and tracking the maintenance and repair work. Preventive maintenance functions were no longer a stand-alone branch, but folded into the overall activities of the operations and 

maintenance function.234

Improvements to the work control center and personnel scheduling function continued to be 

implemented. Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes, Deputy Chief of Staff for Civil Engineering at SAC, 

supported testing new procedures on SAC bases. The first procedure investigated was a graphic InService Work Plan. Work control center display boards were modified to include the current month’s 

workload and work projected for the next six months. The expanded display boards visibly summarized 
Source: John Ward, “AFR 23-33 Revision Test,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 7, No 4, Nov 1966, 8.

Rising to the Challenge 217

work requirements and manpower availability. The new display boards further supported the planning process by detailing the tasks required for new work to proceed. The new system also involved 

superintendents and work center foremen in daily planning. In 1971, the visual In-Service Work Plan 

was tested at 17 SAC bases.235

A second innovation designed for efficient work force management was tested at 16 SAC bases. 

Accounting for the daily activities of shop personnel was transferred from the shop foremen to the 

work control center. Work control center superintendents and comptrollers now scheduled the daily 

assignments of shop personnel. The foremen were responsible for moving personnel to work assignments as rapidly as possible. Personnel contacted the work control center when work was completed 

at a job site; transportation was dispatched through the center to move crews to the next job. At the 

end of the day, work control center comptrollers responsible for tracking job-site personnel submitted 

man-hour spread sheets to cost accounting. The revised procedure relieved shop foremen of timeconsuming paperwork and allowed them to supervise work in the field. Positive results realized from 

this change were centralized personnel control, increase of individual productivity, reduction of lag 

time, reduction of shop administration and overhead, and increases in scheduling.236

In May 1970, under General Mayes, SAC bases updated and reintroduced an older concept. 

During the 1950s and early 1960s, bases typically maintained a manned “do it now” truck to undertake 
Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes

218 Leading the Way

small-scale preventive maintenance jobs, thus avoiding more costly damage. SAC instituted Structural 

Maintenance and Repair Teams (SMART). SMART was designed to complete small-scale service calls 

in high-use facilities, such as dormitories, and work places; family housing was excluded. SMART 

crews comprised carpenters, a painter, an electrician, and a plumber, as required. SMART crews were 

dispatched through a separate work center, had access to tools, worked out of a trailer while on the 

job site, and were supplied through a separate bench stock. After a visit to one SAC base, the Headquarters U.S. Air Force Management Review Team reported “The [SMART] team is accomplishing a 

great deal of minor maintenance and significantly enhances the image of the Base Civil Engineer.”237

General Mayes was credited with implementing many performance enhancing concepts to managing 

the base-level civil engineering organization through his service in three major commands. To honor 

him, Air Staff established the Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes award that recognized the most outstanding 

Programs Flight.238

Supplies

Assuring supplies for maintenance and repair jobs was often a challenge. In 1965, the Air Force 

made a concerted effort to standardize supply procedures at the air base level. The Air Force Standard 

Base Supply System was a computerized system that ensured identical procedures on all air bases. The 

Directorate of Civil Engineering participated in the development of the system and used it to improve 

procedures for maintenance and repair operations.239 Once initial supply orders were entered into the 

system, all accounting and reporting information was automatically generated. Daily and monthly 

reports were produced to provide civil engineering with supply management data.240

By the mid-1960s, the cost of the conflict in Vietnam resulted in decreased funding for certain 

maintenance and operations budget line items. These line items included supplies. Available funding 

to procure supplies for preventive maintenance, and maintenance and repair activities on the stateside 

bases decreased 30 percent between FY65 and FY68.241

In November 1970, SAC began testing a new supply support system known as the Contractor 

Operated Civil Engineering Supply Store (COCESS). The purpose of this system was to facilitate 
P-2 Fire Truck

Rising to the Challenge 219

timely procurement of supplies for maintenance support. Under this program, the Air Force installation 

contracted annually with local suppliers for direct procurement and by-passed the Air Force supply 

system. COCESS was field tested at Castle AFB, California, in 1970-1971. The potential advantages 

of COCESS included timely supply support, support of the commercial supply distribution system, 

lower on-base inventories, elimination of stock fund problems, and reduction in paperwork.242

By mid-1971, COCESS was operating at four bases. By the end of that year, SAC had 28 COCESS 

stores in operation. The Air Staff conducted a review of COCESS and recommended expansion of 

the program. By mid-1972, SAC received permission to implement COCESS on a permanent basis, 

pending a decision by the Office of the Secretary of Defense. Three major commands, MAC, TAC, 

and AFSC, were authorized to implement the concept command-wide gradually. Five other commands 

were authorized to operate COCESS at a single lead base.243

Fire Protection

Fire protection and prevention at Air Force installations world-wide were major concerns for the 

base civil engineer. The grave significance of fire prevention was illustrated by the number of lives lost 

and Air Force real property damaged or destroyed. As an example, in FY63, Air Force fire departments 

responded to 2,014 calls, 331 of which involved aircraft fires. Fifty-nine persons were rescued, while 

152 persons died. The loss to real property and materiel was valued at over $162 million.244 Maj. Gen. 

Augustus M. Minton acknowledged the importance of fire prevention when he wrote,

It is the Air Force Civil Engineer’s prime duty to educate the other members of the 

Air Force as to the chemistry of fire and to instill in them the idea that fire prevention is akin to cleanliness and godliness in the survival of mankind. Let it be said 

that fire prevention is the human thing to do!

245

New aircraft and weapons demanded that firefighters understood the complexity and inherent 

danger of the technologies involved. Therefore, training became a priority during the early 1960s. Fire 

Emergency Services consistently tested new equipment and techniques for better control and skill. 
220 Leading the Way

During the 1960s, firefighters used a protein foam to extinguish fires. According to Chief Master 

Sergeant (Retired) Hugh Pike, a career military firefighter who continued his career as a civil servant 

at AFCESA, “It was marginally effective, for starters. It was made out of animal by-products, primarily animal blood...Well, it smelled pretty awful, but that’s what we used. It was one helluva good 

fertilizer. It stunk to high heaven.”246 With the introduction of the C-5 aircraft, new fire protection 

techniques and products were needed to provide adequate safety measures. The Aqueous Film-Forming 

Foam (AFFF) was developed to flow quickly and to encompass fires completely. CMSgt Pike field 

tested AFFF during his time at Andrews AFB, Maryland, in the 1960s. The AFFF replaced the protein 

foam, which had been the standard for twenty years.247 Other improvements occurred in the types of 

extinguishers used. In 1966, the Air Force removed all 50-pound carbon dioxide fire extinguishers 

from Dover AFB and installed new FEU-1/M Chlorobromomethane extinguishers.248

The Air Force also secured upgraded equipment for firefighters at AFBs throughout the world. 

The P-2 aircraft fire rescue vehicle was an 8 x 8, all-wheel drive truck with the carrying capacity of 

2,500 gallons of water and foam. The truck’s dispersal system discharged 24,000 gallons of foam 

solution per minute through roof turrets and a hand line. The size of the new truck allowed the Air 

Force to eliminate smaller and obsolete firefighting vehicles. The new trucks increased each individual 

firefighter’s capacity, while requiring fewer personnel to operate the vehicle. The P-2 fire trucks and 

the F-7 water tanker were stationed at air bases in South Vietnam and two P-2s effectively suppressed 

a fire in a large bulk fuel storage area there.249 Fire trucks procured during FY63 included 67 P-2s and 

449 P-6s.250

AFWL, through AFCEC, continued to test and to improve firefighter equipment. The early 1970s 

saw the addition of several new vehicles to the fire services inventory, including the fourth-generation 

fire truck, the P-15 Crash Truck. The P-15 was equipped with 6,500-gallons of extinguishing agent.251

Firefighting training was continuously upgraded to meet industry standards. During 1972, the 

training manuals of the International Fire Service Training Association at Oklahoma State University 

were adopted as the U.S. Air Force Fire Protection Standard for Operational Structural Fire Suppression and Training.252

The Firefighter Badge
Rising to the Challenge 221

In June 1970, distinctive badges were authorized for fire protection personnel. The circular badge 

insignia read “Fire Protection USAF” topped by an eagle with outspread wings. The center of the 

badge contained an emblem that denoted levels of duty. The fire chief’s badge was marked by five, 

gold crossed bugles. The deputy chief’s badge had four bugles, and the assistant fire chief, three. The 

fireman’s badge had a helmet, axe, and one bugle in silver.253

Cost Reductions

Cost control was a continual refrain throughout the period. In 1964, President Johnson informed 

the U.S. Congress that he was determined to reduce the cost of the Federal government. The DoD had 

instituted a cost reduction program in fall 1962. Initially, the cost reduction program was limited to 

realizing savings through improved management in procurement and logistics, but soon was expanded 

to all functional areas, including Air Force civil engineering. The DoD program established formal 

monetary goals, required reporting, and audited validation of cost savings. The DoD committed to 

reduce costs by $4 billion between FY63 and the end of FY65. By FY64, the Air Force’s savings 

reached $1.9 billion. Some of the savings came from curtailing procurement costs, increasing use of 

excess inventory, buying at the lowest sound price, reducing operating costs, and increasing efficiencies of operations.254 Additional savings were realized through reducing military family housing and 

real property management expenses.255

Cost control efforts were expected from each base in each major command. By 1966, major cost 

reductions were made in the following areas:

• utilities contract management, 

• utilities conservation programs, 

• adoption of the P-2 firefighting truck that reduced manpower needs, 

• adoption of the base civil engineer control center that improved personnel 

 resources,

• adoption of “do it now” vehicles for quick maintenance repairs,

• revised preventive maintenance procedures,

• disposal of excess and obsolete buildings that reduced maintenance 

 and utility costs,

• improved use of family housing to reduce vacancy rates, and

• critical review and validation of construction and repair projects, 

 particularly with an eye to subsequent operations and maintenance costs.

Use of in-house personnel and vehicles for stripping and marking airfield pavements and base roads 

offered the potential for economy; these tasks had been performed by outside contractors. Another area 

of savings was the development of a computer simulation program to measure runway roughness.256

Additional savings were sought from the closure of some of the dispersed air bases constructed 

during the 1950s to house B-52 bomber aircraft. Dispersal of aircraft made strategic sense in the 

1950s to protect assets from attack. By 1965, missiles had been installed and early warning systems 

activated. These latter developments supported a move to consolidate B-52 aircraft at fewer bases with 

no detriment to U.S. defense capability. Reducing the number of physical locations supported by the 

Air Force provided substantial savings.257

Automation

Interest in applying automation to management and accounting for base level civil engineering 

organizations began in the 1960s. In 1962, development of a standard integrated data automation 

system to manage all civil engineer functional areas became an Air Force civil engineering objective. 
222 Leading the Way

Data automation was adopted for cost accounting and management information. Additional areas 

for data automation were real property records, master maintenance records, facilities requirements, 

budgeting, and project reporting.258

In September 1964, the Chief of Staff of the Air Force assigned each Air Staff office with the 

responsibility for developing automation standards, data elements, and data entry codes for their respective functional area. The Plans and Control Division in the Directorate of Civil Engineering took the 

lead for the directorate. Documenting civil engineering data systems was completed in conjunction 

with the Air Force’s Phase III plan for electronic data processing conversion and standardization of 

existing data systems at major commands. The Air Staff’s Civil Engineering Data Automation Working Group approved the document, which was distributed to each command and used as the basis for 

programming Standard Civil Engineering Systems at Air Defense Command (ADC).259

The Phase II of the Air Force program provided for future base level installation of general purpose electronic data processing equipment, i.e., computers to replace the Burroughs Punched Card 

Equipment. The Directorate of Civil Engineering began developing specifications for an Integrated 

Civil Engineering Systems program to ensure that civil engineering requirements were included on the 

upgraded all-purpose base-level computer. Kelly AFB, Texas, under AFLC, was selected as the test 

base for system development. The system integrated all civil engineering functions and the data bank 

included: real property records, labor utilization, work scheduling, control and production, workload 

programming and analysis, construction control and status, cost accounting, work measurement and 

labor standards, and budget and funding. The civil engineer supply liaison team collaborated with the 

supply systems development group to assure an effective interface between the Air Force standard base 

supply system and the civil engineer cost accounting system.260 These efforts marked the beginning 

of the development of the civil engineer Base Engineer Automated Management System (BEAMS). 

Work on BEAMS started December 1964 and was 20 percent complete June 30, 1965. The estimated 

completion date was June 1968.261

Special Order G-30, issued in June 1966, established the Civil Engineer Data Systems Design 

Office, a field extension of the Directorate of Civil Engineering. This office was staffed with 13 civilian positions and collocated with the Air Force Data Automation Directorate at Suitland, Maryland. 

The office had a twofold mission: to design and implement BEAMS and to maintain and enhance 

the system through additional data systems to support civil engineering at base and major command 

levels.262 In October 1967, the Civil Engineer Data Systems Design Office merged with the newly 

formed Air Force Data Systems Design Center, but the mission of the office remained focused in the 

development of BEAMS.263

BEAMS was designed to be a “complete management system” for the base civil engineer. General 

Curtin described the system:

BEAMS is a resource management system which provides the necessary tools for 

the base civil engineer to totally manage all his resources. It provides management 

information for the base civil engineer on planning, scheduling and controlling of 

the facility maintenance workload, family housing management, cost accounting 

and mechanization of real property records.264

BEAMS was intended to eliminate manual record keeping for many, if not all, base civil engineering functions and to realize savings in personnel time. The program was designed to provide current 

information on costs, labor utilization, and real property records maintenance, as well as generate 

reports required by higher headquarters.265

The Air Force selected the Burroughs B-3500 computer to replace the Burroughs B-263 then 

in use at 135 bases. BEAMS underwent field testing during 1968 at TAC’s Langley Air Force Base, 

Virginia.266 At that time, BEAMS was programmed with the following subsystems: Labor, Work 

Control, Cost Accounting, Real Property Accounting, and Family Housing.267 The Langley AFB trial 
Rising to the Challenge 223

identified 80 applications that required correction prior to certifying the system for Air Force-wide use. 

In addition to corrections, the system was modified substantively to integrate civil engineering cost 

data with cost data maintained by financing and accounting. While corrections and modifications to the 

overall BEAMS program were addressed, the module for real property management was implemented 

as a stand-alone system. A second test of BEAMS was conducted during December 1969 at March 

Air Force Base, California, a SAC base. Problems still were identified as a result of this field test but 

many were explained as user errors and due to the capacity of the small test computer.

268

A third test occurred at Lackland AFB, Texas, an ATC base, during March 1970. The system 

performed successfully. By April 1970, BEAMS was accepted as a standard operational system. After 

April 1970, BEAMS began to be widely implemented. The system was installed at Myrtle Beach AFB, 

South Carolina, in July 1970, and at the U.S. Air Force Academy, Colorado, in August 1970.269 As of 

the end of December 1970, 11 major commands had initial implementation/conversion briefings and 

28 bases actively were using BEAMS programs on B3500 computers.270 By the end of June 1971, 

BEAMS was implemented at 70 bases. BEAMS was projected to be completely operational at the 

remaining 49 bases by June 1972.271

The advantages of BEAMS were numerous. The system provided current data on costs, labor 

utilization, and real property, in addition to producing automatically selected reports required by higher 

headquarters. The system’s 60 products supported civil engineers in managing their organizations. 

Among these products were weekly schedule reports on shop activity, monthly in-service work plan 

reports detailing estimated work and actual work completed, base civil engineer work orders detailing all approved work orders, work order backlog reports detailing man-hour backlog of work, and 

material due in lists on materials requisitions but not yet received.272

Another computerized program of interest to Air Force civil engineers was computer-aided design. 

In December 1970, a proposal to acquire a computer-aided design program was approved by the Air 

Staff and forwarded to the Directorate of Data Automation. The initial proposal was to lease two 

remote computer terminals for lead bases in two major commands for the first year, followed by the 

installation of 98 terminals the following year. The remote terminals were planned to access a system 

installed by AFLC at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. In 1971, teletype terminals were installed at Scott 

AFB, Illinois, and Bergstrom AFB, Texas, which were connected to the Third Generation CREATE 

(Computational Resources for Engineering and Simulation, Training and Education) computer at 

Wright-Patterson AFB. Two other terminals installed at Columbus AFB, Mississippi, and Bolling AFB, 

D.C., were connected to the computer at Rome Air Development Center, New York. The pilot program 

was tested to determine the number of man-hours that could be saved through use of computer-aided 

design at the base level. The terminals provided access to 38 computer programs for designing building components of buildings.273

Environmental Planning

Since the inception of the Air Force, base commanders and civil engineers have embraced their 

stewardship responsibilities. From the offset of the environmental movement, the Air Force was 

quick to comply with environmental legislation. In 1948, the U.S. Congress passed the Federal Water 

Pollution Control Act (FWPCA); this act established “a national policy for the prevention, control 

and abatement of water pollution.”274 Additional environmental legislation mandating Federal agency 

action included the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act 

Amendments of 1956. These laws established the authority for action by the Federal government in 

pollution control, especially in issues of public health.275

Eglin AFB, Florida, was the first installation to implement a fish and wildlife conservation program 

in 1950. Congress was so impressed with the program, that in 1960, a law requiring similar programs 

was passed for all military installations. The Air Force published its policy, AFR 93-14, Game Law 

Enforcement and Wildlife and Conservation on Air Force Installations, in June 1954.276 Two years 
224 Leading the Way

later, the Air Force and Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife partnered to “develop and maintain 

the fish and wildlife resources” located on the Air Force’s 6.5 million acres.277

In 1953, the Air Force Real Estate Division assigned a liaison to the Department of the Interior 

to arbitrate matters regarding military activities and impacts to wildlife and other resources under the 

DOI jurisdiction.278 The liaison also served as a member on the National Aviation Noise Reduction 

Committee, subcommittee Group “D” Location of Airports.279

Anticipating greater national concern for environmental issues, the Director of Civil Engineering 

formed a Natural Resources Conservation and Management Panel during the second half of 1965. 

The panel’s objectives were to formulate natural resources policies for implementation on Air Force 

property, as well as support the DoD Natural Resources Group established in 1964. The DoD’s Natural 

Resources Group was formed to provide assistance in the stewardship of natural resources.280 The 

civil engineer panel comprised personnel versed in fish and wildlife management and in pollution 

abatement. Studies on these subjects were supplied by the Inspector General and the Surgeon General 

respectively. Programs under the direction of the Air Force panel included forest resources management; abatement of air, soil, and water pollution; land beautification; land and water management; fish 

and wildlife management; pest control; and outdoor recreation.281 The Air Force began a reforestation 

program meeting the best practices of the natural resource management and conservation field. For 

FY67 and FY68, the Air Force reforested 15,562 acres.282

In conjunction with Executive Order 11258, Prevention, Control, and Abatement of Water Pollution by Federal Authorities (November 1965) and Executive Order 11282 Prevention, Control, and 

Abatement of Air Pollution by Federal Authorities (May 1966), the Air Force published AFM 85-11A, 

a directive on air pollution control. The Air Force began to monitor and to control discharges from its 

incinerators, as well as to monitor sulfur content released from coal and oil.283 In 1966 with the issuance of Environmental Pollution Control Directive, Air Force civil engineers undertook base surveys 

to determine levels of ground and water pollutants and investigated measures to eliminate and treat 

contaminants.284 For FY68 MCP, Congress approved funds for 60 measures in the Air Force’s budget 

devoted to water pollution control and 5 of 6 measures related to air pollution control. These 65 items 

accounted for 3.6 percent of the Air Force budget.285

Two important pieces of legislation related to environmental issues were enacted into law during 

the 1960s: the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966 (16 U.S.C. 470) and the National 

Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) of 1969 (42 U.S.C 4321-4347). Each act required action on 

the part of the Air Force to comply with the new legislation. 

The NHPA declared that it was the policy of the Federal government to provide leadership in the 

preservation of prehistoric and historic resources and to administer Federally-owned or controlled 

prehistoric and historic resources “in a spirit of stewardship for the inspiration and benefit of present 

and future generations.” The NHPA established the National Register of Historic Places administered 

by the Department of the Interior. The National Register of Historic Places was composed of sites, 

districts, buildings, structures, and objects significant in American history, architecture, archeology, 

engineering, and culture. The act also established the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, 

state historic preservation officers, and Federal historic preservation officers. Section 106 of the law 

required Federal agencies to take into consideration the potential effects of an undertaking on resources 

included in or eligible for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. This required a program 

of inventory and evaluation resources to determine historic significance for inclusion in the National 

Register of Historic Places.286 In May 1971, Executive Order 11593, Protection and Enhancement of 

the Cultural Environment was issued. This executive order directed all Federal agencies to comply 

with the provisions of the NHPA.287

NEPA, which became effective on January 1, 1970, declared that it was “national policy to encourage productive and enjoyable harmony between man and his environment.” It was the intent of NEPA 

that environmental factors received equal consideration along with other factors in the decision-making 

processes of Federal agencies, including the military. NEPA established the requirement for Federal 
Rising to the Challenge 225

agencies to consider environmental effects through preparation of environmental assessments (EA) or 

environmental impact statements (EIS) prior to making a decision to proceed with the action, including 

receiving funding from Congress when a particular project required it. Environmental analysis was 

required to present a quantified prediction of all potential environmental effects of a proposed action, 

including its alternatives which achieved the proposed action. After review of the EIS, the decisionmaker was required to document a rationale for the proposed action or alternative selected. The act 

established the Council on the Environment to advise the U.S. President on national environmental 

policy, to publish guideline procedures for preparation of Categorical Exclusions, Environmental 

Assessments, Findings of No Environmental Impact, as well as EISs by Federal agencies. In addition, 

the preparation of the annual environmental quality report was required.288

In addition to NEPA, the Intergovernmental Coordination Act of 1968 became a relevant part of 

implementing NEPA, particularly for the Environmental Impact Statement process. The President’s 

Office of Management and Budget issued Circular A-95 establishing broad guidelines for coordination 

of actions with state and area wide “clearinghouses” for proposed federal actions. Although A-95 was 

rescinded by President Reagan in 1982, the final rules implementing Executive Order 12372 stated 

that one of the responsibilities of the secretary of a federal agency was to “communicate with State 

and local elected officials as early in the program planning cycle as is reasonably feasible to explain 

specific plans and actions,” which was the underlying purpose of A-95.289 

The increasing role of environmental issues resulted in the removal of the natural resources mission from the Office of the Inspector General to the Directorate of Civil Engineering on July 1, 1969. 

Under the Directorate of Civil Engineering, the natural resources office coordinated all related Air 

Force programs including forestry, fish and wildlife, pollution, soil management, pesticide problems, 

and bird/aircraft strike hazard (BASH). By 1969, historic resources also were included under the 

environmental program. In 1969, a 600-acre district at F.E. Warren AFB, Wyoming, was listed on the 

National Register of Historic Places.290

As required by NEPA, the Air Force began considering the effect of its actions on the environment and undertaking pre-action planning to minimize those effects. For actions projected to have a 

significant adverse environmental effect or for actions projected to have controversial environmental 

effects, the Air Force prepared environmental impact statements, as required by NEPA, that described 

the action’s likely impact, unavoidable adverse effects, alternatives, short-term and long-term effects, 

and “an inventory of irreversible and irretrievable resource commitments.” The impact statements 

were evaluated by the President’s Council on Environmental Quality.291

Efforts throughout the 1970s focused on compliance with the pollution legislation and regulations. 

Use of mercurial pesticides was suspended and concerns over fuel dumping by jet aircraft resulted in 

several reports to Congress.292 Converting heating plants from coal to low-sulfur coal or to natural gas 

was investigated to reduce air pollution generated by the Air Force. However, in 1973, all plants under 

design to convert coal-fired heating plants to other fuels were directed to remain on coal because of 

the energy crisis and shortages of gas and oil. Other areas of attention included aircraft emissions; jet 

engine test cells; and automotive vehicles.293 On February 4, 1970, President Richard Nixon signed 

Executive Order 11507 which expanded pollution control to include Federally owned and operated 

“aircraft, vessels, and vehicles...from which air and water pollution must be abated, prevented, or 

controlled.”294

The increased number of Executive Orders (EOs) and directives for environmental management 

led to the establishment on July 24, 1970 of the Environmental Protection Group.295 Staffed by three 

officers and eight civilians, the new group assisted the Air Force in executing its environmental 

responsibilities and ensured compliance with NEPA, EOs, and regulations on environmental quality 

and pollution abatement.296 A workshop was held in September 1970 for all command environmental 

protection coordinators. Seventy-six Air Force personnel attended the workshop, which was devoted 

to responsibilities under NEPA, as well as the guidelines set forth by the Council on Environmental 

Quality.297
226 Leading the Way

The Resource Recovery Act (RAA) of 1970 recognized national support for recycling programs 

across the country. The RAA increased Federal authority in waste management and emphasized waste 

reduction and recovery through recycling.298 Seven major commands were directed to select two of 

their bases as hosts for a pilot recycling program by the end of December 1971. After the six-month 

recycling program, the 14 installations evaluated the “availability of markets for recycling glass, paper 

and metal; impact in family housing areas of separating refuse into separate containers; and the economic aspects of the program.” The results were mixed but the test offered several recommendations 

for any base wishing to begin a recycling program.299

All functions were scrutinized for environmental consequences. Cleaning products used by the Air 

Force were inspected and several were found to have adverse impacts on the environment. Ecologically 

unsound products included the chemicals used to strip rubber buildup from runways. Such stripping 

was a safety necessity since rubber slick runways were linked to hydroplaning. The Environmental 

Health Lab and the Air Force Materials Lab tested alternatives until an acceptable cleaner was developed in 1971 that met pollution abatement standards.300

On April 12, 1971, 50 Air Force civil engineers participated in the first Environmental Protection Course at AFIT’s Civil Engineering School. The introductory course provided an overview of 

environmental laws and policies. Air Staff published AFR 19-2, Environmental Assessments and 

Statements to assist major commands to comply with the NEPA process. The regulation provided the 

steps for developing EAs and EISs including Air Force actions requiring such studies.301 The move 

towards energy conservation impacted construction projects on the base-level. Initiatives were adopted 

to renovate existing buildings or retrofit building systems using energy-saving practices rather than 

erect new buildings.302

In 1972, the Air Force developed an Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan. 

The plan implemented pollution spill response provisions and established a facilities surveillance 

program for detecting conditions that could lead to pollution spills. New installation standards also 

were established for petroleum, oils, and lubricants (POL) facilities. These facilities comprised pressurized hydrant fueling systems, pressurized hot fueling systems, and underground steel tanks. The 

new POL standards replaced earlier standards that were 20 years old.303

In January 1974, the Air Force published its pledge to environmental protection. The Environmental Planning Division (AF/PREV) was established later that year under the Directorate of Civil 

Engineering. The division was divided into two branches: Air Base Planning and Development Branch 

(AF/PREVX) and Environmental Policy and Assessment Branch (AF/PREVP).304 A full-time Environmental Coordinator was established at most Air Force bases as well. An Environmental Planning 

Activity at the Air Force Civil Engineering Center, Tyndall AFB, was then established with the purpose 

of planning, organizing, and assisting major commands and using agencies.305

In 1974, the Air Force announced the proposed to move of the Air Force Communications Service 

from Richards-Gebaur AFB near Kansas City, Missouri, to Scott AFB in Illinois, east of St. Louis. 

The local city governments and counties sued the Air Force for not filing an EIS on the action and the 

district court enjoined the Air Force from proceeding with the move on the basis of not considering 

the socio-economic impacts of the move. Under the direct management of the Air Base Planning and 

Development Branch an EIS was prepared and successfully defended in federal courts against lawsuits 

and appeals by a consortium of the states of Missouri and Kansas as well as the cities and counties 

in both states surrounding Richards-Gebaur AFB. The EIS for this action was regarded by many at 

the time as the first predominantly socio-economic impact EIS ever prepared by a federal agency and 

the process became a milestone for socio-economic, as well as bio-physical evaluations in EISs. It 

also validated the need for comprehensive environment planning and decision making across the Air 

Force.306
Rising to the Challenge 227

Air Installation Compatible Use Zone (AICUZ)

The Air Force continued to work on challenges of encroachment of neighboring civilian communities in the proximity of installations and the effects of aircraft noise. The Greenbelt Concept was 

developed in early 1971 by the Office of the Secretary of Defense and the Air Force as an initiative to 

control land use, and possible encroachment, surrounding installations through such tools as easements 

and zoning. Later that year, the name of the program was changed to avoid potential confusion with the 

White House’s Greenbelt proposal for city parks.308 The Air Force program, renamed Air Installation 

Compatible Use Zone (AICUZ), focused on defining appropriate installation buffer zones based on 

three major operations factors: noise levels, airfield and air space requirements, and accident hazard 

potentials. The U.S. Congress approved the AICUZ concept in the FY73 MCP.309

All installations were mandated to report aircraft flight patterns, flight profiles, power settings, and 

ground information for each type of aircraft. Once compiled, the information was sent to the AFCEC at 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, where data were analyzed using a computer program; analyzed data were then 

mapped to depict noise contours.310 The data collection was refined in 1974, when the EPA implemented 

the Day-Night Average Sound Level System as the national standard for assessing aircraft noise.311

The second objective associated with AICUZ was to delineate acceptable heights of construction 

in the vicinity of airfields. In addition to height restrictions in the vicinity of the airfields, Compatible 

Use Districts (CUD) were established and recorded on AICUZ maps; each CUD restricted development to the uses acceptable under local zoning. The maps generated under AICUZ assisted in local 

land use planning and also provided a “basis for residential mortgage insurance evaluations by the 

Department of Housing and Urban Development and the Veterans Affairs.” On-base sites for family 

housing were selected in response to quality of life considerations.312

AICUZ evolved based on the results of earlier studies, including the Composite Noise Rating 

(CNR) system, the 1964 Land Use Planning with Respect to Aircraft Noise report, and the 1970s 

Noise Exposure Forecast (NEF).313 The NEF was created to assess and to calculate noise levels from 

aircraft operations on the base and within the immediate vicinity.314 In May 1973, the Air Force Aero 

The United States Air Force is dedicated to National Defense. Inherent in this dedication is 

the commitment to protect our environment, to conserve energy and to preserve our natural 

resources. To this end, each of us pledge to...

• Wholeheartedly support and demonstrate leadership for National Objectives to 

 protect, preserve and enhance the environment.

• Evaluate honestly and conscientiously each proposed Air Force action for 

 environmental consequence as an integral part of the decision process.

• Comply fully with the most stringent Federal, State and local environmental 

 standards.

• Actively support and participate in Air Force programs for environmental 

 protection – a goal as fundamental as life itself.

• Reverse trends in growing energy use without compromise of readiness, or 

 lessening of our ability to fly and fight.

• Encourage cooperation in community efforts to control and abate pollution 

 both on and off our Air Force installations.

Signed January 16, 1974 by John L. M. Lucas, Secretary of the Air Force and Gen. George S. 

Brown, Chief of Staff, U.S. Air Force307

United States Air Force Pledge 

to Environmental Protection 1974
228 Leading the Way

Propulsion Laboratory at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, initiated investigations into noise reduction 

and emission control for military aircraft systems. The resulting report established goals and included 

a discussion on the impacts from current and future aircraft.315 AFCEC assumed responsibilities for 

compliance with NEF in 1974. NEF contour maps had become a necessary tool for completing environmental assessments.316

In the FY73 MCP, $12 million was authorized and $2 million was appropriated for AICUZ projects. The $2 million appropriation was targeted for projects at Altus and Tinker AFBs, Oklahoma, and 

Williams AFB, Arizona. In the FY74 MCP, $10 million was allotted for AICUZ related projects.317

The AICUZ policy of 1974 dictated that every base commander institute and maintain an AICUZ 

program.318

In 1974, the Air Force began the Expanded Clear Zone Acquisition program as part of the AICUZ 

plan.319 The goal of this new program was explained by Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, 

We decided that we’d start a program to buy out parcels three acres wide and three 

miles long on either end of our runways. If there were houses within those areas, 

we would buy the homeowners out and then remove the houses. We would set that 

aside and put it in Air Force hands forever so that no builder could ever encroach 

our airfields again. We started buying out the worst locations first, and we’d buy out 

two or three a year...It was bound to be a controversial program, because for one, 

our air bases had been encroached upon so badly in some locations...that houses 

were right off each end of the runway.320

Property acquisitions were funded beginning in FY76.

Energy Programs

The energy crisis of 1973 affected the Air Force as well as the civilian sector. Presidential orders 

to decrease energy consumption were issued to combat the effects of the energy crisis. The strategy of 

reducing Air Force energy consumption also presented opportunities for efficiencies and economies in 

operations. Energy consumption was supported by the DoD through a series of directives to conserve 

energy. The Air Force responded with a HQ AF/Directorate of Engineering and Services letter dated 

April 18, 1973 on the subject Review of the Operating Efficiencies of Heating Plants and Heating 

System. A second letter dated January 18, 1974 on the subject Reduction of Energy Consumption in 

Military Facilities followed.321

The DoD now competed with the civilian sector for energy. Prior to the crisis, the utility conservation program in the Air Force often was not followed strictly. Lax enforcement was changed quickly 

during the 1970s. Heating and cooling operations were scaled back during evenings, weekends, and 

holidays. During operating business hours, thermostats were set at the lowest level consistent with 

personnel health.322

In response to a deepening energy crisis, the Air Staff Force created the Civil Engineering Conservation Task Group in AF/PRE on December 12, 1973. The group led efforts to reduce energy 

consumption at all installations. A Presidential Memorandum on June 29, 1973 called for all DoD 

organizations to achieve 7 percent energy reductions for the first and second quarters of FY74. Baseline 

energy data were obtained from the Air Force quarterly report for August 27, 1973, which included 

consumed energy for FY73. For July to November 1973, the Air Force realized an 8.1 percent energy 

reduction.323 The following year, the DoD established a 15 percent target to reduce energy consumption. 

Once again, the Air Force exceeded requirements. Energy reduction for January – May 1974 was 16.9 

percent followed by 17.5 percent reduction for the period of July – October 1974.324 A percentage of 

energy savings came from efficiencies in the operation of military housing. Through such measures as 

low-flow showerheads, insulation, storm windows, weather-stripping, caulking, and solar screening 
Rising to the Challenge 229

for glass, the housing sector was able to reduce energy usage.325

In July 1974, the Secretary of Defense supported a facilities energy conservation investment 

program (ECIP). The ECIP evolved from a Defense Energy Task Group recommendation to improve 

energy reduction in facility systems. Typical projects that were eligible for funding under the program 

included the installation of storm windows, sunshades, and additional insulation as well as utility load 

management systems.326

The energy crisis spurred research and development into efficient and abundant energy sources. 

Programs were developed to study nuclear, solar, geothermal, coal, and thermonuclear fusion.327 During 

1975, the AFSC and the U.S. Air Force Academy participated in a joint investigation into the economics, maintenance, and benefits of incorporating solar panels in housing and facility projects.328 The 

Energy Research and Development Agency financed the investigation. Grand Forks AFB, Sheppard 

AFB, Andrews AFB, Offutt AFB, and the U.S. Air Force Academy received the first solar heating 

systems.329 Three dormitories and a dining facility at Lowry AFB were the first projects to comply 

with the provisions of an Inter-Agency Agreement between the Federal Energy Administration and 

the Air Force. The projects were used to demonstrate energy conservation to other Federal agencies 

and to the general public. Alterations to the facilities included the installation of entrance vestibules, 

addition of storm windows, upgrades to lighting, and a complete renovation of the steam heating 

system.330 In 1976, the investment in solar technology was not considered “economically justifiable.”331

Civil engineers were advised to weigh the costs of solar equipment and the potential benefits based 

on sunlight and weather considerations.332 Although the Air Force deemed photovoltaic cells not to be 

advantageous currently, research continued based on their potential for future economic viability.333

During the mid-1970s, the Air Force undertook several feasibility studies into harnessing alternative energy sources. On April 8, 1975, the Air Force received funds for a pilot program to employ 

solar energy as the prime energy source for 50 military family housing units in accordance with the 

Solar Heating and Cooling Demonstration Act of 1974.334 Other trial programs included processing 

fuel pellets from solid waste products. In 1975, Griffiss AFB received funding from AFCEC to test 

the use of pellets for oil-fired boilers.335

CONSTRUCTION

Maj. Gen. Maurice R. “Tex” Reilly summarized succinctly the role of the Air Force civil engineer 

in the Air Force MCP construction program. The Air Force, he wrote, “develops its program, justifies 

it before the committees of Congress, prepares functional and technical criteria, specifies siting, and 

exercises client surveillance during design and construction.”336 The Directorate of Civil Engineering 

was responsible for correlating construction projects submitted by major commands and individual 

bases. These proposals were prepared in accordance with functional, technical, and siting criteria. 

Under law, the Air Force was required to use the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers or the U.S. Navy as 

the construction agents for Air Force projects. In 1974, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the 

U.S. Navy served as construction agents for 90 percent of Air Force projects. Fifty percent of those 

projects were designed by architect-engineer firms in the private sector.337 The remaining ten percent 

of Air Force MCP projects were projects or programs for which the Air Force had special permission 

to act as the construction agent or construction projects at overseas Air Force commands where civil 

engineers oversaw all aspects of the projects.

Air Force civil engineers managed project design and contracting for maintenance and repair projects at the bases and for non-appropriated funds facilities constructed to support morale, welfare, and 

recreation activities. Approximately 50 percent of this work was designed and constructed in-house, 

while the other half was contracted out to private architect-engineer firms.338

Typically, the design, contracting, and construction of projects were monitored by the Air Force 
230 Leading the Way

Regional Civil Engineer (AFRCE) offices. Civil engineers assigned to these offices worked as engineering field managers ensuring that Air Force construction plans and specifications were met by the 

construction agent for the best dollar value and within the best possible schedule. Led by a staff officer, 

AFRCE offices were charged with assisting Air Force users in defining facility requirements, preparing design specifications and criteria, reviewing drawings and plans, reviewing contract documents, 

interfacing with the construction agents, and monitoring actual construction projects. Their area of 

responsibility extended to most of the Air Force military construction program, with the exception of 

the missile construction program and overseas construction. Major command civil engineers oversaw 

overseas construction.339 In all cases, facilities were turned over to Air Force civil engineers for operation and maintenance. 

New construction programs, such as family housing and missile installations, were prominent 

programs in CONUS in the early 1960s. During the mid and late 1960s, the majority of construction 

budgets were directed towards projects in Southeast Asia to support the Air Force contingency mission. By the early 1970s, as fewer new facilities were required to bed down new weapons systems, 

funds were expended to upgrade and modernize Air Force facilities. In FY74, nearly 65 percent of the 

construction budgets were spent on modernization, repair, and upgrading facilities.340

Throughout the period, Air Force civil engineers acquired in-house expertise in design, construction, contracting, and management with the objective of assuming control of Air Force CONUS and 

overseas projects. The organization had the personnel and cultivated design talent.341 Early in the 

1960s, Air Force civil engineers assigned to the Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) continued their 

participation in the design of missile launch sites. Air Force civil engineers were directly involved 

in siting, design, and monitoring construction of missile silos; these launch platforms were integral 

to the operation of the system. This assignment marked the first time that Air Force civil engineers 

participated directly in the development of a weapons system. Air Force civil engineers also were 

deeply involved in monitoring construction of the worldwide communications network. In addition, 

the Air Force oversaw the construction of several technical facilities, including the Sonic Fatigue Test 

Facility funded in 1960 at the Wright Air Development Division at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, and 

the Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility at the Arnold Engineering Development Center funded and 

constructed during the 1970s and 1980s.342 The Directorate of Civil Engineering also served as both 

the design and construction agent for family housing. 

In 1972, Section 704 of Public Law 92-545 authorized the Secretary of Defense to approve the 

design and construction of MCP projects by agencies other than the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers or 

the U.S. Navy. The Air Force was granted authority to act as the design and/or construction agent for 

$45 million in projects, which represented 15 percent of the FY73 program. Design of those projects 

was approximately 97 percent complete by December 31, 1972. This approval extended to the following fiscal year and the Air Force was granted design and construction authority in the FY74 MCP 

for $33 million in projects, or 12 percent of the total program.343

Design and Construction Management

Air Force civil engineering leadership actively sought measures to control design and construction 

costs. Spending tax payer money wisely and fully justifying construction budgets were consistent 

themes, particularly in the early 1970s, when economic inflation and spiraling costs squeezed already 

tight budgets. Air Force civil engineers adopted innovative processes to maximize their construction 

dollars and streamline the conventional architect-engineer design process. Cost effective tools supporting efficiency included project design books that detailed design criteria, simplified plans and 

specifications, two-step procurement, one-step turnkey projects, and industrialized construction.344
Rising to the Challenge 231

Two-Step Procurement

Two-step procurement secured contractor support for construction projects in two phases. Air Force 

civil engineers initially prepared project descriptions, defined the government requirements, and distributed statements of work among qualified contractors. Following a mandatory pre-proposal meeting, 

potential contractors submitted technical proposals detailing their approach to the work for government 

evaluation. This stage of the process was confined to technical proposals and did not include detailed 

cost budgets. The Air Force reviewed the technical proposals solely for the ability to meet the project 

goals. The second phase of the procurement process solicited cost proposals from contractors whose 

technical proposals were found acceptable. The project was awarded based on the most advantageous 

cost proposal. The two-step procurement process proved expedient and cost-effective for both the Air 

Force and civilian contractors. Contractors first were prequalified on the merits of their experience and 

technical approaches before labor intensive cost proposals were solicited. The two-step procurement 

assured that the Air Force received technically competent and cost effective contractor support, while 

encouraging contractor innovation and eliminating the necessity of labor-intensive designs early in 

the bidding process.345

The two-step procurement process was used at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, an AFLC base, as 

early as 1963. Initially, the two-step procurement process was restricted to projects under $25,000. By 

eliminating the development of project plans and specifications by Air Force personnel, the process 

reduced Air Force labor costs associated with project procurement by an estimated 60 percent and 

also reduced the number of project change orders during project execution. The process did, however, 

extend procurement schedules. It took approximately 20 days longer to procure contractor services. In 

1964, Air Force civil engineers at Wright-Patterson AFB used the two-step procurement process for 

20 projects and reported favorable results. The process was used to secure contractors for repaving 

parking lots, roofing, boundary fence installation, and many types of repair and alteration projects.346

The Air Force applied the two-step procurement process to the construction of buildings and facilities when the process saved design and/or construction time without sacrificing quality, or where the 

unique requirements of a project and a bidder’s specialized equipment or systems became a determinant 

in the design of the end product. In FY69, the two-step procurement process was used to contract for 

the construction of a C-5A maintenance dock and hangar at Dover AFB, Delaware. In FY70, C-5A 

facilities at Kelly AFB, Texas, and Altus AFB, Oklahoma, were also candidates for two-step procurement, as was the commissary and cold storage facility at George AFB, California. The two-step process 

at Dover AFB saved 11 months of design time and nearly $160,000 in design funds. The design and 

construction occurred concurrently.347

Two-step procurement was used to contract the construction of family housing at several bases 

with mixed results. Civil engineers with the Tactical Air Command successfully used the two-step 

procurement process to contract for the construction of 150 family houses at Luke AFB, Arizona, 

and 100 houses at Bergstrom AFB, Texas. TAC civil engineers reported savings achieved through 

reduced project costs and an early completion date.348 By 1972, 2,600 family housing units had been 

built using the two-step procedure. The FY72 family housing program for the construction of 2,910 

units at nine bases was advertised under the two-step turnkey procurement. All bids received exceeded 

the government estimate and the procurement was withdrawn. Several problems were identified with 

the project, including the government requirement for relocatable housing, bids for individual bases 

were not permitted and, in this case, the two-step procurement process was inflexible and time consuming. Additionally, design criteria based on achieving performance specifications in the first step 

of designing with budgets unknown to contractors, often resulted in bids which exceeded budgets as 

explained below. The contract to construct the housing units was re-advertised within two months 

using One-Step Turnkey procedures.349
232 Leading the Way

Industrialized Construction

While Director of Civil Engineering, General Goddard promoted industrial construction as an 

approach to solving the large Air Force family housing shortage and to containing rising construction costs. Through the use of modular units, industrial construction also provided flexibility and the 

potential to relocate completed buildings. General Goddard reflected on these latter advantages,

We have been wedded in the past to fixed facilities which, due to changes in base 

structure and fluctuating populations, many times turn out to be in the wrong place. 

Relocatable structures, used extensively in Southeast Asia and for interim applications in the CONUS, prove that certain facilities can be constructed and relocated 

on an economic basis.350

In August 1970, a special task force, known as the “Mod Squad,” was created to investigate the 

capabilities of the prefabricated building industry and to identify the types of Air Force facilities that 

could be housed in modular structures. The task force also was tasked with determining the feasibility of creating a new generation of relocatable facilities for CONUS application. The group was led 

by then-Lt. Col. George Ellis and included Lt. Col. Don Youatt, Maj. John Pearman, and Mr. Larry 

Hoffman. The task force was assisted by the architect-engineer firm of Heery and Heery from Atlanta, 

Georgia. The resulting study concluded that relocatable facilities assembled from factory-fabricated 

components or modules had the potential to provide significant construction savings. The task force 

recommended that industrialized construction be adopted for Air Force bachelor housing, for operational, administrative, and training facilities, and for warehousing.351

A second study on modular design was awarded to Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute’s Center for 

Architectural Research on June 30, 1971. The purpose of this study was to conduct analysis, research 

and systems evaluation of modular relocatable structures and to provide the CEC with research and 

design guidance for modular construction for a variety of uses.352

Armed with the findings of these two studies, the Directorate of Civil Engineering requested that 

the Air Force be assigned design and construction management responsibility for $43 million in the 

FY72 MCP to construct relocatable buildings at Air Force bases, including for the family housing 

program. The Secretary of Defense approved the industrialized building concept but assigned design 

and construction responsibility to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.353

The promising program did not yield the projected results for family housing. The private sector 

was not geared to the production of the industrialized/relocatable military family housing envisioned 

in the FY72 MCP program. Lack of industry experience resulted in excessively high cost proposals 

and a lack of competitive interest. Accordingly, housing projects were re-advertised using one-step 

procedures, which deleted the relocatability requirements. Procurement for the FY72 industrialized 

family housing program terminated in July 1972.354

One-Step Turnkey Procedures

One-Step Turnkey procedures were competitive procurements that required all bidders to submit 

detailed designs which fulfilled the government requirements and technical performance specifications 

detailed in a project statement of work. Designs were evaluated by Air Force architects and engineers 

for meeting the Air Force statement of work and graded for quality, particularly when the designs 

exceeded quality or minimum scope requirements. Quality points were assigned by the evaluation 

team within prescribed allocations by area. A separate source selection committee would then match 

the quality points against the prices offered to assign cost per quality points and recommend a selection to the source selection authority, often a general officer and usually the MAJCOM commander. 

This system created competition among contractors who were free to submit proposals that exceeded 
Rising to the Challenge 233

the minimum project requirements provided that their base design met the performance specifications 

and was within the stated Air Force project budget. The One-Step Turnkey approach first was used in 

1966 in the design and construction of Air Force family housing at Peterson AFB, Colorado. One-Step 

Turnkey procedures were used again for family housing projects in 1972. In the 1972-73 time frame, 

the national procurement for 3600 family housing units in a two-step process for modular relocatable 

units exceeded their statutory cost. This program had to be re-procured and the One-Step Turnkey 

process was used to award the program before its statutory authority expired. Simultaneously, the next 

year’s program had to be re-configured to use the One-Step Turnkey process. Between 1972 and 1974, 

6,000 family houses were constructed using One-Step Turnkey procedures all within statutory time 

constraints.355 The turnkey process also was expanded to other types of construction projects, such as 

the development of Tuy Hoa AB in the Republic of South Vietnam.

CONUS Construction: Major Command Programs

The following sections highlight selected major construction projects and programs between 1960 

and 1974.

Air Force Systems Command and the Missile Program 1960-1974

Established in 1961, Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) was the successor to the Air Research 

and Development Command. AFSC served as the design and/or construction agent for some of the 

largest, most technologically challenging, expensive, and exciting programs and projects of the time 

period. These projects included missiles, sophisticated communications systems, and space launch 

facilities. Air Force civil engineers were assigned in sizeable numbers to the Aeronautical Systems 

Division (ASD), Electronic Systems Division (ESD), Ballistic Missile Division (BMD) and Space 

Systems Division (SSD). In 1967, the Ballistic Systems Division, which succeeded BMD, and SSD 

were combined in the Space and Missile Systems Office. The civil engineer’s role in these divisions 

was to “plan and develop the test and operational facilities required for the weapon systems being 

developed by the product divisions.”356 Each division included a Directorate of Civil Engineering to 

manage the programming, engineering, and the design, construction, and maintenance of facilities.357

Many young officers who served in these directorates, including then 2d Lt. Joseph A. Ahearn, were 

afforded opportunities to assume high-levels of professional responsibility relatively early in their 

careers.358

In FY62, 53 percent of the military construction budget was directed towards missile bases. The 

Ballistic Systems Division (BSD) of AFSC served as the design agent for the Atlas and Titan intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) underground silo launch facilities. Air Force civil engineers in 

BSD and architect-engineer firms under contract to the Air Force solicited design criteria from a variety 

of agencies, coordinated requirements, established design interfaces, developed designs, and produced 

plans and specifications for this complex construction project.359 Air Force civil engineers, along with 

civilian consultants, also designed the environmental controls, power production, and fueling systems 

for the launch complexes.360 According to Capt. R.C.B. Wright, who served as Project Engineer for 

Titan II facilities with SSD: 

The Air Force Civil Engineer is an integral part of the team developing the Air 

Force Titan III Standard Space Launch System. He is essential to overall planning 

for meeting program objectives; this is the only way he can fulfill his obligations to 

the program. The Civil Engineer’s mission is to assure construction of fully functional and operable facilities designed and constructed to meet system requirements 

and built within the close time/cost limits dictated by system objectives.361
234 Leading the Way

The Air Force turned construction of ICBM facilities and launch sites over to the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers after the Air Force approved the plans. Both the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

and the Air Force anticipated that construction of the facilities would be fairly straightforward based 

on approved designs. However, the results of ongoing ICBM testing prompted changes in the design 

of the launch silos. As a result, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was forced to change the design of 

the ground complexes already under construction and often redesigned newly completed buildings. 

By April 1962, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers had submitted 2,676 change orders to awarded 

contracts. The cost for these changes totaled approximately $96 million.362

The construction of multiple missile installations across the country was a complex project involving U.S. Air Force and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers personnel; numerous civilian construction 

contractors; and hundreds of subcontractors, suppliers, manufacturers and unions. In early 1960, the 

construction program was mired in delays; project management was an administrative maze. General 

Curtis LeMay, the Air Force Vice Chief of Staff, appointed eighteen senior Air Force colonels, as the 

responsible authorities at the intermediate headquarters and at each installation. These former pilots 

possessed demonstrated administrative skills and the drive to advance the project. This group of 

colonels served as the Site Activation Task Force to ensure that the missile bases were built. 

By 1962, SAC had activated 13 Atlas squadrons and 6 Titan I squadrons in the United States. 

The number of missiles within each squadron varied from 6 to 12. Locations where missiles were 

activated included California, Wyoming, Nebraska, Colorado, Washington, Kansas, South Dakota, 

Oklahoma, Idaho, Texas, New Mexico, and New York. That same year, the Air Force placed the first 

ten Minuteman ICBMs, located at Malmstrom AFB, Montana, on alert.363

In 1962, the American Society of Civil Engineers’ (ASCE) awarded its Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement of the Year to the U.S. Air Force ICBM program. Air Force civil engineers were 

recognized for their role in the planning stages in the installation of the new weapons systems, an 

accomplishment of notable complexity and magnitude.364 In a presentation before individuals involved 

in the project, W.H. Wisely, Executive Secretary of ASCE, stated that, “working before the eyes of 

the world as you do, gentlemen, you have received a good deal of expert advice and more or less 

justified criticisms from many quarters. It is fitting—for a change that tonight you are to be honored 

for a job well done.”365

Robert J. Alexander, who served as the Principal Engineer at SSD, noted that by the beginning 

of 1963, the SSD Directorate of Civil Engineering had “programmed, engineered, and managed 

the design, construction, and maintenance of $51 million worth of facilities for the Air Force Space 

Systems at 13 world-wide locations.”366 Alexander enumerated the responsibilities of the SSD civil 

engineer:

• Anticipate facilities requirements and accomplish programming and advance 

 planning on a timely basis.

• Assure adequate MCP (Military Construction Program) and O&M (Opera 

 tion and Maintenance) program coverage for facilities to meet multiple systems 

 objectives.

• Obtain appropriate design and construction authorizations from higher head 

 quarters to ensure that facilities planning and building proceeds in phase with 

 over-all systems time requirements.

• Select and procure the services of qualified architect-engineer firms to 

 accomplish engineering studies and designs, and plans and specifications. The 

 CE must also direct, manage, technically review, and evaluate the A-Es work.

• Keep continuously informed of technological advances in systems developments 

 and assure that facilities design is closely correlated with systems requirements.

• Ensure that each design is technically corect from a civil engineering point

 of view, that it provides for a totally operable and maintainable facility, and that 
Numerous technicalities were associated with the Minuteman Missile systems. In particular, 

the underground silos presented challenges due to their location beneath the ground water table. 

SAC grouting teams were created in 1962 at Larson AFB, Washington, to address leaks at Titan 

I locations. Once the Titan was considered obsolete, these teams were reassigned to repair 

Minuteman Missile facilities. Water infiltration caused damage and created an environment 

for corrosion. SAC’s grouting team provided a remedy to the problem. Previous unsuccessful 

attempts to correct the water seepage included the use of glues, welding, and concrete. The 

SAC grout teams traveled to various bases to provide assistance. They often requested the help 

of civil engineers and missile engineers on base in order to complete the job. Existing leaks 

were repaired with the use of chemical grout, which was pumped into seams; potential leaks 

were also addressed using hammers to detect voids between steel and concrete. Holes were then 

drilled to allow the pumping of grout into the problem area.371

SAC Grout Team

Rising to the Challenge 235

 it represents an economical and constructable work package. 

• Establish and maintain adequate controls (through the Air Force Regional 

 Civil Engineer or overseas Command with AFRCE functions) to assure that the 

 construction agency awards the facility construction contracts promptly and 

 accomplishes quality construction on schedule.

• Direct and monitor maintenance of the facilities and real property sub-systems.

• Be capable of applying advanced technology in engineering practice, design 

 techniques and construction methods to the complex and often unique facilities 

 that he designs and builds for the Air Force R&D Space Programs. An 

 important corollary calls for the SSD Civil Engineer to provide, on call, 

 engineering consultant service to all AFSC Divisions and Centers for review 

 of criteria and design of space mission oriented facilities projects.367

By February 1963, a successful Titan II test flight was completed. By December of the same year, 

six Titan II squadrons were on alert.368 Deployment of the newly developed missiles was made possible, 

in part, by civil engineers. As the Chief of the Power Production Branch for the Department of Civil 

Engineer training at Sheppard AFB, Maj. Bill E. Polasek, Jr., explained, “if the United States is ever 

required to launch an ICBM in retaliation, the ability of that ICBM to reach its target will partially 

depend on well trained Civil Engineer personnel.”369 The typical civil engineer officer assigned to 

maintain missile bases performed a variety of duties. These duties included ensuring sufficient water, 

inspecting and maintaining Real Property Installed Equipment (RPIE), such as launch equipment and 

air conditioners, and monitoring the corrosion control program.370 Controlling water inside the silos 

was especially challenging and special teams, known as SAC grout teams, were formed to maintain 

the integrity of the silos. 

By 1971, the military was investigating a replacement for the Minuteman; SAC considered the 

system outdated. SAC ideally sought a replacement missile with a larger range and greater precision; 

the capability to launch several independent warheads at one time also was desirable. In spring 1972, 

development began on the “Missile-X” (MX). As the Soviet missile program grew to include ICBMs, 

the U.S. questioned the ability of its silo-based missiles to withstand a Soviet assault. As a result, 

hardened silos were adopted and air-mobile systems were contemplated.372
236 Leading the Way

Military Airlift Command (MAC) Terminals

With the buildup of U.S. forces in Southeast Asia, MAC assessed its passenger and air cargo 

terminals worldwide in the mid-1960s. Many MAC terminals were constructed during World War II. 

These World War II terminals were unable to support the high volume of traffic destined for Southeast 

Asia. MAC began a multi-year program to upgrade its system of passenger and cargo terminals. New 

passenger terminals were constructed at Yokota AB, Japan; Norton AFB, California; and, McChord 

AFB, Washington. The designs of these terminals incorporated separate facilities for inbound and 

outbound passengers.373

MAC and Air Force civil engineers planned a modern passenger terminal to replace the older 

passenger facilities at Rhein Main AB, Germany. Rhein Main AB was the main European terminal 

for arriving U.S. military personnel. Operations for the old Rhein Main AB passenger terminal were 

dispersed across the air base in three different facilities. The inbound terminal operation was located 

in the freight terminal, the outbound terminal procedure was part of the Base Operations facility, and 

the terminal offices and check-in were located at the Base Hotel. These operations were consolidated 

in the new terminal. The base civil engineer prepared the programming documents. The U.S. Air 

Forces in Europe (USAFE) issued the design instruction and the construction contract was awarded 

to the architect-engineer firm of McGaughy, Marshall and McMillan of Athens, Greece. The modern 

63,500-square foot terminal opened on June 17, 1972. Rhein Main AB’s new passenger terminal 

included state-of-the-art technology and customer-friendly services within a single facility. The terminal included telescopic passenger loading/unloading bridges, mechanized baggage handling systems, 

television monitors with current flight information, security surveillance, and transit lounges.374

Air cargo terminals also required modernization to accommodate the all-jet fleet, which included 

the new C-141 and C-5 aircraft. The C-5 aircraft held 10 times more freight than the C-54s, the aircraft for which the terminals originally were designed. Although freight terminals had been expanded 

over the years, additional capacity was needed to efficiently handle the C-5s. MAC was assigned the 

design authority for the terminals, and, in 1968, MAC civil engineers contracted with Dortech Inc., 

a specialist in aircraft handling systems, to develop a series of three definitive designs. The terminal 

designs were for small inland terminals handling between 200 to 600 tons per day, medium terminals 

handling between 1,000 to 2,000 tons per day, and large terminals handling between 3,000 and 6,000 

tons per day. MAC staff, including the civil engineers, consulted with the architect-engineer firm to 

develop the best design. Design criteria included integration between the facility and the materials 

handling system, flexibility to accommodate changes in operations, the ability to expand through the 

installation of modules without disrupting operations, and costs.375

MAC approved the final definitive designs in May 1969. MAC served as the design agent for the 

first terminal, which was constructed at Travis AFB, California and funded in FY70. Travis AFB was 

a port of debarkation for the West Coast. The design of the freight terminal at Travis AFB was a 200 

x 1,083-foot rectangle with truck docks, pallet pits and pallet buildup stations, pallet storage, mobile 

cargo handling equipment, and a sophisticated mechanized materials handling system. In addition to 

the new freight terminal, extensive work was undertaken on the runways, taxiways, and parking aprons, 

as well as new fuel and fire protection facilities. Other new freight cargo terminals were planned for 

construction at Dover AFB, Delaware, in 1973 and RAF Mildenhall, England, in 1974. Terminals 

programmed for alterations included Charleston AFB, South Carolina, and Norton AFB, California.376

Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC) Depot Modernization

The five-year depot maintenance modernization program overseen by Air Force civil engineers in 

AFLC was one of the largest construction projects to occur during the early 1970s. AFLC’s mission 

was to provide logistical support and materiel to the operational forces. In 1973, AFLC supported and 

maintained 12,697 aircraft, more than 38,000 jet engines and 12,000 reciprocal engines, over 1,000 
Rising to the Challenge 237

missiles, and over 80,000 separate line items of equipment. By 1970, the number of depots in AFLC 

had decreased from nine to five depots; increased workload resulted in overcrowded conditions. The 

depots were industrial complexes incorporating buildings housing aircraft maintenance, as well as 

engine and equipment repairs. Depots also included materials distribution buildings for storage, equipment management, packaging, and transportation activities. By 1970, these buildings, some dating 

from World Wars I and II, were considered substandard and outdated.377

In 1970, AFLC civil engineers, maintenance, distribution, and materiel management personnel 

developed the modernization program for the five depots. AFLC worked with the service engineering 

contractor, Tate Technical Service, Inc., from Glen Burnie, Maryland. The goal of the depot modernization program was to construct state-of-the-art industrial buildings with up-to-date equipment 

and materials handling procedures to increase efficiencies and maximize productivity. The program 

encompassed new construction and installation of up-to-date machinery and handling systems. Air 

Force civil engineers fully justified the program through an extensive cost-benefit analysis. The formal 

modernization program was slated to begin in FY72, but the FY71 MCP contained $23 million for 

construction projects. One $15 million project in FY71 was the construction of a 543,000-square foot 

aircraft engine overhaul facility to consolidate work formerly conducted in nine separate buildings. An 

innovative design developed under the program was the logistical materials processing facility, which 

was constructed at four depots. The new facility consolidated the activities of receiving, unpacking, 

identifying, routing, corrosion protection, packing, and shipping in one facility using modern mechanized handling and processing systems.378

By 1973, AFLC had constructed 29 new facilities at the following depots: Kelly AFB, Texas; Hill 

AFB, Utah; Tinker AFB, Oklahoma; Robins AFB, Georgia; and, McClellan AFB, California. The 

Air Force civil engineers estimated the total cost of construction program at $250 million. Funding 

requested was $52.5 million in FY72; $31.4 in FY73; $31.4 million in FY74; $45.5 million in FY75; 

and, $21.6 million in FY76.379 Yearly appropriations were less than requested and the modernization 

program was extended to 1978, beyond the original five-year plan.

Temporary Living Quarters 

In 1970, the Air Force implemented a new housing program, Temporary Living Quarters (TLQs), 

to accommodate personnel and their families during permanent change-of-station moves. TLQs were 

on-base, low-cost housing options for military personnel waiting for permanent housing. On October 

9, 1970, approval for $3.6 million in construction for 340 TLQs was received from the Air Force 

Welfare Fund. The program was immediately popular with the major commands. The Welfare Board 

approved an additional 680 units on December 21, 1970. Thus, a total of 1,020 TLQs costing $10.73 

million were planned for construction at 24 installations.380

Contracts for the Air Force’s first TLQs were awarded in early 1972. Norton AFB, California, was 

the first base to break ground for TLQ construction in 1972. The TLQs were industrialized, relocatable 

structures, procured under the two-step procurement process. The FY72 program secured 760 units and 

38 service buildings that were acquired from a single contractor and located at 18 bases in the south, 

west, and northern tier.381 The TLQ program afforded Air Force personnel inexpensive temporary living 

quarters with modern appliances and conveniences. Design standards were devised to accommodate 

a family of five and to provide access to the Air Force base. Individual TLQs were relocatable, 360-

square foot, modular units containing “an individual AC/Heating unit, wall-to-wall carpeting, [with] 

a living/sleeping area, a compartmentalized bath, and a kitchenette with range, refrigerator and sink 

with garbage disposer.”382
238 Leading the Way

CONUS-Special Projects

Design of the Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility 

at the Arnold Engineering Development Center

Established immediately following World War II, the Arnold Engineering Development Center 

(AEDC) near Tullahoma, Tennessee, was among the most advanced aeronautics and aerospace research 

test facilities in the world. AEDC and major wind tunnel projects were constructed through the National 

Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the predecessor of the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA). NACA Research Centers were authorized by Congress through Public Law 

81-415, the Unitary Wind Tunnel Plan Act of 1949 and the Air Engineering Development Center Act 

of 1949.383 From the beginning, responsibility for the development and construction of the AEDC was 

assigned to the Arnold Engineering Development Division and the engineers assigned to that division.384 AEDC also operated satellite research centers at installations at White Oak in Silver Spring, 

Maryland, and Moffett Field in Mountain View, California. AEDC test capabilities included the ability 

to simulate speed, temperature, and pressure. Many of the more than 58 test facilities at AEDC were 

unique to the United States; many were unique in the world. AEDC test facilities included propulsion 

wind tunnels, rocket and turbine engine test cells, space environmental chambers, arc heaters, and 

ballistic ranges. In concert with the Hypervelocity Wind Tunnel 9 at White Oak, Maryland, and the 

National Full-Scale Aerodynamics Complex in California, the AEDC simulated flight conditions from 

subsonic to Mach 20, and sea level to over 300 miles. The test center was valued at $7.8 billion.385

One of the most ambitious projects ever undertaken at AEDC was the construction of the Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility (ASTF), a sophisticated wind tunnel complex designed to test advanced 

turbofan and turbojet aircraft propulsion systems in true mission environments in an earth-based 

research facility. The need for such a facility was identified in the late 1960s during the development 

of the C-5 aircraft and missiles. No facility existed for testing either the aircraft or missile engines. The 

Air Force was designated as the design agent for the new test facility in 1972. The responsibility for 

design management was assigned to the Civil Engineering Directorate at AEDC. A seven-person management team was organized within the Civil Engineering Directorate at AEDC; this team comprised 

technical experts representing the engineering specialties involved in the project. Initial oversight was 

provided by civil engineers at the Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) and towards the end of the 

project by a senior level review group created by Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. at the Air Staff and 

discussed in the following chapter.386

The architect-engineer firm for the project was selected in April 1972, and a contract was awarded 

to the joint venture of Norman Engineering Company/Daniel, Mann, Johnson and Mendenhall (DMJM) 

in November of that year. The project design phase was long and complex; it extended from 1972 

to 1976. Phases I and II (40 percent) of the design were completed by October 1974 at a cost of 

$5,470,319. Phase III of the design process occurred in 1974 and 1975 and completed 70 percent of 

the design for an additional cost of $3,947,819. The final phase of design, Phase IV, was executed 

between 1976 and early 1977 for an additional cost of $3,390,784.387

The ASTF design included two test cells each measuring 28 feet in diameter and 85 feet long 

that were capable of simulating altitudes of 100,000 feet above sea level and speeds of Mach 3.8 for 

engines generating 100,000 pounds of thrust. These test conditions were achieved through a bank of 

Swiss-made compressors that had a capacity of 1,500 pounds of air per second, and the largest bank 

of heaters in the world that could generate one billion BTUs per hour, thus raising the inlet airflow 

temperature to 1,020 degrees Fahrenheit. The heated exhaust was first cooled with a water spray, then 

passed through a 4,600–pipe heat exchanger, which reduced the temperature to 350 degrees. A second 

water spray lowered the exhaust to 120 degrees. Cooling water was re-circulated through a 3 million 

gallon closed loop reservoir.388 Construction of the new facility began in 1977.389 The ultimate cost 

for design and construction of the ASTF was $437 million.390
Rising to the Challenge 239

Cheyenne Mountain

Cheyenne Mountain, the underground Command and Control Center for the North American 

Air Defense Command (NORAD) formalized in 1958, was built to replace the earlier above ground 

center at Ent AFB, Colorado. Plans for this nuclear-blast proof communications center were initiated 

in 1956. The Air Force was the planner and general manager for the project and was charged with the 

coordination of numerous agencies and divisions. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was the design 

and construction agent for the project; the architect-engineer firm Parsons, Brinkerhoff, Quade & 

Douglas was the successful bidder for design and construction.391

Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton was personally involved in the site selection process.392 Cheyenne 

Mountain near Colorado Springs, Colorado was chosen after the consideration of several potential sites; 

factors that favorably contributed to its selection included the area’s sparse population, well-established 

electrical and communications system, and the mountain’s solid granite geology. The Soviet launch 

of Sputnik in 1957 heightened Cold War tensions. As a result, planning and design for the Command 

and Control Center assumed what amounted to a wartime priority. The first dynamite blast for the $3.5 

million excavation project was detonated on May 25, 1961. As excavation progressed, rock surfaces 

were stabilized with a variety of rock bolts, chain link, and steel fabric. Excavation proceeded quickly, 

but workers discovered a problem in January 1962 at the intersection of Chamber B and Chamber 2, 

the B-2 intersection. Two shear rock faces were discovered in the ceiling of the intersection. While the 

formations were stable under static conditions, there was no way to determine if the roof could sustain 

a nuclear blast. A specially engineered concrete dome was constructed to add additional structural support to this area.393 Problems encountered during construction where frequently resolved expeditiously 

in the field by the Director of Civil Engineering, the AFRCE, and other project principals. 

Construction inside one of the chambers of the NORAD Cheyenne Mountain Complex.
240 Leading the Way

Construction of the complex buildings began in 1963 and included 15 independent structures 

covering 200,000 square feet; 11 buildings were three-stories tall. The buildings were constructed 

primarily of steel plate; the structures were supported by 1,300 springs made from 3-inch thick steel. 

Each spring weighed 1,000 pounds. This base isolator design enabled the buildings to “float,” thus 

negating potential damage from shock waves generated during an attack. General Minton spoke 

proudly of the role that the Air Force civil engineers played in developing the “spring” design. He 

had sent a group of professionals to Europe to investigate missiles and to consult with a board of civil 

engineering advisors. The spring solution was an idea developed by this group. Tests were conducted 

at AFWL and the solution was found viable.394 Additional shock absorbers were installed between 

the exterior walls of the buildings and the mountain rock to control sway. Emergency power was 

provided by six, 1750 KW generators capable of operating a full 30 days. The underground complex 

also included 1.5 million gallon domestic water reservoirs and a 4.5 million gallon non-potable water 

supply for cooling power plants and air conditioning. Heat generated by the computer equipment within 

the operations building was sufficient to heat the entire complex. In the event of an airstrike, two sets 

of 30 ton blast doors set 50 feet apart sealed the complex; the first set of doors was designed to reflect 

the majority of the blast down the south tunnel. In addition to the operations building, the complex 

contained a medical facility, pharmacy, dining hall, dental hall, and housing and support facilities to 

sustain 800 people for 30 days.395

The center at Cheyenne Mountain was completed on February 6, 1966 and occupied in April 1966 

when the operations center moved from Ent AFB. The underground center was constructed for a total 

cost of $142 million.396 Missions undertaken at Cheyenne Mountain included assisting in the April 

1981 launch of the first Space Shuttle. The six centers at Cheyenne Mountain in the 1990s included 

the Command Center, Air Defense Operations, Missile Warning Center, Space Control Center, Combined Intelligence Watch Center, and Systems Center. In addition, NORAD continued to ensure air 

sovereignty of the United States and Canada, while the Air Force Space Command monitored all space 

objects. The Air Force Space Command assumed increasing responsibility for early-warning of short 

range ballistic missiles, such as Iraqi SCUDS.397 In 1992, the mountain housed staff of NORAD, U.S. 

Space Command, Air Force Space Command, Air Weather Service, and Federal Emergency Management personnel. More than a thousand civilian and military personnel from the Army, Navy, Air Force, 

Marine Corps, the Canadian Armed Forces, and defense contractors worked in Cheyenne Mountain.398

Construction of U.S. Air Force Museum

Air Force civil engineers also were involved in the construction the U.S. Air Force Museum at 

Wright-Patterson AFB, near Dayton, Ohio. Home to the Wright Brothers and the site of early aviation 

experiments at Huffman Field, the Dayton area was known popularly as the birthplace of aviation. 

These historical associations and its geographic location within 400 miles of one-third of the U.S. 

population made Dayton an ideal candidate for a major museum. Additionally, the technical and engineering expertise of Wright-Patterson AFB personnel presented a unique asset to museum staff on the 

maintenance and appropriate display of aircraft. The initial Air Force exhibits were static displays in 

an open-air setting. As the collection of aeronautically significant material grew, a new enclosed venue 

was needed. Rare and valuable exhibits could not be displayed in the open, and seemingly durable 

aircraft eventually deteriorated with continuous outdoor exposure. An even more pressing problem 

was increasing museum visitation: attendance swelled from 10,000 in 1954 to 650,000 in 1969.399

In 1956, the Chief of Staff of the Air Force initiated the Air Force Museum Project, and tasked 

Headquarters Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC) with design, construction, and funding the project. 

Unfortunately, neither appropriated nor non-appropriated funds were available. The Air Force Museum 

Foundation, Inc. was created in 1960 to develop an alternative funding stream. The group, comprising 

local businessmen, raised $6 million to construct the museum. Maj. Gen. Billie J. McGarvey, then 
Rising to the Challenge 241

AFLC Civil Engineer, served as the chairman of the Air Force Museum Planning Commission, which 

was established to monitor the architectural design and construction of the museum. The design program employed a pre-engineered building that maximized exhibit space and presented the potential for 

expansion. The Museum Planning Commission adopted a turnkey approach for project procurement; a 

single contractor would provide all services within a fixed price. A critical path method was adopted for 

the construction schedule. On March 4, 1970, the contract was awarded to Pascoe Steel Corporation.400

The new Museum was ideal for the exhibit and interpretation of Air Force equipment and aircraft. 

Measuring 765 feet long and 240 feet wide, it provided over 160,000 square feet of exhibit space surrounding a central 25,350 square foot core that housed offices, a theater, gift shop, records storage and 

archives, and a café. The building’s modular construction allowed for flexible clear spans that could 

be reconfigured as needed. The arched space varied from a height of 32 feet at the side wall to 80 feet 

at the apex, which made possible the display of many of the largest aircraft, such as the massive B-36 

Peacemaker. Smaller planes could be suspended from the open roof structure above the museum floor. 

The new museum building opened in 1971.401

The museum was expanded several times. The original 550-seat theater in the central service core 

was augmented by a new IMAX theater in 1991. Construction of the IMAX theater made possible the 

creation of a new glass-enclosed entry vestibule. A nearly identical building to the original museum, 

lacking only the central service area, was constructed in the 1980s to house aircraft from the Cold 

War and the Korean and Vietnam conflicts. Another expansion, dedicated in 2003, comprised a third 

barrel-roofed building to house additional Cold War aircraft and the Modern Flight Gallery. In 2004, 

a cylindrical building representing a silo opened to house the missile/space gallery. Efforts to acquire 

a Space Shuttle launched another drive to fund the construction of another display area. By 2010, the 

museum had over 1,000,000 square feet of exhibit space and a visitation of 1.2 million annually.

402

U.S. Air Force Museum, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.
242 Leading the Way

Overseas Construction at Permanent Bases

Collocated Operating Bases (COBs)

International political changes during the 1950s and 1960s affected U.S. Air Force military bases 

in the European theater. NATO’s defense strategy relied upon the ability to launch heavy strike retaliations from permanent main operating bases (MOBs). USAFE had primary responsibilities within this 

strategy. However, NATO was forced to modify this defense strategy due to MOB construction costs 

and the European domestic policies of the era. Several European countries passed legislation prohibiting permanent bases occupied by foreign militaries within their boundaries. Norway and Denmark 

refused to approve the construction of foreign military bases in 1954. In 1966, France ordered the 

removal of all U.S. Air Force personnel and materiel from within its national borders by spring 1967. 

NATO altered its defense strategy and on October 31, 1966 the U.S. Air Force Basing Study was 

completed. The basing study introduced a new concept of joint-use bases known as collocated operating 

bases (COB). COBs were developed in Europe to meet increased beddown requirements to support 

contingency operations. Each COB was designed to provide Minimum Essential Facilities (MEF), 

which included personnel support from the war materiel reserve, a runway, ample aircraft parking, and 

storage for POL and ammunition to support one squadron. The COBs were minimalist installations 

where operations could begin as support personnel and facilities were augmented. COBs typically 

saved money in maintenance and repair. Another advantage of the COBs was the ability to disperse 

potential targets for enemy attack. Main operating bases presented attractive enemy targets; smaller 

COBs dispersed over a wide area were less likely to be primary targets and remain operational. The 

COBs were constructed beginning in the early 1970s.406

TABVEE Program

The hardened protective aircraft shelter program, known as TABVEE, was a major overseas 

construction program. The U.S. Air Force initiated a study on passive defensive protective measure 

as early as 1962. Between 1964 and 1965, the Air Force conducted a TABVEE study at Bitburg, West 

Germany. The results of this study entitled Theater Air Base Vulnerability Estimate and Evaluation

(TABVEE) “revealed that dispersal and aircraft sheltering provide the greatest probability of survival 

when ‘conventional’ weapons are employed.”407 The study reviewed the criteria for base survival and 

recovery after an enemy attack. It was clear that an enemy offensive potentially would target airfields 

to disrupt operations. The lessons learned from the June 1967 Arab-Israeli Six-Day War illustrated 

the vulnerability of air bases, the inadequacy of prior base recovery tactics and materials, and the 

inability to retaliate after an air base attack. The Israeli Air Force nearly wiped out the entire Egyptian 

Air Force on the ground. 

Additional studies on shelters to protect tactical aircraft from conventional weapons were undertaken by the U.S. military. Project 1597 evaluated several designs for aircraft shelters in 1966 through 

the Air Force Weapons Laboratory (AFWL) at Kirtland AFB, New Mexico. One main design criterion 

for such shelters was ease of construction in any environment. Air Force personnel tested several 

designs and materials, including arched roofs, flat decks, pitched roofs, space frames, various steel 

shapes and ballistic nylon blankets.408 Eglin AFB’s 560th CES (HR), a RED HORSE unit, assisted in 

evaluating the various aircraft shelters.409 Even though comprehensive testing of the protective aircraft 

shelters was incomplete, four steel-arched shelters were purchased, shipped to Southeast Asia, and 

erected.410

In 1967, Project Concrete Sky partnered with Project 1597 to determine the appropriate volume 

of concrete to pour over the structures. Project Concrete Sky was an initiative directed by the Director 

of Civil Engineering to ensure that the shelters were easily produced by U.S. manufacturers to meet 

immediate needs in South Vietnam. Concrete Sky VIII was a test conducted in 1969 at Hill AFB, Utah. 
Rising to the Challenge 243

General Goddard tasked the CEC to select, lay out the site, and construct three shelters and revetments. 

The CEC deployed its site selection team to survey and select the site. Due to the compressed time 

frame for the test, military personnel completed the prep work. An 81-personnel Prime BEEF team 

was deployed to complete site grading, lay foundations, and construct the shelters. The shelters were 

in place for the scheduled June test.411 Other tests conducted under Project Concrete Sky included the 

evaluation of three types of front access enclosures: steel, aluminum, and ballistic nylon.412 Ballistic 

nylon curtains were installed on shelters in Vietnam and South Korea beginning in 1969.413

Eventually the U.S. Air Force selected a protective shelter and issued a design standard for a double 

corrugated steel arch with a 48-foot clear span. The structure was constructed of panels 2-foot wide 

by 6- to 13-foot long, bolted together to form an arch with a 24-foot radius; the structure weighed 

slightly less than one ton. The shelters were manufactured to fit inside existing 52-foot wide earth-filled 

steel revetments in Vietnam and were covered with either 4 feet of earth or 18 inches of concrete.414

By the end of 1968, manufacturers were producing an average of 35 shelters per week for shipment 

to South Vietnam, Korea, and Europe. The steel shelters were fabricated by three U.S. manufacturers: Marwais and Pascoe Steel Companies of California and Young Metal Products Company of East 

Chicago, Indiana.415 The first operational hardened shelter was erected by the 823d CES (HR) at Bien 

Hoa on November 4, 1968. By the end of 1969, 300 shelters were erected in South Vietnam, 100 in 

South Korea, and construction was underway in Europe. Eventually, more than 400 of the double corrugated steel arch shelters were constructed in Vietnam. The majority of aircraft shelter construction 

in South Vietnam was completed by RED HORSE squadrons.416

In 1966, General Charles de Gaulle withdrew France from NATO. In a March 1966 letter to 

President Lyndon B. Johnson, General de Gaulle stated that, 

“France intends to recover in her territory the full exercise of her sovereignty, 

now impaired by the permanent presence of allied military elements or by the 

habitual use being made of its airspace.”403

The United States was given an April 1, 1967 deadline to remove its forces from France, 

which prompted Operation FRELOC. The task of removing all forces and associated resources 

was overwhelming. It included: transferring 70,000 personnel, including NATO headquarters 

located in Paris; transporting or scrapping 80,000 short tons of equipment and provisions; 

and, emptying 190 bases. In addition, the United States had to establish new storage locations 

elsewhere. The U.S. Air Force lost nine bases, a depot, and other ancillary bases. Its total loss of 

real estate included 77 sites. On-going projects in France for the U.S. Air Force worth $638,000 

and new projects estimated to cost $1,250,000 were halted.404

Three Prime BEEF teams with 42 personnel aided the USAFE Civilian Service Unit (CSU) 

in the removal of buildings and equipment. Work completed by these elements included 

transferring transformers, compressors, generators and buildings that could be dismantled. A 

large portion of the installed equipment went to other USAFE units. The buildings included 

small Quonset huts, but also large aircraft hangars. These salvaged buildings, for the most part, 

were shipped to a storage yard at Ramstein Air Base, West Germany, and were subsequently 

used by the CSU to erect buildings throughout USAFE including the command post, entrance 

canopy, and connecting passage-way in support of the relocation of USAFE Headquarters 

from Wiesbaden to Ramstein in the early 1970s. More than 1400 house trailers were relocated 

throughout Europe. By the deadline set by General de Gaulle, civil engineers had dismantled 

and transferred 240 buildings with a total square footage of 800,000. They also relocated 1,400 

trailers, transferring them to West Germany, Turkey, and England.405

Operation Fast Relocation (FRELOC)
244 Leading the Way

Several modifications to the original TABVEE design occurred over time. The first TABVEE shelters typically were open, but could be enclosed through the installation of front and rear panels. Open 

shelters typically measured 70 feet in length, while enclosed shelters measured 100 feet in length. The 

mounted door on the first generation TABVEE shelters employed a hinged steel “clam shell” unit that 

was recessed 25 inches beneath the shelter arch. The second generation TABVEE shelters were 124 

long by 813⁄4 feet wide and the closure was a rolling framed-steel door. This latter type was designed 

for the FB-111 aircraft at RAF Upper Heyford in England. The prototype for an armored metal closure 

was successfully developed and constructed at Ramstein AB, West Germany, in November 1970. The 

design of the shelters was modified again after 1972 to accommodate the new F-15 aircraft. A third 

generation shelter that could accommodate two F-15 aircraft came along in 1974. It had externally 

mounted steel-frame doors mounted on electrically driven rollers.417

By 1969, the TABVEE program was initiated on NATO bases. By the end of that year, $66 million had been authorized from the MCP to construct 342 TABVEE shelters. Construction of TABVEE 

shelters began at four central European air bases. By mid-1970, TABVEE shelters were erected at 

air bases at Aviano (30), Italy; Bitburg (72), Erding (18), Hahn (66), Ramstein (78), Spangdahlem 

(48), and Zweibrucken (42), West Germany; Soesterberg (18), Netherlands; and Incirlik (42), Turkey. 

Overall, 414 TABVEE shelters were slated for installation in Europe. These shelters were retrofitted 

with the armored metal front closures. In addition to the TABVEE shelters, the project also included the 

installation of associated dispersal pavements. Between August and November 1969, dispersal pavements were installed at Aviano AB, Italy; and Bitburg, Hahn, and Ramstein ABs in West Germany.418

Deployment of F-15 aircraft to Europe required the modification of many TABVEE shelters. 

Approximately 80 percent of the TABVEE construction program was completed in Germany and the 

Netherlands and 25 percent was completed in Italy and Turkey when designs for the F-15 were finalized. The U.S. Air Force continued the shelter construction program with the intention of altering a 

limited number of shelters to accommodate the F-15, as needed. These modifications included removal 

of the recessed front closure doors and supporting bulkhead; construction of a flush front-mounted 

closure system; and, installation of a tracking system to preclude aircraft damage due to close clearances.419 Third-generation TABVEE shelters were programmed for construction in Europe during the 

mid and late 1970s. 

Studies for a second stage of the TABVEE program began at USAFE in 1971. The scope included 

plans to harden aircraft support facilities, including squadron operations, ready crew facilities, LOX 

plants, refueling truck shelters, combat ops centers, and communications facilities. Additional passive 

defensive measures that were adopted during the late 1970s evolved from Project CREEK PROTECT. 

These measures included installation of exterior revetments and improved camouflage techniques.420

Improved bomb damage repair capabilities were also included.421

Ice Way Runways at Thule

A unique construction project undertaken during the period was experimentation with ice runways. 

During the first six months of 1961, the Air Force Terrestrial Sciences Laboratory and the U.S. Naval 

Civil Engineer Laboratory conducted Project ICE WAY outside Thule AB, Greenland. Thule AB was 

one of three locations for ballistic missile early warning systems. Project ICE WAY objectives were to:

• Investigate certain physical and mechanical properties of natural, processed, 

 and artificial sea ice; 

• Test the operational utility of sea ice platforms under static and dynamic 

 loadings;

• Study the effects of aging and ablation on sea ice structures;

• Evaluate the operational capability of sea ice construction techniques and of the 

 materials and equipment used.422
Operation Cool School, later known as Project North Star, began in 1959 and was sponsored 

by AFIT. The educational program was created to expose distinguished professors, engineers, 

and scientists to the complex activities surrounding the construction and operation of the early 

warning radar systems in Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. A 1961 Air Force Civil Engineering 

article described the school:427 

The classroom is a roving C-54 aircraft; the curriculum coverage extends from 

Greenland across the Arctic to Alaska; the faculty consists of senior military 

engineers and Arctic experts; and the students are distinguished university 

presidents and engineering educators. Everyone is graduated cum laude, of 

course.428

Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, Director of Civil Engineering, was the host of the school. 

General Minton credited the idea of the school to Col. C. A. “Bud” Eckert, who ran the 

 continued 

Operation Cool School

Rising to the Challenge 245

Massive construction was required to complete the 14,000-foot runway, three parking pads, and a test 

plot. Each parking pad employed different materials and construction techniques. The first pad was 

flooded with seawater in incremental layers to achieve a total thickness of eight feet; the second pad 

was reinforced with fiberglass mats to create a thickness of six feet; and the third pad was constructed 

with ice aggregate, sea water and fiberglass mat to a thickness of five feet. Runway tests were successful; pilots reported that the ice runway was smooth and braking action superior to the regular 

Thule runway.423

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

General Minton and succeeding Directors of Civil Engineering strongly emphasized educational 

programs for Air Force personnel. By 1963, the Professional Education Program, Education-withIndustry Program, and Special Short Course Program were established. The first two programs were 

restricted to Air Force civil engineer officers. Extension courses also were available at Ft. Belvoir in 

Virginia. These courses were administered by the Army Engineer School, and prepared Air Force civil 

engineers for Engineer-In-Training and Professional Engineer (PE) exams.424

By 1965, 4,600 of the 90,000 personnel in Air Force civil engineering were officers and civilians 

in professional careers. Forty-five percent of the work force comprised registered PEs or those preparing to become registered engineers. In the 1960s the Air Force eliminated dead-end career paths and 

matched the personnel skills with U.S. and overseas assignments.425

Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT)

The Air Installations Engineering Special Staff Officer School was renamed the Air Force Institute 

of Technology (AFIT) Civil Engineering Center in 1960. In 1968, the AFIT Civil Engineering Center 

again was renamed and became the AFIT Civil Engineering School. In 1969, AFIT celebrated its 50th 

Anniversary as an Air Force educational institution. The school traced its roots to the Air Service 

School of Application, which was established in 1919. In spring 1969, 515 resident graduate students 

were enrolled at AFIT and 3,883 additional students were enrolled in courses at civilian institutions. 

By 1969, AFIT had educated more than 8,900 Air Force civil engineers through the Civil Engineering 

School short course program.426
Operation Cool School continued

engineering school at Wright-Patterson. Colonel Eckert wanted to showcase civil engineering

efforts to educators.429 The annual trips were not merely a tour, but a rigorous and often 

dangerous exercise. Aircraft equipped with skis were used to land on glaciers that surrounded 

the sites and temperatures sometimes dropped to 40 degrees below zero.430

The goal of the school was larger than merely an educational opportunity. General Minton’s 

intentions included publicizing the work of Air Force civil engineers, and also illustrating that 

Air Force engineers should be considered professionals in their field. Dr. Lawrence Kimpton, 

Chancellor of the University of Chicago remarked after his experience with Cool School, “I 

ended up with an enormous respect for the AF and for the job that is being done in the Arctic 

for the protection of the country.”431

In a 2001 interview, General Minton stated “We didn’t ask people. We’d get applications 

saying, ‘I’d like to be considered for your next trip.’ We built that up and got a good reputation 

among the professional people.”432

Operation Cool School ran five expeditions, ending in 1962. Approximately 40 guests 

were involved in the experience, including professors, deans, and university presidents from 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford, Pennsylvania State, and other universities 

across the country. A primary benefit that resulted from Cool School was a greater appreciation 

and comprehension of the challenges confronted by Air Force engineers. The program allowed 

leading members of the academic community to form connections with the Air Force civil 

engineers, and acknowledge them as associates within the population of professional engineers. 

The Project North Star trips continued later in the 1960s with then-Col. John Peters and Mr. 

Harry Rietman leading trips until they ended in 1969.433

246 Leading the Way

Beginning in 1964, AFIT offered a nine-week course called Applied Engineering. This course was 

developed as a result of a 1963 study that showed as of March 31, 1962, only 303 of 2,386 Air Force 

civil engineering officers held electrical or mechanical engineering degrees. Of those 303 officers, 

more than half had established their date of separation from the Air Force. A subsequent study showed 

that the 303 number had decreased to 163 by 1964. Clearly, a need for additional education in the 

electrical and mechanical fields was evident. The Applied Engineering course was developed to cover 

heating and air conditioning; electrical circuits, distribution and controls; corrosion control; engineering 

economics; and data processing. The first six weeks were dedicated to the theory of mechanical and 

electrical engineering while the students spent the final three weeks applying the theory on a typical 

field problem. Although the students found the course beneficial, the class quotas were hard to fill 

because of the course’s length. It struggled along until it was discontinued in 1974 and replaced by 

shorter air conditioning courses as the number of electrical and mechanical engineers increased.434

In 1962, the Training-With-Industry program was authorized to begin in FY63. The program, 

which eventually was renamed Education-With-Industry (EWI), was managed by the Civilian Institutions Division of AFIT. The objective of the program was to expose Air Force civil engineers to the 

methods and procedures employed in the civilian industrial sector with special emphasis placed on 

management.435 The program was tailored to officers pursuing careers in Base Civil Engineering and 

included the following educational tracts: Civil Engineer Management, Astronautics and Space Vehicle 

Facilities, Civil Engineer Industrial Maintenance, Civil Engineer Design, and Civil Engineer Heavy 

Construction. Requirements for acceptance into the program varied with curriculum tract: Astronautics 

and Space Vehicle Facilities was open to officers holding ranks of major or lieutenant colonel; Industrial Maintenance was open to officers holding the ranks of captain through lieutenant colonel; and, 

Design and Heavy Construction were open to officers holding the ranks of captain through lieutenant 
Rising to the Challenge 247

colonel. Although candidates who had completed a previous graduate degree were preferred, officers 

possessing a Bachelor of Science degree in engineering or science were also accepted. Successful 

candidates had 10 months to complete the program. 436

In 1964, the EWI program partnered with United States Steel and International Business Machines 

(IBM) to provide officers with opportunities for immersion in high profile automated industrial companies. IBM offered a particularly relevant training opportunity through their USAF and NASA related 

Space Guidance Center (SGC). Officers worked with advanced guidance systems and computers that 

provided support for satellites, missiles, and navigational systems. Working in the SGC exposed Air 

Force civil engineers to all facets of the company and provided an appreciation for the integration of 

operations within the overall company. The challenges of integrated operations in the private sector 

were comparable to many of the challenges met by a base civil engineer. Through the EWI partnership program, officers experienced private sector business methodologies and practices developed to 

meet a competitive market. These methodologies and practices were directly applicable to many of 

the operational responsibilities assumed by a base civil engineer. Through their work with leading 

companies in private industry, Air Force civil engineer officers gained practical experience in effective 

and efficient business practices.437

The EWI program was an ideal alternative for officers who did not qualify for, or choose to 

pursue, graduate school. The program offered opportunities for educational advancement and pragmatic 

experience. This approach also appealed to officers who already had completed a graduate degree.438

A student who participated in the Civil Engineer Industrial Maintenance EWI program reflected on 

the scope of the program, 

My EWI program at General Electric-Evendale, (Ohio) has been a most interesting 

experience. During the 10 months of the program, I have been exposed to the various aspects which make up the complex business of maintaining a large industrial 

facility.... I have run the gamut from one end of the organization to the other, and 

in the process have been exposed to management decisions, maintenance practices, 

planning procedures, material handling methods, utility operations, company and 

union policies, grievance procedures, administrative practices and many other 

experiences too numerous to mention.... The personal development I have realized during this training period should prove of immeasurable value to me and the 

United States Air Force in the coming years.439

Many participants with the EWI program praised its benefits and expressed appreciation for the 

pragmatic experience that could not be replicated in a classroom environment.440

The Special Short Course Program on advancements in technology was offered by the Civil Engineer Center at AFIT. Courses offered in 1963 included base civil engineering, executive engineering, 

pavements, and management, as well as nuclear defense planning, and requirements for missile and 

space facilities. The purpose of the program was to provide focused courses in the latest technologies 

and Air Force procedures. As a result, the subjects offered varied from year to year. Short courses 

ranged from one to nine weeks. Admission to selected courses required letters of recommendation 

from AFIT. While enrollment for some courses was selective, other courses were open to all applicants 

and filled on a first come, first served basis.441

The Professional Education Program, also offered by AFIT, offered courses to Air Force civil 

engineer officers in architecture, architectural engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, 

environic engineering, industrial engineering, mechanical engineering, nuclear engineering, space 

facilities engineering, and engineering management. The program was designed to benefit officers 

holding baccalaureate degrees outside the field of engineering who met the military and academic 

prerequisites for enrollment in the program. These prerequisites included completion of at least 30 
248 Leading the Way

credit hours of coursework that could be transferred and applied towards a degree in engineering and 

a minimum grade point average (GPA) of 2.0. Those wishing to pursue graduate work towards a M.A. 

degree were required to hold a professional degree in engineering or a degree from a service academy; 

a GPA above 2.0 also was required. The Ph.D. program required a master’s degree in a related field 

and a minimum GPA of 3.0.442

In 1971, the Air Force Educational Requirement Board’s Civil Engineer Panel proposed the development of a master’s degree in management and/or administration for civil engineers. A large number 

of civil engineers held positions that required personnel and financial management skills. An advanced 

degree in management and/or administration paired with an undergraduate degree in engineering 

provided an ideal educational background for civil engineering officers. Initially, AFIT coordinated the 

program through civilian institutions. The majority of graduate business schools offered an 18-month 

curriculum geared primarily toward civilian industrial management and administration. Air Force civil 

engineers enrolled in such programs were forced to extrapolate their education to military application in the Air Force. To overcome this obstacle, the AFIT School of Systems and Logistics created 

the Graduate Facilities Management Program. The program included 12 months of study and was 

administered at Wright-Patterson AFB in Ohio. The faculty included 23 officers and 4 civilians, ninety 

percent of whom held or were working towards their PhD. Requirements for enrollment in the program 

were three years of civil engineering experience, an undergraduate degree with a GPA of 2.5 from an 

accredited educational facility, and a minimum Graduate Record Exam score.443

In the early 1970s, Brig. Gen. Archie Mayes, then Deputy Chief of Staff for Civil Engineering at 

SAC, suggested to Col. Al Nemetz, the AFIT dean, that he establish a traveling team to teach courses 

at various bases. Colonel Nemetz sent a team of instructors to San Antonio to teach a one-week condensed version of the BCE course. The experiment was a success and AFIT began its Civil Engineering 

Management Applications Regional Seminar (CEMARS) program. Maj. William R. Sims led the 

first class and got the program off to a successful start. CEMARS courses were soon taught at bases 

around the world. The team traveled to Ramstein in 1978 and Okinawa and the Philippines in 1985.444

U.S. Air Force Academy

In 1964, a civil engineering major was introduced at the U.S. Air Force Academy. Required 

classes for the major were surveying, soils mechanics, hydraulics, air base engineering, construction 

engineering, and a course in water supply and waste disposal. In addition, students chose two of the 

following courses: foundation engineering, pavement design, structural engineering, civil engineering 

design, independent study or materials science. Overall requirements for the civil engineering major 

included 45.5 hours of core science and engineering courses, 53.5 hours of core social science and 

humanities courses, and 47 hours of major courses specifically required for civil engineer students. 

The core curriculum included basics such as English, calculus, foreign languages, history, physics, 

chemistry, and engineering fundamentals. Coursework more specific to Air Force engineering activities 

included physiology, computer science, astronautics, aeronautics, electronics, law, psychology, human 

relations, economics, and international relations. These courses made up approximately two-thirds of 

the educational curriculum at the academy.445

Academy instructors were required to hold a master’s degrees; one quarter of the faculty held PhDs. 

In addition to their educational backgrounds, instructors also were required to have “several years 

of practical experience in the military.” Faculty members were not only instructors, but also mentors 

providing guidance and inspiration to encourage and advocate for careers in the Air Force. In 1966, 

the first 50 students majoring in Civil Engineering were graduated. Shortly after the creation of the 

major, the Loeschner Award for Outstanding Cadet in Civil Engineering was established. The award 

was named after Maj. Theodore R. Loeschner, a former USAFA Civil Engineering faculty member, 

killed during the Vietnam War.446
Rising to the Challenge 249

Department of Civil Engineering Training, Sheppard Air Force Base, Texas

By 1963, the Department of Civil Engineering Training at Sheppard Air Force Base had grown 

tremendously. The department maintained an inventory of equipment estimated at $13 million and 

employed approximately 450 personnel, including instructors, managers, and writers. According to 

Lt. Col. George Talbot, director of the department during the early 1960s, “this Department has one 

purpose: to produce high quality, technically trained non-commissioned officers, civilian technicians, 

and Airmen in the Facilities, Construction, and Utilities career fields.”447 The department included three 

training branches: Electrical Power Production, Refrigeration, and Building Trades. The Electrical 

Power Production Branch provided instruction in a wide variety of equipment, ranging from small 

gas powered apparatus to large diesel units. Training provided by the Refrigeration Branch covered 

air conditioning systems and multiple types of equipment controls. Instruction provided by this branch 

addressed systems from small household air conditioning units to 100-ton systems utilized by NORAD. 

The Building Trades Branch provided instruction in plumbing, missile facilities and sewage treatment 

systems. Each branch offered additional training opportunities in supervisory skills, inspections, 

maintenance, and a variety of supplementary topics.448

Between 1959 and 1964, the civil engineering training department at Sheppard AFB reached 3,000 

students through resident courses. Traveling instructors taught additional courses at remote facilities to 

an additional 1,000 students. Courses included missile facilities, missile testing, refrigeration, electrical 

systems, and power production. These courses integrated on-the-job training and classroom instruction. 

Contractors, as well as military personnel, delivered the courses, which ranged in length from one 

week to nearly four months. Eventually, traveling teams of instructors provided supplemental training 

on new technologies to earlier graduates. This continuing education ensured that civil engineers were 

kept abreast on new technologies and developments in the field.449

A 1965 Air Force Civil Engineer magazine article titled “A New Breed...the CE Missile Officer” 

summarized the responsibilities of a civil engineer engaged in missile operations. The article profiled 

28-year-old Capt. Robert W. Heller of the 390th Missile Maintenance Squadron at Davis-Monthan 

AFB in Arizona. Capt. Heller held a degree in mechanical engineering from the University of Colorado 

and previously served as a utilities engineer for the Semi-Automated Ground Environment system 

at Grand Forks AFB, North Dakota. Captain Heller acquired indispensable information and practical 

skills in missile operation during his training at Sheppard AFB. He completed a seven-week course 

in ballistic missile launching, officer training, and advanced courses. He became the officer-in-charge 

of Plant Maintenance for the Real Property Installed Equipment Branch of the 390th and was charged 

with the responsibility for two Titan II squadrons.450

Fire School

In 1960, the Fire School at Lowry AFB, Colorado was relocated to Greenville AFB, Mississippi. 

Greenville’s fire school operated for four years and was plagued by problems. Similar to Lowry, 

instruction at Greenville AFB was held in an old hangar. Poor equipment maintenance hampered 

personnel training. Equipment was overused and the civilian firm charged with maintenance of the 

military crash trucks was inexperienced. By the time the Greenville fire school closed in 1964, twothirds of the crash trucks recorded severe maintenance problems and were unusable. In July 1965, fire 

training was relocated to Chanute AFB, Illinois. The fire school, under the command of Chief Warrant 

Officer Louis F. Garland, incorporated several new courses in fire protection and sought to develop 

nationwide standards in firefighting.451
250 Leading the Way

The Professional Degree Program

The University of Wisconsin established an innovative Professional Degree Program in 1970, 

which offered several advantages to Air Force civil engineers seeking to advance their education or 

expand their knowledge in particular areas. Entrance into the program required a bachelor’s degree in 

engineering. The majority of classes were correspondence courses. The program’s flexibility enabled 

civil engineers to maintain full-time assignments while taking courses. The curriculum included engineering and management, with an emphasis on recent technologies. The degree requirements included 

a minimum of 1,200 course hours. The hourly requirement was considered comparable to 25 semester 

credits. Coursework had to be completed within seven years.452

Base Civil Engineering In-House Training Program

In some cases, formal educational programs did not meet all training needs required to support 

base civil engineering. During the early 1970s, this shortcoming was acknowledged and addressed 

through an In-House Training Program. The main purpose of the program was to improve job performance at the base level and to enhance the capabilities of the base civil engineering organization. 

Teamwork, management, and technical proficiency were identified as areas providing opportunities 

for in-house training. Base civil engineers were responsible for designing programs specific to their 

needs and areas of responsibility. Instructors were chosen by the base civil engineer. The base civil 

engineer could also appoint a staff member to oversee the program, while retaining responsibility for 

selected aspects, such as participants and instructional topics. The base civil engineer’s support was 

essential throughout the development and implementation of the program.453

Civilian Education

During the late 1960s, education also was promoted for civilian personnel working in the civil 

engineering career field. The Air Force employed nearly 3,500 civilians in professional employment 

categories within the Civil Engineering career field; these employees were designated with a specialty 

code equivalent to an officer. In many cases, civilian personnel represented a valued and experienced 

workforce, which lacked higher education. A 1967 assessment identified that 86 percent of civil engineer officers held bachelor’s degrees while only 44 percent of their civilian counterparts possessed 

comparable levels of education. Civilians had many options and opportunities for advancing their 

education with the support of Air Force. They could attend courses at local universities or enroll in 

courses offered by AFIT. At AFIT, civilians could enroll a two-year resident course, or participate in 

short courses that spanned a few weeks.454

CIVIL ENGINEER WARTIME READINESS AND DEPLOYMENTS

Between 1960 and 1975, Air Force civil engineers engaged in a variety of deployments, both at 

home and abroad. During the early 1960s, Air Force civil engineers participated in two brief deployments: the Berlin Wall crisis (1961) and the Cuban missile crisis (1962). The longest contingency 

deployments were associated with Southeast Asia and the Vietnam Conflict (1961-1973) and the 

Korean peninsula (1968) following the seizure of the USS Pueblo.

Challenges were presented by each deployment. Civil Engineers consistently applied the lessons 

learned from earlier experiences to better anticipate and address the issues presented in the next deployment. Throughout the period, one major challenge focused on who was to establish air bases and how 

to establish them effectively in remote deployment areas. In 1964-1965, the Air Force civil engineers 

answered this challenge through the formation of Prime BEEF teams and RED HORSE squadrons.
Rising to the Challenge 251

During the period, Air Force civil engineers not only deployed to support contingencies, but also 

worked in emergency recovery situations in response to natural disasters in the United States and 

around the world. The requirements for these contrasting deployments necessitated the development 

of a meaningful training program to hone and expand appropriate skill sets. 

Berlin Wall Crisis, 1961

Air Force civil engineers played a crucial role in the rapid U.S. military buildup in central Europe 

following the Soviet Union’s construction of the Berlin Wall separating East and West Berlin in 

1961. Construction of the wall was rooted in Soviet objections to West Germany’s deepening alliance 

with the West through its membership in NATO. Tensions between the U.S.S.R. and NATO were 

heightened by threats from Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. During summer 1961, tensions led to 

an increased number of East Germans fleeing to West Berlin. Khrushchev’s demand for allied forces 

to leave Germany in June 1961 followed by his pledge to give control of Berlin to East Germany 

by the following January, prompted U.S. President John F. Kennedy to increase the number of U.S. 

Armed Forces in Europe and to request an additional $3 billion for defense spending. At 2:00 a.m. 

on August 13, East Germany installed barbed wire along the border between East and West Berlin; 

within a few days construction began on a permanent barrier that eventually included concrete walls 

and watchtowers manned by guards with guard dogs. Personnel monitoring the border between east 

and west were authorized to use deadly force, if necessary, to prevent movement across the wall.455

As part of the U.S. response, the U.S. Air Force began a two-phased deployment of aircraft under 

Operation Stair Step to reinforce USAFE in Europe should war develop over access to West Berlin. 

Under the first phase, TAC deployed the Tack Hammer Composite Air Strike Force to USAFE. The 

TAC deployment was an interim response until ANG units were mobilized and deployed to Europe. 

The first units of the strike force arrived in Europe on September 5, 1961. Mobilized ANG units arrived 

at French bases during October and November 1961. This was the largest overseas deployment of 

U.S. aircraft since World War II.

On August 16, 1961, Brig. Gen. Oran O. Price, deputy chief of staff, Civil Engineering for USAFE, 

and his organization were given 12 days to formulate a facility expansion program to accommodate 

the anticipated Air Force aircraft and personnel. The Facility Programs Panel, based at Headquarters, 

USAFE, immediately reviewed conditions at active, inactive and standby airfields in central Europe 

and developed recommendations for coordinated facilities. Implementation was estimated at several 

million dollars and received Air Force approval on September 1, 1961. The Air Force gave USAFE 

authority to proceed with maintenance and repair projects, to award FY62 construction projects germane to the buildup, to proceed with selected projects within specified dollar ceilings, and to purchase 

up to $500,000 in construction supplies. USAFE was authorized to designate the construction agent, 

which allowed greater flexibility to execute the construction program quickly.

456

To prepare for incoming units, USAFE activated Civil Engineer Mobile Teams, a concept developed in USAFE following the Lebanon Crisis.457 Civil engineering officers and non-commissioned 

officers were assigned to temporary duty to reactivate bases. The mobile teams were able to provide 

basic services for units arriving with little prior notice. In one instance, USAFE received one day 

notice prior to the arrival of units, and one unit was assigned to an inactive base. New operational 

facilities erected during the buildup were pre-engineered and prefabricated. These facilities included 

ammunition storage structures, alert shelters, maintenance hangars, and shops. Procurement of power 

generation equipment proved to be a challenge. Maintenance and construction projects were completed 

by the Air Force civil engineer organization, Army engineer troops, and private contractors, although, 

General Price described the Army engineer support as “something less than satisfactory.” The one 

Army engineer battalion assigned to support the Air Force was neither trained nor equipped for airfield 

work and took six weeks before it was operating effectively. In addition, the Air Force had to provide 
252 Leading the Way

housing, messing, supplies and equipment for the unit. Most of the air buildup forces were in place 

by early November 1961.458

Air Force engineers also participated in the implementation of Operation Bamboo Tree, the mission 

order by President Kennedy in fall 1961 to improve landing and navigation facilities at Tegel, Gatow, 

and Tempelhof airports in West Berlin, and at several other airfields in West Germany. The U.S. Army 

Construction Agency, Germany, oversaw construction as the agent of the Air Force.459 By April and 

May 1962, the tensions over Berlin eased and the mobilized ANG units returned to the United States 

by the end of August 1962.

Some of the lessons learned by Air Force civil engineers during this crisis was the value of the 

Civil Engineering Mobile Teams and an appreciation for the time required to compile sufficient data 

on bases in the command, to secure the authority to get the job done, to prepare power generators 

and to construct pre-fabricated buildings. This buildup occurred in a developed area on some of the 

best standby bases in the world with access to contractor support and skilled labor. The high security 

nature of the operations also posed diplomatic challenges; U.S. activities were classified at Top Secret. 

General Price reflected,

During this period, the United States elements possessed authority, money and 

guidance at their command but had no legal means of discussing this with host 

countries and allies in NATO. If you want to accumulate gray hair in a hurry, try 

building facilities on a crash basis on an airfield owned by one foreign country and 

operated by another without being able to tell either element what is going on.460

Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962

The threat of nuclear war became a reality for most Americans in October 1962. The Soviet Union 

began constructing medium-range missile sites in Cuba in August 1962. Launch pads at the missile 

sites could fire missiles with a range of 1,000 miles thus posing a grave threat to the United States. 

On October 14, 1962, an American spy plane photographed construction at the missile sites, confirming months of rumors. In a televised statement on October 22, 1962, President Kennedy alerted the 

American public about the presence of the missile sites and warned the Soviet Union that the United 

States would consider a “nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western 

Hemisphere as an attack by the Soviet Union on the United States.”461 Kennedy directed the Navy to 

intercept Soviet ships headed towards Cuba. The crisis was resolved on October 28, 1962 when the 

United States promised not to invade the island and Soviet Leader Nikita Khrushchev announced the 

missiles would be removed.

During the Cuban missile crisis, Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, then the Director of Civil Engineering, was sent to Florida to monitor the situation closely. When asked what the Air Force civil 

engineers did to prepare for the crises, General Minton replied that the civil engineers’ jobs were to: 

get ready to do the things that they were supposed to do, in case it did happen, and 

that was a myriad of things. Each one of those bases (in Florida) had its own little 

effort that they had to make, depending on circumstances. I think most of them 

practiced it, to a certain extent, but the crisis soon blew over. It just took one thing 

to blow it over, and that was a couple of big airplanes flying over, loaded and ready 

to go. There was a lot of bluff in that, but on the other hand, if they’d launched a 

few of those missiles at Miami it could have been very difficult for us.462

 TAC civil engineers reopened the former Opalocka Naval Air Station (NAS) near Miami, Florida. 

The DoD chose this station as a staging base for U.S. strike forces in the event of war. One element of 
Rising to the Challenge 253

the base that required rehabilitation was the POL facility. TAC assembled a team of in-house personnel 

and equipment. Personnel arrived from several TAC bases and included 11 liquid fuels maintenance 

personnel and 4 electricians. The first members of the team arrived late in the evening on October 

22, 1962. Team members were not informed of their assignment, but directed to bring tool kits and 

a week’s worth of work clothes. Three and one-half days later, the POL system was operational.463

For then Lt. (later Maj. Gen.) Joseph A. Ahearn, the Cuban missile crisis was a defining career 

moment. Lieutenant Ahearn was stationed at Goose Bay AB in Labrador, Canada. The base mission 

was to keep the refueling tankers flying to supply the nuclear air force as they circled the north pole 

for three days. As General Ahearn described, 

Our job was to refuel the tankers that were refueling the bombers. The weather 

was awful. I drove a snowplow, with the big lights. They had whiteouts up there. 

During that whole mission it was snowing so bad you couldn’t see. It was absolutely miraculous that we didn’t lose an airplane. The tankers would have to go 

out and refuel [the bombers] and then come back. The base was actually closed 

[because of the snow], but we never closed it. The air traffic controllers would just 

talk the pilots down. We’d meet them about midway in the runway with our snowplows and guide them off. It was the damnedest teamwork you’ve ever seen in your 

entire life, but we didn’t lose a single airplane. Why, I don’t know. That particular 

experience connected me pretty deeply with the operational side.... I found airfield 

operations, particularly during high-stress periods, to really be a wonderful playing 

field. I really enjoyed it.464

Air Force civil engineer participation in this brief crisis illustrated the need for improved comprehensive coordination among civil engineering personnel. During the crisis, civil engineering teams 

were assembled at random and transported by aircraft traveling from base to base picking up available 

personnel. This was the first time that such a response was viewed “up-close” by CONUS civil engineer 

leaders and helped reinforce the need for change. The experiences of Air Force civil engineers during 

the Cuban missile crises, along with the growing number of deployments to Southeast Asia, was the 

impetus for General Curtin forming the Civil Engineering and Manpower and Organization Study 

Group in December 1963. The work of this group resulted in Project Prime BEEF, which implemented 

a civil engineering military capability worldwide.465 Project Prime BEEF is discussed earlier in this 

chapter under Personnel.

Another consequence of the Cuban missile crisis was an increased awareness of the importance of 

contingency planning, specifically for activating bases effectively in remote or unprepared areas. TAC 

began a program to prepare deployment packages, code name “Gray Eagle.” These packages included 

tents, vehicles, runway lighting, shelters, prepositioned consumables, and other support equipment.466

Dominican Republic Crisis, 1965-1966

The first deployment of a Prime BEEF team occurred on May 1, 1965 to San Isidro AB, Dominican 

Republic. The Dominican Republic was experiencing political unrest. In April, the country’s liberal 

movement took to the streets to oust a non-elected conservative government. The revolution appeared 

to be evolving into a civil war as the conservative military forces struck against the government opposition with tanks and aircraft. On April 28, President Johnson committed U.S. troops to intervene in the 

civil strife. Ultimately 20,000 U.S. troops were sent to Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic to 

restore order.467

The Prime BEEF team’s mission was to assist the airlift fleet, which transported U.S. Army Forces 

to the Dominican Republic to support Operation Power Pack and evacuated U.S. and foreign nationals 

to safety. The first nine civil engineers deployed were from Myrtle Beach AFB, South Carolina; they 
Source: Capt R. J. Oelke, “Prime BEEF Goes to Santo Domingo,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 7, No 1, 

Feb 1966, 16.

254 Leading the Way

were part of a combat support group (CSG) deployed with the TAC Air Forces, U.S. Atlantic Command. Personnel for the mission were selected based on their skill sets (Table 3.2). When activities in 

the Dominican Republic intensified, the initial team was augmented with an additional 25 persons. The 

Prime BEEF team established an expeditionary camp using Gray Eagle mobility support equipment 

and kept San Isidro AB operational.468

The majority of materials needed for the mission were flown to the area from CONUS. Equipment 

airlifted to the base included a runway lighting set, a fire crash truck, a pumper, and a portable water 

purification unit. Generators also were flown in to supply reliable power for Air Force operations and 

airfield lighting equipment. Water was piped to the air base from seven miles away, but was often 

compromised by nearby rebel fighting. In addition, the water was untreated. Lessons learned from 

the deployment included the desirability of lighter weight, standardized generators to simplify the 

procurement of spare parts. The experience also demonstrated the need for better shelters; the tents 

employed did not withstand storms and sometimes collapsed.469

Air Force support of the operations in the Dominican Republic continued into 1966. By February 

1966, three additional Prime BEEF teams from TAC bases had deployed on 60-day rotations to San 

Isidro AB in the Dominican Republic.470 In September 1966, the last U.S. forces left the country.

Vietnam Conflict, 1961-1973

Overview of Conflict, 1961-1968

Tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union and China intensified in Southeast Asia 

during the mid-1950s and early 1960s. U.S. commitment to an anti-Communist regime in Asia dated 

to the early 1950s when the United States supported the French colonial efforts in Indochina. The 

government of France had a long-term interest in the countries of Southeast Asia; Vietnam, Cambodia, 

and Laos were jointly referred to as French Indochina. During the 1950s, the French were engaged in 

a conflict with Communist forces loyal to North Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh. After a disastrous 

defeat at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954, the French withdrew from Vietnam.471
Rising to the Challenge 255

The timing of the Viet Minh victory at Dien Bien Phu aided Ho Chi Minh in the Geneva conferences held later in 1954. Attended by representatives of the French, American, British, Soviet, and 

Chinese governments, the conference was intended to resolve problems in both Korea and Vietnam. 

The conference did little to resolve any issues. The separation of North and South Korea continued; 

Vietnam was divided at the 17th parallel; both Cambodia and Laos were split from Indochina; and, 

the tensions created during decades of European control set the stage for further conflict. Ho Chi Minh 

established a Communist government in North Vietnam. Ngo Dinh Diem became the leader in South 

Vietnam. Elections in North and South Vietnam were scheduled to decide the fate of the country: 

continued division or unification. However, elections were never held. The Viet Cong, guerrilla soldiers 

remaining in South Vietnam after the 1954 Geneva conference, began harassing South Vietnamese 

authorities. The South Vietnamese government appealed to the United States for additional aid.472

U.S. policy sought to check Communist expansion into South Vietnam and to fill the vacuum 

created by the French withdrawal from the region. American policy makers sought to prevent the 

realization of the Domino Theory, a term coined in the 1950s to describe the potential fall of successive 

governments to communist control.473 Consequently, the United States sent military and economic 

advisors to support South Vietnam.474

In December 1961, the United States increased the number of military advisors in South Vietnam 

to counter increased North Vietnamese guerilla activity there and in neighboring Laos. Between 

December 1960 and December 1962, U.S. military personnel stationed in Vietnam rose from 900 

to 11,300.475 Approximately one-third of these were Air Force personnel. The first permanent Air 

Force unit, comprising 67 officers and Airmen, was stationed in Tan Son Nhut AB near Saigon, South 

Vietnam, in September 1961. By November 1961, another Air Force detachment was stationed at 

Bien Hoa AB near Saigon to fly reconnaissance and combat missions, in addition to training South 

Vietnamese airmen. During 1962, Fairchild C-123 transport aircraft and additional personnel arrived.476

By December 1962, 2,429 Air Force personnel were stationed in South Vietnam with an additional 

1,212 Airmen located in Thailand. By December 1963, 4,630 Airmen were stationed in South Vietnam 

with an additional 1,086 Airmen based in Thailand.477 The primary air bases in South Vietnam were 

Tan Son Nhut, Bien Hoa, and Da Nang; outlying airfields were located at Can Tho, Nha Trang, Soc 

Trang, Pleiku, and Qui Nhon.478

U.S. participation in the conflict in South Vietnam increased dramatically in 1964. In early August, 

it was reported that American destroyers had been fired upon in the Gulf of Tonkin on August 2 and 4. 

On August 7, the U.S. Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave the U.S. President 

broad powers to commit U.S. troops in South Vietnam without prior consultation with Congress. 

Congress enabled President Lyndon B. Johnson to use “all necessary measures to repel any armed 

attack against American forces.”479 The U.S. military buildup after this incident was swift. Within days, 

additional aircraft were assigned to Tan Son Nhut, Da Nang, and Bien Hoa ABs. Other aircraft were 

positioned in Thailand, the Philippines, Okinawa, and Guam, to support an air war.480 By December 

1964, U.S. military personnel assigned to South Vietnam numbered 23,300.481

In February 1965, President Johnson authorized a bombing campaign against the North Vietnamese 

known as Rolling Thunder, a restricted gradual bombing campaign against North Vietnam’s supply 

system. During 1965, the Air Force conducted 55,000 sorties; in 1966, the number of sorties doubled 

to 110,000.482 In addition to conducting bombing raids and fighting enemy aircraft, Air Force personnel also conducted transport throughout the country, sprayed herbicides, and supported Army ground 

troops using conventional weapons, as requested. Jet aircraft were first stationed in South Vietnam in 

1965. At this time, the original training mission was abandoned and the U.S. was a direct participant 

in the fighting.

By December 1965, 184,000 U.S. military personnel were stationed in South Vietnam; Air Force 

personnel numbered 20,620. By December 1966, U.S. military personnel numbered 485,587 of which 

52,913 were Airmen. An additional 26,113 Airmen were stationed in Thailand.483 The bombing campaign lasted until November 1, 1968 when President Johnson halted all bombing above the nineteenth 
14th Civil Engineering Squadron Supply building at Nha Trang AB, South Vietnam.

256 Leading the Way

parallel. By December 1968, Air Force personnel serving in South Vietnam numbered 58,434. The 

number of U.S. military personnel deployed to South Vietnam peaked at 542,400 in January 1969.484

Organization of Air Force Civil Engineers in South Vietnam

Air Force civil engineers were on the ground early during the ramp-up to support Air Force 

installations. During the early stages of U.S. involvement, Air Force units were joint tenants at 17 

Vietnamese air bases and were not accompanied by civil engineering support staff. Soon, base civil 

engineer squadrons were staffed to supplement host country airfield operations. The typical base civil 

engineering organization at these bases comprised one civil engineering officer and a few enlisted personnel who were power production technicians and firemen. Day labor support was provided by local 

nationals. This staffing was sufficient to perform operations and maintenance, but not large enough to 

handle major construction projects.485 Initially, base civil engineer squadrons were on temporary duty 

assignments drawn from PACAF.486

Additional civil engineers were needed and a program code-named TOP DOG was established. 

This program furnished experienced temporary duty personnel from CONUS until permanent unit 

manning requirements were established and permanent changes of station were activated. Through the 

TOP DOG program, personnel with the skill sets needed to provide base operation and support were 

sent to Southeast Asia. The TOP DOG program ended in November 1965.487 Between August 1964 

and August 1965, 800 civil engineer officers and Airmen completed temporary duty assignments in 

South Vietnam and 500 completed assignments in Thailand.488 After 1965, civil engineers were rotated 

through on regular deployments, typically lasting a year. However, the base civil engineer squadrons 

were not manned fully until after the buildup of bases was completed.489

The buildup of U.S. military personnel and equipment drove a concurrent requirement for new 

construction. The U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), established in February 1962 

in Saigon, reported to the Commander in Chief, Pacific (CINCPAC), and commanded the 2d Air Division. Stationed in Saigon, MACV initially served as the focal point for defining project requirements, 
A sign in front of the base dispensary under construction at Binh Thuy spells out the hierarchy for building 

facilities in Vietnam.

Rising to the Challenge 257

but it did not have a large engineering staff. In 1962, Air Force civil engineers serving in the 2d Air 

Division numbered 7 officers and a staff of 128; by the end of 1963, the number of personnel had risen 

to 14 officers and 1,400 persons.490 Initially, the PACAF Deputy Chief of Staff for Civil Engineering 

based in Hawaii was designated to provide planning, programming, design guidance, and construction 

oversight for all Air Force facilities requirements throughout Southeast Asia.491 At that time, Col. H.J. 

“Fritz” Stehling served as the deputy. By 1967, Colonel Stehling’s staff numbered 130, which was 

double the staff size from a year earlier.492

Responsibility for acting as construction agent was assigned to the Navy Officer in Charge of 

Construction (OICC) stationed in Bangkok, Thailand. The Navy already acted as design and construction agent for the Military Assistance Program in Southeast Asia and had access to design expertise 

through contract architect-engineer firms. The Air Force had prior experience working with the Navy 

Office OICC. The Air Force typically defined the requirements, which were submitted to the Navy 

OICC, who oversaw preparation of designs and drawings. The drawings were submitted for Air Force 

review either at the Thirteenth Air Force Headquarters in the Philippines or at PACAF headquarters 

in Hawaii. After review and comment on the drawings, the Navy OICC contracted the work, typically 

using local contractors. Air Force personnel traveled to the job location to inspect and accept the work 

and had no in-house expertise in construction in South Vietnam.493

During 1962, the Navy OICC established a Deputy in Charge of Construction in Saigon to supervise 

U.S. military construction in South Vietnam. During this early period, one goal of U.S. involvement 

was to strengthen the local economy by using local contractors for construction work. However, by 

the end of 1962, the in-country contractor capability was saturated and the Navy awarded a cost-plus, 

fixed-fee contract to a U.S. joint venture construction firm Raymond, Morrison-Knudsen (RMK), 

which was enlarged in 1965 to include Brown and Root and A.J. Jones (BRJ). The expanded joint 

venture not only managed construction at existing air bases, but also was tasked to construct new air 

bases in South Vietnam.494 The limited number of Army construction troops available in the combat 

zone required reliance on contractors in the combat zone for the first time in modern warfare. By late 

1966, 52,730 personnel representing RMK-BRJ were working in Southeast Asia. The contractors were 

supported by over $100 million of in-country construction materials and nearly the same amount of 
258 Leading the Way

equipment. During 1966, the RMK-BRJ completed approximately $40 million worth of construction 

projects per month.495

Before 1965, construction was focused on upgrading existing host country air bases in Southeast 

Asia with funding through the Military Assistance Program. Between early 1965 through early 1968, 

the buildup of U.S. Air Force personnel required new construction on five existing Vietnamese bases 

occupied by the U.S. Air Force (Tan Son Nhut, Bien Hoa, Da Nang, Pleiku, and Nha Trang) and five 

new air bases, four in South Vietnam (Cam Ranh Bay, Phan Rang, Phu Cat, and Bin Thuy) and one in 

Thailand (U Tapao). The Air Force required one additional air base, which was constructed at Tuy Hoa 

entirely by the Air Force. New construction used MCP and funds for minor new construction costing 

up to $25,000. Additional funding was available through operations and maintenance. In FY64, MCP 

funded $13 million; by FY67, MCP reached $100 million.496 Between 1965 and the latter part of 1968, 

new construction totaled $284 million.497

Specific rules governed each funding category. In the case of MCP, preparation of MCP documents 

was cumbersome and time consuming. Each project had to be scoped, designed, and costs estimated. 

The project paperwork was forwarded to MACV, which forwarded the package on to PACAF and Air 

Force Headquarters. The MCP was reviewed at Air Force Headquarters, the Department of Defense, 

then submitted to the U.S. Congress, where the MCP was reviewed by committees and funds were 

appropriated for projects at specific locations. Funding contingency projects through MCP, even an 

emergency MCP, was time consuming and complex. Projects, which were planned months in advance, 

had the potential to be no longer needed by the time of their approval due to the fast-pace of the 

contingency situation.498

Congress recognized some of the limitations of the MCP for contingency situations and relaxed 

some funding restrictions. It allowed the Secretary of the Air Force to approve funding for emergency 

new construction costing below $50,000 and the Secretary of Defense to approve the same type of 

construction ranging between $50,000 and $200,000. By 1964, the new approval process was flooded 

with funding requests and the system was streamlined through PACAF. By 1965, the Secretary of 

Defense further relaxed the normal MCP requirements to permit Service construction programs based 

on operational requirements. The Air Force was able to change approved project locations, modify 

scopes of work, or add new projects within a $1 million limit if those costs were captured through 

savings on other projects or through the elimination of low priority projects.499

The improved response time for the MCP was reflected in the experience of 3d Air Division of the 

Strategic Air Command (SAC). When SAC received the mission for conventional bombing in Vietnam, 

3d Air Division civil engineers began to identify and scope supporting facilities required for bombers. The Civil Engineer Programming Team worked with the SAC engineers to prepare programming 

documents. Fourteen projects in the first phase of the construction program, estimated at $1.5 million, 

were submitted to Air Force Headquarters for review by July 1, 1965. In August 1965, the projects 

were approved by Congress. The projects were submitted to the Navy OICC, Marianas, who selected 

an architect-engineer firm to expedite design. Design and construction surveillance of the projects 

were delegated to the 3d Air Division, which assumed full authority to represent SAC and to see the 

projects to completion. The OICC worked to streamline design work and required only 50 and 100 

percent technical reviews. When possible, design and construction were undertaken simultaneously. 

The projects included in Phase I were completed by July 1966 and averaged 8.8 months from project 

programming to turnover to SAC. Phase II projects, totaling $7.5 million, took an average time of 

11.2 months from programming through construction under MCP.500 After the FY66 MCP, funds were 

awarded to the Armed Forces in lump sums, which provided even greater flexibility in contingency 

construction situations.501

In early 1966, MACV established a director of construction to reduce inter-service competition 

for resources, improve responsiveness, and establish equitable priorities for competing programs. 

MACV-4 (Logistics) included civil engineering personnel with centralized control over the MCP. 

The office was headed by an Army general, who was authorized to exercise flexibility in establishing 
Rising to the Challenge 259

priorities and allocating resources. Approximately 25 percent of the personnel in the MACV Director 

of Construction office were Air Force civil engineers. The MACV Director of Construction exercised 

flexibility over the approved construction programs based on current operational requirements.502 By 

1966, all in-country U.S. Armed Services submitted their construction requirements to the MACV 

Director of Construction.503 To facilitate oversight of construction contracts, the Air Force established 

Air Force Regional Civil Engineer (AFRCE) offices in Southeast Asia and augmented civil engineering 

staff levels through architect-engineer services.504 By early 1965, PACAF recognized the difficulties 

of span of control and established an AFRCE office in Bangkok, Thailand, adjacent to the Navy OICC 

offices on April 1, 1965. The AFRCE personnel assisted in planning and monitored construction being 

completed for the Air Force by the Navy OICC in both Thailand and the Republic of Vietnam. As the 

work continued to expand, Headquarters PACAF established a separate AFRCE office in Saigon in 

July 1965 to handle work in Vietnam only.505 By the end of 1965, the Saigon AFRCE had 12 officers, 9 

NCOs, and 30 contract architect-engineers from Daniel, Mann, Johnson and Mendenhall, an architectengineer firm from Los Angeles, California.506 The Bangkok AFRCE was led by Col. Gus J. Pappas, and 

had 12 officers, 6 NCOs, 1 Department of the Air Force civilian, and 23 contract architect-engineers. 

Even with these personnel increases at the AFRCEs, the planning and oversight of the build-up in 

Southeast Asia struggled and the lines of communication were confusing. Also, the 2d Air Division 

Civil Engineering staff was small and did not have control over the AFRCEs.507

Things began to change in February 1966, when Col. (later Brig. Gen.) Archie S. Mayes was 

assigned as Director of Civil Engineering at Headquarters, 2d Air Division (replaced by Seventh Air 

Force on April 1, 1966), which reported to MACV at Tan Son Nhut AB, Saigon. Colonel Mayes was 

hand-picked for the job by General Curtin because of his command-level experience. General Mayes 

later recalled, 

He [General Curtin] was down at Langley at one of my conferences. When it was 

over I was taking him to the airplane. We stood underneath the wing of the airplane, and he said, “That Vietnam thing is getting completely out of hand. We don’t 

have a person out there who has the command-level experience to run it.” He said, 

“I’ve got to have one of you guys. I think you’re it. Will you volunteer?” I said, 

“General you cut the orders and I’ll go.”508

When Colonel Mayes arrived to assume his new position, a letter awaited him from PACAF that 

placed “everything in civil engineering in the whole country under his autonomous control.”509 Most 

staff assigned to the 2d Air Division Civil Engineering Directorate were on 120-day temporary duty 

assignments and job continuity was non-existent. Colonel Mayes imposed order on the Air Force 

administrative structure to accomplish the ongoing air base construction required for the buildup 

required to accommodate U.S. aircraft and personnel. As Director of Civil Engineering, Seventh Air 

Force, Colonel Mayes was responsible for the base civil engineering squadrons on all U.S. Air Force 

occupied bases and their performance in meeting the day-to-day support and challenges of operating 

functioning bases. With PACAF authorization, the AFRCE office under Col. Joe Kristoff in Saigon 

reported to Colonel Mayes. The AFRCE in South Vietnam developed the technical criteria needed for 

construction projects and submitted them to the Navy OICC, reviewed work developed by architectengineer firms throughout the design process, monitored construction, and provided on-site oversight 

to guarantee that the work met acceptable standards at the time of beneficial occupancy.510 Resident 

AFRCEs were placed on each of the nine air bases to oversee new construction. The tenth air base was 

Tuy Hoa, where an Air Force site resident engineer was in charge of construction. Resident AFRCEs 

were delegated responsibility to make field changes in scope and design that did not impact project 

costs. In addition, the AFRCE established Technical Assistance Teams to support Resident AFRCEs 

and base civil engineers in solving construction problems on the bases as needed. In addition to these 
(above) Members of the first Prime BEEF Team 

deploying to South Vietnam in 1965.

(right) Prime BEEF members from Air Defense 

Command bases construct ARMCO revetment 

to protect aircraft at Tan Son Nhut AB, South 

Vietnam. 

260 Leading the Way

responsibilities, Colonel Mayes oversaw the activities of the RED HORSE squadrons while in-country 

and the Turnkey Project to construct Tuy Hoa AB.511

As Director of Civil Engineering, Colonel Mayes developed a system to keep abreast, on a daily 

basis, of projects, programs and developments within the organization and on the bases. The Directorate 

also established a control room, which became the central point for tracking the status of Air Force 

activities. From the control room, personnel monitored the construction program, allocation of funds, 

scheduling of occupancy, and the design, programming, and requirements for new construction and 

selected operations and maintenance projects.512

Air Force civil engineers serving in South Vietnam worked in a combat situation in a war zone. 

While not typically on the front lines of combat, Air Force civil engineers stationed at air bases were 

subject to enemy attacks as part of their day-to-day duties. Some lost their lives. On April 24, 1965, 

Maj. Theodore R. Loeschner died while piloting an air transport mission in Thailand. Major Loeschner was a former civil engineering assistant professor at the Air Force Academy. Lt. Col. William 

H. Bordner was the first civil engineer officer killed by enemy action in Vietnam when he stepped 

on a booby-trapped phosphorous grenade as he descended from a helicopter on February 16, 1966 to 

conduct a site survey during the planning of Phu Cat AB.513

Prime BEEF

The establishment of mobile engineering squadrons to augment base level support in contingency 

situations was proposed by PACAF early in 1963. The mobile engineering squadrons were a strategy to 

augment low staff levels; each was manned by specialists, including carpenters, electricians, plumbers, 

and diesel plants and equipment operators. Reflecting on experiences in South Vietnam during 1961-

1962, Col. I.H. Impson, Assistant Chief of Staff, Civil Engineering, PACAF, wrote, “We in PACAF 

could certainly use a Mobile Civil Engineering Squadron or two.”514 On June 17, 1964, PACAF sent 

a letter to U.S. Air Force headquarters outlining the needs, purpose and mission for hand-picked civil 

engineering teams that would undertake emergency repairs and other work in combat areas.515 As 
ADC Prime BEEF team gets top-level assistance in building aircraft revetments from Lt. Gen. Joseph H. 

Moore, Commander of 2d Air Division, as Lt. Col. Francis. H. Torr “supervises.”

Rising to the Challenge 261

described earlier in this chapter, Project Prime BEEF was under development by the Air Staff at this 

same time. Project Prime BEEF was a manpower review that resulted in re-posturing civil engineering staffing and the formation of emergency teams. Prime BEEF teams were organic to the Air Force 

civil engineering organization and used manpower resources already within the organization or that 

could be developed readily. The concept of emergency civil engineering teams was first used during 

deployment to the Dominican Republic. The concept was tested extensively and proved valuable 

in sustained support of the Air Force civil engineering construction and support activities in South 

Vietnam and Southeast Asia.516

In 1965, Air Force civil engineers with PACAF were faced with dramatically increased facilities 

requirements. A new base at Cam Ranh Bay was under construction and new and expanded facilities 

were required at occupied air bases. During 1965, Airmen billets increased from 5,520 to 18,900, 

warehousing requirements rose from 29,200 square feet to 171,700 square feet, and ammunition storage requirements expanded from 65,000 square feet to 170,000 square feet. Additional POL facilities 

were required as well as expanded utilities, such as electrical power and water and sewage.517 PACAF 

desperately needed additional civil engineering assistance in Southeast Asia.

Bases in Vietnam were becoming dangerously overcrowded as aircraft were parked so closely that 

they posed a safety risk. On the morning of May 16, 1965, a fully-armed B-57 was taxiing out through 

an open ramp for an armed reconnaissance mission at Bien Hoa AB. Suddenly, the B-57’s munitions 

began to explode and set off a series of sympathetic explosions in nearby aircraft. The conflagration 

rained down burning fragments, fuel, and incendiaries on the airfield, killing 28 Americans and 6 
262 Leading the Way
A Prime BEEF team constructs a water tower at Da Nang AB, November 1966.

Rising to the Challenge 263

Sources: Prime Beef Deployments, 1965-1976, Files of AFCEC History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida; 1st 

Lt. John G. Terino, “Vietnam Report No. 2,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 7, No 2, May 1966, 4-5; Lt. Col. 

Howard B. Arnold, Jr. “A New Image for the AFCE in Vietnam,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 7, No 2, May 

1966, 6-7.
264 Leading the Way

Vietnamese and injuring 100. The Explosive Ordnance Disposal career field suffered four casualties 

when delay-fused bombs detonated while the team attempted to render them safe. The casualties that 

day included: Capt. Ernest McFeron, TSgt. Claude H. Bunch, SSgt. David L. Hubbard, Jr., and Sgt. 

Aaron G. Fidiam, Jr. The explosions also destroyed or damaged more than 40 aircraft.518

The first Prime BEEF teams deployed to Southeast Asia in August 1965 to construct ARMCO 

steel-bin revetments at Tan Son Nhut, Bien Hoa, and Da Nang air bases (Table 3.3). CECOG was not 

yet in existence, so the Air Staff required ADC, ATC, and SAC to each provide a 25-person team. 

Headquarters ADC and ATC hand-picked team members from base civil engineering organizations 

from several of their bases and led by Lt. Col Francis E. Torr and Maj. Forrest M. Mims, Jr., respectively. SAC formed its team from a single base civil engineer squadron at Biggs AFB, Texas, and was 

led by Capt. Charles H. Martin. In addition, SAC provided one construction engineer and two site 

development technicians from March AFB, California. These personnel acted as an advance party for 

the deployment. Officers and key NCOs were briefed on the team’s mission and the revetment program 

at Eglin AFB, Florida. The importance of the mission in terms of the overall Prime BEEF program also 

was stressed to the team members. The advance survey party led by Capt. Richard V. Bratton arrived 

at Tan Son Nhut AB on August 2, 1965. On August 5, the advanced party consisting of one NCO 

from each team arrived at Tan Son Nhut AB. The remaining personnel arrived in-country on August 

8. All personnel were armed with M-16 automatic rifles. ADC personnel remained at Tan Son Nhut 

AB, while ATC personnel traveled to Bien Hoa AB, and SAC personnel traveled to Da Nang AB.519

In assembling the Prime BEEF teams destined for Southeast Asia, Civil Engineering leaders 

deviated from the program’s guidelines as set up in Air Force Regulation 85-22, “The Prime BEEF 

Program.” As described earlier in this chapter, five types of Prime BEEF teams were established in AFR 

85-22: Recovery, Flyaway, Contingency, Missile, and Logistical. Although Flyaway or Contingency 

teams were designed for this type of situation, they were not called upon to serve in Southeast Asia. 

This was done because no single base-level team could have assembled the skills and experience 

required. Maj. R.S. Dobbins, Prime BEEF Chief in Vietnam in 1966, saw this as a logical step in the 

growth and progression of the program. The flexibility demonstrated with the first few teams set a 

pattern for future Prime BEEF deployments.520

Personnel on Prime BEEF teams were deployed on temporary duty for 120 days. The first teams 

were equipped only with what could be carried, making it essential for the teams to rely on base civil 

engineering, civilian contractors, other services, and even the Royal Australian Engineers for support 

at their assigned locations. Equipment and vehicle issues were the primary problem for most early 

Prime BEEF teams. The paucity or poor condition of items, when available, such as forklifts, frontend loaders, and cranes were often cited in the team’s after-action reports.521 Between August 1965 

and July 1966, 25 Prime BEEF teams comprising 1,231 personnel, were deployed to Southeast Asia 

(Table 3.3). Typical projects included the construction of revetments, general construction, plumbing 

and water, electrical distribution, and staffing support. In all, 50 Prime BEEF teams deployed between 

August 1965 and January 1969, totaling 1,839 personnel.522

In a 2000 oral history, retired Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes discussed his experience with Prime 

BEEF while in Vietnam: “When I got to Vietnam [in February 1966] the only way they were surviving 

was with Prime BEEF teams. We had an electrical team, a plumbing team, and building erection teams, 

all taken out of the bases in the states. I don’t know how many, but we might have had 15 or 20 teams 

on the ground when I got to Vietnam.”523 By the end of December 1966, more than 1,350 Prime BEEF 

personnel on 35 teams were deployed overseas to support base civil engineering operations.524 The 

catalog of Prime BEEF accomplishments included construction of 27,000 linear feet of revetments; 

9,300 square yards of blast deflectors; 3,700 square feet of concrete ramps; 190 one-story wood or 

metal buildings; 50 two-story wood buildings; 44,000 square feet of tent frames; 1,800 linear feet of 

sanitary sewers; 19,100 linear feet of water mains; 7,100 linear feet of electrical distribution systems; 

a modular 100-bed hospital; and, wells, field latrines, and septic tanks.525
Rising to the Challenge 265

Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin was favorably impressed by the performance of the Prime BEEF 

teams. He passed along a compliment from one unnamed Air Force commander for all to read in the 

Air Force Civil Engineer: 

The team concept wherein, team work, acknowledgement of accomplishment, 

esprit de corps and all other necessary ingredients for highly professional performance appears to be well founded in the establishment of these [Prime BEEF] 

teams.526

The Establishment of RED HORSE

In a May 10, 1965 memorandum, the Secretary of Defense queried the Secretary of the Air Force 

regarding the Air Force capabilities for constructing an operational airfield in Vietnam within a month. 

The Secretary of Defense had information that the U.S. Marine Corps was building a four squadron 

operational airfield on undeveloped acreage near Chou Lai, Republic of Vietnam, in 28 days. Secretary 

of Defense Robert S. McNamara asked “Does the Air Force have the similar capability? If not, what 

can be done to develop it?”527

At that time, the answer to the question was “no” due to the restrictions codified in the 1957 DoD 

directive 1315.6, which established that troop construction for the Air Force in contingency situations 

would be supplied by the Army. The Air Force was restricted to emergency repair of bomb damaged 

air bases. The Air Force had no organic troop construction units and access to only limited Army troop 

construction units in the combat zone. The scarcity of Army troop construction units was traced to the 

Army decision to reduce the number of its dedicated troop construction units and assign construction 

duties to the Reserve and National Guard. During the Vietnam Conflict, a national policy decision 

was made not to mobilize Reserve and National Guard units. By June 1965, the first two “regular” 

Army construction battalions were active in South Vietnam. Army troop construction capability grew 

to 26 non-divisional battalions, but these troops were committed to meeting Army requirements and 

provided only limited support to the Air Force.528

Troop construction support was preferred for operating in a combat zone. Troops were trained to 

operate in austere conditions, around potential enemies, and, in the case of Airmen, around operating 

airfields. Contractors typically were tied to fixed bases, required security, and were focused on specific 

projects. Construction troops, on the other hand, were broadly trained and were deployable wherever 

needed.529

Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin began to cultivate the construction capabilities suggested by the 

Secretary of Defense. Further incentive to address construction support within the Air Force was 

provided by an August 11, 1965 letter from Col. Henry J. “Fritz” Stehling, command civil engineer at 

PACAF, to Air Force Headquarters outlining the requirements in Southeast Asia for heavy construction and repair capability based on the current conditions of the buildup.530 General Curtin was under 

additional pressures from his own boss, General LeMay, Chief of Staff of the Air Force, who wanted 

two or three more bases built in the Republic of Vietnam. According to General Curtin, “[General 

LeMay] said, ‘You’ve got to get them built.’ I said, ‘All right.’ He said, ‘Our commanders over there 

can’t handle it. You’ve got to get in the act.’ So, I got in the act.” After checking with the U.S. Army 

Chief of Engineers and the Navy, General Curtin knew that those agencies were overwhelmed with 

construction requirements of their own. He said, “We have no choice. We’ve got to do this, and the 

only way we can do it is heavy maintenance, and if we have to do some construction with heavy 

maintenance, we’ll just have to let the definitions stand by themselves.”531

The Civil Engineering Directorate began work on the issue and on September 14, 1965 completed 

a study entitled, “Prime BEEF Heavy Repair Squadrons.” The study’s objectives were: 
Memo from Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara that led to the creation of RED HORSE.

266 Leading the Way

1. To create a rapid response capability, within the Air Force, to augment 

 base engineer forces in the event of heavy bomb damage or disasters, as well 

 as accomplish major repairs where contract capability is not readily available. 

 As a by-product of this capability “expeditionary airfields”, [sic] using AM-2 

 matting, and austere cantonment facilities could be built.

2. To create a capability which would not duplicate any existing effort, but “fill 

 the gap” until this effort is made available to the Air Force.

3. To create a capability that will remain organic to the Air Force.532
Source: “Project RED HORSE,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 7, No 2, May 1966, 2-4.

Rising to the Challenge 267

The overall recommendations were to immediately develop two Prime BEEF Heavy Repair squadrons 

from existing Air Force resources and that action be initiated for follow-on squadrons in FY68.533

The new civil engineering squadrons were activated on October 1, 1965 by the Secretary of the 

Air Force.534 General Curtin described the purpose of the civil engineering squadrons,

These squadrons (400 officers and men each) are to provide a continuing on-site 

and heavier capability to meet operational Civil Engineer needs of the ‘combat 

zone.’ These units are not intended to, nor do they in fact, minimize our reliance 

on Army Engineer Construction Battalions for initial expeditionary airfield work. 

Rather, these units fill an existing gap in the broad spectrum of Civil Engineering 

capabilities needed by the Air Force to support its operational missions. Individual 

replacements for these units will be provided via our Prime BEEF concept but 

otherwise there is no relationship between these large PCS (permanent change of 

station) units and our small TDY Prime BEEF teams.535

According to General Meredith, the Air Force “had to develop a concise, hard-hitting, combatready, highly-skilled, mobile, and self-contained unit that could survive under the most demanding 

missions, worldwide.” These were self-sufficient squadrons that were fully equipped and provisioned. 

The timetable to form the new civil engineer squadrons was aggressive - 60 days to select, train, equip, 

and deploy the new civil engineer squadrons (Table 3-4).536

The experiences of aviation engineers during World War II were in the minds of several participants in setting up the new squadrons.537 For example, the size of the RED HORSE 

squadrons was a topic of discussion. As General Curtin recalled,

Tom Meredith and others sat around, and we came up with plans. We used the 

Corps of Engineers construction battalion as an example. At that time they had 

about 812 people in a battalion. We said that was too big. We went on the philosophy that the unit would be supported medically, for food service, and so on, by a 

larger unit, the flying unit, presumably. You might have to shift for yourself for a 

short period of time, but then let the wing provide the advanced cooking arrangements, instead of you having it internal. We said, “Let’s get it down to half the 

size,” so that’s how the 404 number came about, from the 812 Corps of Engineers 

battalion to the 404.538
Written by Jeanne & Clark Ironmonger

Arranged for band and the Singing Sergeants by CMSgt Floyd Werle, Director, USAF Band, 

1965. First performed at Cannon AFB, January 26, 1966.

Up and Out

Up and Out

All you RED HORSE men

Up and Out.

Pass the Word

Pass the Word

We’ve a job

In case you haven’t heard.

Up and Out

Hear us Shout

We can do it with or without

Let them know

Let them know

That for RED HORSE men

The word is Go.

RED HORSE SONG

Chorus:

For the RED HORSE team is on the way

You can bank on us to save the day.

We can fix and we can fight

We do both with all our might.

You’ll be back on track without delay

We’re the RED HORSE forces man-to-man

And we’re right there when it hits the fan.

Give us grader or grenade

And you know you’ve got it made

With RED HORSE Airmen of the USA.

268 Leading the Way

General Meredith and Colonel O’Keefe worked with AFLC to set up logistic support and to procure equipment for the two new RED HORSE squadrons. General Meredith described how the Civil 

Engineering Squadrons were named RED HORSE,

One day we said, “What are we going to call this?” Warrant Officer John Bennett, 

who’s dead now, was my heavy equipment man. He and [Col. Truman] O’Keefe 

and I were sitting there and he said, “What’s faster than a bull?” You know we 

had the black bull as a symbol for Prime BEEF. I said, “A horse.” He said, “What 

color do you like?” I said, “Red.” It took us two days to come up with the acronym, 

Rapid Engineer Deployable Heavy Operational Repair Squadron, Engineer.539

TAC was assigned to train the personnel designated for the new RED HORSE squadrons. ThenCol. Archie S. Mayes was TAC Deputy Chief of Staff, Civil Engineering and his office oversaw the 

training schedule and the logistics of assembling training equipment.540 Cannon AFB in New Mexico 

was chosen as the training location for the 554th and the 555th. General Curtin selected the first 

commanders, Col. James Conti and Lt. Col. Marvin Plunkett, and Colonel O’Keefe worked with Air 

Training Command at Randolph AFB to select the troops to fill the squadrons. Personnel were selected 

from the best Prime BEEF teams. Squadron commanders reported to the base and troops began a 

60-day training course prior to deployment to South Vietnam. On January 26, 1966, at the end of the 

60 days of training, the 800 troops were feted at a pre-deployment party and serenaded with the “RED 

HORSE Song.”541

While training was in progress, General Meredith and Colonel O’Keefe worked closely with 

AFLC to assemble the equipment needed by the new squadrons. The assembly point for the equipment was Robins AFB, Georgia. Equipment for the first two RED HORSE squadrons was collected 

from whatever supplies were available at stateside bases. However, no base personnel were available 

for equipment overhaul. General Meredith contacted a Navy captain in charge of the SEABEE center 
During the Vietnam War, the 554th RED 

HORSE Squadron acquired a live mascot in 

the form of a small pony. The squadron was 

stationed at Phan Rang AB in Vietnam when 

they adopted “One and a Half.” He was fed 

oats and hay as well as an occasional cigarette. 

During special events “One and a Half” even 

wore a red blanket that displayed chief master 

sergeant stripes.547

Later, he moved with the 554th to U Tapao AB, 

Thailand.

RED HORSE Mascot: 

One and a half

Rising to the Challenge 269

at Gulfport, Mississippi, to overhaul the equipment to assure its functionality in the field. The only 

condition that General Meredith made to his request was that the equipment was not to be painted 

olive drab. Some new equipment had to be procured from the private sector. General Meredith made 

inquiries with normal suppliers, and received an unsolicited offer of help from Miles Golbransson, a 

representative of International Harvester Company. Mr. Golbransson vowed, “I’m here on behalf of 

my company to tell you that we will provide construction equipment, any quantity you need, even if 

we strip our showroom floors, and put it on the ship at Gulfport, Mississippi.” Working through the 

Army procurement office, International Harvester won the contract and then shipped the off-the-shelf 

equipment to Gulfport, Mississippi. General Meredith himself drove a payscraper through two states 

to reach the port on time.542

Outfitting those first RED HORSE squadrons was quite a job. As General Meredith recalled, 

You know, at one time at Warner Robins [AFB], they had 20 miles of railroad 

totally stacked with RED HORSE equipment. We sat there and went through 

the bill of material, every piece of construction equipment that we thought we 

could put on a ship, from cement to lumber to plywood to nails and screws and 

everything. We sat down with a nurse up in a motel room one night and came up 

with a list of medical supplies and medical equipment. This was the first totally 

self-supporting Air Force unit ever, with medics and everything in it. For the mess 

equipment, I went down and got an old mess sergeant and gave him a half bottle 

of whiskey. He was half drunk, but he put down everything we needed for mess 

equipment. As soon as he put it down, we’d put it back into the AFLC group and, 

boy, they ordered it and had it packaged.543

When it came to transporting the equipment and materiel to the combat zone, General Meredith 

suddenly remembered to make the shipping arrangements.

Then somebody over at the AFLC group was talking, and they said something that 

sounded like the word “ship,” and I said, “Oh! Ship! We haven’t got a damn ship! 

We’ve been doing all this, and we haven’t put in a request for a ship”...I said, 

“Come on.” We went up to see a lady on the top floor at AFLC [in Building 262 at 

Wright-Patterson AFB]...We walked in, and there was a gray-haired lady sitting 
554th and 555th Emblems

270 Leading the Way

there. I said, “I’m looking for the head person here.” She said, “I’m it.” I said, 

“Fine. I need a ship.” She looked at me and said, “Do you know any more funny 

jokes?” I said, “No, this is for the RED HORSE troops.” She said, “I’ve heard of 

them, but what priority do you have?” I said, “2D, by the Secretary of Defense.” 

She said, “Can you prove that?” [Secretary of Defense Robert S.] McNamara, 

when he gave us the initial authorization for RED HORSE, wrote it on the back of 

an envelope and put the priority on it.... She turned around and got on the radio 

and talked a bit. She said, “The Adabelle Lykes is coming around the tip of Florida. 

It’ll go into Gulfport and will be there on this date. Can that handle it over the 

side?” I said, “If it’s got 37 tons that’ll swing over the side, that’ll handle it. That’s 

the tractor weight.” They came back and said they could handle 40 tons. The Lykes 

Shipping Line hauled everything we ever hauled to Vietnam.544

On February 1, 1966, both the 554th and the 555th were transported to South Vietnam by military 

aircraft. The equipment and supplies were onboard ship headed westward across the Pacific Ocean.545

The 554th, called “Penny Short,” was deployed to Phan Rang and the 555th, called “Triple Nickel,” 

was sent to Cam Ranh Bay. From the beginning, these two squadrons exhibited high morale and commitment.546 While at Phan Rang, the 554th acquired a mascot. The 554th and the 555th RED HORSE 

squadrons were awarded outstanding unit awards, as well as Bronze Stars and other honors for their 

outstanding service. 

Once the RED HORSE squadrons were in-country, General Curtin made a visit to the Chief of 

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Lt. Gen. William F. Cassidy. As General Curtin told the story, 

I started telling him the philosophy behind the whole program. He said, “You 

can’t do that. That’s counter to the charter of the Corps of Engineers. We’ll have 

to take it up with the Joint Chiefs. You won’t be able to go ahead and do this at all. 

Besides, I don’t think it can be done.” I said, “General, it isn’t a question of it could 

be done, it has been done.” He said, “What do you mean it has been done?” I said, 

“We’ve already got two units in country.” “How did you do that?” I said, “We just 

routed the ships and shipped them over there. We had to unload them ourselves.” 

I said, “We asked for trucks and equipment from the Army to help us unload, but 

they couldn’t afford them, so we had to go over the beaches.” He said, “You’ve 

got two of them over there?” I said, “Yes.” He said, “Well, then I won’t bring it up 

at the Joint Chiefs. But I want to shake hands with you. And as soon as this war 

is over, you’ve got to get rid of those units.” I shook his hand, like a dummy, I 

guess.548
(above) 554th RED HORSE personnel take up AM-2 matting to expose the damaged base to begin repairs at 

Phan Rang AB, South Vietnam. 

(below) A chapel under construction by the 554th RED HORSE Squadron at Phan Rang AB, South Vietnam.

Rising to the Challenge 271

Col. (later Brig. Gen.) Archie S. Mayes, the TAC Director of Civil Engineering during the training of the RED HORSE squadrons, was transferred to serve as the director of Civil Engineering, 2d 

Air Division (later redesignated as 7th Air Force) in South Vietnam and arrived in-country about 

the same time as the RED HORSE squadrons. The RED HORSE squadrons were not dedicated to a 

particular base, but served a region. Once the RED HORSE squadrons had erected their own hardback beddown facilities and set up their mess hall, they sought leadership in identifying other needed 

projects. One of Colonel Mayes’ first actions was to call together 16 NCOs, assemble his overall 
819th RED HORSE Squadron constructs hardened aircraft shelters at Da Nang AB, South Vietnam. (Courtesy 

of Col. Allen Sailer.)

272 Leading the Way

organizational structure, and put the RED HORSE squadrons to work.549 Colonel Mayes, supported 

by Col. (later Brig. Gen.) John D. Peters, became responsible for managing the activities of the first 

two RED HORSE squadrons.550

During 1966, four additional RED HORSE squadrons were activated and trained at Forbes AFB, 

Kansas, for deployment to Southeast Asia. The first two squadrons were followed by the 819th and 

the 820th RED HORSE squadrons, which were transported to Phu Cat and Tuy Hoa, respectively. The 

823d followed and was based at Bien Hoa AB. The five units comprised a total of 2,000 troops. Later, 

the 556th RED HORSE was deployed to Thailand (Table 3.5).551 By May 1967, Colonel Mayes was 

authorized to form the 1st Civil Engineering Group, a 60-man staff element, to oversee the activities 

of the five in-country squadrons. Col. Robert H. Carey became the first commander and worked under 

Colonel Mayes while he was HQ Seventh Air Force, Director of Civil Engineering.552

When Air Force leaders established the RED HORSE squadrons, it was to “provide emergency capability to repair airfield damage caused by enemy action or natural disasters, and that the 

squadrons are not designed for but will have a collateral capability to build expeditionary or temporary airfields and do other construction work of an emergency nature,” according to Gen. John P. 

McConnell, Chief of Staff. In a hand-written note to CINCPACAF, General McConnell emphasized 

this point, “In other words, our squadrons can work on airfields after they are built & the Engineers and Construction & BuDocks people have left.”553 However, this stipulation did not last long.

 By mid-1966, it was apparent that contractor services were overtaxed. The MACV Construction 

Director tasked the construction contractor to complete only the most basic airfield facilities items and 

primary utilities.554 The remainder of the work would be accomplished by troop labor. This was not 

done in deliberate disregard of the Air Force policy, but out of necessity and at the request and consent 

of MACV.555 At Phu Cat AB, the 819th CES (HR) completed the majority of the vertical construction 

including 600,000 square feet of pre-engineered metal buildings and wooden barracks and dining halls. 

The contractor completed the concrete runway, roads, and utilities. Another large project was the repair 

by the 554th CES (HR) of nearly one million square feet of aircraft parking space at Phan Rang AB.556

General Mayes summarized the status of construction on the new air bases vacated by the contractor in mid-1967, “Cam Ranh Bay was only partly finished, but more than most of the others. Phan 

Rang was only partly finished. Phu Cat practically nothing. Of course, Tuy Hoa was not involved.” The 
Rising to the Challenge 273

Sources: Historical Division, Directorate of Information, HQ Seventh Air Force, Appendices IV-V of Activities 1967-1968, ca. 1968, Files of AFCEC History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida; Lois E. Walker, “A RED 

HORSE Roundup,” The CE, Vol 8, No 3, Fall 2000, 28-30.
274 Leading the Way

RED HORSE squadrons inherited much of the contractor’s equipment, as well as a quarry, an asphalt 

plant, and a concrete plant. General Mayes tallied up the work accomplishments of the RED HORSE 

squadrons, “with those five RED HORSE squadrons we went to it. We built all the rest of Phu Cat, 

finished out Cam Ranh Bay and Phan Rang, and then built things on the other bases.”557

In his July 1967 End of Tour Report, Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes reflected, “Having trained the 

first two RED HORSE squadrons as the TAC Civil Engineer, I had the unique experience of assuming my new duties in Vietnam during the same month they arrived in-country...Today with its five 

squadrons under command of the 1st Civil Engineering Group, I believe RED HORSE represents one 

of the greatest and most successful advances in the history of Air Force Engineering.”558 The Wing 

Commander of Phan Rang AB offered a similar evaluation of RED HORSE, stating that “The quality 

of work is not good, it is outstanding. As far as morale, esprit de corps, and the ability to respond rapidly to a combat support mission, RED HORSE must be rated with the best units in the Air Force.”559

Personnel assigned to RED HORSE squadrons served for one year in-county and then were rotated 

back to the United States. By February 1967, 800 personnel were needed to replace the first two RED 

HORSE squadrons returning stateside. Replacement personnel also were required for squadrons formed 

later in 1966. Personnel initially assigned to RED HORSE squadrons represented some of the best 

and highly-skilled Air Force civil engineering personnel; it proved difficult to replace them with an 

equally skilled group. In 1966, Air Staff instructed TAC to create a training unit to handle 2,400 troops 

per year in order to keep the six RED HORSE squadrons stationed overseas staffed at the required 

manpower. The solution was the creation of the 560th RED HORSE Squadron, also known as Civil 

Engineering Field Activities Center (CEFAC), at Eglin AFB, Florida. Colonel Meredith temporarily 

Members of the 820th RED HORSE Squadron build a bunker at Dong Ha, South Vietnam. The person in the 

middle of the photo wearing a jacket is Airman 1st Class Larry R. Daniels. He later became the first Chief of 

Enlisted Matters for Civil Engineering in 1989.
Rising to the Challenge 275

took the role of commander of the center, until he was sent to South Vietnam. Col. Jack Rose became 

commander on October 1, 1967. Training was divided into two phases. Phase I, which lasted 30 days, 

served as an orientation with lectures on various topics including Southeast Asia, security, operations, 

and mobility. Phase II, which also was a 30-day program, provided field training. Phase II provided 

the troops with hands-on training including construction and the creation of infrastructure to prepare 

troops for real-life scenarios overseas.560

CEFAC also provided training for Prime BEEF troops and occasionally accommodated officers 

or non-commissioned officers who were not assigned to RED HORSE or Prime BEEF. CEFAC also 

coordinated training at alternate locations. In 1967, the editor for the Air Force Civil Engineer magazine, George K. Dimitroff, traveled to Eglin AFB, Florida, to observe RED HORSE training. Upon 

Dimitroff’s arrival, Colonel Meredith advised him to undergo training, rather than just observe, in 

order to get a true sense of the program. Training included grenade launching as well as combat and 

maneuver techniques and simulated attacks. Dimitroff participated in the exercises for about two days, 

and was impressed by the quality and the spirit of the participants. “There is no doubt,” Dimitroff wrote, 

“that they will continue to prove the motto of Air Force Civil Engineering - ‘Can Do-Will Do.’”561

Engineering Construction in South Vietnam

At the start of the Vietnam Conflict, Air Force civil engineers encountered similar challenges to 

those faced during the Korean Conflict. The available airfields in South Vietnam were built by the 

French and Japanese during WWII and little had been done to upgrade the facilities for modern aircraft. 

Many older airfields were sinking into the water-logged soil or suffering from severe erosion.562 An 

inventory of existing airfields in 1963 identified nearly 200 in South Vietnam and 39 in Thailand.563

The Vietnamese terrain featured mountains and low, flat areas with high water tables. Air Force civil 

engineers also had to contend with the hot and humid summer climate; acclimation often took up to 

two weeks.564 The weather provided challenges during construction and also accelerated the deterioration of facilities and runways. 

Initial beddown facilities for Air Force personnel were tent encampments that provided the basic 

minimum facilities. Cantonment design followed AFM 88-15, Emergency Construction Standards.

565

As the deployment lengthened, more durable facilities were constructed for intermediate and long-term 

use. By 1966, MACV established common standards for U.S. military construction in South Vietnam, 

and identified three categories based on length of occupancy: 

• Field for transient forces,

• Intermediate for between 24 and 48 months of occupancy, and

• Temporary for over 48 months of occupancy.

These categories of construction served as a guide to characterize the types of facilities constructed 

and their level of durability. After 1965, air bases typically were constructed for longer than 48 months 

of occupancy.566 Construction in the contingency environment typically was of two types, troop cantonments and operations, i.e., the airfield and its supporting structures.

Base civil engineer squadrons in Vietnam typically followed the stateside organization and assumed 

the same responsibilities, such as operations and maintenance, firefighting, and environmental controls. 

Environmental controls included providing water, sewage, pest control, and refuse facilities. The major 

differences during deployment were the base civil engineer’s role in construction and the expanded 

requirements for operation and maintenance in a challenging environment.567

At Bien Hoa AB, the base civil engineer supervised several facilities under construction. The 

projects at Bien Hoa totaled $6.3 million in 1965; by the following year, construction rose to $9.6 

million. The 3d Civil Engineer Squadron comprised five officers and 112 Airmen. The base director of 

civil engineering at Bien Hoa, Lt. Col. Robert E. Maggart, supervised approximately 408 Vietnamese 
276 Leading the Way

civilians who were hired to assist with construction. In a 1966 article in Air Force Civil Engineer 

magazine, Colonel Maggart remarked that “besides the language barrier we have to train them to 

understand heavy equipment, plumbing techniques and electrical wiring.” By 1966, nearly 200 Vietnamese working at Bien Hoa had undergone full-time training. They attended a school managed by 

U.S. civilians with curriculum focused upon equipment use and handling.568

At Pleiku AB, the civil engineer operated in a similar work environment. The base civil engineer, 

Maj. Donald R. Reaves, commented on the increased workload at the air base, “when I got here 10 

and a half months ago [in 1966] we had seven projects on the board. Now we have 140...in the states 

about 7 percent of the civil engineering workload is new construction or alteration, but here it’s about 

7 percent maintenance and 93 percent new construction.” During a one-year period, the civil engineers 

at Pleiku AB, which comprised 84 military personnel and 128 Vietnamese workers, completed 145 

structures totaling 130,000 square feet. Other construction projects included an airfield, roads, fencing, revetments, and a cantonment.569 Engineers at bases such as Pleiku were also augmented by RED 

HORSE personnel who constructed wooden facilities used for offices, housing, or maintenance.570

Beddown

Initial troop beddown at many locations comprised Gray Eagle tents for troops and Bitterwine kits 

for operations. Gray Eagle kits, later called Harvest Eagle kits, included tents, mess equipment, and 

housekeeping supplies to support 1,100 men for a limited period of time. Bitterwine kits contained 

operational items.571 The disadvantages of dark-colored tents were soon realized: the tents absorbed 

sunlight and were oppressively hot; the structures were poorly ventilated; and, tent fabric quickly 

deteriorated. Six months was the average life span for tents in South Vietnam.572 Other problems with 

Gray Eagle kits were the reliance on the local economy for obtaining consumables and the lack of 

spare parts to repair equipment.573

A great diversity in facility construction resulted as base civil engineers, contractors, and other civil 

engineering personnel attempted to provide improved facilities for longer occupancy. Wooden huts 

with corrugated metal roofs, known as “hootches,” were commonly constructed for housing troops. In 

mid-1966, MACV standardized the two-story hootch. Wooden buildings had problems of their own: 

Our sources of lumber were primarily local, that is, from Malaysia and Singapore. 

The mahogany which was obtained was for the most part green and dense, hard to 

nail, saw and work. If no structural section was available, the ripping into smaller 

sections entailed the burning of several saws before the necessary amount was cut. 

This hardwood was somewhat resistant to infestation; however, sooner or later 

succumbed to the attacks of powder post beetle borer, termite, dry rot or fungus. 

Lumber received from the regular supply channels whose shipment originated 

in the United States by the time it was utilized already exhibited evidence of 

infestation.574

Metal dorms were used for the first time at Tuy Hoa AB.575 They satisfied the need for expedient 

troop and support housing and were generally well received. Complaints arose but tended to place 

blame on shipping by the manufacturer. On arrival at the base, spare parts were missing and construction materials were bent or damaged. At coastal locations, like Tuy Hoa, salt spray accelerated the 

deterioration of already damaged materials and required protective paint coatings.576 Base civil engineer 

personnel at Phan Rang and Phu Cat ABs erected brick production facilities and were able to replace 

deteriorated buildings with permanent masonry construction.577

During the 1960s, the Air Force emphasized quick mobility and response. Funding during FY61 

was directed towards design studies on relocatable facilities with the intent of deploying them in 

a theatre of operations. The new study was similar to the bare base concept, with an emphasis on 
Lt. Col. Francis E. Torr (right) and MSgt Bruce F. Swafford, members of Prime BEEF Team #1, measure 

AM-2 matting for use in aircraft revetments at Tan Son Nhut AB, South Vietnam, August 1965. 

Rising to the Challenge 277

substantial and durable relocatables.578 In July 1969, Kimpo AB in South Korea was the first installation 

in a wartime operation to utilize the mobility concept. When additional forces at Kimpo AB needed 

to be accommodated, personnel with the 557th RED HORSE dismantled one 80-man dormitory at 

Kunsan AB, transported it, and then erected the dormitory at Kimpo AB, all within 18 days.579 This 

operation helped prove the merit of the relocatable program. 

Inflatable shelters, devised as a means to meet the needs of the rapid buildup of troops, were 

another option explored by Air Force personnel in Southeast Asia. AFLC managed the inflatable 

shelter program. Double-wall and single-wall inflatable shelters were manufactured from vinyl-coated 

nylon and inflated with small blowers. Once inflated, the semi-circular double wall shelters varied in 

dimensions from 48 by 60 feet to 48 by144 feet and the single wall shelters from 45 by 60 feet to 45 

by 150 feet. Whereas the double-wall shelters maintained pressure between the walls, the single-wall 

shelters maintained air pressure in the entire shelter, necessitating air locks for access.580 In 1965, 99 

single-wall and 384 double-wall inflatable shelters covering six acres were in use in South Vietnam.581

A preliminary report in 1969 stated that “heat is unbearable” inside the inflatable shelters. The report 

went on to add that the shelters were “good for only one purpose: keeping goods dry,” it was further 

recommended that canned goods not be stored in the shelters due to the buildup of pressure and potential for explosion.582 Another complaint came from PACAF on February 5, 1966 when it requested 

permission from Headquarters U.S. Air Force to replace all inflatable shelters at Cam Ranh Bay AB. 

PACAF reported that the shelters were a complete failure; every inflatable shelter was deflated to some 

degree due to power failure and the failure of hand sealed cement joints in the fabric.583
278 Leading the Way

The use of prefabricated buildings and modular structures gained momentum later in the war. Preengineered metal buildings were useful to enclose large interior spaces. Procurement began in 1965 

and, by 1968, 600 pre-engineered metal buildings were shipped and installed in Southeast Asia. The 

buildings were purchased as shells, with interiors added later. Although metal was prone to corrosion 

in the Vietnamese environment, protective paint prolonged its useful life. Modular construction was 

used for support facilities, such as hospitals and chapels. Modular facilities required only site preparation, external utilities, and foundations prior to installation.584

Operational Support

Airfields, comprising runways, taxiways, parking areas and operational support areas, were of 

critical maintenance priority for the base civil engineer. Airfield pavements also underwent a progression in contingency construction from temporary to permanent materials. Concrete containing Portland 

cement was the preferred surface for sustained operations of jet aircraft. However, asphalt was used 

in the majority of airfield construction due to its cost and ease of maintenance and repair.

585

Initially, however, airfields were constructed using temporary materials. Use of PSP continued 

during the Vietnam Conflict despite the problems encountered during the Korean War. Other types 

of expedient runway materials were used as well: M8-A1; MX-19; and, T-17 membrane.586 The T-17 

membrane was designated for use with AM-2 matting.587 Aluminum plank matting, AM-2, comprised 

interlocking aluminum mats 12 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 11⁄2 inches thick. Each mat weighed 144 

pounds. Sponsored by the Marine Corps Landing Force Development Activities, Marine Corps Schools, 

the AM-2 was developed as part of the Short Airfield for Tactical Support (SATS) Concept. SATS was 

a 2 to 3,000-foot long by 72 feet wide runway used for jet aircraft with arresting gear.588 AM-2 was 

geared towards tactical operations of thirty days or less; the matting was moved to a new operational 

area when needed. AM-2 matting had only two requirements: a level surface and installation in a rightto-left pattern.589 A concrete anchoring system was created to keep the AM-2 mats from moving once 

in place on the airfield. A trench, 12-feet in length, was dug on either side of the runway and graded. 

Concrete was poured into the trenches and then graded to the surface of the runway and PSP overrun. 

Proponents for the use of AM-2 cited its many advantages over Portland cement and bituminous concrete. By using AM-2, the need for concrete aggregate was eliminated. AM-2 also eliminated the need 

to construct facilities to mix cement and reduced equipment needs. Finally, AM-2 was expedient and 

saved time. The versatility of AM-2 allowed construction anywhere and manual installation also was 

possible, if needed.590 Despite the ease of AM-2 matting, problems remained: “Since the joints in the 

mat are not waterproof...the water seeps through the joints and causes deterioration of the subgrade. 

To overcome this problem, a membrane of polyethylene reinforced with nylon yarn is being supplied 

for use under the mat. A number of membranes for this purpose are being tested.”591

Concrete runways presented never-ending problems with regards to traction and cracking. On 

December 1, 1967, HQ PACAF demanded a survey and evaluation of all runways to assess pavement 

grooving options. Prior to the survey, Bien Hoa AB constructed grooved pavements to improve traction during wet conditions and air bases at Phan Rang, Phu Cat, and Tuy Hoa had a “rough ‘broomed’ 

surface” applied to the pavements to eliminate hydroplaning.592

Other airfield problems included improper preparation of the soil subbases. This deficiency led to 

continued maintenance problems. Cam Ranh Bay AB’s airfields were constructed on a sandy subbase 

and consistently suffered from wind and rain erosion. Base civil engineers who maintained these 

airfields overcame the problem with routine drainage and runway maintenance. Despite their best 

efforts to install adequate drainage systems, monsoon seasons were challenging and several aircraft 

experienced hydroplaning on the airfields.593 At Soc Trang airfield, civil engineers constructed dikes 

around the airfield and maintained two large Diesel-powered pumps to empty the trenches of water 

over the sides of the dikes, thus draining the entire complex.594
Rising to the Challenge 279

Utilities

Potable water and sewage systems were great concerns to base civil engineers. The majority of 

air bases were constructed in barren areas, which necessitated the construction of water and sewage 

systems. Water sources in Vietnam were polluted and easy targets for the Viet Cong. For those reasons, 

base civil engineers purified ground water to supply base needs. Sewage systems typically combined 

septic tanks and leaching fields. However, these systems were vulnerable during monsoon seasons 

when the water table rose; base civil engineers faced the challenge of heightened health hazards.595 For 

the air bases located within the delta region of Vietnam, wells often were drilled to depths of 500 feet. 

Elsewhere in Vietnam, civil engineers drilled through bedrock before reaching water. Lack of modern 

well-drilling equipment added stress and created additional work for civil engineering personnel.596

By 1973, civil engineers had drilled more than 300 wells in Vietnam. 

Another major issue in constructing and maintaining the air bases was electrical power supply and 

distribution. Electrical power was a critical base support element in Southeast Asia. The Air Force mission required large amounts of electricity to power communications systems, airfield lighting, modern 

weapons systems, computers, operations and cantonment lighting, refrigeration, and air conditioning 

units. The commercial power supply available in South Vietnam was limited and unreliable; the local 

current was not compatible with Air Force requirements. The Air Force installed electrical generation 

equipment and systems at all bases it occupied. In 1965, only electric generators of low voltage were 

available and most of the generators were not designed for continuous service. To overcome the shortage of power generation equipment, PACAF sent everything that could be spared. By July 1965, 62 

portable generators representing 16 different models were installed at 23 locations on Tan Son Nhut 

AB. Obtaining spare parts to keep the equipment running was a “significant limitation.” Servicing a 

variety of types of generators taxed the skills of power production professionals. Beginning in 1964, 

PACAF initiated a program to install central primary power plants and distribution systems at each 

base. However, even with this plan, the demand for electrical power often rose beyond the capacity 

of the equipment and the electrical power systems required continuous upgrades.597

Force Protection

During the buildup in 1964 and 1965, the three primary air bases, Tan Son Nhut, Bien Hoa, and Da 

Nang, quickly exceeded personnel and aircraft capacity. Available parking space for aircraft was not 

sufficient, so that aircraft were parked close together. The need for aircraft revetments and protective 

shelters was clearly seen after the Bien Hoa AB accident on May 16, 1965,598 in which an explosion on 

base destroyed 40 aircraft, wounded 100 and killed 28 Americans, including four explosive ordnance 

disposal personnel. MSgt George J. Frank, stationed at Bien Hoa, described “heavy chunks of shrapnel 

and aircraft parts began raining on the parking ramp” after the initial explosion. Secondary explosions 

continued throughout the day. Sergeant Frank remembered,

The B-57 parking area was a mass of twisted metal, bomb craters, and rubble. The 

area where the fuel bladders had been was nothing but scorched blackened earth. I 

vaguely remember removing a body from the rubble and carrying it to a stretcher, 

and when I laid it on the stretcher I realized it was one of the guys from my 

“hooch” and that he was dead.599

On August 24, 1965, an additional 45 aircraft at Bien Hoa were damaged by mortar attack.600

The first three Prime BEEF teams were deployed to Vietnam to assist in the revetment program. 

The standard revetment used to protect aircraft during the war was the ARMCO steel bin constructed 

of heavy corrugated steel. Walls were set 5.5 feet apart and filled with compacted soil. The revetment 
It worked! The revetment at Da Nang AB received a direct hit from a 122mm rocket during a Viet Cong attack 

on the base in January 1968.

280 Leading the Way

stood 12 feet high. The first Prime BEEF teams arrived before the revetment kits and immediately 

began stockpiling soil. Eventually, the first three teams erected 45 revetments, over 12,000 linear feet, 

during the 120-day deployment.601

Pre-cast concrete slabs were used at Da Nang AB to protect personnel facilities, vehicles, and 

equipment. Each slab measured 10 x 4 feet by 5 -5/8 inches. Pre-cast concrete slabs were less expensive overall and required less manpower to install. In addition, the slabs were relocatable and allowed 

design flexibility for base civil engineers.602

Another critical construction program in South Vietnam was the TABVEE hardened aircraft 

shelters for aircraft protection. General Meredith, who was working with deployed RED HORSE 

squadrons at that time, recalled his experiences with building TABVEE shelters at Da Nang AB:

Col. Jim Bowers stopped in and asked if I would go up to Da Nang, take some of 

my troops and start the first shelter program. I had three detachments at that time. 

So I did. But we found some flaws in it, and John Peters was back at the Pentagon 

designing those things. I contacted him and told him the damn thing didn’t fit. We 

had a lot of guff back and forth. Finally, I just shut down the radio lines and told the 

boys, “Let’s put this thing together. If we have to drill another hole in it, we will.” 

The formation of those things was such that the alignment was very critical. If in 

shipment they dropped them or sprung them the least bit, you had a half hole in 

the whole damn section of the thing. You’d sit there and fight it with a gagling pin, 

trying to get it lined up. I said, “To hell with that. Take a drill over there and drill a 
(above) Bien Hoa AB firefighters don their suits to respond to an emergency call.

(below) Fire trucks at Pleiku AB stand ready to respond.

Rising to the Challenge 281
282 Leading the Way

hole beside it and put the bolt in.” One of the sergeants looked at me and said, “But 

it’ll leak through that hole.” I said, “You’re pouring 18 inches of concrete on top of 

it, so who in the hell cares.”603

The aircraft shelters quickly paid for their construction costs; $7.8 million worth of aircraft stationed in South Vietnam was saved in 1969. This cost savings amounted to nearly 50 percent of the 

total shelter program.604 Earlier that year, an aircraft shelter at Da Nang AB was struck with a 140 

mm rocket. The shelter sustained minor damage while the $2 million F-4 aircraft was unharmed.605

Although the early shelter program satisfied immediate needs, several difficulties arose with the design. 

The most pressing problem was the lack of lights and power outlets. Due to the lack of ventilation and 

insulation, troops worked on aircraft outside of the shelters and exposed themselves to attack. Water 

leaks through ceiling cracks in the concrete often were reported as well.606

Firefighting

Fire protection in South Vietnam was the busiest fire protection organization in the world. The 

Seventh Air Force Command Civil Engineer was responsible for fire protection in Vietnam. The Fire 

Protection Branch in the directorate was staffed by a chief master sergeant with a technical sergeant 

as an assistant. In April 1966, fire protection services comprised 313 personnel and 90 vehicles to 

support eight active bases. Available vehicles included the P-2 aircraft fire rescue vehicle and the F-7 

water tanker. It was typical for firefighters to work 18 to 20 hour days responding to emergency calls 

on and off base, maintaining runway and ramp patrols, and dispersing equipment. Within the combat 

zone, equipment was dispersed at night to protect it from mortar attacks and small arms fire. At some 

locations, fire protection personnel were armed with M-16 rifles.607

At the start of the Vietnam conflict, the fire departments typically occupied tents for both personnel and equipment. Personnel constructed new buildings and rebuilt old facilities through a self-help 

program. By April 1967, the number of U.S. Air Force firefighters increased to 456 and 109 vehicles to 

provide fire protection on 10 bases. Firefighters responded to 42,570 emergency calls and maintained 

57,701 hours of ramp and runway patrols during the first half of 1967. Fire departments also wrote 

fire prevention regulations, and set up and serviced water barrels and fire pails until sufficient fire 

extinguishers were available.608

While serving in Vietnam, fire chiefs trained their Vietnamese counterparts in fire protection. 

However, the hectic pace of emergency responses decreased the amount of time available for fire chiefs 

and personnel to train Vietnamese firefighters. The U.S. Air Force established a training program at 

Nha Trang AB headed by MSgt. William Bell.609 Air Force fire services also activated airborne units 

during the Vietnam Conflict. The HH-43 PEDRO helicopters were able to respond to emergencies in 

remote areas far quicker than the ground forces. Each PEDRO was equipped with a fire suppression 

kit that held 78.5 gallons of expellant and 150-feet of hose. As the military began to withdraw troops 

from Vietnam, the Air Force began inactivating PEDRO units with the last unit inactivated in 1975.610

New Air Bases

As military requirements grew, the Air Force ordered the construction of five new air bases—four 

in South Vietnam and one in Thailand. Bin Thuy, Phan Rang, Cam Ranh Bay, and Phu Cat were developed in Vietnam and Sattahip (U Tapoa AB) was chosen in Thailand. The sites selected for the new air 

bases in South Vietnam typically were near the coast to ensure security and logistic support by water. 

Sites were selected after map analysis, aerial reconnaissance, and ground reconnaissance survey. If the 

site had potential, a feasibility study was conducted that included a topographical survey of potential 

locations for runways, availability of real estate, flight hazards, drainage, water sources, availability 
Col. Archie S. Mayes chairs a meeting on construction progress at Tuy Hoa. Left to right are Col. John 

Peters, Lt. Col. Don Woods, Col. Mayes, and Col. Harvey Latson.

Rising to the Challenge 283

of construction materials, and local labor. Final site selection occurred after a full topographic study. 

The typical new air base required between 4,500 and 7,500 acres.611

Construction of each airfield was completed in two phases to gain operational status as rapidly 

as possible. Phase I provided interim facilities and an expedient runway; Phase II supplied a Portland 

cement runway as well as permanent housing, support, and maintenance facilities.612 The four new 

bases initially were staffed by one civil engineer officer and a few enlisted personnel to oversee power 

production, fire protection services, and construction contractors.

The arrival of Red HORSE squadrons alleviated pressure on the contractors for Air Force construction. The 554th CES (HR) began work at Phan Rang AB with the replacement of much of the 

deteriorated runways and soil subbases. While the 554th repaired the airfields at night, base operations 

continued without interruption during the day. Additional work at Phan Rang AB included the construction of aircraft shelters; maintenance and supply facilities; and runway arresting barriers.613 Meanwhile, 

the 555th CES (HR) deployed to Cam Ranh Bay AB and constructed over 100 buildings. Phu Cat AB 

utilized the services of the 819th CES (HR) to complete the base while contractor RMK-BRJ worked 

on the airfield. The MCP for South Vietnam had exceeded the allocated funds for RMK-BRJ, therefore, 

the Air Force relied heavily on RED HORSE units to complete its new air bases.614

Phan Rang AB in Vietnam became fully operational on March 14, 1966, one day ahead of schedule. 

Construction on the base had begun the previous September by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineer’s 

Company D, 62d Engineer Battalion.615 Runways constructed at Phan Rang AB were identical to those 

at Cam Ranh Bay AB. The runway at Cam Ranh Bay AB was 10,000-feet long by 102-feet wide and 

constructed with AM-2 matting.616

Project Turnkey: Tuy Hoa

The Air Force identified the need for a fifth air base in 1965. After several months of discussion 

between the Secretary of the Air Force, Joint Chiefs of Staff, CINCPACAF, and other high-level 

officials, Secretary of Defense McNamara endorsed the Tuy Hoa site and to allow the Air Force to 

serve as construction agent.617 Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard explained, “Priorities were tight, and the 

Air Force needed a fighter base.”618 However, the Navy OICC and its contractor RMK/BRJ were so 

inundated with projects that completion of Tuy Hoa was problematic. Navy OICC personnel “jokingly” 
The site selected for the new air base was along the South China Sea coastline, near the village of Tuy Hoa. 

The site was chosen so equipment and supplies could be brought in “over the beach.”

284 Leading the Way

proposed that the Air Force find their own contractor, and the Air Force obliged.619 Constructed by 

the Air Force, Tuy Hoa AB was the only Air Force base constructed in Vietnam that was completed 

on schedule and within budget.620

The Air Force selected the turnkey approach. Using the turnkey process, a contractor designed 

and constructed the project, then turned the keys over to the client. Secretary of the Air Force, Harold 

Brown, approached Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara with the concept on February 8, 1966.621

Lt. Gen. Joseph H. Moore, 7th Air Force Commander, and Brigadier General (then Colonel) Mayes 

approached MACV with the turnkey concept. Project Turnkey’s goal was to provide the Air Force 

with a combat operational base in a minimum amount of time and solely contracted by the Air Force. 

After much haranguing by the Army Generals and Navy Admirals, the Air Force’s proposal was finally 

approved in May 1966 on the conditions that all material and equipment be brought over the beach; 

that construction would have no impact upon the logistics and construction systems already in place; 

and, that the project would be completely contracted by the Air Force.622 Tuy Hoa AB was required 

to be operational by December 1966 and fully completed by the end of June 1967.623 Throughout 

the construction of Tuy Hoa, Secretary Brown maintained an avid interest in Project Turnkey. He 

requested weekly status reports that included every project detail, from material shipped and received 

to percentage of construction completed.624

Planning and management of Tuy Hoa was a highly efficient organization with operations located 

in Washington, D.C., New York City, Hawaii, Saigon, and Tuy Hoa. At the Air Staff level, Brig. Gen. 

Guy H. Goddard managed the project. At HQ PACAF, the Turnkey contract (TKC) office was headed 

by Col. Henry (Fritz) Stehling; the Program Director’s office (TKC-1) was at HQ 7th Air Force in 
A bulldozer levels the beach as a landing craft approaches bringing in equipment and supplies for the buildup 

of Tuy Hoa. 

Rising to the Challenge 285

Saigon with Col. Archie Mayes, Director of Civil Engineering and Col. John D. Peters. The New York 

City project office, designated as TKC-2, was led by Col. Harvey Latson and supported by personnel from the AFRCE South Atlantic Region office. Tuy Hoa AB was designated as TKC-3 and Col. 

David S. Chamberlain served as the Turnkey Resident Engineer.625 Altogether, Project Turnkey had 

approximately 50 Air Force personnel in four locations ensuring the success of the effort. Colonel 

Chamberlain oversaw a workforce of 30 military personnel, 725 contractor U.S. civilian employees, 

300 Filipino contract stevedores, and 700 contract Vietnamese employees.626

The targeted location for this endeavor was along the coast of Vietnam at Tuy Hoa. The contract 

was awarded to Walter Kidde Constructors, Inc., and signed on May 31, 1966, four days after the 

official acceptance by the DoD. The new base had to be operational by December 1966.627 Kidde subcontracted with McCormick and Sons, who specialized in earth-moving projects. The contract between 

Kidde and the Air Force had several provisions and unique clauses relating to the site, construction, 

and payment. The contractor was required to “handle all procurement within the United States,” to 

provide all transportation and receiving services, as well as to erect “a protected unloading site.” In 

addition, construction labor was restricted to local nationals near Tuy Hoa and U.S. workers; equipment 

and materials could only be shipped from the East Coast and Gulf ports; and, U.S. employees were 

mandated to avoid local politics and minimize impact on the culture and economy of Tuy Hoa.628 As 

a precaution, construction personnel received five percent of their wages in military scrip in-country; 

the balance of their wages was received upon their return to the United States.629

The Air Force issued a cost-plus, fixed-fee contract, estimated at $52 million, to complete Tuy Hoa 

AB.630 As a way to minimize additional construction expenses, the Air Force developed a construction 

schedule and demobilization schedule. All construction tasks for Tuy Hoa AB were assigned a completion date and followed a sequential order applying the Critical Path Method. As the project came to a 

close, the contractor was to decrease the number the workers commensurate with the outstanding work 

in accordance with the demobilization schedule. Adherence to these schedules resulted in bonuses 

for workers and contractors. However, a ten percent late fee would be charged if construction was 
286 Leading the Way

completed past the due date.631 A morality clause was another unique requirement of the contract; 

additional bonuses were awarded for maintaining alcohol and problem-free construction sites. 632 All 

of the clauses relating to bonuses followed the ‘all or nothing’ approach. “Come hell or high water, no 

matter what it was, if they didn’t finish it on that date they didn’t get paid the bonus, and they made 

every one of them,” said General Peters.633 General Mayes later reflected, “All of these things—morality clause, completion schedule, and a strict demobilization schedule—contributed to the successful 

completion of that very unique contract.”634

Air Force officials provided Kidde with the Navy’s blueprints for Vietnam construction. After 

choosing the best designs, Kidde adapted them to site conditions at Tuy Hoa.635 No port facilities were 

available at Tuy Hoa at the start of construction. The site location for the air base was a bare beach 

when the construction crews arrived. 

The first 30-man contractor team arrived at Tuy Hoa in June 1966. Except for the 101st Airborne 

Division’s tents encamped at the existing Vietnamese asphalt airstrip known as Tuy Hoa South, the 

4,340-acre site was empty.636 The first shipment of tools, materials, and equipment arrived August 

11, 1966.637 The Air Force and contractors delivered materials and supplies by the “invasion/assault 

method,” which utilized lighters (open, flat-bottomed barges) and landing craft to convey the material 

and equipment from the cargo ship onto the beach near the construction site.638 Kidde had subcontracted the use of lighters and landing craft, which were predominantly reconditioned World War 

II-era vessels.639

The base master plan was extremely detailed and prohibited the construction of temporary contractor facilities. All construction, including roads, was specified to be compatible with base operations, 

hence the motto at Tuy Hoa: “Do It Once, Do It Right;” General Peters added,

We decided that if we were going to build a base there we weren’t going to let 

contractors run all over the place building all kinds of construction roads that were 

going to waste a lot of time. The first decision we made was that all the construction roads would eventually be streets, so that we didn’t build streets that we’d 

never use again.640

All buildings erected at the site were designed to become Air Force facilities on the completed 

base. Air conditioned modular housing was purchased in Australia and sited for use later by Air Force 

personnel.641 The contractor morgue later became the base computer facility.642 Meanwhile Air Force 

personnel erected Gray Eagle harvest kits and lived in tents, some for as long as eight months.643 As in 

the case of Phu Cat, Cam Ranh Bay, and Phan Rang, airfield construction at Tuy Hoa was executed in 

two phases. The first phase quickly established interim runways and facilities while the second phase 

developed permanent airstrips and additional facilities. Construction initially focused on completing 

the 9,000-foot AM-2 matting runway as quickly as possible so that flight operations could begin. 

Simultaneous construction included a parking apron, bladder system for petroleum storage, and dormitories for Air Force personnel. 

As construction progressed, inevitable problems and obstacles arose. The Air Force answered 

these challenges with innovative solutions and hard work. Although there was a plan to expand the 

existing 3,000-foot Vietnamese runway for use by larger aircraft, the Air Force opted to construct an 

entirely new runway because, according to General Mayes, “Well, we had to do the runway anyway. 

Why waste time extending a very substandard existing runway?”644 As General Peters explained, 

There was a 3,000-foot runway at Tuy Hoa that was already there. The plans said to 

extend it to 6,000 feet. When we got out there and looked at it, I said, “You know 

what? We need to look at this.” Because where the new runway was going—the 

temporary one—looked to me as though it would take a helluva lot less grading and 
Maj. Charles Lamb (left) and Maj. Edwin (Doug) Reinhardt monitor the progress on the initial runway at Tuy 

Hoa.

Rising to the Challenge 287

would require a lot less material to be brought in than where we were. So, we ran 

a centerline on both of them and enough traverse points to get a pretty good hook 

on how much material was required. It turned out that we could have the damn 

new runway built before we ever got the other one to where we could even think 

about putting anything on it. [Col.] Archie [Mayes] and I commiserated over that 

for about a week because we were going to do something that they didn’t tell us 

they wanted done. We made up our minds we were going to do that. I made all the 

calculations and showed how much less earthwork was to be done and how fast 

we could do it. We sent a TWX [joint message form] back [to the Pentagon] and 

told them that was what we were going to do and why. We were supposed to make 

that other one the temporary runway with aluminum mat. We got a TWX back that 

said, “Maj. Gen. [Guy] Goddard and [Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force] 

Lew Turner are coming out,” and they told us the date. I said, “We’re going to have 

5,000 feet of runway for them to land on.”645

The AM-2 runway was completed on November 12, 1966, six weeks ahead of schedule. Three 

days later, aircraft from the 308th Tactical Fighter Squadron landed at Tuy Hoa.646

Construction on the permanent, 9,500-foot concrete runway was the second priority and posed 

another challenge: creating a 10-inch reinforced concrete runway with the supplied 13-inch forms. 

A mistake in the delivered supplies led to several trial attempts to lay 10-inches of concrete with the 

13-inch forms. Finally, Colonels Mayes and Peters decided that it would be cheaper, quicker, and 

easier to build a 13-inch runway with a larger aggregate rather than find a way to use 10-inches of 

concrete in a 13-inch form. The concrete runway was finished on April 6, 1967, a full month ahead 

of schedule. Additional challenges included unloading equipment and supplies during a typhoon, and 

repairing the Vietnamese railroad to provide access to quarries and concrete plants. General Mayes 

later explained how the need for housing was addressed,
Members of the 820th RED HORSE Squadron level a site in preparation for the construction of a 

maintenance apron at Tuy Hoa.

Assistant Secretary of the Air Force Lewis Turner (left) and Lt. Col. Hubert “Hub” Johnson tour Tuy Hoa AB 

during an update visit with Col. Archie S. Mayes.

288 Leading the Way

When they were figuring in New York about buying construction material, someone found out that there was a standard building that was sold for chicken coops. 

So they went to the manufacturer and he modified the building to put a special kind 

of louvers on the sides and the kind of ends we wanted. They bought those knocked 

down in large volume, so what we put up for barracks were actually modified 

chicken coops. They were real good barracks.647

On June 10, 1967, construction facilities and airfields were completed two weeks ahead of schedule 

and consisted of a 4,000-man cantonment area; two jet runways; parking aprons; O&M facilities; POL 

storage; and, a physical plant.648 By completing the ambitious project in 210 days, Project Turnkey 

saved the Air Force an estimated one million dollars.649

The first Air Force unit to arrive at Tuy Hoa in October 1966 was the 820th CES (HR) squadron 
Rising to the Challenge 289

under Col. Waldo Potter. This RED HORSE unit began stateside training in July 1966 and was deployed 

to Tuy Hoa, but not as part of Project Turnkey.650 The missions for the air base had grown, nearly doubling the amount of aircraft deployed to the base. RED HORSE continued construction of a concrete 

runway, concrete taxiway, apron enlargements, revetments, aircraft shelters, warehousing facilities, 

cold storage facilities, 53 dormitories, and other support buildings.651 Construction continued through 

mid-June 1967 when the base was considered complete and fully operational. Approximately 50 percent of all construction at Tuy Hoa was completed by the 820th CES (HR).652 After the contractors left, 

all of the equipment was turned over to the RED HORSE squadrons. The 820th CES (HR) remained 

stationed at Tuy Hoa AB until 1969.653 In all, two rotations, totaling 800 RED HORSE personnel, 

served at Tuy Hoa AB.654 Although not under the command of the base commander, RED HORSE 

personnel worked in tandem with the base civil engineer squadron. The base CES also erected additional buildings to support operations such as maintenance shops and smaller construction projects, 

including four inflatable shelters.655

The achievements of many of the leading personnel involved with Tuy Hoa were recognized 

through promotions. Then Colonels Archie Mayes, Dave Chamberlain, Henry “Fritz” Stehling, and 

John Peters, all advanced to brigadier generals.656 Colonel Chamberlain became the Deputy Chief of 

Staff for Civil Engineering at TAC and PACAF.657 Capt. Gary Flora served for a year in the base civil 

engineer squadron during the base construction; he later served as The Air Force Civil Engineer in 

1992. Other personnel associated with Tuy Hoa were Maj. Charlie Lamb, who later became a brigadier general and Capt. Frank. A. DeMartino, who was later promoted to colonel and became a major 

command civil engineer. Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes summed up the Turnkey Project at Tuy Hoa, 

I believe that Project Turnkey can only be categorized as a resounding success. 

First, it provided much-needed fighter aircraft at an early date for the overall commander in Vietnam, that is, General Westmoreland. Moreover, it demonstrated to 

all the services that Air Force Civil Engineering had come of age and was fully 

capable of building an Air Force base on its own. It also brought on lessons for the 

future, that is, that in any future major undertaking involving all the services, the 

Air Force could be expected to step forward and do whatever part is assigned to 

them with full engineering competence.658

U.S.S. Pueblo Crisis and Buildup of Forces in South Korea, 1968

At the height of the Vietnam Conflict, an incident occurred that increased tensions in the Korean 

peninsula. On January 23, 1968, North Korea seized the U.S.S. Pueblo, a U.S. naval intelligence 

gathering ship, on the pretext that it was within territorial waters, a claim denied by the United States. 

At about the same time, an assassination attempt on South Korean President Park Chung-hee was 

traced to North Korean agents. 

The United States responded to these incidents with a rapid buildup of U.S. forces in South Korea. 

Several fighter squadrons were deployed to South Korea to augment the Fifth Air Force headquartered 

in Seoul. The U.S. Air Force had existing civil engineering squadrons and facilities at Osan and Kunsan 

ABs and limited facilities at Kimpo AB. Little had been done to these bases since their use during 

the Korean Conflict. At Kunsan, the undermanned 6175th CES worked around the clock to deal with 

the 500 percent increase in personnel at the base. South Korea made additional facilities available 

at three South Korean air bases: Kwang-ju, Taegu, and Suwon, but these bases required substantial 

upgrading.659

The existing civil engineer squadrons could not support increased operations, so Prime BEEF 

teams were deployed. The first Prime BEEF team was assembled from PACAF civil engineers and 

was followed by nine Prime BEEF teams dispatched from CONUS bases. General Mayes, then the 

Deputy Chief of Staff for Civil Engineering at HQ PACAF, told this story,
557th RED HORSE Squadron Emblem (Courtesy of Mr. Jim Pennino).

290 Leading the Way

It was below zero and the airplanes were arriving [in South Korea]. I was talking to 

General Curtin on the phone and he said, “I’ve got eight Prime BEEF teams heading that way.” They loaded those Prime BEEF people up on airplanes and got them 

over there. They hit the ground running and built hard-backed tents and everything. 

We didn’t have enough quarters and floor space to bed people down. We had them 

stacked everywhere. 

We put in tents and heaters in the tents. They did it with those Prime BEEF teams. 

In the meantime, he [General Curtin] called me and said, “I’ve got another RED 

HORSE squadron being organized.” That was the 557th. They wanted to permanentize a lot of facilities because they thought it was going to be a long duration 

deal in Korea. In the meantime, we made one of our famous bills of materials, as 

best we could, and ordered another million dollars of material. AFLC bought the 

stuff and put it on a ship. About the time the RED HORSE squadron hit Osan, 

the ship arrived at Seoul. They went down and met the ship so we wouldn’t lose 

any of our stuff. They unloaded it and used it to start putting in decent permanent 

facilities.660

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers served as the construction agent for the construction program 

during the buildup in South Korea, and 60 percent of the program was devoted to Army facilities. Prime 

BEEF teams and the 557th RED HORSE squadron, which arrived in April 1968, supported immediate 

Air Force requirements, while contractors were employed for long-term projects and to support base 

operations and maintenance. The first task was to bed down incoming Airmen in temporary facilities. 

Airmen were housed in air base community buildings, in tents, and in facilities provided by South 

Korea. Harvest Eagle kits were erected and comprised primarily tents that were adaptable to many 

uses. During the first Prime BEEF teams’ 90-day TDY, they erected nearly 1,000 tents, dug wells, 

constructed wood-frame buildings, laid airfield matting, installed aircraft arresting barriers, upgraded 

utility systems, and installed sandbag bunkers.661

With the arrival of the RED HORSE squadron in April 1968, more permanent facilities were 

constructed, including revetments, and modular dormitories. RED HORSE personnel were assigned 

for 179 days TDY. This was because of a roles and mission dispute with the Army. The resolution 

was that the 400-man team deployed as a quasi-squadron because the Army would not agree to the 

deployment of a squadron, but would agree to a 400-man BCE augmentation unit. At the end of 

that period, the Army relented and the squadron was reassigned to Fifth Air Force and staffed by 
Rising to the Challenge 291

permanent change of station (PCS) replacement personnel.662 RED HORSE began the construction of 

permanent facilities, including pre-engineered steel buildings, revetments for aircraft and ammunition, 

aircraft maintenance shops, and other facilities. PCS RED HORSE personnel who arrived late in 1968, 

erected modular relocatable dormitories, as well as constructed hardened aircraft shelters to protect 

approximately 170 tactical aircraft. Various other types of facilities also were built, including communications and operations facilities, taxiways, airfield pavements, and fuel and ammunition storage 

buildings. Much of this work was accomplished in the winter. General Mayes, then the Deputy Chief 

of Staff for Civil Engineering at PACAF, wrote to Col. Winston H. Clisham, 557th Commander, “I 

was particularly impressed during my February visit to see the aircraft shelter program underway. I can 

think of no more distasteful task than working on those ‘beasts’ in sub-zero weather, but nevertheless 

your squadron did so and quite successfully.”663 In addition, the Air Force civil engineering squadrons 

erected prefabricated metal barracks to house approximately 6,150 troops. More than 70 percent of 

the construction, which was financed through a supplemental military construction appropriation in 

1968 and through subsequent appropriations, was completed by the end of FY71.664

An example of the efficiency of the Prime BEEF in Korea was recounted by Maj. Gen. Robert 

H. Curtin. He appointed Col. George Andrews, a Vietnam veteran, to oversee the Prime BEEF teams, 

which were being sent to South Korea on short notice. When General Curtin arrived in Korea six days 

after Colonel Andrews, he began hearing complaints about Colonel Andrews. As General Curtin told 

the story:

I said, “You’ve got to have a good case. I’m not taking him [Colonel Andrews] out. 

What’s the case?” They said, “Well, he has all the taxicabs in Seoul under his control.” I said, “What happened?” They said, “We don’t know.” I went to see George 

and he said, “Yes, I’ve got them under my control. I’ve got them carrying cement 

out to repair the air bases. I asked the Army and Navy for trucks and nobody would 

give me any. That’s the only way I could get the cement, and you told me to get 

the job done.” I said, “George, I support you.” He had them all, every one of them 

lined up. I left him there, and he was happy. God, it was cold! That was in February, as I recall. That was the sort of guys we had, too. Nothing was too big. “Let’s 

go,” they’d say.665

Drawdown from Southeast Asia

President Richard M. Nixon initiated the steps that led to the U.S. withdrawal from South Vietnam. 

During the election of 1968, Nixon promised to withdraw U.S. troops with “peace and honor.” In June 

1969, he announced the beginning of troop withdrawals from South Vietnam. By August 1972, U.S. 

military personnel in Vietnam numbered 40,000.666

Although the Nixon administration was involved in peace negotiations in the early 1970s and 

began turning over bases and equipment to the South Vietnamese, the United States escalated bombing of strategic targets in North Vietnam under code name Linebacker I and II, and secretly bombed 

Cambodia. The bombing campaigns appeared to contradict Nixon’s pledge to end the war, but in reality, 

the United States made progress toward a peaceful solution.667 The Nixon administration negotiated 

a cease fire that began January 29, 1973. The agreement established the border between South and 

North Vietnam, pledged the withdrawal of the last U.S. combat forces, and returned U.S. prisoners of 

war. The United States withdrew its remaining combat forces in 1973, repositioning some Air Force 

personnel to Thailand. Two years later, North Vietnamese forces initiated a military offensive that 

resulted in the collapse of the South Vietnamese government. The Air Force participated in the dramatic 

airlift of the remaining U.S. support personnel and thousands of South Vietnamese refugees during 

April 1975. The country was unified under a Communist government, and the People’s Democratic 

Republic of Vietnam was declared in July 1976.668
292 Leading the Way

Before leaving South Vietnam in 1973, Air Force civil engineers, primarily RED HORSE, were 

involved in removing and salvaging materials from the bases. General Meredith and General Mayes 

worked together to salvage as much of the AM-2 matting from the bases as possible. Aluminum was 

a potential valuable commodity for countries like China. Troops pulled up the matting and shipped 

it to PACAF. The salvaged matting was returned to the factory for recycling into new AM-2, which 

was then stockpiled in different parts of the world. As much heavy equipment as could be stowed was 

placed abroad the ships transporting the matting.669 Relocatable buildings and modular dormitories 

were moved to Thailand and South Korea.670

The 554th served at several bases in South Vietnam (Phan Rang, 1965-1969; Cam Ranh Bay 

1969-1971, and Da Nang 1971-1972) and left for U-Tapao AB, Thailand in June 1972 to continue its 

work. The squadron divided into several detachments in 1973 and 1974 (Osan AB, Korea; Clark AB, 

Philippines; Kadena AB, Japan; Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base (RTAFB); and Nakhon Phanom 

RTAFB). The men at the Thai bases performed heavy repair work, security enhancements, and small 

construction projects. They also conducted retrograde operations on modular buildings by dismantling 

and preparing them for shipment. They disassembled, cleaned, and packaged 131,000 square feet of 

AM-2 matting at Nakhon Phanom RTAFB. The detachment at Clark AB repaired dormitories, altered 

a warehouse, and constructed maintenance shop buildings. In early 1976, the 554th moved to Osan 

AB, Korea.671

Some Air Force civil engineers assigned to PACAF remained as advisors to the South Vietnamese 

Air Force after the majority of U.S. troops were withdrawn. These military and civilian advisors evacuated when Saigon fell to the North Vietnamese. Air Force civil engineers left the country on the night 

that Saigon fell on whatever transport they could secure. Evacuation routes varied. Some personnel 

arrived in the Philippines and others made for destinations all over the Pacific theater. It took some 

personnel 15-20 days to reach a location where they could report back to PACAF.672

The contingency operations in Vietnam provided a wide variety of lessons learned for Air Force 

civil engineers, as well as for the entire Air Force. In 1966, the Air Force directed the Air University 

to “evaluate the effectiveness of all elements of the employment of air power in Southeast Asia since 

1954.” The Corona Harvest project was initiated to assemble data and to record lessons learned. 

Lessons learned relevant to civil engineering were assembled by the Civil Engineering School at 

Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.673

Air Force civil engineering was advanced from the experiences in Vietnam in many areas, including 

research and development, contingency planning, staffing and deployment, construction programming, 

and facilities construction. One area of particular importance was in the further development of the 

bare base concept and the refinement of expeditionary packages to support quick troop deployment. 

Tactical air units often arrived in the theater of operations before support facilities. Gray Eagle kits 

used early in the Vietnam Conflict comprised surplus equipment from World War II and Korean War 

that were prepositioned in the Pacific Theater. The kits were designed to provide the bare essential 

support for operations until permanent equipment arrived.674 The kits were “bulky, heavy, and required” 

a number of Airmen to maneuver the equipment.675 Kits were not completely air-transportable which 

caused delays while components were transported by sea. In many cases, Air Force personnel’s first 

experience with the Gray Eagle Kits was upon arrival at the deployment site.676 During the mid-1960s, 

additional equipment was incorporated into the kits while other supplies were redesigned. These revised 

kits became known as Harvest Eagle kits. Harvest kits were designed to support 1,100 persons for 30 

days and contained “flimsy shelters” requiring constant maintenance and repair.

677

In 1966, the Bare Base Task Force was established at Headquarters, Aeronautical Systems Division with the mission to improve the mobility of tactical fighter wings. The Task Force evaluated 

the current functions and performance capabilities of the wings and compiled recommendations in 

the TAC Enhancement Study dated December 1966. The study confirmed that improvements were 

necessary and identified 71 areas to improve the wing’s response time.678 At the same time, the Air 
Rising to the Challenge 293

Staff was developing a related concept and published AFM 2-40, Operational Concepts and Capability Standards for Mobility, Austere Basing and Support of Tactical Air Forces in November 1967.679

Based on lessons learned during Vietnam and information from the Bare Base Task Force, AFM 2-40 

established five criteria for mobile equipment: functional, as light weight as possible, completely airtransportable by C-130s, easily operated with minimal training, and durable.680

The studies completed by the Air Force identified a need for the development of a mobile unit with 

the “capability to deploy to an isolated, nonfunctioning airstrip” or a bare base.681 To be defined as a 

bare base, the locale had to include a “runway, taxiway, parking ramps and a source of fresh water.”682

Prepositioned kits provided deployed units with essential equipment for construction of facilities. 

Bare Base Mobility, Project 3782, contained the equipment and facilities identified in prior studies. The equipment included barracks, dining halls, hangars, communications centers, dispensaries, 

and maintenance shops, as well as electrical generators, utilities, bomb damage repair system, crash 

removal equipment, and air transportable runway construction equipment. Bare base equipment was 

designed as modular aluminum and plastic sandwich structures. The outer shells of the structures 

served as the containers for storage and shipping. Once deployed, the packages were expandable and 

required a few hours to install.683

A demonstration of bare base capabilities, Coronet Bare, was held October 1969 at North Field, 

South Carolina. The exercise was successful and showcased “air transportable expandable maintenance 

and hangar facilities, individual power and water distribution systems, and other new mobility equipment that converted the bare base landing strip into a functional operating base.”684 Commenting on the 

success of the demonstration, Gen. William W. Momyer, TAC commander, noted, “This demonstration 

will long be remembered as a key step toward obtaining truly lightweight, air-transportable mobility 

equipment so badly needed to support our modern strike forces. The effectiveness of this new equipment, validated by the North Field demonstration, has signaled a new era in tactical air mobility.”685

Maintaining Prime BEEF teams’ and RED HORSE squadrons’ ability to respond to emergencies 

or contingencies was another area of important lessons learned. The drawdown after Vietnam brought 

pressures to reduce military personnel numbers and budgets. The valuable contributions of Prime 

BEEF and RED HORSE during the conflict were recognized by those who served in Southeast Asia. 

Lt. Gen. Francis C. Gideon, 13th Air Force Commander, wrote in 1969, “Retention of Civil Engineer 

heavy repair squadrons (RED HORSE) in our force structure is a matter of great importance.”686

Opinion was divided among Air Force civil engineers as to the importance of Prime BEEF and RED 

HORSE in the peacetime Air Force. Prime BEEF was enmeshed with the base-level Air Force civil 

engineering structure and played a role in base recovery plans. RED HORSE squadrons, however, 

were separate units with their own organizational structure. Some operational commanders, such as 

Generals Meredith and Mayes, worked to retain RED HORSE squadrons at a reduced level. General 

Meredith, in particular, was concerned about the future of RED HORSE squadrons. He talked with 

Mr. Lew Turner about his concern in late 1972. As General Meredith recalled, 

Lew said, “I’ll tell you what. If you will go back and write a memo for my signature, bring it back up here for my secretary to retype on Air Force Secretarial 

stationery, I’ll issue it to them [Director of Civil Engineering].” I remember that 

memo; it’s in the file somewhere in the archives. That memo said, “You will set the 

force structure of the combat capability of Civil Engineering of the Air Force, in 

terms of Prime BEEF and RED HORSE forces, at a level not to go below 37,000 

Prime BEEF troops, unless base closures or such as that direct such reductions. On 

those bases that remain in the structure, the Prime BEEF force structure will remain 

consistent with that in current programs. In addition, the RED HORSE forces will 

remain, with at least one in the Pacific, one in Europe, and not less than two in 

the United States, with further emphasis placed on the Air National Guard and Air 
294 Leading the Way

Reserve.” This recognized that maintaining the Prime BEEF structure at the bases 

meant that at any time you could expand RED HORSE to meet needs and augment 

the bases with contractors. He signed that memo.687

During the early 1970s, RED HORSE squadrons were reorganized. When squadrons were transferred back to CONUS, they were transferred without equipment or personnel. RED HORSE squadrons 

were reconstituted along slightly different lines. The post-Vietnam units had a different focus, emphasizing base development planning and contingency response. The units, manned with lower skilled 

personnel than their predecessors, adopted a new organizational concept to make them more responsive. Under the new structure, RED HORSE squadrons were deployed in phases. The first phase was 

the advanced echelon comprising 14 persons (CES-1) capable of deploying within 12 hours to survey 

the location and to plan work. The second deployment comprised 81 persons (CES-2), 46 pieces of 

equipment, and personnel support structures, such as tents, generators, and spare parts; all equipment 

was air transportable. CES-2 deployed within 72 hours. The new structure was designed to increase 

mobility and flexibility into deployment operations.688

Projects that afforded RED HORSE squadrons and Prime BEEF teams with the opportunities to 

develop their skills in recovery situations in challenging environments were actively sought. These 

types of projects not only provided training for deployment and advanced skills, but also completed 

projects benefitting Air Force installations. Such projects in the early 1970s included the construction 

of a bombing and gunnery range at Blair Lakes, Alaska, by the 819th RED HORSE, and the construction of four pre-cast concrete aircraft shelters to test live fire weapons at Eglin Field No. 7, Florida, 

by the 557th RED HORSE. A third project was the construction of new prototype hardened aircraft 

shelters at Nellis AFB, Nevada, by the 820th RED HORSE.689

Humanitarian 

Civic Action Programs

During the 1960s, the Air Force was engaged in an increasingly active civic action program. Civic 

action by military personnel was advanced in a 1961 speech by President John F. Kennedy in which 

he endorsed the “use of military forces in less developed countries in the construction of public works 

and other activities helpful to economic development.”690 This proposal became the foundation for an 

active outreach program under which military forces were deployed to complete projects benefiting 

local populations. Projects contributing to economic and social development were undertaken in the 

areas of education, training, public works, agriculture, transportation, communications, health, and 

sanitation.691

The majority of the Air Force’s civic action programs during the early 1960s were completed by 

Air Force civil engineers stationed at overseas bases. The Air Force did not contain dedicated engineer 

construction teams during the early 1960s. As a result, teams of engineers for civic action programs 

were assembled on an as-needed basis. Most projects involved the development of air transportation 

and construction support for airstrips and airfields. For example, Air Force civil engineers supported 

the Bolivian military in developing a unit, known as the Transporte Aéreo Militar, which provided 

regular air transportation to 28 airfields and 52 landing strips located in remote areas that were not 

served by commercial airlines. In Panama, Air Force personnel airlifted airstrip construction supplies 

into isolated villages that were interested in developing airstrips, and broadcast construction instructions by loudspeakers to complete the airfields.692

Air Force engineers trained unskilled laborers in Libya, Iran, Colombia, and Venezuela to repair 

motors and to use power tools. Local residents in Ethiopia, Greece, Guatemala, and Morocco were 

taught how to provide water systems for their communities. In Mexico, engineers provided training in 
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aerial geologic surveying and forest firefighting. Technical training classes for Latin Americans were 

taught in Panama and at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.693

During the 1960s, most civic action efforts were informal and based on the needs of local communities. After the establishment of Prime BEEF and RED HORSE during the mid-1960s, Air Force civil 

engineers assigned to these units became a valuable resource to staff Air Force civic action projects. 

Some projects undertaken during the early 1960s included the construction of a new school playground 

and sports field at Steinbach by the 38th Civil Engineer Squadron at Sembach AB, West Germany; 

firefighting assistance to the local community by the Aviano AB firefighters in Italy; and, combating a 

water shortage for a local community near Naha AB, Japan. In South Vietnam, Air Force civil engineers 

supported an orphanage near Tan Son Nhut AB near Saigon. The civil engineers constructed a cess 

pit with a sanitary community toilet; dug a well and installed a hand pump; built a shower facility; 

and, constructed a community kitchen and a dispensary.694 Most RED HORSE squadrons in Vietnam 

provided assistance to local orphanages and nearby villages.695 For example, the 556th drilled a well 

for a neighboring leper colony to provide clean water to avoid illness from typhoid, constructed a 

dining hall for a local school, and constructed a floor in an orphanage.696 Such projects sought to foster 

good will among local communities.

In 1970, Air Force civil engineers began a formal civic action program. The High Commissioner of 

Micronesia, a 3 million square-mile territory created by the United Nations in 1947 and administered 

by the United States, requested assistance to develop the territory’s communication and transportation infrastructure and to complete other development projects. Micronesia comprised 2,100 islands 

populated by speakers of nine different languages. The area had sustained major damage during 

fighting in World War II.697

Preparation for Air Force civil engineer involvement in the project occurred during summer 1969. 

A 21-man team of engineers and site development specialists from the CEC, augmented by PACAF 

personnel, visited the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands to assess civic action activities that would 

benefit the region. The group also surveyed U.S. Air Force real estate left unused since World War 

II. In 1969, the Office of the Secretary of Defense and the Department of the Interior also decided to 

send six 13-man civic action teams to various Trust Territory islands. The Navy furnished the first six 

teams. When it came time to replace personnel serving on the teams, the Office of the Secretary of 

Defense decided to replace one Navy team in the Marianas with a team of Air Force personnel. CEC 

undertook the implementation of the Air Force involvement by selecting and training the teams.698

On May 6, 1970, a 13-person Prime BEEF team 70-8 arrived on Pagan Island in the Marianas 

District of Micronesia. The AFCEC assembled the team from volunteers representing 12 different 

Air Force bases and 7 major commands. The team comprised 11 civil engineers and included an 

officer-in-charge, a non-commissioned officer-in-charge, two heavy equipment operators, one grounds 

maintenance specialist, two carpenters, one plumber, one welder, one power production technician, 

and one site developer. A medic and a vehicle repairman also were assigned to the team. The team 

assembled on April 5, 1970 and completed three days of training at the CEC; one week of orientation 

and training at the Naval Construction School, Port Hueneme, California; and, two weeks of orientation by the Commander-in-Chief, Pacific. When deployed, the team was operationally responsible to 

and received logistical support from the U.S. Navy. As reported by Capt. Max W. Day, “the team...

was unique in several respects: It was largely an all-volunteer team; it was not to be involved in contingency, emergency, or recovery operations; and it was the first Air Force Civil Engineering Team to 

be deployed specifically for civic action purposes.”699

Prime BEEF team 70-8 spent eight months on Pagan Island, an area with a resident population 

of 43. The objectives of the team were to befriend the local population, to provide on-the-job training 

to local residents in the crafts represented by the team members, and to complete projects selected by 

the islanders and their local government. The Prime BEEF team was transported to Pagan Island by 

a Naval LST, along with building materials, 20 pieces of heavy equipment, a generator, and food and 
296 Leading the Way

supplies for 60 days. Additional food was air-dropped every two weeks.700

On Pagan Island, the team built its wood-frame quarters, three maintenance shops, and a water 

catchment system. All buildings were turned over to the residents when the team left. It also constructed 

a concrete-block dispensary and recreational facilities, including a softball field and a children’s 

playground; upgraded eleven miles of roads; and, rehabilitated an airfield. The team’s largest project 

was rebuilding an overgrown, Japanese-built airstrip that had been bombed during World War II. The 

airstrip still had craters. By early October, the team had completed a silty clay and lava ash airstrip that 

measured 2,600-feet long by 60-feet wide and flanked by 20-foot shoulders. The first aircraft landed 

on the airstrip on October 6, 1970. The team also built a school and a dispensary on nearby Agrihan 

Island. Prime BEEF team 70-8 was particularly successful at establishing personal connections with 

the island’s 43 residents. The team’s medic delivered two babies. During their stay, the team members 

provided a school for the children, organized softball games, and taught the residents first aid and other 

skills. When the team departed, residents hosted a dinner and the children sang a farewell song. “This 

is military civic action at its best,” Captain Day stated in describing the team’s work.701

Thus began a yearly deployment, organized by CEC, of Air Force Civil Engineers who participated 

in civic action in the islands of the Pacific Ocean. In 1971-1972, Prime BEEF teams 71-1, 72-1, and 

72-4 were deployed to Tinian Island, also located in the Marianas District. These teams built an irrigation system, cleared 40 miles of roads, built recreational facilities, and completed other projects. They 

also provided training in first aid and building trades to the local residents.702 In 1973, Prime BEEF 

teams 73-4 and 73-10 were assigned to Pagan, Rota, and Tinian Islands in the Marianas.703

Vietnamese Refugees

Air Force civil engineers extended assistance to refugees who left the Republic of South Vietnam 

when that country fell to the Viet Cong in April 1975. Then-Brig. Gen. William D. Gilbert, Deputy 

Chief of Staff for Civil Engineering at Pacific Air Forces, witnessed thousands of refugees arriving 

by military and civilian aircraft into U Tapao Royal Thai AFB, Thailand, on the night Saigon fell in 

April 1975. General Gilbert was appointed refugee control officer and arranged to relocate and house 

6,000 to 7,000 refugees in tent cities at Clark AB, Philippines; Andersen AFB, Guam; and, in mothballed family housing, club facilities, schools and former Federal Aviation Administration housing on 

Wake Island. Water supply at Wake Island was a major concern as civil engineers from Hickam and 

contractors restarted the standby water distillation plan to produce the water required. The refugees 

stayed in these temporary quarters before being transported to processing centers for settlement in 

the United States.704

Eglin AFB, Florida, was one site selected as a refugee resettlement processing center. In five days 

between April 27 and May 4, 1975, a tent city to house 5,000 Southeast Asia refugees was constructed 

in an area of sand and pine trees at a former auxiliary airfield at Eglin AFB. The tent city was completed 

through the combined efforts of civil engineers from Headquarters TAC, Air Force Systems Command, 

and Eglin AFB, as well as temporary duty Prime BEEF and RED HORSE personnel. The 3202th Civil 

Engineering Squadron (CES) from Eglin AFB prefabricated modular wall and floor panels and trusses; 

the 823d CES (HR), Hurlburt Field, erected hardback tents; and, the 834th CES from Hurlburt Field 

constructed latrines, laundries, and showers. Eglin AFB civil engineers also procured all building 

supplies required in the construction. Utility crews from Eglin AFB ensured that the existing water 

supply and sewer facilities were in working order and supplied electricity to the camp. The shops 

constructed a model tent to test prefabrication and assembly methods.705

The camp was laid out in increments comprising 70 tents with latrines, showers, and laundries. 

Each tent was designed to accommodate 12 persons. Tent construction relied on prefabricated techniques and assembly line construction methods. In all, 15,000 sheets of plywood; 5,000 pounds of 

nails; 10,000 feet of plastic pipe; 25,000 concrete blocks; and, three-quarter million board feet of 
Rising to the Challenge 297

2x4s were used to construct the camp. RED HORSE personnel constructed a new three-stage sewage 

treatment plant, improved roads, hauled supplies, and reactivated a former airfield complete with a 

Harvest Bare airfield lighting system. Transforming the abandoned airfield into a working field was 

accomplished in 36 hours.706

The first refugees arrived in the camp on May 4, 1975 with only half of the camp completed. Air 

Force civil engineers completed construction of the entire camp on May 23, 1975. Once construction 

was completed, operation of the camp was transferred to local base civil engineer operations and 

maintenance personnel who provided the services normally supplied by a civil engineering squadron.707

Emergency and Disaster Response

Air Force engineers played a role in disaster recovery operations in many areas of the United States 

and around the world. Air Force engineers assisted in the recovery following the earthquake that struck 

southern Alaska on March 27, 1964. The earthquake, centered north of Prince William Sound, lasted 

five minutes and registered between 8.5 and 8.9 on the Richter scale. Alaskan Air Command engineers 

worked with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to repair essential utilities at Fort Richardson and 

Elmendorf AFB.708 Air Force civil engineers were airlifted to Elmendorf AFB and worked to restore 

75 percent of electric power to the base within a 24-hour period. Central heating was maintained to 

avoid freezing at the sub-arctic base. Radio contact among engineering crews and a fire/reserve radio 

network proved valuable in the recovery effort.709 Air Force civil engineers also participated in civilian 

recovery efforts.710 The Air Force supplied 60 trailers to house Navy personnel on Kodiak Island.711

Air Force civil engineers have responded in the wake of such natural disasters as hurricanes, flooding, and tornadoes. These real life experiences supported the role of Prime BEEF teams in emergency 

and disaster response. 

Tent city constructed at Andersen AFB for Vietnamese refugees, 1975.
298 Leading the Way

In September 1965, Hurricane Betsy came ashore in south Florida and slammed Homestead AFB, 

Florida, with 130 miles per hour winds over an eight-hour period. Electric power was disrupted and 

many building roofs were destroyed. The Eighth Air Force responded for this event by assembling and 

deploying 91 active duty engineers as a Prime BEEF team. The team included carpenters, electrical, 

liquid fuel, sheet metal, and airfield lighting technicians to support Homestead’s base operations. These 

personnel were assembled from nine bases in the Eighth Air Force. With the assistance of contractors and active duty personnel, electrical poles, transmission lines and transformers were replaced; 

electricity was restored on September 1, 1965. Damaged buildings were secured to prevent further 

damage. Capt. (later Maj. Gen.) Joseph A. Ahearn praised the team effort, “The Air Force Prime BEEF 

standards for skill level, number of technicians, equipment authorizations, and mobility, proved highly 

satisfactory for natural disaster recovery requirements.”712

In August 1967, a 152-person Prime BEEF team traveled to Alaska to assist the Army in recovery 

efforts from major floods that devastated Fairbanks and Fort Wainwright. Fort Wainwright was the 

home of 200 Air Force families stationed in Alaska. The Prime BEEF team was composed of personnel with specially selected skill sets. Team members were selected from 23 installations in six major 

commands. When the Prime BEEF team arrived, the housing and operational areas at Fort Wainwright 

had been without electricity, heat, water, and sewage services for 12 days. One of the first tasks for the 

Prime BEEF team was to repair and reactivate the runway lighting system. Electricity was restored 

to 1,420 housing units by the third day of deployment. Ten firefighting personnel on the Prime BEEF 

team pumped water from building basements. Four electricians on the team repaired 76 electric motors 

in the south power plant and an additional 94 critically needed motors. Utilities were inspected and 

reinsulated as needed. A 54-person Prime BEEF team from Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, was deployed 

to assist Eielson AFB in recovery efforts. In all, 206 Prime BEEF team members deployed between 

August 22 and September 8, 1967. NCOs on the Prime BEEF team ensured the scheduling of tasks 

and completion of work throughout the deployment and assured the success of the mission.713

Two other Prime BEEF deployments occurred during 1967. Sixty troops assisted with clean-up 

efforts at Tyndall AFB in Florida following a tornado. Another group of 30 Prime BEEF personnel 

traveled to Antarctica to work with other Air Force and Navy units to rehabilitate and build facilities.714

In August 1969, Hurricane Camille slammed into the Gulf Coast. Airmen from Keesler AFB in 

Biloxi, Mississippi, joined personnel from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Seabees to conduct 

recovery operations. A total of 1,700 construction troops used 475 pieces of equipment.715 A Prime 

BEEF team was activated to support the recovery efforts at Keesler AFB. These groups repaired 

bridges on main roads leading to the base, repaired the overhead electrical distribution system and 

runway lighting, operated and maintained emergency generators, disposed of debris, and repaired roofs 

and windows on damaged buildings. The 199 members of Phase I, Prime BEEF Team 70-4 included 

specialists in structural engineering, power, and paving, as well as sheet metal workers. The equipment 

moved in to complement the team included cranes, line trucks, bulldozers, and generators.716

On June 19, 1972, Hurricane Agnes swept across the Florida panhandle and continued north 

through the Mid-Atlantic region as a tropical storm. The storm resulted in heavy rainfall and caused 

dramatic flooding. After crossing into the Atlantic Ocean, Hurricane Agnes regained strength and 

swung back inland across New York State and looped into Pennsylvania on June 24, 1972. The result 

of the storm was severe flooding from Virginia northward to New York. The Susquehanna River basin 

from New York southward through Pennsylvania and Maryland was particularly hard hit. Wilkes-Barre, 

Pennsylvania, suffered particular devastation.

President Nixon declared the area a Federal disaster area and appointed a coordinator to organize 

Federal relief efforts. The government requested engineering assistance from the Army, Air Force, and 

Navy. The Air Force responded by sending a joint Prime BEEF/RED HORSE Team 73-2 in August 

1972. Named the Ready Repair Team, this team comprised 20 persons from the 819th CES (HR) 

stationed at Westover AFB, Massachusetts. The team was deployed with four jeeps, two 3⁄4 ton cargo 
Civil engineers from Ellsworth AFB use a crane to remove cars during flood relief operations in Rapid City, 

South Dakota.

Rising to the Challenge 299

trucks, and two pickup trucks. The initial team was augmented by seven, three-man crews deployed 

from MAC, TAC, AFLC, AFSC, and HQ Command for a total of 41 personnel. Their assignment 

was to complete minor repair jobs for families occupying HUD-provided mobile homes. HUD (U.S. 

Department of Housing and Urban Development) had secured 8,000 mobile homes and installed them 

in 33 trailer parks and next to damaged houses. These mobile homes were transported from a 17-state 

area and often arrived requiring minor repairs. The Air Force’s Ready Repair Team worked in Kingston 

and Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, to ready the mobile homes for occupation by storm victims. Typical 

repairs included leveling the mobile home, checking heating units and other utilities, and repairing 

interior finishes. When the Air Force engineers ended their deployment in October 1972, the engineers 

had repaired 1,533 trailers at individual sites and 1,904 trailers in trailer parks.717

Air Force civil engineers also participated in the Mini-Repair Program under the direction of the 

Office of Emergency Preparedness. The Mini-Repair Program completed basic repairs up to $3,000 

to make dwellings habitable. Repairs were restricted to safety and utility services, such as fixing leaky 

roofs, supporting foundations, repairing doors and windows, and ensuring safe and working utility 

connections. The Air Force also monitored civilian contractors involved in the program. In September 

1972, forty Air Force civil engineers with specialties in carpentry, electrical work, and plumbing and 

heating arrived in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. These personnel were drawn from the 820th CES (RH) 

from Nellis AFB, augmented by personnel from Prime BEEF teams assigned to ADC, ATC, and AFSC. 

By the time the team left the field in November 1972, members had completed 957 final inspections 

amounting to 35 percent of the total program effort.718

On the night of June 9, 1972, a severe thunder storm struck a 75-mile area around Rapid City, 

South Dakota. The torrential rainfall resulted in severe flooding. A 10-foot wall of water raced down 

Rapid Creek, crashed through an earthen dam, and washed away homes in Rapid City. By the next 

morning, 225 persons in Rapid City were dead and many homes were washed away.
300 Leading the Way

Military personnel assigned to nearby Ellsworth AFB assisted in the clean-up efforts for the 

damaged town. The Base Civil Engineer served as the military liaison with the Civil Defense Control 

Center. The 821st CES under the direction of the Chief of Operations and Maintenance directed base 

military personnel in recovery operations. Following the Prime BEEF model, some civil engineers 

were assigned to teams to perform specialized tasks. These teams included heavy equipment operators and utility specialists tasked with restoring electricity and other services. The majority of the 

base volunteers assisted in more general tasks. The base made its hospital, gymnasium, dining hall, 

and community center available to the community. Assistance also was rendered in debris removal, 

and search and rescue operations. Ellsworth AFB shared potable water from its deep wells with the 

community.719

On April 3, 1974, a series of 148 tornados struck 10 states and Canada in a 24-hour period. The 

weather system killed 328 persons, injured hundreds, left 5,000 homeless and resulted in hundreds of 

millions of dollars in damage. The storms struck parts of Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, 

Michigan, North Carolina, Ohio, Tennessee, West Virginia, and Ontario, Canada.720

In Xenia, Ohio, a tornado wiped out 30 to 40 percent of buildings and homes, including the homes 

of 293 employees, both civilian and military, of nearby Wright-Patterson AFB. Within two hours, civil 

engineering personnel from the base, as well as members of the 820th CES (HR) from Nellis AFB, who 

were deployed at the base, proceeded in convoy to Xenia to render assistance. The convoy included 

bulldozers, vehicles, and tow vehicles with generators and floodlights. The Air Force civil engineers 

repaired overhead utility power lines, operated emergency generators, conducted search and rescue 

operations, cleaned up and disposed of debris, and assisted railroad crews to clear the rail tracks in the 

center of town. Air Force civil engineers remained on the scene for three-and-a-half days.721

Challenges Ahead

The years extending from 1960 to 1974 were a period of challenge, success, and professional 

accomplishment for Air Force Civil Engineering that was forged against a back drop of military conflicts. The participation of Air Force civil engineers in the Vietnam Conflict recast their role in military 

construction and honed professional skills invaluable to meeting the demands of future war situations. 

After 1973, a period of long-time peace presented new challenges for Air Force civil engineers. 

Maj. Gen. Maurice R. Reilly, Director of Civil Engineering from 1972 to 1974, viewed the primary 

challenge facing the organization as managing valuable resources in an environment of fiscal restraint. 

In 1974, the combined military and civilian Air Force Civil Engineering workforce of 76,000 managed 

a physical plant with a replacement value of $55 billion. New facilities were acquired to serve new 

and changing missions, costing a total of $1.5 billion to $2 billion annually. “The challenge,” General 

Reilly wrote, 

is to achieve an optimum balance between numbers of personnel, supplies, and 

contract services while, at the same time, achieving maximum control and conservation of expensive utilities and other related public works services. Coupled with 

this balance and control, there must be improved work force productivity which 

will result in maximum output for each dollar invested. The key to meeting this 

challenge is the Base Civil Engineer and his organization.722

General Reilly identified three areas requiring focused attention. First, engineers needed to use 

their experiences from their combat support role in Vietnam to plan for future contingency support to 

maintain and improve readiness. Engineers also needed to apply their experience to refine contingency 

programs such as bare base, RED HORSE, and Prime BEEF. Second, engineers needed to “find new 

methods, techniques, designs, construction innovations, and management improvements to obtain the 
Rising to the Challenge 301

maximum construction for every invested dollar.”723 Construction costs were projected to rise over the 

years, but Air Force construction appropriations were not. Meanwhile, Air Force facilities continued to 

require modernization to meet environmental and energy-saving targets. Civil Engineering was critical 

to mission support and to enhancing the Air Force standard of living necessary to retain personnel in 

the all-volunteer Air Force.724 Third, rising construction costs required innovations in facility acquisition, construction management, and technology, such as the turnkey procurement method or the use 

of solar energy. General Reilly concluded, “Air Force construction resources must be applied not only 

to achieve timely, economical, and functional facilities, but also to obtain minimum life cycle costs 

and maximum energy conservation.”725

Maj. Gen. Billie J. McGarvey, as he ended his tour as Director of Civil Engineering in April 1975, 

reflected, 

For the future, our career field holds new challenges which are very similar to 

those now facing our nation at all levels of government. Concerns for people, 

equal opportunity for all, and responsiveness to operational needs are generating 

the demands for professionals with a broader perspective than pure technical sufficiency...I anticipate that Air Force Civil Engineering will approach this challenge 

with the same “can do” attitude for which we are noted.726
302 Leading the Way

CHAPTER 4

BUILDING ON SUCCESS

1975-1990

Introduction

In April 1975, Maj. Gen. Robert C. Thompson became Air Force Director of Civil Engineering. 

At the time, the Air Force Civil Engineering organization comprised more than 76,000 military and 

civilian personnel.1

 This workforce managed 139,951 buildings on 135 major bases and 2,913 other 

installations occupying over 10.9 million acres valued at more than $17.2 billion.2

 General Thompson 

reflected on the current challenges and opportunities as he saw them:

As I look to the future in Air Force Civil Engineering, the emphasis is on programs 

for people—also, all indicators point toward the continuing need for us to do more 

with less. We have, in nearly all areas, trimmed the fat from traditional methods of 

operation, but now, even this is not enough. We are entering an era of change. A 

time for finding new ways of doing things, innovation, breaking with tradition, and 

new ideas—and it is a time for the best leadership that we have ever known.3

As the U.S. military regrouped following the Vietnam Conflict, post-Vietnam military budgets 

were slashed across the board. Military spending, which had accounted for 42.1 percent of the total 

Federal budget in 1968, dropped to 23.7 percent in 1977.4 The overall Air Force Military Construction 

Program was funded at approximately $300 million and remained at that level through FY78.5 U.S. 

Congressional oversight of Air Force construction spending increased; all expenditures were justified 

exhaustively.6

 In addition to reduced military funding, the end of the draft and the transition to an 

all-volunteer force in 1973 resulted in reduced enlistments for all services for several years. The Air 

Force made strides to improve quality of life to attract and retain qualified personnel.

Civil engineers who entered the Air Force in the mid-1970s faced several challenges. The transition 

to the all-volunteer force brought changes to the base-level squadrons which comprised wartimetrained civil engineers, civilians, and many non-engineers who were placed in the units until moved 

during the on-going downsizing and force reductions. Several squadron commanders had little or no 

experience in civil engineering. The engineers also worked under some outdated regulations and guidance and were just beginning to enter the computer age with the Base Engineer Automated Management 

System or BEAMS. With the support of leaders such as Maj. Gen. Robert C. Thompson, Maj. Gen. 

William D. Gilbert, and Maj. Gen. Clifton D. “Duke” Wright, Jr., Air Force Civil Engineering began 

to remake itself, emphasize professionalism, improve operations at the base level, transform bases 

into efficient and attractive “cities,” and hone in on its readiness mission.

The Air Force refocused its operations and priorities on the overall world-wide mission. Containment of the U.S.S.R, the major military adversary, was central to U.S. international policy during 

the late 1970s and the 1980s. During this time period, the U.S.S.R. initiated a major expansion of 

conventional and nuclear military weapons. U.S.S.R. military expansion included a major naval escalation; the development and deployment of new land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles directed 

at Western Europe and Japan; a “large new supersonic warplane;” and, greater investment in military 

research and development programs compared to the United States.7

 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, 

Director of Engineering and Services for the Air Force from 1978 to 1982, warned, “There is a very 

real danger in permitting the Soviet military advantages to grow to where the Soviets will feel free to 

use force wherever they please.”8
Building On Success 303

The U.S.S.R. buildup was monitored with growing unease by Western Europe and NATO allies, 

as well as the United States. It was speculated that the U.S.S.R. sought greater influence in Western 

Europe and possibly planned to restrict western interests. The United States increased U.S. troop 

strength, improved our European bases, and increased support for NATO operations.9

In addition to concern over U.S.S.R. military expansion, the United States maintained longstanding commitments to the Republic of Korea, Japan, and other countries in the Far East, as well 

as pursued interests in Central and South America. During the late 1970s, U.S. interest and involvement in the Middle East also grew owing to our reliance on Middle East oil, participation in the 1978 

negotiations between Israel and Egypt, and the regional events following the 1979 overthrow of the 

Shah of Iran. 

Throughout the 1980s, the primary global issues were identified as “the Soviet threat, terrorism, 

alliances, nuclear proliferation, petroleum, space, mineral resources, foreign arms trade, and population.”10 To counter the threat, General Gilbert, supported the Department of Defense (DoD) strategy 

to develop and to deploy the MX intercontinental ballistic missile system, to make air- and groundlaunched cruise missiles operational, and to develop capacity for worldwide mobility. For Air Force 

civil engineers, these priorities meant supporting air operations during conflicts by developing runways, 

support facilities, and utility systems “as basic and essential parts of our weapons system acquisition 

and follow-on operational capability.”11

The most likely wartime scenario defined by the Joint Chiefs of Staff was a conventional war in 

Western Europe during which the Air Force would operate from main bases, such as Ramstein AB, 

Germany, with a system of collocated operating bases supported by bare bases established as needed. 

The main tasks identified for civil engineers in this scenario were:

• emergency rapid repair of damaged critical facilities, including rapid 

 repair of airfield pavements;

• immediate bed down of deploying fighting forces; 

• crash rescue and fire suppression; and 

• operation/maintenance of the weapon system platform, i.e., the air base.12

Civil engineers worked to improve and to refine the concepts and procedures for air base survivability, rapid runway repair (RRR), base recovery after attack (BRAAT), bomb damage repair, and 

readiness—readiness both of installations, equipment, and of personnel.13 The realization of these 

concepts into procedures shaped manpower allocations, personnel training, and research and development (R&D) efforts. Air Force Directors of Engineering and Services continually defended manpower 

authorizations to ensure adequate personnel numbers to meet military deployment requirements. 

Training for Prime BEEF, RED HORSE, and Prime Readiness in Base Services (RIBS) was expanded 

to provide hands-on experiences in simulated wartime activities and conditions.

During the time period, Air Force Civil Engineering was reorganized several times. In 1975, Air 

Force Civil Engineering and Services were merged to form the Directorate of Engineering and Services. 

In 1978, a second reorganization resulted in the formation of the Air Force Engineering and Services 

Center (AFESC). Air Force civil engineers managed increasingly larger budgets to fund construction 

projects, and to repair, maintain, and operate facilities on the bases.

Military appropriations slowly rose during the latter years of the Carter administration in the late 

1970s. The proposed budget for the FY79 Military Construction Program included a request from 

the Air Force for $1.4 billion; $720 million was funded.14 After Ronald Reagan was inaugurated as 

President in 1981, military budgets grew exponentially. The Air Force Military Construction Program 

increased to $1 billion.15 Funding also increased in non-appropriated funding, Unspecified Minor 

Military Construction (P-341) P-341 funds, funds, and operations and maintenance funds that included 

repairs up to 300,000 dollars.16 Air Force civil engineers expended these funds to build facilities to 
304 Leading the Way

support new weapons and to modernize older facilities to increase energy efficiency and to reduce 

maintenance and repair expenditures. Operations and maintenance funds were allocated to address 

the backlog of deferred facilities maintenance under a program known as BEMAR for “backlog of 

essential maintenance and repair.” By the mid-1980s, the Air Force budget reached levels of $100 

billion.17 While military budgets expanded, the overall personnel numbers in the Air Force Civil Engineer organization did not increase substantially. After 1985, Air Force construction budgets declined.

During this time period, Air Force civil engineers embarked on a variety of programs to respond 

to military missions and to new legal requirements. Air Force civil engineers sought to improve the 

quality of life for Air Force personnel through upgrades to dormitories, dining halls, personnel support 

facilities, and work places. Efforts were made to enhance the architectural appearance of bases through 

improving base comprehensive planning and architectural design for construction and renovation projects. Improvements to managing the bases were continually reevaluated and professional management 

procedures were incorporated. Protection and restoration of the environment was assigned to the Air 

Force civil engineers for implementation. Terms such as environmental impact statement, installation restoration, and pollution abatement entered into Air Force civil engineers’ everyday language. 

Air Force civil engineers also extended a helping hand when disasters struck. They were there when 

bases recovered from natural disasters and assisted other Air Force bases, local U.S. communities, 

and international communities in disaster recovery efforts. 

During the late 1980s, geopolitical conditions began to shift dramatically as the relationship 

between the United States and the U.S.S.R. thawed and the promise of new freedoms were introduced 

into the Warsaw Pact counties. The world changed on November 9, 1989, when the Berlin Wall 

dividing East and West Berlin was opened. These events presaged a new world order that required 

re-imaging, redefinition and realignment of U.S. military forces, including the Air Force. Definite 

changes foreseen for the 1990s were reorganization of the Directorate of Engineering and Services 

and major personnel reductions.

CIVIL ENGINEERING AIR STAFF PROGRAMS AND POLICIES

Directors of Engineering and Services

Air Force Civil Engineering history during this time period generally was characterized by three 

broad and successive themes. Between 1973 and 1978, the civil engineering organization focused on 

customer service. Attention was placed on management and on establishing internal procedures and 

policies to perform civil engineering duties more effectively with the end user in mind. Between 1979 

and 1984, “quality of life” programs became the focus of the organization through rebuilding facilities 

to modernize bases and to support the welfare of the entire Air Force family. A second emphasis was 

personnel readiness. Beginning in 1985, civil engineering priorities shifted to concentrate resources 

and personnel to wartime readiness.18 Finally, throughout the time period, the civil engineering organization pursued professionalism in personnel, in management skills, and in customer service. The 

Engineering and Services Directors also sought to instill quality management policies and procedures 

by adopting contemporary business organizational and management methods and automation tools 

to improve systems management in the civil engineering organization at the bases, major commands, 

and the Pentagon.

Talented and innovative Directors of Engineering and Services serving at Headquarters U.S. Air 

Force in the Pentagon guided the Air Force Civil Engineering organization throughout this time period. 

Each director was a major general, who served with a brigadier general as deputy. Each director also 

was supported by a long-term, experienced civilian from the Senior Executive Service. Between 1975 

and 1990, each director served approximately three to four years prior to retirement, so that there was 

a continual rotation of top leadership. Typically, the director was succeeded by the deputy director, 

which provided a measure of organizational continuity.
Maj. Gen. Robert C. Thompson

Building On Success 305

Maj. Gen. Robert C. Thompson succeeded Maj. Gen. Billie McGarvey as Director of Civil Engineering in April 1975 and served until June 1978. Under his leadership, Air Force Civil Engineering 

and Air Force Services were merged to form the Directorate of Engineering and Services. Services 

included food service (i.e., dining halls and personnel meals); laundry and dry cleaning; linen exchange; 

billeting for furnished enlisted dormitories; bachelor officer quarters; transient living facilities; and, 

mortuary affairs. Services also provided technical assistance and guidance to commands and installations on “food, management, facilities, training equipment, contract surveillance, and subsistence 

control procedures.”19

General Thompson’s primary interest was to ensure a successful integration of Services with Civil 

Engineering and to ensure that Services personnel had the support they required to serve the Air Force 

community.20 General Thompson supported programs that bettered living and working conditions for 

Air Force personnel on bases. Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr., Air Force Director of Engineering and 

Services, 1982-86, remembered Thompson as “a brilliant and dynamic leader, a real visionary with 

the ability to get into the details of most every program. General Thompson’s vision to create a comprehensive organization to plan, provide, maintain, and operate things where Air Force people lived, 

worked, and played was becoming reality and gaining momentum.”21 He focused on three key areas 

to improve base civil engineer (BCE) operations. These key areas were involving base commanders 

in the civil engineering business, improving BCE productivity through production control centers, and 

an emphasis on building teams among the civil engineers on base.22 General Thompson was interested 

in programs that improved dormitories, child care centers, youth centers, base exchanges, and commissaries. Gen. Wilbur L. Creech, Commander, Tactical Air Command, recalled, “And, of course, his 

thrust was not only the facilities, but also the quality of the services that are carried out within them. 

He had an...oft-used expression: ‘Our people deserve and must get first class service,’ and, by word 

and deed he showed that he clearly meant service with a heart, and with a smile, and with pride of 

accomplishment.”23 To honor his service, the Maj. Gen. Robert C. Thompson Award was established 

to recognize the year’s most outstanding Resources Flight.24
Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert

306 Leading the Way

Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert served as Director of Engineering and Services from July 1978 

through August 1982 after having served as deputy director since May 1975. Under General Thompson, General Gilbert ran the day-to-day operations of the Directorate of Engineering and Services at 

Headquarters U.S. Air Force. As director, General Gilbert continued the work with the merger and 

was noted for promoting the quality of life programs, coining that term to describe those programs. 

Under General Gilbert’s leadership, the organization placed greater emphasis on incorporating efficient 

management procedures into all levels of the organization and on readiness of both facilities and 

personnel. General Gilbert oversaw two Air Staff reorganizations and the creation of the Air Force 

Engineering and Services Center (AFESC), successfully defended civil engineer military manpower 

requirements, and was skilled in presenting the civil engineer program budgets to the U.S. Congress.

General Gilbert also sought to instill pride in Engineering and Services personnel.25 He emphasized 

that civil engineers and services personnel should be professional, effective, efficient, and innovative. 

They should acquire professional skills in their respective areas of expertise, and also acquire leadership 

skills necessary to function effectively. Learning to be leaders meant acquiring skills in organizational 

management.26 Educational opportunities were made available for military civil engineers to attend 

courses in business management. Professional organizational and management concepts began to 

appear in the pages of the Engineering & Services Quarterly and to be applied throughout the civil 

engineering organization. Some of these concepts included communication skills, financial management tools, “Management by Objective,” and “Engineered Performance Standards.” To honor his 

service, the Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert Award was established to recognize the efforts of staff action 

officers. Awards are presented to an officer, an enlisted member, and a civilian.27

Maj. Gen. Clifton D. “Duke” Wright, Jr. served as Director of Civil Engineering and Services 

between August 1982 and February 1986. General Wright continued the quality of life programs. The 

challenges facing Civil Engineering and Services during the mid-1980s as summed up by General 

Wright were managing personnel resources, adopting automation to control and manage data, improving base-level productivity through the Project IMAGE program, involving Engineering and Services 
Maj. Gen. Clifton D. “Duke” Wright, Jr.

Building On Success 307

personnel in the weapons development process to ensure that field facilities supported the weapons 

system, improving readiness and sustainability, modernizing air base facilities to improve combat 

capabilities and to enhance quality of life, and conserving energy.28 General Wright had particular 

interests in architectural design excellence, cost control and construction procedures and processes. 

General Wright also established the historian position at the Air Force Engineering and Services Center 

in 1985 to document the history of the Engineering and Services career fields.

From August 1982 through May 1983, General Wright led senior leadership to develop the Engineering and Services Strategic Plan. The plan was reviewed and validated during the initial meeting of 

the Engineering and Services Requirements Board in March 1983 hosted at AFESC at Tyndall AFB, 

Florida.29 Published in May 1983, the strategic plan contained ten major goals in four categories. Each 

goal had one or more objectives and each objective had strategies for short-range (one to two years), 

mid-range (three to five years), and long-range (five or more years) timelines. In all, 185 strategies 

were identified under the objectives.30 The strategic plan was revised twice during General Wright’s 

tenure.31 General Wright’s other accomplishments included: 

• Maturing Services business and helping build and sustain the career 

 field and related facility upgrade and customer service that directly 

 affected the quality of life for Air Force people;

• Institutionalizing MILCON, O&M, and Non-Appropriated Fund project 

 and program planning, design and construction project delivery processes, 

 and forming senior-level program review groups to manage major programs;

• Creating a team of outstanding people in the Pentagon and at major 

 commands that bonded and worked together;

• Institutionalizing comprehensive planning procedures and fostering 

 a culture that understands and promotes quality architectural design;

• Restructuring of Prime BEEF and creating Prime RIBS teams; and,
Ten Major Goals from the 1983 Strategic Plan

308 Leading the Way

Resource Management

Goal 1: People

Goal 2: Assist Base Civil Engineer/Chief of Resources

Goal 3: Research, development and acquisition

Readiness and Sustainability

Goal 4: Contingency planning, procedures, equipment and facilities

Goal 5: Force posturing and training

Modernization and Lifestyle

Goal 6: Modernization of facilities

Goal 7: Living quarters and food services

Goal 8: Fire protection

Goal 9: Environment

Energy

Goal 10: Energy security and efficiency

• Developing initial training sites and programs to train civil engineers 

 and Services people to support the operational Air Force.”32

To honor his service, the Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. Award was established to recognize the 

year’s most outstanding Operations Flight.33

Maj. Gen. George E. “Jud” Ellis became Director of Engineering and Services in March 1986. 

He identified the following important areas on which to focus his leadership: personnel readiness in a 

joint environment; decentralization and the distribution of responsibility, authority, and accountability; 

modernizing and expanding automation throughout the Engineering and Services organization; career 

Maj. Gen. George E. “Jud” Ellis
Building On Success 309

General Ellis’ 

Nine Commandments for Engineering and Services personnel:

In 1986, General Ellis addressed a class at AFIT where he laid out his philosophy and priorities 

as the Director of Engineering and Services. He also included his Nine Commandments.*

 1. Thou shall be active. 

 2. Thou shall stay in touch.

 3. Thou shall generate mistakes. 

 4. Thou shall have value systems.

 5. Thou shall know how to communicate. 

 6. Thou shall know your job. 

 7. Thou shall know your boss’s job. 

 8. Thou shall make your boss’s job easier.

 9. Thou shall have fun.36

*Why only Nine Commandments? General Ellis said he did not want to upstage Moses.

development; and, listening to the customers. General Ellis expressed the urgency of personnel readiness most eloquently, when he said, “What is the most important [area] in Engineering and Services? 

We must prepare to go to war. That’s why we are in the business; it’s our number one priority!”34

General Ellis strove to strengthen the mission orientation of military personnel, linking their wartime 

roles directly to their flying squadron. For General Ellis, it was the responsibility of every individual 

to understand the relationship between command, leadership, training, and execution.35

Maj. Gen. Joseph A. “Bud” Ahearn became the Director of Engineering and Services in March 

1989 and oversaw the organization until January 1992. Because of his extensive experience in Europe 

and the Middle East, General Ahearn was able to look past the end of the Cold War and envision other 

less centralized and less conventional threats, including terrorism and the possible proliferation of 

weapons of mass destruction. As deputy director and then director, General Ahearn worked to develop 

civil engineering doctrine to highlight organizational flexibility, preparedness, joint operations, and 

rapid response. General Ahearn also promoted the Air Force’s environmental program and shepherded 

the organization through dramatic downsizing and restructuring that occurred after the fall of the 

Berlin Wall in November 1989.37

Civil Engineer Structural Reorganizations 

Three major reorganizations occurred at the Air Staff level between 1975 and 1989. During the 

1970s, the civil engineer organization was reorganized twice. The first occurred in 1975 when Civil 

Engineer and Services officially were merged at Headquarters, U.S. Air Force. The merger between 

Civil Engineering and Services actually occurred earlier in two major commands, USAFE and PACAF. 

Total integration of the two functional areas occurred shortly thereafter. 

The second occurred in 1978 when the Air Staff was reorganized. The civil engineer organization 

was transferred to a new directorate within the Pentagon and instructed to reduce personnel assigned 

to Headquarters U.S. Air Force. The result was the formation of a separate operating agency named 

the Air Force Engineering and Services Center (AFESC). 

During the late 1980s, another round of reorganization of the Air Staff began. This was in response 

to the end of the Cold War, when a new mission for the U.S. military, and the Air Force in particular, 

began to be redefined.
Maj. Gen. Joseph A. “Bud” Ahearn

310 Leading the Way

Dear General McDonald,

Today I accepted responsibility for your Engineering and Services Directorate. As an integral 

part of the Air Force team, I am accountable for the quality of our base development and 

operations, the environment, troop feeding and housing, mortuary affairs, and most importantly, 

ensuring the warfighting readiness of our warriors.

Our goal is to build upon the successes of our proud Engineering and Services team. We will 

apply five fundamental principles to all our policies and programs. We will (1) focus foremost 

on improving the quality of the service end product, (2) define and ensure accountability, 

(3) foster teammanship, (4) apply progressive, proven technology, and (5) be future looking. 

Our measures of merit will be the fulfillment of commanders’ expectations and their mission 

effectiveness.

The pulse point of mission effectiveness will be the line of the Air Force. Hence, we will give 

special emphasis to the airmen and the young officers. Our objective is to positively influence 

retention and set them up for success.

I assure you the Engineering and Services staff will be responsive to your priorities. We will 

underwrite every program with innovative leadership, a skilled and motivated work force, and 

our enduring commitment to excellence.

Warm Regards,

Joseph A. Ahearn

Major General, USAF

Director of Engineering and Services38

General Ahearn’s Letter of February 22, 1989
Building On Success 311

Merger of Civil Engineering and Services

On October 11, 1974, the Air Force Vice Chief of Staff formally approved the transfer of Services 

from the Deputy Chief of Staff/Logistics to the Directorate of Engineering, forming the Directorate of 

Engineering and Services. The merger occurred at the major commands by March 1, 1975, followed 

by the Air Staff at the Pentagon on August 15, 1975.39

In the civil engineer organization on the major command level, the three directorate structure 

approved in summer 1974 was augmented by a fourth new directorate. A Directorate of Housing 

and Services was added to the existing directorates of Programs, Engineering and Construction, and 

Operations and Maintenance.40 The new directorate contained two divisions. The Housing Management 

Division established a single manager to manage government-owned or controlled housing, bachelor 

quarters, temporary living facilities, guest houses, off-base housing, and Fair Housing Enforcement 

programs. The Services Division was responsible for policies for commissaries, clothing sales stores, 

food service activities, mortuary affairs, laundry and dry cleaning, and linen exchange.41 Laision with 

the Army & Air Force Exchange Service also fell under the Services Division.

At Headquarters U.S. Air Force, the Services Directorate was combined with the Civil Engineering Directorate to form the Directorate of Engineering and Services under the Deputy Chief of Staff/

Programs and Resources. The new directorate comprised the following divisions: Engineering and 

Construction, Operations and Maintenance, Programs, Housing, Real Property, Environmental Planning, Services, and the Civil Engineering and Services Management Evaluation Team (CESMET) 

(Figure 4.1). The merger offered advantages to both organizations. For Services personnel, the merger 

consolidated activities assigned throughout the Air Force organizational structure and provided structure for Services personnel.42

Maj. Gen. Robert C. Thompson was well-suited to guide the merger. In previous assignments, 

General Thompson had worked to improve living and working conditions for Air Force personnel.43

In 1972, with strong support of Gen. David Jones, Commander in Chief of U.S. Air Forces in Europe 

(USAFE), he developed plans for and personally managed the merger of Civil Engineering with Services. USAFE was the first major command to effect the merger. While at USAFE, he also initiated 

programs for the construction of new or upgraded dormitories and dining halls, recreation centers and 

gyms, consolidated shopping and community centers, and schools, as well as aesthetic and functional 

improvements to administrative and shop areas.44

Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) was the second major command to merge Services with Civil Engineering. This merger occurred under General Gilbert, who was then serving as Deputy Chief of Staff 

for Civil Engineering in Hawaii.45 General Gilbert undertook a program to make the PACAF bases 

modern and attractive places to work, live, and play, and had embarked on a $46 million, multi-year 

program to upgrade dormitories and dining halls.46 General Gilbert recalled the merger of Engineering 

and Services at PACAF. When Gen. Louis Wilson, Jr., arrived at PACAF to become the commander, 

He thought the idea [merger] was great, and one of the first things he did was say to 

me, “Bill, let’s consolidate Engineering and Services.”...[The state of the Services 

was] kind of like stepchildren....Logistics had its plate full maintaining airplanes 

and weapon systems, and Services was sort of a tagalong. As a matter of fact, Services officers were getting no promotions at all. Even the head of Services at most 

locations was an ex-materiel person who had just been put into the job. I had no 

problem integrating them onto my staff. They were happy to come into Engineering in PACAF...[because Services] felt that we were responsible for providing 

and maintaining so many of the things that they operated on a base—dining halls, 

dormitories, etc.—and that if they were part of the family, maybe they’d get better 

support.... I had to do a little ground work with the engineers to appease some of 
312 Leading the Way

Source: HQ USAF Directorate of Engineering and Services Organizational Chart, Files of AFCEC History 

Office, 1976.

their fears and concerns, everything from a fear they would take away promotions 

to questions like, ‘What are we doing with Services? It has no similarities to Engineering.’ But it worked out and was accepted.47

By the 1970s, responsibilities of Services in the Air Force had many things in common with the 

civilian hospitality, food, and mortuary industries. The quality of services, such as food and dormitories, became particularly important after the advent of the all-volunteer Air Force in 1973. American 

affluence, social mobility, and rising standards of living created higher expectations by many recruits 

for living conditions at Air Force bases.48

In addition to the functions that supported everyday life in the Air Force, Services also had a 

vital wartime mission summed up in the word “survivability.” According to Capt. David B. White, 

who was assigned to the Air Force Engineering and Services Center in the Housing and Services 

directorate, the word survivability had many connotations. It meant “not only the survivability of the 

facilities, foodstuffs, equipment, etc., but the minimum level of Services support to meet continuing 

survivability requirements for our personnel in the areas of food service and billeting,” in addition 

to mortuary services, as required.49 “In wartime, concern over ‘quality of life’ food service will give 

way to concern over providing basic meal support, including the use of operational rations and field 

kitchen produced meals...In wartime, [billeting] priorities will be reduced to concern over a safe, 

warm, dry, clean place to sleep or live.”50

While realigning Services functions reduced costs and improved operations, one unfortunate 

result was that career paths were truncated. Manpower authorizations were misaligned across grades 

and year groups. Services lost experienced personnel.51 Despite these problems, the merger with Civil 

Engineering highlighted the need for a strong Services function and elevated the status of Services 

in the Air Force. After the merger, Services and Civil Engineering personnel at base level and higher 

headquarters developed working relationships to further shared goals. Advantages of combining Services with Civil Engineering, from the Services perspective, were gains in organizational structure, 

manpower standards, personnel management, training and education, and a defined readiness function.52 The advantage of the merger from the Civil Engineering perspective was access to the applied 

experiences of Services in designing dining halls and dormitories for functional efficiency. Input from 
Building On Success 313

Services personnel helped keep civil engineers focused on the people that their programs, particularly 

quality of life programs, affected.53 The Air Force was the overall winner.

Services personnel classifications were re-allocated and combined to broaden the personnel base 

and to establish career ladders. Manpower standards for all functional areas within Services were 

established and job descriptions for both enlisted and civilian personnel were defined.54 Career advancement for officers in Services presented an early challenge. General Gilbert recalled, 

When Services came over to us and I became Director, I was determined to get 

them some promotions, because they just simply had not had any. I got myself on 

their colonels promotion board, and we got three or four colonels. They hadn’t had 

colonels promoted in years and years. The next year we repeated, and we wound up 

getting some colonels in Services and some lieutenant colonels and majors. They 

had really been pushed to the side before that...We set out to teach them how to 

write OERs (Officer Evaluation Report) and how to evaluate themselves, how to 

evaluate people in their career field...I don’t believe they had had a person promoted to colonel in ten years, until I got some people promoted.55

In addition to working cooperatively and in better facilities, Services personnel were encouraged 

to view their operations as systems and apply formal management principles to daily operations. Daily 

operating standards were revised for billeting and food service operations at Air Force bases by staff 

at AFESC. Regular management reviews were conducted in food service and billeting operations 

through CESMET.56 Installation managers seeking improvement could request assistance from the 

Food Management Assistance Team fielded through AFESC.57 Major commands, such as TAC, also 

fielded Services inspection teams to evaluate and to advise on improving operations, systems, and 

procedures.58

One essential and unique activity under Services was mortuary services. The Air Force Mortuary 

Services Office managed “the recovery, identification, preservation, transportation, and disposal of the 

remains of deceased Air Force active duty members and certain other eligible civilian personnel.” This 

office also supervised “the disposition of personal effects of MIA [missing-in-action] and deceased 

active duty personnel, and...the Air Force military burial honors programs.”59

The office performed with efficiency and dignity. One high profile situation occurred in Beirut, 

Lebanon, when, on October 23, 1983, a truck bomb killed 239 Marines. The Marines were stationed 

in Lebanon as part of a multi-national peacekeeping force requested by Lebanon. The aftermath of 

this explosion required an extensive mass casualty identification effort. Brig. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn, 

then-Deputy Chief of Staff, Engineering and Services, Headquarters U.S. Air Forces in Europe, headed 

the operation. Rhein-Main Air Base in Germany was selected as the site for identification, while the 

Army mortuary site at Frankfurt was chosen to embalm the casualties. More than 1,500 people from 

all military services, including civil engineering, services personnel, and FBI agents worked on the 

project. The explosion demolished the building and construction debris hampered recovery efforts. 

Medical and dental records also were housed in the collapsed building and were not readily available. 

Identification processes comprised reviewing dental and medical records, photography, fingerprinting, 

X-rays, and records keeping. Pre-assembled forensic dental kits greatly aided identification efforts. 

Within 11 days, 95 percent of the casualties were identified. The remains were returned to the United 

States through Dover AFB. Ultimately, the team identified all Marines who perished on that day. Challenges experienced during the operation included a lack of adequate space, facilities, and availability 

of specially trained personnel.60 As General Ahearn remembered, 
314 Leading the Way

I was the junior brigadier general in all of Europe, but I was assigned the task to 

recover, identify, and return the fallen Marines to their families. I don’t think there 

was a more ready person to be able to do this. We had to dig all the remains out of 

those buildings and find the medical records and match them up. We put them in 

body bags and airlifted them back to Frankfurt. There were two brigadiers: I was 

the young guy charged by the Commander in Chief of Europe to get these guys out, 

identify them, prepare their remains, put them in their uniforms, and airlift them 

to Dover AFB. We had national media events in the hangar at Dover for the return 

of the Marines. My counterparts at Marine headquarters were Brig. Gen. [Carl E.] 

Mundy, Jr. and Brig. Gen. [James M.] Mead. I still know those guys. Mundy ended 

up being the Commandant of the Marine Corps. I saw my friend George Robinson 

[a Marine with whom General Ahearn attended the Industrial College of the Armed 

Forces (ICAF)] in the face of every one of those Marines we dug out of there...I 

tried to tell Mead and Mundy that they didn’t need to worry about this Air Force 

guy taking care of their Marines. They needed to stop declaring their guys dead 

until I got them positively identified and declared. It was very important to establish that kind of rapport, to protect the legal interests of all the families.61

1978 Reorganization and the Establishment of AFESC

The Air Force Chief of Staff activated the Headquarters, Air Force Engineering and Services 

Agency (AFESA) on April 8, 1977 at Kelly AFB, Texas, in response to FY77 manpower guidelines 

to reduce overhead by streamlining and consolidating organizations.62 The new agency consolidated 

specialized technical services to make better use of existing managerial and technical resources. 

AFESA’s mission was “to provide highly specialized Engineering and Services management, technical 

assistance, and operating support to all Air Force organizations.” Its goals included “responsive support” to base, major command, and Air Staff managers in resolving problems; “improved effectiveness 

and efficiency” in all Air Force Engineering and Services organizations; and “effective interaction 

with Air Force research and development, logistics, management evaluation, education, and training 

functions.”63

Components assigned to AFESA included portions of the Air Force Civil Engineering Center 

(AFCEC) at Tyndall AFB, Florida; the three Air Force Regional Civil Engineer (AFRCE) Offices in 

Atlanta, Dallas, and San Francisco; the Air Force Commissary Service headquartered at Kelly AFB, 

Texas; the food service and laundry/dry cleaning functions of the Air Force Services Office from 

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and, the Air Force Mortuary Services Office located at Bolling AFB, D.C.64

One other major addition was the Civil Engineering Maintenance, Inspection, Repair, and Training 

Team (CEMIRT) (headquartered at Peterson AFB, Colo.) on December 1, 1977. CEMIRT was formerly 

assigned to the Aerospace Defense Command. AFCEC’s civil and environmental engineering research 

and development functions did not become part of AFESA. They were transferred to the Armament 

Development and Test Center at Eglin AFB, Florida, and designated as the Civil and Environmental 

Engineering Development Office (CEEDO). This new organization remained collocated with AFESA 

at Tyndall, with Lt. Col. Donald G. Silva as CEEDO commander.65

General Thompson, the Air Force Director of Engineering and Services, served as AFESA Commander as an additional duty, while each commander or chief directed and administered the mission 

responsibilities of their respective units. The Air Force Commissary Service commander was the 

AFESA deputy director. One goal of the new organization was to implement a Management by Objectives program to accomplish planning and control functions.66 AFESA was a short-lived organization. 

As General Wright recalled, it was “mostly a paper organization...created in 1977 simply to put all the 

functions coming together on one chart.”67 On June 30, 1978, Headquarters AFESA was redesignated 
Building On Success 315

as Headquarters, Air Force Engineering and Services Center (AFESC).68

When General Gilbert became the Director of Engineering and Services in July 1978, he already 

was involved in a far-reaching reorganization of the Air Staff Directorate of Engineering and Services 

and the creation of AFESC.69 From 1962 to April 1978, oversight of the Directorate of Engineering and 

Services at Headquarters U.S. Air Force was under the Deputy Chief of Staff, Programs and Resources. 

Overnight, the directorate was realigned under Logistics. As General Gilbert recalled, 

Without my knowledge, [it was] announced one morning after a meeting with the 

Chief of Staff...that we [the Directorate of Engineering and Services] were going 

to be switched to LE, Logistics, and that my maintenance division, real estate, and 

family housing and Services would be moved to Tyndall [AFB, Florida], out of the 

Pentagon, as part of the movement out of the Washington area. I said, “Hey! I can’t 

operate that way! Everything that those outfits do happens in coordination with 

the total Air Staff. We’ll do nothing but spend our time between here and Tyndall 

coordinating things that we need to implement.” Well, you’re still going to do it. 

That’s when I made the decision that if that much of my activity was going to be 

located at Tyndall, I had to have some pretty high-level leadership down there to 

bring it together and make it operate from a field environment, and yet keep up a 

staff image and a coordinated staff position with that much distance between us. 

That’s when I moved the general officer slot down there and put General Wright in 

charge.70

Brig. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr., who took command of AFESC at Tyndall AFB in mid-August 

1978, recalled his orders: 

General Gilbert gave me clear marching orders. In his opinion, the Air Force Civil 

Engineering Center (AFCEC), which he had once commanded when it was located 

at Wright-Patterson, had lost touch with the real world. It had become a bureaucratic self-serving organization that had lost sight of the fact that its mission was 

to support engineer requirements in the field. I remember Gilbert telling me, “It’s 

lost its focus as the CEC. We need to reestablish our credibility with the MAJCOM 

civil engineers.” Jud Ellis had begun to work the problem but it needed MAJCOM 

involvement and support. Having just come from two MAJCOM assignments, I 

knew exactly what he meant.71

General Wright fully supported the idea of transforming Engineering and Services into a more 

customer-based, activity focused on improving the working and living conditions of Air Force personnel as implemented by Generals Thompson and Gilbert. General Wright had previously been deeply 

involved in the initial integration of Engineering and Services at USAFE under General Thompson. 

He continued to implement the initiative as Deputy Chief of Staff, Engineering and Services, at 

Headquarters SAC in Omaha, Nebraska. When General Wright became the first AFESC Commander 

in 1978, he was concurrently designated Deputy Director of Engineering and Services, subsequently 

becoming Director in 1982.72

Headquarters AFESC was established as a separate operating agency (SOA) on June 30, 1978 at 

Tyndall AFB, Florida. The new organization was planned to be fully operational by October 1, 1979 

after the transfer of 153 manpower authorizations, comprising 38 military and 115 civilian personnel, 

was completed.73 General Gilbert wanted to form an organization that responded to Air Staff needs 

and the needs of bases and major commands. The organization was planned to be the “focal point for 

worldwide engineering and services activities that are required to support the day in, day out operations 

of the Air Force around the world.”74 The AFESC mission statement read: 
316 Leading the Way

The Air Force Engineering and Services Center (AFESC) is a separate operating 

agency that is both an extension of the Air Staff and a focus for worldwide engineering and services activities.

AFESC guides and assists major commands, bases, and other federal agencies in 

design of real property facilities; readiness and contingency operations; facility 

energy; civil engineering research and development; base operations and maintenance; fire protection; real estate acquisition and disposal; environmental planning; 

billeting; family housing; food service; and other areas which affect the daily 

operation of the Air Force community and the Air Force mission.75

Divisions that transferred to AFESC from the Air Staff included Real Property, Engineering and 

Construction, Housing and Services, Operations and Maintenance, and Environmental Planning.76 In 

addition, six functions transferred from other agencies, commands, and SOAs to join AFESC. These 

were the AFCEC (redesignated as the Air Force Engineering Technology Office or AFETO) and the 

Civil and Environmental Engineering Development Office, a component of Air Force Systems Command, already at Tyndall AFB, Florida; the Air Force Services Office from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 

which relocated in July 1979; and the three AFRCE offices located in Dallas, Texas; San Francisco, 

California; and, Atlanta, Georgia.77 Most, but not all, of the components of earlier AFESA, transferred 

to AFESC. The Air Force Commissary Service remained separate from AFESC.78 Mortuary Services 

moved to AFESC in 1984.79

The initial organization of AFESC comprised eight directorates, four groups, and three offices 

that reported directly to the commander. The eight directorates were Engineering, Housing and 

Services, Real Property, Environmental Planning, Operations and Maintenance, Engineering and 

Services Laboratory, Civil Engineering and Services Management Evaluation Team (CESMET), and 

Resource Management. The groups were Plans and Analysis, Energy, Fire Protection, and Readiness. 

The AFRCEs maintained three separate offices (Figure 4.2).80

As described by General Wright, 

AFESC was...an extension of the Air Staff...It included parts, and in some cases 

all, of HQ Air Force Civil Engineering headquarters staff elements. The entire Real 

Estate Division and the O&M Division moved to AFESC. Services functions from 

the AFSO in Philadelphia that had been part of AFESA on paper physically moved 

to AFESC. Mortuary Affairs came [in 1984] from the Air Force Military Personnel 

Center (AFMPC) at Randolph AFB. Civil engineering R&D also became a part of 

the Center.81

As an SOA whose commander also served as Deputy Director of Engineering and Services, the 

organization was charged with development of policy for Readiness, Operations, and Services. General 

Wright expressed the excitement and enthusiasm generated by the formation of the new Center:

General Gilbert looks upon establishment of this Center in many respects as a fresh 

new start--a second generation with long-term potential that is virtually unlimited. 

The Air Force Engineering and Services community we have today is founded on 

many decisions made in 1947. Beginning with the first Director of Air Installations, 

we built on that foundation a staff in Washington that has served us well. Today, we 

are on the threshold of putting together a staff at the Center that will carry us for the 

next generation.82
Building On Success 317

Source: History of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 January 1978 – 31 December 1978, 

Vol 1, 3.

A new building was constructed for AFESC at Tyndall AFB, Florida. It comprised 66,000 square 

feet in three interconnected one-story buildings designed to house 359 people. The $4 million structure 

was designed by the firm of Sherlock, Smith & Adams of Montgomery, Alabama. The construction 

contractor was Burns, Kirkley and Williams of Auburn, Alabama. While the exterior of the building 

was described as “simple, yet distinctive,” the interior design was praised for its innovative open plan. 

Individual workspaces were separated by 62-inch movable privacy panels. The telephone system was 

a SL-1 Business Communication System, one of the most advanced systems available. Reliable communication with Headquarters U.S. Air Force and other Air Force offices was critical to the operation 

of AFESC. In keeping with the emphasis on energy conservation, an article in The Military Engineer

journal noted that the facility was equipped with “an energy efficient variable air volume” air conditioning system and a hot-water baseboard radiator heating system. In addition, all facilities were 

handicapped accessible. Activity centers were incorporated into the building’s interior design. The 

Readiness Center was a 2,100 square foot, secure area that contained a computer room, a work room, 

and a control room, with a backup power system. The Readiness Center was designed to operate as a 

control center during wartime or during national emergencies. Other activity areas included a computer 

center, a word processing center, and a snack bar. The new building was occupied on September 24, 

1978. On July 1, 1982, the building was dedicated to the memory of Maj. Gen. Robert C. Thompson, 

who had died the previous March.83

Air Staff elements and personnel relocated to AFESC were moved as part of an overall initiative to 

reduce the number of people assigned to the National Capital Region.84 On paper it appeared workable 

but in reality for some of the activities it was inefficient and cumbersome. By the end of the first year, 

General Gilbert convinced his boss that separating certain Air Staff elements between the Pentagon 

and AFESC in Florida, was an inefficient way to operate. After General Gilbert presented his arguments, his boss answered, “’You’re right; move them back.’ Just like that. No order, no nothing. I just 

started moving them back.”85 Some Air Staff personnel assigned to AFESC never actually relocated to 

Tyndall. In 1979, some people in Engineering, Real Property, and Environmental Planning Directorates 
Exterior view of Building 1120, HQ Air Force Engineering and Services Center.

318 Leading the Way

moved back to Washington, D.C., but remained on the books as members of operating locations that 

were considered part of AFESC. Services functions, with the exception of Family Housing and the 

Operations and Management Division, remained at AFESC.86

By the end of 1979, despite the manpower perturbations, AFESC had grown to an organization of nearly 600 people.87 The role and mission remained essentially as originally conceived. This 

included developing civil engineering policy for Headquarters U.S. Air Force and providing technical 

field assistance to major commands and bases. Major AFESC activities were energy, fire protection, 

environmental planning, housing, services, and civil engineering research and development.88 The 

Readiness Group at AFESC served as the focal point of all readiness issues for the civil engineer 

organization. The Readiness Group directed and provided readiness training for Prime BEEF, RED 

HORSE, and Prime RIBS units at both home stations and through specific field exercises. During 

contingencies and actual war, the Readiness Group activated and operated the Readiness Center in 

the AFESC building and directed and controlled the deployment of Prime BEEF, RED HORSE, and 

Prime RIBS units worldwide.89

A competition was held to design an emblem to represent the 

AFESC organization. Calls for submissions occurred during 

1978.90 Elements incorporated into the emblem were collected 

from many sources. Approved by the Air Force Manpower and 

Personnel Center on August 13, 1979, the new symbol was 

designed to reflect AFESC’s history and its predecessor 

organizations, as well as its future worldwide role. The 

logo was dominated by an eagle’s wing, a reference to the 

historical Air Force civil engineering emblem. The wing 

supported a globe decorated by a compass symbolizing the 

engineering field, an atom symbolizing AFESC’s research role, an 

aerospace vehicle demonstrating the integration of civil engineering with 

the flying mission, and a cornucopia symbolizing the “dedication of AFESC to improving the 

quality of life for all Air Force personnel, particularly in the areas of subsistence, housing and 

billeting, and work environment.”91

AFESC Emblem
Building On Success 319

The Operations and Maintenance Directorate at AFESC was responsible for maintenance management policies, procedures, and methods to support BCE organizations nationwide.92 Experts were 

available for technical consultation and problem solving to assist bases in a variety of technical areas, 

including airfield pavements, facility and utility corrosion control, water and waste treatment and 

disposal, and civil engineering vehicle and equipment maintenance management. 

AFESC also fielded technical assistance teams that conducted regular inspections in their areas 

of expertise or assisted bases to solve specific problems. Among these traveling technical teams were 

the Civil Engineering Maintenance Inspection Repair and Training (CEMIRT) Team, the Corrosion 

Analysis Team, the Pavement Evaluation Team, the Runway Skid/Hydroplaning Analysis Team, the 

Runway Roughness Evaluation Team, the Facility Energy Assistance Team, the Food Management 

Assistance Team, the Bird/Aircraft Strike Hazard team, and the Aircraft Rescue Field Assistance and 

Evaluation Team.93

New projects and programs were continually added at AFESC. In 1981, a Construction Cost Management Group was formed.94 This group was established to estimate the costs of selected, multi-year 

construction projects, to conduct independent cost analyses, and to support the overall Engineering 

and Services budget and appropriations process before the U.S. Congress.95 A few high profile Air 

Force construction projects, most notably the Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility at Arnold AFB, 

had significantly exceeded budget. The Construction Cost Management Group was officially tasked to:

• Develop a now capability to support independent cost analysis 

 requirements on major construction programs currently on the books 

 and in the early planning stages.

• Support improvement in the construction cost management process.

• Influence the definition and justification for future Air Force 

 construction programs.96

The Construction Cost Management Group under Maj. Ed Parkinson and Rita Gregory developed 

the parametric cost estimating system. Prior to parametric cost estimating, construction project estimates were submitted at the 35 percent design phase. Actual construction was typically several years in 

the future and the construction costs were not adjusted for inflation. Parametric cost estimating resulted 

in truer cost estimates for long term projects.97 The U.S. Congress accepted the use of parametric as 

a valid cost estimating tool in 1989.98

In August 1983, the Product Management Directorate was formed. The mission of this directorate 

was “to identify, consolidate, assign, and track all requirements and to ensure that related products are 

acquired and made available to the user in a timely manner.” 99 The group also investigated whether an 

“off-the-shelf” item would meet required applications. Such investigation was intended to eliminate 

unnecessary research and development efforts. Within the new directorate were the Requirements 

Division and the Product Management Division. The role of the Requirements Division was to ensure 

“that E&S support requirements and limitations are identified as new Air Force operational concepts, 

weapons systems and equipment are developed.” The role of the Product Management Division was 

“management of the E&S product acquisitions” with “emphasis...on the systems approach to ensure 

products are produced in correct quantities and configurations, deployed to the right places and the 

right time, and are supportable.” This office was instrumental in getting the rapid runway repair sets 

into procurement, a long-standing problem for the laboratory. 100

In 1983, the Information Management Systems Office was established.101 This office was tasked 

with overseeing the development of improved automation and software programs to provide managers 

at all levels, from the base through the major commands to Headquarters U.S. Air Force, with effective 

information and data management needs.102
320 Leading the Way

By 1989, AFESC under the command of Col. Roy G. Kennington, a Services officer, employed 

nearly 900 people at Tyndall AFB and at other locations. AFESC continued to provide headquarters, 

major commands, and individual bases with technical support throughout the Air Force, perform engineering and services R&D, perform HQ USAF management functions, and provided wartime training 

to support the deployment of engineering and services personnel worldwide.103 By 1988, AFESC was 

organized into seven directorates: Information Management Systems (renamed Computer Applications 

and Development in 1989), Operations and Management, Housing and Services, Engineering and 

Services Laboratory, Readiness, Fire Protection, and Cost Construction Management.104

Engineering and Services Laboratory

The Engineering and Services Laboratory (ESL) was established as an AFESC directorate in 1979 

following the transfer of the Civil and Environmental Engineering Development Office (CEEDO) 

from Air Force Systems Command in November 1978.105 AFCEC had been assigned to the Air Force 

Systems Command (AFSC) since 1972, but was reassigned to AFESA on April 8, 1977 and transferred 

to AFESC in 1978.106 AFCEC was renamed the Air Force Engineering Technology Office in October 

1978, before being inactivated on March 15, 1979.107

In 1976, under AFCEC, the Research and Development (R&D) program was staffed by 216 

persons with a budget of just under $6 million. AFCEC was responsible for the following R&D activities: “facility-related corrosion prevention and control, airfield pavement evaluation, site selection 

surveys, aircraft crash rescue and fire protection assistance and evaluation (added in 1976),...snow 

and ice removal system evaluation,...pavement surface effects (skid resistance, roughness), surveys,...

evaluation of foreign technologies and materials related to air base facilities, bird/aircraft strike hazard 

surveys, airfield noise contour programs, environmental planning assistance (added in 1975),...and 

conducting R&D programs in air base survivability/vulnerability, environmental engineering, air 

mobility, aerospace facilities, and facility energy conservation/supply.”108

When AFCEC was assigned to AFESA in 1977, the R&D mission remained under AFSC.109

AFSC established CEEDO as a detachment at Tyndall to eliminate redundancy and promote better 

communications and cooperation with AFCEC. On November 15, 1978, CEEDO was realigned with 

AFESC, and subsequently inactivated as a separate entity on November 17, 1978.110

ESL continued the R&D programs initiated under AFCEC and AFSC. The stated purpose of ESL 

was to perform “research, development, test and evaluation in civil engineering” in the areas of civil 

engineering, environmental quality technology, and facilities energy.111 ESL’s primary objectives were:

to develop methods and techniques for detection and control of environmental 

pollutants, and environmental assessment and impact evaluation of Air Force 

operations; to improve Air Force civil engineering, especially in the areas of 

geotechnical engineering, aircraft contingency launch and recovery surfaces, protective facilities construction, air mobility systems, and aircraft fire fighting crash/

rescue equipment; to develop the technology base and hardware for application of 

alternate energy resources to Air Force facilities, conservation of resources, and 

development of technologies to recover materials and/or energy from refuse at military installations.112

A major research focus between 1977 and 1986 was air base survivability and operability during 

war. While the TABVEE program during the late 1960s addressed the protection of vulnerable aircraft 

from attack, launching platforms, i.e., the runways, were recognized as the next most vulnerable Air 

Force assets for attack during war. Acknowledging that aircraft are useless if they cannot be launched 

from damaged runways, the Air Force established the goal to “provide the capability to launch tactical 
Building On Success 321

aircraft within five minutes after an attack and to prepare a suitable expedient runway that can sustain 

limited operations within an hour.”113 ESL conducted R&D and testing programs on aircraft contingency launch and recovery surfaces, such as pavements and repair materials to make pavement 

repairs; aircraft and tactical shelters; corrosion control and repair of aircraft fuel systems; and, recovery 

of airbase equipment, power, and facilities after attack, including aircraft fire/rescue equipment.114

Requirements changed over time in response to several factors, including experiments with the number 

and size of craters in airfield pavements; triage techniques to prioritize crater repairs; expedient repair 

techniques; the quality and quantity of materials used in the repairs; determining allowable surface 

roughness to prevent damage to aircraft from debris; and, working with ordnance issues and in possible 

chemical and biological environments.115 Research on this topic had direct application in the field and 

shaped the training for Prime BEEF and RED HORSE teams to accomplish rapid runway repair and 

base recovery after attack duties.

The ESL also supported base-level civil engineering operations and maintenance activities through 

a variety of programs. Areas of research included corrosion, firefighting, and pavements. In many cases, 

these studies had direct applications in both normal peacetime operations of air bases and in emergency 

or readiness situations. Studies of corrosion, for example, had application for current maintenance and 

repair issues, as well as for maintaining metal components used in similar systems during deployment. 

Sample corrosion studies included facilities corrosion; hazards of static electricity in petroleum, oils 

and lubricant systems; and, corrosion prevention in reinforcing steel.116

One specialty of the laboratory was airfield pavements—their construction, maintenance, and 

rapid repair.117 ESL continued the former organization’s research studies into the properties of soils 

and asphalt and concrete pavements.118 By 1983, the Air Force maintained approximately 210 million 

square yards of airfield pavements that required approximately $35 million annually to maintain and 

repair. More than 90 percent of existing pavements were over 20 years of age and had exceeded their 

design life. By the early 1980s, a concerted effort was underway to inventory and evaluate the properties of airfield runway surfaces to establish baseline data, such as load-carrying capacity. Until 1983, 

that assessment required the physical collection of pavement and soil cores that were sent to ESL for 

analysis of strength and physical properties. This process required shutting down use of the pavement 

surface, but non-destructive methods for evaluating airfield pavements were developed in the 1980s.119

Fire protection was another major research emphasis. The purpose of the program was to develop, 

test, and evaluate firefighting agents, equipment, and vehicles to support the Air Force’s 13,000 active 

and reserve component firefighters. Firefighters were responsible to control not only structural fires, 

but also for crash and rescue activities, including extinguishing aircraft fires and rescuing pilots. This 

research directly supported base operations, as well as prepared firefighters for deployment. Some 

projects under development in 1982 included the development of a lighter, smaller self-contained 

breathing apparatus capable of working in a chemical weapons environment.120 The new breathing 

apparatus was operational by 1984.121

With the ban of asbestos in 1981, the Navy and the Air Force Aeronautical Systems Division 

developed new clothing for firefighters. The new clothing comprised a chemical weapons undergarment, a Kevlar outer garment, and a communications helmet.122 In addition, a new training simulator 

was under development to train firefighting and crash rescue skills. The simulator was based upon 

pilot training simulators with state-of-the-art audio, visual, motion, and smoke to train firefighters in 

fire suppression, vehicle operations, and tactics.123

ESL also managed the Air Force environmental quality R&D program, which was conducted by 

10 different laboratories funded through the Air Force Systems Command. The Environics Division 

of ESL was tasked to provide:
A1C Susan Miller operates a 10-ton roller used to compact crushed limestone during a simulated runway attack Prime BEEF exercise at North Field, 1980.

322 Leading the Way

• Methodologies and techniques for pollutant characterization

• Environmental assessment of these pollutants in transport, interaction 

 and their ultimate fate

• Control methods to ensure peacetime mission accomplishment.124

The environics program centered on assessing environmental effects related to weapons systems. 

The program pinpointed potential issues and options in three major research areas: “hazardous wastes, 

Air Force fuels, and assessment technology.”125 A database was developed to track the past and present locations of hazardous materials on Air Force installations, to record their toxic effects, and to 

support the development of techniques to reduce and/or treat these materials in a cost-effective and 

environmentally friendly way.126

By 1980, three Air Force organizations conducted R&D to support civil engineering: the Air Force 

Office of Scientific Research, the Civil Engineering Research Division of the Air Force Weapons 

Laboratory, and the Engineering and Services Laboratory. Civil engineering R&D funds were programmed each year through the Research and Development Requirements Council, which reviewed 

current and planned Air Force R&D efforts related to Civil Engineering and Services needs. Funding 

for ESL generally came from several sources, including ESL designated funds, special projects funded 

through major commands, collaborative participation with other Air Force research organizations and 

AFESC, and O&M to support bases with specific services. In 1981, ESL received funding through the 

Air Force Systems Command to support ongoing R&D work in post-attack launch and recovery, air 
Aerial view of the 9700 Research and Testing Area, Tyndall AFB, Florida.

Building On Success 323

base survivability, pavement technology, and firefighting techniques. This funding source provided 

$250,000 in FY81 and $500,000 in FY82, with an additional $450,000 added in that year for work in 

air base survivability. By FY83, the program funding was projected to rise to $1 million.127 Funding 

for programs for R&D related to firefighting technology alone rose from $150,000 to approximately 

$2 million between 1980 and 1984. In 1984, a group of Air Force research laboratories, comprising 

the Air Force Weapons Laboratory, the Air Force Armament Laboratory, and ESL, worked together to 

raise their funding profile from $1 million in FY82 to an anticipated $12 million by FY87.128

On October 18, 1984, a groundbreaking ceremony was held to start construction on a new laboratory at Tyndall AFB, Florida. The cost of the 33,000 square-foot building was projected at $3.5 million. 

Dignitaries at the groundbreaking included the Director of Engineering and Services Maj. Gen. Clifton 

D. Wright, Jr.; AFESC Commander Col. Jerry A. Smith; Col. Charles Lau, Deputy Director, Science 

and Technology, Headquarters Air Force Systems Command, and U.S. Representative Earl Hutto, who 

encouraged the plan through U.S. Congress.129 Air Force Engineering & Services Update described 

the groundbreaking ceremony,

AFESC commander, Col. Jerry A. Smith directed the digging of the traditional first 

“shovel” of earth. A 20-ton multipurpose excavator, adapted from “off-the-shelf” 

inventory by the E&S laboratory for use in the rapid runway repair program, took a 

huge bite of earth with a gold-painted bucket.130

In 1986, ESL vacated five World War II-era buildings that it had occupied since AFCEC days and 

moved into Building 1117 at Tyndall AFB, Florida.131
Groundbreaking for Building 1117, Engineering and Services Laboratory, Tyndall AFB, Florida.

324 Leading the Way

Air Staff Reorganization in the late 1980s

By 1988, the Directorate of Engineering and Services at USAF Headquarters in the Pentagon was 

organized under the director, deputy director, and associate director. AFESC, the Air Force Regional 

Civil Engineers (AFRCE), and the Plans Division reported directly to the director’s office. Two additional deputy directors served under the director. The Deputy Director for Construction oversaw 

the Construction Division, the Engineering Division, and the Environmental Division. The Deputy 

Director for Programs oversaw the Programs Division, the Housing and Services Division, and the 

Real Estate Division.132

In January 1989, the Installation Development Division (AF/LEED) was formed by combining 

missions previously assigned to the Construction (AF/LEEC), Engineering (AF/LEEE), and portions 

of the Environmental (AF/LEEV) Divisions. The new division was aligned under Mr. J.B. Cole, the 

Deputy Director for Construction. The purpose of the change was to integrate all elements of the new 

division, and focus them on improved delivery of quality planning, design and construction products. 

The five branches of the new division were Program Management (AF/LEEDM), Policy (AF/LEEDP), 

Planning (AF/LEEDX), Facilities (AF/LEEDF), and Engineering (AF/LEEDE) (Figure 4.3).133

By April 1989, General Ahearn established a new liaison division (AF/LEEL) to champion programs from AFESC at Tyndall AFB. Previously, most AFESC programs had been championed by 

the Plans and Programs division (AF/LEEX). Program responsibility remained at AFESC. The key 

function of the new liaison division was to expedite and coordinate administrative packages on behalf 

of Center program managers. The new division was headed by Col. William R. (Reed) Craig. The 

deputy division chief, Harry R. (Hank) Marien, also headed the AFESC Privatization Implementation 

office (AFESC/DEQ).134
Source: Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn, “Protectors of the Environment,” The Military Engineer, JanuaryFebruary 1990, 11.

Building On Success 325

As base closure actions accelerated in the 1980s, General Ahearn established the Closure Integration Division within the Air Force Directorate of Engineering and Services in December 1989 as the 

single focus for Engineering and Services responsibilities associated with the closing of Air Force bases 

and the realignment of missions resulting from the closures. The 17 people (3 officers and 14 civilians) 

in the division developed overall functional guidance for the subsequent disposal of real property for 

which the Secretary of the Air Force had been delegated federal property disposal authority and implemented the policies of the Air Force Secretariat in disposing of these installations. Further, it integrated 

the development of policy and ensured management oversight for the interrelated actions of military 

construction; environmental cleanup; and real property disposal. It ensured supporting activities of 

environmental impact analysis properly interface with realignment and closure actions. The division 

also had program approval authority for the allocation of Base Closure Account, MILCON design, 

and construction funds appropriated by Congress, and coordinated with the Secretariat Comptroller on 

funds apportionment and allocation. Lt. Col. (later Brig. Gen.) David M. Cannan headed the division.135

Another one of General Ahearn’s first actions was to recognize the contributions of the non-commissioned officers to the civil engineering and services organization. General Ahearn created a Chief 

of Enlisted Matters position on the Engineering and Services staff at the Pentagon and named CMSgt. 

Larry R. Daniels to represent the enlisted force on the Air Staff. General Ahearn also declared 1989 as 

“The Year of the Chief.” From the early days of his Air Force career, General Ahearn had learned to 

value and respect his chief master sergeants, who truly were leaders, and tapped them to help formulate 

engineering policy and to enhance grass-roots motivation and communication.136 General Ahearn and 

CMSgt Daniels began holding conferences with the chiefs which evolved into the Chiefs Council.137

Programming Budgets and Cost Programs 1975-1990

During this time period and throughout its history, one of the primary roles in the office of Director 

of Engineering and Services was to assemble the Military Construction (MILCON) and operations and 

maintenance budgets for the Air Force and to defend the MILCON budget before the U.S. Congress. 
CMSgt Larry Daniels, Civil Engineering’s first Chief of Enlisted Matters, 1989-1992.

326 Leading the Way

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Air Force worked to standardize programming procedures 

for the budget.

Programming involved developing fully justified budget requests and supporting those requests to 

fund Air Force personnel, weapons systems, activities, construction, and operations and maintenance 

of facilities. Air Force funding sources included the Military Construction Program (MCP, later named 

MILCON), non-appropriated funding (NAF), P-341 funding covering unspecified minor construction, and operations and maintenance (O&M) funds that then included repairs up to $300,000. Prior 

to 1974, the Air Force assembled and prepared MCP funding requests in two year cycles. After 1974, 

the budgeting cycle for MCP funding expanded to three years. 138

Congressional oversight of MCP funding requests received increased scrutiny. During the late 

1970s, the U.S. Congress began to require greater justification for construction projects. This included 

cost benefit analyses and project designs developed to a 35 percent completion level to ensure that 

projects were viable and that cost estimates were sound. Multi-year projects received additional Congressional scrutiny since the potential for cost overruns was greater.139

Preparing an Air Force MCP for Congressional approval was a multi-layer review process. The 

basis of the budget was the Program Objective Memorandum (POM).140 As described by then-Colonel 

Joseph A. Ahearn, “In [the POM,] we program over five years the needed resources to fulfill our missions. There is one essentiality that must precede programming and that is good planning. Secondly 

the POM is the stepping stone to the budget. There is a general rule in the Pentagon that is noteworthy. 

The rule is ‘If it ain’t in the POM, it ain’t in the budget.’”141

The section of the POM developed by the Programming Division of the Directorate of Engineering and Services comprised project requests submitted by individual bases to their major commands. 

On the individual base, the BCE typically managed from 40 to 60 percent of the base’s funds.142 The 

major commands assembled all of the funding requests from the individual bases under their commands and added project funding requests for projects and programs of their own to enhance their Air 

Force missions. The major commands then submitted their packages to the Programming Division in 
Building On Success 327

Engineering and Services at the Pentagon. Prior to 1980, projects selected for inclusion in the budget 

were decided at the Pentagon level. Major commands, then individual bases, were informed about 

approved projects several months after the budget passed Congress. Once bases were informed that 

projects were approved, the scramble began to finalize construction designs, award contracts, and 

expend the allocated funds.143 During the early 1980s, direct participation was opened to the major 

commands within the budget process. 144

A significant portion of the Air Force budget was spent on weapons systems and aircraft. Monies 

for construction programs that improved the quality of life for Air Force personnel had no priority 

until General Gilbert incorporated them into the budget process. To have funds available for personnel 

support programs, General Gilbert decided that the funding for the construction of weapons facilities 

should be included in the total cost of the weapons systems and not be incorporated into the budget 

assigned to the Directorate of Engineering and Services. This was a major change in the way funds 

were allocated and it allowed General Gilbert to fund more quality of life programs. As General 

Gilbert recalled, 

When I became Director, the process was that the Director of Programs, who sliced 

the pie for the Air Force budget in the Pentagon, would come up to Civil Engineering when he got the POM and say, “Okay look, I can give you as your part of the 

pie $750 million.” That happened to be an exact figure that was put to me one time. 

I said, “I’ve got that many requirements in three major commands, let alone 12. 

“Well, that’s all you’re going to get.” Okay, fine. Then they would go into the meetings in the program office, which was called the Air Staff Board, to divide up what 

we were going to do with the Air Force budget and how much. By the time I provided the funds out of my $750 million to bed down new weapons systems, which 

we were buying by the gross, I had nothing left to replace or to build anything for 

people. I said, “Hey, this is no good.” 

I called Bud Ahearn into the office. He was the head of my Programs shop and a 

member of the Air Staff Panel that made these decisions, because there was always 

a facility tail that went with the beddown of a weapons system. I said to Bud, 

“Look, we’re not going to do that anymore. I’m going to the head of Programs, 

and I’m going to tell him that I’ll take his $750 million, but anything that requires 

a facility beddown tail is programmatic. If you’re going to buy a system, the program’s got to carry the whole thing. Not my pot.” By golly, I sold that idea.145

The POM was subject to rigorous internal review on four levels through the Air Force Board 

Structure. The budget requests were divided into subject areas and reviewed by one of 14 panels 

comprised of knowledgeable people in the subject area. At this level, projects were reviewed for need 

and relevancy to the Air Force missions. The major commands advocated directly for their budget 

requests in front of individual subject panels.146

In August 1984, a new review panel was instituted to review all requests that included the construction of facilities. The panel also reviewed all budget requests for MILCON, family housing, and real 

property maintenance activities. The Facilities Panel evaluated “near-term” and “long-term” obligations. One panel chairman remarked, “There’s nothing that the Air Force does that doesn’t require 

real estate, a platform, utilities, or a building of some kind—and to get the funds for the ‘something,’ 

you have to pass the review of the Facilities Panel.”147

If a project request survived the panel reviews, it was submitted for review to the Air Force Program Review Committee (PRC). The PRC developed the POM that integrated all major command 

priorities. The POM was presented to the Air Staff Board and reviewed by senior Air Force personnel, 
328 Leading the Way

who evaluated all the items against Air Force priorities. In 1982, these priorities included: recruiting, 

training, equipping, motivating, and retaining Air Force personnel; the strategic weapons systems 

program; readiness and sustainability of deployed forces; and, modernizing tactical air forces. The 

finalized POM then was reviewed by the Air Force Chief of Staff, followed by the Secretary of the 

Air Force, and finally by the Defense Department’s Defense Review Board. The budget was then 

submitted to the U.S. Congress.148

One of the purposes of the POM was to incorporate project planning on the major command and 

base levels. Working with a five-year plan, items that were not funded in the current year could become 

next year’s priorities. If money became available during the budget year, then projects originally 

planned in the upcoming year could be funded in the current year. BCEs were encouraged to plan for 

this possibility and to have projects designed in case funding became available. BCEs then worked 

with procurement and contracting personnel to use funds within frequently demanding schedules 

dictated by fiscal year deadlines. With careful planning and coordination with appropriate personnel, 

the BCE could pull project plans off the shelf to match available funding.149

As summed up by then-Colonel Joseph A. Ahearn, “the POM is the expression of the resources 

to fulfill the mission of the Air Force...We measure projects against two questions. The first question 

is ‘What does it contribute to airpower?’ The second question is, ‘What does it contribute to the productivity of the Air Force workforce?”’ General Ahearn’s advice for the BCE on the major command 

and base levels was to create a good base development plan, to identify solid project requirements, 

and to have a sound five-year investment plan.150

Cost Programs

Under General Wright’s leadership, several new approaches were implemented to strengthen 

execution of MILCON programs and projects. Special management teams for large projects were 

formed to facilitate communication among team members during the life of the project. The AFRCE 

offices assigned responsibility for large projects to a single point person. On the base level, comprehensive base plans were produced to ensure that solid planning preceded project programming. Training 

was offered to engineers responsible for programming to enhance descriptions of project requirements 

and to improve project books to guide designers. In an effort to enhance the ability to estimate costs 

on multifaceted projects, an independent cost estimating/analysis capability in the Construction Cost 

Management Group was established at AFESC. In addition, a variety of construction contracting 

methods were analyzed and tested. For example, a cost-plus-fixed-fee contract was used to construct 

the Peacekeeper assembly, surveillance, and inspection building in Wyoming, while a turnkey contract 

was used to construct a major Air Force command and control center expansion.151

The Directorate of Engineering and Services also invested in automated costing systems. General 

Wright recalled that during the Reagan Administration, 

The Air Force was scrambling to get several major MILCON weapons systems programs going in 1982 and 1983, and the momentum continued through my time as 

Director. We had to work closely with our design and construction agents, and we 

had to have systems to manage the programs. Information technology and related 

management systems were just emerging. We began development of an automated 

program to track and monitor costs and schedules. Maj. Jim Owendoff and Capt. 

Rusty Gilbert were our action officers to get the automated PDC (Programming, 

Design, and Construction) program developed. I think it replaced CECORS [Civil 

Engineer Contract Report System] and was the forerunner of automated management programs in place today.152
Building On Success 329

Cost estimating was greatly improved through the assistance of the Construction Cost Management Group formed at AFESC in 1981. The primary mission of the group was to forecast and monitor 

construction costs, particularly on large, high profile projects. A few high profile Air Force construction 

projects, most notably the Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility at Arnold AFB, had gone significantly 

over budget. An assessment of Air Force construction procedures revealed that management of large 

Air Force projects often was fragmented among several organizations. Calculation of total project 

costs was complicated since funds were provided through several methods, including multiple line 

items in the MCP. For example, the Over-the-Horizon Backscatter Radar program was funded through 

a contract to construct the weapons system, while support facilities were funded through the MCP. 

The costs for installing the Ground Launched Cruise Missile were shared between NATO and MCP 

funds. On the other hand, control of the Missile-X program was consolidated in the Ballistic Missile 

Office, which had the opportunity to oversee project costs for both weapon system development and 

ground support facilities. The goal of the new Construction Cost Management Group was to provide 

engineering programs with sound fiscal cost estimating to assess true project costs. Rita Gregory, a 

member of the group, developed a parametric cost estimating system that provided greatly improved 

estimates than older methods of estimating costs based on 35 percent of the design.153

Program management remained a challenge throughout the 1980s. When J.B. Cole transferred to 

the Pentagon as a Senior Executive Service member in the late 1980s, he remembered, 

The deputy [Director of Engineering and Services] was then-Brig. Gen. Joseph A. 

(Bud) Ahearn (Maj. Gen., USAF, ret.). He said, “I want to ask you one question, 

‘Why can’t we execute a military construction program?’” I thought the answer 

was easy. But, I looked at the process. What I found was programming ahead of 

planning, no rules written down, and inconsistencies from program to program. 

So, I had to write a book called Program Management in the Air Force...it will 

help young engineers in the predesign conferences come up with a successful 

effort. Behind the book is the decision to hold people responsible for execution. 

Yet, I found we had never taught a course in program management at AFIT. So, I 

developed a course and started teaching it. We also urged the Congress to change 

the law, because it was not working. I think that the eloquent testimony by General 

Ahearn, who presented the briefings, helped to change the law. We were calling for 

design to be at 35 percent complete two years prior to competition. There was no 

way a project could remain static and unchanged in an environment where the leadership might change twice during the time before we got construction underway.154

As a result of the leadership of innovative military and civilian personnel, efforts were made to 

institutionalize better budgeting procedures and cost estimating on all Air Force levels from the Pentagon, through the major command, and the bases. Ground rules and manuals were written to codify 

these procedures; follow up procedures were established to monitor and control construction costs 

that supported the increased construction budgets of the early to mid 1980s.

Wartime Manpower Studies during the 1970s

In 1976-1977, two manpower studies to assess wartime personnel requirements and the force 

structure were conducted. The results of these and follow-on studies caused the Civil Engineering and 

Services organization to reshape the composition and assignments of civil engineer squadrons. Peacetime jobs of military personnel at home stations were matched with their war time roles when deployed. 

The Air Force completed the first of the two studies between summer 1974 and spring 1976. In 1977, 

the Department of Defense conducted a Joint Contingency Construction Requirements Study that 
330 Leading the Way

examined personnel requirements for the Joint Chiefs of Staff, all four Armed Services, components 

of the Unified Commands, and the Specified Commands. The purpose of both studies was to identify 

“manpower/logistical requirements to support the war scenario” of a conventional war in Europe 

against the U.S.S.R and to determine “deployment/employment” of deployed fighting personnel.155

Based on the initial results of those studies, the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) proposed 

to decrease the numbers of military personnel across all services. At that time in 1977, manpower in 

Engineering and Services was authorized for about 80,000 civil engineering personnel and 15,000 in 

Services.156 Of the 80,000 in civil engineering, about one half were military and one half were civilians. Of the military personnel, about 10 percent were assigned to mobile contingency teams with the 

remainder forming the resident base recovery force of Prime BEEF. Air National Guard or Air Force 

Reserve accounted for approximately 30 percent of the force. Services included approximately 6,000 

military and 10,000 civilians.157 The Civil Engineering organization personnel reduction in force was 

proposed at 25,000 military personnel, which would have ended the Prime BEEF and RED HORSE 

activities. The cuts also were supported by a 1957 DoD directive that assigned responsibilities to 

construct Air Force facility requirements during war to the Army Corps of Engineers.158

Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert recalled the beginning of the manpower study, 

Out of the clear blue sky one day we got a program document from [Office of the 

Secretary of Defense] OSD that cut 25,000 civil engineers...I asked, “What’s this? 

What brought this about?”...I only had about 35,000 military and they were going 

to take out 25,000, which would have taken out all of the RED HORSE squadrons 

and most of the people at the bases, and it would have totally done away with the 

Prime BEEF concept, the RED HORSE concept, and any other concept for us to 

support ourselves, with our own military forces.159

General Gilbert disputed the findings of the study before OSD, and was told that the Army claimed 

to have sufficient personnel to perform all wartime construction. General Gilbert reminded OSD 

personnel that the Army had promised similar support in Korea and Vietnam, but had not been able 

to deliver that support. Therefore, the Air Force had formed Prime BEEF and RED HORSE units to 

provide the construction support during war deployments. Gilbert made the following request to the 

OSD personnel, 

I said, “I’ll tell you what you do. Tell the Corps to show you the forces.” I said, 

“Let me tell you where the Corps’ forces are; they’re notional forces just like they 

were in Vietnam, and just like they were in Korea. There are spaces in the Reserve 

and Guard that have no bodies in them. They couldn’t call up people. If they called 

up the spaces they’d be empty spaces...They don’t have enough people to support 

themselves, and we’ve never gotten a day’s support out of them.” You know what? 

I successfully argued that to the extent that OSD said, “Okay, we will temporarily 

set aside this reduction in force, and we will task the [Joint Chiefs of Staff] JCS to 

do a study on construction requirements for each of the services, and then we’ll see 

if the Corps has sufficient assets to support you out of what they actually have and 

what they’re going to need.” I said, “I’ll buy into that.” 160

After this meeting, General Gilbert initiated a study throughout the civil engineer organization to 

shape the Prime BEEF teams into actual working teams that purposely trained together and to match 

peacetime job descriptions to war time job requirements. He tasked a team to analyze projected civil 

engineer needs under the current war plans and to match those needs with the actual career specialists 

required when groups of 50, 100, or 150 personnel deploy. The study team also was tasked to quantify 
Building On Success 331

the requirements for military personnel needed to remain in the United States to operate home bases. 

While many home station tasks would be performed by civilians and contractors, some installations 

required the presence of military personnel due to security concerns. General Gilbert proposed, “Let’s 

reconfigure the teams in terms of how much Air Force deployment takes place, looking at how many 

Prime BEEF members we need to deploy with that size force, based on the war plans. We did that. We 

found out some very interesting things during that process. Before, we had a lot of people on teams, 

but we didn’t have the right ones, and we didn’t have them in the right number.” 161

Selected civil engineer findings concerning their manpower allocations included the following:

• Civil engineering forces were not structured properly and insufficiently mobile;

• Few of the right kinds of people were performing tasks at their home 

 stations that could translate into critical wartime tasks in war time situations;

• Current equipment and material posture was not able to handle the job;

• Technological efforts to solve key wartime roles, such as rapid runway 

 repair and repair of bomb damage after attack, were not progressing at 

 a sufficient rate due to current fiscal constraints.162

One weakness identified through the studies was the configuration and composition of the force 

structure available for deployment, which was quantified by unit type codes (UTCs). UTCs were used 

to categorize all job skills required during deployments and then matched to peacetime jobs at home 

stations. This process ensured that all military personnel were matched with a direct wartime/mobility 

mission and assigned into appropriate Prime BEEF teams for the wartime scenario as defined by the 

JCS.163

When the JCS study came out, it supported General Gilbert’s findings for manpower requirements, stating “The Air Force not only needs what they’ve got now; but they don’t even have enough 

to support the total war plan. The Corps has its hands full to take care of themselves, so we’re going 

to rewrite the DoD directive and give the Air Force its own responsibility for heavy maintenance, as 

they call it, and light construction.”164 In addition to restoring the 25,000 personnel that were cut, civil 

engineering gained a RED HORSE squadron in the Reserve.165

The responsibilities of overseas Air Force construction during deployments was redefined through 

DoD Directive 1315.6 issued on August 26, 1978. Under this directive, the Secretary of the Air Force 

was authorized to deploy Air Force civil engineer troops for the following overseas missions:

• Emergency repair of war damage to air bases.

• Force beddown of Air Force units and weapon systems.

• Operations and maintenance of Air Force facilities and installations.

• Crash rescue and fire suppression.

• Construction management of emergency repair of war damage 

 and force beddown.166

The realignment and restructuring of peacetime to wartime roles of military personnel affected the 

entire civil engineer organization. The director of Civil Engineering and Services successfully defended 

civil engineer manpower authorizations. Overall readiness of each military civil engineer personnel 

was improved by assignment to a wartime role on a Prime BEEF team. Now every military personnel 

had a wartime role to train for, while maintaining their skills through their peacetime job at their home 

installations. Training for readiness became an important goal for all civil engineer military personnel.

The revised structure of Prime BEEF was implemented during 1979 and new regulations covering 

the Prime BEEF program and base recovery planning were issued by the Readiness Group of AFESC. 

The civil engineer components in the Air Reserves and Air National Guard also were organized into 
332 Leading the Way

Prime BEEF teams for the first time. Criteria to evaluate all Prime BEEF teams using operational 

readiness inspections (ORIs) were crafted and distributed to major commands. A similar program was 

established for Services, known as Readiness in Base Services, or Prime RIBS, with 274 teams being 

formed by the end of 1979.167

Throughout the 1980s, the challenge to civil engineering manpower requirements continued as 

the Directorate of Engineering and Services strove to maintain the proper balance of civil engineering and service personnel. The civil engineer organization was continually prepared to prove that its 

military personnel were either part of readily deployable contingency forces or required stateside 

within “strategic withhold” categories. Job positions not classified as readiness or strategic withhold 

were likely candidates for either contracting out or “civilianizing.”168

Quality of Life Programs

Under the leadership of Generals Thompson, Gilbert, and Wright, the Directorate of Engineering 

and Services placed great emphasis on quality of life issues for Air Force personnel. Although the 

first mission of all Air Force personnel was to support readiness and survivability of the USAF, these 

generals focused their efforts on the Air Force people who make the organization run and who deserved 

improved living and working conditions. This was particularly relevant with the adoption of the all 

volunteer forces in 1973. The Armed Services competed for recruits with the private sector and, in 

order to retain recruits, paid more attention to their welfare. During these years, improvements were 

funded to upgrade and to enhance dormitories, food service in dining halls, recreational facilities, and 

personnel support services.169

General Gilbert sought acceptance of Quality of Life programs in Air Force budgets and in policy 

statements.170 In 1978, the following mission statement for the Directorate of Engineering and Services 

was issued: “Provide Civil Engineering and Services forces ready to respond to all contingencies. 

Efficiently and effectively maintain, repair, construct and manage Air Force real property facilities and 

provide quality services to insure [sic] USAF operations are fully supported.” The mission statement 

was supported by five Engineering and Services Goals:

• Improve readiness capability, 

• Improve energy effectiveness, 

• Increase productivity, 

• Improve customer service and satisfaction, and 

• Improve the quality of life.171

Quality of life issues were a particular passion for General Gilbert. He convinced Air Force 

leadership to dedicate a portion of appropriations for projects that enhanced the “Quality of Life” on 

bases. As he recalled, 

My first effort was to try to make a decent place to work, live, and play...We 

coined the phrase “Quality of Life,” Bud Ahearn and I did. I convinced the leadership that if we could not provide a decent place for people to live, work, and play, 

we were not going to have a contented force...We’re in peace time now. We’re 

getting kids that come from big, nice, $100,000 or $200,000 homes, with a private 

bedroom, and putting them in a...dormitory with two or three people to a room...

You’re not going to retain them. And if you send them to work in a place that’s 

broken down, with leaks...they’re not going to be happy...Have happy workers 

and you have great workers, you have more skilled workers and more productivity. 
Building On Success 333

Dining halls were running down, so I said, “For the Quality of Life program let’s 

start off with $65 or $75 million, and we dedicate it to that. We won’t buy anything 

else with it except things for people.” We were supported in the idea. Then it began 

to grow; it began to catch on.172

As the Air Force portion of the Military Construction Program (MCP) began to increase during the 

early 1980s, General Gilbert was able successfully to increase funding for Quality of Life initiatives.173

General Gilbert was particularly proud of increasing the space allotment in dormitories from 135 

to 150 square feet per person. Initially the Army and the Navy told the U.S. Congress that there was 

no need to increase the living space in their services. But General Gilbert persisted and eventually won 

approval from the U.S. Congress to increase space allotments per person in dormitories.174

Another initiative under the Quality of Life program was the introduction of the a la carte system 

in the dining halls. As General Gilbert explained, 

we were recruiting a group of young people who were fast food buffs. They didn’t 

understand the concept of a full dinner or lunch at noon. That was hamburger time. 

So, we started a program to modernize the dining halls. In some cases, if it was 

not cost-effective we’d build a new dining hall. The Services people were in on 

the design, because they were the ones who had to operate it. They had operating 

experience, and they knew where things ought to fit and how it ought to fit together. 

Then we started the a la carte program to cater to the forces we were recruiting 

from civilian life...My experience everyplace I went when I had Services, was that 

90 percent of the young people I saw coming into the dining hall would walk to the 

short-order line.175

These improvements made Air Force installations better places to live and work and responsive to the 

needs of its military personnel.

Project IMAGE

Project IMAGE was conceived as a three-year programmatic review of the Civil Engineering and 

Services organization at all levels, from the base through the major command, to headquarters and to 

all agencies and centers. IMAGE stood for Innovative Management Achieves Greater Effectiveness 

and was the civil engineer portion for a service-wide functional review directed by the Office of the 

Secretary of Defense in 1981. The DoD-wide functional review was conducted in response to Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-76 that directed Federal agencies to realize organizational 

efficiencies by contracting out services.176

The main purpose of Project IMAGE was to analyze the Base Civil Engineering organizational 

structure for products and services. The goal was to define clearly civil engineering roles and missions 

to support Air Force fighting capabilities through the efficient and effective use of peacetime resources. 

The product areas identified for base civil engineering and services were: “Ensure Readiness, Provide Real Property, Sustain Real Property, Provide Utility Service, Establish Physical Environment, 

Provide Fire Protection, Provide Non-Real Property Service, and Provide Technical and Management 

Services.”177 The ultimate goals of Project IMAGE were to retool the organization to accomplish its 

mission more effectively, to ensure that all processes and procedures were results oriented, and to seek 

ways to work smarter, more efficiently, and less labor intensively. The major emphases of the program 

were on results management, manpower efficiency, and removal of constraints to productivity by 

reducing regulations to allow creativity and innovation by base managers.178 The implementation of 

flexible procedures allowed for innovative management at the BCE level to increase productivity.

179
334 Leading the Way

One result of Program IMAGE was revision of the mission statement for civil engineering and 

services. The new mission statement was established by spring 1984 as follows, “Provide the necessary 

assets and skilled personnel to prepare and sustain global installations as stationary platforms for the 

projection of aerospace power in peace and war.”180 This mission statement emphasized that essential 

role of civil engineering in the Air Force fighting capability.181

Another major accomplishment of Project IMAGE was an assessment of the general purpose 

vehicles used by civil engineering personnel. A comparison of BCE organizations with private sector 

groups revealed a personnel-to-vehicle ratio of one-to-one in the private sector, and a ratio of more 

than three-to-one within BCE operations. The low amount of vehicles required crews to share, which 

resulted in wasted time and unnecessary planning. In fall 1984, Booz, Allen & Hamilton was contracted to assess the needs of work crews and to address the necessary steps to create ideal personnel 

to vehicle ratios. The study showed that the CE workforce lost approximately $24 million worldwide 

in productivity on an annual basis. Civil engineers and Air Force Transportation personnel jointly 

developed a General Services Administration (GSA) leased vehicle program because purchasing 

additional vehicles would take several years. GSA distributed the first 300 vehicles to seven bases. A 

follow-on contract with Booz, Allen & Hamilton studied those seven bases and noted that productivity 

improved consistent with the earlier study’s conclusions and virtually eliminated transportation-related 

non-productive time. However, by 1988, GSA vehicles were being returned because of a lack of baselevel O&M funding for the continued lease of vehicles.182

Architectural Design Excellence

General Wright, educated as an architectural engineer, was particularly proud of his emphasis 

on the importance of comprehensive base planning and quality architectural design. General Wright 

formed an architectural design committee and established a senior-level design consultant at Headquarters U.S. Air Force to review interior designs. The first Air Force-wide conference on design was 

held in 1982 at the Air Force Academy.183 General Wright recalled, 

I preached it just about everywhere I could and focused on several priority 

initiatives. One of the first was to stress comprehensive planning and quality architectural design at the AFRCEs and MAJCOMs. We needed a vehicle to carry the 

message to planners and architects throughout the Air Force and promote and culturally embed an appreciation of good planning and design. To that end, I created 

an Architectural Design Committee in 1982 consisting of several reserve officers 

who brought tremendous experience from their civilian professions. I asked them to 

review designs of major projects and to create planning assistance teams that would 

be available to visit bases at the request of the commander or BCE to provide professional planning advice. Architectural compatibility and historic preservation was 

high on their priority list.184

Architectural, community design, and quality of life issues also were supported at the major command level. During the period between 1979 through 1985, Tactical Air Command (TAC) under the 

leadership of General W.L. Creech and General Ellis invested heavily in the aesthetics and functionality of buildings and in quality of life improvements. Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., who joined TAC in 

1978, summed up the overall theory of General Creech and General Ellis, “If an Air Force person will 

take pride in their workplace environment, especially if they’ve toiled to create it—i.e. the Air Force 

Self-Help Program—they’ll take pride in themselves and the products and services they produce.” 

TAC maintenance crews were working in outdated aircraft hangars with outdated tools. TAC elected 

to fund major building upgrades to improve working conditions and to update tools for maintenance 
Building On Success 335

crews. Its efforts stretched beyond tools and outdated buildings. The improvements included interior 

cleanup, which created a sense of increased pride among personnel, improving morale and enhancing 

services. As General Ellis stated, “We made the relatively expensive bet that if we gave the maintenance 

folks an appropriate place to work and quality tools to work with, we would have gone a long way in 

establishing the right aircraft maintenance mental attitude.”185

When General Ellis joined TAC in 1979, $8 million were allocated for Engineering and Services 

contract programs. During the next few years, funds allocated for Engineering and Services contracts 

at TAC increased dramatically, rising from $33 million in 1980 to $99 million in 1982. Without 

increased staffing, General Ellis oversaw a workload that rose from 100 active projects to over 500 

projects.186 With increased funding, TAC leadership improved the working conditions for security 

police, and munitions maintenance, transportation, and Services personnel. In addition, base improvements were made in barracks, housing areas, and personnel support facilities.187 General Creech, the 

TAC commander, took a personal interest in reviewing architectural details of construction programs 

and even introduced an exterior painting scheme, known as “Creech brown,” for all TAC bases that 

was intended to unify the overall appearance of the bases. General Creech firmly believed that architecture affected a person’s wellbeing as well as work efficiency. He was well known for his motto 

“quality in everything you do.”188

The emphasis on architectural design and interior design was formalized at TAC with the establishment of the TAC Design Team in 1980. The design team comprised “a multidisciplinary group 

of architects and engineers dedicated to providing in-house design capability to the [Deputy Chief of 

Staff] DCS for Engineering and Services at TAC.” The office had two parts: Architecture/Engineering Branch and the Interiors Branch. The team had the capabilities to design all types of facilities 

throughout the command. The group operated like a commercial architecture and engineering firm, 

but with faster response times and a working knowledge of Air Force facility requirements.189

Another indication of the importance of design excellence was the Air Force Design Awards 

program. It began in 1976 to recognize architectural design excellence and was part of the Federal 

and DoD Design Awards program. General Wright felt the need to “re-energize and jazz up” the Air 

Force Design Awards Program during his tenure, with support from Mr. Robert A. Stone, Air Force 

Assistant Secretary for Installations. He also developed a close working relationship with the American 

Institute of Architects.190

Air Force design philosophy was propounded in Air Force Manual 88-43 entitled “Installation 

Design.” Issued in 1981, the introduction of AFM 88-43 stated, 

Military installations should provide efficient and pleasant physical environments 

conducive to attracting and retaining skilled and motivated personnel. A military 

installation conveys a visual image in terms of its design character and organization 

that can be either clear, logical and attractive or cluttered, confused and disoriented. 

The design, location and maintenance of individual elements such as buildings, 

roads, parking lots, signing and planting, affect the quality of the visual environment. Each of these elements should be functional, attractive and harmonious with 

its surroundings to create an environment that enhances the capability of installations to support their missions and fosters pride in and commitment to military 

service.191

Investment in the built environment paid dividends on all levels. Statistics developed at TAC 

in the 1980s indicated a direct correlation between the quality of working and living conditions and 

mission capability. As summed up by General Ellis, “The ultimate result is that our folks work and 

live better and there is a measurable improvement in the condition and useful life of our real property 

assets. Again, our facility improvement efforts have had a positive effect on attitude, quality of the 
336 Leading the Way

workplace and productivity.”192 Even more impressive was the affect Creech’s procedures had on 

readiness. According to a 2005 Air Force Magazine article on the accomplishments of Creech, 

The most obvious result of Creech’s methods was a turnaround in readiness indicators. The TAC accident rate dropped from one every 13,000 hours to one every 

50,000 hours. Sortie rate was perhaps the most important of Creech’s basic metrics. 

TAC’s average per-aircraft sorties rose from 11 to 21 per month. In effect, he had 

doubled the number of available aircraft. The number of aircraft out of commission 

for maintenance declined by 75 percent.193

This had a large impact on performance and readiness. 

President Ronald Reagan created the Commander-in-Chief Installation Excellence Award in 

1984. The award recognized the exceptional accomplishments of the people in each military 

service and DoD who operated and maintained the installations. Five recipients were chosen 

annually. Kadena AB, Japan, received the award in 1985, becoming the first Air Force base to 

win the award.194

Installation Excellence Award 

Joint Program Participation

Throughout this time period, joint participation, defined as serving with other components of the 

U.S. Armed Services, and combined actions, defined as serving with armed forces of other nations, 

continued for the Air Force. Within the Department of Defense (DoD), the functions of the Air Force, 

Navy, Army, and Marines were individual yet complementary. By the early 1970s, efforts had been 

made within the services to tailor forces to meet a variety of perceived threats to national security. 

Each service had components for strategic offense and defense, as well as general purpose forces 

and support forces. The role of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in this aspect of Total Force was crucial; the 

organization planned and managed the employment of all the U.S. Armed Forces.195

During the 1980s, the United States relied more on allies and friendly nations to supply personnel, 

funding, and resources to the mutual common defense. Allied strengths and capabilities were assessed 

along with U.S. capabilities to quantify the Total Force of all Allied countries to fight against a common 

enemy.196 Combined exercises provided a chance for the U.S. forces to work with military from other 

countries and to assess their ability to organize to win in conflict situations.197

Air Force civil engineers were encouraged to serve in areas with exposure to joint programs with 

other U.S. services and to serve in overseas commands in Europe and the Pacific. Service at a joint 

activity was recommended as part of career development for civil engineer military officers. One 

example of this service included eight Air Force civil engineer officers who began a two-year exchange 

program with the Army and the Navy in 1973.198 In 1979, 44 military jobs were classified as joint or 

combined positions. A joint staff position typically comprised two or more U.S. services and included 

13 positions at DoD and the Joint Chiefs of Staff in the Pentagon. Among the Unified Commands were 

one position with the Atlantic Command in Iceland, four positions in the European Command, eight 

positions in the Pacific Command, and ten positions in NATO.199

In 1986, joint participation among all the U.S. Armed Forces was strengthened by the U.S. Congress after the passage of the Goldwater-Nichols Act (Public Law 99-433). This law was enacted as a 

result of Congressional investigations after the U.S. invasion of the tiny island nation of Grenada. On 

October 25. 1983, approximately 7,000 U.S. forces along with 300 military personnel from neighboring 
Building On Success 337

Caribbean nations participated in the invasion. The reasons given for the invasion were to depose a 

Marxist-led coup, rescue the islanders, and rescue American medical students. U.S. forces encountered 

approximately 1,200 Grenadan forces and 800 Cubans. Fighting lasted three days and the last U.S. 

forces left the island by December 1983. The Air Force provided military airlift and close air support 

by the Air National Guard and tactical wings.

While the invasion of Grenada should not have been challenging for U.S. forces, the action 

highlighted inter-service organizational and planning problems. The Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 (Public Law 99-433) addressed these problems through 

restructuring and streamlining the chain of military command.200 The Joint Chiefs of Staff became an 

advisory body to the U.S. President, but no longer had direct charge of operational forces. The Joint 

Chiefs of Staff, the Air Force, and the major commands retained the responsibility for training and 

equipping personnel; when deployed, military personnel, regardless of service affiliation, were under 

the authority of unified combatant commands. This radical change in the command structure allowed 

unified combatant commanders full control over components represented by all U.S. Armed Forces 

without having to negotiate with individual Services Chiefs for units and personnel. In addition, the 

law established policies to encourage officers to participate in joint duty assignments.201

Maj. Gen. George E. Ellis, Director of Engineering and Services between 1986 and 1989, eloquently expressed the new reality of the concept of jointness, 

Our doctrine, force structure, and operational concepts...must be developed within 

realistic budgetary and political constraints which dictate jointness—a common 

purpose and shared resources. Our combat engineering capability must be a team 

effort—a team composed of Air Force, Army, Navy, and host nation engineer 

forces, and the civilian engineering industry. This industry includes designers, 

constructors, and base maintenance contractors, all of whom provide a civilian 

composite that is and will be critical to successful war fighting...The theater commander knows the importance of keeping air bases operating and has agreed to 

assign Army units to help Air Force engineers.202

General Ellis concluded, 

We are making progress in integrating Army, Air Force, and host nation engineer 

capabilities. Army and Air Force engineers will work together to beddown deploying forces and restore the air base after an attack. They practice their joint missions 

today. We also have agreements with our allies that describe the type of engineering support they will provide. These host nations are building the force structure 

necessary to fulfill those commitments. They can never replace our critical organic 

engineer forces, but their contributions will help recover the air base quicker.203

Private industry partnerships were another aspect of joint programs. The utilization of U.S. and 

host nation construction industries allowed Air Force engineers to expand their capabilities. The work 

of private industry partners extended from mobilization to restoration, and included force buildup, long 

term war programs, and disaster recovery. Their involvement enhanced both operational capabilities 

as well as logistical support. This partnership is maintained today, as private industries continue the 

tradition of playing a major role in providing air bases, roads, utility systems, and harbors. 
338 Leading the Way

Managing the PeaceTime Bases

Introduction

By the 1980s the Air Force civil engineers operated and maintained 134 major bases and 2,850 

smaller installations worldwide. These facilities represented a full range of specialized properties, 

ranging from operating bases, to logistics bases and depots, to missile installations, communications 

facilities, hospitals, ammunition storage, and specialized R&D complexes. Improvements on these Air 

Force installations represented an initial investment of an estimated $18 billion. These installations 

had reached an average age of 30 years by 1982.204

The Civil Engineering Squadron (CES) was the base-level organization responsible for the operation and maintenance of bases. Base civil engineers commanded the CES and oversaw the civil 

engineering mission on the base level. Specific responsibilities charged to the CES included:

• Maintain in the most economical manner all active property (or structures 

 furnished in lieu of real property) to a standard that prevents deterioration 

 beyond that which results from normal wear and tear, and inactive facilities 

 to a standard commensurate with reactivation requirements (e.g., dispersed 

 operating locations).

• Provide fire prevention and protection engineering services to prevent loss 

 of life and property at all installations.

• Support civil and air base disasters and emergencies, using the personnel 

 and material resources of civil engineering as necessary to save lives, mitigate 

 human suffering, and minimize damage.

• Provide forces to recover air bases damaged by natural disaster or enemy 

 attack.205

Approximately 102,000 personnel were assigned to Civil Engineering and Services in 1982; this 

number rose to 114,000 by 1985.206 Base civil engineering organizations ranged in size and complexity 

commensurate with the size and mission of the installation. At McClellan AFB, California, an Air Force 

Logistics Command base, for example, the BCE managed 880 buildings and additional facilities. Led 

by a military BCE, the CES comprised 300 military personnel and 500 civilians. The CES included 

100 firefighters, 90 engineers and engineering technicians, 60 managers and administrators, and over 

500 specialists assigned to in-house craft shops.207

Prioritization and management of the dynamic workload for base maintenance and repair presented 

a daily challenge. Protocols for addressing this on-going challenge were defined in Air Force Regulation 85-1, Resource and Work Force Management and subsequent revisions. The system defined in 

AFR 85-1, as illustrated at Sheppard AFB, Texas, was managed from a Production Control Center, 

housing the offices of O&M Chief, a service call room, a work control room, the offices of Chief of 

Work Control and Schedulers, and a conference room. Work assignments were tracked through a series 

of charts, maps, and scheduling boards by a staff of secretaries, controllers, schedulers, technicians, 

superintendents, foremen, work controller, and vehicle schedulers.208

Work requests were logged and prioritized through the Production Control Center. Requests were 

supported both by paper forms and through entries in the Base Engineer Automated Management 

System (BEAMS). All work requests were programmed into the In-Service Work Plan. Scheduling 

decisions were finalized at weekly work or scheduling meetings based on project priority and available labor and materials. Work was executed by craftsmen from the various shops in accordance with 

the comprehensive weekly schedules. Base shops were specialized and represented a full range of 

construction and maintenance services. Sheppard AFB, for example, maintained the following shops: 
Building On Success 339

Carpenter, Paint, Plumbing, Sheet Metal, Masonry, Interior Electric, Exterior Electric, Power Production, Sanitation, Entomology, Refrigeration, Heating, POL Maintenance, Structural Maintenance 

and Repair, Golf Course Maintenance, Housing Maintenance, Heavy Equipment, Pavements, and 

Grounds.209

An impressive volume of work was executed through the civil engineering shops, as illustrated 

by the 1000 job orders and 30 major work orders completed in a typical month at McClellan AFB. 

These work orders were administered by separate offices dedicated to special construction projects 

and smaller scale construction projects. 

In addition to the day-to-day responsibilities of CES base management, military personnel also 

maintained Air Force readiness through participation in Prime BEEF exercises. The 26 Prime BEEF 

teams at McClellan AFB could deploy in under eight hours.210

The CES operations were analyzed continuously to improve system efficiencies and customer 

service. A series of specialized studies, plans, and programs were initiated during the period to enhance 

management methodologies, to assure the adequacy of staffing levels, and to provide expertise in areas 

of specific concern to Air Force bases.

One innovation to improve management on the air base level was the Civil Engineering Management Evaluation Team (CEMET). Lt. Gen. David Jones, commander of the Second Air Force at 

Barksdale AFB, Louisiana, devised the first CEMET in 1971. At that time, Col. Robert C. Thompson 

served as Deputy Chief of Staff for Civil Engineering. General Jones recognized that 40-60 percent 

of a base’s operations and maintenance funds, excluding civilian pay and facility projects by contract, 

were processed through, or directly managed by, the Base Civil Engineer. He was concerned with the 

allocation and management of these sizeable resources. CEMET provided an objective evaluation of 

how civil engineering resources were managed.211 As General Wright described it, 

CEMET was a full-time team of five or six specialists led by a civil engineering officer made up of civil engineering, budget, transportation, contracting, and 

personnel. They visited installations on a pre-announced schedule for a week to 

evaluate how well BCE functions were performing and how well they were working with other functional areas to support the base mission. The CEMET was not 

an Inspector General. It was a team that evaluated operations, provided assistance 

when necessary, and cross-fertilized lessons learned and good ideas from other 

bases.212

The CEMET was adopted Air Force-wide in 1975 after General Jones and General Thompson 

moved to the Pentagon in 1974. With the merger of Services and Civil Engineering, the team was 

renamed the Civil Engineering and Services Management Evaluation Team (CESMET). Col. George 

E. “Jud” Ellis was selected as the first CESMET team leader. 

CESMET provided evaluation and consultant services to base level managers to improve productivity, mission support, and the quality of Air Force life. The team comprised specialists in civil 

engineering, services, budget, procurement, supply, and transportation. By visiting Air Force installations around the world, they helped solve local problems through direct contact with supervisors and 

subordinates.213 Perhaps most important, CESMET provided a “fresh look” at how the CE business was 

being conducted. Between 1971 and 1975, CESMET visited 200 Air Force bases worldwide; another 

65 visits were conducted between 1975 and 1977. CESMET was credited with improvements to baselevel civil engineer management as well as the promulgation of improved management procedures 

adopted Air Force wide.214

CESMET’s findings were published as “tips” in the Air Force Engineering and Services Quarterly

to “pass along new ways to do the job better.”215 Topics ranged from budget preparation to fire protection training as well as positive approaches to food service management. All organizations in civil 
340 Leading the Way

engineering and services received ‘tips’ to improve morale, output, and quality of work. Additionally, 

individuals and organizations who received certificates recognizing their “Top Notch” work were listed 

in the Air Force Engineering & Services Quarterly.

216

The CESMET program continued until the mid-1980s under the leadership of General Gilbert 

and General Wright, who were successive directors of Engineering and Services from 1978 through 

1986. As General Wright remembered, 

General Gilbert kept an Air Force CESMET active, and I did the same through the 

first two years of my tour as Director in the Pentagon. One or two major commands 

had CESMET teams going. It was strictly voluntary, and unless MAJCOM commanders had interest it wasn’t practical. I found it difficult to continue from the Air 

Staff level and finally realized that to be a useful management tool it had to revolve 

around a MAJCOM commander and wing commanders with genuine personal 

interest and participation. It simply wasn’t practical from headquarters Air Force 

level. After consulting with the MAJCOM civil engineers, I decided to shut it down 

in 1985.217

Another innovation to improve civil engineer management was the establishment of the Base Management Action Group (BMAG). In 1976, Gen. David Jones, Air Force Chief of Staff, tapped General 

Thompson to head BMAG. The main objective of BMAG was to develop an organized, methodical 

approach to base level problems. As General Thompson explained to his special assistant, then-Maj. 

Eugene A. Lupia, “we’re going to set up a new group. We’re going to look at the entire Air Force to 

try to make improvements in the Air Force.”218 As described by General Thompson, 

The objective [of BMAG] is to determine ways to improve upon present organization, procedures, functions, and policies, where possible, and at the same time, 

to realize savings in money, material, and people. The Base Management Action 

Group (BMAG) has been charged to seek out innovations in the way we do business at base level to meet the challenges of increasing personnel costs and budget 

constraints-while maintaining operational readiness and quality of life.219

BMAG comprised 70 to 75 personnel drawn from a variety of departments and disciplines including 

Charlie Hudson, Lester Henriksen, Henry Collin, and Brig. Gen. (later Gen.) Earl O’Loughlin, future 

Commander, Air Force Logistics Command.220

In April of that year, BMAG issued a concept paper outlining the group’s goals and objectives. 

The paper focused on base planning and management processes. Building on prior accomplishments, 

the concept paper identified improvements compatible with past successes.221 Base-level training was 

among the group’s proposals. An in-depth educational program in base planning and management and 

the creation of a new career field in base plans and analysis were advanced.222 In 1976, BMAG also 

proposed merging Services with the Department of Morale, Welfare, and Recreation to the Pentagon. 

The proposal was rejected by the major command and Air Staff. Other BMAG recommendations 

included streamlining the organization of specific branches, including:

• Combining Industrial Engineering Analysis and Quality Control Sections 

 to reduce overall manning,

• Combining Real Estate and Cost Accounting Sections and realigning them 

 under the Industrial Engineering Branch; 

• Establishing the Environmental Planning Section under Engineering and 

 Construction which was renamed to include Environmental Planning.223
Building On Success 341

BMAG was disbanded shortly after its creation. The impetus for suspending the group was, in 

part, related to Congressional interest in its findings and possible impacts to Air Force appropriations. 

In an interview, General Lupia noted that Congress wanted to be apprised of BMAG actions and ideas 

to adjust the Air Force budget accordingly.224

In 1978, the Management Branch of Air Staff published a document entitled the Base Level Management Plan, which enumerated a wide range of management options for base-level civil engineering, 

identified areas of concern, and presented strategies for corrective action. The Management Branch 

was charged with the mission of overseeing base level civil engineering management policy. In broad 

terms, the plan identified base level management goals and objectives in relation to base-level concerns. 

Management Branch personnel identified 52 separate concerns, organized them into 15 categories, 

and prioritized them into a manageable plan. Personnel throughout Engineer and Services were asked 

to join action agencies and to assist in solving the concerns. Action plan agreements were developed 

for each concern based on the analysis and suggested solutions.225

Advances in Automation

Computer technology and data automation offered tools to further enhance civil engineering performance. Computer automation and its integration into BCE operations supported increased demands 

for efficiency on the base level in keeping with the overriding theme of the period, “doing more with 

less.” The Air Force recognized the potential for computer technology and was an early proponent. 

Introduced in 1967, the Base Engineer Automated Management System (BEAMS) became the primary 

program to manage real property and facility records ranging from construction dates to data on repairs 

and maintenance activities. 

Implementation of BEAMS on the base level proved problematic during the mid to late 1970s. 

As in the case of many early data automation systems, BEAMS often was cumbersome. As a result, 

BEAMS system was never adopted widely as a base-wide management system, despite several modifications.226 Both General Gilbert and General Wright recalled the difficulties implementing BEAMS 

at the base level. General Wright learned about BEAMS while he was Deputy Chief of Staff for 

Engineering and Services at Headquarters USAFE 1974-1975 and recalled, 

I was able to gradually shift my attention from Services back to the O&M business 

where we were attempting to implement base-level production control center procedures, as well as the Base Engineer Automated Management System (BEAMS). 

That was my first exposure to the world of automated management systems...we 

knew that automated systems were the wave of the future and struggled to get the 

system on line. The worst part of it was volume. The reams and reams of computergenerated data and reports that the system created were virtually useless to the 

poor civil engineers working to keep bases glued together. I think BEAMS came to 

haunt every Air Force civil engineer, but it was the beginning of automation in our 

business.227

Despite initial difficulties, computer technology was proven as a powerful, cost effective, and labor 

saving tool for data management. General Ellis, the Deputy Chief of Staff, Engineering and Services 

at Headquarters Tactical Air Command (TAC), spearheaded the second generation of automation.

During his five years at TAC, General Ellis supported adoption of the Wang minicomputer as the 

data management and tracking tool for TAC’s burgeoning construction program. When General Ellis 

arrived at TAC in 1979, $8 million was allocated for civil engineering and services contract programs. 

Funds increased dramatically during the next few years and reached $99 million in 1982. During the 

same period, Military Construction Program budgets rose from $60 million to over $200 million and 
342 Leading the Way

non-appropriated funds increased from $6 million to $15 million. General Ellis faced a workload that 

grew from 100 active projects to over 500 projects without increased staffing. 

General Ellis’ first priority was to address work load management on the base level. He recalled, 

“I was convinced—had been for years—that managing 3,000 job orders per base per month could 

not be done effectively with a stubby pencil. I knew that the BEAMS system could not do the job.” 

General Ellis’ evaluation of BEAMS was insightful. The system’s utility was limited to managing the 

past; it did not support planning or logistics for future work.228

“When I’m out on the road, I like to go look at the hoppers where you put the job orders. 

Have you ever watched the foreman come in and pick through and choose the ones he wants 

to do? The ones that nobody wants to do get old and musty; while we get around to doing 

some of those job orders, we forget that each one represents a customer. It’s a shame. Then, 

if you go to one of the shops, look in the second drawer, left side, and pull it open you’ll find 

old job orders. I’ve won more bets by picking the second drawer left side. WIMS will change 

the way we do business, but not the way computers often do. We are going to automate the 

way we do business today, then we are going to get involved in new and better ways to use the 

computer.”

 

Maj. Gen. George E. “Jud” Ellis, 1986 229

TAC’s adoption of minicomputers occurred during a period of major advances in computer programming. While BEAMS had required computer specialists years to develop programs useful at the 

base level, General Ellis found that the Wang minicomputer could be programmed in a matter of days. 

User-friendly computers enabled base level staff to input data and to generate useful management 

reports very quickly. General Ellis’ strategy for computer adoption was based on hands-on demonstrations of the hardware and software to gain staff acceptance. To ensure computer access, one terminal 

was provided for every three to four employees as a shared work station. General Ellis reported, 

I didn’t force the terminals on anybody. I said, “Use it if you want to.” A most 

interesting thing happened. We put the computer on-line on a Wednesday. It’s usually lonely in my office on Saturday and I like it that way. The first Saturday after 

we turned the computer on, there were four people in my office wondering why the 

computer wasn’t on. So, now we turn the computer on.... It has become an extension of how they do their job.230

Several significant advantages were realized through the adoption of the new computer technology 

at TAC. Access to current data was perhaps the greatest of these advantages. The system accommodated 

continual updates. Current data now were accessible in real time rather than on a quarterly basis. Data 

were not only current, but also easily shared among personnel with access to the system. Shared data 

led to improved communication and greater interaction among branches and divisions. Finally, reports 

that once took days to compile were generated in minutes using the computer.231

Computer technology and automation also supported services programs at the base level and had 

particular application in the food service and billeting—programs that were reliant on accurate inventory and real time data. As General Ellis noted, 

The Services information requirements are as important as the Engineering 

requirements.... The Services guys on my staff got started fast, perhaps faster 

than the Engineers. They found real utility in the system. There was a food service 

report that took two people and eight days to complete. It was never correct. The 
Building On Success 343

computer takes the same report and does it for them in less than 20 minutes; and, 

when they get done with it, it’s right.232

General Ellis was a vocal advocate for the integration of computer technology and civil engineering 

in the Air Force. When speeches initially failed to spark interest among his fellow civil engineers in 

the TAC system, he resorted to demonstrations at the Worldwide Engineering and Services Conference 

realizing that the best way to sell the new system was to demonstrate its capabilities.233

Automation also had strong support on the headquarters level. Between 1980 and 1982, senior 

Engineering and Services personnel initiated the Information Requirements Study to project future 

needs and to develop a long-range data automation plan for the organization. Future demand for 

automation was identified in all aspects of engineering design and construction, programming, operations, budgeting, fire protection, energy consumption, housing, feeding, and billeting.234 The results 

of the Information Requirements Study were the genesis of the Engineering and Services Information 

Management System (ESIMS). ESIMS was envisioned as a computerized umbrella system capable of 

accommodating civil engineering and services software applications to support all levels of the organization, from headquarters to major command-level to base-level. The system ideally would allow for 

application interface and facilitate data transfer throughout the chain of command. The development of 

the ESIMS was included in the 1983 strategic plan and programmed into the five-year funding plan.235

At the Air Staff and major commands, a series of software programs was developed to take full 

advantage of the rapidly developing technology. Programs to track and to monitor project funding, 

contracting, and construction costs included the Civil Engineering Contract Report System, the Design 

and Construction System, and its later iteration, the Programming, Design and Construction (PDC) 

system.236 The PDC was field tested among Air Staff, major commands, and the three AFRCE offices 

during 1984. Plans were developed to operate the system on new computers using the Work Information Management System (WIMS).237 Even an automated program for the Engineering & Services 

Strategic Plan was developed.238

Work Information Management System (WIMS)

The base-level computer automation program developed for civil engineering, the Work Information Management System (WIMS), comprised computer hardware, operating system, and software 

programs. This ambitious system promised automation support to all branches, sections, and functions 

of the civil engineering organization as well as interface with BEAMS. This latter feature was critical 

to access data housed on the earlier system. The WIMS system was designed for simplicity of use and 

to provide access to real time data, flexible data queries, and applications for base level management 

decisions. WIMS also promised communication between bases, the major commands, and Air Staff 

over current Wide Area Telephone Service or 1-800 lines and the soon to be implemented Defense 

Digital Network (DDN).239

WIMS was developed and implemented in discrete phases over several years. Software was 

designed specifically to meet the needs of BCE operations. Examples of the specialized applications 

included those designed to automate job orders and to support material acquisitions. 

The job orders component of WIMS was under development by summer 1981. Pilot tests to 

automate job orders as a stand-alone application were initiated at Eglin AFB, Florida; Barksdale AFB, 

Louisiana; MacDill AFB, Florida; and, Columbus AFB, Mississippi. Work stations to access the system 

were installed in service call areas and in the BCE offices at each base. The new system replaced manual 

job order logs with computerized logs capable of generating Job Order Form 1879, the standardized 

form then in use. The system tracked the status of job orders, generated daily work schedules for the 

shops, and tracked job completion. The system also could be used to track work order requests and to 

generate work order and design schedules. The pilot tests at the selected bases were successful and a 
344 Leading the Way

target date for adoption at individual bases was proposed for early 1982, dependent upon approvals 

by Headquarters AFESC. Air Force-wide implementation of the system was planned for FY83.240

The Civil Engineering Materiel Acquisition System (CEMAS), another component of WIMS, was 

tested at Tinker AFB, Oklahoma, in 1984. This software program was designed to provide inventory 

control for stock support, maintenance, and repair activities. The application tracked total inventory, 

generated bills of materials, documented transactions, and generated residue stock lists. The system 

cut the average time for material acquisition by an estimated 50 percent. In addition, the program 

supported improved efficiency and better tracking of materials to reduce waste, fraud, and abuse 

in the inventory and supply system. Data generated by the program enabled base civil engineers to 

limit on-base materials inventories and to prepare accurate orders to local suppliers.241 CEMAS was 

implemented at Air Training Command installations during the late 1980s.242

The full WIMS automation system was scheduled for implementation in FY84 at Tinker AFB, 

Oklahoma; Chanute AFB, Illinois; Misawa AB, Japan; and, Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona. Expansion 

of the system to all other bases was planned between 1985 and 1988. The base-level hardware for the 

WIMS comprised a “CPU (central processing unit) with one million characters of storage capability, 

a tape drive, one or more disk drives with between 125 to 300 million characters of storage, 30 to 45 

terminals, and 5 to 8 printers.”243 By summer 1984, a WIMS prototype was undergoing tests and 28 

systems were operating on leased Wang equipment. At Tinker AFB, Oklahoma, 71 computer terminals 

were installed and all branches of base civil engineering were using the system. Portions of WIMS were 

installed at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio; McClellan AFB, California; Edwards AFB, California; and, 

the Air Force Academy in Colorado.244 By spring 1985, 31 leased minicomputers were in operation 

throughout Air Force Civil Engineering and Services, including at Air Staff, at all major commands, 

and at nine bases.245

Services Information Management System (SIMS)

Automation for Services also was under development during the early 1970s through the early 

1980s. The food service’s Basic Allowance for Subsistence (BAS) A La Carte (ALC) program was 

the first to experiment with computerization during their conversion of mess halls to cafeterias. The 

ALC program was designed to track the purchase of menu items. The ALC collected data at the cash 

register that characterized each food service transaction. These data were used in planning and inventory control, as well as in tracking sales, volume, and methods of payment. A particularly practical 

application was the Automated Recipe Cost Calculation System, which monitored costs for ingredients 

used in standardized recipes on a monthly basis and adjusted prices accordingly at the cash register.246

This system was renamed the Recipe and Menu Pricing System in 1982.247 The ALC program was 

tested in October 1972 at Shaw AFB, South Carolina; in January 1975 at Loring AFB, Maine; and in 

October 1976 at Barksdale AFB, Louisiana.248

In 1979, reports released by the Defense Audit Service and the General Accounting Office 

illustrated deficiencies in food service programs throughout the entire Department of Defense. Recommendations included in the report were addressed in the development of computerized automation 

programs. In 1981, a new food service automation system was under development at the U.S. Army 

Natick Laboratories, the facility responsible for DoD food service research and development. The new 

system, Automated Food Service Operations System (AFSOS), incorporated numerous features to 

improve inventory and production control, to integrate menu planning, to reduce waste, to incorporate 

accounting data, and to generate a variety of standardized Air Force accounting forms. In addition, the 

AFSOS system also identified and tracked customers through magnetic strip meal cards.249 Magnetic 

meal cards were read by the cash register scanners more quickly than manual meal cards that required 

signature verifications.250 A prototype trial at Seymour Johnson AFB, North Carolina from September 

1982 to February 1983 proved the system to be undersized and slow; however, lessons learned from the 
Building On Success 345

initial test-run were incorporated into later systems. The trial of AFSOS also proved that automation 

was a key to improving efficiency and cutting down on costs.251

An Automated Billeting and Reservation System (ABARS) based on commercial hotel systems 

was tested in 1982 at Eglin AFB, Florida. The system supported front desk staff in reservation and 

housing functions. Although this stand-alone program was designed for a single base application, the 

system saved money and illustrated the efficiency of automation in assigning and tracking government 

quarters.252

Although successful computer applications were developed to support specific program areas in 

Services, little attention had been paid to developing a comprehensive hardware and software package. By 1984, a program incorporating lessons learned from earlier computer applications and testing 

programs was under development. The new program, known as the Services Information Management 

System (SIMS), could be folded into a single procurement by virtue of shared hardware with its civil 

engineer counterpart, WIMS. Proactive planning reduced hardware acquisition costs and assured 

compatibility among the computer systems used at the bases and major commands.253

SIMS was built from scratch in 1983. A team of Services specialists representing base personnel from seven commands was assembled to identify the requirements of each area of Services. The 

Tiger Team also included members from the Air Force Data Systems Design Center and members of 

Headquarters AFESC. The group met for 90 days at Tyndall AFB, Florida. Working long hours without 

break, the focused team emerged with the basic system design for SIMS. The system automated a vast 

array of labor-intensive administrative functions in food services, billeting, furnishings management, 

linen exchange, mortuary affairs, administration, and Prime RIBS. The final refinements to the system 

were added by the Data Design Center and Headquarters AFESC staff.254

By December 1983, the billeting application was completed. Individual records management for 

each room in base lodging and contract quarters was at the core of the billeting program. The program tracked space availability, reservations, registrations, check outs, and housekeeping.255 By 1984, 

program modules were under development for Mortuary Affairs, Prime RIBS, and food service.256 A 

proto-type SIMS was installed on a Wang minicomputer at Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona in December 

1984. Furnishings software was the first module installed, with billeting, mortuary affairs, Prime RIBS, 

linen exchange, and administration applications added shortly thereafter.257 The test at Davis-Monthan 

AFB was completed in 1985.258

The hardware chosen to field WIMS and SIMS was the Wang mini-computer. In 1983, PACAF 

installed a new Wang VS-100 to support management of its burgeoning construction program.259 In 

September 1984, the Directorate of Engineering and Services received Air Force approval to acquire 

hardware to support the Air Force Mini-computer Multi-user System and the WIMS/SIMS programs. 

The request for proposals for hardware acquisition was released on November 29, 1984.260 Bids were 

closed on April 1, 1985.261 Validation of vendor proposals occurred between April and August 1985 followed by live demonstrations of hardware and software by responsive bidders.262 On January 24, 1986, 

the contract for the Air Force Mini-computer Multi-user System was awarded to Wang Laboratories.263

TAC initiated an aggressive implementation program beginning at Shaw AFB and Davis-Monthan 

AFB that same year.264 By summer 1986, 33 WIMS and 9 SIMS systems were ordered and training 

on the new systems had begun.265 In 1987, WIMS was installed at twelve additional TAC bases, while 

SIMS was installed at five bases.266 At ATC, 12 of 13 WIMS systems were installed by December 

1989 and 11 of the SIMS systems were funded fully.267 By the end of 1990, the 115th SIMS computer 

system was installed at Lackland AFB, Texas. The Lackland AFB system was the largest in service, 

with over 150 workstations and with telecommunications links to over 30 remote locations. By 1992, 

the last of the 116 SIMS systems was operational.268 The final accounting for the SIMS hardware 

acquisition was over $23 million.269

In addition, work stations connected to WIMS also provided access to a variety of technical 

databases maintained by other agencies and private industry. The accessible database included the 
346 Leading the Way

Air Force Environmental Model and Data Exchange, the Forest Management Information System, the 

Environmental Technical Information System, and Paver, a data base for base pavements.270

In 1990, the Air Force Management Engineering Agency, in cooperation with AFESC, conducted a 

study on the impact of implementing WIMS on the base level. The purpose of the study was to analyze 

the impact of WIMS on base civil engineering operations. Seventeen bases participated in the study. 

Thirteen bases completed questionnaires on the WIMS program, while investigators conducted onsite surveys at four additional bases. Investigators found that, across the board, WIMS had improved 

productivity, customer service, and mission support. One advantage of WIMS was its adaptability and 

its ability to meet the demands of individual civil engineering organizations. The study concluded, 

“The WIMS decentralized software development concept has been successful because the users have 

a direct and immediate impact on applications they enhance or develop. The software has continually 

evolved and it will continue to improve because the users continuously infuse new and better ideas.”271

The drive to realize the advantages posed by emerging computer technologies continued in pace 

with the Air Force-wide efforts for automation. By the late 1980s, the Air Force also was investing in 

personal computers configured in local area and wide area networks. As Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn 

remembered, 

[General Ellis, Director of Engineering and Services from 1986 to 1989] had a 

remarkable competency when it came to management. He was the first to see the 

value of information technology in civil engineering. He understood coding and 

the architectural processes of proprietary information, how to format it, how to 

program it, and things of that sort. He had a love affair with information solutions. 

We made the Wang decision, and I believe he and I jointly made the decision to 

go to PCs when he was still on active duty. What was going on in my era was 

implementing the operating strategies that he had crafted earlier, so I would say 

those implementing strategies for information solutions were incubating in the mid1980s, and I think Jud retired in 1989.... It was in 1988-1989 that we actually got 

into implementing the local area network, wide area network, PC driven.272

In addition to advances in hardware and networking, attention also was paid to emerging program 

standards in the fields of engineering, architecture, and services. For example, Computer Aided Design 

and Drafting (CADD), a commercial software application fast emerging as an industry standard, was 

tested at the San Antonio Real Property Maintenance Agency, Texas, for application in creating and 

maintaining base comprehensive plans and facility design. Once testing was completed, CADD was 

added to the automation arsenal for the civil engineer organization between FY87 and FY90.273

Cost Containment: Contracting, Consolidation, and Early Privatization 

Additional avenues for “doing more with less” were sought to manage base operations and reduce 

manpower. Contracting, outsourcing, consolidation, and privatization were explored to stretch financial resources and to maximize personnel effort. An early trial in total outsourcing was illustrated by 

the 1960 service contract for base civil engineering functions at Vance AFB, Oklahoma. Under the 

contract, responsibility for all civil engineering work, as well as aircraft maintenance, supply, vehicle 

maintenance, and other support services was assumed by a private sector contractor.274 Another early 

example of base operations by contractors was Reese AFB in Lubbock, Texas. By 1974, this base was 

operated by Northrop Corporation.275 The majority of early contracting, consolidation, and privatization initiatives were less comprehensive and focused on discrete functions and programs within base 

level civil engineering and services. 
Building On Success 347

Areas that were examined early on were supply and food service. Since the early 1970s, ATC and 

SAC experimented with streamlining supply and procurement processes for base civil engineering. 

On August 23, 1977, a memorandum entitled Use of Contractor Operated Stores for Commercial Item 

Support expanded the use of private contractors in supply acquisition for base maintenance and repair 

activities. The Contractor Operated Civil Engineer Supply Store (COCESS), developed by SAC in 

1970, was a direct user-vendor contract to purchase supplies as needed, rather than maintaining extensive on-base inventories of materials necessary for facility maintenance and repair.276 The memorandum 

established criteria for the types and range of items that could be acquired from commercial sources 

under new and renewed COCESS contracts.277 COCESS was later replaced by the Civil Engineering 

Materiel Acquisition System (CEMAS), under which base shops maintained standardized stock lists 

and purchased additional supplies from local suppliers, as needed. 

Food service was another early target for outsourcing. Contracting out on base food service led to 

increased demand for expertise in contracting and oversight. In 1977, Air Force Regulation 146-14 was 

rewritten to provide revised guidance for Food Service Technical Representatives of the Contracting 

Officer in contracts and meal coordination.278 In 1981, Air Force Regulation 146-14 was reissued to 

establish policies and guidance to food service officers on food service contracts.279 Training in food 

service contract administration was incorporated into the curriculum at Lowry AFB, Colorado “to 

provide added emphasis on training regarding food service contract and responsibilities of Technical 

Representatives of the Contracting Officer.”280

San Antonio Real Property Maintenance Agency

Consolidation of real property maintenance and civil engineering functions in regions containing 

a concentration of military installations was a concept advanced by the General Accounting Office 

(GAO) to DoD from the late 1960s. During the late 1970s, DoD tasked the Air Force to establish such 

an organization in San Antonio, Texas to provide base civil engineering services for Army and Air 

Force properties in the area. The installations and facilities selected for consolidated services were 

Kelly AFB under Air Force Logistics Command, Brooks AFB under Air Force Systems Command, 

Randolph AFB and Lackland AFB under Air Training Command, Fort Sam Houston under the U.S. 

Army, 22 Army Reserve Centers, Camp Bullis, as well as several nearby DoD recreation areas. In 

October 1978, the San Antonio Real Property Maintenance Agency (SARPMA) became operational. 

This industrially funded agency was tasked with providing “professional, efficient, and economical Civil/Facilities Engineering support.” SARPMA was responsible for maintenance and repair for 

all buildings, pavements, and grounds; minor construction; utilities operations; and refuse disposal, 

custodial, and entomological services for a combined inventory of 5,945 buildings containing over 

42 million square feet on 47,000 acres.281 The objective of SARPMA was to realize substantial cost 

savings through consolidating personnel, materials, and supplies from five separate organizations into 

a centralized civil engineer organization.

In its early years, SARPMA faced serious challenges in staffing, work control, automated data 

management, supply acquisition, and customer satisfaction. Customer relations were an issue and 

required large amounts of time and effort from SARPMA leaders to overcome negative perceptions. 

Participating Air Force commanders felt that they had been forced to relinquish control of base civil 

engineering on their individual installations. Insufficient manpower continuously plagued the organization. SARPMA operated under personnel ceilings imposed by ATC; the agency did not operate 

as a separate Air Staff agency with separate staffing allocations. Customers continually complained 

about the lack of responsiveness to work requests and the excessive bureaucracy required to complete 

work and job orders. Despite a staff dedicated to correcting these problems, investigations by the Air 

Force, DoD, and GAO throughout the 1980s found that SARPMA failed to deliver the projected cost 

savings in manpower and materials. A 1983 in-depth analysis by Air Training Command found that 
348 Leading the Way

SARPMA, “Was a bad idea which failed to produce the savings as anticipated. The consolidation has 

created significant management problems, many of which still exist; and the only reason it is working 

at all is due to the extraordinary efforts of management to make it work, including adding significant 

amounts of overhead to support the operation.” Plans to disband SARPMA were underway in 1984 and 

completed in October 1989. Based on Air Force experience, the SARPMA experiment in consolidating 

military civil engineering organizations on a geographical basis was unsuccessful.282

By the early 1980s, maintenance and repair costs rose substantially as the Air Force coped with 

aging facilities. Air Force civil engineers traced the increased costs to the average 30-year age of the 

majority of Air Force real property. Greater expenditures were required to maintain a state of readiness for aging facilities. Property conditions further were exasperated by deferred maintenance, which 

contributed to accelerated facility deterioration and major repair. The Backlog of Maintenance and 

Repair (BMAR) was developed by FY81 to measure maintenance and repair facility projects that were 

validated and programmed in the Air Force budget for “the prior fiscal year but which had to be deferred 

due to a lack of resources.” The Civil Engineering Contract Report System was the automated system 

developed at Headquarters to track BMAR projects. With accurate automated tracking, Air Staff was 

able to justify fully increased repair and maintenance appropriations for future years.283 Quantifying 

the number of BMAR projects also contributed to greater use of private sector contractors for baselevel repair work to supplement an already taxed base-level work force.

Increased reliance on contractors added new management duties to the civil engineering mission 

requiring unique and specialized skill sets. Among these new duties were developing statements of 

work, preparing cost estimates, serving as contract technical representatives, and overseeing quality 

assurance evaluation/assessments.284

By 1985, the terms “privatization” and “third-party financing” entered the vocabulary of civil 

engineering. Both strategies for cost containment presented technical and substantive challenges. The 

concepts presented a radical departure from outsourcing and private sector contracting, more traditional 

methods of supplementing manpower while containing costs. Private financial investment, long-term 

lease, or real property transfer to the private sector, all privatization possibilities, were complex issues 

with far reaching ramifications. 

The Air Force began to experiment with privatization during the mid-1980s. In 1985, the Air Force 

announced that it was exploring third-party financing to qualify proposals on a contract to conduct 

economic analyses, to assess and solve legal and policy implications, and to develop a request for 

proposal for third-party construction of visiting officers quarters and conference center facilities at 

Bolling AFB, D.C., and Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. Later, Tactical Air Command officials developed a similar project for a visiting airmen’s quarters project to house RED FLAG and other exercise 

participants at Nellis AFB, Nevada. URS Company of Santa Barbara, California, was awarded the 

contract on January 15, 1985.285 The first project selected for privatization was development of a hotel 

at Bolling AFB. The project ran into opposition from the hotel association in Washington, D.C., and 

the U.S. Congress, and was ultimately cancelled.286

The project to develop visitors’ quarters and a conference center at Wright-Patterson, AFB, in 

Ohio, was successful. The project progressed through the planning stages between 1985 and 1989. 

Groundbreaking on the new facility occurred on April 6, 1989. This private sector development was 

a joint venture between HAI, Inc., and Vantage Group, Inc., both from Cincinnati, Ohio. Operating 

under the name of Visicom, the group arranged a 40-year out-lease on government property within 

the base, and constructed and operated the building at private expense for use by military and civilian 

personnel on business to the base. Named the “Hope Hotel” to honor Bob Hope, the building opened 

for business in June 1990. As constructed, the new building provided conference facilities for 850 

participants and 266 rooms and a casual restaurant.287

Contracting, outsourcing, and privatization realized savings in personnel. Yet the tension between 

these programs and Air Force need to maintain peacetime personnel levels sufficient to meet the 
Building On Success 349

readiness mission continued. As Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr., Director of Civil Engineering and 

Services from 1982 to 1986, explained, 

The Reagan Administration brought the world of privatization to the Defense 

Department. Privatization covered a lot of ground, all the way from operation of 

AFLC [Air Force Logistics Command] depots to contracting civil engineer and 

food service operations. DoD began to push and direct privatization initiatives that 

are alive and well today. There was a lot of confusion about privatization in the 

early days of the program. People didn’t really understand what privatization was. 

Some confused it with outsourcing or contracting out, as opposed to real privatization, which to me means development, financing, and operation, or even ownership 

by an entity other than DoD. The infamous OMB A-76 document directing competitive cost comparisons for base level activities became a major factor in our 

business. All the while we were concerned with protecting our blue suit wartime 

capability, so there were many confrontations and contentious issues surrounding 

privatization.288

Innovations designed to stretch financial resources during the 1980s included “build/lease” and 

“shared savings.” Build/lease was promoted as a new approach to base housing. The strategy eliminated the costs associated with military housing construction and maintenance while meeting military 

housing needs. Under the process, as tested at Eielson AFB, Alaska, housing was built by private 

developers who offered the units to the military under lease or rental agreements. This method for 

meeting military housing demand was authorized under the Military Housing sections of the Military 

Construction Authorization Act, which was passed on October 16, 1983. Solicitations for bids issued 

under the build/lease program enumerated the general government housing requirements and construction standards. Solicitations specified the number of units and the number of rooms per unit. All 

design, construction, and maintenance costs were borne by the developer. Military leases and rental 

agreements were proposed for 20 years and 15 years, respectively. Under build/lease, the government referred military applicants to the private housing management firm representing the developer. 

Military tenants opting to occupy the reserved military housing coordinated directly with the private 

firm.289 These initial forays into military-private cooperation in military housing foreshadowed later 

and more ambitious military family housing privatization programs. 

Increased reliance on contracting in meeting the base level civil engineering mission led to efforts 

to standardize and streamline the contracting process. The first project executed under the Simplified Acquisition of Base Engineering Requirements (SABER) program was initiated in December 

1986. As noted at the time of its adoption, SABER was a contracting process “that greatly expedites 

contract execution of BCE requirements by reducing design work and eliminating normal contracting 

advertising/award periods. It is particularly well suited for reducing the BCE work order and contract backlogs.”290 Indefinite Delivery/Indefinite Quantity Contracts were awarded under SABER that 

included 25,000 pre-negotiated tasks covering virtually every construction trade. The vehicle afforded 

economies in scale and streamlined the contracting process. Air Force SABER planners coordinated 

directly with the base to define the job requirements, selected from the list of pre-priced tasks, and 

executed purchase orders.291 SABER generally was employed for construction projects under $200,000 

with minimal design requirements; at least 50 percent of the tasks required to complete the project 

were selected from the pre-priced contract lists.292 Project lead time was reduced under SABER by 

eliminating the time required for detailed design review and contract notifications. Work orders for 

$150,000 typically were in construction in 60 days, while renovation work costing $40,000 was begun 

in 30 days.293
350 Leading the Way

By 1989, SABER contracts were in place at 23 Air Force bases and more than $30 million in 

construction work was completed using the procurement process.294 The number of bases utilizing the 

SABER program grew to 45 by July 1990. Between 1986 and July 1990, $130 million in construction 

projects were executed under SABER.295

Base Closure

Base closure and the reduction in Air Force facilities and personnel were final options in the ongoing struggle to contain costs. From the early 1960s until the mid-1970s, the Office of the Secretary 

of Defense made autonomous decisions regarding the realignment and closure of bases and installations. These decisions initially did not require consultation with the U.S. Congress, the military, or 

the public. In 1976, the Air Force proposed closing Kincheloe AFB, Michigan; Craig AFB, Alabama; 

and Webb AFB, Texas, and reducing activities at Loring AFB. Maine. As part of the closure process, 

the Air Force prepared environmental impact statements, which were filed with the Council on Environmental Quality in compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).296 No further 

consultation or approvals were necessary. 

Decision making and procedures for base realignment and closure changed in 1977 with the passage of Public Law 95-82. This law mandated that DoD notify the U.S. Congress of all base closings, 

assess “the strategic, environmental, and local economic consequences” of base closings, and refrain 

from further action pending congressional comment. No major Air Force bases were closed under the 

provisions of the law. By the late 1980s, rising base maintenance costs prompted the reexamination 

of base realignment and closure procedures.297

In 1988, the Secretary of Defense chartered the first bipartisan Commission on Base Realignment 

and Closure (BRAC) under procedures authorized under Public Law 100-526 (October 1988). The 

bipartisan commission was established to make military-wide recommendations to the Secretary of 

Defense and the U.S. Congress. Lawmakers then voted to accept or reject the commission’s recommendations in their entirety. The first BRAC commission presented its recommendations in December 

1988, which subsequently were approved by the Secretary of Defense in January 1989 followed by the 

U.S. Congress. The Air Force bases slated for closure included Chanute AFB, Illinois; George AFB, 

California; Mather AFB, California; Norton AFB, California; and, Pease AFB, New Hampshire.298

The success of the bipartisan commission led to the passage of Public Law 101-510 Defense Base 

Closure and Realignment Act of 1990. Under this legislation, Congress charged the Department of 

Defense with compiling a list of bases for closure and realignment, which would be submitted for 

consideration to an independently constituted commission. This BRAC commission first met in 1991.299

Zonal Maintenance

Cost containment, efficiency, and customer service were pursued aggressively in base-level civil 

engineering organizational structure throughout the period from 1975 to 1990. Operations in the 

base maintenance and repair shops were one area of the organization that was continually scrutinized 

to increase efficiency, to reduce costs, to complete maintenance and repair tasks effectively, and to 

improve customer service. On a typical base, over half of BCE employees were involved in physical 

maintenance and repair activities. These employees usually were organized into shops by trade classifications. As Harry Rietman recalled of his time in the Maintenance Division, 

There was another group that was concerned with the organization of the base civil 

engineers. They were continually trying to improve the efficiency of the organization to accomplish the maintenance work at base level. There was the so-called 

“Find It, Fix It” program, where when a mechanic went into a building to do a job 
Building On Success 351

The idea of a self-help program was suggested by MSgt. Norris Cherry, who was serving with 

the 52d Civil Engineering Squadron at Spangdahlem AB, West Germany. Sergeant Cherry 

thought that the program would “encourage people residing in housing to take care of minor but 

time consuming tasks in their quarters, such as replacing hinges, door knobs, floor tiles or toilet 

seats.” Sergeant Cherry was rewarded $750 for his suggestion, which, in the first three months, 

eliminated 419 job orders for civil engineers. The Air Force projected that the program would 

save as much as $17,909 within one year.304

Self-Help Program 

and found that there was more to do, he wasn’t supposed to go back and say there 

was something else wrong. They were supposed to do everything that needed to be 

done in that building while they were there.300

The structural maintenance and repair team (SMART) was one concept advanced to restructure 

shops and to improve work efficiency. The shops traditionally were organized by trade. Job orders 

frequently were subdivided into tasks by trade and assigned to multiple shops. The involvement of 

a series of shops in a single job order duplicated mobilization costs and extended work schedules. 

Under SMART, multi-trade teams were assembled to enable holistic project execution. Such teams 

incorporated all crafts required to complete full job order. The SMART approach was particularly 

effective in emergency maintenance and repair projects.301

On-base “U-Fix-It” or self-help programs were another strategy to relieve the workloads of the 

BCE shops and drew upon the initiative of Air Force personnel. These programs fostered maintenance 

skills among personnel occupying family housing, as well as those working in an office or other facility. These programs encouraged occupants to perform simple maintenance and repairs, and freed civil 

engineering craftsmen to perform the more difficult projects.302 Base level self-help programs became 

particularly valuable during civil engineering deployments and when maintenance budgets were underfunded; the majority of bases operated self-help programs. Self-help centers were an enhancement 

to self-help programs and staffed by technical advisors in building maintenance and repair. Self-help 

centers provided technical support for customers taking on work that was a low priority for the BCE 

shops, and tapped into a volunteer labor force.303

Ideas for reconfiguring operations in the base-level shops again were circulating in the mid1980s. General Ellis was a strong advocate for readiness and the concept that civil engineers should 

be organized to easily transition from peacetime to war (Figure 4.4). Following one of General Ellis’ 

conferences, Col. Ray Schwartz, Deputy Chief of Staff, Engineering and Services at Strategic Air 

Command, and his deputy, Col. Allen J. Sailer, agreed that the wartime organization did not rely on a 

central work control system but rather a direct relationship with the customers and real-time decision 

making on work priorities and execution. They believed that zonal maintenance could do this and 

provide more opportunity for young officers and NCOs to gain leadership experience needed during 

deployments, instill a sense of ownership and pride, and foster some informal friendly competition 

between zones. They chartered a team to further develop this concept that became known as Readiness 

and Ownership Oriented Management (ROOM) when it was initiated in 1986. ROOM was a reorganization of the Operations branch to meet readiness requirements while providing the most efficient 

organization for peacetime operations. It aligned manpower to correlate with wartime requirements 

and allowed increased war skills training. The concept was developed and tested at Pease AFB, New 

Hampshire; Loring AFB, Maine; and, Minot AFB, North Dakota in 1986-87. The centralized shops 

and centralized service call desk were abolished and the people were formed into zonal maintenance 

groups called “Craft Teams” Under ROOM, work crews comprising multiple skill sets were assigned 
352 Leading the Way

to a designated base zone. “The workmen, instead of coming to the civil engineering compound and 

going off to their job site, just to get back in their car half an hour later, they would report to the trailer 

to get what they need and go directly to work.”305 ROOM was also designed to avoid the reorganization during contingencies, when civil engineers traditionally formed interdisciplinary teams instead of 

teams based on crafts. SAC implemented ROOM command-wide in 1987.306 In an effort to promote 

ownership and accountability for maintaining Air Force facilities, Colonel Schwartz challenged the 

engineers at Loring that he wanted a mechanical room where he could eat off the floor. During his 

next trip to the base, they took him to a mechanical room clean enough that he could have eaten off 

the floor.307

A related concept for reorganizing base shops, Combat Oriented Results Engineering (CORE), was 

implemented at TAC in 1987 at Luke AFB, in Nevada under the direction of the base civil engineer 

Lt. Col. Paul Hains. At Luke AFB, maintenance work was subdivided into heavy and light repair and 

further categorized into horizontal and vertical work. CORE was implemented at Moody, MacDill, 

and Homestead AFBs in the following year, while the civil engineer organization at Cannon AFB, 

New Mexico, developed a similar system, known as Combat Engineering.308 TAC implemented CORE 

command-wide in March 1990.309 Both ROOM and CORE located teams of multi-skilled civil engineering personnel in proximity of their assignments and defined area of specialized responsibility.

310

During 1990, Headquarters AFESC reviewed ROOM and CORE to evaluate their effectiveness 

on BCE organization and productivity. The best elements of both programs were combined as a result 

of this in-depth review (Figure 4.5). Under the comprehensive concept of “zonal maintenance,” the 

Operations and Maintenance Branch for each base civil engineering organization was organized into 

three major components: (a) the zones, (b) heavy repair, and (c) utilities. A typical base was divided 

into one to six zones. Personnel from the BCE shops were organized into SMART teams responsible 

for performing repetitive minor maintenance and repair projects on selected base facilities on a regular 

Source: School of Civil Engineering and Services, “Zonal Maintenance,” ca. 1992, 4.

Source: “Zonal Maintenance Guide,” prepared by HQ AFESC, 1990, n.p.
Building On Success 353

schedule. The SMART teams comprised approximately 25 craftsmen representing all trades. Intensive 

repair functions and utilities operation and maintenance were assigned to separate specialized teams. 

Under zonal maintenance, a customer submitted a work order to the zonal manager responsible for 

scheduling his team. Jobs exceeding the scope of work performed by the zonal maintenance crew were 

referred to a work order review panel, which assigned job orders to the heavy repair crew or forwarded 

them on to SABER for contracting. The advantages of the zonal maintenance approach were direct 

responsiveness to the customer and enhanced military readiness achieved through the development of 

leadership, team members, and interdisciplinary skills among the crafts.311 The anticipated manpower 

savings led to the adoption of the zonal maintenance Air Force wide in 1992 and paved the way to 

the Objective Squadron.312

Energy and Environmental Planning

Apprehension over access to foreign oil and the adequacy of domestic energy reserves led to action 

by the U.S. executive and legislative branches that directly influenced Air Force energy policies during 

the period. Civil Engineering met these national concerns with proactive responses incorporating 

planning, data collection, and action to adopt less vulnerable energy sources, to implement energy 

conservation, and to achieve efficiency in energy use. 

Energy—its sources, use, and conservation—was an important issue throughout the period 1975-

1990. In 1978, the Headquarters AFLC undertook an energy audit in response to Executive Order 

(EO) 12003, issued on July 20, 1977. The EO required Federal agencies to develop a 10-year energy 

conservation plan. The ensuing Air Force audit resulted in the Building Energy Audit Program that 

concentrated on quantifying current energy use and identifying practices for reduced energy consumption in compliance with the EO.313

The USAF Energy Plan of 1978 was considered the first step towards assuring the future adequacy of energy supplies. The Energy Group, established at AFESC in 1978 headed by Maj. Birney 

Pease, and later Lt. Col. William Gaddie and included Capt. Michael Aimone and long-time civilian 

employees Fred Beason, Larry Strother, and Ed Wilson.314 The Group managed the Air Force Facility 

Energy Program and developed policies to ensure compliance.315 In accordance with EO 12003, the 

Air Force energy conservation plan mandated a 20 percent reduction in energy consumption by FY85, 

a 30 percent reduction of FY75 energy levels by FY90, and a 45 percent per square foot reduction 

in energy consumption for new construction.316 The plan also required a complete evaluation of all 

energy programs in the Air Force by the end of FY79 and a path forward to achieving the energy goals 

set forth by the President, the Department of Energy, and DoD. The Senate Armed Services Committee attached an additional $100 million to the FY78 MCP Energy Investment Program. Included 

in the Senate Report were recommendations for DoD to “eliminate its reliance on natural gas as fuel 

for large energy plants (except in rare special situations) by 1980” and “eliminate its requirements 

for oil as a fuel for large energy plants (except in rare special situations) by 1985.”317 The ten-year 

facility energy plan provided compliance with EO 11912 (April 13, 1976), EO 12003, Energy Policy 

and Conservation Act, and DoD Directive 4170.10 entitled Energy Conservation (March 29, 1979). 

Energy objectives outlined in the plan emphasized energy self-sufficiency at remote sites; established 

a preference for energy derived from coal, solid wastes, and biomass; and reduced energy usage at 

facilities.318 In addition to the Energy Group, AFESC also fielded a Facility Energy Assistance Team. 

The team evaluated energy consumption and assisted CONUS BCEs in identifying ways to manage 

and conserve energy in addition to meeting the energy goals for individual bases.319

Concentrated effort was expended to convert base utilities from oil to coal. Six coal conversion 

projects were completed between FY76 and FY83 through an expenditure of $176.6 million in military 

construction funds.320 Alternative energy sources were considered by the USAF in the ten-year facility 
354 Leading the Way

energy plan. The FY81 budget included funding for a nuclear energy plant at Plattsburgh AFB, New 

York.321

In 1978, 77 percent of all energy used by the Air Force was derived from petroleum.322 Facilities 

accounted for 29 percent total energy use by Air Force in 1979. The Air Force reduced energy consumption by 1.8 percent between 1975 and 1978. By FY84, energy consumption was down 10.9 percent 

in comparison to the FY75 levels and the 20 percent reduction requirement for FY85 was met. 323

Energy continued at the forefront of DoD and Air Force concerns into the 1980s and 1990s. In 

June 1978, the Defense Energy Program Policy Memorandum 78-4 created the DoD Energy Awareness 

Program. The program publicized energy conservation and awareness through energy conservation 

awards and program recognition throughout DoD.324 The Federal Energy Management Improvement 

Act of 1988 raised energy reduction targets for facilities to 10 percent per square foot. 325 The Air Force 

closely monitored energy usage through Air Force-wide energy plans, as requested in Presidential and 

DoD mandates. The reduction rates established for Federal agencies were integrated into Air Force 

energy objectives. To meet these energy reduction goals, the USAF utilized funds from the Energy 

Conservation Investment Program (ECIP) to finance energy retrofits. The BCEs were also pressured 

for energy efficient operational and maintenance work habits. In 1981, Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert 

wrote on energy saving procedures for base level operations including “boiler tune-up programs, 

heating and cooling control calibration, [and] hot-water temperature setbacks.”326 New facilities were 

constructed to replace energy inefficient buildings; the Army Corps of Engineers and Naval Facilities 

Engineering Command were the design agents for these projects. 327

Land use planning and the environment loomed large in the national consciousness during the 

period as the United States sought responses to the unforeseen effects of past practices and safeguards 

for the future. As environmental activism increased in the 1970s, the Air Force responded with organizational, programmatic, and policy changes. Threats to the integrity of air base operations from 

off-base development were recognized. The responsibilities of the BCEs increased to keep pace with 

a staggering number of environmental laws, regulations, and initiatives. Abatement and disposal 

programs were executed based on the latest scientific research and best practices of the period.

Legislation promoted collaboration between Air Force installations and local civilian communities 

on common planning issues. Data coordination and cooperation between Air Force bases and local 

communities was encouraged through briefings to local communities on mission changes and beddown 

requirements and through community input in environmental impact statements prepared under NEPA. 

Greater coordination was sought on flight schedules. By 1975, the Air Force had executed memoranda 

of understanding with 61 communities.328

The Air Installation Compatible Use Zone (AICUZ) was one program under which Air Force BCEs 

worked with local communities on local planning and zoning issues. The AICUZ program examined 

off-base land use in the vicinity of Air Force bases and identified suitable land uses in those areas 

based on specific criteria, such as aircraft noise levels and distances required for runway approaches. 

The AICUZ reports presented the results of the Air Force analyses of land use plans for adjoining 

communities and data on aircraft noise levels, accident potential, and airfield and air space criteria; 

recommendations for local land uses compatible with base operations were identified. Implementation of AICUZ promoted the adoption of land uses by communities surrounding Air Force bases that 

benefited both the Air Force and local citizenry.329 AICUZ data also was used to support the acquisition 

of land near bases with nearby development. Utilizing FY76 MCP, Congress authorized acquisitions at 

23 bases and provided the program with $16.4 million. Concurrently, the Air Force initiated additional 

acquisitions at 10 other bases as part of the Minor Land Acquisition program. Community planning 

programs utilized AICUZ data during the 1980s in a Joint Land Use Study.330 By 1977, 42 AICUZ 

studies were released to the public. The studies all contained recommendations to achieve compatible 

land use near individual Air Force bases.331
Building On Success 355

In 1979, AFESC managed the natural resources program and was the responsible party for “monitoring, reviewing, and approving/disapproving all installation natural resources plans and cooperative 

agreements; monitoring and compiling natural resources conservation reports; and acting as point of 

contact for major commands/AFRCEs on land management, landscape development, forestry, grazing, 

agriculture, flood plains and wetlands, threatened and endangered species, reduction, and investigation engineering.”332 Each BCE was charged with executing base level natural resources program in 

compliance with DOD, Public Laws, and Air Force directives, such as AFM 126-1, Conservation and 

Management of Natural Resources. 

The emphasis on resource conservation extended to the identification and management of cultural 

resources. Compliance with Sections 110 and 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 

and Executive Order 11593 (1971) were a continuing responsibility for BCEs. On-going efforts to 

locate, inventory and nominate all eligible properties to the National Register of Historic Places, as 

well as efforts to comply with regulations (36 CFR 800) to consider the effects of all undertakings 

upon historic properties and to afford the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation with an opportunity to comment, presented unique challenges to civil engineering. Historic properties, defined as 

buildings, structures, objects, sites, and districts that possessed significance and integrity under the 

National Register Criteria for Evaluation (36 CFR 60.4 [a-d]) traditionally were limited to archeological resources and historic buildings on Air Force land that predated military acquisition. The aging 

inventory of Air Force real property was, however, fast approaching the general National Register 

50-year age threshold, necessitating greater consideration.333

Pollution abatement was another pressing environmental issue for the Air Force. An estimated 

$300 million was allocated for pollution abatement between 1967 and 1979; $160 million was allocated 

for projects through 1984. In 1980, the USAF was in non-compliance with the National Clean Air Act 

at 22 installations and in non-compliance with the Clean Water Act at 23 installations. In addition, 133 

installations had to obtain 175 permits through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System, 

established by the EPA and authorized under the Clean Water Act, that regulated sources that ejected 

pollutants directly into waterways through permits.334

Installation Restoration Programs (IRPs) were implemented at Air Force installations across the 

country. This program was funded by the Defense Environmental Restoration Account which grew 

considerably during the late 1980s. By 1989, the AF share of this account was $175 million. The 

program identified Air Force locations that were used for storage or disposal of toxic and hazardous 

substances. IRP plans were then developed to remove the threats to the public health and environment. 

The Office of The Civil Engineer established an outreach program between HQ Air Force and the 10 

EPA Regions with annual meetings with the Regional Administrator or Deputy Administrator. This 

helped defuse issues between EPA regulators and the Air Force before they became contentious and 

assisted in the Agent Orange project described below. At base level, the BCE was responsible for the 

first and last phases of the IRP. During Phase I, the BCE identified the potential for contamination sites 

by reviewing past files and information. Phase II of the process typically was performed by Medical 

Services, which completed environmental and ecological surveys to confirm contamination. Phase 

III of the program required reviews of methods of cleanup and restoration and development of a plan 

for the installation. Phase IV was the implementation of the plan with monitoring completed by the 

BCE.335 McChord AFB in Washington state was among the early major Air Force bases to implement 

the IRP program. Sixty-five sites were identified for environmental cleanup at McChord AFB in 1982; 

nine sites also were listed on the National Priority List, which identified Federal hazardous waste sites 

harmful to humans, and 29 sites were identified on the State of Washington’s Model Toxic Control 

Act, state legislation that required identification and cleanup of hazardous sites. By 1996, McChord 

AFB was the first Air Force installation to achieve 100 percent remedial cleanup. 336

During the late 1980s, the USAF created the Environmental Compliance Assessment and Management Program to assist installation commanders in complying with all applicable pollution standards 
356 Leading the Way

and to review the status of their environmental management system and to act as an “annual audit 

program.”337 The first Air Force Compliance budget line item account was established in 1990 to 

account and track the tremendous growth of Air Force Environmental expenditures. Funding was 

available through the Defense Environmental Restoration Account and a contractor was hired to create 

assessment modules to evaluate environmental and cultural resource issues ranging from air, water, 

and sewage to asbestos and lead. The Air Staff provided each command with two free audits using the 

assessment modules to start the program; thereafter, each major command was required to program 

the funding into its budget.338

The Air Force gave the environmental program high-level visibility in the late 1980s. The Air 

Force Environmental Protection Committee (EPC) was established in 1988. General Ellis proposed 

that the representatives to the Air Force EPC had to be general officer-level and that colonels could 

not substitute for their bosses. Many of the EPC’s decisions were introduced into the operations community down to the wing level at the bases. At the same time, USAF reassigned the responsibility for 

environmental compliance from base civil engineers to base commanders. This shift focused greater 

attention on environmental programs at the base level.339 Further reorganization of the environmental 

program in 1986 when, under General Wright, AFESC’s Natural Resources Division was eliminated 

and its functions, including restoration, forestry, the BASH team, the environmental side of pesticides, 

and general environmental policy, transferred from AFESC to Air Staff. General Wright directed that 

a manpower study be conducted for the entire Air Force Environmental program resulting in a 30 

percent increase in environmental positions worldwide. 340

Disposal of excess Herbicide Orange was a major environmental project undertaken by civil 

engineers during the 1970s and 1980s. The U.S. military had developed several herbicides for use 

as a defoliant to combat the dense jungle foliage during the Vietnam conflict. Herbicide Orange was 

created in 1962 and became the most widely used herbicide.341 Agent Orange, as the herbicide was 

commonly known, was a 50:50 mixture of 2, 4, 5-T (trichlorophenoxyacetic acid) and 2, 4-D (dichlorophenoxyacetic acid). The toxic by-product of 2, 4, 5-T was TCDD (tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin).342

The first links of birth defects to Agent Orange were reported in the Vietnamese newspapers during 

summer 1969. That same year the National Cancer Institute released a study that reported birth defects 

in laboratory animals exposed to 2, 4, 5-T.343 The use of herbicides was phased-out due to concern 

generated by these reports, and, by early 1971, USAF had ceased Operation Ranch Hand, the project 

for the “aerial spray of herbicides in South Vietnam.”344

The Air Force had a stockpile of approximately 2.22 million gallons of unused Agent Orange; 

1.37 million gallons were located in South Vietnam and the balance was stored at Naval Construction Battalion Center in Gulfport, Mississippi awaiting shipment to Vietnam.345 Project Pacer Ivy 

was initiated in 1971 with the purpose of “redrumming” and moving surplus herbicide from South 

Vietnam to Johnston Island.346 The Agent Orange stored at Johnston Island and the Naval Construction Battalion Center, raised the question of disposal of the excess herbicide. Several options were 

considered, ranging from: “soil biodegradation, high-temperature incineration, deep-well injection, 

burial in underground nuclear test cavities, sludge burial, and microbial production.”347 Many options 

met with strong opposition; high-temperature incineration at sea was selected as it was the only viable 

disposal method at that time. 

To burn Agent Orange at sea, the USAF needed an ocean-dumping permit issued through the 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA enforced strict regulations upon the incineration, 

including a set emission rate of one-tenth of one percent of the total amount incinerated, a specific 

locale for incineration, the required use of monitoring devices, and the obligatory rinse of the drums 

with the rinse being incinerated.348 Agent Orange was incinerated between July to September 1977 

aboard the Dutch ship, Vulcanus, as part of Project Pacer HO. Nearly 15,500 drums of Agent Orange 

were incinerated from Naval Construction Battalion Center Gulfport, Mississippi, and approximately 

24,800 drums from Johnston Island.349 This EPA approval was obtained when Col. Donald Kane, Air 
Building On Success 357

Force Environmental Division Chief, met with the EPA Region IV Administrator on this tough stalled 

issue. The Administrator suggested that the Air Force use a Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 

Research and Development permit in place of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 cleanup process. The permit was fast tracked through Region IV and 

when the effort was completed, there was no contaminated soil to remediate. The agency relationships 

established between the Air Force and EPA had smoothed this whole process.350

As a condition of the EPA permit, the USAF was required to monitor the former storage and 

test sites. Following the incineration, the USAF Occupational and Environmental Health Laboratory 

began analysis of facilities at Johnston Island; at Gulfport, Mississippi; and, at Eglin AFB. Residual 

effects of Herbicide Orange were examined in “soil, silt, water, and biological organisms.”351 In a 

1981 memorandum, Col. Walter J. Rabe, Director of Avionics and Weapons, forwarded a proposed 

Statement of Need (SON) for validation. The purpose of USAF SON 2-81, Reclamation of Herbicide 

Orange Contaminated Sites was to document the levels of contaminants at the storage and tests 

sites and to confine the toxic residue. The SON emphasized the necessity for developing methods 

for decontamination so that the sites could be returned to full use. The ESL was appointed the “lead 

laboratory for monitoring and reclamation research.”352 The Environics Division of the ESL collected 

samples at Eglin AFB, Johnston Island, and the Naval Construction Battalion Center at Gulfport, 

Mississippi, throughout the 1980s. In 1988, the EPA approved an incinerator project to destroy the 

residual contaminants at Gulfport, Mississippi. The incinerator was capable of disposing more than 

100 tons of contaminated soil daily; the project processed 26,000 tons of soil from November 1987 

through January of 1989.353

Construction

Introduction

The Department of the Air Force continued to rely upon the Army Corps of Engineers and the 

Naval Facilities Engineering Command as construction contract agents throughout this period. Civil 

Engineering programmed and managed an ambitious volume of base level improvements and new 

construction as well as specialized construction for domestic and international customers. Increased 

livability and quality of life was emphasized in domestic construction programs. Projects for facilities 

to support defensive weapons and sophisticated surveillance were completed in the CONUS while 

overseas projects supported the national posture of détente with the U.S.S.R. 

CONUS Construction

Air Force civil engineers constructed a handful of new construction projects through the Military 

Construction Program (MCP), later known as MILCON, while the Army Corps of Engineers and the 

Naval Facilities Engineering Command served as contract agents for approximately 90 percent of 

Air Force construction. The Air Force Civil Engineering role in all construction funded through MCP 

extended to the identification of construction requirements, preparation of technical and functional 

criteria, preparation of the funding programming, justification of the construction program to the U.S. 

Congress, project siting, and oversight of the design and construction processes.354

The Air Force Regional Civil Engineers (AFRCEs) under the direction of USAF Headquarters at 

the Pentagon coordinated the Air Force construction program with the contracting agents in the Army 

and Navy. AFRCE offices, located in Atlanta, Georgia; Dallas, Texas; and, San Francisco, California, 

were responsible for managing the design, contract award, and construction phases of all projects 

funded through the MCP. By 1979, the AFRCEs’role expanded to encompass MCP management for 

all Air Force bases and the Reserve Forces, including the Air Force Reserves and the Air National 
358 Leading the Way

Guard; commissary design and construction management of projects exceeding 300,000 dollars; family 

housing repair, improvement and construction program management; management of acquisition and 

disposal of real property, primarily land acquisitions; and, management of Air Force environmental 

planning and compliance activities on the Federal and state levels. Each AFRCE office worked with 

the bases and organizations within its geographical region; offices worked directly with as many as 12 

major commands and 81 Air Force installations in their respective regions. The AFRCE staff comprised 

professional military and civilian engineers, architects, and community planners.355

The remaining 10 percent of Air Force construction was exclusively controlled by Air Force civil 

engineers through programs at the Pentagon level, at major commands, and at overseas commands. 

Housing was one area where Air Force civil engineers controlled the entire construction program 

through in-house civil engineering expertise and contracts with architecture and engineering firms. 

The Military Family Housing Program for FY76 reflected an emphasis on environmental awareness and energy conservation. The $16 million budget included such energy saving measures as 

“additional insulation, storm windows or double-pane windows, weather stripping and caulking...” 

and “flow control shower heads, fluorescent light fixtures.”356

During the mid-1970s, the USAF reviewed base livability as a standard for housing and base 

planning. In 1976, the Civil Engineering and Services Directorate investigated “certain aspects of the 

livability question as they pertain to residential, commercial and community services situations.”357

Livability was seen as supporting morale and, consequentially, improved mission effectiveness. New 

programs were implemented to improve base and family housing. The Military Family Housing Post 

Acquisition Improvement Program combined two separate programs, Family Housing Improvement 

and Family Housing Repairs. The integrated program allotted $15,000 per unit for renovations.358

New housing featured “an innovation known as the ‘family room’ which satisfies the need for more 

separation of activities and greater privacy.”359 Amenities, such as dishwashers, clothes washers, garbage disposals and additional bathrooms, were added to existing housing units as livability upgrades. 

Temporary Lodging Facilities (TLFs) garnered attention from the USAF during the 1980s. TLFs 

were on-base quarters used primarily to help relieve the financial impact and family separations during 

a permanent change of station move. They provided housing for families while awaiting delivery of 

furniture, while making arrangements for permanent housing, or for families visiting Air Force hospitals. Although there were 2,566 units at 89 bases by 1983, a critical shortage remained with nearly 20 

bases having no TLFs. In the early 1980s, it became increasingly difficult to fund TLFs through the 

MCP and alternate methods of financing were explored. Beginning with FY83, the Air Force Welfare 

Board, which directly managed several non-appropriated funds, agreed to loan $53 million for TLF 

construction during the FY83-85 time period.360

Under the directorship of Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, housing improvement was a major priority. The FY78-81 MILCON budgets included $180 million in improvements to enlisted personnel 

dormitories and 1,560 family housing units were constructed overseas.361 The FY84 housing program 

was aimed at decreasing the unaccompanied personnel housing (UPH) deficit. The $260 million program sought to create 15,600 spaces. A waiver was granted in 1984 to allow two Airmen to occupy 

three-person rooms in USAFE. Later that year the waiver was extended to include all Air Force bases. 

The Air Force increased their UPH by 52 projects to accommodate 13,693 enlisted and 590 officers 

in FY86. 362

CONUS Construction – Special Projects

USAF civil engineers also contributed their expertise to a variety of special projects. Some were 

related to the evolution of the space and missile programs. These projects offered civil engineers an 

opportunity to be involved in high-profile projects that used the latest technology to support military 

missions. 
Building On Success 359

Missile-X Construction Support

The development of the “Missile-X” (MX) began in 1972 and continued through the late 1970s and 

the 1980s. The complexities of developing the actual missile were compounded by the additional challenge to create a basing system that could be concealed to avoid Soviet attack. The silo based system 

was questioned by Congress as the military struggled to develop the ideal technique for launching. 

Congress made its lack of support for a silo-based MX known in July 1976, when it declined to provide 

funding. Members of Congress considered a trench or shelter launched missile to be a more rational 

approach.By 1979, the Air Force had assessed 40 alternative basing systems for the MX. Alternatives 

included rail-based, plane-based, and ground-based launch facilities. In June 1979, President Carter 

agreed to allow complete development of the MX. It was considered the largest construction project 

ever faced by the Air Force. Four months later, President Carter approved a “horizontal multiple 

protective shelter” system for the missile, and the development began.363

On March 14, 1980, the Air Force Regional Civil Engineer MX (AFRCE-MX) was established 

at Norton AFB, California to oversee the early phases and was assigned the task of managing real 

property associated with the MX program. The office was created with the assumption that it would be 

flexible in accommodating program changes and staff levels. AFRCE-MX at Norton AFB was proposed 

to employ 77 personnel by the close of 1980 and 184 personnel by 1983. The personnel level was 

expected to decline to 138 by 1986. Operating sites, which were created as liaisons to the Air Force 

Engineering and Services Center and Headquarters U.S. Air Force, were planned for Tyndall AFB in 

Florida and Bolling AFB in Washington, DC. Col. Danny N. Burgess headed up the AFRCE when it 

was first established and was succeeded by Brig. Gen. Charles W. Lamb, who served as AFRCE-MX 

chief from 1981 to 1983. The AFRCE was collocated with a Corps of Engineers organization, headed 

by a brigadier general, which facilitated close planning and execution of individual projects that supported the fielding of ballistic missiles.364

A milestone was reached with the creation of the AFRCE-MX organization and the corresponding 

involvement of Air Force civil engineers. As the MX program grew and transformed over time, so did 

the responsibilities of the Air Force civil engineers. Working in an area of advanced engineering and 

construction, the Air Force civil engineer also was placed in the limelight of the largest and most cutting 

edge defense program undertaken by the Air Force. Air Force civil engineers worked with counterparts 

throughout DoD and throughout the world. Lt. Col. Thomas L. Bozarth, then program manager in the 

Programs Division, Directorate of Engineering and Services, pointed out the significance and breadth 

of the AFRCE’s involvement in the MX program in a 1980 article on the topic:

Conceptual planning for new installations, establishing an AFRCE MX, preparing 

environmental impact statements, working on renewable energy sources, and programming test facilities are examples of how Air Force Civil Engineers are helping 

to bring the nation’s most advanced land based weapons system into operation. It is 

evident that those involved in facilities programming, environmental planning, criteria development, and design and construction management will continue to play a 

key role in the success of the M-X weapon system.365

The process to complete an environmental impact statement for the program was unprecedented. 

The potential scope of the preferred deployment in Nevada and Utah was to build two complete Air 

Force bases, one in Coyote Spring Valley north of Las Vegas, Nevada, and the other near Milford, 

Utah. This “Proposed Action” was to disperse the support bases and missile launch facilities over 

approximately 8,500 square miles, but with only about 43 square miles of land to be fenced—mostly 

the supporting bases. Approximately 8,500 miles of roads were planned, of which 1,400 miles would 

be paved with 80,000 acres of land needed for rights-of-way. All roads would be opened to public 
360 Leading the Way

use. Approximately 160,000 acres of land would have been disturbed during construction. As required 

by the Council on Environmental Quality environmental impact statement guidelines, all feasible 

alternatives, including a “No Action” alternative, had to be analyzed and compared with the “Proposed Action.” A total of eight viable deployment alternatives were found for deploying 200 missiles 

throughout the region.366

The environmental impact statement process, managed by AFRCE-MX, cost tens of millions of 

dollars. Among other expenses in the process, remote aerial sensing of natural flora and fauna habitat 

had to be mapped and species identified and populated for impact analysis. In addition, human environmental resources such as land ownership; housing; employment before, during, and after deployment; 

Native American cultural resources; land and water use; as well as archaeological and paleontological 

resources had to be quantified and assessed for impact and mitigation planning. Operational suitability 

sites had to be analyzed and chosen for potential environmental impact mitigation. More than 40 public 

hearings were conducted by AFRCE-MX officials in the deployment areas to present the project and 

record public commentary on the planned actions. When the final statement was filed in January 1984, 

the analysis process was considered to be the largest and most comprehensive ever undertaken by any 

government department or agency.367

In 1981, President Reagan suspended work on the horizontal shelter basing system and approved 

MX missiles launching from Titan II and Minuteman silos; he also renamed the missile the Peacekeeper. In 1983, the Department of Defense approved the placement of 100 Peacekeeper missiles 

within adapted Minuteman silos located at F.E. Warren AFB in Wyoming. The project was assigned 

to the Air Force. After several experiments and design changes, the Peacekeeper was tested in June 

1983 at Vandenberg AFB, California and went into production in February 1984.368

The Reagan Administration’s decision to abandon the horizontal shelter basing system and to 

support the use of Minuteman silos prompted an evaluation of the AFRCE-MX. The purpose of 

the assessment was to determine the ability of the AFRCE-MX to handle the planning required for 

the newly authorized missile program. AFRCE-MX reported to the Ballistic Missile Office (BMO), 

which served as the general manager of the program under Headquarters U.S. Air Force, Directorate 

of Engineering and Services. A July-December 1981 document produced by the Office of the Special 

Assistant defined the responsibilities of the AFRCE-MX as the Facility Program Manager:

• Collection and consolidation of facilities requirements and criteria

• Environmental planning

• Programming

• Design and construction

• Integrated program scheduling

• Interim Operations, maintenance and services

• Support of M-X facilities R&D programs369

In addition to Headquarters U.S. Air Force, these responsibilities were administered in coordination 

with individual bases, major commands, and other counterparts. The tasks assigned to the AFRCE-MX 

were not always straightforward; the organization maintained flexibility and mastered the ability to 

adapt to program changes. The MX program was envisioned to span years and to require an enormous 

design and construction effort.370 As part of the MX program, AFRCE-MX also coordinated with 

non-DoD agencies, including:

• Environmental Protection Agency in preparing Environmental 

 Impact Statements; 

• Department of Interior on land withdrawal procedures;

• Department of Education on schools impact;
Building On Success 361

• Department of Health and Welfare on other community issues; and

• Department of Energy on renewable energy371

In 1982, AFRCE-MX, Headquarters SAC, and BMO were given authority by Headquarters U.S. 

Air Force to begin organizing and overseeing visits by the USAF and contractors to potential basing 

sites. Six bases were chosen: Malmstrom AFB in Montana, Ellsworth AFB in South Dakota, Minot 

AFB and Grand Forks AFB in North Dakota, Whiteman AFB in Missouri, and F. E. Warren AFB in 

Wyoming. Headquarters U.S. Air Force stipulated that “all six Minuteman bases must be given equal 

considerations and treatment prior to selection of the preferred deployment site.”372

Once again, Congress raised red flags and, in 1985, reduced the installation of Peacekeeper missiles 

within silos from the 100 previously approved by DoD to 50. Congress pushed the Reagan Administration to propose a more viable basing system for the missile. The task of placing the 70-foot tall 195,000 

pound Peacekeeper missile within a Minuteman silo designed to hold less than half that amount of 

weight was a daunting one. Eventually, the silos were refitted to accommodate the Peacekeeper. 373

Speakers at the 1985 Air Force Association National Symposium revealed frustrations over the 

constant modifications to the MX Peacekeeper program. Gen. Lawrence A. Skantze, who served as 

commander of Air Force Systems Command, claimed “we will never produce Peacekeeper missiles 

at an economic rate because of the political perturbations.” Continual alterations to the program cost 

money and also cast doubt on the defense capabilities of the United States. General Skantze continued, 

“after three false starts with earlier basing modes that cost the taxpayer $3.5 billion, Congress last 

year voted to deploy 100 Peacekeepers in Minuteman silos. Now, some elected officials don’t like the 

basing mode for Peacekeeper and are restricting the number we can...produce and deploy...it sends 

confusing signals about our national will [and] detracts from our ability to provide an essential military capability.” Gen. Bennie L. Davis, who served as Commander in Chief, Strategic Air Command, 

characterized the MX program as a “political football,” stating that “fifty is better than none, but it’s 

not enough to meet the very real military requirement.”374

In 1986 President Reagan approved the Peacekeeper Rail Garrison system, which placed paired 

missiles on 25 train cars located at USAF bases. Rail cars would be hidden within barricaded garrisons, 

and when activated they could access 150,000 miles of railroad tracks. Individual trains would be 

accompanied by security cars, launch cars, control cars, and maintenance cars. While the rail garrison 

system was under development, the installation of Peacekeeper missiles within silos moved forward 

in Wyoming. The first operationally alert Peacekeeper missile was put in place in October 1986 at 

F.E. Warren AFB. Two months later an additional ten were placed on alert status. The total 50 were 

operationally alert in silos at F. E. Warren AFB by December 1988. The missiles were in service for 

19 years, until their deactivation in 2005.375

The U.S. also developed a small ICBM, known as the “Midgetman,” in the mid-1980s because 

of the basing controversies related to the Peacekeeper. The Midgetman was to be based on special 

hardened mobile launchers which could disperse when necessary. The AFRCE-Ballistic Missile Support (BMS, formerly the AFRCE-MX) worked basing and siting issues involved with the system and 

prepared a Siting Program Management Plan. The AFRCE also developed a Legislative Environmental 

Impact Statement procedure that eased the process by tiering the issues and was adopted in the 1986 

DOD Authorization Act. The AFRCE-BMS released the environmental impact statement for the 

first beddown location at Malmstrom AFB, Montana in early 1988. The Midgetman’s first successful full-scale test launch was conducted in 1991, but with the end of the Cold War, the program was 

terminated in 1992.376

In 1987, Congress allotted $350 million for additional research and development of the rail garrison 

system. In November 1989, seven installations were chosen for placement of the systems: F.E. Warren 

AFB, Wyoming; Barksdale AFB, Louisiana; Little Rock AFB, Arkansas; Grand Forks AFB, North 

Dakota; Dyess AFB, Texas; Wurtsmith AFB, Michigan; and Fairchild AFB, Washington.377 The rail 
362 Leading the Way

garrison system was never fully developed as a result of diminished Soviet threats. During an address 

to the nation on September 27, 1991, President George H. W. Bush stated, “the prospect of a Soviet 

invasion into Western Europe, launched with little or no warning, is no longer a realistic threat...I 

am terminating the development of the mobile Peacekeeper ICBM.” Deactivation of the Peacekeeper 

ICBM did not begin until October 2002.378

Vandenberg Space Launch Complex 

From the early 1970s, the Department of Defense and the Air Force had been seeking a location 

to launch the Space Shuttle into a polar orbit. Data relayed from a polar orbit was critical to specific 

types of military communications, weather, and surveillance satellites, since the orbit provided almost 

unlimited coverage of the planet’s surface. Launches from the Kennedy Space Center, which supported 

the civilian space program, were limited to equatorial orbits to avoid overflying densely populated 

areas. Reorienting to a polar orbit after an initial equatorial launch was possible, but required additional 

fuel, thus reducing the spatial capacity of the vehicle for equipment. The logical choice for a launch 

site for polar orbit was Vandenberg AFB, California. The Air Force launched its first intermediate 

range ballistic missile in 1958 from Vandenberg. In addition, over 1,500 successful missile launches 

and launches of unmanned space vehicles occurred at the base during the 1960s and early 1970s. The 

base was situated ideally. Located in northern Santa Barbara County, California, Vandenberg is sited 

at the tip of Point Arguello, a large promontory that juts several miles into the Pacific Ocean. From 

here, launching a space vehicle to the south and into a polar orbit was possible without risk to the 

civilian population.379

Design of the Space Launch Complex was completed by the Air Force; the Army Corps of Engineers was responsible for construction management.380 Georg O’Gorman was selected as the Air 

Force’s overall site manager. O’Gorman arrived at the site in 1978 and construction began the following 

year. Officially called Space Launch Complex 6, and nicknamed Slick 6, the project was described as 

the “most sophisticated military complex ever built.”381 Air Force Colonel Walter Yeager, commander 

Space Launch Complex 6 at Vandenberg AFB, California.
Building On Success 363

of the Shuttle Activation Task Force, explained in a 1984 interview for Time magazine: “There have 

been larger and more expensive projects, but I doubt if there have been any more complicated.”382

With an estimated cost of $570 million for the buildings and structures, and an additional $2 billion 

for the most advanced computers and electronic equipment, Slick 6 would rank as one of the most 

expensive Air Force undertakings. 

Rather than build from the ground up, the Air Force saved an estimated $200 million in construction costs by reusing elements of the Manned Orbital Laboratory launch facility, a project abandoned in 

1969.383 These elements included the 315-foot mobile service tower (MST), launch control center, and 

a single flame duct. The MST was shortened by approximately 40 feet, and salvaged steel was re-used 

in construction of the access tower, the structure that provided access to the Shuttle. Two additional 

flame ducts were constructed to divert the exhaust from the Shuttle’s solid rocket boosters (SRBs). 

A new technique was developed for pouring the concrete that applied a vacuum to the surface of the 

concrete while setting. This system rapidly drew out moisture and air resulting in a smooth, glass-like 

surface that better resisted the heat and flames of the exhaust.384

The most imposing buildings of the resulting launch complex were the three “traveling skyscrapers” used to assemble the Shuttle. The first was the 27-story MST. Weighing over 8,000 tons, 

the tower moved on tracks 450 feet to the launch pad. Using a 200-ton crane in the top of the MST, 

the segments of the twin SRBs were raised into position. Next, the 250-foot tall, 3,000 ton Shuttle 

Assembly Building (SAB) moved from the opposite end of the launch area to mate with the MST. 

With the added lift of the SAB’s 150-ton crane, the external tank and, eventually, the Orbiter were to 

be assembled on the launch pad. The Shuttle Assembly Building was not part of the original plans for 

the complex. The original system for erecting the Shuttle called for a MST crane and a “strongback” 

attached to the Access Tower. This method had a tolerance limit of 1⁄4 inch; however, NASA called for 

a limit roughly one-half that. Vandenberg’s chief of public affairs, Maj. Ronald L. Peck, noted “With 

the wind and weather at Slick Six, we knew we could never get it down to that. So they went back 

to the drawing boards and came up with the Shuttle Assembly Building. We call it our $40 million 

one-sixteenth of an inch.”385

Payloads for space missions were readied in the Payload Preparation Room (PPR). The quality 

of the atmosphere in the PPR was strictly controlled. First Lt. Nanelle Fulks, payload test engineer 

responsible for the PPR, was responsible for the building: “We have to make sure the surfaces are 

extremely clean, and that the air condition filters and heating and ventilation systems remove all 

particles from the air. The smallest dirt particle could cause one of the subsystems to malfunction and 

then we’d have this expensive piece of equipment in space, unable to do its job.”386

Handling the completed payloads at Vandenberg used a different method than that employed at the 

Kennedy Space Center. Rather than store the equipment in bulky containers where cleanliness might 

pose an issue, the payloads were transferred to the Payload Changeout Room (PCR); a 158-foot high, 

6,000-ton building that moved on rails. The PCR parked next to the PPR and inflatable seals on each 

section sealed the matching doors. After transferring the equipment, the PCR moved down the tracks 

and entered the SAB through a six-panel garage-type door. Each section measured 30 feet tall by 130 

feet wide. When mated with the Orbiter, the seals were re-inflated and the equipment transferred to 

the Shuttle. Prior to launch, all the buildings were moved back to their original locations and anchored 

to the concrete pad.387

Air Force engineers monitored all the work: “Our guys supervise each area, handle every problem 

and every change. They are responsible for everything that goes on inside the buildings.” Captain Rusty 

Keller, the engineer managing the PCR explained, “The test operations folks monitor and control all 

testing going on inside the building, but I make sure their tests don’t impact other work that may be 

scheduled. We get a daily schedule summarizing activities throughout the day on the complex and 

inside each facility.”388 First Lt. Kelly Coen, who managed the MST had similar responsibilities, “We 
364 Leading the Way

meet daily, usually in the morning, to talk about any problems that may come up. We go over the 

schedule to see what has been planned inside the MST.”389

Construction of the launch complex was not the only project for the Shuttle at Vandenberg. A 

similar launch and recover scenario to that used at Kennedy was planned. To safely land the Shuttle, the 

8,000-foot runway at the base was lengthened to 15,000 feet and the concrete surfaces were inspected 

for adequate bearing capacity. Unfortunately, the runway was 17 miles from the launch complex. To 

solve this logistical problem, a specialized, self-leveling 76-wheel transport vehicle was built. The 

roadway to Slick 6 was widened and reinforced. Many hills along the route were cut to provide clearance, signs were lowered, and power poles were moved. Security gatehouses were modified so that 

they could be wheeled out of the way. On January 28, 1985, the Orbiter Enterprise was transported 

from its maintenance facility to Slick 6 for training and fit testing. Under the direction of 1st Lt. Mark 

Erkilla, the convoy made the trip in six hours traveling between two and five miles an hour.

390

The first launch at Slick 6 was originally scheduled for October 15, 1985; the date was pushed 

back to late 1986. By the late 1980s, four launches a year were planned and the design of facility could 

accommodate up to ten annually. Unfortunately, the tragic loss of the Orbiter and crew of Challenger 

forced the suspension of the Shuttle program and the space complex at Vandenberg was abandoned.391

Policy decisions during the interim placed sole control for the Shuttle program with NASA. These 

decisions combined with cooling Cold War tensions eliminated the need for the second Shuttle launch 

facility and Slick 6 was never used to launch a manned space flight. 

Project Touchdown

Another project related to the space program was undertaken for NASA at White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. During the late 1970s, NASA requested a “comprehensive evaluation” 

of airfield conditions to support the Space Shuttle Program. The evaluation included “load bearing 

tests, soil borings, and related soil tests on the two unsurfaced runways, overruns and tow way, and 

surface profiles on the runways and overruns.”392 The key purpose of the project was to determine the 

suitability of the “Northrup Strip,” at White Sands Missile Range, about 30 miles west of Holloman 

AFB. This location had been selected as a back-up site for the Kennedy Space Center and the Rogers 

dry lake bed at Edwards AFB, California. Air Force civil engineers at Northrup Strip were tasked 

with evaluating the existing surface and subsurface conditions for the Orbiter’s landing (weighing 

approximately 200,000 pounds), its transportation while attached to a Boeing 747-100 aircraft, and 

its take-off with a combined weight of about 738,000 pounds. After the evaluations were completed, 

AFESC produced recommendations for remediation on areas found structurally inadequate. The final 

objective was certification of the Northrup site as adequate for Orbiter landings. 393

The Northrup Strip was used previously as a bombing range for testing of the Army’s LANCE 

missile. As a result, the area was pitted with both small bomb craters and large depressions. Smaller 

depressions were filled naturally and larger ones were filled using bulldozers; both left soft surface 

deposits.394 An unsurfaced runway measuring 20,000 feet long and 300 feet wide was later extended 

by NASA to 37,000 feet. NASA also constructed a second runway with the same dimensions as an 

alternate landing bearing. In both cases, the operational length of the runways was 15,000 feet with 

10,000 overruns on each end, comparable to those at Kennedy Space Center and Vandenberg AFB.395

The 1979 field test required the following: “control survey; LASER profilometer; soils exploration; test pits; field California Bearing Ratio and soil moisture and density tests; simulation of the 

Space Shuttle Orbiter gear load with a load cart; and determination of horizontal Orbiter tow force 

on the unsurfaced gypsum materials.”396 The work was under the direction of the Pavement Division 

of AFESC assisted by 820th and 823d RED HORSE squadrons, and the 49th CES from Holloman.397
Building On Success 365

Simulated landing tests required the development of a special load cart with landing gear simulating that of the Orbiter. Lead ingots with a total weight of 107,000 pounds were loaded onto the cart, 

which then was towed on the runway to simulate a landing. Initial testing with the load cart indicated 

that heat build-up in the tires led to numerous failures; field crews quickly learned to change tires 

and control temperatures. The cart accumulated about 500 miles of test lines.398 The field test identified weak areas in the surface and mantle from cratering or sand boils. Sand boils were weak areas 

caused by hydraulic pressure on the mantle resulting from rising groundwater. Recommendations 

were developed to repair the surface of the runways and tow ways with a “select gypsum material” 

and to complete new tests using the load cart prior to certification.399

NASA submitted a statement of work in 1980 to AFESC requesting a retest of the repaired surface 

areas. The load-bearing tests were completed during January 1981 and utilized a load cart provided 

by NASA.400 After the completion of three surveys by AFESC, NASA was able to remediate the weak 

surfaces to withstand the Orbiter’s 200,000 pound landing weight and the 738,000 pound transportation 

weight. Certification was granted for both runways at Northrup Strip after the 1981 tests.401

Air-Launched Cruise Missile

The Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM) was an air-to-land target weapon. The missile was 

designed to launch from a B-52 bomber. Boeing was granted the contract for development of the 

ALCM in 1974; it was initially coined the AGM-86A. The first test flight of an AGM-86A took place 

in March 1976; the following year, production of the weapon was approved. Missile technology 

during this period was constantly advancing. As a result, the approved ALCM was modified prior to 

production. The primary reason for modifications was to engineer a cruise missile with a greater launch 

range of approximately 1,500 miles. The result was an Extended Range Vehicle, which was coupled 

with the ALCM to create the longer range AGM-86B. The AGM-86B was first tested in 1979; missile assembly began shortly afterwards. The ALCM was innovative, to say the least; unlike a ballistic 

missile, the ALCM was capable of following a course beyond its initial launch. The revolutionary 

Terrain Contour Matching system allowed for missile control along a predetermined course and 100 

foot accuracy. In addition, the ALCM performed at low altitudes, avoiding enemy detection.402

In January 1979, SAC’s Air Force Regional Civil Engineer (AFRCE) office and USAF civil 

engineers with the Aeronautical Systems Division (ASD) were assigned the task of designing ALCM 

support facilities. The following month, the USAF reported their ideas to the Missouri River Division and Omaha District of the Army Corps of Engineers. The Omaha District of the Army Corps of 

Engineers created a Special Projects Office in March 1979 to coordinate the efforts of SAC AFRCE 

representatives and ASD civil engineers. By April, it was estimated that the facilities necessary to 

support an ALCM base would cost $20 million. Initially, two ALCM base plans were simultaneously 

created because the actual base for the first installation of facilities had not been chosen. Designs were 

produced for Griffis AFB in New York and Wurtsmith AFB in Michigan. All plans were coordinated 

through the Omaha District, which was designated as the “central design team.”403

This early coordination with SAC AFRCE and ASD permitted an efficient method of development. As a result, by the time Griffis AFB was selected as the first base to accommodate an ALCM 

mission, the primary designs were ready. The ALCM support facilities at Griffiss AFB were finished 

by September 1981. In December 1982, the 416th Bomb Wing of the Eighth Air Force at Griffiss 

AFB became the first USAF unit to reach ALCM operational capability. By 1984, ALCM facilities at 

Wurtsmith AFB in Michigan and Grand Forks in North Dakota were completed. Design and construction of an ALCM facility incorporated many considerations, including unarmed weapons storage, 

integrated maintenance, storage igloos, mission data processing systems, security coverage, plumbing, 

fire detection, electricity, and other elements associated with transportation, security, and support. The 

USAF projected that, by completion, its support of the ALCM program would cost $225 million; in 

addition, the necessary supplies, testing, and research were estimated at $5 billion.404
366 Leading the Way

Construction of the Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility

at Arnold Engineering Development Center

The Air Force Directorate of Civil Engineering was the design agent for the Aeropropulsion 

Systems Test Facility (ASTF) constructed at the Arnold Engineering Development Center (AEDC) in 

Tennessee. Designing the facility was a multi-year process that occurred between 1972 and early 1977. 

The project was fully funded at $437 million. The construction contract was awarded in August 1977 

for $261 million. Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) was delegated the responsibilities to manage 

the design and construction contracting of the project; these responsibilities were then delegated to 

AEDC. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers served as the construction agent.405

Construction of the ATSF was not without difficulties. By 1981, the cost of constructing the ATSF 

had risen from $437 million to $575.4 million; a cost overrun of $138.4 million. One potential cause 

of the problem was that the entire sum of $437 million was appropriated in FY77, rather than through 

incremental, sequential appropriations planned for by the Air Force during the multi-year construction 

process. The lump sum appropriation required the Air Force to redesign its contract packages into two 

concurrent contracts, one for construction and the second for the procurement of government-funded 

equipment. Incremental funding would have provided regular oversight of the project’s budget.

Another problem was the technical complexity of the design of the test facility and the procurement of one-of-a-kind equipment required to make it operational. The original designs did not include 

sufficient information about installing equipment and instrumentation into the structure; this lack 

required many change orders that increased the overall cost. Other problems with the project stemmed 

from inadequacies in the design review process. The Air Force civil engineers did not have sufficient 

personnel to complete the design review required for this large and technically-complex project; the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers were not funded to complete a design review. Ultimately, the project’s 

problems were determined to be inadequate management that led to the budgetary problems. While 

some pointed to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the actual problem was with Air Force management of the project.406

Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr., Director of Civil Engineering at that time, recalled:

When I got into the details of what went wrong, I learned that the problems were 

actually the result of poor planning, equipment procurement procedures, and program management on the part of the Air Force, not the Corps of Engineers, the 

design and construction agent. There was enough blame to go around, but the root 

cause was that the Air Force had too many organizations involved without adequate 

program management oversight and experienced leadership.407

General Wright instituted a senior-level oversight group to oversee the project. He chaired the 

group and Col. Guy York served as Air Force Program Manager. Other representatives were from the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the Air Force Systems Command R&D community, procurement officers, equipment manufacturers, the Architect-Engineer, and the construction contractor. Considerable 

time was spent getting the program on track, and the settlement of a multi-million dollar claim with 

Al Dorman, then president of DMJM, resulted from the actions of the oversight group. As General 

Wright noted, similar senior-level review groups were assembled for other major Air Force military 

construction projects, such as “reserve materiel in the Middle East, the GLCM [Ground-Launched 

Cruise Missile] in Europe, the Air- Launched Cruise Missile program at several CONUS bases, the 

Space Shuttle Launch complex in California, B-1 facilities at Dyess AFB, Texas, and the Consolidated 

Operations Center at Falcon AFB, Colorado.”408 One result of civil engineers’ experience with the 

ASTF was the development of PACES, Parametric Cost Estimated System, which integrated design, 

design review, and project estimating.409
Building On Success 367

The ASTF became fully operational in 1985 and has proved its worth in many testing programs.410

Testing of the Pratt & Whitney F119 power plant for the F/A 22 Raptor and the Pratt & Whitney F135 

for the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter was conducted at ASTF. In addition, as part of Federal law allowing 

U.S. Government agencies to support private research, aircraft engines for the Boeing 777, the Airbus 

A380, and Rolls-Royce engines for both aircraft have been tested at ASTF.411

Consolidated Space Operations Center

Space Command began construction of the Consolidated Space Operations Center (CSOC) in May 

1983. It was a project with an estimated construction cost of $142 million and a scheduled completion 

date of October 1985. Located at Falcon Air Force Station (now named Schriever AFB) near Colorado 

Springs, Colorado, the center encompassed a square mile of property and featured four principal 

buildings. The initial mission of the center was to “operate satellites, help train military astronauts, 

and plan space shuttle missions.”412

In January 1984, Gen. James V. Hartinger, Commander of the USAF Space Command, gave 

an address at the Engineering and Services Conference on Programming. During his talk, General 

Hartinger discussed the future CSOC stating that it “will be the centerpiece for military space operations and will be the key element for the Space Command to provide consolidated management of space 

systems.”413 Air Force civil engineers played a key role in the construction of CSOC. Lt. Col. Joseph J. 

Loncki, who served as Resident Engineer with the Air Force Regional Civil Engineer-Central Region 

(AFRCE-CR), was responsible for supervising construction and guaranteeing that it was completed 

on time and on budget. In essence, the Resident Engineer represented the Air Force element of the 

construction phase.414

The AFRCE-CR Resident Engineer coordinated with the Corps of Engineers, which served as the 

contractors’ representative on the project. Guaranteeing timely construction and financial control was 

no easy task. The construction was divided into two phases - Phase I addressed basic infrastructure such 

An aerial view (looking west) of the Aeropropulsion System Test Facility (ASTF) under construction at the 

Arnold Engineering and Development Center, 1983.
368 Leading the Way

as roads and utilities. The $6.1 million contract for Phase I was awarded to Schmidt-Tiago Construction 

Company. Phase II, a $63.9 million contract awarded to Bechtel National, Inc., included construction of 

buildings, additional roads, landscaping, and other support facilities. The two-phased approach allowed 

construction on Phase I to continue, while design of Phase II was underway. This approach provided 

ample opportunity to discuss the development of the project and to address arising issues throughout 

the process, which was vital for a project of this magnitude. The AFRCE-CR’s duty to oversee both 

phases of construction and to monitor scheduling and budgets required close project scrutiny as well 

as constant communication and availability. The scale of the project necessitated teamwork; working 

together in an organized and communicative environment quickly became a critical requirement. 

Construction of the CSOC was completed one month ahead of schedule in September 1985. The final 

cost of construction was below $100 million.415

J.B. Cole, who served as the senior Air Force representative for the CSOC construction project, 

recalled, “the building of CSOC was a fabulous experience...we were able to bring in the project in 

a way that brought the Air Force a lot of credibility.”416 Their substantial involvement with the CSOC 

project allowed USAF civil engineers to demonstrate their capacity to undertake significant projects; 

in particular, a project that involved cutting-edge technology.

Construction in Alaska

Alaska experienced a significant change in its air defense system in the 1970s. As a result of the 

1974 study called Saber Yukon, Alaskan Air Command officials decided to become part of the new 

Joint Surveillance System/Regional Operations Control Center program being proposed to replace air 

defense systems in the lower 48 states. This included new, state-of-the-art, minimally attended radars 

at 12 sites that required only a few technicians. Alaskan Air Command was able to restructure the 

base civil engineer force and eliminate hundreds of remote military tours annually and approximately 

150 civil service positions.417

An aerial view of the Consolidated Space Operations Center, Falcon AFB, 1987.
Building On Success 369

Arctic Renewal

Air Force facilities in Alaska experienced a period of renewal in the late 1980s and early 1990s 

under a program known as Cool Sentry. The quality of life at remote Alaskan bases such as Shemya had 

suffered for years with substandard dormitories, dining halls, and Morale, Welfare, and Recreational 

facilities. Cool Sentry improvements included better housing, modernized mission facilities, and 

paved roads. The $700 million MILCON and O&M programs were under the direction of Col. Ralph 

Hodge, Deputy Chief of Staff, Engineering and Services, Alaskan Air Command. These projects were 

made difficult because of the constraints of the weather, terrain, and distances. With only a narrow 

time window to conduct meaningful work, planning was key to the successful completion of projects. 

Materials had to be brought in using the joint Cool Barge program based out of Seattle, Washington, 

that served the Alaskan remote coastline and the Aleutians. These infrastructure and quality of life 

improvements were crucial in maintaining these installations for the future.418

Overseas Construction

Construction overseas included both improvements to U.S. bases, support to Allies, and special 

assignments typically generated by foreign military sales and diplomatic relationships.

Israeli Base Construction

President Jimmy Carter hosted peace talks between Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli 

Prime Minister Menachem Begin at Camp David, Maryland, in 1978. With the signing of the peace 

treaty in April 1979, Israel agreed to fully withdraw from the Sinai Desert within three years in 

exchange for two new bases similar to the ones Israel relinquished.419 The final agreement stipulated 

U.S. assistance in building the new bases in the Negev Desert, as well as $800 million in monetary 

aid. The two bases, one at Ramon and the other at Ovda, were to be operational by April 25, 1982, 

three years after the signed treaty.420 Expecting a treaty, the Department of Defense deployed a survey 

team to Israel consisting of a joint effort between Air Force and Army construction specialists in 1978. 

From November 1978 to May 1979, three survey teams visited Israel and helped set goals between 

the Government of Israel and the U.S. Government.421

How Air Force Civil Engineering became involved in the Israeli Air base Construction was recalled 

by Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, 

We didn’t hear anything about it or have any involvement in it when the peace 

treaty was reached at Camp David, but about three weeks later Mr. Begin and 

his minister of defense came back to Washington and told Mr. Carter, “We have 

surveyed our industry, both from a standpoint of technical people required, construction people required, and materials required, and we cannot do those two bases 

in the timeframe that’s allocated in the treaty. Therefore, could you help us?” Mr. 

Carter agreed to assign responsibility for that to DoD, and DoD made the Air Force 

the program manager because they were Air Force bases for the Israelis. In turn, the 

Air Force made me the program manager to oversee the design and the replication 

and the payments for that to be moved from the Sinai to the Negev.

422

Brig. Gen. Paul T. Hartung was appointed the Deputy Director for Israeli Air Base Construction at 

the Pentagon level. According to Harry Rietman, General Hartung was “the Israeli Airbase Construction Program.”423 To assist with management, the Air Force established an AFRCE field office staffed 

by nine personnel. Their responsibilities included: providing monthly progress and management 
370 Leading the Way

reports; approving proposed program changes; reviewing construction progress; and coordinating the 

final design approval with Israel’s Ministry of Defense. The AFRCE field office closed on June 16, 

1982 near the completion of the project.424

To meet the aggressive schedule, the “Fast-Track” method of construction was utilized. This 

method allowed construction to begin before designs were completed. Design, procurement, and 

construction progressed simultaneously. In fact, construction was about 30 percent by the time the 

total design for the bases had been completed. The Department of Defense chose the Air Force as the 

executive agent for the Israeli Air Base Construction Program. On July 25, 1979, a Memorandum of 

Understanding between the Air Force and the Army recognized the Air Force as charged with overall 

responsible for the project.425 The Army Corps of Engineers was the construction agent and established 

the Near East Project Office within the North Atlantic Division to manage construction aspects of the 

program. In May 1979, the Army Corps of Engineers chose two contractors to design and construct the 

air bases. Contracts were granted for each base. The construction of Ramon was the responsibility of 

Air Base Constructors, a joint venture sponsored by Guy F. Atkinson Company of San Francisco and 

Dillingham Corporation, and Nello L. Teer Company in association with Trippetts-Abbett-McCarthyStratton. Ovda was the responsibility of Negev Airbase Constructions, a joint venture sponsored by 

Perini Corporation of Framingham, Massachusetts with Paul N. Howard Company and Louis Berger 

International, Inc. Management Support Associates provided engineering construction management 

and other support to the Corps of Engineers in supervising the two design and construction contractors. The company provided contract administration, program execution and cost control, and life 

support (housing, food, and custodial service). Workers for both sites came primarily from Portugal 

and Thailand.426

The scope of construction for the Israeli air bases included “all runways, taxiways, and aircraft 

aprons, aircraft shelters; operational, maintenance, administrative and personnel support facilities; 

electrical, water, waste, and petroleum, oil, and lubricant systems; roads; and ground improvements.”427

The construction of the bases was a unique event. The Israeli Air Force Base focus was vastly different 

from USAF in that Israeli bases were built “almost entirely as war-fighting platforms” and located on 

the front lines of defense for any conflict with adjacent neighbors. Hardened facilities and infrastructure 

planned to minimize response times against hostile activities were required. Most facilities were built 

underground, which provided the highest degree of protection for the tactical fighters and personnel.428

Each base included ten complexes of six shelters each including supporting systems and structures 

and was more sophisticated than American air bases. In addition to the time constraint, engineers and 

contractors had to deal with harsh weather and terrain conditions. Both sites are located in remote parts 

of the Negev Desert plagued by high heat and dust during the long summer months. Work at Ovda 

required the construction of flood structures to safeguard against the possibility of flash floods, one of 

which occurred in December 1980. The flood control facilities worked to perfection just as anticipated, 

designed and constructed without any resulting damage to ongoing airbase construction.429 Special 

techniques were required for constructing durable foundations on the silty terrain. Ramon is located 

on a “rocky plateau” and required extensive rock removal.430 The first aircraft landed at the bases in 

October 1981, six months before the April 25, 1982 required date for initial operating capability. By 

December 31, 1981, the Intra-Agency DOD/MOD Progress Report evaluated the overall work status 

as 86 percent complete at Ramon and 87.5 percent complete at Ovda. All construction was completed 

nine months ahead of schedule.431 General Hartung received SAME’s Newman Medal in 1981 in 

recognition of his work with the Israeli air base project. Capt. Karsten H. Rothenberg (later Colonel), 

who served as executive officer and assistant to General Hartung, described the project as a huge 

success, “Our small, dedicated team of Air Force Civil Engineers helped deliver the state-of-the-art 

bases ahead of schedule, despite numerous obstacles, delays, and bureaucratic challenges and helped 

usher in a period of peace between Egypt and Israel.”432
Building On Success 371

Foreign Military Sales

Air Force civil engineers assigned to the Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC) supported foreign 

military sales (FMS) programs by overseeing and coordinating construction to modernize and upgrade 

foreign air bases. Several FMS programs were initiated during the late 1970s and the 1980s. Aircraft 

sales to the Saudi Arabian Government were particularly active as the Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF) 

upgraded its aging World War II aircraft. Under Peace Hawk, the RSAF began to acquire F-5 aircraft, 

and under Peace Sun, F-15s. Both programs required four phases: 1) purchase of aircraft; 2) construction of modern facilities to bed down the new aircraft; 3) establishment of a contract for maintenance; 

and, 4) implementation of training. AFLC served as overall program manager for the Peace Hawk 

program and used the Corps of Engineers to provide budgetary and technical reviews of the various 

projects, initially at Taif and Dhahran. In June 1975, the Secretary of Defense assigned the Air Force 

as the single manager for the Peace Hawk V construction program. The $480 million construction 

program at three sites had a compressed timeframe for facilities construction; the initial facilities were 

required by 1977 with completion of final facilities by 1979. AFLC established a management office 

staffed by civil engineers that worked closely with the construction contractor to prepare specifications, review and expedite designs, contract the work, coordinate with RSAF throughout the project, 

and oversee the on-site construction program.433

In the late 1970s, the Saudi Arabian government reduced the number of F-5s it planned to buy 

when it gained approval to begin purchasing F-15s under the Peace Sun program. The AFLC Director 

of Engineering and Services was the facility program manager to implement and manage the Peace 

Sun II Facilities Construction Program and for interface with the Corps of Engineers and RSAF. The 

Corps was designated as the program construction agent. In 1980, AFLC civil engineers worked on 

the team to construct air base facilities to support the Saudi Arabian acquisition of F-15 aircraft under 

Peace Sun II, which was also combined with the Peace Hawk VII program for more effective program 

management. A letter of agreement for Peace Sun II was signed with the Saudi Arabian Government 

on February 10, 1980. Brig. Gen. Charles W. Lamb, the Deputy Chief of Staff for Engineering and 

Services at AFLC between 1976 and 1981 served as the initial facilities program manager for the 

more than $2 billion project. Then-Brig. Gen. M. Gary Alkire, followed General Lamb at AFLC and 

as program manager and assured completion of the Peace Sun II projects and an efficient start to 

Peace Shield.434

Peace Shield began during the early 1980s. Under Peace Shield, the RSAF purchased Airborne 

Warning and Control System (AWACS) aircraft, as well as a ground-based command, control, communications, and intelligence system. At the explicit request of the Saudi Arabian government, the 

U.S. Air Force served as the contracting agent for the Peace Shield and on June 10, 1982, the Office 

of Secretary of Defense approved the Air Force as the DoD construction agent for the program. Brig. 

Gen. David M. Cornell, who became the Deputy Chief of Staff for Engineering and Services at AFLC 

in March 1984, managed the Peace Shield program. The Peace Shield program was, at the time, the 

“largest Air Force-managed design and construction program ever” and included renovation of an 

existing command operations center, two and construction of five underground hardened 10,000 square 

meter command/control centers, two base operations centers, ten ground entry stations, one central 

maintenance facility, 17 long-range radar sites, 33 communication site facilities and miscellaneous 

equipment shelter facilities. The initial cost estimate for facilities construction was $696 million.435

All of this was scattered throughout Saudi Arabia and meant challenging oversight issues. AFLC civil 

engineers worked closely with contractors to complete the design process, contract the work, provide 

engineering and inspection services, and oversee on-site construction of the program. In fact, members 

of the Peace Shield team were in Riyadh when Operation Desert Shield began in 1990. When the 

program had been completed in 1992, the team had delivered high quality construction projects on 

time and within budget.436
372 Leading the Way

Project Peace Pharaoh was another FMS program in 1979. The goal of Project Peace Pharaoh, a 

$5 million construction effort, was to organize the transfer of 35 USAF F-4E planes to Egypt in 1979. It 

was discovered, only weeks before the scheduled delivery of the aircraft, that the Cairo West Egyptian 

AFB was not properly equipped with electrical power to maintain the aircraft. The construction aspect 

included wiring a large hangar and upgrading the electrical wiring at a missile facility, a schoolhouse 

facility, and a flight simulator building. Prime BEEF team 79-42 was established with five personnel. 

They were sent to the Egyptian AFB to determine what was necessary in order to appropriately modify 

the system. The team designed the electrical system upgrade and assembled a list of needed materials. 

Their design took 14 days to create; there were no surrounding sources for materials and the AFB had 

no on-base civil engineering support. When the Prime BEEF 79-42 team returned home, Prime BEEF 

team 79-43 was created with the specific mission of actually putting the system in place. This team 

was created by asking the major commands for qualified personnel. The 18-person team gathered for 

deployment in October. There were representatives from 17 AFBs. A C-5 delivered the Prime BEEF 

team along with 100,000 pounds of equipment. Within five days, a C-141 deployed to supply the team 

with more materials. The team installed 16 miles of cable in 3 miles of conduit, 314 branch circuits 

and 12 different transformer banks.437 The project was a success, despite the many supply shortages 

and incompatibility issues.438 A follow-on project known as Peace Vector I involved the sale of F-16 

aircraft to the Egyptian government. The Egyptian Air Force requested assistance in upgrading facilities 

at An Shas Air Base to support the F-16 beddown. AFLC, working through the Corps of Engineers, 

was responsible for the mechanical and electrical design work at the site. Throughout 1982, Prime 

BEEF personnel deployed to An Shas AB to provide construction management functions on utility 

systems and operated a newly completed power plant.439 

Southwest Asia Basing and NATO

Civil engineers assigned to the overseas commands were charged with managing and directing 

construction projects. When the Shah of Iran was deposed by Ayatollah Khomeini in the fall 1979, the 

United States lost an ally in the region and gained an adversary. In response to the change of leadership 

in Iran, the United States sought new alliances with countries in Southwest Asia. In March 1980, the 

United States established the Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force (RDJTF), which became the U.S. 

Central Command in January 1983. The RDJTF was focused on the Persian Gulf Region. One goal of 

the RDJTF was to establish infrastructure accessible to the United States in the region from which to 

launch attacks and to recover aircraft in case of armed conflict. Initially, governments were reluctant 

to permit U.S. bases in their countries. As Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn recalled, 

I was in the programming shop [at the Pentagon] when we started planning the 

basing network for the Middle East when [Ayatollah] Khomeini took over Iran in 

the fall of 1979, after the fall of the Shah. I recall running trips all through the Persian Gulf and being told “No” by every nation in the Persian Gulf except for Oman. 

The reason Oman told us okay was because they had a remarkable relationship 

with the Brits. British generals were actually the Secretary of Defense for Oman 

and the Chief of Staff for the Sultan of Oman. They held positions of foreign policy 

influence, and the Brits were into nation building in Oman. Of course, the Brits are 

very close allies of ours, and they understood that we needed to have basing and 

logistics storage and things of that sort. So, we budgeted the building of four major 

bases in Oman: Masirah Island, Seeb, Thumrait, and the other one was Khasab. 

There’s a knob that narrows down, going into the Persian Gulf. It’s a mountain, and 

embedded in the side of the mountain is a C-130 special operations base that we 
Building On Success 373

built....Then we won a little bit more of a concession out of Bahrain and more out 

of the United Arab Emirates. We were also building foreign military sales cases and 

remarkable air bases for Saudi Arabia.440

When General Ahearn was posted to USAFE as Director of Engineering and Services in 1983, he 

was charged to execute the Persian Gulf basing network. As he reminisced, 

Then when they sent me forward, they gave me the [Persian Gulf basing] program 

to execute. So, putting into place the basing network in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Oman, 

Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates—getting the basic network, the en route 

basing and then the logistic basing at Oman and then the forward basing—that 

was quite a program we put together. We did that with foreign military sales cases, 

through major collaboration with the Army Corps of Engineers, using the in-country relationships.441... The Persian Gulf basing network and the upgrades to NATO 

bases in places like Turkey provided necessary platforms used at end of the 1980s 

during Desert Shield/Desert Storm.

442

Ground-Launched Cruise Missiles

NATO began planning the deployment of the USAF Ground-Launched Cruise Missiles (GLCMs) 

in 1979 in order to challenge U.S.S.R Intermediate Range Missiles, such as the SABER. Five NATO 

countries participated with six installations: Royal Air Force (RAF) Greenham Common and RAF 

Molesworth, in the UK; Comiso Air Base, in Italy; Florennes Air Base, in Belgium; Wüschheim Air 

Base in West Germany; and Woenstrecht Air Base in the Netherlands.443

According to General Ahearn, who served as Chief of Programs Division at Headquarters U.S. Air 

Force and later oversaw GLCM construction with USAFE, the creation of bases to support GLCMs 

overseas:

was the first time I saw NATO aligned to do anything...we had to win the will of 

those nations to put them in, because those were nuclear weapons. We got the will 

and then we had a finite amount of money. It was a NATO-funded program. There 

was a finite amount of resources coming out of the NATO world, and there was a 

finite amount of resources appropriated by the U.S. Congress to support our forces 

to operate those sites.444

The project cost over $1 billion to implement. Engineering the facilities was complicated by a 

short timeline, the design and construction of highly technical missile shelters and the political issues 

generated by NATO. The first activated installation was the RAF Greenham Common in England. 

In addition to missile launch and missile support facilities, dormitories, administrative offices, and 

engineering workspaces were required. Each missile facility required 20,000 tons of concrete and 

approximately 1,000 miles of steel reinforcing rods. Doors on the facilities weighed 80 tons. GLCM 

construction necessitated the creation of GLCM Alert and Maintenance Areas.445

Construction at Comiso base, located in Sicily, was particularly challenging for the Air Force civil 

engineers because it entailed rebuilding an entire base that had been deserted since the end of WWII. 

Buildings at the base had to be demolished in order for work to begin on the GLCM site. Approximately 

2,000 Air Force personnel were expected to populate the base. The project was organized by USAFE 

Engineering and Services in conjunction with the Navy Office in Charge of Construction for MCP 

and the NATO host nation. In September 1982, construction began on dormitories, a dining hall, and 

other support facilities. Services managed dining and housing for the initial workforce while preparing 
374 Leading the Way

for the projected sizeable increase in arriving personnel. Engineers were responsible for overseeing 

construction and establishing base civil engineering. There were time limitations, site confines, and 

financial restrictions. In addition, the ever-changing technology of weapons systems created an environment of innovation and constant change. Air Force civil engineers showcased their ability to be 

flexible while maintaining an organized program.446

USAFE Readiness Initiatives

Building on the shelter program of the 1960s and early 1970s, USAFE embarked on a significant 

set of readiness initiatives beginning in 1974. These projects helped ensure the survivability and operability of the basing system throughout the continent in the face of an increased Warsaw Pact threat. 

Some of the initiatives included hardened aircraft shelters; hardened base and command operational 

facilities; revetment, comouflage and dispersal measures; collocated operating base development, and 

contingency launch and recovery capabilities. USAFE engineers began construction of new Third 

Generation design shelters that could accommodate all planned and current U.S. tactical fighter and 

reconnaissance aircraft. The primary change in the shelters was the front closure was no longer recessed 

to maximize protective internal floor space. The initial $54.5 million program for 87 shelters was 

placed under contract in June 1975 and completed in only 18 months. USAFE also provided significant 

hardening of facilities at various bases and included construction of a Combat Operations Center at 

Ramstein AB, West Germany. Engineers also improved survivability through the CREEK PROTECT 

initiative to provide exterior revetments of existing facilities and a tonedown of base infrastructure 

and airfields. In all, these programs represented a $1 billion investment.447

USAFE maintained a system of main operating bases in Europe; construction and operations 

and maintenance funds were controlled through the USAFE Director of Engineering and Services. 

In addition to main operating bases, USAFE civil engineers continued to establish a series of collocated operating bases (COB) in host nations that were available to bed down deploying U.S. troops 

in case of enemy attack. When needed to accommodate deployed troops, the facilities at COBs were 

expanded through the construction of tent cities, construction of expanded runways, augmentation of 

fire protection services, and construction of protective structures.448 COBs in Europe increased to 60 

by 1984 with plans to add more in Greece and Turkey.449

Another aspect of readiness preparation in USAFE was the distribution of NATO Prepositioning 

Procurement Packages at main operation bases, COBs, and aerial ports of debarkation. This effort 

resulted from a request by the Office of the Secretary of Defense to reduce airlift requirements early 

in deployments. Types of prepositioned equipment were heavy items that required little maintenance 

and could be stored for long periods of time. The purpose of the prepositioned packages was to have 

certain types of equipment ready and available in theater-of-operations areas without having to ship 

it via 600 cargo plane loads. By 1988, prepositioned equipment was stored at 75 sites to support 85 

locations.450

While some nations accepted COBs, other nations were reluctant to allow foreign military bases 

to occupy their soil. For these situations, “Bare Base” was developed. Under Bare Base, the Air Force 

constructed, with host nation approval, basic operating surfaces, such as a runway and pavements and 

an established potable water supply. All other materiel was flown to the base when required. Other 

materiel included tents, latrines, mess facilities, and operations structures to support deployed troops. 

During the 1970s and 1980s, these kits were known by the Air Force as Harvest kits. This equipment 

had been upgraded and modernized to replace similar equipment used in Vietnam.451

The development of Harvest Falcon began in 1979, using elements of the Harvest Eagle and the 

Harvest Bare. People from the support side of the Air Force gathered together in a series of Bare Base 

Enhancement Conferences to discuss requirements for Harvest Falcon. The goal of the conferences 

was to develop a deployable package to bed down 750 aircraft and 55,000 personnel in 13 different 
Building On Success 375

locations. The development process was restricted to items that already existed in the previous Harvest 

kit packages or were readily purchased from commercial suppliers. The basis of Harvest Falcon was a 

Harvest Bare kit designed to accommodate 4,500 persons. During 1981-1982, sections of Harvest Bare 

assets were used during a deployment to Egypt named Proud Falcon to house several thousand troops. 

This deployment was a training exercise to teach the Egyptians to fly F-16 aircraft.452 The Air Force 

used Harvest Bare assets during Operation Just Cause, the 1989 American incursion into Panama to 

remove General Manuel Antonio Noriega from power. In 1991, AFCESA sent a team to Howard AFB, 

Panama, to examine the Harvest Bare equipment’s condition for reconstitution or disposal. Eventually, 

much of the equipment was sent to Tyndall to be used for training purposes because it was no longer 

in a worldwide deployable condition.453

Between 1980 and 1990, approximately $1 billion worth of additional assets were added to the 

kit until it could accommodate 55,000 persons. Then the material was packaged in increments to 

sustain 750 people up to 15,000 persons.454 Harvest Bare featured hard wall facilities to allow specific 

environmentally controlled spaces such as laboratories and medical clinics. Harvest Falcon included 

both hard and soft walled facilities and the kits were placed in packages that were more easily deployable. Harvest Falcon kits weighed less and were easier to airlift than the Harvest Bare assets. The new 

bare base assets included “vehicles, engineer equipment, communications gear, medical facilities and 

equipment, user unique tactical shelters, mobile flightline maintenance equipment, tanks, racks and 

pylons.”455 Harvest Eagle featured heating as the only environmental control; whereas, Harvest Bare 

and Harvest Falcon utilized HVAC. Harvest Falcon was designed exclusively for Southwest Asia 

campaigns and did not provide freeze protection.456

All Harvest kits were categorized as War Materiel Reserve. TAC, USAFE, and PACAF were 

assigned four Harvest kits each. Two kits were required to be pre-positioned to be deployed within 

72 hours of notification, while the other two sets had to be available within 30 days. TAC’s packages 

were available for deployment worldwide, while USAFE and PACAF Harvest kit assets were only 

for theater deployment.457 By 1990, Harvest Falcon assets also were prepositioned in Oman and other 

locations in southwest Asia and played a critical role in the Gulf War.458

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Professional Development

AFIT Short Course Program

The civil engineering short course program continued to expand under the leadership of 

the Deans, Cols. James S. MacKenzie and Oren Strom in the mid-late 1970s. Critical to their 

expansion plans of the technical and management short courses was the need to significantly 

renovate Building 125 at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, AFIT’s home since 1948. In response 

to the overall emphasis on energy conservation after the Arab oil embargo in 1973-1974, the 

Civil Engineering School introduced a short course on solar energy, and other courses such as 

Contemporary Energy Applications and Facility Energy Systems. The school also added significant emphasis on energy conservation initiatives in their electrical and mechanical courses.459

Facilities Management Program

Civil engineering was among the most highly educated disciplines within the Air Force during 

the 1970s. By 1975, 40 percent of Air Force civil engineer officers held masters degrees and only 

one percent of civil engineer officers lacked a college degree.460 The professional caliber of Air Force 
376 Leading the Way

civil engineers was advanced through programs providing educational opportunities and supporting 

professional advancement.

Education was not limited to engineering; training in related fields prepared personnel for management, administration, and a variety of allied fields. As Maj. Richard M. Bierly, with the Air Force 

Military Personnel Center, noted, “in today’s environment, today’s competence rapidly becomes 

tomorrow’s obsolescence...for the future middle and senior Engineering and Services manager, an 

advanced degree in management will more adequately prepare the officer to assume supervisory and 

management responsibilities.” Major Bierly, who served as Chief of Engineering and Services Career 

Management Team, also recommended that officers become registered as Professional Engineers, 

echoing the words of General Minton from the early 1960s.461

Between 1973 and 1977, 86 students graduated with Master of Science degrees awarded by AFIT’s 

Facilities Management Program. This program was established to provide graduate level educational 

opportunities for both officers and comparably ranked civilians in civil engineering management. The 

degree program, which required a year commitment divided over five quarters, included coursework in 

computer programming, accounting, writing, statistics, management, and research.462 The three main 

prerequisites for officer admittance into the program were “three years working experience in civil 

engineering, an undergraduate grade point average of 2.50 on a 4.00 scale from an accredited institution, and an acceptable score on the Graduate Records Examination (GRE) or Graduate Management 

Aptitude Test (GMAT).” Civilians entering the program were required to “possess a baccalaureate 

degree in engineering, and complete either the GRE or the GMAT.” Civilians with degrees in fields 

other than engineering could substitute relevant and substantial work experience in civil engineering. 

In addition, civilian applicants for the program were required to apply directly to the AFIT Director 

of Admissions to determine their eligibility for entrance. Once they were determined eligible, civilian 

candidates secured nominations for program admittance from the BCE and the base or wing commander. Nominations then were forwarded to the major command for endorsement by civil engineering 

staff. If selected for admission, civilian applicants were required to commit a minimum of three years 

to the Air Force following graduation.463

By 1980, 150 candidates had graduated from the USAF Graduate Facilities Management program 

with Master of Science degrees. The same year, the name of the program was changed to Graduate 

Engineering Management (GEM) and the period of coursework was increased from 12 months to 15 

months. The extension allowed students to devote more time to thesis projects. Students were allowed 

12 hours of research dedicated to their thesis topic; if the topic was complex or time consuming, two 

students could work together on one project. The GEM program was endorsed by the Accreditation 

Board for Engineering and Technology in 1982.464 Brig. Gen. James T. Callahan, commander of AFIT 

at the time, justifiably bragged that the accreditation was “recognition of the quality of that curriculum 

by the professional engineering community.”465

Education with Industry

Education with Industry (EWI) was a unique program offered to USAF officers, which allowed 

personnel to team with private industries to better understand management and operations. In addition, the program provided opportunities to compare the operations of private industries and those 

of the military. In many instances, this experience provided officers with a fresh outlook to bring an 

added dimension to projects executed later in their Air Force careers. The types of industries invited 

to participate provided appropriate experiences for civil engineers and Services personnel, including 

commercial airports, planning offices, construction firms, hospitality corporations, food industries, 

and even retail operations. One industry collaborator placed students in facilities management at the 

Dallas Fort Worth Airport (DFW). Brig. Gen. Archie Mayes, then retired from the USAF and working 

for the airport, supervised students participating in the program at DFW. Capt. Thomas M. Riggs wrote 
Building On Success 377

about his experiences in EWI at DFW, stating that his “time spent in facilities maintenance centered 

around hands-on experience with each of the maintenance shops.” Captain Riggs was exposed to the 

technical aspect of repairing and maintaining runway lighting, as well as to the operation of a steam 

utility plant. The EWI program provided a good opportunity for students to understand management 

and operations outside of the military.466

PhDs

During the 1980s, Air Force Engineering and Services recognized the advantage of PhD-level 

commissioned officers and supported candidates seeking terminal advanced degrees. Although the 

need for personnel holding Masters Degrees was greater, PhDs were becoming more essential with 

advancing technology and the concentration on research and development. A study of Air Force Engineering and Services tracked 33 jobs requiring civil engineer officers holding PhDs in 1986. At the 

time only 13 applicants fulfilled the qualifications for the positions. Typically, a PhD involved three 

years of coursework. Following completion of the degree, three years of active duty were required for 

each year of education, not to exceed five years.467

Civilian Career Program

The Engineering and Services Civilian Career Management Program (ESCCMP) was designed 

to support career advancement for executive-level civilian employees (GS-12, GS/GM 13-15) in the 

Air Force similar to Palace Blueprint, a career management program for Air Force officers. Harry P. 

Rietman, a member of the Senior Executive Service, and civilian Associate Director of Engineering 

and Services (1973-1985) in the Pentagon, explained, 

Prior to the establishment of ESCCMP, somebody with a lot of foresight in the 

Personnel field saw that the civilian component of the Air Force didn’t have the 

career progression or the training opportunities or the same benefits that military 

people had. We didn’t get the benefit of people who were talented and capable, nor 

did we have the ability to move them into more responsible positions on an orderly 

basis, rather than on a haphazard basis based on who you were, where you were, 

and who you knew...There was no central location (to find executive civilian jobs). 

If a vacancy occurred either in the commands or at the bases or at the headquarters 

there was no central place you could go. You advertised and hoped that the best 

people applied for it. If the person didn’t apply or didn’t know about the advertisement, which was also a very common thing, it was as though they didn’t exist...

You were really geographically handcuffed, except for your own individual volition. If you went out and looked and talked you could find opportunities, but they 

weren’t very evident and many of them you might never hear about. You had no 

way of knowing, for instance, that PACAF needed a senior civilian if you worked 

in Europe.468

By 1980, Air Force Civil Engineering had 32,000 civilians working within the organization.469

Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert initiated ESCCMP in November 1980 with the establishment of a Policy 

Council. A working group of top people from the Engineering and Services community met for two 

weeks in February 1981. This group analyzed the work force, recommended basic program policy, 

and prepared a working draft of an Air Force regulation (AFR 40-110, Vol. VII). The work generated 

from this two-week session was reviewed by the Policy Council in April 1981. The Policy Council 

worked throughout 1981 and 1982 and continued under the directorship of General Wright. By fall 
378 Leading the Way

1982, six employees comprised the ESCCMP Palace Team and were located at the Office of Civilian 

Personnel Operations at Randolph AFB, Texas.470

Under the program, eligible civilians in executive positions were registered through their Civilian 

Personnel Officers with the ESCCMP by entering personnel forms into the Personnel Data SystemCivilian. Registrants’ personnel profiles were then analyzed applying Air Force-wide promotion 

evaluation patterns. When a major command, base, separate operating agency, or direct reporting 

unit required a top-level civilian position, a request was sent to ESCCMP, which reviewed the civilian 

personnel list to identify qualified candidates. A roster of certified candidates then was returned to the 

requesting agency. A sample of the executive positions included in the original ESCCMP included 

community planner, environmental protection specialist, general engineer, architect, civil engineer, 

environmental engineer, electrical engineer, realty specialist, housing/billeting positions, and services 

officer.471

The first referral of qualified applicants was made in May 1983 to fill the position of deputy base 

civil engineer at Scott AFB, Illinois. A pool of ten candidates was identified from four commands. 

Eight of the ten names were employed outside Scott AFB. Col. Wesley D. Nottingham, the BCE at 

Scott AFB commended both the timeliness of the program’s response and the quality of the candidates 

for the position. In June and July, qualified applicant names were submitted for an additional 15 open 

civilian positions throughout the major commands. The advertised positions covered about 60 percent 

of the types of positions covered in ESCCMP; a total of 968 positions were covered in the program.472

The ESCCMP established a central office to match job positions with qualified civilian employees. 

The program also offered civilian employees a clear picture of Air Force system performance expectations and requirements for promotions.473 The ESCCMP team formulated master development plans 

and career patterns outlining the positions available for progressive advancement in fields included in 

the program.474 Master development plans were available to registrants devising career development 

plans.475 These development plans served as a tool for employees and supervisors to identify career 

goals and appropriate training.476

Mr. Harry P. Rietman
Building On Success 379

The ESCCMP also offered a centralized funding source to underwrite training and education, 

particularly in the areas of managerial and executive development.477 The first training programs were 

scheduled during FY85.478 In 1984, three ESCCMP registrants were enrolled in the AFIT Graduate 

Engineering Management Program; twelve ESCCMP registrants attended in 1985.479 In 1986, the 

Air Force entered into a relocation services contract to aid in the mobility of ESCCMP registrants 

in GS-12 positions and higher.480 In addition, the AFIT technical and managerial short courses were 

open to civilians.

In addition, an intern program for civilian employees in GS-5, -7, and -9 levels was implemented 

FY85 during the recruitment for 18 engineer/architect positions. By fall 1985, two housing management interns were selected from among 97 applicants. Interns participated in a variety of planned 

developmental activities designed to broaden their experience with all levels of the Air Force organization. While relocation to other bases was not a requirement for participation in the ESCCMP program, 

mobility was required for the intern program. In 1985, interns were recruited for one real property, 

two housing, and two Services positions through the ESCCMP.481

In 1985, the ESCCMP Career Guide was published and distributed to all registrants in the program. 

The guide provided comprehensive information on the ESCCMP program.482 The guide also was a 

useful tool for supervisors to introduce new employees to ESCCMP.483

Technical Training

Sheppard AFB, Texas, had been the home of civil engineer technical training since 1958. By 

1976, the training group was engaged in training personnel in basic, lateral, supplemental, advanced 

and special courses in support of four Air Force Civil Engineer career fields: Airman Metal Working; 

Airman Civil Engineering Mechanical/Electrical; Airman Civil Engineering Structural/Pavements; and 

Airman Civil Engineering Sanitation. Also that year, the Interservice Training Review Organization 

decided to collocate certain civil engineer courses with the Army at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri. In 

1983, instructors taught 73 courses ranging from the 4-day Snow Removal and Ice Control Equipment 

course to the 55-day Engineering Assistant Specialist and Construction Equipment Operator courses 

(taught at Fort Leonard Wood). The nature of the courses was constantly changing in response to realworld conditions and advancements in technology. Electronics had become so pervasive that about 45 

percent of the courses contained training in electricity and electronics. In 1989, Sheppard instructors 

taught 16 specialty awarding courses. The courses available included a 7-day coal handling course 

taught by an instructor at the home station; a 10-day advanced water treatment course; a 20-day course 

on heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems (where students balanced air and water distribution 

systems); a 3-day Harvest Bare staff orientation course taught by a traveling instructor, and an 80-day 

resident course on civil engineering electronic systems. The school also had nine mobile training teams 

that traveled to bases at no cost to the unit. Approximately 7,500 people graduated from Sheppard’s 

courses each year at the close of the 1980s.484

Fire School

The fire school at Chanute continued to develop new courses and revise its curriculum throughout 

the 1970s and 1980s. New courses focused on mobile training and new equipment such as the new 

P-15 Aircraft Crash Fire Fighting and Rescue Vehicle. In 1978, the Army Fire School at Fort Rucker, 

Alabama closed and the first firefighting joint training began at Chanute Technical Training Center, 

Illinois.485 By 1978, the Fire Protection Training School at Chanute enrolled 4,000 personnel in educational programs for the year. The training covered a range of skills from the basics of fire protection to 

the advanced firefighting capabilities necessary for engineering and technology. Approximately 1,500 

U.S. Air Force personnel entered the basic program annually. Maj. Gen. Norma E. Brown, Commander 
380 Leading the Way

of the Chanute Technical Training Center, provided superb support to the school and often came to 

the school to meet students in a variety of classes. The sophisticated incident management training 

simulator used at the school was renamed as the Norma Brown Air Force Base Simulator and used 

for more than 30 years to honor her contributions to the school.486

Readiness 

Contingency Forces and Training (Prime BEEF, RED HORSE, Prime RIBS)

During the decade of the 1980s, an increased focus on readiness permeated the Air Force civil 

engineering organization and efforts were made to strengthen the links between the daily role of Civil 

Engineer and Services personnel and the overall mission of supporting combat forces when deployed.487

Time to establish logistics support services overseas once a war had started was a past luxury. War 

contingency planning required that military personnel master their wartime jobs, continually train for 

those assignments, and be well equipped for overseas deployments. 488 General Gilbert summarized 

the importance of operating and maintaining a base while continuing the training necessary to support 

a wartime mission, 

as important as our other day-to-day jobs might be, they are secondary to preparedness for the conduct of military warfare...our military personnel must be totally 

aware of the fact that their peacetime job exists only because we need them onboard and ready at all times to do something else. This applies especially to our 

senior and mid-level NCOs and officers. No one—including BCEs and Services 

Squadron Commanders—are exempt from preparedness and its required training.489

Civil engineer responsibilities during wartime were defined as emergency repairs to essential 

facilities and utilities damaged during war, rapid runway repair (RRR), bomb damage repair (BDR), 

preparing and maintaining bases to receive deployed personnel and equipment, and crash rescue and 

fire suppression.490 During the late 1970s, Prime BEEF was divided into six contingency teams. (Table 

4.1)

A program to develop a contingency force for Services personnel began in 1978. Patterned after 

the Prime BEEF program, the new capability was called Prime Readiness in Base Services (Prime 

RIBS). Col. Paul Hartung, then the deputy chief of staff for Engineering and Services at HQ Military 

Airlift Command, was one of the leaders in pushing for this capability and also the person who coined 

the term Prime RIBS.491 The program created teams with the mission to feed, house, and clothe USAF 

units that were deployed. In 1979, the Prime RIBS teams were configured into four different types. 

(Table 4.2)

By 1979, training requirements for Prime RIBS teams were under development to guide home 

station and field training exercises. The first group selected for field training comprised graduates 

from Lowry Technical Training Center’s Services School who were assigned to U.S. Air Forces in 

Europe (USAFE).492 In January 1980, a week-long field food service course held in conjunction with 

Prime BEEF training was conducted at Eglin AFB, Florida.493 The field training comprised two days 

of hands-on training and two days of meal preparation for Prime BEEF personnel.494 The one-week 

course marked the beginning of Prime RIBS training to equip Services personnel in field operations 

using field equipment in preparation for deployment.495 Experience gained through the establishment 

of Prime RIBS resulted in the development of new mobile kitchens, food preparation and serving 

systems, and mobile laundry systems.496

By 1982, home station training for Prime RIBS teams included “annual field and food handler 

sanitation training...survival training in a nuclear, biological, chemical environment...annual field 
Source: Maj. Max W. Day, PE and Lt. Col. George T. Murphy, “Prime BEEF and Prime RIBS, The Wartime 

Role of Engineering and Services,” ESQ, Vol 20, No 4, November 1979, 19.

Building On Success 381

Source: Maj. Max W. Day, PE and Lt. Col. George T. Murphy, “Prime BEEF and Prime RIBS: The Wartime 

Role of Engineering and Services,” ESQ, Vol 20, No 4, November 1979, 19.

training on field food service equipment; mortuary affairs search and recovery training; and annual 

small arms weapons qualification.”497 Field training included periodic mobility training sponsored by 

AFESC once every 24 months at Eglin AFB, Florida; Holloman AFB, New Mexico; or, Ramstein 

AB, West Germany. The goal of mobility training was to expose Prime RIBS personnel to actual field 

conditions with actual field equipment. Prime RIBS personnel operated field kitchens and prepared 

B-rations, operated field laundries, provided billeting services, and conducted mortuary affairs.498

On-the-ground training was augmented through the development of “The Prime RIBS Manager’s 

Handbook” (Air Force Pamphlet 140-3), the “Food Service Field Feeding Handbook” (AFP 146-1), 

and additional training materials.499
382 Leading the Way

By 1982, the Prime RIBS program was considered wartime ready. A fall 1982 article in Engineering 

& Services Quarterly explained that Prime RIBS units were utilized for “rapid or short-notice deployments...they should not be tasked to augment other wartime functions.”500 In addition to providing 

food, housing, and clothing, they were also prepared to provide laundry and mortuary facilities. Prime 

RIBS units were equipped to handle a variety of base types, including Bare Bases, Collocated Operating Bases, Limited Bases, Main Operating Bases, and Standby Bases. Prime RIBS teams deployed to 

bases lacking proper equipment and were provided with one of three types of packages—the Harvest 

BARE, the Mobile Kitchen Trailer, or the Harvest Eagle. The Harvest BARE and the Harvest Eagle 

both included equipment to provide laundry and mortuary services.501 By the mid-1980s, Prime RIBS 

teams were organized into four types of teams (Table 4.3).

Civil engineers teamed with the Air Force Management Engineering Agency in 1980 to conduct 

a two-year Civil Engineering Wartime Manpower Requirements and Posturing Study. This was the 

first long-term look at the wartime manpower needs of a support function that considered home station 

and theater wartime requirements. The results validated a significant civil engineer wartime shortfall 

that would have a serious impact on civil engineers’ flying mission support capability. The study also 

highlighted a problem with the correct skill mix on Prime BEEF teams. Using the results of this study, 

planners developed a revised skill code composition for new Prime BEEF teams to match theater 

requirements. A CONUS Sustaining Study also identified the resources needed in the continental 

United States to sustain wartime operations. Making maximum use of the civilian workforce to accomplish minimum indirect combat support tasks, would reduce the shortfall of military civil engineers. 

This information was used to restructure Prime BEEF teams and correct the skill mix problem.502

By 1984, Prime BEEF teams were reorganized to incorporate a more varied group of skills. 

Large teams were broken down into smaller teams, and additional heavy equipment was incorporated. 

Core teams included two management teams (engineer management and fire protection management) 

and four basic operations teams (basic support, limited support, RRR operators, and fire protection 

Prime RIBS Emblem
Building On Success 383

operations). Specialty teams included 19 groups, which included electrical teams, and teams specializing in heating, pavements, metals, plumbing, entomology, and production.503

However, this framework had problems and did not last long. MAJCOMs followed a policy that 

required a 100 percent fill and an exact match to AFSCs, otherwise it was not postured. Instead, theater 

mobility requirements were satisifed through the use of three-person specialty teams. Within SAC, 

this meant a total of more than 2,500 military engineers without wartime taskings and the creation 

of more than 1,000 three-person teams within the command, an administrative nightmare and loss of 

credibility for engineers who were wanting increased manning to meet theater requirements. General 

Ellis, then the Deputy Director of Engineering and Services chartered a Tiger Team to address the 

concerns. The Tiger Team developed a proposal to restructure civil engineer mobility teams into four 

team sizes of 50, 100, 150, and 200 personnel. The standard 200-person team would be formed from 

existing civil engineering squadrons or by combining no more than two of the smaller teams. This 

reduced the number of teams from more than 3,600 to 219. The revised structure went into effect on 

October 1, 1987. In addition to reducing the number of mobile units, the new structure helped match 

the existing peacetime command and control elements, and maintain unit integrity. The Prime BEEF 

teams would train in peacetime as they would deploy and work in wartime and be dedicated to a specific 

flying squadron. The restructured force gave increased flexibility by ensuring adequate engineering 

support over a wide range of possible employment situations.504

During the late 1970s through the 1980s, the USAF strove to provide more accurate and realistic 

training for its personnel. In particular, training for Prime BEEF Contingency Forces personnel centered 

on new readiness exercises at Field 4, a deserted airfield at Eglin AFB in Florida and conducted by 

members of Detachment 2, AFESC. Prime BEEF teams were exposed to a five-day Base Recovery 

After Attack (BRAAT) exercise, which included a range of skills from basic tent erection to the 

construction of revetments and the installation of runway lighting. They also trained in RRR to repair 

craters created by explosives to resemble bomb damage. In addition to hands-on training, students 

also took classroom courses where they learned about the variety of equipment and situations they 

could face through bare base or deployed operations.505

Training also covered unidentified explosive ordnance identification, handling, and safety. Base 

denial, including the denial of infrastructure, was also part of the readiness exercises at Eglin. Every 

Source: MSgt. Jim Halvorson, “New Prime RIBS Mobility Team Structure,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 3, Fall 1985, 17.
384 Leading the Way

facet of training was completed despite weather complications or machinery malfunction. Eventually 

Prime RIBS units were also assigned to Eglin AFB for training. Their initial two days of training 

covered field kitchen equipment operation, safety, sanitation, and organization. The final two days of 

Prime RIBS training were spent serving hot meals to the Prime BEEF teams at Eglin.506

The training cadre at Eglin was not capable of training all Prime BEEF Contingency Forces across 

the country. As a result, AFESC created Mobile Training Teams that toured various bases giving 

lectures on the same topics taught at Eglin. Other readiness training during the early 1980s included 

advanced and introductory demolition courses at Nellis AFB in Nevada. Both Prime BEEF and RED 

HORSE personnel participated in the training in order to prepare for BRAAT and denial operations. 

CMSgt. Joseph H. Smith with AFESC’s Prime BEEF Curriculum Development Branch explained the 

importance of Readiness training in 1980:

Out-manned by numerical odds favoring our Warsaw Pact adversaries, our only 

recourse, at least for the present, is to create a state of readiness that would cause 

concern to any potential aggressor...we firmly believe that if a base is to recover 

enough to fight back after an attack, engineering and services people will be the 

one factor that will make it all happen and we must be ready.507

Civil engineers participate in rapid runway repair training at Eglin’s Field 4.
Building On Success 385

Guard and Reserve

During the time period from 1976 through 1990, the civil engineering components of the Air 

Force Reserves and the Air National Guard (ANG) became more integrated into the Air Force Civil 

Engineering and Services structure based on the implementation of “Total Force.” The Total Force 

concept was approved by the Nixon administration’s Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird in 1970. 

Under the Total Force concept, Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve components provided the 

primary source of manpower to back up active duty forces in future military actions.508 The Total Force 

concept became DoD policy in August 1973 when Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger declared: 

“Total Force is no longer a concept. It is now a Total Force Policy which integrates the active, Guard, 

and Reserve forces into a homogenous whole.”509

Objectives of the Total Force Policy included:

• Increase the readiness, reliability, and timely responsiveness of the 

 combat units and the combat support units of the Guard and Reserves, 

 and individuals of the Reserves;

• Provide and maintain combat standard equipment for Guard and 

 Reserve units; and,

• Implement and approve ten-year construction programs for the 

 Guard and Reserves.510

The Total Force policy also proved useful to offset reduced defense expenditures for the active 

forces. While overall defense spending dropped to 23.7 percent of the Federal budget in 1977 as 

compared to 42.1 percent of the Federal budget in 1969, the budget for the Air National Guard and 

Air Force Reserves nearly doubled between FY68 and FY74.511

In 1978-1979, the civil engineering components of the Reserve Forces were reorganized into 

contingency force teams. The contingency force teams were identical in organization, personnel, and 

skill sets across the board and included active duty, Air Force Reserve, and ANG.512

By 1979, Reservists in Services began to train under the Prime RIBS program.513 Early in 1979, 

the Air Force Reserve began to seek opportunities to train food service personnel to operate dining 

facilities in deployment situations. The Air Force quickly offered training opportunities to support 

20 regularly scheduled training exercises that occurred that year. By the end of 1979, more than 100 

Reserve food service personnel had participated in training exercises. During 1980, 60 Reserve food 

service personnel participated with active duty personnel, who manned four dining halls during the 

Empire Glacier exercise organized by TAC. Over the course of five weeks, these personnel served 

7,000 meals and “gained firsthand experience in the duties, problems, and requirements encountered 

by Reserve cooks.” Services personnel also deployed with local Air Force Reserve Prime BEEF teams. 

During the training season for FY81, AFRES Prime RIBS teams were deployed to 11 locations in 

Europe and to support all regular major command exercises.514 ANG services personnel were available 

for deployment in similar situations. Sometimes ANG service personnel filled jobs of active duty Air 

Force personnel who were deployed on training exercises. This arrangement benefitted both the local 

AFB and the ANG personnel.515

As summarized by James P. Penn, “By 1982, the organization, training requirements, manning 

standards, and designed operating capabilities of Reserve and active units had completely meshed. 

The old images of the ‘raggedy Reserve’ forces had given way to accurate impressions of force 

capability.”516 Penn was actively involved in the training of Reserve contingency forces as Director 

of Services and Reserve Resources at AFRES headquarters.

The typical training program for Air Force Reserve and ANG civil engineering and services 
386 Leading the Way

personnel was accomplished in 39 days; 24 days were spent at the monthly unit training assembly 

and 15 days were centered on active duty training. The 15 days of active duty training were generally 

deployments at active duty bases. Active duty deployments were selected from projects submitted to 

AFESC Readiness Directorate by the major commands. AFESC in conjunction with Air Force Reserve 

and ANG personnel matched projects with identified training needs. Once the projects were assigned 

to the Reserve forces teams, it was up to the Reserve forces commander and the base civil engineer to 

coordinate details. For civil engineers, that meant working on a specific construction project, such as 

constructing a pre-engineered building, building roads, or augmenting base maintenance shops; for 

Services personnel, it meant duty managing dining hall and billeting operations.517

One special project that involved both AFRES and ANG RED HORSE units was the bed down of 

RED HORSE equipment that occurred between 1981 and 1984 in Spangdahlem AB, Germany. Over 

a two-year period, the 307th CES (Heavy Repair, HR ) from Kelly AFB, Texas; the 200th CES, (HR) 

Camp Perry, Ohio; and, the 201st CES Flight (HR), Fort Indiantown Gap, Pennsylvania, participated in 

a coordinated effort to build six large hard-ribbed warehouses. The warehouses were needed to contain 

400 pieces of prepositioned RED HORSE equipment. This equipment comprised pieces ranging from 

pneumatic jackhammers to 40-ton cranes and vehicles. The heavy civil engineering equipment was 

prepositioned at Spangdahlem AB at the request of USAFE to alleviate time delays in case of war. 

In a wartime scenario, Spangdahlem AB was designated as a major operating base to which the RED 

HORSE units would be deployed. As described by the 307th CES commander Col. Walter L. Winters, 

Jr., of his 400 member team, 

We take with us 38 Air Force specialty codes (AFSCs) including all of the Services 

people essential to carrying out our mission. We also have our own limited capability to defend ourselves, complete with 60mm machine guns and grenade launchers. 

Our medical resource includes a doctor and two medics. A communications radio 

net keeps us in touch with other combat forces worldwide. To give you an idea of 

the Services requirement, we carry 14 cooks, a field kitchen, and enough rations to 

operate self-sustaining for a month.518

As a result of manpower studies in the early 1980s, two additional RED HORSE units were formed 

in the ANG in 1985. The 202d CES unit was established at Camp Blanding, Florida, while the 203d 

Civil Engineer Flight was formed at Camp Pendleton, Virginia.519 In 1985, civil engineers and service 

personnel numbered 15,000 with close to 6,000 in the Air Force Reserve and just under 9,000 in the 

ANG.520 By 1989, civil engineers and Services personnel in the Air Force Reserves were projected 

to increase to over 8,000, while ANG civil engineering and services personnel were anticipated to 

increase to over 12,000 members.521

Contingency training included formal training scenarios as well as deployments designed to challenge and to strengthened personnel skills. These exercises were critical to the readiness mission. 

Selected notable exercises and deployments from the period are highlighted below.
Building On Success 387

Jack Frost 79

During the late 1970s, the similarities between the Alaska arctic and the terrain and environment of 

portions of Europe and Asia were recognized as affording opportunities for readiness training. In 1979, 

a contingency exercise, named “Jack Frost 79,” was held at a deserted airstrip on the northwestern tip 

of Alaska in an area known as Clear Creek Landing Zone. Alaskan Air Command (AAC) was chosen 

to reactivate the landing zone as part of its contingency training. Tasks included: creation of a 4,100 

foot airstrip with 24-hour runway lighting; building a base to support 150 personnel, including housing, bathing facilities, a dining hall and support facilities; and supporting resupply to approximately 

10,000 Army personnel stationed in the vicinity. Personnel from AAC Prime BEEF and Prime RIBS 

were the key players in Jack Frost 79. The 5010th Civil Engineering Squadron from Eielson AFB in 

Alaska cleared the existing abandoned airstrip. The 21st Civil Engineering Squadron from Elmendorf 

AFB in Alaska constructed the new base, and Prime RIBS provided food services. This readiness 

exercise was no ordinary task, the environment presented several challenges. Two feet of snow covered 

the landing zone. Personnel had to adjust to temperatures reaching minus 30 to minus 50 degrees.525

The immediate goal of the 5010th Civil Engineering Squadron upon reaching Clear Creek on 

January 4 was to erect shelters to survive the elements. Snow was cleared for the construction of 

arctic tents. On January 9, additional civil engineers from the 21st Prime BEEF Civil Engineering 

Squadron arrived on-site and began working on the base. Helicopters delivered supplies, including 

generators and Harvest Eagle Kits. By January 12, the runway was judged suitable for aircraft; the 

same day, five C-130s landed at the airstrip. The C-130s delivered the last personnel of the 21st CES 

During the late 1970s, the Air Staff assessed its needs in order to address potential conflict in 

Western Europe. It concluded that rapid runway repair (RRR) was a primary responsibility of 

Air Force engineers. An assessment of the Air Force Reserve (AFRES) revealed a major lack 

of RRR training, with as many as 1,300 Contingency Force personnel in desperate need of 

basic training in RRR equipment. AFRES quickly agreed to create an Equipment Operators 

School at Dobbins AFB in Georgia, dubbed Bulldozer U. Exercises began in 1979, with 

trained AFRES personnel serving as instructors. The program began with salvaged equipment 

and three students. By 1980, approximately 200 students had successfully participated in the 

program. Students completed a three-phase program beginning with the basics of equipment 

operation and safety. Their training then intensified to teach them how to operate more complex 

equipment associated with the completion of RRR. During the third phase, students were placed 

in a designated area to perform actual base tasks that required heavy equipment. This benefitted 

the students by giving them hands-on training in real activities, and also benefitted the base by 

completing needed projects. Classes were limited to ten students to guarantee a proper ratio of 

teachers and students.522 Reserve Prime BEEF and Prime RIBS were included in the training. 

Prime RIBS students were provided with a Harvest Eagle kitchen, which was used to feed 

trainees. This allowed for realistic training and efficiency, permitting the school to operate 

on-base without straining dining facilities or transportation routes.523

Bulldozer U largely relied on reservists for faculty. When they were required to serve 

elsewhere, the school suffered. In 1984, the school nearly closed due to a lack of instructors. As 

a result, the Headquarters for the Air Reserve Forces requested 12 permanent personnel slots for 

the school, which were approved. Although the school began with meager equipment and few 

students it was eventually established as a reputable and necessary program for the AFRES and 

eventually the Air National Guard.524

Bulldozer U
388 Leading the Way

Prime BEEF team as well as equipment including a fire truck, forklift, and additional Harvest Eagle 

kits. By January 15, Clear Creek was completely operational.526

“Jack Frost 79” was a success. It proved that Prime BEEF and Prime RIBS could operate efficiently 

and effectively regardless of the environment and also proved that AAC was ready operationally.527

Salty Demo

One of the most important events during the 1980s was Salty Demo, held at Spangdahlem AB, 

West Germany in the spring of 1985. The Air Base Survivability demonstration grew out of a research 

and development project for various types of pavement design for constructing an airfield and was 

the product of three years of planning and training in the concepts of RRR, BRAAT, and air base 

survivability.528 Col. Darrell G. Bittle, who served as Director of the Airbase Survivability System 

Management Office during the 1980s, defined the purpose and meaning of air base survivability: 

• if attacked, reduce the magnitude of the attack;

• when attacked, minimize the impact on your sortie generation 

 critical activities; and, 

• following an attack, recover from that attack in the minimum time. 529

Air base survivability comprised five fundamentals: active defense; passive defense; recovery; 

command, control and communications; and, aircraft enhancements and modifications.530

The Air Base Survivability Systems Management Office was established in 1981 at Eglin AFB, 

Florida with key personnel from civil engineering; Explosives Ordnance Disposal (EOD); Disaster 

Preparedness (DP); aircraft operations; communications, camouflage, concealment, and deception; and, 

security and intelligence. This group “focused Air Force efforts on acquiring needed capabilities to 

perform base recovery and launch combat sorties following a ground or air attack on overseas bases.”531

In 1981, an Air Base Survivability workshop was conducted with Air Force personnel representing 

various offices. An Air Base Survivability master plan was written that illustrated deficiencies in the 

way BRAAT was then handled. The workshop identified the need for greater cooperation between Air 

Force operations including EOD, DP, communications and security police. BRAAT research efforts 

culminated in the proposal, Air Base Survivability, renamed Air Base Operability in 1986.532

Salty Demo was an integrated Air Base Survivability demonstration aimed at executing exercises 

following air base attacks and practicing new runway repair tactics.533 According to General Wright, 

“Salty Demo was a program to demonstrate the feasibility of constructing an alternate airstrip and test 

various RRR concepts.”534 According to Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy, Salty Demo “was designed to 

demonstrate ‘fighting an air base’ in a war with the Soviet Union—all of the air base operability and 

survivability aspects of it, and pilots with chem gear, alternate landing fields, and all those sorts of 

things. And the concept of toned-down paint.”535 At Salty Demo, “It was more than just RRR....We 

tested asphalts that would shed water and prevent hydroplaning. We tested runway lights and runway 

markings.”536

Following an attack, civil engineers immediately needed to assess and to repair damaged runways, 

aprons, and taxiways. The ideal goal in 1975 was to ensure a 50 x 5,000-ft clear area for fighter aircraft within four hours.537 RRR requirements continually changed to keep up with the revised needs 

at USAFE bases and changing NATO criteria. According to Joseph Smith, by the early 1980s USAF 

was attempting to repair 12 craters in two and a half hours. The time constraints changed over the 

decades from “three craters in four hours...six craters in four hours and...12 craters in four hours.” 

The repair time began with the first attack and included the time for damage assessment as well as 

the time for planning repair.538
Building On Success 389

Damage assessment had to be completed in a matter of minutes to accomplish the crater repair 

in the specified time. Crater repair was achieved by filling the void with crushed stone and pavement 

debris then covering the fill with a mat to protect the aircraft from foreign object damage. Smaller 

areas of damage were fixed with a polymer cement and aggregate.539

The experiences gained at Salty Demo had long-lasting effects on the evolution of air base survivability/operability. It was “an eye opener” for many, according to Mr. Tidal McCoy, Assistant Secretary 

of the Air Force for Readiness Support, and pushed the Air Force to focus on Air Base Operability.540

Another result was the acknowledgement of the importance for explosive ordnance personnel to be 

part of the initial assessment team following an airbase attack. After Salty Demo, USAFE was the 

first to move EOD from Logistics Munitions Directorate to civil engineering on May 24, 1988. The 

next year, Maj. Gen. Joseph Ahearn visited USAFE. He was convinced by USAFE of the feasibility 

for realigning EOD with civil engineering. Proponents of the realignment argued that “E&S personnel cannot begin their work of repairing operating surfaces until the EOD work is at least partially 

complete.... Since E&S possesses the most logical skills to augment EOD activities and have the bulk 

of the equipment that can be used to accomplish the EOD mission, they should accept EOD under 

them.”541 By April 1991, all major commands had agreed with the proposal to reassign EOD capability 

to civil engineering.542

Another result of Salty Demo was the development of folded fiberglass mats to meet the demand 

for thin matting for repairing craters. The traditional AM-2 matting caused too great a degree of disturbance during aircraft take off and landing. R&D personnel never fully endorsed the USAFE method 

for concrete slab repair that had been developed by the Federal Republic of Germany. While R&D 

worked on the fiberglass mat, USAFE tested the concept and found that the solid fiberglass mat had 

merit. The R&D program developed 16’x30’ sections of fiberglass that “folded up like an accordion.” 

After the development of the fiberglass mat, USAFE phased out the use of concrete slabs.543 The folded 

fiberglass mat system received final approval from the Tactical Air Warfare Center in 1990. The mat 

was a result of nearly eleven years of research by the ESL and Navy CE Laboratory.544

Rapid Runway Repair in progress at Spangdahlem AB, West Germany, during Salty Demo, 1985.
390 Leading the Way

Readiness Challenges 

In the early 1980s, USAFE sponsored a series of RRR competitions to help perfect this critical 

wartime skill. In 1983, Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC) and Air Force Reserve picked up on 

the idea and carried it a step further. The two held the first CONUS Prime BEEF Rodeo at Hill AFB, 

Utah, which was won by the team from Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. In October 1984, Air Force 

Reserve hosted an expanded Rodeo at Dobbins AFB, Georgia, that included 15 teams from Tactical 

Air Command, Military Airlift Command, and the Air Force Academy, in addition to the AFLC and 

AFRES competitors. Engineers competed in seven different events such as Force Beddown, Explosive 

Ordnance Reconnaissance, Equipment Operations, and RRR. The McClellan AFB, California. team 

came out on top.545

During the mid-1980s, personnel from the Air Force Engineering and Services Center at Tyndall 

AFB, Florida initiated plans to create a competitive USAF-wide challenge event. Maj. Gen. Clifton D. 

Wright, Jr., who served as Director of Engineering and Services, supported the idea and endorsed the 

plan in 1985. The event was designated Readiness Challenge. An award for overall challenge winner 

was established and named the Meredith Trophy, paying tribute to Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith.546

The first Readiness Challenge took place in June 1986 at Eglin AFB, Florida. Teams of 25 personnel from 11 commands participated in seven competitions. The challenge utilized multiple personnel in 

a simulated warzone; their mission was to build a base in the hot Florida sun. Activities were divided 

among teams, with each team evaluated separately. The five-day challenge included RRR, revetment 

erection, and general construction. Teams were not brought together randomly; they were required 

to include personnel with prescribed specialty codes. The challenge tested the ability to construct 

quickly, efficiently, and safely while also examining teamwork and operations during simulated chemical warfare. The Air Force Logistics Command’s 2750th CES from Wright-Patterson AFB won the 

challenge. The benefits of Readiness Challenge 1986 were immediately recognized and similar future 

challenges were proposed.547

Members of a Prime RIBS team assemble a mobile kitchen trailer for use during Readiness Challenge at 

Eglin AFB, Florida.
Building On Success 391

Unlike the first challenge, Readiness Challenge ’87 included services and fire protection personnel. 

The number of competitions rose to 25. Teams of 20 incorporated 12 engineers, 5 services personnel, 

and 3 fire protection personnel. The Air Force Systems Command’s 3202d CES and 3201st SVS from 

Eglin AFB along with the 5610th CES from Edwards AFB won the challenge.548

In 1989, Readiness Challenge III included 14 teams and 22 competitions. The “Fog-of-War” was 

introduced at this challenge. The Fog-of-War placed teams in wartime scenarios and simulated environments to test their capabilities; this particular event became one of the most demanding yet useful 

events in future Readiness Challenges. TAC’s 354th CES from Myrtle Beach AFB and the 325th SVS 

from Tyndall AFB won the overall challenge and received the Meredith Trophy.549

Readiness Challenge ’90 was not held due to activities associated with Operation Desert Shield. 

The next Readiness Challenge was initially planned for 1992, but was rescheduled as a result of Hurricane Andrew. It was eventually held in 1993 and was the last Readiness Challenge at Eglin AFB 

before the relocation to Tyndall AFB.550

Deployments

Bright Star

In 1979, the 819th RED HORSE Civil Engineering Squadron moved to Royal Air Force (RAF) 

Wethersfield in England to provide assistance with RRR. The goal of the assignment was to support 

NATO responsibilities in light of a potential threat to the Warsaw Pact. The unusual assignment was 

unlike previous rapid assignments to support bare base operations. The RED HORSE squadron was 

divided into six groups, each assigned to a separate main operating base. Each group consisted of 39 

RED HORSE personnel that were assisted by 52 personnel provided by the operating base. Training 

facilities established at RAF Wethersfield provided experience in RRR, educating approximately 

600 personnel within only a four month period. In addition, personnel with RED HORSE educated 

Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith (Ret.) presents the Meredith Trophy to the Air Force Logistics Command team, 

the overall winners of Readiness Challenge ’86.
392 Leading the Way

RAF food service personnel on how to prepare meals and operate in a Bare Base situation with only 

mobile equipment to provide water and electricity. The 819th stayed in England until its inactivation 

in August of 1990.551

In 1981, the first-ever Exercise Bright Star required the 819th RED HORSE Civil Engineering 

Squadron stationed at RAF Wethersfield to prove its ability to rapidly deploy and to successfully 

complete a bare base mission. In November, the 25 personnel of the 819th were transferred through 

RAF Mildenhall to Camp Darby in Italy and eventually departed for Southwest Asia from the Pisa, 

Italy airport. They carried 66,000 pounds of equipment and supplies, including Harvest Eagle kits, 

in a C-141B. Their destination was the Sudan, where they were expected to support the Joint Unconventional Warfare Task Force by establishing a tent city and organizing and operating a field kitchen. 

Upon arrival on Thanksgiving Day, the squadron members found themselves surrounded by desert 

land. The one deserted building at the site was turned into a kitchen within hours and was used to 

prepare a hot Thanksgiving meal the same day. Creation of a tent city also began immediately; by the 

end of the day, tent locations were established and eight were assembled.552

During the following days, bathrooms and additional facilities were constructed by joint services 

including Army, Navy, Marines, and Air Force. Initially the Air Force was responsible for monitoring 

and treating water for the site. Eventually, the site was given access to a nearby water supply. Once a 

water treatment facility was created by the Army, the USAF civil engineers assisted with maintenance 

and ensured operability. The field kitchens were put to the test in the hot environment, but their requirement to provide meals for approximately 550 personnel was met. An unanticipated exercise involved 

Sudanese troops. Air Force civil engineers were asked by the Sudan Engineering Corps to provide 

training for 18 Sudanese military personnel who needed to learn operational and maintenance skills 

for using ditch digging equipment acquired from America. The necessary skills were gained in only 

two days. Other activities during the exercise included the daily operation of the site. This was no easy 

task considering the desert environment. Personnel were on constant call for repairs to generators, 

refrigeration devices, and other equipment necessary for day-to-day functions.553

The 819th kitchen crew held a barbeque celebration for all 550 personnel on-site as a close to the 

three-week long Exercise Bright Star 1982. Tent city was dismantled, along with the field kitchen and 

other support facilities. The 819th proved its dedication and its vast amount of skills. The exercise was 

another RED HORSE success.554

Proud Phantom

Proud Phantom was a combined U.S. Air Force and Egyptian Air Force training exercise at Cairo 

West Airport. A USAF squadron flying 12 F-4 aircraft traveled to Egypt from Moody AFB in Georgia 

as part of the exercise. Proud Phantom provided training in deployment and bare base set-up in a 

desert setting. This was the first squadron to deploy and operate using Harvest Bare assets. USAF 

civil engineers were part of an advance echelon (ADVON) which deployed in May 1980. One of 

their responsibilities was to evaluate the training site in Egypt and organize future deployments for 

the exercise. When ADVON teams arrived at the designated site, they discovered an area with no 

available electrical, housing, or support facilities. One week later, 95 personnel from the 823d Civil 

Engineering Squadron (RED HORSE) located at Eglin AFB arrived at the training area to assist in 

readying the site.555

Only a few days later, the 4449th Mobility Support Squadron from Holloman AFB reached the 

training site, with 45 personnel. The 4449th immediately began erecting temporary buildings. ADVON 

personnel resided in a tent city while completing preparations of the site. By June, Harvest Eagle 

kitchens were in place, allowing hot meals to be prepared for all personnel. Within only weeks, 500 

personnel were located at the site, which was quickly turning into a full-fledged installation.556
Building On Success 393

A 1981 article published in Engineering & Services Quarterly expands upon the extent of their 

first missions: 

They first established a 3,000 kW power plant with a ten-mile distribution system 

and then erected 64 personnel shelters, 29 maintenance shops, 21 offices, eight 

warehouses, an aircraft hangar, five latrine facilities, three shower facilities, a 

dining hall, field laundry, tactical site exchange, chapel and a medical clinic.557

In addition, “they layed [sic] 18,000 square feet of AM-2 matting for aircraft parking and installed 

a 1,500 gallon-per-hour water purification system with over 2 1⁄2 miles of water distribution lines.”558

On July 10, the 12 F-4s arrived at the site. Prime RIBS personnel were assigned the responsibility of preparing hot meals beginning in July; they continued the service everyday through October, 

providing four hot meals a day. They battled equipment malfunctions commonly caused by the harsh 

environment, but proved themselves capable of coping in a difficult situation.559

The USAF and Egyptian Air Force personnel worked together on many projects as part of combined training. They joined to complete apron repairs, remove sand dunes, and ensure water services. 

Proud Phantom began wrapping up in September. Teams made up of the 4449th Mobility Squadron 

and the 823d RED HORSE completed clean-up of the site during the month of October. The base was 

completely dismantled in 16 days, and troops left no trace of its existence. Once the Harvest Bare 

equipment was packed for deployment back to the US, the Egyptian Air Force personnel illustrated 

their continued support by ensuring that hot water was available for C rations for the U.S. troops.560

Team Spirit

Team Spirit was the name of an annual exercise that occurred in South Korea between 1976 and 

1993. The Army, Navy, Marines, Air Force, and Republic of Korea forces were all involved. The 

exercise began in order to strengthen the working relationship between U.S. and Republic of Korea 

forces and also to ensure that the two could work together as a team if defense of South Korea became 

an issue. Eventually, Team Spirit exercises also involved Air Reserve Forces. Prime BEEF, Prime 

RIBS, and RED HORSE also participated. Each Team Spirit exercise built upon the activities of the 

previous year’s exercise, which allowed problems to be addressed. In addition, each year resulted in 

an after action report. Planning for the annual exercise was complex and required detailed coordination.561 A discussion of the 1981 Team Spirit exercise provides an example of the amount of materials 

and planning needed to successfully stage the event: 

numerous forces had to be identified and notified, CONUS Air Reserve Force volunteers located, time-phasing of the forces established and airlift arranged, orders 

cut, tent city materials ordered, war readiness materials (WRM) vehicles requested, 

rations ordered, Harvest Eagle and WRM assets identified...the most critical aspect 

was to insure all materials, equipment, vehicles, and personnel arrived at the appropriate place at the appropriate time in order to insure the bases were ready when the 

first aircraft and support personnel started to arrive.562

Participants in the 1981 exercise included 61,500 U.S. and 110,000 ROK troops. Korean engineers 

along with Army engineers and RED HORSE personnel organized the site and readied it for operations. Tent cities were constructed, the U.S. Army provided field kitchens and a multitude of additional 

support facilities were erected and maintained. U.S. Air Force personnel included Prime BEEF teams, 

RED HORSE, BCEs, Prime RIBS, ANG, and Air Force Reserves. At the close of Team Spirit 81, participants had “provided conclusive proof that [they] can meet the challenges of contingency operations 
394 Leading the Way

by using teamwork and more appropriately, ‘Team Spirit.’”563 The Team Spirit exercise ended in 1993 

to avoid friction between North and South Korea.564

Civic Action Programs and Disaster Response 

Civil engineers and Services personnel have specialized skills critical for military deployment, 

which require continual training for mission readiness. These skills are equally valuable to both the 

military and civilian community during emergencies or during the recovery from natural disasters. 

When natural disasters affect an Air Force base’s operations, the base civil engineering organization 

often implements its base recovery plan.

Civic Action Programs

Air Force engineers continued to participate in United States military’s Civic Action Program by 

deploying Civic Action Teams (CAT). Beginning in 1970, CATs were sent yearly to the Trust Territories 

of the Pacific Islands to assist in economic development in that region.565 Under the direction of the 

U.S. Navy, CAT 81-09 deployed to the Truk Islands from September 1981 to April 1982. The group 

comprised thirteen Air Force civil engineer members, including “a Civil Engineer, NCOIC in Heavy 

Equipment, five equipment operators, three mechanics, one medic, one radio operator/electrician, and 

one vertical construction specialist.” The CAT’s mission was to build a 1.1 mile access road to a water 

well and to erect a pre-engineered Butler building measuring 20 x 48 feet at the CAT camp to be used 

as a workshop/recreation area. Road construction proved to be more difficult due to soil conditions, 

rugged terrain, and the continual rain. In addition to the two assigned missions, the CAT completed 

35 additional local jobs for the community. Team members not only worked in their own specialty, 

but also performed tasks outside their specialty. The CAT provided benefits both to team members 

and to the local community. The team members performed under challenging conditions. The local 

community received benefits from the construction projects and also received training in equipment 

operation and mechanical skills. When the mission was complete, the members of CAT 81-09 were 

given honorary Trukese citizenship, a singular honor for this CAT.566

Disaster Response

Prime BEEF and Prime RIBS personnel offered ready-made teams for mission deployments 

either through intra-command or inter-command assignment. While major commands controlled intracommand deployments of less than 90 days, all inter-command assistance was requested through the 

Directorate of Readiness AFESC. Inter-command deployments were three types: “MAJCOM-sponsored 

exercises or Headquarters U.S. Air Force Contingency Support Staff-directed operations; inter-command emergency assistance or disaster recovery; and, support of special project requirements.”567

On the local level, Air National Guard personnel often assisted in community construction projects 

in their respective states, as well as mobilized in times of natural disasters. By participating in these 

kinds of activities, civil engineers and services personnel maintained their ability to mobilize and 

applied their training to aid and assist others, while gaining real world, hands-on, project-oriented 

experiences. When training dovetailed with application and community service, it was a win-win situation for all participants. Air Force engineers have a proud history of supporting local communities 

and the Air Force in these efforts.568

In May 1976, civil engineers from the 40th Civil Engineer Squadron stationed at Aviano Air Base, 

Italy, were deployed to the nearby village of Forgaria to help the community recover from an earthquake. The earthquake destroyed approximately 50 percent of Forgaria. Engineers with earth-moving 

equipment assisted the local community in recovery operations. For a period of 30 days, approximately 
Building On Success 395

100 engineers removed huge boulders and landslides to open up roadways, carted away building debris, 

and cleared clogged storm drainage systems.569

In 1979, McConnell Air Force Base and the surrounding areas of Kansas were struck by an ice 

storm along with blizzards and below zero temperatures. The base lost commercial power for 19 hours; 

the severe cold, snow and ice conditions, and high winds precluded rapid repair of the electric lines. 

Six hundred family housing units, as well as hundreds of unaccompanied personnel in dormitories, 

were without heat. The base activated its base recovery plan, which included “initiate full squadron 

recall, establish damage control center, provide standby power to ten key facilities,” and “initiate 

preventive measures against boilers, water lines and sprinkler system freezing.” Once the commercial 

electric power was restored and the heat turned on, the initial emergency was over. After the water 

system pipes thawed, the number of plumbing repairs from broken and leaking pipes and fixtures was 

staggering. Adopting the structural maintenance and repair team (SMART) concept, teams comprising 

a plumber, an electrician, a mason, a painter, and two carpenters were assigned to specific areas of 

the base. Their priorities were to fix living quarters, living areas, operational areas, service areas, and 

finally general repairs. Within two weeks, approximately 99 percent of the repairs were complete. The 

base also assisted Kansas Gas and Electric Company in repair efforts.570

Hurricane Frederic slammed into the Gulf Coast in September 1979, doing extensive damage to 

Alabama and Mississippi. Keesler AFB, Mississippi, suffered significant damage from the estimated 

100 mile per hour winds. Prime BEEF teams from five bases responded with carpenters, exterior electricians, and equipment operators. The 823d RED HORSE Squadron deployed from Hurlburt Field, 

Florida, to assist in the cleanup. Combined with Keesler’s civil engineers, the deployed personnel 

helped restore the base’s training mission in only four days.571

When Mt. St. Helens in Washington erupted in May 1980, Fairchild AFB located approximately 

250 miles southwest of the mountain was covered in 3⁄4-inch of ash. This ash resembled extremely 

abrasive talcum powder. The ash, when analyzed, comprised 60 percent silicone and 16 percent aluminum. The weight of the ash measured 65 pounds per cubic foot dry and 100 pounds per cubic foot 

wet. Removal of the ash presented a challenge. On-the-site research was conducted to determine the 

best method for removal. High pressure water washing with detergent was the best method. The ash 

also infiltrated water disposal systems and mechanical systems throughout the facilities on the base. 

In all, the base civil engineer squadron devoted 27,000 hours to removing the ash.572

In April 1980, Eglin AFB, Florida, was selected as the site for a processing center for Cuban 

refugees. Initially planned to accommodate 1,000 persons, the estimated numbers of refugees rose 

to 10,000. On June 30, 1980, the center housed 2,000 Cuban refugees. Extensive efforts by Prime 

BEEF, RED HORSE, and Prime RIBS units, including reservists, were required to construct and to 

operate the refugee camp.573 In May 1980, eight reservists were deployed to the camp to assist in food 

service operations.574

During 1982, several civil engineering units assisted in tornado cleanup. Forty-three members 

from the 375th Civil Engineering Squadron stationed at Scott AFB, Illinois, traveled to Altus AFB in 

Oklahoma to provide assistance following a tornado at the base. In December 1982, a tornado swept 

through Scott AFB, Illinois, and caused damage to the surrounding community of New Baden where 

many military families lived. Air Force engineering volunteers initially assisted in keeping power 

generators operating. Reservists from the 932d Civil Engineering Squadron were among 100 reservists that assisted in the cleanup operations and provided medical support. The 932d CES commander 

reported, “The cleanup of New Baden was similar to the wartime mission for which this unit is trained 

—repairing bombed runways and facilities after an attack.... [Though] It would have taken an awful 

lot of bombs to do that much damage.”575

In April, members of the Prime BEEF team at Carswell AFB, Texas, assisted the local community 

of Paris to recover from tornado damage. Supporting local response operations provided valuable 

lessons for civil engineer units in dealing with other Federal agencies like the Federal Emergency 
396 Leading the Way

Management Agency (FEMA) and Non-Government Organizations like the Red Cross. Second Lt. 

Marvin Fisher (later Col.) was the Carswell Chief of the Readiness and Logistics Division, when the 

Carswell AFB team deployed to Paris, Texas, and recalled his first interaction with FEMA officials,

Captain Tom Gross and I were called down to the local FEMA Director on the 

second day of our arrival thinking he was going to welcome our support. Surprisedly, he was furious that the DoD had showed up at his disaster scene without 

his knowledge. When he asked did we know he was personally appointed by 

President Reagan himself I thought for sure we were in big trouble and I was going 

to go home an airman basic. Luckily, Captain Gross was calm and collected about 

it, and explained that we had cleared our deployment through Strategic Air Command officials and coordinated with the Red Cross, and we left the meeting in good 

standing. But I learned the valuable lesson to always clear training deployments 

with higher headquarters.576 

On September 22, 1989, Hurricane Hugo struck South Carolina and damaged both Charleston and 

Shaw Air Force Bases. Based on initial damage assessment, base civil engineers called for assistance 

from RED HORSE units to help clean up the debris and to restore basic utility functions. Engineers 

with the Military Airlift Command from Little Rock, Arkansas; Hurlburt Field, Florida; and Pope 

AFB, North Carolina, were deployed to Charleston AFB. CEMIRT technicians from Dover AFB, 

Delaware, delivered two 1 megawatt generators and two 250 kilowatt generators.577 Tactical Air Command deployed engineers, along with their heavy equipment, from the 823d RED HORSE squadron 

at Hurlburt Field, Florida, to Shaw AFB. The 823d RED HORSE responded to the call for assistance 

by mobilizing over 180 persons. Twenty-eight plumbers, electricians, and power production personnel 

were sent to Shaw AFB by commercial airplanes, while another 130 personnel convoyed with their 

heavy equipment to the area. The convoy reached Shaw AFB 55 hours after being tasked. The two 

primary jobs performed by the 823d RED HORSE during its 19 days of deployment were to remove 

fallen trees in the family housing areas and in base operations areas and to repair roofs in the family 

housing areas. Crews removed fallen trees from buildings and roadways and the airfield. Other team 

members made repairs to roofs of 600 family housing units, as well as to base operations buildings. 

Electricians worked to restore base power, while other members completed damage assessments for 

250 facilities. Deployed food services personnel augmented the base’s dining hall staff to feed hundreds 

of base residents and relief workers. Food services personnel also set up a Mobile Kitchen Trailer and 

a mess tent to serve thousands of meals to the local residents from nearby communities.578

After the initial emergency response to the hurricane-damage, Air Force civil engineers were 

requested to assist the wider community around Charleston, South Carolina. Working with several 

local governments and the Federal Emergency Management Agency, staff from Headquarters, AFESC 

surveyed damage in the area and identified projects that would both assist the community and provide 

realistic training to Prime BEEF and RED HORSE teams deployed for two-week periods. Deployments began by February and continued through August 1990. A 50-person Prime BEEF team from 

the 47th Civil Engineering Squadron, Laughlin Air Force Base, Texas, worked to repair the Charleston 

Memorial Hospital, the Palmetto Pathways Home, and the Horizon House. A 50-person Prime BEEF 

team from 384th CES from McConnell AFB, Kansas, repaired a water pumping facility, worked on 

preserving sand dunes, and relocated an access road. A 50-person team from the 307th RED HORSE 

Squadron (AFRES) from Kelly AFB, Texas, repaired youth recreation facilities in North Charleston.579

When the final deployment occurred in August 1990, Air Force personnel had contributed over 6,800 

man days to clean-up and repair activities in communities in and around Charleston. In all, nine civil 

engineering teams comprising Prime BEEF and RED HORSE members participated in the Hugo 

clean-up efforts. Civil engineering squadrons that participated included the 47th CES, Laughlin AFB, 
Building On Success 397

Texas; 384th CES, McConnell AFB, Kansas; 307th RED HORSE CES (AFRES), Kelly AFB, Texas 

and Barksdale AFB, Louisiana; 103th CES, Peterson AFB, Colorado; 2852th CES, McClellan AFB, 

California; 2854th CES, Tinker AFB, Oklahoma; 3245th CES, Hanscom AFB, Massachusetts; 179th 

CES (Air National Guard), Mansfield, Ohio; and, the 440th CES (AFRES), Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 

In addition to the repair teams, seven Air Force Reserve engineers and technicians worked 58 days to 

provide technical design review and engineering analysis.580

The End of the Cold War

By the end of the 1980s, the military geopolitical climate was reshaped dramatically. Mikhail Gorbachev was chosen as leader of the U.S.S.R. in 1985 and set into motion events that had far-reaching 

effects. Within a month of assuming leadership, Gorbachev announced a moratorium on the deployment of new intermediate-range nuclear missiles. Gorbachev also set out to reform the economic and 

political structures of the U.S.S.R. He called for political and economic reform of the U.S.S.R system 

under perestroika. In addition, Gorbachev opened politics to public debate and criticism under glasnost. 

Gorbachev formed a close personal relationship with U.S. President Ronald Reagan and engaged in a 

dialogue resulting in the negotiation of the Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces treaty. This treaty was 

signed by Reagan and Gorbachev on December 8, 1987. The treaty required the verified destruction 

of 2,611 U.S. and Soviet nuclear warheads. Gorbachev also reduced military spending and removed 

Soviet troops from Afghanistan, ending their participation in the guerilla war.581

Gorbachev’s calls for reform resonated throughout the Warsaw Pact countries, particularly after 

the U.S.S.R. announced its intent to allow self-determination. Most of those countries responded by 

transitioning from the communist political system to more democratic governments. The German 

Democratic Republic (East Germany) ignored the growing popular support for self-determination 

Civil Engineers assist in the clean up following Hurricane Hugo.
398 Leading the Way

during 1988 and through most of 1989. When the barbed-wire fences between Hungary and Austria 

were removed in May 1989, East German citizens traveling on vacation documents crossed through 

Hungary to the West. Peaceful demonstrations against the East German government increased in 

number during the fall. With mounting pressure for change, the East German cabinet resigned on 

November 7, 1989. The infamous Berlin Wall, which had divided the city since 1961, was permanently 

breached on November 9, 1989. The two Germanys moved closer to reunification in 1990. Germany 

was reunited formally at one minute after midnight on October 3, 1990.582

The U.S.S.R. had been the major United States adversary during the Cold War. World tensions 

had been held at bay by the arms race and political brinkmanship. The U.S. military played a central 

role in defusing Soviet aggression through strengthening the American defensive posture. 

When Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn became Director of Engineering and Services in February 1989, 

the effects of these geopolitical events were already being felt throughout DoD and the Engineering 

and Services Directorate. Military planners already were experiencing decreasing budgets between 

1987 and 1989.583 The U.S. Congress was mandating personnel reductions.584 Base closures under 

BRAC were being implemented and a DoD-mandated Defense Management Review to reduce the 

DoD budget by $30 billion over five years was underway.585

In addition, General Ahearn was at the helm of Engineering and Services when the Berlin Wall 

fell. When asked what that was like, he recalled,

Well, the first thing they needed to do was to clean up their hangover. That was 

quite a celebration. But we could immediately see the restructuring and the downsizing of the armed forces. Then there was the question about the need for so much 

investment in the forward basing network of NATO. It came down to operational 

experience and real need for preparedness for armed conflict. There’s no better 

place for learning that than in the theaters where the operations are occurring, so 

the USAFE and Middle East assignments continue to be of great value...We had 

drawn down greatly in Asia, in the Pacific theater. We don’t have many bases out 

there. We’ve been drawn down by the Congress. Why are we spending so many 

resources over there? There was a national debate going on about what do we owe 

Europe, and why have we got such an enormous security investment over there? 

We got engaged in that big-time after the Wall came down.586

General Ahearn expressed pride in the Engineering and Services organization that he led at the end 

of the 1980s:

the civil engineering business, including the environment movement, had achieved 

real respect and real pride. Wing commanders wanted civil engineer leaders at their 

right side. If you had that kind of support, then you’d better have a darned good 

program to complement the command emphasis and the command support. That 

was the spirit of the whole environmental program. The Congress was investing 

in us. Bob Stone, the leader of the installations business at OSD, was watching us, 

because doctrinally our mission was to put into place high-quality infrastructure 

and high-quality facilities, to make operations more effective and more efficient. 

Said another way, you can buy extra wings of airplanes ready to fly with operational cost savings, if your people are proud and productive. We were about making 

that happen through these kinds of programs...I remember the ragtag bunch of 

guys we were in 1958. I must tell you, we’re really different today. And we’re an 

active part of the Air Force mission today, not just a bunch of support grunts.587
Building On Success 399

A successful Air Force civil engineer of the future, General Ahearn counseled, not only required 

professionalism in the civil engineering field and professional management skills; he should also be a 

student of geopolitics and their impacts on Air Force missions. He must also be adaptable to change. 588
400 Leading the Way

Chapter 5

RESPONDING TO NEW CHALLENGES

1991-2000

INTRODUCTION

During the 1990s, following the end of the Cold War, civilian and military leaders turned their 

attention to redefining the role of the U.S. military, including the U.S. Air Force. The geopolitical 

landscape was changed dramatically with the demise of the U.S.S.R. The singular threat of communist 

expansion was replaced by numerous potential threats to U.S. interests from the economically and 

politically fragmented former Soviet Bloc countries or the former Yugoslavia. These threats necessitated a possible military response focused on a single opponent or intervention in regional conflicts.1

In June 1990, Secretary of the Air Force Donald B. Rice (1989-1993) published a white paper 

entitled “Global Reach - Global Power.” In this paper, Rice redefined the Air Force contribution to 

national security as providing aerospace power capability to deliver precise and flexible applications 

of national power to complete missions anywhere in the world in hours rather than days. The speed 

and range of jet aircraft, increased precision of weapons guided by space-based navigation and communication equipment, and military flexibility supported the Air Force in meeting this mandate.2

The concept of Global Reach - Global Power was integrated into the defense strategy announced by 

President George H.W. Bush on August 2, 1990. The major shift in military strategy was accompanied 

by a proposed 25 percent reduction of military organizations and personnel, as well as dramatically 

decreased defense budgets adopted in November 1990.

On August 2, 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait triggering Operation Desert Shield on August 7, 1990 

and Operation Desert Storm between January 17 and February 28, 1991. These intense international 

efforts refocused U.S. military preparedness toward involvement in regional conflicts rather than the 

previously anticipated large-scale war scenarios between major world powers. During both operations, 

Air Force civil engineers executed beddown, sustainment, and mission support assignments in an 

international environment with a high level of efficiency and professionalism that was recognized by 

all U.S. Armed Services. The lessons learned from deploying during the Gulf War were incorporated 

at all levels of the Air Force civil engineer organization. This experience shaped and reshaped civil 

engineer readiness requirements, doctrine, and training during the 1990s. 

The National Military Strategy issued in 1992 identified four primary elements: strategic nuclear 

deterrence and defense, forward presence, crisis response, and reconstitution. The strategy recognized 

new global challenges and assumed that U.S. military forces would be deployed, not in a single major 

war, but in up to two simultaneous major regional contingencies. Additional force drawdowns also were 

implemented in accordance with arms reduction talks and the ratification of a series of Strategic Arms 

Reduction treaties between the United States and the U.S.S.R., which became the Russian Federation 

in 1991. When President William Clinton took office in 1993, defense reductions continued following 

a “Bottom-Up Review.” Additional reductions were made possible by modifying the defense strategy 

to assume force deployments in up to two “nearly simultaneous” regional contingencies.3

By 1992, the concept of Global Reach-Global Power evolved to incorporate five principles. As 

Secretary Rice wrote: “The principles outlined below enable the Air Force to deliver the watchful 

eye, helping hand, or clenched fist that the situation may demand and which the nation has come to 

expect.”4 The five principles were “sustain deterrence, provide versatile combat capability, supply 

rapid global mobility, control the high ground, and build U.S. influence.”5 These principles informed 

planning decisions that transformed the Air Force civil engineer organization into a smaller, leaner 

force capable of meeting unpredictable threats and executing new missions in a changing geo-political 

world climate.6
Responding To New Challenges 401

The Air Force responded to the new international and U.S. political realities of the early 1990s 

through a far reaching reorganization. Air Force Chief of Staff, Gen. Merrill A. McPeak initiated 

reforms that dramatically reshaped the entire Air Force, including Air Force Civil Engineering. General 

McPeak instituted the concept of a “total quality Air Force” and conducted an intense review of the 

Air Force’s vision, missions, and organizational structure. Each area of the Air Force was tasked to 

review its core values, basic principles, and operating style to achieve the ideal of quality, which was 

defined as “leadership commitment and operating style that inspires trust, teamwork, and continuous 

improvement everywhere in the Air Force.”7

On September 17, 1991, the most sweeping restructuring of the Air Force since 1947 was 

announced. The restructuring was designed to reflect the vision of Global Reach - Global Power, 

to build up combat capability, and to incorporate modern management practices and principles by 

strengthening the command chains, decentralizing large headquarters organizations, consolidating 

resources under a single field commander, streamlining organizational structures, and clarifying functional responsibilities. On the Pentagon level, the Air Force Headquarters staff, including the Air Force 

Civil Engineer’s Office, was reduced by 21 percent to a total of 2,565 personnel.8

On the major command level, General McPeak reorganized the 13 Air Force Commands into 10 

commands. Elements from the Strategic Air Command (SAC), the Tactical Air Command (TAC), and 

Military Airlift Command (MAC) were consolidated into two commands, the Air Combat Command 

(ACC) and the Air Mobility Command (AMC). The formal inactivation of SAC, TAC, and MAC, and 

the institution of ACC and AMC occurred on June 1, 1992. On the same day, the Department of Defense 

(DoD) established the U.S. Strategic Command charged with planning, targeting, and commanding 

DoD-wide strategic forces. Air Force Systems Command and the Air Force Logistics Command were 

merged into the Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC) on July 1, 1992. Air University and Air Training Command were combined to form Air Education and Training Command on July 1, 1993. On that 

same day, control of the ICBMs was transferred to the Air Force Space Command (AFSPC). AFSPC, 

Air Force Special Operations Command, Pacific Air Forces (PACAF), and U.S. Air Forces in Europe 

(USAFE) were retained with reduced personnel and decreased numbers of main operating bases.9

By the mid-1990s, the Air Force was primarily based in the continental United States (CONUS) 

with a limited forward presence on a few bases in Europe and in the Pacific. By 1996, the Air Force 

shrank from a blue suit force of 610,000 persons to 400,000; civilian personnel numbers also decreased 

from 252,000 to 166,000 in FY99.10 While fewer in numbers, Air Force civil engineers supported 

an expanding number of short-notice deployments for peacetime assignments, as well as a greater 

number of military operations other than war (MOOTW).11 These latter operations included support for 

combat operations, such as enforcing sanctions and exclusion zones, and non-combat missions, such 

as peacekeeping missions, recovery operations, humanitarian missions, and nation assistance.12 Air 

Force civil engineers were deployed to support the U.S. Air Force mission in Southwest Asia (SWA), 

Somalia, Haiti, Bosnia, Kosovo, and in Central and Latin American countries.

During the late 1990s, the U.S. Air Force issued a new vision for air power designed to carry the 

organization into the new millennium. Entitled Global Engagement: A Vision for the 21st Century 

Air Force, the document was predicated on provisions of the revised National Defense Strategy that 

required the U.S. Air Force “to rapidly defeat initial enemy advances short of their objectives in two 

theaters in close succession.”13 The Air Force identified the core competencies of rapid global mobility, precision engagement, global attack, air and space superiority, information superiority, and agile 

combat support as critical to maintaining air and space superiority. The Air Force civil engineering 

community began to define its role, doctrine, and readiness training to support new concepts, such as 

the Air Expeditionary Force and agile combat support.14

By 1997, the Air Force total personnel strength was approximately 731,000, including military 

and civilians. Approximately 8.2 percent, or 62,000, were assigned to the Air Force civil engineering organization. Of that number, 34,000 were military.15 By the close of the 1990s, Air Force Civil 
402 Leading the Way

Engineering had weathered major reorganizations. The organization undertook increasingly complex 

duties both at home stations and during deployments with a high level of competence and readiness 

in an environment characterized by simultaneous operations. Throughout the 1990s, civil engineer 

personnel performed as warriors, professionals, and ambassadors.

CIVIL ENGINEERING AIR STAFF PROGRAMS AND POLICIES

The Civil Engineers

Maj. Gen. Joseph A. “Bud” Ahearn became the Director of Engineering and Services in March 

1989 and served as The Civil Engineer between February 1991 and January 1992 when it became 

an Assistant Chief of Staff-level position. As The Civil Engineer, General Ahearn oversaw a major 

restructuring of the Air Force civil engineer organization and prepared the organization to face massive 

personnel and budget reductions. General Ahearn redefined the civil engineers’ core vision, supported 

continuing civil engineer readiness programs, implemented the concept of Total Quality Management 

through all levels of the civil engineer organizational structure, and was instrumental in reshaping 

the Air Force Engineering and Services Center (AFESC). General Ahearn headed the organization 

through Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. He directed the development of a separate 

civil engineering combat support doctrine, which was published in 1991. He ensured a firm foundation for the Air Force environmental program through incorporating environmental awareness into 

all aspects of civil engineering, oversaw the formation and establishment of the Air Force Center for 

Environmental Excellence (AFCEE), and supported quality of life programs for Air Force personnel. 

General Ahearn also was a champion for the enlisted force and for the chief master sergeants. He was 

only the fourth person to receive the Air Force Order of the Sword, the highest honor that the enlisted 

force can bestow.16 In his honor, the Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn Enlisted Leadership Award was 

established to recognize the civil engineering chief master sergeant who displays the most exemplary 

leadership qualities.17

Mr. Gary S. Flora
Responding To New Challenges 403

General McPeak chose Mr. Gary S. Flora, then the Associate Civil Engineer and a member of 

the civilian Senior Executive Service, to serve as The Civil Engineer between February and October 

1992.18 He was the only civilian to serve in this position and was the logical choice because he had 

served previously in civil engineer assignments at base, major command (MAJCOM), Air Force 

Regional Civil Engineer (AFRCE), Air Staff, and in the Engineering and Services Directorate since 

1985. Mr. Flora assumed the position with the knowledge that the Assistant Civil Engineer, then 

Brig. Gen. James E. McCarthy, was in line to become The Civil Engineer, but his promotion to major 

general was held up by a Congressional investigation. When the investigation was resolved, General 

McCarthy became The Civil Engineer in October 1992.19 Mr. Flora was well-versed on major projects, 

programming processes, and wartime engineering. As The Civil Engineer, Mr. Flora presided over 

the 1992 implementation of the Air Force major command reorganizations, and dealt with continued 

pressure to draw down civil engineer manpower resulting from the adoption of the objective squadron 

model. Mr. Flora characterized his time as The Civil Engineer as a team effort with General McCarthy. 

In November 1992, Mr. Flora resumed his position as Associate Civil Engineer where he served until 

his retirement in 1994.20

Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy served as The Civil Engineer between October 1992 and July 1995. 

General McCarthy became The Civil Engineer at the rank of brigadier general and was promoted to 

major general on July 1, 1993. The position of Assistant Civil Engineer was discontinued when he 

moved up to become The Civil Engineer. His successor would come from a major command, not the Air 

Staff. General McCarthy focused on organizing, equipping and training the civil engineer work force 

to be more effective in dealing with new missions and the directed manpower reductions associated 

with the “objective wing concept.” He also continued to implement the Total Quality Management 

concept throughout the career field. He also pursued an aggressive environmental program throughout 

the Air Force. He advanced the incorporation of environmental stewardship into the development and 

acquisition phases of future weapon systems, as well as into the operational tempo of the Air Force by 

mainstreaming the environmental program. His goal was to eventually have no environmental staff: 

Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy
404 Leading the Way

“When environmental matters are totally integrated into the culture and fabric of the Air Force, there 

will be no need of dedicated environmental staff,” General McCarthy said.21

As The Civil Engineer, General McCarthy’s priorities were “to improve the readiness and training 

of the civil engineer force, boost environmental performance, improve the availability and quality of 

housing, and protect the resource base of civil engineer programs from reductions at the Air Staff and at 

the Office of the Secretary of Defense.” He oversaw the implementation of the civil engineer objective 

squadron. Because The Civil Engineer had a seat on the Air Force Council and reported directly to the 

Chief of Staff during this time, General McCarthy was able to make measurable progress in achieving 

his priorities, including implementing a new dormitory standard that provided single rooms for all 

Airmen. Another program that bore fruit during his tenure was video- and computer-based training 

and testing, spearheaded largely by the fire protection community, the adoption of multi-skilling for 

the base civil engineer squadrons, and providing entry-level technical training for every Airman.22

Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia served as The Civil Engineer between July 1995 and July 1999. 

General Lupia came to the job directly from the position of Civil Engineer at Headquarters AMC. 

He was the first graduate of the U.S. Air Force Academy to become The Civil Engineer. Although 

he transferred directly from a major command, he was no stranger to the Pentagon. While a captain 

during the 1970s, General Lupia had served as the executive officer and in “the front office” under 

four directors.23 He was a team builder who strengthened the relationships among the Air Force civil 

engineer organization and the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD), the Air Staff, other branches 

of the U.S. Armed Forces, and the major commands. In 1996, General Lupia formed the Airmen’s 

Council to operate in conjunction with the Chiefs’ Council to “identify and fix Airmen problems.”24

Both councils were organized under the leadership of CMSgt. Kenneth Miller, General Lupia’s Chief 

of Enlisted Matters. The Chief’s Council purpose was to “identify, discuss, and recommend solutions to 

the major squadron concerns.”25 In 1998, CMSgt Miller also worked to establish an exchange program 

for senior noncommissioned officers (NCOs) between two RED HORSE squadrons and two Navy 

Seabee units to gain insight, knowledge, and perspective in preparation for future joint deployments. 

This was the Air Force’s first NCO exchange program.26

Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia
Responding To New Challenges 405

General Lupia continued the work to upgrade dormitories and to implement other quality of life 

initiatives. He was proud of the Dormitory Master Plan, which evaluated all Air Force dormitories to 

program funds for renovation. Under his leadership, the civil engineer organization began a concerted 

effort to outsource non-essential military functions and to privatize military family housing and utilities. 

Outsourcing and privatization were partially the result of a major civilian reduction in force. General 

Lupia and his staff worked to quantify the number of military personnel required to fight two major 

theater wars and to preserve and maintain the readiness core. That number identified was 28,401 

personnel and included active, Air Force Reserve, and Air National Guard members. General Lupia 

was involved in the OSD efforts to expand the environmental programs internationally. He worked on 

environmental cleanup issues with Air Force counterparts in Russia and Italy.27 When General Lupia 

retired, the annual awards for Outstanding Civil Engineer Company Grade Officer, NCO, and Airman 

were named in his honor. 

Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II became The Civil Engineer in July 1999 and served until May 

2003. He transferred to the position directly from the Civil Engineer position at Headquarters ACC. 

He oversaw the Air Force civil engineer organization into the first decade of the 21st century. While 

at ACC, General Robbins reviewed the RED HORSE units to determine if those units were “relevant, 

right-sized, and ready” for deployment. He proposed similar reviews for the entire civil engineer 

community to ensure that civil engineers continued to support the mission of the Air Force. General 

Robbins foresaw ongoing emphasis on privatization and outsourcing base civil engineering functions 

due to declining budgets and personnel constraints. He supported expanding quality of life initiatives 

to include the military workplace in addition to dormitories and family housing. He also was involved 

in the early implementation of the Expeditionary Aerospace Force (EAF).28

Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II
406 Leading the Way

Civil Engineering Structural Reorganizations

During the 1990s, the Air Force civil engineer organization underwent several major restructurings. Dramatic changes occurred in the first half of the decade because of intense pressure to reduce 

manpower and budgets. The vision of “Global Reach - Global Power” as proposed by Secretary 

Rice was supported by the Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Merrill A. McPeak, who was appointed on 

November 1, 1990. General McPeak had a radical new vision to restructure the Air Force. By the end 

of December 1990, General McPeak secured approval for his reforms from Secretary Rice and began 

to implement his vision for change. The new structure proposed for the Air Force, General McPeak 

explained, was appropriate whether the Air Force grew, decreased in size, or stayed static. He proposed 

an “objective Air Force” supported by “objective numbered air forces, objective wings, and objective 

squadrons.” With the decreasing funding appropriations, General McPeak argued that the Air Force 

purposefully should control its own reorganization rather than react to budget cuts and manpower cuts 

imposed by the U.S. Congress.29

Defense Management Report Decision 967

During 1990, the OSD conducted a series of exhaustive reviews of the organizational structure 

of the Armed Services to identify budget and manpower savings. Under intense review were the civil 

engineer organizations of the Air Force, Army, and Navy. The objective of this scrutiny was to answer 

the question “can cost reductions and improved efficiencies be achieved through consolidations of 

base engineering services, reductions of excess personnel, economies of scale, improved utilization 

of military manpower, and reorientation of the base engineering financial and management programs 

to establish a business management approach to real property management?”30 The answers were 

published in Defense Management Report Decision (DMRD) 967 entitled, Base Engineering Services, 

which was issued in December 1990. 

Consolidation of base engineering services by establishing DoD-wide, industrially funded Public 

Works Centers similar to those used by the Navy was a major recommendation contained in DMRD 

967. Proponents of public work centers argued that this organizational structure eliminated duplicate 

services and realized efficiency and economy of scale by consolidating equipment, shops, and personnel specialties. The time frame for establishing public works centers was 1992 and 1993. Additional 

recommendations in DMRD 967 included improving multi-year installation master plans, up-dating 

automated data processing, and implementing business-oriented management techniques. The cost 

savings through implementing DMRD 967 recommendations were estimated at $260 million in FY92 

and $3 billion in the following six years through reductions in military civil engineer manpower. 

Reductions in Air Force civil engineer manpower were projected at 6,000 persons in FY92, followed 

by subsequent reductions of up to 21,795 active duty civil engineers.31

Secretary Donald Rice responded to DMRD 967 with a strongly-worded, three-page rebuttal. The 

Air Force did not concur with the recommended reductions in manpower or with recommendations 

for regional consolidation of civil engineering functions into public works centers. Secretary Rice 

requested the full restoration of manpower and funding.32 As reported in DMRD 967, Air Force civil 

engineers accounted for 50 to 60 percent of military manpower on Air Force installations. While the 

Air Force controlled approximately one-third of all buildings and structures in the DoD real property 

inventory, its military manpower accounted for approximately 49 percent of military personnel in 

real property maintenance DoD-wide. Conversely, military personnel in civil engineering positions 

on Army and Navy installations typically accounted for 2 to 5 percent of base employees.33 Secretary 

Rice argued that the Air Force readiness required 56,235 military civil engineers, including active 

and reserve personnel, to support current war plans. Existing manpower authorizations already were 

below the civil engineer requirement and totaled 49,951, comprising 30,571 active duty and 19,380 

reserve personnel. Secretary Rice wrote:
Responding To New Challenges 407

Air Force military engineer requirements differ from those of the Army and Navy. As 

Operation Desert Shield has illustrated, the Air Force fights from a large network of 

CONUS, enroute, rear staging and forward bases. To do this, our military engineers 

are required to bed down weapons systems and people, operate, maintain and repair 

the base systems, enhance survivability, and recover bases damaged by adversaries. 

In contrast, the Army fights from its battlefields and the Navy from its ships. 34

On the subject of consolidation of civil engineering functions into public works center, Secretary 

Rice recounted the recent “bad” Air Force experiences with the San Antonio Real Property Management Agency (SARPMA). “After trying for nearly 10 years to achieve responsive and quality 

installation support through SARPMA,” Secretary Rice wrote, “we dissolved it in 1989 and went 

back to our normal support structure.”35 A discussion of SARPMA was included in DMRD 967. The 

defense management review team reached no clear conclusions on why SARPMA failed. It appeared 

to the team that SARPMA was so plagued with problems, that attributing its failure to the concept of 

consolidation was misplaced.36

Secretary Rice concluded his rebuttal to DMRD 967:

We fully support the need to achieve maximum cost effectiveness in the base engineering support function but we do not agree that it should be done at the expense of 

quality and responsiveness. We firmly believe that major savings in the base engineering support function can be achieved through a substantial reduction in the base 

structure which the Air Force is pursing aggressively. In addition, however, we believe 

there is some lessor (sic) but still attractive potential for further saving through organizational streamlining and increased productivity. The Total Quality Management 

movement and the experience of our most successful private sector organizations 

clearly demonstrate that productivity increases with decentralization, not with consolidation and centralization.37

In November 1990, while the draft DMRD 967 was being circulated, Air Force Director of Engineering and Services Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn assembled a task force to develop alternatives to 

the recommendations contained in the report. The task force included 35 members drawn from the 

Air Staff, the Air Force Engineering and Services Center (AFESC), and the major commands. Several 

major command Directors of Engineering and Services served as advisors to the group. The task force 

examined ways to streamline management and maintenance operations on the bases, as well as strategies to retain personnel for warfighting capabilities. The findings and recommendations of the Task 

Force were used to support the Air Force alternative proposal to DMRD 967, which was approved by 

the OSD Comptroller on December 30, 1990.38

The alternative reduced Air Force military personnel by 6,215 and civilian personnel by 30 positions. Manpower reductions were estimated to save $602 million in personnel, salaries and benefits over 

the six-year Defense program. In addition to manpower reductions, the Air Force proposed restructuring base civil engineering maintenance shops by implementing the zonal maintenance organizational 

structure, adopting multi-skilling for enlisted craftsmen specialties, and converting unneeded military 

positions to civilian positions. The zonal maintenance structure required that the base shop personnel, 

who were organized by function, be re-assigned to maintenance shops serving distinct zones on each 

base. At the same time, the 17 civil engineering enlisted specialties, including carpentry, electrical, 

sheet metal, plumbing, etc., were reduced to 11 specialties. Craftsmen were required to learn the skill 

sets of other trades. Military personnel typically devoted 30 percent of their work time to military 

training requirements. By converting some military positions to civilian status, the Air Force proposed 

to increase overall workforce productivity since civilian personnel would be dedicated to their jobs 100 
408 Leading the Way

percent of the time. Implementation of the alternative proposal, the Air Force argued, would “reduce 

overhead costs, eliminate redundant layers of positions, and apply a range of Total Quality Management principles to achieve reduced costs, without reducing quality of service at all installations.” The 

deadline for implementing the alternative was October 1, 1996, but, while the alternative was being 

implemented, another initiative to reorganize Air Force civil engineer organization was gaining support 

through the efforts of the Air Force Chief of Staff General McPeak.39

Reorganizations by General McPeak

General McPeak began his major reorganization of the Air Force by realigning the Headquarters 

U.S. Air Force at the Pentagon and reducing the number of Headquarters personnel by 21 percent.40

Until February 1991, the Directorate of Engineering and Services at Headquarters was organizationally 

under the Deputy Chief of Staff, Logistics and Engineering. Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn served as 

the Director of Engineering and Services. Brig. Gen. James E. McCarthy served as Deputy Director 

and Mr. Gary Flora of the Senior Executive Service was Associate Director. The Deputy Director for 

Construction, the Deputy Director for Programs, and the Plans Division reported to the Director. Under 

the Deputy Director for Construction were the Installation Development Division and the Environmental Quality Division. Under the Deputy Director for Programs were the Programs Division, Family 

Housing Division, and Real Estate Division. The three Air Force Regional Civil Engineer (AFRCE) 

offices and AFESC also reported to the Director.41

Effective February 1, 1991, General Ahearn’s position was elevated to Assistant Chief of Staff 

reporting directly to the Air Force Chief of Staff as part of a “flattening” of the Air Staff structure. 

General Ahearn became The Civil Engineer.42 As General Ahearn recalled, 

Having The Civil Engineer work for the Chief of Staff, that was a McPeak call. He 

was playing with the wing structure and the major command structure—why wouldn’t 

it look the same at the Air Force level? He had his Judge, he had his Surgeon, and his 

Civil Engineer. That’s where that title came from. It wasn’t the haughty sound that it 

looks like, “The Civil Engineer.” It was the judge, the surgeon, the engineer. That’s 

how he talked, and that’s how commanders talked. That’s where those titles came 

from. It happened to be that the Surgeon General was called The Surgeon General, 

and the judge was called The Staff Judge Advocate. So, he called the engineer The 

Civil Engineer. That was the birthright of that expression.43

One advantage to elevating The Civil Engineer to the level of Assistant Chief of Staff was that The 

Civil Engineer became a member of the Air Force Council, the senior decision-making body of the 

Air Force. The Civil Engineer now was able to advocate directly for Military Construction, operations 

and maintenance, and housing funding and personnel issues.44

Throughout 1991, General McPeak and the Air Staff worked to reorganize the Air Force structure 

from top down. General McPeak conducted a comprehensive review of all primary functional areas 

and sub-organizations of the Air Force. His goal was to rationalize the organization of the Air Force 

through a standard structure of numbered Air Forces, air divisions, wings, groups, squadrons, and 

flights. General McPeak wanted the wing commander to command the base and to be accountable 

for every unit on it.45

The first phase of the reorganization occurred in the Office of The Civil Engineer and AFESC, 

previously a separate operating agency, but now renamed as a field operating agency (FOA). The 

internal review process was described by General Ahearn as a “wire brushing” that was “intentionally vigorous and abrasive.”46 The Office of The Civil Engineer, with the help of AFESC, prepared 

viewgraphs. General Ahearn assembled each division head, plus General McCarthy, the Deputy Air 
Responding To New Challenges 409

Force Civil Engineer, and Gary Flora, the Associate Civil Engineer, to participate in the briefing.47

Before the briefing occurred, General Ahearn learned that General McPeak only allowed two poster 

boards to brief from. The briefing room contained a clear table and two easels. As Col. Marshall W. 

Nay, Jr., described that meeting that occurred on 11 March 1991, 

When we went downstairs that morning...at 9:00 a.m., the full Colonel Exec came 

out and said, “Only two of you guys are coming in here.” So they agreed it was going 

to be General Ahearn and I. We started giving the briefing and I felt that he thought 

we were almost like a corps, an independent corps, you know, stovepipes and things 

like that.48

General McPeak asked some hard questions about the Air Force civil engineer organization. He 

questioned the role of the Air Staff in planning and readiness; he believed these were major command tasks. The organization of AFESC was particularly scrutinized. He questioned AFESC’s role in 

training, the laboratory, and acquisition function. General McPeak showed particular interest in the 

organization of the environmental program.49 Colonel Nay reported,

He [General McPeak] asked General Ahearn the question, “Where do you guys do 

the environmental work?” And General Ahearn said, “Marshall, go ahead and answer 

that.” He didn’t like the answer I gave. It became clear to him that we had it spread 

out in many different locations because he had all those geographically separated 

units; and there was some of it in the Pentagon, some of over at Bolling at Building 

500, some down here [at Tyndall], some at Wright-Patt [Wright-Patterson AFB]. He 

did not like that response. I felt really bad, but it was the truth, and you need to tell 

the Chief the truth.50

In summary, General McPeak expressed concerns over the entire organizational structure of Air 

Force civil engineering. He believed that it was not functionally organized and had too much overhead. 

The organization got its job done because it had good people.51 Colonel Nay summed up the briefing, 

I thought we were doing a good job, but what he saw there was redundancy and extra 

time and things of that nature. And so he told us in a pretty alpha-numeric way, come 

back in 60 days and answer that [environmental] question again, and the answer is 

going to be, “I’m going to do this in one location.”52

As Gary Flora described the outcome of that first briefing, 

We gave General McPeak the briefing, and when we got done he basically said, “Your 

organization is all screwed up.” General Ahearn said, “Okay, we’ll go back and take 

another look at it, and we’ll come back and brief you.” We took a hard look at the 

organization and went back to the Chief as soon as we could get an appointment.53

The Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefing was presented again to General McPeak on May 7, 

1991, followed by a presentation to the Secretary of the Air Force on June 26, 1991. The briefing 

slides summarized the core purpose of the civil engineer organization, its vision, past organization, 

and proposed new organization. The Office of The Civil Engineer in the Pentagon was supported by 

Executive Services and five directorates: Operations and Maintenance, Military Construction, Plans 

and Programs, Housing and Services, and Environmental Quality in the plan presented in May, and 

submitted for approval on June 26, 1991. The role of the Office of The Civil Engineer was refocused 
410 Leading the Way

on formulating civil engineer policy, validating Air Force requirements, and allocating resources to 

meet those requirements.54 The AFRCE offices that formerly reported to The Civil Engineer were 

inactivated and their manpower positions dispersed among the major commands. The major commands 

were assigned the role of interfacing directly with the contracting agents to design and to construct 

the Air Force Military Construction Program.55 Proposed staffing for the Office of The Civil Engineer 

for FY91 was reduced from 447 to 170 (Figure 5.1).56

The Air Force Office of The Civil Engineer was supported by two field operating agencies (FOAs). 

The role of FOAs was to develop standards and procedures to execute Air Staff policy, and to provide 

technical support to the major commands and the field.57 Major commands were charged with organizing, training and equipping Airmen. AFESC at Tyndall AFB, Florida, was no longer responsible for 

developing policy and training; its role now emphasized providing support to civil engineer organizations in the field and at the bases.58 As described by Colonel Nay, AFCESA’s mission was to “be the 

technical services focal point for major commands to facilitate executing policies and programs of 

the Secretariat and the Air Staff applicable to the base civil engineering missions.”59 AFESC’s training detachment was removed and eventually transferred to the 823d RED HORSE Squadron. The 

name of the Civil Engineering Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair Training (CEMIRT) function was 

changed to become Civil Engineering Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair Teams. AFESC staffing 

was reduced from nearly 1000 to 547.60

A new FOA, named the Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence (AFCEE), was established 

at Brooks AFB, Texas. One reason Brooks AFB was selected as the location of AFCEE was that the 

Human Systems Laboratory already located there included some environmental aspects in its mission. 

This laboratory identified and investigated contamination and pollution on air bases. Brooks AFB 

was also located in a large metropolitan area with easy transportation access.61 Three Environmental 

Regional Offices were transferred from the Air Staff to AFCEE and redesignated Regional Compliance 

Source: Maj. Gen Joseph A. Ahearn, “Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefing,” May-June 1991, AFCEC History Office.

We are the Air Force team accountable for delivering the highest quality engineering and services 

support to our customers. We provide the leadership, policies, resources, and oversight to build 

and operate Air Force installations for global air power, shelter and sustain Air Force people, and 

protect the environment.

Civil Engineering’s Core Purpose 1991
Responding To New Challenges 411

Office. The offices were located at Dallas, Texas; San Francisco, California; and, Atlanta, Georgia. 

The proposed AFCEE staffing for FY91 was 167 positions.62

An additional FOA was established on November 15, 1991, when the Closure Integration Division 

within the Office of The Civil Engineer, became part of a new field operating agency—the Air Force 

Base Disposal Agency (AFBDA) under the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Manpower, Reserve 

Affairs, Installations and Environment. Col. David M. Cannan moved from the Closure Integration 

Office to become AFBDA’s first director. As property custodian for the 19 stateside bases that had 

been closed, or were slated to close, the agency had the total responsibility to environmentally clean 

up and transition those bases that were approved for disposal by Congress under the 1988 and 1990 

base closure acts. Established with about 50 personnel, it was organized into a Property Disposal 

Office, Base Disposal Management Teams, Environmental Program Management Office, a Professional 

Services Team and Executive Support. 63

Also in 1991, General McPeak, Chief of Staff, and the Under Secretary of the Air Force approved 

the transfer of certain real estate functions from the Office of The Civil Engineer to the Assistant 

Secretary of the Air Force for Manpower, Reserve Affairs, Installations, and Environment (SAF/

MI) with functional oversight by the Deputy Assistant Secretary (Installations), Mr. James Boatright. 

These functions to be transferred to SAF/MI were policy, lease approvals, program/project validation, 

inventory management and accountability, and oversight; functions remaining in AF/CE were programming and budgeting for real property requirements. This new organization, named the Air Force 

Real Estate Agency (AFREA), was constituted and activated on August 1, 1991 as a FOA. AFREA 

was a 14-person, all-civilian organization located in Building 5681 at Bolling AFB. It maintained a 

complete land and facilities inventory and worked to acquire, manage, and dispose of real property 

worldwide for the Air Force. Mr. Anthony R. Jonkers was named Director of the AF Real Estate 

Agency. It reverted to the Real Estate Division in the office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the 

Air Force for Installations in 2001. 64

Also during this time, General McPeak approved the transfer of explosive ordnance disposal 

(EOD), disaster preparedness (DP), and airbase operability (ABO) career fields to Civil Engineering. 

EOD transferred from the Munitions Directorate under the Assistant Chief of Staff, Logistics. DP was 

located at the Air Force Disaster Preparedness Resource Center at Lowry AFB, Colorado, and the 

ABO Branch was formerly part of the Air Force Air Base Operability office (AF/XOORB).65 These 

areas were a natural fit into air base recovery activities. Capt. Charles Armour and CMSgt John J. 

Glover, EOD managers on the USAFE staff, helped oversee the transition to Civil Engineering. As 

demonstrated at Salty Demo, the two functions needed to work together. Following an enemy attack, 

EOD was tasked to clear aircraft operating surfaces of ordnance and engineers couldn’t begin their 

work of repairing an airfield until EOD had completed its work. EOD needed the engineers’ heavy 

equipment that was standing by waiting for them to finish. USAFE brought them together and tested 

the concept during several NATO TACEVALs with great success. Although some EOD units opposed 

the move to Civil Engineering, it soon became apparent that the union brought additional funding and 

improved support at all levels.66 General Ahearn said, 

We embraced them into our group. We didn’t want to lose them. The EOD guys clearly 

aligned to the first responder operations team. They wanted our leadership, and we, 

for whatever reason, created a pretty solid affinity with them, and they went quite 

well with the chem/bio guys. We learned this in the airbase operability exercise [Salty 

Demo 1985], that you’ve got to sweep up the whole playing field to keep it operating.67

The official transfer of these functions to Civil Engineering occurred in November and December 

1991.68
412 Leading the Way

Between June 26 and December 1991, the proposed organizational structure was revised once 

again when General McPeak decoupled Services from Civil Engineering. As General Ahearn recalled, 

I remember the general asking me, “Do you want to continue the relationship between 

Engineering and Services? Because Services is not a clear engineering function. Your 

mission in life is to take care of the infrastructure and the re-basing and downsizing.” 

The question was also, “Where is there equal or better functional alignment?” The 

Personnel folks owned the club operations and the food service operations, and had 

a lot of complementary activities with Services. Having been a student of hospitality 

management, there was a far greater alignment with the functions of club management...Maybe we could create a synergy there, to integrate like functions and provide 

better food, housing, and fitness services for our people. The answer functionally 

was...yes. So, would the engineers be willing to support the whole set of those kinds 

of services with the same fervor and excitement? Well, of course, we would be. Could 

you get better focused in performing your core mission? Of course, we could. Would 

the Air Force be able to sustain the quality of services that would build up during this 

tenure? If you look at the leadership of the personnel folks, those guys and gals are 

really good. So, what...is the risk? The risk was, I found, somewhat minimal. It was 

tough, like letting your children go.69

On August 1, 1991, AFESC was renamed Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency (AFCESA). By 

December 1991, Services was realigned under the Air Force Chief of Morale, Welfare, and Recreation.70

In November 1991, Secretary Rice and the senior Air Force leadership introduced a new vision 

statement to the Air Force, which read “Air Force people building the world’s most respected air and 

space force...global power and reach for America.”71 In response to the new Air Force vision, General 

Ahearn, the Civil Engineer, wrote, 

I would observe that we [Civil Engineering] are the foundation of that power. The 

civil engineering community will perform its main missions:

• Readiness—getting ready for war

• Operations and maintenance on the base network girding the entire globe

• Developing these bases through military construction and capital repair

• Caring for the bases as stewards of natural environment through our 

 environmental quality program, and

• Delivering quality community areas, through such programs as family 

 housing and housing for our unaccompanied people through dormitories, 

 dining facilities, fitness centers, and other airbase community facilities.72

As a corollary to the new overall Air Force vision statement, Air Force civil engineers developed 

the following vision statement: “Civil engineer men and women—superbly led, motivated, trained 

and equipped—pacesetters in the best Air Force in the world.” The accompanying mission statement 

was “Provide, operate, maintain, restore, and protect the installations, infrastructure, facilities, housing, and environment necessary to support aerospace forces having global reach and global power, in 

both war and peace.”73
Responding To New Challenges 413

Objective Squadron

On the base level, the authority of the installation commander was strengthened. The basic rule 

of wing organization became “one base, one wing, one boss.” Accountability for mission completion 

also was assigned to the installation commander. Because of the additional responsibility, most major 

bases were commanded by general officers after the reorganization. Meeting this command preference while maintaining a reduced number of general positions, generals serving in headquarters were 

relocated to the field. Most deputy positions held by generals were eliminated throughout the Air 

Force organization. Support activities, including civil engineering, services, and security police, were 

organized under the Mission Support Group.74

The second phase of the civil engineer reorganization occurred at the installation level with the 

implementation of the “right-sized” objective civil engineer squadron (CES). General McPeak’s goal 

for squadrons was to “standardize the objective squadron and fix functions within each flight, define 

the squadron’s capability, and adjust manpower to provide the same capability at each location.”75 A 

presentation delivered as part of the Objective Wing Conference on September 27, 1991 illustrated 

the revised organization for the CES. Each installation CES was supported by 269 persons comprising 

a mix of military and civilian personnel. In early October 1991, General Ahearn formally questioned 

the manpower numbers presented in the September briefing:

We cannot validate the core manpower numbers reflected on the original objective 

wing chart. Civil engineering manpower is mainly derived from the installation real 

property inventory, with adjustments made for population and location. The military 

component of the squadron, on the other hand, is a function of the wartime mobility 

and home station requirements. As a result, total squadron strengths vary widely. We 

see no value in fixing a “core” size and requiring all squadrons to request adjustments. 

We recommend unit end-strengths be determined according to manpower standards 

at major command level.76

On January 18, 1992, General McPeak approved the civil engineer objective squadron organization 

staffed by 269 persons as presented in September 1991. For the first half of 1992, Brig. Gen. James E. 

McCarthy, then serving as Assistant Civil Engineer, turned to the Air Staff, AFCESA, major commands, 

and installations to define ways to meet the personnel cuts required under DMRD 967 and the severe 

manpower constraints in the objective squadron model. A series of workshops were held to answer the 

questions: “How do we make an Air Force Civil Engineering Squadron? What does it take to make sure 

that the squadron does what it needs to do?”77 The effort involved a variety of vested parties, including 

the Air Staff, AFCESA, Air Force Management Engineering Agency (AFMEA), major commands, 

and installation personnel. The assistance of the AFMEA’s Air Force Civil Engineering Management 

Engineering Team (AFCEMET) was particularly valuable in working on the manpower issues.78

On May 21, 1992, General McCarthy submitted a staff summary sheet to the Vice Chief of Staff, 

U.S. Air Force, reporting the results of the intensive study of staffing levels proposed for 64 bases 

that combined the DMRD 967 personnel reductions and the personnel constraints of the objective 

squadron model. The reduction of civil engineer manpower was projected at 11 percent by FY97. The 

summary requested the approval of additions to the objective civil engineering squadron staffing that 

increased the core squadron size from 269 to 283 to incorporate the EOD, ABO, and DP functions. 

General McCarthy concluded the staff summary sheet:

We have reviewed the results of this study with the major command Civil Engineers. 

We believe the Objective CE Squadron, if fully manned and augmented by contract 

services described in the study, can support Air Force missions and sustain the quality 

of our installations.79
414 Leading the Way

The organization presented in the staff summary sheet was led by the Squadron Commander who 

oversaw eight flights. The term flight was introduced to conform to the terminology in use in the Air 

Force wing structure.80 The Housing Flight, the Resources Flight, the Engineering Flight, and the 

Environmental Flight provided professional services. The Fire Protection Flight, the EOD Flight, and 

ABO Flight provided emergency services, while the Operations Flight oversaw operations. On June 

9, 1992, the Vice Chief of Staff approved the staff summary sheet.81 The new structure of the base 

squadrons was announced to the civil engineer community in August 1992.82 Implementation of the 

objective squadron began in October 1992 (Figure 5.2).83

Major Command Reorganizations

The civil engineer structure at the major commands also was reorganized; this reorganization was 

broad reaching during the merger of two commands into one structure. AFMC resulted from the merger 

of AFLC and AFSC in 1992. “It was the merging of two very different philosophies,” stated the major 

command Civil Engineer Brig. Gen. Robert J. Courter, Jr. As a result of this merger, a new management 

structure was established at the Headquarters AFMC. Five mission element boards were formed to 

focus management attention and to allocate financial resources. Base Operating Support (BOS), one 

of the five boards, was chaired by General Courter, AFMC Civil Engineer. The BOS board comprised 

representatives from 16 functional areas including civil engineering, medical, environmental, security, 

services, legal, supply and transportation personnel, and wing and support group commanders. The 

BOS board was “responsible for all strategic planning and resource allocation decisions of BOS across 

AFMC.”84 General Courter envisioned that combining all functional areas into a single organization on 

the base level would eliminate duplicated administrative efforts. BOS teams formed on the base level 

would have one resource manager, one central control center, one single programming and planning 

staff, and a single work control point instead duplicating functions for each functional area.85

In ACC, the merger of TAC and SAC missions and personnel required the Headquarters ACC 

civil engineer staff to analyze rigorously the missions, responsibilities, and business practices of 

both former commands. The new civil engineer organization was created by incorporating the best 

practices from both commands. One innovation adopted by the ACC civil engineer staff was the 

formation of the Civil Engineer Technical Support Office (CETSO). Brig. Gen. Michael A. “Mick” 

McAuliffe, ACC Civil Engineer, realized that his staff included functions that were not truly staff 

functions, so he established CETSO to provide these services to the field. CETSO was operationally 

based and directly supported base personnel. General McAuliffe also expanded the new command’s 

environmental program under the direction of Col. John Mogge the Chief of Environmental Programs 

at ACC. The staff grew from 12 to 85 and included future leaders such as Capt. Timothy A. Byers 

and Capt. Theresa C. Carter, both later reached the rank of major general and served as The Air Force 

Source: Perry Sullivan, “Objective Wing Approved,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, August 1992, 1.
Responding To New Challenges 415

Civil Engineer. General McAuliffe and Colonel Mogge set out to establish the standard for the Air 

Force and the Department of Defense, “We set out to establish a new, deeply embedded environmental 

ethic. We were set on achieving cultural change. We transferred responsibility down to the people 

who work in the areas of high environmental concern. We also set out to clean up the environment at 

each of our bases.... We are constantly being used as an example to follow by other federal and state 

agencies.” With strong support from ACC’s commander and cross-functional support from within the 

command, the ACC Environmental Leadership Council and Environmental Leadership Board raised 

the command’s environmental program to levels.86

The activation of Air Mobility Command was more than just a name change, it created a new 

command presence at 17 bases and 105 tenant locations as the command carried out its Global Reach 

mission. When then-Brig. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia left HQ SAC and moved to HQ AMC, the position became the Director of Civil Engineering, reporting directly to the commander. He faced many 

challenges: an aging infrastructure, a command whose Civil Engineering force was primarily in the 

Air Reserve components, integrating explosive ordnance disposal and disaster preparedness into the 

career field, and building an environmental program. He increased the command’s environmental 

staff from 2 to 16 in his first few months and asked Lt. Gen. Walter Kross, AMC vice commander, to 

chair the AMC Environmental Protection Committee, elevating it from a civil engineering program 

to a command program.87

Research &Development (R&D)/Laboratory Transfer

On December 4, 1992, the Research, Development, and Acquisition Directorate at AFCESA was 

transferred to the new Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC). The Environics Laboratory became 

a directorate of the Armstrong Laboratory under the Human Systems Center at Brooks AFB, Texas, 

although the laboratory physically remained at Tyndall AFB, Florida. Civil engineering research and 

the airbase systems and development acquisition were transferred to the Aeronautical Systems Center 

and placed under Wright Laboratory at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. One branch office for civil engineer research remained at Tyndall AFB, while a branch office for airbase systems and development 

acquisition was retained at Eglin AFB, Florida.88 This realignment consolidated responsibility for 

all Air Force laboratories under a single command, which controlled both personnel and budgetary 

resources for all Air Force R&D work. In the case of Environics, the realignment provided additional 

R&D personnel to work on environment cleanup, remediation, and pollution control and prevention 

strategies. The realignment allowed AFCESA to focus on its core missions, although the organization 

retained the responsibility for developing requirements for civil engineering R&D work for which 

commercially available products were not a viable solution. AFCEE oversaw the requirements for 

environmental quality R&D.89

General McCarthy worked to assure that civil engineers had direct input into environmental R&D 

projects. He worried that civil engineer R&D would be buried within a large lab and would be a target 

for future manpower reductions. General McCarthy worked closely with senior personnel at Wright 

and Armstrong Laboratories to ensure that civil engineer personnel were assigned to their staffs, but 

remained physically at Tyndall AFB, Florida.90 The relationship among AFCESA, AFCEE, and the 

laboratories was formalized in 1994.91

Effects of Reorganization on The Civil Engineer Office

On the Pentagon level, the Office of the Civil Engineer experienced a major reduction in staff. 

During the 1980s, the Directorate was headed by a major general with a military deputy, who typically was next in line for the top job; this arrangement ended with General McCarthy. As Gary Flora 

explained, 
416 Leading the Way

Chief of Staff Gen. [Merrill A.] McPeak...was trying to assign more general officers 

as wing commanders, and they looked around for places to get more positions. Ours 

was one that got reassigned. When [Maj. Gen. James E.] McCarthy was promoted 

to one-star and had confirmation problems going to two-star, [Col.] Todd Stewart sat 

in as a colonel deputy. He was there waiting for an assignment. He was the de facto

deputy, although we didn’t have the position. Then when he and I left, about the same 

time, in early 1994, they decided not to have a military deputy. The civilian would 

act in the deputy role. So, not only did we lose the general officer slot, but we lost 

the colonel slot, too.92

The reorganization between 1990 and 1992 streamlined the programming and funding process. 

Programs and construction projects formerly were reviewed by a Program Review Committee (PRC), 

the Air Staff Board, and the Air Force Council before submission to the OSD. One review panel of 

the PRC was the Facilities Panel that reviewed all new construction projects and weapons support 

facility requirements. During the reorganization, the Program Review Committee and the Air Staff 

Board were eliminated and Resource Allocation Teams were established. The Civil Engineer lost 

control over allocated funds for civil engineer programs and ceded the ability to advocate directly for 

them. Shrinking budgets required that all programs and projects be grounded in compelling mission 

requirements and supported by solid economic analysis.93

The accumulated organizational changes between 1989 and 1993 necessitated revision of all Air 

Force regulations, pamphlets, and manuals to reflect the new organizational structure. Through these 

revisions, the number of Air Force regulations was reduced by 20 percent and the total number of 

pages of regulations was reduced by 40 percent.94 At this time, Air Force Regulations were rewritten 

and became Air Force Instructions.95

Civilian Reduction in Force

Change in the DoD structure was not yet over. On 20 February 1993, President William Clinton 

issued Executive Order 12839 that called for a Federal civilian reduction in force of 100,000 persons 

between FY93 and FY97. DoD faced a reduction in force of 62,000 civilians. As a result of the 

National Performance Review, “Creating a Government That Works Better and Costs Less,” conducted 

between March and September 1993, the elimination of an additional 104,000 DoD civilian positions 

was recommended by FY99. Air Force reductions originally numbered 48,300 civilian positions, but 

were reduced to 39,700 between FY95 and FY01.96

In 1995, the total estimated number of active-duty Air Force personnel was 383,000, down from 

900,000 in the 1960s. In 1995, the total number of active duty Air Force civil engineers numbered 

50,000, down by about one-third from the number of civil engineers active in 1988-1989.97 Between 

1986 and 1995, the “total obligational authority” of the Air Force budget declined 34 percent; personnel 

strength declined 27 percent; and, the total number of aircraft, including the Air National Guard and 

Air Force Reserve inventory, declined 20 percent. The number of bases was reduced by 24 percent.98

Civil engineer personnel statistics between 1989 and 1999 further illustrated the drastic manpower 

reductions. In 1989, active duty military and civilian personnel numbered 63,400, of which 31,900 were 

military and 31,500 were civilian. In FY90, the number of civil engineer personnel totaled 60,100. By 

FY92, the number of civil engineer personnel had dropped to 54,100, comprising 28,300 military and 

25,800 civilians. By FY95, the number had dropped to 44,700 civil engineer personnel. By FY99, the 

number was 39,600, of which 18,900 were military and 20,700 were civilians.99
Responding To New Challenges 417

Air Staff Reorganizations 1994-2000

In February 1994, the term “Civil Engineering” used in all organizational titles was shortened 

to Civil Engineer.100 General McPeak had considered shortening the name to simply “Engineer” but 

ended up only removing the “ing.” Civil Engineering squadrons became Civil Engineer squadrons. 

Each major command now had a Civil Engineer office. 

New civil engineer occupational badges, designed in 1993, were approved for distribution in early 

1995. The badge was part of an initiative instituted by General McPeak to provide badges to all Air 

Force career areas that previously had none.101 The badge was designed by Col. (later Maj. Gen.) Todd 

I. Stewart, who also wrote its heraldic statement. General McCarthy slightly altered some aspects of 

the design to improve its appearance. The badge was formally approved by the beginning of 1995 and 

available for distribution.102 A sterling silver version of the civil engineer badge was also purchased 

and presented to then Civil Engineer General McCarthy by Chief Master Sergeant Larry Ward. When 

General McCarthy retired, he pinned the badge on his successor, General Lupia. General Lupia then 

passed the badge onto General Robbins and the tradition continued.103

The gear wheel and compass have historically 

been used to represent the engineering profession, 

in both the military and private sector.

In the military, the gear wheel was used on the 

Army Air Force Technician badge for those 

persons associated with aviation engineering. 

The gear represents the essence of engineering: 

applying scientific principles and technology 

to practical ends. The gear is an especially 

appropriate symbol for Air Force Civil Engineers 

because the gear is an element (representing the built environment) that meshes with others 

(weapon systems and trained personnel) to enable a larger machine (the Air Force) to perform 

its function. The gear is used here as the common symbol to represent all Air Force engineers, 

having many diverse skills, who are employed worldwide in providing, sustaining, and protecting 

the installations and environment the Air Force needs to project Global Reach and Global Power.

The compass is a precision tool historically used by all engineers in designing and constructing 

facilities and equipment. More specifically, the compass is an engineering tool used to describe the 

boundaries of an effort. Placing the gear within the compass is intended to symbolize that all of the 

diverse engineering specialties included within the Air Force Civil Engineers are represented by 

the badge. Finally, by superimposing the traditional Air Force wings on the legs of the compass, 

the badge is intended to portray the fundamental linkage between engineering and aviation and 

that the built environment provided by Air Force Civil Engineers is the foundation supporting 

Air Force missions and people.

CIVIL ENGINEER OCCUPATIONAL BADGE

HERALDIC SIGNIFICANCE
418 Leading the Way

In October 1995, Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia established the Directorate of Facility Privatization 

(HQ USAF/CEI) in The Civil Engineer office.104 The new directorate initially handled housing privatization initiatives, but its responsibilities were expanded to include utilities privatization, as well as 

outsourcing of various civil engineer functions. Major commands soon established similar offices to 

oversee these initiatives for their bases.105

On November 1, 1995, the Air Staff programming structure was amended to correct deficiencies 

in resource allocations. To ensure adequate representation of mission requests for funding, the Air 

Staff instituted an enhanced corporate organizational structure similar to its 1980s structure. The new 

structure introduced mid-level reviews, realigned resource allocation teams into mission and mission 

area support panels, and created 71 integrated process teams to serve as the Air Force points of contact 

for specific services and products. The Civil Engineer chaired the Installation Support Panel. The 

purpose of the panel was to allocate resources to support and to maintain the Air Force network of 

bases. Integrated process teams reporting to the Installation Support Panel were established for Environmental, Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC), Air Base Performance, Base Operating Support, 

Military Family Housing, Real Property and Maintenance Activities, Military Construction, and civil 

engineer programs, such as RED HORSE. Funding for distribution to activities under the Installation 

Support Panel was proposed at $6.5 billion for FY97.106

On January 1, 1997, the senior leadership on the Air Staff was reorganized again into a more efficient and effective structure. The Office of the Civil Engineer was moved under the newly constituted 

Deputy Chief of Staff, Installations and Logistics (IL), Headquarters, U.S. Air Force. Some objectives 

of the reorganization were to promote clear lines of authority, unite operations under one function, 

consolidate responsibility for installation support, institutionalize doctrine, improve general officer 

presence, and reduce headquarters staff. The Civil Engineer retained a seat on the Air Force Council, 

and continued as the chair of the Installation Support Panel.107

By 1997, the Office of The Civil Engineer at the Pentagon was led by The Civil Engineer and 

a civilian Deputy Civil Engineer. The organization had the following six directorates: Engineering, 

Housing, Programs, Operations, Environment, and Facility Privatization. Also reporting to the Civil 

Engineer were the two FOAs: AFCESA and AFCEE.108

Wartime Manpower Requirements

The reduction of military personnel through DMRD 967 and the implementation of the objective squadron greatly impacted the wartime manning allocations. Wartime manning requirements 

were reviewed four times between 1994 and 1998 in response to evolving national military strategy, 

defense planning guidance, and operational plans. These elements determined force structure. Other 

influences on force structure included quadrennial defense reviews, the president’s budget, contracting 

decisions, personnel policies, and individual career choices within the Air Force.109 Wartime manning 

requirements were categorized in unit type codes (UTCs), which detailed the skill sets required to 

support a war effort or deployment. The UTCs were linked to the Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC) 

that described an Airmen’s skill set in peacetime. Each Prime BEEF team was based on UTCs that 

translated to the number of personnel and the skill sets assigned to the team. 

Prior to and during the Gulf War in 1990, the Prime BEEF teams were organized into 200, 150, 

and 100-person teams. These teams were defined by the base recovery requirements for completing 

rapid runway repairs for a specific number of craters in the runway within a specific number of hours. 

Some members of the teams were trained as supplemental equipment operators for specific pieces 

of equipment for rapid runway repair. One lesson learned during the Gulf War was the advantage of 

teams structured in smaller, more flexible numbers.110 In 1991, Prime BEEF teams were restructured 

into 50 and 100-person UTC groups and two groups of firefighters composed of 12 and 24-person 

UTC groups.111
Responding To New Challenges 419

By 1992, after implementation of the civil engineer objective squadron, 152 military personnel 

were assigned to a typical base civil engineer squadron. That number became the basis of the installation’s Prime BEEF team. One hundred members of the team were engineers organized in a 100-person 

UTC to support one independent flying squadron. Firefighters formed one 24-person UTC to support 

one independent flying wing and a second 12-person UTC to support one dependent flying wing. The 

balance of the 152 military personnel comprised nine EOD personnel, five DP personnel, one first 

sergeant, and one in the commander flight. Numbers of UTCs were augmented based on wartime 

requirements either through adding increments of complete UTC packages or by adding individual 

authorizations to support theater mission requirements above the single UTC set.112

In 1993, General McPeak required all Air Force functional areas to review their UTCs and to 

justify them. General McCarthy also took a hard look at the Air Force civil engineer UTCs. At that 

time, civil engineering had 123 UTCs. Joseph “Joe” Smith (CMSgt ret), who worked at AFCESA, 

was tasked with the review and received the following instructions from General McCarthy: “He said, 

‘I want my UTCs to be capable of an Al Kharj AB [Saudi Arabia] model beddown.’ That’s when we 

developed our UTCs into the 132-person package, every one of them capable in an Al Kharj-type 

situation, where it was a true bare base scenario where they had everything to do, and to set up a 

Harvest Falcon package.”113

The restructuring of the UTCs was based upon setting up a Harvest Falcon package over a 30-day 

period. The task required personnel expertise in power production, electricity, and water. The review 

resulted in 23 UTCs in civil engineering. General McCarthy preferred large UTCs so that the standard 

base package of 132 personnel included the firefighters and other necessary skills. The standard base 

package was defended up the chain of command through General McPeak. Later during the 1990s, 

the number of UTC classifications in civil engineering was increased over the 23 types.114 Making the 

case for large UTCs to Air Force leadership was a tough sell, as Joe Smith well remembered, 

We were defending the UTC structure and why we needed 132 people. There were 

General McCarthy, Mr. [Gary] Flora, and most of the MAJCOM CEs sitting around 

the table. “How many electricians do you have?” they asked. I said, “I’ve got to have 

this number of power pro[duction] people.” “Why do you need them? How many 

crews is that going to be?” I had to be able to defend that down the line. I said, “If 

we’re operating in a dispersed, worst-case scenario at a bare base, that means more 

than one power plant, 24 hours around the clock. We’re going to have one man on the 

night shift and one man and a maintenance person on the day shift.” I had to defend 

every position. “And not only do I not have enough power pro—I’ve got to have 

electricians, too, to fill in.” We went through the entire gyration, what every person’s 

position was and what they did, and it was personally approved. It’s interesting that I 

didn’t have a First Sergeant assigned to the team—it wasn’t a wartime requirement. 

But by the time I got out of that room, they convinced me I’d better have a First 

Sergeant.115

The final result of the manpower wartime requirements review was to realign the Prime BEEF 

teams for the completion of bare base beddowns rather than rapid runway repair and base recovery. 

Joe Smith, after analyzing the wartime capabilities, developed the essential Prime BEEF UTCs. The 

new alignment comprised a 132-person “lead-in” team with a 61-person “follow-on” team. The 132-

person team was divisible into smaller groups to respond to smaller deployments.116 By 1998, 127 

personnel were assigned to a lead-in team.117

In 1997, then Civil Engineer General Lupia posed the question to AFCESA “Total Force, how 

many blue-suit engineers are needed for two major theater wars; by major command, by bases (and) 

by Air Force specialty?” Thus began another blue-suit manpower review. The formula for calculating 

the total civil engineering required manpower was complicated and analyzed 15 categories covering 
420 Leading the Way

the major areas of mobility, in-place forces outside CONUS on forward bases, and forces stationed 

inside the United States. In addition, the manpower requirements to support the operations plans for 

two theater wars were reviewed along with the manpower projected for the simultaneous construction 

of three additional bare bases and military operations other than an armed conflict. Personnel from Air 

Staff and AFCESA compiled the numbers using a systematic methodology. The methodology won 

praise and was adopted as a template for other functional areas. The methods were validated both by 

the Vice Chief of Staff and by four-star generals briefed at CORONA. The calculations resulted in a 

projected number of 28,370 Air Force civil engineers.118 By 1998, the number increased to 28,401, 

comprising 15,924 active duty personnel, 4,731 Air Force Reserves, and 7,746 Air National Guard.119

In his experience, General Lupia said,

Most times what really happens is that we get UTCs, then we see what the requirement is, and we match the UTCs with the requirement. You always say, “Well, in this 

case I need more electricians or less electricians.” I recall when I was at AMC and 

we went to Somalia. We had to take the standard UTCs, and we had to add a lot more 

power linemen to them, because one of the big jobs there was putting up an electrical 

distribution system. You couldn’t send the standard M1A1 UTC; you had to doctor it 

up. I think you do that literally every time you have a deployment.120

Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve

The role of the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard (ANG) also dramatically changed 

during the 1990s. ANG and Reserve personnel became more integrated into Air Force Operations 

at all levels, forming an increasingly important sector of the Total Force. These units became fully 

integrated into all war and contingency plans and were deployed to support both small-scale and major 

operations.121

During the 1990s, the typical ANG civil engineer office comprised eight full-time personnel who 

supervised activities and managed training, in addition to approximately 12 state-funded employees 

who operated and maintained the facilities. Contractors augmented the work force. ANG Prime BEEF 

teams comprised drill positions that formed a tasked-based team focused on contingency deployments. 

By 1999, the ANG civil engineer personnel were restructured from a 132-person lead team to a smaller 

team with 69 engineer positions. The 69 positions also included firefighters. Follow-on teams were 

similarly sized. ANG also was preparing to add EOD units to some civil engineer squadrons to cover 

Air Force wartime shortfalls.122

ANG civil engineer personnel had top quality skill sets. Drill personnel often worked in construction positions in their full-time jobs and used ANG drill time to learn other crafts. ANG and Reserve 

had their own RED HORSE units that trained together and often were deployed to accomplish work in 

CONUS and at overseas locations. ANG civil engineers were always on call to their state governments 

to help in emergency situations.123 In addition, both Reserve and ANG established Staff Augmentation 

Teams (S-Teams), 12-person teams that were highly mobile, highly trained, and very experienced civil 

engineers with many years on Prime BEEF teams, base civil engineering, or RED HORSE, and with 

secret clearances. ANG had six S-Teams, while the Reserve had three teams. The wartime tasking of 

these teams was to support headquarters staff at major commands. S-Team support included providing project designs during Desert Storm, damage estimates after Typhoon Omar, facility designs for 

the Republic of Korea, and humanitarian assistance to Thailand and Laos in return for aid with the 

recovery of MIAs during the Vietnam War.124

Integration among Reserves, ANG, and the active duty Air Force in terms of unit mission, 

resources, and leadership in a joint environment became a key element in the Total Force Policy by 

the late 1990s. A seamlessly integrated Total Force was seen as a cost-effective way to address future 
Responding To New Challenges 421

military challenges.125 At the Pentagon, the concept of “Future Total Force” was under discussion by 

the end of the 1990s.126

Col. Samuel Lundgren, the Civil Engineer for ANG, worked diligently to integrate ANG civil 

engineers personnel with regular Air Force civil engineer units in a similar way that ANG flying units 

were integrated into the operational force. Colonel Lundgren’s goal was to achieve, 

scheduled deployments to real world requirements, such as Northern or Southern 

Watch and Bosnia. We want to partner with the Air Force for scheduled participation 

in the ongoing civil engineer contingency support mission around the world. We can 

help with some of these deployed contingency missions using ANG civil engineer 

units that would rotate every 15 or 21 days as their regular annual training requirement. By deploying ANG civil engineer units in scheduled annual training status, we 

can help relieve the opstempo and give active duty units a break in the mission. Our 

goal is to deploy about one-third of our ANG civil engineer force structure overseas 

in direct support of real-world Air Force civil engineer missions on an annual basis.127

Another goal of furthering an integrated Total Force was to affect partnerships at the wing level 

and, subsequently, at squadron level. The activation of the 819th RED HORSE squadron at Malmstrom 

AFB, Montana, with its melding of one-third ANG from the 219th RED HORSE Squadron (formerly 

members of the 120th CES at Great Falls International Airport, Montana) and two-thirds active duty 

personnel was a precursor of reaching a higher level of Total Force for civil engineering personnel.12

The 819th RED HORSE Squadron was reactivated June 1, 1997 at Malmstrom AFB, Montana. 

It became the first “associate” RED HORSE unit in the Air Force, composed of two-thirds active 

duty and one-third Air National Guard personnel.129 Col. Michael A. Aimone was the first 819th 

Commander and Col. Gary Schick was the 219th RHS commander. The squadron had a renowned 

history dating from its first activation on February 1, 1966 at Forbes AFB, Kansas. Shortly after its 

activation, the 819th RED HORSE deployed to Ban Sattahip Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand, 

and, in May 1966, to Phu Cat AB, Vietnam.130 In 1970, the 819th RED HORSE moved to Tuy 

Hoa AB, Vietnam to assist with closing the base. While stationed in Vietnam, the RED HORSE 

completed tremendous amounts of construction. Almost all construction including buildings, 

earthen revetments, and pavements at Phu Cat were completed by RED HORSE, making it the 

only base in Vietnam with that claim. The unit was awarded “seven Vietnam campaign honors ... 

and the Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross with Palm.”131 Additionally, the 819th received the 

Air Force Outstanding Unit Award with Combat “V” Device three times during the Vietnam War.132

After Tuy Hoa, the unit’s home station changed to Westover AFB, Massachusetts, until 1973, 

when it changed to McConnell AFB, Kansas, and again it changed to RAF Wethersfield in 1979. 

The 819th RED HORSE was inactivated August 1990.133 By the time of the unit’s inactivation, 

the 819th RED HORSE had received the Outstanding Unit Award seven more times.134

Reactivation of 819th RED HORSE

Doctrine Development

In April 1991, Air Force Manual 3-2 entitled, Civil Engineering Combat Support Doctrine, was 

published, the first-ever doctrine manual for Civil Engineering. This publication represented the culmination of several years of research and discussions among civil engineer personnel. In 1988, a doctrine 

working group comprising Maj. Alfred B. “Barrett” Hicks, Jr., AF Directorate of Engineering and 
422 Leading the Way

Services, Plans Division; Lt. Col. Horst Haeusser, AFESC Readiness Directorate; and, Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer, Civil Engineering Historian, was formed. Retired Maj. Gen. I.B. Holley, a renowned Air Force 

historian and doctrine expert, served as special advisor for the effort. This group was tasked to review 

extensive background material and to draft the document. The initial doctrine draft was circulated for 

review among the civil engineer community in 1988, including a Blue Ribbon Panel comprised of leading active duty and retired civil engineers. The document was revised, and reviewed again in 1989.135

Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn convened a gathering of retired civil engineer general officers and senior 

executive service civilians that he named as the “Founders” to review and validate the draft doctrine 

manual. During 1990, the document was submitted for review through higher Air Force headquarters. 

After convincing higher Air Force headquarters that civil engineer combat doctrine was needed, the 

document was submitted for final reviews to Air Force headquarters and major commands. The Air 

Force Chief of Staff approved the Civil Engineering Combat Support Doctrine on October 28, 1990 

and was formally published on April 26, 1991.136

The focus of AFM 3-2 was combat support doctrine for Air Force civil engineers. As General 

Ahearn wrote in the foreword, 

Civil Engineering Combat Support Doctrine is intended to guide the organization, 

equipping, training, and sustaining, deploying, and employing of engineer forces in 

support of Air Force combat operations. It is derived from the study of war and other 

contingency operations. Commanders should use this doctrine to: learn from the past, 

act in the present, and influence the future.137

The doctrine clearly explained the role of the air base in the fighting mission in a theater of war. The 

wartime role of Air Force civil engineers was to prepare, to sustain, and to recover those bases if 

attacked. The four broad functions that civil engineers performed were defined as planning, acquisition, operations and maintenance, and recovery and restoration. The document contained references 

to the new realities of working internationally with host nations, environmental stewardship even 

during wartime, and both surge and low-intensity operations. General Ahearn was proud that the 

civil engineering combat support doctrine was broader than the Cold War and was serviceable during 

operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm.

138 139

By 1994, General McCarthy directed that AFM 3-2 be updated to reflect more clearly the role of 

the Air Force civil engineer in peace and war. In May 1994, civil engineer personnel from the Air Staff, 

major commands, FOAs, and direct reporting units met at Langley AFB, Virginia, to update the civil 

engineering doctrine. The draft produced by this group required only a single round of coordination 

with the Air Force Doctrine Center. On December 28, 1994, Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 42: 

Civil Engineer superseded AFM 3-2. The new document was broader than AFM 3-2 and addressed the 

civil engineer’s peacetime role in environmental work, economic security, space operations, disaster 

preparedness, explosive ordnance disposal, joint work environments, and military operations other 

than war (MOOTW).140

In 1996, work began on an Air Force-wide doctrine for all the functional areas, including civil 

engineering. Work on the Air Force doctrine continued between 1996 and 1999. In 1997, the Air Force 

civil engineers began work to update AFDD 42 and had completed a second draft by March 1997. 

However, this effort was subsumed into a larger project to produce a doctrine document for all combat 

support areas. On November 22, 1999, Air Force Doctrine Document 2-4: Agile Combat Support was 

published. This document included all of the various functions as part of the Agile Combat Support 

mission area and superseded the AFDD 42, and the Air Force civil engineer community no longer had 

a separate doctrine for their functional area.141
Responding To New Challenges 423

The Air Force Civil Engineering Founders group was formed in the spring of 1989. Maj. Gen. 

Joseph A. Ahearn, then Director of Engineering and Services, brought the group of retired officers 

and civilians together for the first time on April 21 at Andrews AFB, Maryland. General Ahearn’s 

goal was to discuss the future of civil engineering and review the draft Civil Engineering Doctrine 

Manual. Retired personnel brought a fresh outlook on the engineering field. Following retirement, 

many of them joined the private sector. This allowed them to provide new insight, while also 

utilizing their backgrounds as Air Force civil engineers.142 In a 2008 oral history interview, General 

Ahearn, then retired, explained the group’s purpose:

The world was far bigger than just our community, and I thought we ought to 

draw on our heritage and the places that our heritage went after they left the Air 

Force, to see if there weren’t gold nuggets that would help our capability multiply. 

We’re a proud engineering community. Why don’t we establish a fellowship chain 

that would never be broken, whereby we would always have some kind of event 

structure to welcome back our Founders and offer them an opportunity to tell us 

what they’ve learned since they’ve gone on to other things.143

The first gathering of founders comprised 33 participants, including retired brigadier generals, 

major generals, and civilians. General Ahearn’s initial plans included using group members to 

serve as a Board of Visitors and on councils to provide advice regarding doctrine, technology, 

and development.144

Civil Engineering Founders

First meeting of the Civil Engineer Founders at Andrews AFB, Maryland.
424 Leading the Way

Civil Engineer Strategic Plan, 1999-2000

Work began on the civil engineer strategic plan by mid-1996 as the issue of the future role of 

the Air Force under “Global Engagement” was considered.”145 General Lupia hypothesized the civil 

engineer tasks likely to be the same in the future included forward deployments, beddown of forces, 

and base recovery. Operating and maintaining air bases during peacetime, providing contemporary and 

affordable housing for Air Force personnel, and maintaining quality environmental programs were also 

high priorities for the future.146 When the senior Air Force leadership began the process of strategic 

planning for the overall Air Force, so, too, did the civil engineer organization for its functional area.

In early 1999, the first volume of the Civil Engineer Strategic Plan was published. Entitled Future 

Security Environments and Planning Implications, this volume addressed the future challenges to the 

Air Force civil engineer organization, including environmental stewardship, housing, and engineering 

functions during war and peace. The volume presented four future wartime scenarios in which the civil 

engineer community would likely participate. The four scenarios were “conflicts will migrate into space 

and the information operations realm; proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and disruption; 

turmoil and chaos in non-traditional environments; and, vulnerability of the U.S. homeland.”147 In this 

environment, the civil engineer community identified five core competencies: 

• Installation engineering, comprising real property maintenance, operations, 

 planning and construction, competitive sourcing, privatization and divestiture;

• Expeditionary engineering, comprising Prime BEEF, RED HORSE, and 

 contingency contracting;

• Environmental leadership, comprising conservation and planning, pollution 

 prevention, compliance, and cleanup;

• Housing excellence, including dormitories, family housing, and communities; and,

• Emergency services, including fire protection, explosive ordnance disposal, 

 and readiness.

Volume 1 also identified two “end states” for the civil engineer community to achieve by 2025. 

These end states were defined as 

• An efficient and effective base operating environment that maintains 

 a strong sense of community and quality of life, and

• A corporate process and a strategic direction for basing that reduce 

 unnecessary cost and improve operational efficiency.148

Volume 2 entitled Mission and Modernization was issued during 2000.149 Volume 2 identified 

three civil engineer goals: quality engineering, agile engineering, and focused engineering. Also 

identified were five Civil Engineer Mission Essential Tasks (MET) tied directly to the civil engineer 

core competencies. Performance Measures were prescribed in order to assess the overall performance 

of the organization in achieving the METS.150 Volume 2 also reviewed the current base-level civil 

engineer objective squadron organization and proposed several models to reorganize the squadron. 

One potential organization was the core competency squadron based on the five core competencies 

identified by the civil engineers. In this organization, the commander was supported by the following 

flights: Expeditionary, Emergency Services, Installation, Resources, Housing, and Environmental. 

Other models for organizing the base-level CES included the spectrum squadron, the focused squadron, 

and the public work center with wartime only staffing.151

The civil engineer organizational structure proposed in the civil engineer strategic plan for implementation by 2025 was the Aerospace Combat Engineer (ACE) Force structure. It would be built on 
Responding To New Challenges 425

a “cross-functional, capability-based” engineer force and represented an evolution beyond the current UTC-based Prime BEEF and RED HORSE taskings. Four capabilities were required under the 

ACE structure: a trained, equipped, and ready expeditionary force; superior technology incorporating 

information, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance elements; organizational doctrine and force 

structure; and, integrated non-traditional and traditional engineering services.153

The Civil Engineer Strategic Plan offered a framework for the future of the Air Force civil engineer organization based on the vision and changing missions of the Air Force. It was based on the 

five civil engineer core competencies identified for the civil engineer community, identified areas for 

improvements, and established measurements to track performance.154 It also provided an outline to 

reorganize the base-level civil engineer with a time line.155 The strategic plan also was linked to current 

planning and budget programming processes to ensure that deficiencies identified in the plan would 

be corrected and to guide civil engineer modernization efforts.156

Provide Installation Engineering – Engineers will develop, operate, sustain, restore, and preserve 

bases, airfields, infrastructure, and facilities at Air Force locations, permanent and contingency, 

worldwide. Installation engineering is primarily focused on our network of bases that provide fixed 

operating locations and enroute infrastructure for operating, deploying, employing, and sustaining 

aerospace forces to the point of engagement and re-deploying and reconstituting the force.

Provide Expeditionary Engineering – Engineers will organize, train, equip, provide, sustain, 

protect, and recover combat ready forces to support expeditionary aerospace forces requirements. 

Expeditionary forces include military, civilian, and contract augmentation personnel. These forces 

will beddown, provide, sustain, defend, recover, transition, reconstitute engineer capabilities, and 

execute base denial activities to support global aerospace power.

Provide Housing Excellence – Engineers will ensure that all Airmen and their family members 

have access to adequate, safe, and cost-effective housing that meets or exceeds Air Force minimum 

quality and space standards in CONUS, overseas, and deployed locations. For the Air Force, 

commitment to provide housing applies equally to accompanied and unaccompanied personnel 

in both CONUS and overseas locations.

Provide Emergency Services – Engineers will provide the full spectrum of emergency services 

support to include fire protection, explosive ordnance disposal (EOD), disaster preparedness, 

and readiness support. Readiness support includes nuclear, biological and chemical protective 

operations, weapons of mass destruction protective operations, and consequence management 

of natural and manmade disasters. Fire Protection, EOD, and Readiness are mission critical 

operations required for safe aerospace operations regardless of the mission or location. These 

services must be provided without interruption in every location employing Air Force personnel 

and resources.152

Civil Engineer Mission Essential Tasks 

from Civil Engineer Strategic Plan 2000
426 Leading the Way

AFCESA During the 1990s

AFCESA Reorganization

The organizational reforms instituted throughout the Air Force during the early 1990s directly 

impacted the organization and future of AFESC. In January 1990, AFESC was commanded by Col. Roy 

G. Kennington, a Services officer. Under his command were the Support Staff, Computer Applications 

and Development, Readiness, Housing and Services, Engineering and Services Lab, Engineering and 

Services Program Office, Operations and Maintenance, and Construction Cost Management. In addition, AFESC fielded five Civil Engineering Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair Teams (CEMIRT) 

located at Tyndall AFB, Florida; Dover AFB, Delaware; Travis AFB, California; Kelly AFB, Texas; 

and, Peterson AFB, Colorado.157

During 1990, Colonel Kennington, as he retired, anticipated the reorganization and changes in the 

Air Force. He stressed that AFESC personnel must be prepared to justify their functions and activities and to account for their actions. While AFESC maintained high visibility in civil engineer units, 

other Air Force organizations had limited understanding and appreciation of AFESC’s functions and 

roles. The commander counseled personnel throughout AFESC to review their programs, to reassess 

program requirements, to review the more that 250 regulations and manuals that AFESC managed, 

and to ensure support to the Air Force customers in the field.158

During the Gulf War (1990-1991), the role of AFESC was to assist in the planning and beddown 

of the expeditionary air bases to support the fighting mission.159 AFESC personnel saw the fruition 

of readiness training for personnel and planning efforts to preposition deployable support packages, 

including Harvest Falcon, fire trucks, construction equipment, tools, and survival gear. AFESC personnel were deployed to SWA, and worked to support command headquarters. AFESC personnel worked 

to backfill the positions of deployed military personnel with ANG and reserve members under the Total 

Force concept. Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., Commander of AFESC, summed up the role of AFESC, 

“Desert Storm proved just how valuable planning can be. All of us in the Engineering and Services 

community had planned and practiced for the eventuality of war and, when the horn sounded, we 

were ready. We deployed and deployed on time. We built bare bases, set up shelters for people and 

equipment, and fed the troops.”160 General Ahearn praised the Center for its superb performance.161

On February 5, 1991, AFESC was designated a FOA.162 This move refocused the mission of the 

organization on core military operations, an area in which AFESC had gained experience during the 

Gulf War. Customer service to support base civil engineer functions continued to be a major organization priority.163

During 1991, the organizational structure of AFESC was a subject of much discussion within 

the Air Staff. The structure of AFESC, as proposed in May 1991, comprised the FOA Commander 

who oversaw the executive services and eight directorates: Readiness; Fire Protection; Maintenance; 

Communication Computer Systems; Systems Engineering; Services; Research, Development, and 

Acquisition; and, Construction Cost Management. The CEMIRT teams stationed at Peterson, Travis, 

Kelly, and Dover AFBs were placed under the Maintenance Directorate.164

Col. Marshall Nay reviewed the command structure of AFESC in 1991 and concluded that reorganization was needed:

[As a result of the organization’s history,] numerous detached activities of the Center 

were not under its command, control, and authority. This also included the regional 

civil engineers and several operating locations in the Washington, D.C., area. This also 

created co-involvement between the Center and HQ USAF on numerous issues, with 

unclear demarcations of responsibility...In the meantime, representation of detached 

responsibilities on organizational charts created some confusion throughout the Air 
Responding To New Challenges 427

Force over many roles which appeared to be assigned to the Center...In retrospect, 

resource management was one of the key responsibilities of the Center without mission control over most detached activities...In fact, mission control was exercised 

only over operations and maintenance missions assigned to AFESC; readiness, including combat readiness training; construction cost management; housing and services; 

computer development and application; the program office; and the laboratory. Even 

among these latter missions, there was perceived unity that never existed. Each mission directorate functioned virtually separately in their day-to-day relationships with 

the f﻿﻿ield forces.165

On August 1, 1991, Headquarters AFESC was renamed Headquarters, Air Force Civil Engineering 

Support Agency (AFCESA).166 On March 1, 1994, AFCESA became the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency.167 In December 1991, the directorates established at AFCESA were Executive Services; 

Readiness; Fire Protection; Maintenance; Communications-Computer Systems; Systems Engineering; 

Research, Development, and Acquisition; and Construction Cost Management.168 The Systems Engineering Directorate was a new directorate assigned the mission of providing professional and technical 

services to Air Force civil engineers at all levels. Under Mr. Dennis Firman as Director, Systems 

Engineering was focused on providing information and expertise for all infrastructure needs, including 

civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering. The field of infrastructure included airfield pavements, 

utilities and their operations, efficient energy usage, and utility rate management and litigation for 

contracted utilities. In addition, the directorate was charged with “fostering life-cycle engineering quality” for managing infrastructure systems, establishing standards, and publishing technical criteria.169

The reorganization recognized the transfer of Services from the civil engineer organization 

and strengthened the focus of AFCESA on field operations, airfield operations, and support of base 

workforce management. The restructuring affected the entire AFCESA organization. In the field of 

readiness, policy preparation was reassigned to the Air Staff, allowing personnel at AFCESA to focus 

on developing standards and performance criteria, while integrating air base operability with force 

readiness. The responsibility for readiness training was transferred from AFCESA to ACC. In 1993, 

ACC assumed responsibility for contingency training when the training site was relocated to Tyndall 

AFB, Florida. Engineering services at AFCESA were expanded to meet the reduction of specialty 

experts anticipated at the major commands. The former Program Office was merged with the Civil 

Engineer Laboratory to form the Research, Development, and Acquisition Directorate. This directorate 

oversaw research and development activities, as well as researched commercially available products 

and processes to enhance civil engineer requirements.170 In 1992, the Civil Engineer Laboratory was 

realigned to AFMC (Figure 5.3).

Source: AFCESA Visual Aid 11-1, “AFCESA Directory,” January 1993, AFCEC History Office.
428 Leading the Way

One function removed from AFCESA was the responsibility for assembling teams of military 

personnel for deployments. This function was transferred from AFCESA to major commands, or to 

the Air Force Military Personnel Center, which took over the selection of personnel to the civic action 

teams sent to Micronesia.171 As General McCarthy recalled, 

Then during my tenure the question of AFCESA’s role in deploying forces was questioned. Before that, I remember talking to Col. Marshall Nay, and he said that AFCESA 

was in charge of deploying people. He had gotten that notion because AFCESA would 

select people from across the Air Force for civic action teams and other peacetime 

deployments. We decided that going forward AFCESA would deploy only its own 

people. At the same time, Bud and I were undergoing pressure from the head of AF/

PR [Programs & Resources]...to get rid of AFCESA. There was tremendous resentment toward the AFRCEs [Air Force Regional Civil Engineers] and AFCESA among 

some communities in the Air Force. They were a constant target, because of perceived 

stovepiping and empire building connotations. We went through intense scrutiny...

If I were to say to the Air Staff, “AFCESA deploys major command or wing Prime 

BEEF teams,” it would have been all over for AFCESA.172

Explosive Ordnance Disposal

A new area added to Civil Engineering and AFCESA was Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD). 

In November 1991, after moving to Air Force Civil Engineering, functional management for EOD 

moved from the Readiness Programs Division in Washington, D.C., to the Readiness Directorate at 

Headquarters AFCESA.173 Before 1951, the Army provided EOD operational duties for the Air Force. 

On May 21, 1951, the Air Force assumed EOD responsibilities and assigned duties within the CONUS 

to HQ Air Materiel Command. The 1st Explosive Ordnance Disposal Squadron was activated on June 

16, 1952 at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.174 By 1993, the responsibilities of EOD as part of AFCESA 

included: “monitoring and resolving peacetime and wartime manpower problems, developing standardized EOD equipment, training and operational requirements standards.”175

EOD personnel performed highly specialized tasks, particularly during military operations and 

peacekeeping efforts. In addition, they provided expertise on range clearance efforts. For six months 

in 1998, EOD personnel worked to clear the Balboa Bombing and Gunnery Range in Panama of 

unexploded ordnance (UXO). The Air Force was obligated to turn over 353,895 acres to Panama as 

stipulated in the Panama Canal Treaty of 1977. Personnel assigned to the EOD teams began work 

in January with surface clearance, followed by “one-foot sub-surface clearance.”176 The operations 

concluded June 4, 1998. More than 4,000 UXOs were cleared, and “more than 25 tons of target residue 

and 18 tons of munitions residue” were recycled.177 During FY00, EOD personnel disposed of more 

than 2 million munitions from bombing and gunnery ranges.178 In support of Operations Noble Anvil, 

Sustain Hope, and Joint Guardian, EOD personnel were assigned the important mission of detecting 

and disposing of UXO in Kosovo.179

In addition to Air Force and Federal matters, EOD personnel frequently were called to assist civil 

authorities in such activities as dismantling methamphetamine labs. EOD personnel were trained to 

deal with the highly combustible ingredients used in those labs.180

Air Force EOD personnel had assisted the U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii, 

in recovery operations in Southeast Asia since 1992. Joint Task Force-Full Accounting (JTF-FA) 

was established as a DoD program mandated by Congress to account for all prisoners of war (POW) 

and personnel missing in action (MIA). Teams assisted by EOD personnel deployed to known crash 

and burial sites of U.S. personnel to complete excavations, surveys, and the recovery of remains. In 

October 2003, JTF-FA and the laboratory merged to form Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command 

based in Oahu, Hawaii. 181
Responding To New Challenges 429

After the transfer of EOD to the Air Force civil engineering community, an annual award for the 

year’s most outstanding EOD flight was established. The award was named in memory of SMSgt. 

Gerald J. Stryzak. Sergeant Stryzak served his entire Air Force career in EOD between 1962 and his 

death in 1980 as a result of an airplane crash at Cairo West AB, Egypt during an exercise.182

Disaster Preparedness

Before joining AFCESA in 1991, Disaster Preparedness (DP) was primarily a base-level organization with functional reporting to the Air Force Disaster Preparedness Resource Center at Lowry 

AFB, Colorado. Established in 1965, DP was a branch of Base Operations that reported directly to the 

base commander.183 At AFCESA, DP personnel developed base-level plans and appropriate training 

packages for the “preparation, response and recovery” from nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) 

attacks.184 Disaster Preparedness training was located at Lowry AFB until its closure in 1994. The technical school then moved to Fort McClellan, Alabama, and joined with the Army’s Chemical Defense 

Training Facility. In 1998, Fort McClellan closed and both the Army and Air Force DP training were 

transferred to Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri.185

CEMIRT

CEMIRT remained one of AFCESA’s traveling teams, though the number of teams was reduced. 

During the 1980s, five CEMIRT teams were positioned to serve U.S. regions. CEMIRT teams were stationed at Dover AFB, Delaware; Kelly AFB, Texas; Peterson AFB, Colorado; Travis AFB, California; 

and, Tyndall AFB, Florida. The CEMIRT region at Peterson AFB was closed in March 1992 to ensure 

maximum support to the critical overseas areas and to manage manpower reductions to CEMIRT. Four 

years later, the CEMIRT team at Kelly AFB, Texas, was shut down; its workload was divided between 

Travis, Tyndall, and Dover AFBs.186 By the end of the decade, Tyndall AFB, Dover AFB, and Travis 

AFB still retained CEMIRT teams.187 Throughout the decade, these teams provided valuable support 

Mobil Emergency Power units are hooked up to power base housing at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, after 

Typhoon Paka, by members of the Civil Engineer Maintenance Inspection and Repair Team (CEMIRT) Dover 

AFB, Delaware, and CEMIRT Travis AFB, California, and 15th Civil Engineers Squadron Hickam AFB, 

Hawaii, 1997.
430 Leading the Way

to the major commands and bases. CEMIRT was particularly valuable during military deployments 

and base emergency situations. For example, in 1997, a two-person CEMIRT team travelled to Ridley 

Mission Control Center at Vandenberg AFB, California, after a malfunction in the alternate generators 

was reported. The CEMIRT personnel were able to quickly repair the failed generators.188

In addition to the work during Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm discussed later in this 

chapter, CEMIRT teams also supported missions in SWA as part of Operation Southern Watch. A 

team of 11 deployed to SWA to repair generators and electrical distribution systems at Prince Sultan 

AB, Saudi Arabia. During the team’s 45-day TDY, it repaired and performed maintenance on over 40 

MEP-12 generators, as well as all primary distribution centers. CEMIRT team personnel performed 

routine maintenance on the generators at Al Jabar AB, Eskan Village, Riyahd AB, and Ali Al Salem.189

BASH

The first Bird/Aircraft Strike Hazard (BASH) program was established at AFCEC, Tyndall AFB 

in May 1975.190 The purpose of the BASH program was to minimize hazards to aircraft and aircrews 

from collisions with wildlife during airfield activities. In 1993, 2,405 bird/wildlife strikes caused over 

$15 million damage to aircraft. The number of incidents grew to over 4,000 by the year 2000. While 

the vast majority, 97.6 percent, occurred below 500 feet, some high flying birds, such as turkey vultures 

posed a threat at higher altitudes.191

The BASH program was multifaceted and provided a range of high and low technology solutions. 

Eliminating ponded water from around runways reduced the attraction to some bird species, such as 

ducks and geese. Removing tree species, which provided both food and cover, from areas near active 

airfield operations also proved effective. Solutions as simple as controlling the height of the grass 

alleviated bird strikes. Maintaining grass height between 7 and 14 inches made the grass too short 

for ground nesting birds, yet too tall for ground feeders to feel comfortable in their surroundings. In 

some cases, local falconers were hired to periodically reduce and discourage bird populations around 

runways. Other low-tech solutions included using dogs trained to harass birds, pyrotechnics, loud 

noises, and anti-perching devices to discourage the birds from frequenting the area.192

More technologically sophisticated approaches also were employed. Predictive modeling was key 

to providing strategies to minimize bird strike hazards. Satellite telemetry was employed to monitor 

bird flight behavior and to determine location and altitude of birds. When this data was compared with 

geographic and weather factors, the results allowed schedulers and planners to avoid high risk areas.

Migratory patterns also were considered in BASH planning. One route in the Florida panhandle, 

known as SR-101, had “an unprecedented 36 strikes in 1993.”193 Seventy-two percent occurred in 

September and October, peak migration months, and between 7 am and 12 pm. This information 

assisted planners in scheduling training and flight activities to avoid these areas. A similar operation 

was undertaken at the Dare County Bombing Range, North Carolina, using marine radar to track the 

movement of waterfowl and birds of prey. Some wildlife hazards required more serious intervention. 

An over-population of deer at Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, required controlled hunting to cull 

the population and minimize deer strikes on the runway.

In 1994, the BASH program was moved from Tyndall AFB to Headquarters Air Force Safety 

Agency. From this new organization, BASH teams worked not only with the Air Force, but Navy, 

Marine Corps, Army, allied nations, and the private sector on a time-available basis. BASH teams also 

were actively involved in United States and international congresses on bird strikes, ornithology, and 

civil aviation, and promoted compatible land use development in the vicinity of runways. 
Responding To New Challenges 431

Cost Estimating Programs

AFCESA was particularly proud of the Construction Cost Management Analysis System (CCMAS) 

software program. This system was developed by Tom Burns and the Construction Cost Management 

Directorate to evaluate and to manage project construction costs using parametric cost estimating 

techniques. The system was a major success in identifying potential costs for high profile Air Force 

construction projects. CCMAS received a boost in 1989 when the U.S. Congress authorized the use 

of the parametric cost model instead of the 35 percent design estimate traditionally submitted for 

MILCON projects.194 Some advantages of CCMAS were timeliness and accuracy. Using CCMAS, 

a cost estimate took eight hours to prepare rather than 320 man-hours using manual cost estimating 

methods. Accuracy of the system was within 5 percent of the actual completion costs. This accuracy 

was validated over nine months when $10 billion worth of construction projects were analyzed using 

the system.195

During September 1990, Army, Navy, and Air Force representatives reviewed the CCMAS system 

for DoD-wide use. CCMAS became incorporated in the Tri-Service Automated Cost Engineering 

System (TRACES). TRACES operated on a personal computer and was linked to an Army program 

called Microcomputer Aided Cost Engineering System that used a quantity estimating system.196

CCMAS began to be distributed to Air Force users during 1991. By April 1991, the system was in use at 

the AFRCE-Central Region. Moody AFB, Georgia, began using the system by June 1991, followed by 

Headquarters ACC in July 1991. By March 1992, the system was in use by all the major commands.197

In 1992, CCMAS was patented and AFCESA planned to distribute the software free of charge 

to Federal agencies.198 However, TRACES, which was built on CCMAS, became more widely available because it ran on personal computers. TRACES software was first distributed to the Air Force 

in November 1992 and quickly was upgraded by May 1993 to include 68 parametric models, 36 site 

work and utilities models, a runway/taxiway model, and a contractor cost model. By June 1993, users 

of TRACES numbered over 170.199

AFCESA also was involved in the development of the Remedial Action Cost Estimating and 

Requirements (RACER), a cost estimating tool for environmental remediation projects.200 This program 

was developed jointly by the Department of Energy and AFCESA to support environment restoration, 

compliance, and pollution prevention. RACER had two components. The Remedial Action Assessment 

System supported the Installation Restoration Program (IRP). The second component was Environmental Estimating (ENVEST) for project costs. Extensive user testing of ENVEST was completed by 

March 1992.201 The first version of the software was released in July 1992, followed by an upgrade in 

September 1992.202 By January 1993, RACER had 375 registered users and was adopted by the Department of the Interior for remedial action programs. An upgraded version of RACER with improved and 

expanded modeling was scheduled for release in May 1993.203 By June 1993, the ENVEST portion of 

RACER had more than 400 users.204 RACER was formally accredited under DoD requirements for 

verification, validation, and accreditation in June 2001.205

AFCESA From 1994-2000

When Col. Paul W. Hains III returned to AFCESA to become Commander in July 1994, he pledged 

AFCESA’s continued support to the major commands and base civil engineer organizations. Colonel 

Hains identified the following focus areas: customer satisfaction, open communication, integrity, and 

teamwork.206

Colonel Hains immediately began a review of AFCESA’s organizational structure and products in 

light of on-going personnel reductions. AFCESA had shrunk from 303 authorizations in 1993 to 254 

the following year and was projected to shrink to 210 in FY96. “Agency Relook” was a bottom-up 

review designed to implement total quality management concepts to ensure that tools and products were 
432 Leading the Way

focused on the customer. The agency was examined by staff within the organization and by outside 

customers in the major commands and the bases to identify and rank core products and services. The 

bottom-up review identified the following focus areas for AFCESA:

• Provide tools/assistance to bases

• Provide centralized direction on computers

• Provide technical “how to” guides and standards in clear text

• Maintain readiness

• Focal point for training and educational

• Objective squadron enhancements

• Advocate vehicles/equipment

• Centralized/matrixed technical support

• Contracting center of expertise

• Specialty teams

• Customer awareness.207

With this information, a new organizational structure was formulated and submitted for approval 

to General McCarthy. He approved the new organizational structure in October 1994 and the implementation occurred in January 1995 (Figure 5.4). Under the new structure, AFCESA was organized 

into three directorates under the Commander: Contingency Support, Technical Support, and Operations Support. CEMIRT was placed in a separate office named Field Support under the Commander.208

The Commander was supported by staff that included Air National Guard and Air Force Reserves 

advisors, professional communications, financial management, quality improvement, personnel, 

communications-computers, and information management. The AFCESA historian and the Air Force 

Civil Engineer Magazine were part of professional communications.209

Source: Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “AFCESA Takes New Structure, New Direction,” The CE, Vol 2, No 8, Winter 

1995, 14.

A new mission statement for AFCESA also was unveiled: “Providing the best tools, products, and 

professional support to maximize Air Force civil engineer capabilities in base and contingency operations.” The main product areas were training; management practices; technical consultation; computer 

support; vehicles and equipment; readiness capability; and research, development, and acquisition.210

Colonel Hains outlined AFCESA’s efforts for 1995 as focused on increased outsourcing of civil engineer support services, modernizing automation, developing contingency force structures for RED 

HORSE and Prime BEEF, Readiness Challenge V, and modernizing fire protection equipment. The 
Responding To New Challenges 433

result, he wrote, was to “focus on delivering needed tools to our base engineers, i.e., a better trained 

warrior, handbooks, training aids [using computer applications], technical evaluations, and improved 

readiness capability.”211

Between May 1995 and August 1996, AFCESA was commanded by Col. Peter K. Kloeber. Colonel 

Kloeber came to AFCESA with experience as an exterior powerline electrician working in the base 

shops and as an officer with extensive experience as a base civil engineer. Colonel Kloeber continued to 

focus AFCESA on serving the bases through enhanced communications, such as A-Grams, to distribute 

technical information. Other accomplishments during this time were preparing model statements of 

work to support base-level contracting efforts, approving the new Automated Civil Engineer System 

(ACES) as the follow-on to WIMS, modernizing technical training methods using CD-ROM technology, and commissioning environmentally friendly fire training facilities. Colonel Kloeber also oversaw 

the renovation of the AFCESA Headquarters building at Tyndall AFB, Florida, and the creation of the 

AFCESA Board of Advisors.212

In 1999, AFCESA played a key role in developing and publishing the first minimum standards for 

building construction incorporating passive antiterrorism/force protection. The standards were signed 

on December 16, 1999 by the Under Secretary of Defense for Installations. The published standards 

applied to MILCON construction beginning in FY02 and beyond. AFCESA also was given the lead 

by the JCS Security Engineering Working Group to develop standards for existing buildings, family 

housing, and Non-Appropriated Fund buildings.213

In 1999, AFCESA won its eighth Air Force Organizational Excellence Award. The award was 

presented for the period January 1, 1995 through December 31, 1996 and recognized AFCESA’s 

“unparalleled professionalism and technical expertise...to civil engineering everywhere.”214 By the end 

of 2000, AFCESA was staffed by 199 employees out of a total personnel authorization of 202. Of the 

authorized positions, 92 were military and 110 were civilians. AFCESA’s workforce was augmented 

by 60 contractors.215

Development and Use of AFCAP

In 1996, the Air Force tasked AFCESA to establish the Air Force Contract Augmentation Program 

(AFCAP). AFCESA researched and designed the contract vehicle, and, once the contract was in place, 

AFCESA administered the overall contract and its individual task orders. AFCAP was based on the 

Army’s Logistics Civil Augmentation Program and the Navy’s Construction Capabilities Contract. 

AFCAP was a contracting vehicle to access private sector contractor support to relieve and/or to augment Air Force civil engineer activities during deployments for MOOTW situations in non-combat 

environments. Mr. Joseph Smith (CMSgt Ret), then working as a civilian employee at AFCESA, was 

assigned to a team to develop AFCAP. While the purpose of AFCAP was to augment Air Force civil 

engineer forces, many military personnel in the organization initially viewed the program as another 

way to downsize civil engineer numbers. However, General McCarthy stated that initial force beddown would always be done by blue-suit civil engineers. AFCAP requirements were drafted in 1996 

and reviewed through the major commands.216 AFCAP was written for flexibility and was designed 

to secure private sector contract support under the following conditions: for sustaining operations and 

maintenance after initial Air Force civil engineer field and beddown activities were completed, for 

recovering base infrastructure following attack or natural disaster, for remediating land returned to a 

host nation, and for reconstituting and repacking war reserve materiel kits, such as Harvest Falcon. 

AFCAP was designed to augment all Air Force civil engineer capabilities except for crash/fire/rescue 

and EOD, both of which were considered inherently governmental, and all Services capabilities except 

for mortuary and field exchange.217

In February 1997, AFCAP was awarded as a one-year cost plus fee contract with four, one-year 

renewal options to Readiness Management Support, L.C. (RMS), a joint venture between Johnson 
434 Leading the Way

Controls and Lockheed Martin. The contract vehicle was structured to allow major commands to fund 

task orders as part of overseas deployments or in response to natural disasters. The upper limit of the 

indefinite quantities contract was $450 million.218

Use of AFCAP as a contracting vehicle began slowly with little activity between 1997 and 1998.219

Two task orders were issued under AFCAP during the first year (February 1997-February 1998) and six 

task orders were issued during contract year two.220 PACAF issued the first task order through AFCAP 

to clean up Andersen AFB in Guam following Super Typhoon Paka in December 1997. Initially, 

PACAF mobilized military and civilian Air Force personnel across the command to provide disaster 

relief. PACAF personnel were augmented by Air Force personnel from Air Staff, ACC, CEMIRT 

from Travis AFB, California, and the 49th Materiel Maintenance Group from Holloman AFB, New 

Mexico. Private sector contractors were used for the cleanup effort to reduce the operations tempo on 

military and civilian employees during the holiday season. In the initial days following the disaster, 

private sector personnel were accessed through AFCAP, SABER, and housing and service contracts 

to repair facilities, clear debris, and restore operations.221 Originally estimated at $750,000, the overall 

cost of the recovery rose to $2 million.222 A second task order issued in 1997 developed an AFCAP 

concept of operations to inform Air Force personnel on the conditions appropriate for using AFCAP 

and procedures for activating the program.223

During the second contract year (February 1998-February 1999), six task orders were issued 

through AFCAP for a total of $2.3 million.224 One AFCAP contract was used to clean up Keesler 

AFB, Mississippi, following Hurricane George in September 1998. AFCAP contractors worked at the 

base for six weeks to restore power to family housing, repair roofs, clear storm drains, remove debris, 

conduct damage assessments, and provide cost estimates for permanent repairs to facilities, housing, 

and runway lighting systems.225

Between 1999 and 2001, the use of AFCAP grew and $120 million of the contract capacity was 

reached.226 In 1999, 16 task orders were processed through AFCAP for a total of $73.7 million.227

AFCAP task orders in 1999 included staffing air traffic control positions at Langley AFB, Virginia, 

and Holloman AFB, New Mexico; constructing offices for the Customs Services at Aruba in the 

Netherlands’ Antilles; repairing an airfield at Manta AB, Ecuador; and, designing a retention center 

for the Immigration and Naturalization Service at Grand Island, Nebraska.228

The majority of task orders activated through AFCAP in 1999 were associated with the U.S. 

intervention in Kosovo under Operation Allied Force, Joint Task Force Shining Hope, and Operation Sustain Hope. USAFE activated AFCAP to provide support for Operation Noble Anvil, to set 

up a tent camp in Hungary, to move building parts from Germany to Tuzla to house the Predator, to 

procure 26 pieces of heavy equipment for use at Balikesir, Turkey, and to operate and sustain the tent 

city constructed at Aviano AB, Italy. The largest task order issued under AFCAP was for building a 

Kosavar refugee camp near Fier, Albania.229 AFCAP contractors established a good working relationship with the USAFE staff in the command center at Ramstein AB, Germany, and were incorporated 

into the planning process to support the mission.230

On August 17, 1999, a 7.4 magnitude earthquake rocked Turkey. Following the earthquake, the 

United States pledged relief aid. As part of that effort, AFCESA activated AFCAP to supply 390 tents, 

as well as power generators, latrines, and water bladders for the earthquake victims. The AFCAP 

contractor RMS, L.C. arranged shipment of the items to Turkey. Most of the equipment was already 

stored in the region and had been previously moved there to support construction of the Kosovo 

refugee camps.231

One of the larger efforts contracted through AFCAP was to supply the Kosovar people with wood 

building products to reroof 10,000 concrete-block homes before the winter of 1999-2000. USAID’s 

Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance contacted AFCESA for support in a crisis situation. Thirty 

thousand tons of lumber were required in Kosovo within 30 days. The agency had been unsuccessful in securing lumber through established sources. AFCAP contractor RMS, L.C., utilized Bechtel 
Responding To New Challenges 435

National, Inc., to mobilize its worldwide supply network. Seven mills in five countries, including 

Austria, Germany, and the Czech Republic, milled the lumber and shipped it to Skopje, Macedonia. 

From there, the lumber was moved to Pristina, Kosovo, and then distributed to 10 centers. The last 

lumber load was delivered in December 1999.232

During 2000, 11 task orders were issued through AFCAP for a total amount of $5.9 million.233

Task orders for the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance included inspection of supplies warehoused 

in Italy and Gibraltar and purchase of a variety of emergency disaster relief supplies, including boats, 

motors, water purification systems, water storage tanks, plastic sheeting, personal medical kits, blankets, and water bladders. The Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance activated AFCAP in response to 

typhoon flooding in Bangladesh and during recovery from Hurricane Keith in Belize and the Yucatan 

peninsula in Mexico in October 2000. Additionally, ACC tasked AFCAP to recruit 35 power production specialists for SWA. The power production specialists were assigned to four bases in SWA and 

augmented the pool of personnel available to serve, thereby reducing the number of military personnel 

required for rotational deployments. ACC also contracted through AFCAP for overall civil engineer 

base operating support and construction of temporary facilities, a parking lot, and an aircraft arresting 

barrier in Curacao, Netherlands Antilles. Another task order was to install polyester protective film 

on Air Force living quarters at Manta AB, Ecuador.234 At the end of four years, over $85 million or 19 

percent of the $452 million contract ceiling was expended.235

AFCEE – Its Establishment and Development

General Ahearn, The Civil Engineer between 1989 and 1992, placed particular emphasis on a total 

quality environmental program to bring Air Force operations into compliance with Federal environmental laws, to clean up past pollution, and to reduce hazardous waste to prevent future problems.236

Prior to 1989, a general perception pervaded the Air Force that AFESC was responsible for environmental cleanup; this was not the case. At one time, the Air Staff included an environmental directorate 

while the field-level and installation restoration programs were assigned to AFESC. The entire program 

subsequently was moved to Headquarters in Washington, D.C. Although the environics researchers 

at the Engineering and Services Laboratory conducted a large number of research and demonstration 

projects in the field, specific base environmental cleanup was assigned to the major commands.237

During 1990, General Ahearn, along with Lt. Gen. Joseph Viccellio, Jr., Air Force Deputy Chief 

of Staff for Logistics and Engineering, and General McCarthy, began to transform the Air Force environmental program. The group developed and then led a series of environmental leadership courses 

at Tyndall AFB, Florida, that reached 150 major command, wing, and base-level senior leaders. The 

courses provided Air Force leaders with information on a variety of topics, including the environmental 

regulatory process, hazardous waste sites and their restoration, reduction of hazardous waste usage 

in base operations, natural resources programs, legal issues regarding personal liability, manpower 

and funding resources, and public affairs. The goal of the courses in General Ahearn’s view was to 

“green” the Air Force leadership and to provide a common basis of information for leaders to deal 

with environmental issues.238

General Ahearn tasked then Deputy Director of Engineering and Services Brig. Gen. James E. 

McCarthy to oversee the environmental program by incorporating measurable performance goals. 

Monthly performance reviews were held and notices of violations were tracked. A cross-functional 

program management team was formed with senior Air Force representation that met monthly to 

examine environmental issues across the entire Air Force. In addition, working relationships with 

EPA and local environmental regulators were strengthened. In addition, the Air Force also sought to 

strengthen relations with the “new” partners in the environmental program—the public.239

General McCarthy made a major change in the overall management of the Air Force environmental 

program. As General McCarthy reported, 
436 Leading the Way

I decided that we could not run the program with environmentalists and scientists, 

that we needed to run the program with line officers who were goal oriented, could 

communicate, and could get things done. Earlier we had entrusted the environmental 

program to the scientists, biologists, and the industrial hygienists. They were technically competent, but they were not program managers that could establish objectives, 

apply resources, measure progress, and oversee it.240

General McCarthy structured the environmental program after reviewing the requirements contained in the laws, regulations, and rules of the regulatory agencies. He assessed the current status 

of the Air Force environmental program and set priorities. The next step was to plan, gain support, 

and leadership attention for funding, training, and procedural changes. General McCarthy continued, 

We established schedules and goals and measured our progress. For example, we set a 

goal of getting rid of the thousands of underground storage tanks around the Air Force 

by a certain date. To execute the program, we established a fund stream within the 

MCP [military construction program], so that bases wouldn’t have to use their operating accounts. We measured progress and sent out report cards to the leaders of major 

commands. That attracted leadership attention, and outstanding performance was 

the result. We also invested in education and training—our Masters of Engineering 

Management degree program at AFIT was refocused to “environmental management” 

[Graduate Engineering and Environmental Management Program], and our technical 

training for Airmen was changed to include applicable environmental features.241

The environmental program had four pillars. Cleanup dealt with the restoration of contaminated 

sites resulting from past actions. Compliance ensured that current operations were undertaken in 

accordance with contemporary standards. Conservation emphasized stewardship of natural and cultural 

resources and protection of endangered species. Pollution Prevention ensured that current decision 

making, principally during the acquisition process, did not create future environmental problems. 

General McCarthy assigned a top-performing officer to each pillar and held them accountable for 

success. The Air Force was singled out by the Office of the President for the Federal environmental 

program due to the success of this program.242

On April 17, 1991, General McPeak issued an environmental quality memorandum to all major 

commands. The memorandum mandated that Air Force personnel must accomplish environmental 

protection immediately and be responsible for the safe and efficient use of scarce resources to meet the 

Air Force mission. The memorandum established goals to complete 100 percent cleanup of hazardous 

waste sites by 2000; to achieve total compliance with Federal, state, and local environmental laws with 

zero notices of violation as the measure of merit; to prevent future pollution; and, to incorporate environmental impact analysis in support of decision making and protecting the environment. Protection 

and enhancement of natural resources, historic properties, and endangered species also were goals.243

Air Force Chief of Staff General McPeak was a strong proponent of the Air Force environmental 

program. General McCarthy described General McPeak as an environmentalist of the highest order 

who strongly supported environmental cleanup and pollution prevention. As an example, General 

McCarthy told the following story,

[General McPeak] called me one day in the Air Staff and said, “Jim, this is General 

McPeak. Are we using environmentally benign de-icing chemicals on airplanes and 

runways?” I said, “No, sir.” And he said, “Well, stop using them.” I said, “Yes, sir.” 

We used two alcohol de-icing fluids on airplanes, isopropyl alcohol and ethylene 

glycol. One of them was very harmful to the environment, and we had tons of it. The 
Responding To New Challenges 437

other had a high biochemical oxygen demand but was not toxic. We got into it with 

the logistics community and built a plan to very quickly phase out the toxic chemical. 

That’s just one example of his involvement, but he did those things out of the blue. 

And he didn’t want long, qualified answers—just action. Everybody said, “You can’t 

stop using our deicing chemicals instantly.” I said, “He didn’t mean to instantly stop 

using them, but he sure wants a plan and a commitment to move out smartly.”244

The impetus for the establishment of AFCEE was in the tough questions posed by General McPeak 

during the intense March 1991 briefing on the functions of the Office of The Civil Engineer. During 

that briefing, General McPeak identified that the environmental program was not getting sufficient 

focus.245 By the second briefing in May 1991, a separate FOA was proposed to provide a complete 

package of technical services related to environmental compliance, hazardous waste cleanup, pollution 

prevention, and construction and design management.246

Mr. J.B. Cole of the Senior Executive Service was working as deputy director for construction 

within the office of The Civil Engineer in 1991. Cole was credited with the initial idea of AFCEE. He 

proposed to then Brig. Gen. James McCarthy that a design and construction organization be located 

in Dallas, Texas. General McCarthy responded, “You have a good idea but the wrong location.” 

General McCarthy went on to say that the new organization needed to comprise not only design and 

construction, but also environmental management, and the correct location was Brooks AFB, Texas. 

Mr. Cole worked in Washington, D.C., to build support and to organize the fledgling organization and 

was surprised and grateful when General Ahearn selected him to lead it.247

General McPeak was credited with naming the Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence 

(AFCEE). As General McCarthy recalled, 

Mr. J.B. Cole, AFCEE’s first Director. 
438 Leading the Way

We were sitting around his office one day talking about AFCEE, the new agency we 

created to assist with execution of environmental programs. Bud Ahearn had asked 

me to be his point man for standing up the organization, and we were briefing General McPeak on it. We all had suggestions for naming the new organization. General 

McPeak said, “We’re talking about excellence. I think we’ll call it the Air Force Center 

for Environmental Excellence.” And that was it.248

AFCEE was approved on July 5, 1991 and activated on July 23, 1991 at Brooks AFB, Texas. 

AFCEE’s manpower authorizations were drawn from AFCESA, the AFRCE-BMS at Norton AFB, 

California; the Construction Management Office of the AFRCE in Dallas, Texas; contracting personnel 

from the Human Systems Division, AFSC, at Brooks AFB, Texas; other Air Force civil engineering 

positions in Washington, D.C.; and 40 bioenvironmental engineers from the Brooks AFB Support 

Branch.249

The new organization was introduced formally on November 3, 1991 in Hangar 9 at Kelly AFB, 

Texas.250 The missions of the new organization included:

• Environmental cleanup management throughout the Air Force;

• Cleanup of bases closed under the Base Realignment and Closure Act (BRAC);

• Design assistance as the “Architect of the Air Force” to complement the 

 Systems Engineering function at AFCESA;

• Construction management support for the smaller Air Force major commands; and

• Offering environmental and comprehensive planning support through three 

 regional offices in San Francisco, California; Dallas, Texas; and Atlanta, Georgia.251

The structure of AFCEE, as proposed in May 1991, comprised two directorates: Environmental Services and Construction Management. Under Environmental Services were the offices of 

Cleanup, Environmental Impact Analysis, Prevention, and Regional Compliance. Under Construction Management were the offices of Design and Construction, Medical Facilities, Space, Reserve, 

and Environmental compliance.252 However, the Design Group was soon broken out as a separate 

office. Design and construction services assigned to AFCEE supported smaller commands in the Air 

Force.253 The main office was supported by three regional compliance offices, later renamed regional 

environmental offices at Atlanta, Georgia; Dallas, Texas; and, San Francisco, California. Regional 

Source: Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn, “Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefing,” May-June 1991, 

AFCEC History Office.
Responding To New Challenges 439

offices offered the advantage of a single Air Force point of contact to interface with environmental 

regulators for all bases in a region. Initial staffing was proposed at 167 military and civilian personnel 

(Figure 5.5).254 The first Director of the Construction Management Directorate was Col. Robert “Bob” 

Morris and the first Director of the Environmental Services Directorate was Col. Joe Saenz.255 The 

Design Group was headed by Mr. Gary Lynn.

AFCEE began its first year with a small number of personnel located in borrowed office space 

dispersed throughout Brooks AFB. During its first year, AFCEE managed 350 projects worth $1.4 

billion despite its small size.256 By March 1992, the number of AFCEE employees reached 200.257 By 

the end of 1992, $340 million in projects were under contract, while an additional $800 million were 

obligated for projects during 1993. The majority of the project awards were issued under indefinite 

delivery/indefinite quantity contracts; task orders were issued under these vehicles as needs arose. 

Contracting support was provided by 70 personnel working through the Human Systems Center at 

Brooks AFB, Texas. By December 1993, AFCEE was staffed by 450 persons. Some funding for staff 

came from the Defense Environmental Restoration Fund and BRAC.258

From its beginnings, the leadership of AFCEE focused on delivery of quality products to serve 

Air Force major commands and installations in their time frames.259 Environmental compliance with 

NEPA for closed bases and remediation of hazardous areas on active bases were major priorities during 

the early 1990s.260 AFCEE developed the Installation Restoration Program Information Management 

System to store, manage, and retrieve data on soil and water samples collected at thousands of Air 

Force sites.261

One important aspect of AFCEE’s work was dissemination of environmental information to support base activities through many types of media. Between 1992 and 2004, AFCEE hosted the Air 

Force Pollution Prevention Conference, later called the Joint Services Environmental Management 

Conference. The conference was combined with the National Defense Industrial Association’s Environmental and Energy Conference in 2004.262 AFCEE also maintained an information clearinghouse 

on environmental and research issues known as PRO-ACT. PRO-ACT was established in October 

1992 by Lt. Col. Kent Rohlof and his deputy Tom Russell in the Pollution Prevention Division. PROACT’s mission was to “provide timely and accurate answers to customer questions and disseminate 

environmental information throughout the Air Force.” In its first year, PRO-ACT answered about 2,000 

technical inquiries; by 2001, 12,000 inquiries were answered.263 In 1992, AFCEE began to publish a 

magazine entitled CenterViews. The magazine typically contained an introduction by the director and 

articles on AFCEE projects and personnel. 

AFCEE also supported major commands bases with design and construction. AFCEE fielded 

planning assistance teams, architectural assistance teams, and interior design assistance teams. Gary 

Lynn, a former deputy of the AFRCE in Dallas, Texas, became the Director of the AFCEE Design 

Group. Lynn recalled an early assignment to assist the Air Mobility Command to design a building to 

consolidate the command’s operations and aircraft maintenance units. A team was sent to the major 

command and a design, a study model, and a presentation briefing were prepared in just two weeks. 

The design became a prototype for command facilities.264

AFCEE was assigned the management of Air Force Design and Construction Awards. These yearly 

awards, begun in 1976, promoted design excellence throughout the Air Force. Management of the 

awards competition transferred from the Air Staff to AFCEE in 1991, when AFCEE was established. 

The contest comprised three awards: Air Force Agent, Air Force Design Excellence, and Air Force 

Design Awards Program. Entries were submitted by the bases through the major commands and the 

competition awarded three levels of awards: Honor, Merit, and Citation. Before 1991, jurors of the 

competition were selected from the private sector. After 1991, jurors were selected from both the private 

sector and government design professionals for the Air Force, DoD, General Services Administration, or the Veterans Administration. “We look at the program as being a lot more than a way to pat 

ourselves on the back for what a great job we’ve done. We think of it as a viable tool we can use to 
440 Leading the Way

promote excellence in the Air Force. It has become a measuring stick to measure our successes,” said 

Mr. Dave Duncan, Senior Architect at AFCEE and manager of the Air Force Design Awards Program 

between 1992 and 2006.265

In December 1993, Mr. J.B. Cole, who led AFCEE for two years, retired from the Air Force. He 

recalled those rewarding formative years at AFCEE as long, hard work days by dedicated staff. Cole 

summarized the achievements of the first two years of AFCEE’s operation as follows:

• Established credibility of Air Force environmental program to include 

 prevention, minimization, restoration and reclamation.

• Established beneficial relationships with EPA regulators.

• Built customer confidence among Air Force bases that used AFCEE services.

• Worked with the research community to find better and more effective 

 ways to clean up sites.266

In December 1993, Col. Thomas W. Gorges became the new AFCEE Director and its only military 

director. Colonel Gorges foresaw the continued role of AFCEE in the environmental and social aspects 

of base closures, environmental remediation, and pollution prevention. During 1994, the organizational structure of AFCEE expanded to include the following directorates: Construction Management, 

Design Group, Environmental Conservation and Planning, Environmental Restoration, and Pollution 

Prevention. AFCEE also gained a new assignment overseeing the family housing construction program. 

During 1994, the family housing program amounted to approximately $350 million.267 Contracts 

awarded for environmental cleanup in 1994 topped $1.24 billion. The contracts covered full-service 

environmental remediation nationwide and 16 specific AFBs.268

The AFCEE emblem was designed during 1994 by Rich Perry. The shield contained a compass to 

represent AFCEE’s design and construction functions and an eagle to represent AFCEE’s commitment 

to protecting the environment. These symbols are placed over a blue sky and a yellow sun to represent 

the sphere of Air Force operations. A wreath of laurel leaves symbolized the dedicated personnel who 

work at AFCEE.269

Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence emblem
Responding To New Challenges 441

Ground was broken on July 13, 1994 for the construction of a new permanent headquarters building 

for AFCEE at Brooks AFB, Texas. The new building consolidated office space from six different locations and several modular buildings. The building was designed by Cromwell Architects-Engineers of 

Little Rock, Arkansas, and Kinneson and Associates, San Antonio, Texas. The building was completed 

in August 1995.270

Colonel Gorges served as AFCEE Director until his retirement in May 1995. Tony Zugay served 

as interim director for a year.271 In May 1996, Mr. Gary Erickson, Senior Executive Service, became 

Director of AFCEE, coming from the Missouri River Division of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers at 

Omaha, Nebraska. AFCEE now offered a full line of environmental services, and its role in construction and design expanded to include architectural and planning services for Air Force installations 

worldwide. AFCEE also provided construction management for MILCON projects, for medical facilities, and for the Air Force Reserve, as well as served as the design and construction agent for military 

family housing, non-appropriated fund and operations and maintenance projects, and the Energy 

Conservation Investment program.272

In 1997, AFCEE was streamlined. The Pollution Prevention Directorate was renamed the Environmental Quality Directorate. The name change signaled a philosophical shift to treat installations as 

systems where pollution prevention and cleanup were integrated. As more base-level measures for pollution prevention were implemented, fewer future environmental compliance issues were anticipated. 

The former Construction Management and Design Group directorates were merged into the Design and 

Construction Directorate (Figure 5.6). This merger was the result of decreasing MILCON budgets and 

the transfer of those activities to major commands. The Design and Construction Directorate retained 

responsibility for medical construction and provided agent services for family military housing when 

requested by major commands. In addition, the new directorate was challenged to investigate “green 

construction” and to analyze the building acquisition and construction process to minimize impacts on 

the environment. The other directorates within AFCEE were unchanged. Three regional environmental 

offices continued to serve their designated roles, but added the function of serving as DoD Regional 

Environmental Coordinators in their respective regions. In this new role, the regional environmental 

offices spoke as the representative for all Services with regional EPA regulators.273

View of the Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence, Brooks AFB, Texas, 1996.
442 Leading the Way

In 1998, AFCEE was designated to oversee the Air Force family housing privatization program. 

Other duties included supporting environmental issues on Air Force range areas and the formation 

of a Technology Transfer Division. The new division studied and field tested new technologies to 

improve environmental cleanup activities. By 2001, AFCEE controlled over $1 billion in funds, of 

which $436 million supported environmental restoration. The organization was staffed by 50 military 

personnel and 360 civilians.274

MANAGING THE PEACETIME BASES

Introduction

Military and civilian personnel reductions brought about by rapidly changing world events precipitated a radical reorganization of the base civil engineer squadron (CES), known as the Civil Engineer 

Objective Squadron. Also, Air Base Operability (ABO), Disaster Preparedness (DP), and Explosive 

Ordnance Disposal (EOD) personnel were realigned under the civil engineer umbrella. These offices 

typically were already present at the bases; their offices typically reported directly to the base commander or as part of other units.275

The limits prescribed for CES manpower led to the adoption and implementation of efficient 

and streamlined management processes following contemporary business models, multi-skilling of 

military and civilian shop personnel, zonal maintenance, and adopting improved automated systems. 

In addition, civil engineer personnel and functions were augmented through outsourcing, contracting, 

and privatization. These strategies became increasingly important options to assure base operation and 

maintenance in accordance with exacting Air Force quality standards. The civil engineer organizations 

continued to meet environmental requirements and to implement energy conservation measures.

During the early 1990s, budgets decreased dramatically. As military construction funding declined, 

efforts were made to secure Operations and Maintenance (O&M) funding to modernize buildings and 

infrastructure. Aggressive programs to consolidate, to dispose of, or to inactivate unneeded facilities 

also were pursued. These programs included demolition of unneeded facilities, as well as base closure. 

Source: “AFCEE Organizational Chart,” 1999, AFCEC History Office.
Responding To New Challenges 443

Civil Engineer Objective Squadron Reorganization

During 1993, General McCarthy and the major command civil engineers approved the Air Force 

Manpower Standards to convert the CES to the objective squadron model. As finally approved, the 

new squadron structure comprised nine flights: Commander, Housing, Resources, Engineering, Environmental, Fire Protection, Explosive Ordnance Disposal, Readiness (formerly Airbase Operability), 

and Operations. The flight name change from Airbase Operability to Readiness reflected a broader 

concept of total contingency support that incorporated training, organizing, and equipping the CES to 

keep the air base functioning in emergency situations.276

Staffing for the civil engineer objective squadron initially was set at 269, but was increased to 283 

to include personnel in EOD, ABO, and DP functions. This total included 8 officers, 144 enlisted, and 

131 civilians.277 The standardized staffing applied to all squadrons at installations in the operational 

commands in ACC, AMC, ATC, USAFE, and Pacific Air Forces.278 Flexibility in staffing was allowed 

for smaller and larger-sized bases and to meet mission requirements. The manpower standard did not 

apply to contractor-operated bases.279

As described in Air Force Pamphlet 32-1005, “the objective squadron was formed to improve 

job accomplishment and centralize the work of the mission. The objective was to reduce unnecessary and redundant supervisory positions, multi-craft and multi-skill the workforce, and implement 

better, business-like practices to the process associated with work accomplishment.”280 The broader 

responsibilities for each technician were commensurate with the types of assignments encountered 

by Airmen during deployment. 

Personnel allocations were thoroughly studied by the Air Staff, AFCESA, and the major commands. The process of calculating final staffing numbers focused on streamlining processes to achieve 

the most efficient operations and eliminating duplicate efforts. The implementation of the civil engineer 

objective squadron allocated the reduced personnel available to operate and to maintain each base into 

a new organizational structure. Two other efforts vital to accomplishing the civil engineer objective 

squadron were multi-skilling of crafts personnel and implementation of zonal maintenance.281

Multi-skilling

Under multi-skilling, craftsman training was expanded to enable Airmen to perform more than 

one trade. The shops employed personnel classified in one of 17 Air Force Specialty Codes (AFSC). 

Under the implementation of the civil engineer objective squadron, and as part of civil engineering’s 

response to DMRD 967, the number of AFSCs was reduced to 11. Chief master sergeants from the 

major commands were consulted and provided valuable insights on how to multi-skill shop personnel.282 The chiefs recognized that merging AFSCs, if done with deliberate thought, could and would 

result in every enlisted civil engineer attending in-residence technical training. Before multi-skilling 

was implemented by the civil engineers, all AFSCs (AF-wide, not just civil engineer AFSCs) were 

divided into one of three “categories,” depending on complexity, difficulty, and length of training 

required to obtain initial proficiency. The most technically challenging and difficult AFSCs (i.e. exterior powerline electrician and refrigeration/air conditioning) were category A; all accessions in this 

category attended in-residence tech school to obtain a three-level prior to their first CE squadron duty 

assignment. Category B AFSCs were specialties of intermediate complexity (i.e. plumber, carpenter, 

and interior electrician); half of accessions attended tech school and half were assigned as “direct 

duty” from AF Basic Training. Those assigned direct duty were expected to attain a three-level through 

On-the-Job Training (OJT). Category C AFSCs were specialties of least complexity (Civil Engineering had none by the early 1990s); all accessions were assigned as direct duty and expected to attain 

three-level by OJT.283
444 Leading the Way

The Chiefs’ Council experience and connectivity to the enlisted force paid off for civil engineering, 

and ultimately, the Air Force. The chiefs immediately deduced if two or more AFSCs were merged, 

the resultant “category” would always be an A, if at least one of the AFSCs prior to merging was an 

A, eliminating the question of why certain folks in Category B went to tech school and others did not. 

That question was squarely on the mind of most CE senior NCOs when the Chiefs’ Council met to 

formulate recommended mergers. The outcome was correctly predicted; all merged Civil Engineering 

AFSCs became category A. For example, interior (Category B) and exterior electrician (Category A) 

merged to become a Category A “electrician.” Civil Engineering’s merger was so successful that it 

became a vanguard of Air Force reorganization at the time. General McPeak instituted “mandatory 

tech-school” for all AFSCs; a concept of operation still in use today.

The technicians in the merged AFSCs were required to acquire additional skills. Merged AFCSs 

included:

• Interior electricians and exterior powerline electricians were merged 

 under Electrical;

• Heating, controls and refrigeration technicians were merged under 

 Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning/Refrigeration;

• Carpenters and sheet metal technicians were merged under Structural;

• Pavements technicians were merged with equipment operators under 

 Pavements and Equipment; and,

• Plumbing technicians were merged with environmental support under 

 Utilities Systems.

The skills of engineering assistant, power production, liquid fuels, pest management, and fire protection 

were not affected by multi-skilling.284 The reorganization of the shop personnel eliminated foremen 

positions in each shop specialty and shifted the focus of the shops to completing projects, rather than 

working within trade specialties.285

The adjustments to the shop organization on the bases often reflected practices in the private 

sector. For example, heating, air conditioning, and controls skill sets were blended in the private sector. 

On individual bases, heating and air conditioning were divided into two different shops, each with 

its own foremen, work facilities, and support equipment. The most difficult AFSCs to merge were 

interior and exterior electricians. Multi-skilling this group presented significant safety challenges to 

overcome since interior involved work with low voltage electricity and exterior work was with high 

voltage electricity.286

Initially, multi-skilling was resisted at the base level since it represented a radical departure from 

the previous system. The enlisted force was uncomfortable with expanded responsibilities since promotions were tied to skill areas. Civilian employees saw a reduction in the number of supervisory 

positions. Some senior NCOs were challenged by the transition from technician to supervising a 

workforce representing several technical skills. General McCarthy stated “I viewed multi-skilling 

as essential for our survival as a viable organization. Our manpower had been so reduced that we 

wouldn’t be viable unless we shed our ‘union’ cards and did what was best for the Air Force. Status 

quo was not an option.”287

Multi-skilling was required for military personnel, but was voluntary for civilians. Beginning on 

July 1, 1993, 10 bases experimented with introducing multi-skilling for civilian workers in the areas of 

heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and controls; carpentry and sheet metal; and, pavement and equipment operations.288 Multi-skilling for civilians was implemented for CONUS bases shortly thereafter.

The implementation of multi-skilling required an aggressive training program in the multi-skilled 

technical fields. Technical training was accomplished in one of three ways: formal training through 

Air Training Command, CerTest, or career development courses. Initially career development courses 
Responding To New Challenges 445

were the preferred training method, but the numbers accommodated in the courses were approximately 

one-third of the number of personnel requiring additional training.289 CerTest was a computer-based 

training program designed to certify, test, and evaluate a candidate’s knowledge of principles and 

procedures. The program incorporated videotapes and computer-based learning modules.290 By 1995, a 

formal set of Career Field Education and Training Plans for each multi-skilled specialty was distributed 

to the field. Still concerns over multi-skilling arose. 

During 1994, AFCESA conducted an assessment on the status of multi-skilling throughout the 

Air Force civil engineer organization. AFCESA used a combination of questionnaires and personal 

interviews to collect data. After analysis, the data and recommendations were presented to The Civil 

Engineer, General Lupia. The data revealed that training was insufficient to make multi-skilling successful. After reviewing the data, General Lupia set the target date of January 1, 1998 for completion 

of training on all core tasks for all personnel in multi-skilled AFSCs.291

Zonal Maintenance

The zonal maintenance concept was adopted Air Force wide in 1992. Under this concept, a base 

was divided into geographical zones that were serviced by a single team of multi-skilled technicians 

who primarily conducted minor maintenance and repair activities and an occasional larger-scope project. Most major repairs and large-scope projects were completed either in-house by a heavy repair team 

that had horizontal (pavements, equipment, and grounds) and vertical (structural, plumbing, and electrical) construction capabilities or contracted out. Utility repairs were conducted by a dedicated utilities 

team.292 These teams were also able to “bid” on large construction projects and execute them with a 

multi-craft team which was more similar to the way projects were completed during contingencies.

One advantage of this system was that multi-skilled teams were able to inspect each facility 

within their geographical zone every 30 to 90 days to keep abreast with maintenance tasks, minor 

repair, and special tasks. The teams were familiar with the facilities within their zone of operation, 

and facility managers established working relationships with civil engineer zone leaders and knew 

who to contact with work order requests.293 One disadvantage of the new system was the limited 

training opportunities for technicians assigned to routine or simple tasks within a single geographical 

area. Complex tasks that posed potential training opportunities were assigned to specialized teams. 

According to General McCarthy, “I left it up to the MAJCOMs to implement the zonal maintenance 

concept, because I concluded that it was short-lived and the commands who employed the concept 

would decide for themselves that it was untenable. And we saw bases establish four zones in year one 

and then consolidate zones each year until the concept disappeared.”294

The debate continued about whether to retain the zonal maintenance concept or return to the shop 

system to improve training during General Lupia’s tenure as The Civil Engineer. At the end of 1997, 

General Lupia tasked AFCESA to conduct a study of the Operations Flights and its sub-layer of elements in the CES to assess the effectiveness of the organization. The study also reviewed training 

requirements, vehicles, equipment, facilities, and manpower and personnel actions.295

AFCESA developed a 200-question questionnaire, which was submitted to all major installations. 

Responses were received from 65 installations, 55 of which were in the United States and 10 of which 

were overseas. All Operations Flights that responded to the questionnaire were organized in accordance with the five element model: Maintenance Engineering, Material Acquisition, Heavy Repair, 

Facility Maintenance, and Infrastructure. Variety in the organization appeared below the element 

level. Respondents to the questionnaire revealed that 25 percent of the installations were organized 

by zones. Another 25 percent were organized into centralized shops. Fifty percent of the installations 

were organized into a hybrid that combined the two systems. Bases operating both in zones and in 

shops were pleased with their performance results. The overwhelming response to the question of 

“If you could select any organizational structure, which one and why?” was a clear preference for a 
446 Leading the Way

hybrid organization. AFCESA then held a workshop to review the data gathered through the questionnaires; small groups examined the issues surrounding the Operations Flight organization. The meeting 

reached broad consensus that organizational flexibility was a key element to success on the base level. 

The centralized shop with multi-skilled personnel was not effective, nor was one type of organization 

suitable for every installation; commanders preferred flexibility in organization. Based on these results, 

revisions were drafted to AFI 32-1031, Operations Management, to allow organizational flexibility 

below the flight level, to establish roles and responsibilities for Operations Flight commanders, to 

improve clarity of element work responsibilities, and to refine workflow requirements procedures.296

Emergency Services

During the 1990s, emergency services under the civil engineer organization were expanded with 

the addition of EOD and DP personnel. Firefighters had been assigned to the CES since the establishment of the Air Force in 1947. Firefighting responsibilities included aircraft crash and rescue 

operations, as well as fighting fires on base. EOD and DP received greater emphasis as part of the base 

civil engineer organization and became increasingly important in deployment situations.

Fire Protection

Firefighters typically were the base’s first responders to accidents and to fires involving aircraft 

along the flightline, as well as fires that occurred on base. Firefighters continually were on call and in 

readiness whenever aircraft were in the air. On-going training was required to hone emergency skills, 

and equipment continually was upgraded to keep pace with technologies. 

In August 1993, Air Force installations began receipt of the P-23 crash fire truck to replace the 

P-2. This new vehicle weighed more than 78,000 pounds and had a top speed of 72 miles per hour. 

It was able to dispense 3,800 gallons of water and foam firefighting agents from the roof turret and 

bumper turrets at faster rates that the older P-2 model.297

Training for Air Force firefighters also was improved. Crash fire rescue training facilities were 

standardized at each installation and comprised “an aircraft mock-up, a burn area, control stand, 

liquid propane fuel system, cathodic protection system and water conservation pond.” Environmental 

concerns over the fire burn pits had nearly shut them down across the Air Force in the 1990s. The pits 

used JP-4 and JP-8 as fuel and Aqueous Film-Forming Foam to extinguish the fires, both of which 

affected the air and groundwater near the pits. Beginning in 1992, an environmentally sensitive fire 

pit using liquid propane gas was designed and construction began at 87 pits across the Air Force.298

An Air Force firefighter assigned to the 28th CES, Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, uses a P-23 Aircraft Rescue 

and Fire Fighting Vehicle to extinguish a mock fire during a Major Accident Response Exercise.
Responding To New Challenges 447

Not only were firefighting vehicles and training upgraded, but also a new design for base fire 

stations was adopted. In 1996, newly constructed Fire Station No. 1 at McConnell AFB, Kansas, was 

designated as the “model” fire station for the Air Force. The 26,500-square foot facility incorporated 

a wide range of functional and quality of life improvements. The physical design represented several 

design iterations. Initially, the fire station at the former SAC base was designed with seven drivethrough fire vehicle stalls and two-person bunkrooms. The two-person bunkroom was an improvement 

over the open bay bunkrooms of earlier stations. When McConnell AFB transferred to AMC, Brig. 

Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, AMC Director of Civil Engineering, directed that the bunk area of the building be redesigned to contain single rooms with closets, the same requirements incorporated into the 

modernized Air Force dormitory standard. Other modern features included in the design of the fire 

station were an emergency response room with fully computerized communications control console, 

administrative suite, conference room , physical training room, training classroom, CerTest computer 

room, a full kitchen, modern heating and ventilation system, and a fire protection sprinkler system.299

During 1998, a bottom up review of the Air Force crash/fire rescue program was conducted through 

AFCESA and independent analysts. Col. H. Dean Bartel, AFCESA commander from 1996 to 1999, 

explained the significance of the review:

it represented the first time I can recall that we ever went back and took apart the 

crash fire rescue business, brick by brick, to see what our standards really ought to be. 

There are several sets of standards. FAA [Federal Aviation Administration] has a set 

of standards. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has a set of standards. 

Then the Air Force standard was above and beyond that. Our standards have always 

been higher. So there was an effort to try to settle on what the standards should be 

when you balance things like cost effectiveness, operational risk, and so forth, and 

see what we should really have. We ended up taking NFPA standards and adopting 

them as our crash fire rescue standards, which paid off in that we were able to go to 

a national standard that’s recognized.300

The new Air Force standard retained the three-person rescue team, but incorporated the potential for 

future manpower savings. Manpower savings were linked to the acquisition of new fire vehicles with 

advanced technology.301

Throughout the decade, Air Force firefighters experienced pressure to downsize their operations. In 

some cases, base firefighting units relied on nearby communities for backup services during base emergencies. Conversely, base firefighters provided support to local communities. For example, firefighters 

from Tinker AFB joined civilian crews in responding to the bombing of the Murrah building in 1995 

in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.302 On August 18, 1998, firefighters in the 22d CES at McConnell AFB, 

Kansas, assisted the city of Wichita in decontaminating entry crews and potential victims following a 

suspected Anthrax exposure. The crew erected tents, showers, and containment equipment to confine 

the possible threat. Tests later revealed that the suspected material was not anthrax.303

An annual award for the year’s most outstanding Air Force Fire Protection Flight was established 

at the Air Force level in 1994. The award began as a SAC award, but after the dissolution of SAC in 

1992, the office of The Civil Engineer presented the award. The award was named for CMSgt. Ralph 

E. Sanborn, a long-time fire chief at SAC who began his career in World War II and had a 44-year 

career in Air Force Fire Protection.304 The Air Force also presented “Firefighter of the Year” awards 

to one military and one civilian.305
448 Leading the Way

Disaster Preparedness

Established in 1965, Disaster Preparedness (DP) was a branch of base operations reporting directly 

to the base commander.306 In 1991, DP personnel joined the civil engineer organization. When the 

civil engineer objective squadron was implemented, DP personnel were organized within the ABO 

Flight, later renamed the Readiness Flight. The DP personnel were charged with developing baselevel plans for “preparation, response and recovery” from nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) 

attacks.307 Base-level chemical biological (CB) defense programs comprised three phases: assessment, 

deployment, and employment. The assessment and deployment phases were considered “pre-attack 

actions” and included reconnaissance of the area and training procedures. Plans were formulated that 

defined tasks and schedules for completion. Tasks included establishing a CB detection, warning, and 

reporting system, as well as creating command and control facilities for a Survival Recovery Center, 

a Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Control Center, and a Damage Control Center. Other measures 

of a plan included camouflage, concealment, and deception.308 The employment phase was the active 

response to an attack and included avoidance, protection and contamination control—the three tenets 

of CB defense.309 The DP teams also assisted in civil matters; contingencies for natural disasters and 

accidents involving hazardous materials (HAZMAT) were included in DP plans. 

New training requirements for all first responders were implemented during the early 1990s. All 

DP personnel were required to train and to certify all security and medical personnel in HAZMAT 

procedures. A formal DP training program was conducted at Lowry AFB, Colorado. When Lowry 

AFB closed in 1994, the DP Resource Center’s duties were moved to AFCESA and the DP technical 

training was moved to Fort McClellan, Alabama. DP technical training was relocated to Fort Leonard 

Wood, Missouri, in 1998.310

A firefighter from Tinker AFB, Oklahoma, surveys the damage at the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in 

downtown Oklahoma City.
Responding To New Challenges 449

Until the end of 1995, the Readiness Flight included DP and Force Managers. On November 1, 

1995, these two AFSCs were merged. The DP responsibilities were expanded to include management 

of installation Prime BEEF teams, including assigning, equipping, training, and supporting mobilization and deployment of teams. These duties were executed in addition to those normally assigned 

to disaster preparedness specialists, such as camouflage, concealment and deception, NBC, shelter 

operations, and contamination control. The new specialty also was responsible for planning for natural 

and manmade disasters and major accidents.311

An annual award for the year’s most outstanding Readiness Flight was established as the Col. 

Frederick J. Riemer Award. The award was created in 1994 to honor the service of Colonel Riemer, 

who was the first Air Force officer in the disaster preparedness career field and was the first to be 

promoted to full colonel.312

Force Protection

While this concept was implemented in military contingency situations, Force Protection (FP) 

declined in importance on overseas bases after the end of the Cold War and was at minimal levels on 

domestic Air Force installations. The Khobar Towers bombing in 1996 prompted the U.S. military to 

reassess its standing defensive posture on overseas bases and to re-emphasize the importance of the 

force protection concept. The 1995 Oklahoma City bombing of a Federal government building also 

brought security concerns to CONUS air bases. A renewed emphasis on FP emerged in the Air Force 

culture. Force Protection extended to all personnel and resources necessary to execute the installation 

mission. Civil engineers, EOD, and disaster preparedness personnel were essential to implementing 

passive protection measures along with security and intelligence personnel. This renewed emphasis 

on FP was codified in Air Force Doctrine 2-4.1 entitled Force Protection published in 1999.313

Facilities Management

Throughout the 1990s, Air Force civil engineer worked to improve efficient functioning of base 

facilities. Base facilities were assessed for satisfactory performance, upgraded, or disposed of, as 

necessary.

Commanders Facility Assessments

To maintain existing facilities in a state of mission readiness, The Civil Engineer office requested 

additional Operations and Maintenance (O&M) funding throughout the 1990s. The request for additional funding was based on a Commander’s Facility Assessment completed at each installation. The 

process of briefing the major commands on the assessment occurred in early 1993, and the results were 

submitted to AFCESA for compilation in August 1993.314 All facilities were evaluated on their condition and ability to meet mission requirements. Three rankings were possible: unsatisfactory, degraded, 

or satisfactory.315 At AFMC, the facilities rating system was structured into nine common systems, 

each with sub-components. Each system was analyzed based on standard criteria from maintenance 

and repair publications. These standards were applied throughout the major command and teams of 

civil engineer crafts and engineering personnel conducted the inspections. The inspection results were 

compiled and combined with the mission requirements rating to complete the Commander’s Facility 

Assessment for each installation.316

The Commander’s Facility Assessment for 1993 revealed that 70 percent of the Air Force facilities on bases were rated as satisfactory. Eight percent were deemed unsatisfactory and programmed 

for upgrades within the next two years. The remaining 22 percent were classified as degraded and 

funds to upgrade those facilities were programmed for a two-to-six year time frame. The results of 
450 Leading the Way

the Commander’s Facility Assessments were incorporated into the Program Objectives Memorandum 

(POM) for FY96-FY01 budgets.317 The request for the real property maintenance account was increased 

by $1,452 million.318

Air Mobility Command’s Facility Excellence Program

One of the Air Force’s newest major commands, Air Mobility Command, made a major effort 

toward improving its facilities in the 1990s. Brig. Gen. (later-Maj. Gen.) Eugene A. Lupia, the command’s first Civil Engineer, recognized the problem, “MAC [Military Airlift Command] guys just 

never spent a dime on facilities. They didn’t believe in it; they didn’t think it was important, and they 

just let them continue to run down.” Shortly after his arrival at AMC, he learned that was going to 

change. Even before Gen. Ronald R. Fogleman became AMC Commander in August 1992, he met 

with General Lupia and told him that he wanted to improve AMC’s appearance. In his first few weeks 

at AMC, General Fogleman took General Lupia on a two-week whirlwind tour of the command’s 

bases and documented what needed to be done. AMC soon put out a series of design guides under the 

Commander’s Guide to Facility Excellence program. Echoing General Wilbur Creech’s sentiment, 

General Fogleman explained, “Our Air Mobility Command installations must provide pleasant and 

efficient environments within which to conduct mission support, and to attract, motivate, and retain 

highly skilled and dedicated people.... Installation excellence does not cost—it pays!!” Within a few 

years and using BRAC funding, the command transformed itself.319

Demolition of Excess Structures

Demolition of unneeded facilities on bases was a method to consolidate and to reduce excess square 

footage, and thereby save on future operations and maintenance costs. Between 1988 and 1994, the 

Air Force demolished over 7 million square feet of excess space. In 1994, the Air Force had identified 

an additional 8 million square feet for demolition. Demolition costs were projected at $81.7 million 

and offset by future savings in O&M costs. Since funding for demolition was limited, the Air Force 

proposed legislation to authorize the Secretary of the Air Force to reprogram MILCON funding to 

cover facility demolitions.320

The OSD issued Defense Reform Initiative Directive (DRID) #36 entitled Disposal/Demolition 

of Excess Structures as part of a 1998 Defense Reform Initiatives program. This directive recognized 

that the Armed Services had 80 million excess square feet in over 8,000 structures. DRID #36 directed 

that funding be increased to remove excess structures. The Air Force was tasked with demolishing 14.9 

million square feet by FY03.321 Interim goals for meeting this target were pursued aggressively between 

1997 and 2003. By the end of the second quarter of FY03, the Air Force met 96 percent of its target.322

Environmental Programs

Throughout the 1990s, the Air Force embraced tougher legislative requirements for pollution 

prevention and installation cleanup. The Installation Restoration Program (IRP) continued to make 

progress in environmental remediation; 835 of the 4,354 identified IRP sites were restored by 1992.323

Eglin AFB, Florida, was the subject of a comprehensive IRP that began in 1981. More than 50 sites 

were identified; many were old landfills containing petroleum contaminants and hazardous waste, 

including Agent Orange. The Air Force continued an in-depth IRP throughout the 1990s, while monitoring the contaminated sites. The Air Force’s goal during the 1990s was to have an IRP in progress 

at all installations by 2000.324

The Air Force Environmental Awareness Program, begun in the early 1990s, challenged every 

civil engineer to understand the environmental impacts related to their job and to reduce the use of 
Responding To New Challenges 451

hazardous and waste materials.325 Across the Air Force, base personnel actively sought ways to limit 

environmental impacts in day-to-day base operations. The Plastic Reclaimable Abrasive Machine 

(PRAM) was used at several installations, negating use of hazardous chemicals in stripping paint 

from aircraft tire rims. Prior to the advent of PRAM, tire rims were soaked in paint stripper for 2-3 

days. The process was hazardous and personnel wore rubber suits, respirators, and underwent periodic 

blood tests to ensure their safety. Maintenance shops accumulated approximately one 50-gallon drum 

of hazardous waste each month. The PRAM has a high pressure hose that spit out tiny plastic beads at 

40 psi and stripped paint in a matter of minutes,thus reducing hazardous waste, increasing efficiency, 

and eliminating safety concerns.326

In 1993, the Office of the Federal Environmental Executive established the White House Closing 

the Circle (CTC) awards. The award sought to recognize Federal employees and agencies that 

did an outstanding job operating and implementing environmental programs. Award categories 

included: waste/pollution prevention, recycling, environmental management systems, sustainable 

design/green buildings, and green purchasing.327

McClellan AFB in California received the CTC award in 1998 for its hazardous waste prevention 

efforts. The extensive program dated from 1985 when McClellan AFB established the first 

Environmental Management directorate in DoD. The environmental program included projects 

for recycling concrete from demolitions, incorporating the use of more electric vehicles, reducing 

and eliminating hazardous waste, and soil remediation, among others. Soil remediation efforts 

included soil vapor extraction (SVE) treatment units and multiphase extraction system. The SVE 

extracted “volatilized contaminants for treatment” while the multi-phase system “extracted both 

contaminated soil vapor and contaminated groundwater from the subsurface” for treatment.328

Brooks AFB, Texas, and Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, also won Closing the Circle Awards in 

1998. Brooks AFB won for its role in the Texas Pollution-Prevention Partnership formed in 1996. 

Wright-Patterson AFB won an award for its radioactive material recovery and recycling program. 

The Air Force Academy in Colorado received an honorable mention for minimizing its hazardous 

waste through recycling.329

Closing the Circle Awards

The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 created a policy aimed at the prevention or reduction of 

pollution rather than the control of its after-effects. By the mid-1990s, the Air Force had implemented 

its own policies, directives, and instructions regarding pollution. Every installation was required to 

implement a Management Action Plan (MAP) addressing pollution prevention by December 1995.330

Air Force Directive 32-70, Environmental Quality, and Air Force Instruction 32-7080, Pollution 

Prevention Programs, institutionalized the Pollution Prevention Act and enforced the MAP. As part of 

AFI 32-7080, the Air Force required every installation to perform a Pollution Prevention Opportunity 

Assessment (P2OA) on a routine basis. The P2OA assessed all pollution and waste at the installation 

and identified ways to achieve its reduction or elimination. Results of the P2OA were required in the 

Pollution Prevention Management Action Plan.331 The plans also included management approaches to 

reduce “ozone depleting chemicals, the EPA 17 industrial toxics, hazardous wastes, municipal solid 

waste, affirmative procurement of environmental friendly products, energy conservation, and air and 

water pollutant reduction.”332

In June 1995, DoD and Russian Ministry of Defense signed a memorandum of understanding on 

environmental protection cooperation. The cooperative agreement continued throughout the 1990s and 

provided for multiple visits between countries to exchange information on environmental protection 

activities including waste disposal, military site cleanup, and disposal of weapons. General Lupia led 
452 Leading the Way

the delegation in Moscow in January 1998.333 USAFE personnel were also involved in the environmental aspect of the Partnership for Peace Program by helping Eastern European countries manage 

environmental compliance and restoration programs and bring their countries into compliance with 

European environmental standards. 

Along the same lines of promoting environmental awareness across the Air Force, General Lupia 

also initiated an educational program for civilian leaders to see firsthand the progress being made 

across the Air Force on environmental issues. General Lupia would accompany a group of about 40 

civic leaders, defense industry executives, and engineering and environmental leaders on tours and 

briefings at key Air Force installations on a three-day trip.334

The Air Force encouraged individual bases to improve the relationship between neighboring 

communities and the base. The Joint Land Use Study (JLUS), which began in 1985, received greater 

attention in the 1990s on Air Force bases. By 1990, 17 bases were participating in the program. This 

was paying dividends through increased community awareness of Air Force concerns into local comprehensive planning efforts. In February 1990, Headquarters USAF/LEE requested major commands 

“to provide written commitment of support from commanders at bases participating” in JLUS.335

During the 1990s, the Air Force managed a robust program to identify, to evaluate and to nominate buildings, sites, structures, objects, and districts to the National Register of Historic Places in 

accordance with the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, and its implementing 

regulations. Air Force Instruction 32-7065: Cultural Resources Management was issued on June 13, 

1994 to implement DoD Directive 4710.1: Archaeological and Historic Resources Management dated 

June 21, 1984.336 By 1995, the Air Force managed approximately 1,600 historic properties listed on 

the National Register of Historic Places.337 Some historic properties included Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 

senior officer quarters; Midvale Archeological Site in Arizona; Burro Flats painted cave in California; Hickam Field, Hawaii; Base Administration Building at Randolph AFB, Texas; and, Pope AFB 

historic district, North Carolina. The Air Force, under the direction of ACC, also began a multi-year 

program to develop historic contexts as the basis for identifying and evaluating built resources associated with the Cold War era. Two Cold War-era properties listed in the National Register of Historic 

Places were the space launch complex at Vandenberg AFB, California, and Cape Canaveral Air Force 

Station, Florida.338 On September 27, 1995, the Air Force became the first regulated Federal agency 

to sign a proclamation with seven government and civilian agencies to preserve Air Force historic 

buildings and properties. The proclamation recognized the need for the Air Force to meet its mission 

requirements and quality of life while balancing responsibilities and the costs of preserving historic 

buildings under Air Force stewardship.339 The Air Force also began to complete cultural resources 

management plans to integrate stewardship of cultural and historic resources into base operations. 

DoD recognized several Air Force historic resources programs throughout the decade. Edwards AFB, 

California was among several DoD bases commended for its archeological research and protection 

program. DoD also commended Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, among other bases, for the management of historic buildings. Both F.E. Warren AFB, Wyoming, and Vandenberg AFB, California, were 

honored for overall cultural resources management strategies.340 In 1999, Vandenberg AFB received 

the Cultural Resources Management Installation Award. Vandenberg AFB established a particularly 

successful working relationship with the Chumash Indians, negotiating access for “hunting, fishing, 

plant collecting, and sacred ceremonial activities.”341
Responding To New Challenges 453

Energy Programs

During the 1990s, energy conservation programs were reinvigorated. New initiatives were needed, 

as Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr. wrote in 1992, 

We are going to get serious about both energy conservation and energy efficiency 

again—not due to shortages but because of our budget...we’re going to focus on 

conventional energy sources and, through the enlistment of smart business practices 

and empowerment of the user community, we’ll make progressive and incremental 

improvements.342

Areas identified for improvement included, but were not limited to, HVAC systems; landscaping; 

housing occupancy; and, lighting. Emphasis on energy conservation increased during the mid-1990s 

in anticipation of the FY00 deadline for 20 percent energy reductions set in 1985. The Air Force 

Facility Energy Plan was revised during the early 1990s to adopt the 10 strategies identified by DoD 

for reducing energy consumption. One strategy sought to apply “recycling, recovery and reclamation” 

for HVAC/R equipment.343 Federal legislation during the period also mandated additional energy 

reductions, including the Energy Policy Act of 1992. This act authorized Energy Savings Performance Contracts (ESPCs). Through ESPCs, Federal agencies could retain contractors, who “financed, 

designed, implemented, and could possibly operate, maintain, and own infrastructure modifications.”344

In 1994, the first Air Force ESPC was awarded to Johnson Controls to retrofit 114,500 lights at Randolph AFB, Texas. The same year, Hill AFB, Utah, issued an ESPC for base-wide modifications to 

the HVAC and lighting systems. Subsequent Executive Orders 12902 and 13123 increased the target 

for energy reduction to 30 percent. 345

In August 1995, AFCESA became responsible for Facility Energy and Water Conservation Programs. As the responsible agent, AFCESA developed and implemented plans in conjunction with the 

Air Staff and major command civil engineers, as well as audited the program’s progress.346

Advances in Automation

Improvement to automated systems and the development of databases continued to offer efficiencies in managing data and personnel for base level operations. On November 18, 1990, the Defense 

Management Report Decision (DMRD) 924 was approved by the Deputy Secretary of Defense. 

Entitled “Consolidate ADP Operations and Design Centers in DoD,” DMRD 924 required all Armed 

Services to review their automated data processing systems, to make recommendations to consolidate 

and to realign systems to improve efficiencies, and to eliminate duplicate efforts in computer software 

systems and hardware purchases. A Software Design Activity working group met in early 1991. One 

of the group’s recommendations was to continue the development of WIMS/SIMS software through 

AFCESA. By 1996, the WIMS/SIMS software was planned to migrate to a standard Air Force hardware 

platform. The continued design of the software packages was transferred from AFCESA to the Air 

Force Standard Systems Center by the end of FY95.347

The development of software programs for the WIMS platform continued. In 1991, a recurring 

work program software package for WIMS was nearing completion after two years of development. 

This package promised to be a dynamic and easily updated tool to track permanently deferred items and 

man-hours to support continuing work, as well as to prepare work schedules and to identify required 

tasks and man-hours linked to automated Air Force and local standards.348 Additional programs in 

testing or in development under WIMS included a real property management package, a financial 

management package, and a project management system. Future additions to the WIMS software 

package included upgrades to the in-service work plan, weekly scheduling program, and work order 

systems.349
454 Leading the Way

During 1991, software was under development to transfer data from BEAMS to WIMS. Real 

property records, which were managed using BEAMS, were planned for transfer to the WIMS format. 

Plans to phase out BEAMS were proposed during 1991. Five major commands were tasked to identify 

one lead base to begin the process.350 These base selections were made by mid-1991. The BEAMS 

transition was, however, rescheduled due to a delay in converting the Civil Engineering Materiel 

Acquisition System (CEMAS) to the WIMS platform, which was undertaken by the Air Force Standard 

Systems Center.351 By December 1991, CEMAS was undergoing tests at Wright-Patterson AFB with 

selected release of the software planned at installations in early 1992. BEAMS was scheduled for 

decommissioning on October 1, 1993.352

By 1995, the Systems Automation staff in AFCESA actively was working on the next generation 

of computer automation for civil engineering. The new system incorporated telecommunications 

local area networks (LAN) and wide area networks (WAN) connectivity and an improved information management system to allow worldwide use. LAN installations were completed at Air Staff, 

AFCESA, and Tyndall AFB, Florida; additional systems were installed at Moody AFB, Georgia, and 

Eglin AFB, Florida.353

During 1995-1996, Deputy Civil Engineer Dr. Robert Wolff, Senior Executive Service, chaired 

the Civil Engineer Automation Steering Group, formed to review the future automation needs of the 

organization. The steering committee released the Civil Engineer Automation Strategic Plan in 1996. 

The strategic plan provided guidance for improvements to civil engineering automation systems. One 

goal for the next generation of automation was to “transition the WIMS framework into a relational 

database linked to full graphical applications, supporting the full range of operational and contingency 

responsibilities. The envisioned system will be appropriately integrated and standardized to maintain 

Air Force uniformity, but allow major command/base flexibility.”354 This transition provided greater 

integration with other functional areas of the Air Force, such as logistics, contracting, personnel, and 

security, as well as provided information in a global environment. The new system was named the 

Automated Civil Engineer System or ACES.355

The WIMS systems were operated and maintained on Wang mini-computers accessed by personal computers, rather than “dumb” terminals as originally installed. WIMS provided a worldwide 

electronic mail communication system and a built-in office information system. However, the Wang 

system was proprietary in its software applications and hardware and was not readily adaptable to the 

rapidly changing technology. By 1996, the Air Force civil engineer organization was using both Wang 

mini-computers and Intel-based personal computers. The Intel-based personal computers ran a wide 

variety of commercially available software packages for word processing, spreadsheets, relational 

databases, and graphics programs, including Computer-Aided Design, and Geographic Information 

Systems. Electronic communications were conducted using modems over commercial lines connected 

to the Defense Information Network System. LANs and WANs were being installed to facilitate communications and data transfers.356 By 1997, approximately 25 to 30 percent of the LANs were installed; 

installation of all networks was planned for FY98.357

The next phase of development was to transfer WIMS from the Wang to the open UNIX-based 

systems after LANs were installed. By summer 1996, UNIX-based WIMS were operational at Selfridge ANG Base, Michigan; Tyndall AFB, Florida; Homestead Air Force Reserve Base, Florida; 

Camp Murray, Washington; and, Moody AFB, Georgia. The CES at Tyndall AFB was the first to 

inactivate the Wang system.358 In October 1998, the Air Force Standards Systems Group at Maxwell 

AFB-Gunter Annex and AFCESA announced that the Air Force civil engineer organization worldwide 

had completed the transfer from Wang mini-computers to a regionally operated, UNIX-based system 

known as the Interim Work Information Management System (IWIMS).359

The next goal was to develop a relational database management system to replace WIMS and 

transfer the data to ACES. Prototype testing of the new ACES also was planned. Both steps were 

planned for FY98.360 In May 1999, ACES version 1.0 was installed at the Air Education and Training 

Command at Randolph AFB, Texas.361
Responding To New Challenges 455

Outsourcing and Privatization

The Air Force adopted outsourcing and privatization at an increasing rate throughout the 1990s. 

These initiatives offered attractive methods to augment base civil engineer services and personnel in 

an era of reductions in military and civilian personnel and restricted budgets. The U.S. Congress, the 

Executive Branch, and DoD promulgated policies and initiatives to encourage the Armed Services to 

adopt outsourcing and privatization as best business practices.

One recommendation of the 1993 National Performance Review entitled “Creating a Government 

That Works Better and Costs Less” was for DoD to institute a program of contracting non-core activities 

through the competitive bidding process. Outsourcing architectural design services and construction 

management activities functions were recommended to both the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and 

the Naval Facilities Command. An additional recommendation developed during the review was to 

empower Air Force customers to select the district or field office that handled their construction work.362

On November 30, 1995, Chief of Staff of the Air Force, General Ronald R. Fogleman, sent a 

letter to all major command commanders stating that transferring in-house activities to commercial 

contractors was one way to improve quality and to reduce costs. General Fogleman announced the 

establishment in October 1995 of an Outsourcing and Privatization Division in the Office of The 

Civil Engineer. To accomplish General Fogleman’s directive, the major commands also established 

outsourcing and privatization offices.363 Each commander was directed to report plans for increased 

contracting in their FY98 Program Objective Memorandum submission.364 The Air Force Commercial 

Activities Program managed the overall program for outsourcing of Air Force functions. The tension 

between retaining military manpower and increased contracting for Air Force civil engineer activities 

was a challenge throughout the 1990s.

Outsourcing and the A-76 Process

Outsourcing was defined by the government as “transferring the performance of a function previously accomplished in-house to an outside provider,” also known as contracting work out.365 The Office 

of Management and Budget (OMB) published the first version of OMB Circular A-76 in 1966. This 

circular was developed to “discourage the Federal government from being in direct competition with 

private industry for goods and services.”366 As revised over the years, the A-76 process required DoD 

and other Federal agencies to conduct managed competitions to compare costs for performing activities using in-house personnel and resources with private sector commercial firms. The first step in the 

process was to complete a review of all Air Force activities to determine which core functions were 

to remain in-house to meet war readiness requirements, critical skills, or national security concerns, 

versus those activities classified as non-core functions. By 1997, the review was completed and a 

publication was prepared identifying civil engineer activities available for cost comparisons and those 

that were not due to readiness reasons.367

The A-76 process was “a competitive sourcing process whereby the Air Force determines the most 

efficient way to provide support services by cost-comparing the use of in-house staff versus private 

contractors.”368 The goal of the A-76 process was to employ competition to ensure efficient operations 

and to drive down operations costs.369 The advantage of the process to the Air Force was the ability to 

focus military personnel on core military missions and readiness capabilities.370

AFCESA provided support to guide bases throughout the process, including setting up a help desk 

in August 1998. The A-76 process was not new to DoD. Prior to the late 1990s, cost comparisons had 

been applied to small functions. Cost comparisons to determine the most efficient organization were 

now being required between in-house personnel and commercial firms to operate major functions 

within civil engineering, such as entire squadron flights on the bases, and even entire civil engineer 

squadrons.371
456 Leading the Way

In 1998, the Air Force initiated 255 ongoing cost comparison competitions for over 16,000 nonmilitary essential positions. An additional 41,000 positions were subject to cost comparison under 

program Jump Start, a four-year program extending from FY99 through FY02. A total of 9,600 civil 

engineer positions underwent cost comparisons to meet Air Force targets. Cost comparison was defined 

as “the approved process for determining the most cost effective means of performing commercial 

activities.”372 Cost comparison competitions were projected to achieve a 25 percent reduction in operating costs. Under a cost comparison, positions occupied by military personnel were either contracted 

out to the winning bidder or converted to civilian slots, in cases where “in-house most effective 

organizations” were determined to be economically advantageous. The A-76 outsourcing competitions 

extending through 1998 revealed that in-house most efficient organizations won the cost competitions 

40 percent of the time.373

During 1996, AFMC began an intense examination of the cost effectiveness of contracting out the 

majority of civil engineering and environmental management functions under the A-76 process. Two 

bases, Arnold AFB, Tennessee, and Los Angeles AFB, California, already were operated by contractors.374 During 1997, AFMC examined the potential for applying the A-76 process to operations at 10 

bases.375

By 1998, 19 Air Force bases were involved in outsourcing competitions. In one example, a group of 

bases located near Colorado Springs, Colorado, issued a competitive consolidated waste management 

contract for the group.376 At MacDill AFB, Florida, the CES was converted in November 1999 to a 

contractor operation following an A-76 competition. The A-76 study at Kirtland AFB, New Mexico, 

began in December 1998 and resulted in contracting base operations in July 2000. Lessons learned 

from these A-76 competitions found that projections for long-term savings typically were optimistic, 

that adjusting to changing mission priorities was problematic without increased contractor costs, and 

that base management contracts became required funding items in an installation’s budget.377

Privatization

Privatization was defined as “transferring control of a target activity and its associated assets to 

an outside provider, characterized by the shift of responsibility to this provider for the fundamental, 

long-term financial investment required to sustain the privatized activity.”378 During the late 1990s, 

privatization initiatives were begun for military family housing and utilities. The privatization potential 

for unaccompanied personnel housing also was under discussion.

Housing Privatization

The FY96 National Defense Authorization Act established the Military Housing Privatization 

Initiative. The initiative allowed DoD to establish long-term land leases for private sector entities and 

for these entities to obtain private financing for the construction or improvement of military family 

housing, third-party financing and privatization efforts. The legislation enabled the private sector to 

construct, renovate, operate and maintain housing in the United States and its Territories while the 

Air Force focused its attention on meeting the installation mission.379 In 1998, AFCEE was tasked 

by The Civil Engineer to act as the service agent to oversee housing privatization efforts.380 Further 

impetus to privatize family housing came from the Defense Planning Guidance of FY99 that set the 

goal to revitalize or replace all DoD family housing units that were in “poor to adequate condition” 

by 2010. With MILCON projects for housing projected at $250 million per year, the funding was not 

available to meet that target date. Privatization of family housing became the tool to meet that goal.381

The Air Force’s first project was initiated at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas in August 1998. 

AETC at Randolph AFB requested proposals to “design, construct, finance, own, operate, maintain, 

and manage” 420 new rental units at Lackland AFB.382 The project entailed the construction of 148 
Responding To New Challenges 457

new units and the replacement of 272 existing units. The terms of the project provided for land lease 

to the developer, a direct loan for $10.6 million, and a guarantee against changes in the base status 

that would result in a shortage of military renters.383 The privatization project at Lackland AFB was 

part of the Air Force program to modernize or replace one-third of its current inventory.384

By 1998, family housing privatization projects were under study at Robins AFB, Georgia; Elmendorf AFB, Alaska; Dyess AFB, Texas; Mountain Home AFB, Idaho; Kirtland AFB, New Mexico; and, 

Peterson AFB, Colorado.385 By 2001, housing projects at Robins and Dyess AFBs were privatized.386

Utilities Privatization

Utility systems were also candidates for privatization. Military installations have often had difficulty obtaining funding for utility infrastructure modernization. This has sometimes had deadly 

consequences, such as the natural gas pipeline explosion at Ft Benjamin Harrison, Indiana.387 An Executive Branch initiative to improve the efficiency of providing governmental services and the military’s 

interest in maintaining utility systems at a high industry standard led OSD to request legislation for 

the authority to privatize utility systems at military installations. Subsequently OSD issued Defense 

Reform Initiative Directive (DRID) #9 dated December 10, 1997, and #49 issued December 23, 1998, 

both entitled “Privatizing Utility Systems.” Under these reform initiatives, the Armed Services were 

instructed to develop plans to analyze all electric, water, wastewater, and natural gas utility systems 

for privatization, with the exception of specially exempted systems, by September 30, 2003. The major 

commands also had the option to privatize steam, hot water and chilled water generation systems. The 

Air Force was required to identify all systems available for privatization by September 30, 2000 and 

to issue all solicitations for privatization by September 30, 2001. The reform initiative applied to all 

active duty, guard, and reserve bases.388

As supported by OSD’s DRIDs and supplemental guidance, privatization involved divestiture 

of the utility system by transferring title to the successful offeror, and concurrently contracting with 

the same successful offeror to provide service. These contracts for utilities services normally did 

not involve the utility commodity itself; the privatization contract was for service provided for the 

infrastructure, formerly owned by the Air Force. The term of the service contract was normally 50 

years, while the transfer of title (by bill of sale) was in perpetuity; the infrastructure conveyed to the 

successful offeror would never be returned or revert to Air Force ownership. The contract would have 

to be renegotiated at the end of the 50-year term. 389

One concern for the Air Force was the potential loss of expertise in operating and maintaining utility systems at deployed locations. In November 1998, Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, The Civil Engineer, 

and Colonel H. Dean Bartel, commander of AFCESA, briefed the Air Force Chief of Staff concerning 

the need to retain civil engineer readiness expertise on utility systems. Power and water treatment 

professionals were required to retain wartime readiness capabilities. General Lupia requested that 108 

Air Force utility systems be exempted from privatization, mostly in the force projection commands 

of ACC, AMC, PACAF, and USAFE.390

In February 1999, the Air Force Chief of Staff informed the Civil Engineer community that the 

original goal of privatizing 251 utility systems over eight years had changed. The new goal was to 

“have all requests for proposals ready for solicitation NLT [no later than] 30 Sep 01, and all privatization actions must be complete by 30 Sep 03,” for 463 systems, including 212 systems located on Air 

National Guard bases. AFCESA established a utilities privatization manager and added 20 additional 

contract employees to handle the increased work load.391

A phased approach to utilities privatization was adopted. The first phase was to analyze each of 

the Air Force’s 501 utility systems to identify the systems available for privatization. This analysis 

was completed by AFCESA and the major commands. The deadline for identifying candidates for 

privatization was September 2000. The second phase was to develop requests for proposals. The third 
458 Leading the Way

phase was the evaluation of proposals and selections of the successful contractors. The deadline for 

completing all utilities privatization was September 2003.392

Each major command was instructed to establish a point of contact for the program. Each individual base was instructed to appoint a central point of contact and to form a base integrated process team 

comprising members representing operations, real property, engineering, and environmental functions. 

This team also included members from contracting, legal, security, finance, civilian personnel, and 

public affairs. The integrated process team was responsible for reviewing the generic scope of work 

developed by AFCESA and tailoring it to fit installation requirements. The team also was responsible 

for gathering data, including real property records, cost data, projects, and updated utility maps, to 

support the scope of work. AFCESA reviewed all finalized scopes of works prior to advertisement. 

The process to privatize utilities was lengthy.393

In August 1998, AFCESA awarded a $3 million contract to analyze the privatization potential of 

25 utility systems at seven bases in Texas: Lackland, Randolph, Brooks, Laughlin, Sheppard, Goodfellow, and Dyess.394 In FY99, AFCESA awarded $30.1 million to analyze the privatization potential of 

301 additional utility systems. The remaining 137 systems were scheduled for study in FY00. In April 

1999, responsibility for privatizing 181 utility systems on Air National Guard bases was transferred 

to the Defense Energy Support Center.395

By 2000, 451 utility systems throughout the Air Force had been assessed for privatization potential. 

Three hundred seventy-two systems were selected for privatization, while 79 systems were exempted 

from privatization due to manpower readiness requirements. Reviews were outstanding for 59 systems 

out of a possible total of 501 utility systems by the September 30, 2000 deadline set for identifying 

all candidates for privatization. Three projects had progressed to phase two of the program. Three 

requests for proposals (RFP) to privatize utilities were issued in January 2000. One RFP was issued 

for the Texas Regional Demonstration project covering 25 utility systems at six AFBs and one Air 

National Guard base. RFPs also were issued for four utility systems at Maxwell AFB/Gunter Annex 

in Alabama, and one RFP was issued for Cape Canaveral Air Station, Florida, that covered water 

and wastewater systems. In March 2000, an RFP was issued to privatize wastewater, gas and electric 

systems at Bolling AFB, D.C. To guide bases through the competitive bidding process for utilities 

privatization, AFCESA prepared a template for RFPs that was easily tailored to base requirements.396

Base Closures - United States and Overseas

During the 1990s, the physical plant managed by Air Force civil engineers was reduced substantially both in CONUS and overseas. In CONUS, Public Law 101-510 entitled the Defense Base Closure 

and Realignment Act of 1990 established procedures for closing and realigning military bases. The 

U.S. Congress charged DoD with compiling a list of bases for closure and realignment and presenting the list for consideration to an independent Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission, 

whose members were nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The commission then 

reviewed the DoD recommendations and prepared final recommendations. Final recommendations 

then were submitted to the U.S. President, who either sent the recommendations back to the commission for further deliberation or forwarded them to the Congress without change. The commission’s 

recommendations went into effect unless the Congress disapproved by a joint resolution of both houses. 

The law required base closure and realignment actions from the 1988 closures to be completed by 

September 30, 1995 and actions from subsequent rounds to be wrapped up within six years of the 

date the President forwarded the proposals to Congress. Other actions such as property disposal and 

environmental work could extend beyond the six-year limit. AFCEE and the Air Force Base Disposal 

Agency were key players in this process. This was a multi-million dollar, high-profile, time-sensitive 

process to prepare environmental impact statements and real estate transactions to quickly transfer 

the closed installations.397
Responding To New Challenges 459

In 1990, the first Air Force base closings were in process based on recommendations from the 

1988 BRAC commission. Bases subject to closure were George, Mather and Norton AFBs, California; 

Chanute AFB, Illinois; and, Pease AFB, New Hampshire.398 Major commands were responsible for 

transferring military functions and equipment to other bases. Once that task was completed, the bases 

were turned over to the Air Force Base Disposal Agency, who provided a caretaker for each base until 

the base was turned over to the community. Pease AFB in New Hampshire was the first Air Force base 

to close in 1991; three bases were closed in 1992.399

Three BRAC commissions met during the 1990s: 1991, 1993, and 1995. The Air Force had 86 

active and 21 reserve U.S. bases that met one requirement for consideration for closure. In 1991, 11 

active bases and 2 reserve bases were selected for closure; one base was recommended for realignment 

and partial closure. In 1993, four active bases and one reserve base were selected for closure, and three 

other bases were realigned. Five bases were selected for closure in 1995.400

The BRAC legislation required official closure of the bases within six years after the recommendations were forwarded to the U.S. Congress, although property disposal and environmental cleanup was 

allowed to continue beyond that time frame. By September 30, 2001, the Air Force had completed the 

base closings and had a new basing structure comprising 60 major CONUS bases: 15 bases assigned 

to ACC, 13 to AETC, 10 to AFMC, 8 to AFSC, 2 to AFSOC, and 12 bases to AMC. The 60 major air 

bases did not include Headquarters, U.S. Air Force, D.C.; Bolling AFB, D.C.; U.S. Air Force Academy, 

Colorado; Eielson and Elmendorf AFBs in Alaska; or, Hickam AFB, Hawaii.401 Approximately 20 

major bases were assigned to the Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve.402

The funds to close bases and to realign Air Force functions were provided by specially designated 

BRAC funds. The Air Force civil engineers used the BRAC monies to invest heavily in new buildings and infrastructure on the bases that received new missions realigned from closing bases. General 

McCarthy recalled, “We not only funded new buildings to accommodate the added missions, we 

also used the BRAC money to upgrade the base infrastructure, including roads, utilities, recreational 

facilities, and housing. Some accused us of using BRAC funds to ‘get well,’ and there was some truth 

in that statement.”403

The Air Force also reduced dramatically the number of overseas bases. In 1982, the Air Force had 

a total of 44 major overseas air bases. By 1997, six main operating bases remained in PACAF; two 

main operating bases were located in South Korea, three in Japan, and one on Guam. From a total of 

16 main bases under USAFE, the number dropped to six bases dispersed in England, Germany, Italy, 

and Turkey.404

The oldest overseas airfield, Clark Air Base in the Philippines, was closed following a natural 

event. In June 1991, Mount Pinatubo erupted, leaving the 11,000-acre Clark AFB covered in 6-to-12 

inches of volcanic debris and ash. This debris caused 111 buildings to collapse and damaged an additional 64 buildings. Rains following the eruption turned the ash and debris into mud, further damaging 

buildings. While more than 20,000 military and civilian personnel and dependent families and pets 

were evacuated from the base, 2,000 military personnel remained, including security police, civil 

engineers and services personnel, communications personnel, logisticians, medical support, selected 

command staff, and legal personnel to handle the salvage of military equipment and to pack and ship 

the household goods of evacuated military families. Civil engineering personnel assigned to Clark 

AFB worked closely with logistics teams to salvage building materials and equipment from the base. 

These efforts were assisted by personnel from the 554th RED HORSE squadron deployed from Osan 

AFB, Korea.405 On November 26, 1991, Clark AFB, the largest Air Force overseas base in PACAF, 

was officially closed and the property was transferred to the Philippine Government.406
460 Leading the Way

CONSTRUCTION PROGRAMS

CONUS Construction

Housing and Dormitories

The Air Force’s emphasis on quality of life and improved living standards was obvious in the 

construction program undertaken during the 1990s. Both Air Force family housing and unaccompanied 

personnel housing were in need of considerable repairs. While privatization offered a way to renovate 

family housing units, as John B. Goodman, Deputy Under Secretary of Defense, noted, more than 

60 percent of the approximately 400,000 unaccompanied housing units maintained by DoD required 

renovations at an estimated cost of $9 billion.407 Along with affordable and improved housing, the Air 

Force pushed for new construction of commissaries, child care centers, and physical fitness centers.408

The National Defense Authorization Act for FY93 recommended that the Armed Services revise 

their design standards in addition to renovating existing dormitories.409 In response, the Air Force 

proposed private rooms in 1993. Design standards for unaccompanied personnel housing were revised 

November 6, 1995 by Secretary of Defense William Perry. The new standards implemented the “1+1” 

configuration and replaced the 1983 “2+2” double occupancy standard. The standard design encompassed 118.4 square feet of living space per occupant and two separate quarters sharing a bath and 

kitchenette.410 Scott AFB, Illinois became the first installation to construct the “1+1” dormitories in 

1996.411

During the late 1990s, the Air Force developed several goals and plans to achieve better housing 

for personnel. Plans included the Dormitory Master Plan, Family Housing Master Plan, and Housing 

Management Strategic Plan. Each plan outlined housing and budgeting requirements to satisfy the 

housing deficits.412 The family housing master plan outlined a process of combining MILCON funds 

with privatization to achieve the goal of having all 110,000 family houses in good condition by 2010.413

Air Force Vision 2020 put quality of life at the forefront of its program. Dormitory living would 

be phased into efficiency apartments by 2020; the program first sought to construct “1+1” rooms with 

walk-in closets for Airmen beginning in FY96.414 The Air Force established its own goals for improving 

housing; by FY00 the Air Force wanted to “buy out permanent party central latrine dormitories” and 

build new facilities. The Air Force met its goal of buying out the central latrine dormitories in FY99. 

The Defense Planning Guidance of FY99 also set the goal to revitalize or replace housing that was in 

“poor to adequate condition.”415

The 1996 housing program contained 34 projects to construct or renovate 2,147 units at a cost 

of $250 million while 30 percent of the FY96 MILCON budget was dedicated to the construction of 

dormitories. The following year, 48 projects were budgeted to construct 2,175 units and $111 million 

of the FY97 budget was allocated for construction or renovation of one dormitory at 14 bases.416 In 

1997, unaccompanied personnel housing was at a 14,000-room deficit. MILCON budgets and housing 

goals sought to remedy that deficit. The MILCON budget for FY99 allowed $119 million for 1,750 

unaccompanied personnel housing units and $226 million for family housing. The money allotted for 

family housing would replace 784 units, construct 64 new units, and improve 625 units.417 Military 

Family Housing (MFH) and Temporary Lodging Facilities (TLF) received large increases in funding 

and construction in FY95. The MFH program erected 174 new units, renovated 2,587 existing units.418

Two years later, MFH expanded to include the construction of 70 new units and renovation of 1,837 

existing units. The TLF program received 420 new units and renovated 302 units in 1997.419

The Office of The Civil Engineer made housing policy and issued technical direction to the major 

commands and installation commanders who, in turn, implemented the housing programs. Air Force 

housing policy guaranteed projects would meet DoD standards, 
Responding To New Challenges 461

For family housing, these criteria incorporate whole house standards which meet 

minimum square footages, contemporary housing features, and environmental and 

energy conservation attributes. For unaccompanied housing the essentials include 

room-bathroom configuration and minimum square footage commensurate with the 

occupant’s grade.420

Whole house standards included individual rooms for specific functions: “living, dining, family, and 

laundry rooms” and “a patio or balcony with privacy screen.”421

Special Projects: Space and Missile Program Support

Air Force civil engineers supported space and missile programs for the Air Force on both the east 

and west coasts of the United States. They managed significant construction projects in support of 

DoD’s mission to assure continued entry into space. These programs thrust the civil engineer community into the fast-paced and ever-changing environment of advanced technology, integrating an 

even broader level of experience and complexity to the civil engineer mission. 

The Eastern Range and the 45th Civil Engineer Squadron

The Air Force civil engineer community continued to contribute its expertise to the space and 

missile programs through the 1990s and into the 21st century. In particular, the 45th CES worked with 

contractors and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to support operations for the Eastern Range, an 

area that spanned approximately 4,000 miles between Cape Canaveral Air Station in Florida to Ascension Island in the South Atlantic Ocean. This range was utilized for launching DoD space vehicles 

in support of satellite orbits. During the early 1990s, civil engineers were involved in programs to 

rehabilitate and to build new facilities for space support. They also were engaged in initiatives to 

ensure environmental safety, including endangered species and wetlands, within the Eastern Range. 

The technological requirements for facilities and the environmental concerns made work on the Eastern 

Range particularly challenging.422

Many priorities were considered as a part of the large-scale mission to launch space vehicles into 

orbit. At Cape Canaveral Air Station, the 45th CES worked with contractor Johnson Controls World 

Services to ensure that facilities supporting the mission were up-to-date and that species and their 

habitats within the cape were protected. Two species were of particular concern. The cape was home 

to a substantial population of the endangered Florida Scrub Jay. Personnel implemented landscaping 

percentage requirements to sustain the population and its habitat. They also organized a monitoring 

system for the birds to assess movement and potential impacts to the population. The cape was also 

the location for a significant sea turtle nesting habitat. Adjustments to lighting and nighttime launch 

activities were made at the air station to accommodate the particular nesting habits of the turtle. In 

addition, the 45th CES implemented and monitored fire safety measures. These included clearing 

brush areas through controlled burns, while monitoring and accommodating species within the area. 423

The civil engineers, along with Johnson Controls personnel, were responsible for the operations 

and maintenance of the launch facilities; they also provided logistics support and supervised construction. They were responsible for the buildings and structures at Cape Canaveral and 10 additional 

tracking sites within the state of Florida. During 1994, civil engineers provided support for a total of 

36 launches. Their work included coordination with 11 tenants of Cape Canaveral, including NASA 

and the Navy Naval Ordnance Test Unit.424

The most stressful and challenging phase of the 45th CES’s involvement with the Eastern Range 

was the 10-day time period leading up to a launch. Numerous systems checks were completed and last 

minute work orders were fulfilled. During a single launch, civil engineer personnel were responsible 
462 Leading the Way

for the operation of as many as 90 cranes and 26 elevators. These machines were not only out-of-date, 

but also were deteriorated as a result of their continuous outdoor environment. This made operations 

even more difficult, but personnel persevered. The civil engineers, along with Johnson Controls staff, 

completed 100 assignments at Cape Canaveral Air Station and the 10 tracking annexes. The total value 

of projects completed during 1994 was over $17 million.425

The 45th CES also supervised an ambitious O&M and MILCON construction effort during the 

1990s. Up until this point, many facilities associated with the Eastern Range were maintained adequately to fulfill DoD space launching mission. The 1994 construction program involved modernizing 

the facilities of the downrange area. The downrange facilities included Antigua Air Station (AAS) and 

Ascension Auxiliary Airfield (AAA). Both locations incorporated the equipment necessary to support 

launch activities. These included “telemetry systems, radar, command and control, meteorological 

equipment, and missile impact location systems.” In addition, both sites accommodated permanent 

and temporary personnel, and therefore required on-base necessities such as housing, recreation, food 

services, and laundry facilities.426

The AAS, located in the northeast area of Antigua, encompassed 472 acres of land. The operational 

sites comprised one main base location and eight dispersed electronic tracking facilities. The station 

was under the ownership of the government of Antigua. Construction at AAS during this period 

included an 18,000 square-foot, $8 million Consolidated Instrumentation Facility (CIF). The facility 

replaced outdated machinery and offered a modern tracking system to support “communications, 

timing, radar, range safety and telemetry.” A new reserve power plant was also constructed for the 

CIF.427

The AAA was located on remote British territory. The Air Force facility on the island comprised 

3,856 acres, with a main base location, an airfield, and 11 electronic tracking facilities. The AAA also 

required the installation of a modern CIF. The new CIF encompassed 21,500 square feet and cost an 

estimated $11.9 million. Construction on a $22 million Power/Desalinization Plant at AAA also began 

during this time.428

In addition to the MILCON activities at AAS and AAA, another 33 projects worth approximately 

$15.5 million were being planned or were under construction. These projects included the construction of modern maintenance shops, as well as rehabilitation and repairs to housing and food services 

facilities. The ambitious improvements and construction projects at AAS and AAA illustrated the 

importance of maintaining advanced technological resources to support DoD’s continued presence 

in space. The 45th CES’s management of the construction of these facilities enhanced the role of the 

civil engineer as a leading contributor to modern technological advancements.429

Vandenberg Air Force Base, California

On the west coast, the 30th Civil Engineer Group fulfilled missions associated with Vandenberg 

AFB space and ballistic missions. The location of Vandenberg AFB made possible launches into polar 

orbit while avoiding inhabited areas. Each launch was supported by 40 to 50 civil engineer personnel responsible for power production, equipment certification, EOD, fire suppression, and disaster 

preparedness. Each role performed by civil engineers was vital to a successful launch and critical in 

cases of disaster. In addition to launch support, civil engineers at Vandenberg AFB were responsible 

for maintaining the infrastructure required for the launch. Work included routine job assignments, as 

well as enhancements to the installation’s military family housing.430

Teams began work on launch-specific power production as early as 10 hours before a launch. 

Five generator locations were typically readied as backup power supplies for each operation. HVAC 

personnel also were critical to each launch, ensuring the controlled environment for equipment and 

computers was properly maintained. Fire protection teams monitored each launch as well. They provided firefighting capabilities for small accidents and large-scale disasters, dispersing firefighting 
Responding To New Challenges 463

personnel throughout the air base during each launch. Disaster preparedness and EOD teams were on 

standby to provide assistance if a launch failed. Disaster preparedness teams were involved in every 

launch and fulfilled the duty of organizing a wing Disaster Control Group. EOD teams were utilized to 

dispose of broken or inadequate equipment and also to perform investigations to search for potentially 

dangerous items after a failed launch.431

Space and missile support programs offered civil engineers the opportunity to demonstrate their 

competence in advancing technologies. Their substantial contribution to the modernization and management of the Eastern Range facilities and their extensive involvement with space and ballistic 

launches at Vandenberg AFB allowed them to thrive in the growing environment of sophisticated space 

operations. These projects and responsibilities illustrated the skills and ingenuity that civil engineers 

contributed, making them vital participants in the entire Air Force space program.

B-2 Beddown at Whiteman AFB

The 1990s included several major weapon system beddown efforts, but none was more dramatic 

than the B-2 beddown at Whiteman AFB, Missouri. Originally a World War II training base, it became 

a B-47 bomber base in the 1950s and a Minuteman ICBM base in the 1950s and 60s. In 1987, Missouri 

Congressman Ike Skelton pushed for a new mission at the base and it was chosen to host the new 

B-2 bomber. Just as preparations were underway for a dual mission, the United States and the Soviet 

Union signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty that meant the end of the base’s missile mission. 

The base infrastructure was described as cold and industrial with aboveground steam lines everywhere. 

Base planners decided nearly every building would be demolished and replaced over a period of 10 

years. This offered an opportunity for a comprehensive new look for the base. Beginning in 1988, the 

base’s MILCON increased tenfold to more than $40 million for a decade. On the flightline, all but 

one hangar were torn down and replaced. Roads were straightened to create long thoroughfares and 

new landscaping developed. By 2003, about 99 percent of the facilities on base were new reflecting 

the $700 million spent on the base.432

Overseas Construction

The Air Force began a large construction program in Europe in response to the drawdown of forces 

and consolidation of bases. In USAFE, the drawdown of troops and base closures during the early 

1990s reduced manpower and facilities from the level of the 1980s by approximately one-third. While 

some bases were closed, other bases expanded as activities were consolidated at fewer main bases. In 

Great Britain, the number of air bases was reduced from nine to two major operating bases. Relocation of units to RAF Mildenhall required $30 million in MILCON and Operations and Maintenance 

funds to be expended in an 18-month period. USAFE was able to complete the work through adopting 

design/construct contracts and working closely with local contractors.433

In 1988, the United States and Spain renewed their military agreement with the stipulation that 

U.S. forces at Torrejon AB, near Madrid, would vacate the installation by May 1992. As NATO still 

desired an Air Force presence in the Southern Region of Europe, debate ensued over where to construct 

an air base to accommodate the three squadrons of F-16s which comprised the 401st Tactical Fighter 

Wing (TFW).434 Italy offered three possible sites for the construction of an air base: Lamezia, Oranova, 

and Crotone. All three sites were located in the southern region of Italy.435 After surveys of each area 

were completed, Crotone was chosen as the location for the prospective rebasing of the 401st TFW. 

The preliminary plans for Crotone included “a runway, taxiways, aircraft parking facilities, and over 

175 other facilities for operational, support, and community activities,” as well as “housing, schools, 

a commissary and other facilities for approximately 10,000 personnel and dependents.”436 However, 

complications quickly arose concerning the construction of a new base. Time was a critical issue; the 
464 Leading the Way

estimated completion date of Crotone AB was four to five years after the date when U.S. forces were 

required to leave Torrejon AB. The 401st TFW could either be disbanded or temporarily assigned to 

another base while Crotone was under construction. Congressional leaders vetoed the construction 

project in Crotone, Italy citing the decreasing military budget as just cause. Rep. Patricia Schroeder, 

head of the military construction panel of the House Armed Services Committee, noted, “When we’re 

closing 86 bases in the United States and building a new base in an area where the threat is severely 

lessened, people are asking, ‘What’s going on?’”437 NATO willingly paid the majority of the construction cost out of its infrastructure budget, $887.1 million, and left 27.8 percent of the cost for the United 

States. However, the total cost of leaving Torrejon AB, relocating the units, and constructing housing 

added to the U.S. share for NATO infrastructure amounted to $468 million.438 Congress canceled 

funding for the construction of Crotone AB in 1991.439

On May 4, 1992, the 401st TFW became the host wing at Aviano AB, replacing the 40th Wing. The 

move was meant to be temporary as discussions continued on constructing a new air base for the 401st 

TFW. Conflict in the Balkans in 1993 proved the necessity of keeping the 401st TFW at Aviano AB. 

In November of that year, a memorandum of understanding was signed between the United States and 

Italy for basing two squadrons at Aviano AB.440 Once the permanent status of the 401st was confirmed, 

an evaluation of facilities revealed the need for expansion and renovation at Aviano AB. In January 

1995, an Air Staff team led by Col. John Mogge visited the base and developed a planning document 

titled “Southern Stance.” Maj. Marvin Fisher, a member of the planning team, returned in June 1995 

as the Base Civil Engineer and developed the Aviano 2000 plan which created a base redevelopment 

plan focused on creating eight functional centers on the installation. The base dated to the 1950s 

and was designed for a maximum population of 1,300; the addition of the 401st TFW doubled the 

population at Aviano. Col. Gary LaGassey, the program manager of Aviano 2000, quipped, “We shoe 

horned the unit into a base that couldn’t handle the move.”441 A $535 million, 10-year construction 

project, Aviano 2000 was jointly funded by NATO and the U.S. Air Force, commenced in October 

1995. NATO’s funding of base construction was unprecedented as the majority of the funding went 

towards military support and operations. In 1996, the Italian Air Force ceded an additional 219 acres 

(Zappala training area) to the 950-acre main base. The USAFE Civil Engineering office was the design 

and construction manager of Aviano 2000.442

Part of Aviano Air Base’s $540 million construction on the Aviano 2000 Program.
Responding To New Challenges 465

Aviano 2000 included 85 NATO-funded projects that covered the TFW and several upgrades and 

renovations for quality-of-life projects. The Air Force had 174 upgrade projects and the Italians had 

12 NATO-funded projects. Major Fisher directed the development of a new base design guide that 

included designs featuring terra cotta roofs and paint schemes inspired by the local towns in northern 

Italy understanding the a key element of the base development was to ensure local political leaders 

would approve project designs. Local mayors that were part of the annual project approval process 

known as the Mixed Commission were concerned that future re-integration of the installation may be 

important to the local communities. Construction followed the Smooth Move Process in which every 

facility was to be completely furnished and ready for use within 30-60 days after the completion of 

construction.443 Construction plans for Aviano AB included 530 housing units where previously all 

housing was off-base, new schools, hospital and several recreation facilities.444 One of the goals was 

to ensure that housing was within 30 minutes of the air base.445

USAFE’s infrastructure was in serious need of improvement by the 1990s. The command had a 

high number of temporary facilities, undersized facilities, old buildings (nearly half built before 1960), 

and 10,000 housing units with an average age of 42 years. Because of the uncertainty and downsizing in the basing throughout Europe, virtually no MILCON or military family housing investment 

funding flowed to USAFE in the mid-1990s. By 1997, Gen. Michael E. Ryan, USAFE Commander, 

and then-Col. L. Dean Fox, the USAFE Civil Engineer, developed a plan to “Fix USAFE.” General 

Ryan made it a high priority to regain funding levels USAFE had experienced in the late 1980s. When 

additional funding became available, USAFE made improvements through MILCON, military family 

housing, and quality of life initiatives. O&M funding also lagged behind requirements and was only 

at preventive maintenance levels.446

Other major construction projects during the 1990s occurred at Ramstein AB, Germany. In 1994, 

the two fighter squadrons stationed at Ramstein AB were reassigned to Aviano AB, Italy. Ramstein 

AB was selected to receive the 37th Airlift Squadron, which was transferred from Rhein-Main AB. 

Services at Rhein-Main AB near Frankfurt airport were being reduced to half strength as part of the 

drawdown following the end of the Cold War. The Frankfurt Flughafen was to receive 326 acres of 

Rhein-Main AB and to contribute approximately $62 million in construction funds to support the 

transfer of the airlift mission to Ramstein AB.447

Major construction was required at Ramstein AB to accommodate the heavier aircraft to support 

the strategic airlift mission. The construction program included 14 phased projects in addition to NATO 

and the U.S. Air Force base-funded O&M projects. The primary projects involved reconfiguring the 

runway at Ramstein AB. Runway work including extending and hardening the runway overruns to 

support the larger aircraft, installation of drainage along the runway, reconstructing three taxiways, 

constructing a new parking ramp for eight C-130 aircraft, and upgrading an adjacent taxiway. Two 

maintenance hangars were upgraded and the squadron operations facility was renovated.448

The construction project at Ramstein AB was managed by Headquarters USAFE Civil Engineer 

Directorate and a partnership was formed between the German construction agent and the U.S. Air 

Force civil engineers to facilitate the design, contracting and construction processes. The 86th Civil 

Engineer Group was tasked with “coordinating base requirements during design, coordinating construction with ongoing airfield operations, and inspecting the construction.”449

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Education and training continued to be an area of emphasis for Air Force civil engineers through 

the 1990s. In particular, following Desert Shield/Desert Storm, training and education was tailored 

to satisfy the current needs of the civil engineer community, but also to address the projected requirements for the future. Training exercises and course curricula were assessed, modified, and refined to 

produce an engineering force capable of addressing any challenge. 
466 Leading the Way

Education

AFIT

The Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) continued the pursuit of educational excellence 

through the 1990s. The institute offered two primary avenues to a degree - through civilian institutions 

or through an AFIT resident program. The institute attempted to provide every opportunity for students 

to gain experience through a variety of courses within the School of Civil Engineering and Services. 

To accommodate students unable to schedule time away from their home stations, AFIT offered an 

On-Site Program. Rather than requiring students to travel to an AFIT facility, the program offered 

continuing education through mobile classes and tutorials. Coursework typically spanned two to five 

days. The program was convenient to students, but also saved money on transportation and per diem. 

It also alleviated the load for on-base personnel who otherwise would have to account for duties while 

participants traveled to an AFIT facility. Topics covered by the program included “Engineering Design 

and Programming, Engineering Management, MWRS (Morale, Welfare, Recreation, and Services) 

Management, Environmental Management, and Environmental Restoration Management.”450

In 1993, to address the additional mission of MWR, the School of Civil Engineering and Services 

became the School of Civil Engineering, MWR and Services. The same year, a new $6 million, 54,000 

square-foot building for the school was under construction at the AFIT campus, Wright-Patterson AFB, 

Ohio. The new building allowed the school to relocate from a facility constructed during World War 

II to a modern campus that featured computer labs, hands-on capabilities, and a larger, more efficient 

library system. The new facility featured 15 instruction rooms and an auditorium with a seating capacity 

New Civil Engineering School, AFIT, at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.
Responding To New Challenges 467

of 125. The construction was supervised by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The modern schoolhouse addressed the ongoing needs of AFIT, providing students with a current facility and reflecting 

the growth of programs offered by the school. In addition, the building itself served as a learning tool. 

Glass panels allowed students to observe and study the building’s mechanical systems, and electrical 

engineering students benefitted from the installation of a variety of electrical lighting arrangements to 

analyze. Also, rooftop walkways allowed students easy access to observe the building’s roof systems 

as well as other construction aspects and building mechanics. Col. Steven Mugg, who served as Dean 

of the school during this time remarked that, “quality facilities promote quality education.” 451

The school continued to develop through the 1990s and modified coursework to address shortages 

in certain career paths. The institution also evolved to offer coursework and degrees proportionate in 

scope and intensity to its counterpart, the civilian school. In particular, the Engineering and Environmental Management program lengthened the duration of coursework during the 1990s to correspond 

to non-military educational facilities. The additional length of the program also offered the opportunity 

for instructors to increase the depth of study and allowed students to enhance their thesis work.452

During the 1990s, AFIT continued to address the education and training curriculum to prepare 

students adequately for their eventual roles within the Air Force. The school’s major objective during 

this period was to prepare and graduate “mission ready” students by creating an “initial skills training” 

curriculum. The school intended to require students to complete initial skills training within their first 

six months of active duty. Officers enrolled in the school, completed seven weeks of instruction at the 

Civil Engineer and Services School and eight days of officer field education at the Silver Flag Exercise 

Site. Civilian students in roles comparable to officers, followed a similar curriculum but completed 

only the four weeks of instruction at the school. The course “Management 101, Introduction to the Base 

Civil Engineer Organization” was modified in 1995 to address the “mission ready” objective. The first 

half of the course presented students with a general perception of how civil engineer squadrons and 

flights were organized and what tasks were assigned to them. The second half of the course allowed 

students to apply themselves and consider their future goals; they were asked to divide into the following sessions: readiness, engineering, operations, environmental, or resources. Instructions offered in 

the second half of the course were tailored to provide in-depth information on these individual flights, 

including responsibilities, methods, terminology, and networking.453

The last portion of initial skills training was “ENG 485, Combat Engineering Course.” This fourweek course provided instruction in beddown operations, air base operability, and base recovery after 

attack. This was an important introduction to wartime operations for the new officers. Students also 

proposed strategies for beddown and airfield designs and were required to defend them to the faculty. 

The final component of the course took place at the Silver Flag Exercise Site, at Tyndall AFB, Florida, 

where students participated in officer field education. The field school covered heavy equipment, 

assets, services, fire and air base operability, and command and control. According to Maj. John A. 

Arin, who served as head of the Department of Engineering Management at the school, “leadership 

and familiarization with wartime assets and responsibilities underlie the theme of officer field education—creating civil engineer warriors!”454

At the conclusion of initial skills training, students were granted a CE career field badge. What 

they experienced through training and education during those eight weeks only gave them a glimpse 

of a day in the life of a civil engineer. A range of information was integrated into initial skills training. 

It provided a necessary background for students to understand their future roles as Air Force leaders.455

While modifying coursework to prepare officers as leaders, AFIT personnel also adjusted the 

graduate program to adapt to new programs. In 1991, the Graduate Engineering Management program was renamed Graduate Engineering and Environmental Management (GEEM). As a result of 

the emphasis on environmental, doctoral degrees in the field tremendously increased. A move toward 

environmental work being done by civilians or contractors during the mid-1990s resulted in a slight 

decline in environmental graduate degrees pursued through GEEM, leaving the program unbalanced. 
468 Leading the Way

As a result, civil engineer leaders began a more in-depth look at graduate instruction during the 

mid-1990s.456

Beginning in summer 1995, the GEEM program was expanded from 15 months to 18 months. This 

change was made to accommodate additional courses needed to address career requirements noted in 

the field. The expanded period of coursework also allowed students to focus more time on research. 

The majority of students enrolled in GEEM classes had acquired undergraduate degrees centered on 

technical material. GEEM was viewed as an extension of undergraduate study that allowed students to 

gain skills in management and eventually obtain leadership roles. Curriculum for the GEEM program 

was reviewed annually by the Program Review Committee (PRC). The PRC included representatives 

from each major command, AFCESA, AFCEE, and civil engineer Technical Training Schools. This 

review allowed the program to be specifically tailored toward producing vital personnel for the field 

of civil engineering.457

In 1995, the Graduate Education Subcommittee (GES) was created to concentrate on and to stabilize the curriculum offered by GEEM. In addition to the PRC, the GES assessed GEEM curriculum to 

ensure that the entire program was directly linked to the needs of the civil engineer community. GES 

included six personnel representing the civil engineer career field, an operating base civil engineer, 

as well as instructors and advisors from AFIT. During its first review in 1995, GES identified three 

concerns with the GEEM program: the program needed to reflect better the priority of preparing 

officers for a career field; the program lacked an adequate tracking device for students enrolling and 

graduating necessary to support the needs of the civil engineer career fields; and, the current curriculum 

needed a clearer focus.458

A three-step program was developed to address the issues. The first step identified civil engineer 

responsibilities within the career fields. Step two assessed the role of education in improving an 

officer’s career. The third step combined the results of steps one and two to determine the appropriate curriculum for the graduate program. This process ensured a level of education higher than that 

gained through continued education programs or professional military education programs. The GEEM 

program integrated management and technical training to produce a graduate with the capability to 

pursue and excel at leadership roles.459

The GES assessment and the resulting three-step program to address identified issues changed 

the GEEM curriculum. These changes took effect in 1996. The restructured program included “11 

core courses, plus one selective course; four courses forming a specialty sequence; three electives; 

and 12 hours of thesis research.” Core courses included probability, statistics, engineering management principles, organizational management and behavior, operations management, quality control 

and management, decision analysis, environmental management and policy, environmental system 

engineering, economic analysis, and pollution prevention. Students chose two elective courses, either 

environmental risk analysis and operations research. These two selections allowed students to decide 

between an emphasis on engineering and an emphasis on environmental studies. The four courses that 

made up the “specialty sequence” permitted students to narrow their focus even more. The specialties 

for four of the sequences were, “environmental remediation, air resources management, engineering 

management, and environmental systems analysis and management.” Upon completion, graduates 

received a Master of Science degree.460

Restructuring the GEEM program involved many people from across the Air Force. It was a time 

consuming, but necessary, task. The new curriculum prepared Air Force personnel from the bottom 

up, taking undergraduate students and turning them into leaders. The students entered the program 

with tools developed from various educational backgrounds and experiences; they left with a cache 

of wisdom and management skills. Along the way they gained advanced knowledge as well as confidence. Capt. Karla K. Mika, who completed her Master of Science degree through the GEEM program 

in 1996, remarked, “now, as [my class] scatters to Air Force bases (and one Marine station) around 

the world, committed to putting its education to use, the challenges of the degree begin to pale in 
Responding To New Challenges 469

comparison to the environmental, technical and leadership challenges that lie ahead. Armed with the 

knowledge we gained and the friendships and connections we made, each of us is better prepared to face 

those challenges.” Less than a year after graduation Captain Mika became the Deputy Environmental 

Flight Chief for the 49th Civil Engineer Squadron at Holloman AFB in New Mexico.461

Graduate Educational Opportunities

Graduate degrees specific to the fields of civil engineering and services allowed civil engineer 

professionals to excel within a specific career field. They broadened the knowledge of potential Air 

Force leaders and exposed them to the larger realm of life as an Air Force civil engineer. Graduate degrees also increased opportunities for promotion. Potential students chose either an Air Force 

funded graduate program or an individual program offered through a civilian institution. There were 

advantages and disadvantages to both options. 

The GEEM program at AFIT was the principal graduate school opportunity for civil engineers. The 

program was tailored to provide specialized core curriculum chosen by students from an established 

selection of courses. As graduates, these students would fulfill the requirements designated within a 

particular career path. Air Force funded graduate programs allowed students to gain their degree while 

remaining on active duty, permitting the student to be a full-time pupil focusing on their coursework. 

Being a full-time scholar on campus provided students the opportunity to immerse themselves in an 

atmosphere of peers. At AFIT, students worked alongside civil engineer officers and studied under 

faculty members with a wealth of knowledge in the civil engineer field; this was beneficial from every 

aspect.462

Students who chose to pursue advanced degrees through other institutions could complete their 

studies on their own time. Night school or other scheduling methods allowed students to coordinate 

their full-time on-duty work with their educational pursuits. The Air Force offered an education assistance program to help off-set the cost of tuition. Students who planned their own advanced education 

through other institutions had the benefit of remaining near their home station. This avoided relocation 

and a request for a permanent change of station required by programs such as GEEM.463

Officers could also gain graduate educations through the full-time Air Force sponsored Civilian 

Institutions program. This program was managed by AFIT and was mainly used for technical degrees 

to equip officers with the knowledge necessary for certain aspects of their U.S. Air Force career. 

Structural engineering, power systems, and soils were some of the technical subjects offered through 

the 15-to-18 month degrees. Degrees were also available in construction management and engineer 

management. Enrollment slots and the selection of degrees offered by the Civilian Institutions program 

were determined by the Air Force and fluctuated based on anticipated needs. 464

U.S. Air Force Academy Civil Engineer Program

The U.S. Air Force Academy (USAFA) in Colorado Springs, Colorado, offered undergraduate 

coursework specific to the civil engineer career field. In 1995, the USAFA offered a new course in 

base-level civil engineering, Civil Engineering 351: Construction Practices, Field Engineering. Three 

bases in Florida accommodated training for the course, Hurlburt Field, Eglin, and Tyndall. Instruction 

ranged from construction and maintenance to fire protection and aircraft arresting methods. At Silver 

Flag, cadets participated in a two-week training course and were exposed to combat engineering procedures. After their field training, cadets completed additional weeks of work at the USAFA’s Field 

Engineering and Readiness Laboratory (FERL). At FERL, they completed large projects and utilized 

heavy equipment. The course was provided to cadets prior to their design curriculum. This method of 

“construct first, design later” was intended to reinforce the knowledge and understanding that would 

be gained during later and more sophisticated design lessons.465
470 Leading the Way

Projects at FERL were created by USAFA’s Department of Civil Engineering; instruction was 

provided by ACC, AMC, ANG, and AFRES personnel. One cadet remarked, “I was surprised to learn 

that NCOs, Airmen and civilians supervise scheduling and complete all of the work on the construction 

sites...this course taught me that, as an officer who designs and manages civil engineering projects, 

I’ll need to rely on their skills and experience to get the job done.” The course allowed students to 

learn many new skills and also illustrated the challenges faced by civil engineers to prepare themselves 

and maintain readiness. It also demonstrated the procedures followed for an operation, including 

organization and management.466

The creation of the course was significant, because its purpose was to address deficiencies recognized by accreditation reviews. Organizing the curriculum was merely one step toward increasing 

student proficiency. The USAFA had to measure the success of the “construct first, design later” 

program through years of assessment. Scientists with the Armstrong Laboratory at Brooks AFB in 

Texas joined the Department of Civil Engineering to pinpoint the objectives of the course during the 

early planning stages. Once the curriculum was implemented, Armstrong Laboratory partnered with 

the Department again to determine if the objectives were appropriately achieved. Cadets, as well as 

their mentors, maintained notes on experiences encountered through CE 351. These were analyzed to 

create a tracking record of students.467

The performance of each cadet that participated in the course was traced through the first year of 

active duty. Supervisors were interviewed to assess accomplishments and to compare the performances 

of officers who participated in the course to those who did not. Lt. Col. Randall Brown, an assistant 

professor with the USAFA who oversaw implementation of the curriculum, remarked, “by combining 

feedback from the course participants and their bosses, we will continue to tailor and improve the 

program in an attempt to meet all our customer’s expectations and requirements.”468 The implementation of this meticulous evaluation illustrated the investment involved with training and education. 

Coursework was not merely a task; it was a vital pursuit to prepare future Air Force civil engineers 

for domestic and international duties.

Technical Training 

During fall 1992, Congress ordered Military Service Chiefs to oversee a review of military technical and operation training. The review was assigned to the Inter-Service Training Review Organization 

(ITRO) committee, which comprised representatives from each military service. The ultimate goal 

of the review was to assess avenues to reduce duplicated training and to cut costs. Detailed Analysis 

Groups began assessing civil engineer technical training throughout the military services. The Air 

Force analysis was led by Lt. Col. Scott L. Smith, who was the commander of the 366th Training 

Squadron at Sheppard AFB, Texas. The analysis of training resulted in a plan to merge “fire protection; 

heating, ventilating, air conditioning and refrigeration; electrical; utilities; structures; pavement and 

equipment operations; engineering; and, construction equipment mechanics.” Training in these areas 

would be held at seven installations already equipped with training elements. Beginning in the fall of 

1995, engineering assistants and equipment operators were trained at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri. 

Plumbers were trained at Sheppard AFB, Texas. Electricians were trained at Sheppard AFB; Camp 

LeJuene, North Carolina; and Fort Leonard Wood. Structures (carpenters) were trained at Gulfport, 

Mississippi. Construction mechanics were trained at Port Hueneme, California, and Fort Leonard 

Wood. Technical training for HVAC/refrigeration was held at Sheppard AFB and Aberdeen Proving 

Ground, Maryland.469

Another modification to training was made by Gen. Merrill A. McPeak who designated 1992 as 

the “Year of Training.” His goal was to ensure that enlisted personnel were “mission ready” when 

they reached their first assignment. General McCarthy met with General McPeak during the objective 

civil engineer squadron development to discuss enhanced training for a smaller work force. General 
Responding To New Challenges 471

McCarthy said that it was imperative that the Air Force use some of the manpower savings to fund 

entry-level training for every Airman. He used the example that a new Airman in the air conditioning specialty was only qualified to push the on/off button when responding to a service call. General 

McPeak approved the request and subsequently expanded the initiative to all Airman specialties. As 

a result, all enlisted personnel were required to take technical training. Career Field Education and 

Training Plans (CFETPs) were established to lay out the necessary path for enlisted personnel, including required training as well as training projected to be beneficial in the future. In 1994, Headquarters 

AFCESA gathered subject matter experts to assess the CFETPs through workshops. The workshops 

addressed the Specialty Training Standards necessary for personnel to complete peacetime tasks as 

well as wartime/contingency tasks. Specific “core tasks” were identified to address the necessary 

training to adequately fulfill the duties of a particular specialty. In 1995, the CFETPs were released, 

establishing a career path for each individual civil engineer specialty. The plans directed personnel to 

the training requirements for each specialty, but also addressed the amount of time and effort required 

to get to a specific level within each career. The ultimate goal of implementing the CFETPs was to 

create a workforce trained to the maximum level of readiness.470

Personnel could not continue to a higher level of skill until they had completed each of their 

assigned core tasks, which encouraged supervisors to support training. The initial release of CFETPs 

was criticized by supervisors and commanders who pointed out that some of the identified core tasks 

were not necessary. Adjustments were made through workshops; eventually, the core tasks were 

decreased, creating a more feasible list of requirements. Workshop participants agreed that an annual 

review of CFETPs was necessary to guarantee that the plans worked efficiently and were kept current. 

By 1997, CFETPs were in place for civil engineer officers, civilians, and enlisted personnel.471

Technical schools allowed more specific instruction providing an opportunity for personnel to 

refine the skills necessary to fulfill their responsibilities. Technical training schools combined computer-based instruction with field training to create an integrated curriculum.

363d Technical Training Squadron

Civil Engineering training at Sheppard AFB, Texas, was provided by the 363d Technical Training 

Squadron until 1994 when the 366th Training Squadron, also at Sheppard, picked up the responsibility. Curriculum included four flights: Construction, Electrical, Fuels, and Mechanical. Air National 

Guard, Air Force Reserve and personnel from the active Air Force participated in training offered by 

the squadron. The 363d had a permanent staff of 450 instructors; more than 85 percent of them held 

associate degrees, and some possessed bachelor or masters degrees. Curriculum included in-classroom 

instruction as well as field training. Courses taught by the squadron were determined by assessing 

jobs completed in the field, addressing the needs of real world projects. Personnel from the major 

commands participated in workshops with the 363d to evaluate what courses were needed and what 

level of expertise was required.472

The 363d Technical Training Squadron offered 11 “AFSC-awarding” modules, including: Force 

Management; Pest Management; Management Specialist; Engineering Assistant; Heating, Ventilating, 

Air Conditioning & Refrigeration; Utilities System Specialist; Electrical System Specialist; Electrical 

Power Production; Structural Specialist; Fuels Specialist; Liquid Fuels Systems Maintenance; and, 

Pavement Maintenance & Construction Equipment. The range of courses illustrates the vast amount of 

possible specialties and skills a civil engineer could acquire. In addition, the 363d offered curriculum 

that could be taught at individual bases; this was provided by 12 traveling teams.473
472 Leading the Way

Fire School

Fire protection personnel faced several training changes during the 1990s. The first major change 

occurred in February 1993 when DoD implemented the DoD Fire Fighter Certification System, which 

was an accredited program by the International Fire Service Accreditation Congress. Due to the U.S. 

Air Force’s exemplary training program in firefighting, it became the executive agent for the certification program. Chanute AFB was closed by BRAC on September 1, 1993. The fire school moved to 

Goodfellow AFB, Texas, earlier that same year and classes resumed on August 16, 1993. The first 

classes immediately offered at Goodfellow included: 37-Day Apprentice Firefighter, Rescue Technician, Hazardous Materials Technician, Fire Inspector/Investigator, Firefighter Supervisor. The fire 

school at Goodfellow AFB became the DoD Fire Academy as other services joined the school and 

was renamed the Louis F. Garland Fire Academy in honor of Chief Warrant Officer Garland in 1995.474

EOD Training

In 1999, a new EOD training complex was completed at Eglin AFB, Florida. The Navy EOD 

School at Naval Surface Warfare Center, Indian Head, Maryland, was relocated to Eglin AFB and a 

ribbon cutting ceremony was held on January 1999. The $16.2 million project greatly enlarged the 

facility, as well as merged all EOD training into one location. The complex was named in honor of 

the late Rear Admiral Draper L. Kauffman. Admiral Kauffman was responsible for creating the first 

bomb disposal schools for the U.S. Navy and U.S. Army.475

Readiness Training

While numerous opportunities existed for academic advancement, various programs provided 

hands-on training through field exercises and readiness competitions open to the entire civil engineer 

community. In addition, humanitarian efforts allowed civil engineer forces to apply the skills acquired 

through education and training. 

Silver Flag and Move to Tyndall AFB

Construction of the new training area at Tyndall AFB, Florida, was still underway during the early 

1990s. The new 1,000-acre Silver Flag training site officially opened at Tyndall AFB on August 3, 

1993. In addition to the move, the training functions were reorganized under Air Combat Command 

(ACC). This was part of General McPeak’s restructuring; he wanted training to be the responsibility 

of major commands rather than under the field operating agency. As a result, Detachment 2, AFESC, 

which had been responsible for the site at Eglin AFB, was reassigned as Detachment 1, 823d RED 

HORSE Squadron. Detachment 1 was created to administer Silver Flag training with a stipulation; 

if the United States went to war, the detachment would resume its wartime posture. The Silver Flag 

site served many functions in addition to hosting Readiness Challenges. The officer field education 

program was moved from Eglin AFB to Silver Flag. This program also trained students in MWR and 

Services. Training was also given for beddown and general troop support, including food service and 

mortuary operations.476

In 1992, a Readiness Training Review of Air Force civil engineers revealed the need for enhanced 

training. The new program developed for Silver Flag focused on contingency exercises that coupled 

computer instruction with field training. In addition, the program instituted task certifications. These 

certifications were specifically for Prime BEEF team members that held unique UTC positions. The 

certification process was one example of applying the lessons learned from Desert Shield/Desert

Storm.

477
Responding To New Challenges 473

The lessons learned gathered from Desert Shield/Desert Storm were an asset to addressing future 

training needs. One significant lesson applied to the lack of bare base asset training. Even though civil 

engineer teams proved their flexibility and determination by successfully providing beddown operations during Desert Shield/Desert Storm, it was clear that additional training on bare base assets 

would be indisputably beneficial. The new Silver Flag program curriculum assured major commands 

that training would address this need.478

From August 16 to December 17, 1993, the Silver Flag Exercise Site held courses to assess new 

curriculum. The 823d RED HORSE Civil Engineer Squadron, troops from USAFE and PACAF, and 

readiness personnel from Headquarters AFCESA were involved in field exercises, classroom training, 

equipment assessments, and a variety of courses as part of the evaluation. As a result of the assessment, 

modifications were made to the program’s curriculum. Some courses and exercises were suggested, 

and others were adjusted for topic or time allotment. Additional Global Positioning System (GPS) 

courses were added to the curriculum to train troops to use the devices for airfield damage assessments 

and beddown operations. GPS was a revolutionary tool during this time; it was a resource that allowed 

the civil engineer community to further advance within aerospace technology. GPS devices were also 

used as part of a covert training exercise that combined overland transportation, mapping, and night 

vision. The exercise was planned to simulate activities during Desert Storm. The evaluation of the new 

curriculum at the Silver Flag Exercise Site concluded in December. In closing, Col. Daniel J. Barker, 

who served as director of readiness for Headquarters AFCESA, stated “we extend our congratulations 

to everyone for their contributions to this effort...continued support is required to ensure our Prime 

BEEF personnel are ready to fulfill engineer contingency requirements in support of the AF mission.”479

The timing of the establishment of the new Silver Flag site was fortuitous. The facility was capable 

of accommodating many requirements necessary to equip troops properly with the expertise to face a 

variety of scenarios. This was especially valuable to address the lessons learned during Desert Shield/

Brig. Gen. Michael A. “Mick” McAuliffe officialy opens the new Silver Flag Exercise Site at Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, while Brig. Gen. Clinton V. Horn, 325th Fighter Wing commander (left) and Col. John Fraser, 823d 

RED HORSE Squadron commander hold the ribbon.
474 Leading the Way

Desert Storm. The Silver Flag facility offered a new and improved foundation necessary to build an 

enhanced force that faced new challenges and additional advanced technologies. 

Another lesson learned from Desert Shield/Desert Storm was the need for increased Home Station 

Training. It was considered the first phase of readiness training; training specific to a particular task 

or piece of equipment was phase two. This type of training was available at the Silver Flag training 

site or other Team Training Sites. Opportunities to access equipment that was not always available at 

their home stations allowed engineers to become experienced on machines that they would otherwise 

only encounter during wartime.480

During the mid-1980s, Regional Equipment Operator Training Sites (REOTS) were created to 

address the “high-demand/low density” situation of the Air Force Reserve units and the Air National 

Guard Readiness Center. With Reserve and ANG Prime BEEF and RED HORSE teams dispersed 

across the country, regional sites for contingency training became necessary. It was not feasible for 

every ANG facility to acquire the equipment necessary for training. As a result, the regional training 

site concept was developed. The REOTS program centered on four pieces of equipment essential to 

RRR: the bulldozer, the grader, the excavator, and the front-end loader. The initial goal for the program 

was to “provide expanded proficiency training to the Active force, while the ARF [Air Reserve Forces] 

will use the sites for both introductory and proficiency training.”481

Three training sites were projected as the necessary number to handle needs. Dobbins AFB, Georgia; Nellis AFB, Nevada; and, Fort Indiantown Gap, Pennsylvania, were chosen. It was estimated that 

1,900 students would attend the training annually: 600 active duty and ARF students on a three-year 

rotation, with 1,300 per year. The instruction was considered wartime training, but also enhanced 

peacetime support. The REOTS schools at Nellis AFB and Dobbins AFB held their first class on June 

13, 1988; the facility at Fort Indiantown Gap became operational in October 1989. Each site was 

periodically reviewed for curriculum and operation. Over the next decade, the REOTS program was 

expanded to include additional facilities.482

Foal Eagle Exercises

Foal Eagle exercises were beneficial to civil engineers. Not only did they learn specific skills 

that could be applied in other scenarios, but they also enhanced their deployment capabilities. These 

exercises were an effort to maintain and enhance relationships with the Republic of Korea (ROK).

During Exercise Foal Eagle 91 in Korea, civil engineers from Osan AFB practiced using berming 

and sprayed concrete, known as shotcrete. Work included repairing failing walls and columns. Training 

was completed to improve the skills necessary for rapidly repairing damaged resources. Foal Eagle 

93 was a joint exercise in Korea involving U.S. and ROK military personnel. Approximately 35,000 

troops from the CONUS partook in the exercise. Air Force civil engineers included 28 personnel from 

the 15th CES that deployed in October for 35 days. They trained at Taegu Air Base and maintained 

the base and an airfield. Their primary tasks included addressing urgent issues with plumbing and 

electrical systems and undertaking structural repairs. They also installed AM-2 matting to support an 

alternative entry for the airfield. When the exercise concluded in December, 292 work orders had been 

completed. With the exception of nine work orders, all were completed within a 24-hour timeframe. 

The 15th CES concluded the exercise with enhanced knowledge and confidence.483

In 1997, Foal Eagle exercises returned to Osan AFB. The 54th CES participated, bringing 28 

personnel from Eielson AFB in Alaska. The primary mission of the CES was to support the tent city 

housing military personnel. They maintained 110 tents, provided utility support and repaired resources 

as needed. Foal Eagle 97 allowed the civil engineers to strengthen their beddown capabilities.484

Each Foal Eagle exercise revealed strengths and weaknesses, providing many lessons learned. 

During Foal Eagle 93, for example, one of the primary lessons learned was related to manpower. Prior 

to deployment of the entire team, three people from the 15th CES traveled to Taegu and assessed the 
Responding To New Challenges 475

location along with the specific requirements for the exercise. They determined that their original plan 

to deploy 43 civil engineer personnel was excessive. This allowed them to narrow the team and choose 

personnel based on specific capabilities. As a result, they avoided surplus personnel and also saved 

money. They took advantage of the opportunity to plan ahead and reaped the benefits.485

Exercise Green Flag 95

Exercise Green Flag 95 was a 6-week exercise staged at Nellis Range in Nevada. The objective 

was to perform flying missions within an electronic warfare setting. For the first time, Air Force civil 

engineers were requested to illustrate their competency in supporting camouflage, concealment, and 

deception (CCD) operations. The civil engineers arrived with devices such as camouflage netting, 

smoke generators, and inflatable aircraft and vehicle decoys used to simulate scenarios. Once in 

place, CCD resources were targeted by Air Force aircraft using sensors and human observation. At 

the conclusion of Exercise Green Flag 95, Lt. Col. “Bear” Bradshaw, who managed the exercise, 

stated the “CCD effectively defeated every threat sensor we used during the exercise...therefore every

aircrew should be required to fly against CCD in both practice and training.” This was a significant 

recognition for the civil engineer community, especially considering that the need for enhanced CCD 

capabilities was highlighted during the Gulf War. By gaining rave reviews from their performances at 

Nellis Range, the civil engineers proved their ability to employ advanced technologies and displayed 

their desire to enhance future warfare capabilities.486

Engineer Capstone Exercise 96

In July 1996, the largest deployment of U.S. troops to Cambodia since the Vietnam War occurred 

as part of Engineer Capstone Exercise 96. This joint and combined exercise had the dual role of 

providing humanitarian assistance through the enhancement of medical facilities within the isolated 

regions of the Kingdom of Cambodia. Troops reached the country during the peak of monsoon season. 

Eight Air Force civil engineers participated in the exercise, which included Army Special Forces, 

Navy Seabees, Army Engineers, Army Civil Affairs Personnel, and the Royal Cambodian Air Force. 

The civil engineers constructed support buildings, set up generators, ran electrical lines, and installed 

lighting. Larger projects included digging 320 post holes by hand and building 24-foot long 400-pound 

wood trusses. The civil engineer team was in Cambodia through August.487

They completed their tasks in a timely fashion and, before departing, instructed Royal Cambodian 

Air Force troops how to care for, run, and test generators. The Army Master Sergeant who served as 

deployment senior NCO during the exercise remarked, “it was a real pleasure having the Air Force 

engineers here. There was no messing around. These guys came to work and they did a great job, not 

just at the hospital but in always lending a hand around camp. They made a difference.” Engineer 

Capstone Exercise 96 tested civil engineer ingenuity by placing them in remote areas with unpredictable weather. Civil engineers persevered and followed through with their tasks, learned new methods, 

enhanced their knowledge, and also helped the citizens of the Kingdom of Cambodia. In addition, the 

civil engineers strengthened their deployment capabilities and gained more experience working in a 

joint environment.488

A variety of educational and training options provided civil engineers the opportunity to build 

knowledge and confidence. In addition, these opportunities allowed personnel to experience realistic 

scenarios to prepare them for wartime contingencies. Through educational programs and specific 

training events, personnel gained experience in technical expertise, team building, and practical applications. These lessons provided personnel with a broader range of experience within the civil engineer 

community, but also afforded the opportunity to gain a worldwide perspective of the Air Force.
476 Leading the Way

Readiness Challenges

Readiness Challenges offered participants opportunities to demonstrate their strengths independently and within a team during wartime scenarios and individual timed events. These biennial 

challenges were showcases of technical skills and time management. Although the challenges were 

competitive, they also reinforced an overall team mentality. Readiness Challenges combined engineering and services teams within the Air Force, but also eventually included participants and observers 

from allied nations. This encouraged participants to share knowledge while also allowing the Air Force 

to display their capabilities to a wider audience.

Readiness Challenge IV in 1993 was the last Readiness Challenge held at Eglin AFB. Nearly four 

years had passed since the last challenge due to rescheduling necessitated by Desert Shield/Desert

Storm, Hurricane Andrew, and Typhoon Omar. There were many “firsts” with Readiness Challenge 

IV. Air Force DP and EOD personnel as well as allied forces were included for the first time. This was 

also the first challenge following Desert Shield/Desert Storm.

489

Readiness Challenge IV included military personnel from eight major commands, Reserves, Air 

National Guard, and the USAFA. A team from the Canadian Air Force also participated. Inviting other 

countries to participate and/or observe was beneficial to all involved because it promoted teamwork in 

a combined atmosphere and also allowed techniques and information to be shared. Capt. Jean Morissette, a Canadian public affairs officer, remarked “this competition has a growing international appeal 

that exposes our people to new equipment, techniques and learning environments. It also allows for 

the development of friendships.” One of the Canadian officers received the Maj. Gen. George E. Ellis 

Trophy for his “professionalism, leadership and teamwork.” Readiness Challenge IV included crater 

repair, RRR, BRAAT, force beddown, moveable plane arresting procedures, runway lighting, and 

water purification. The challenge also included the use of Harvest Falcon kitchens and Harvest Bare 

kits. General McCarthy instituted the “Fog of War” event for RC IV because he believed that highly 

scripted and practiced events had led to a beauty contest mentality which did not represent a wartime 

scenario. General McCarthy and Colonel Wayne McDermott devised a close-hold event where teams 

were challenged with a surprise scenario, realism of special operational aircraft, and task saturation. 

This event tested teamwork and leadership under stress. During 1995’s Readiness Challenge V, it was 

announced that the winner of the Readiness Challenge Fog of War event would be given the Maj. 

Gen. James E. McCarthy Readiness Trophy. Participants also learned new skills that diversified their 

capabilities in real-world situations.490 The Air Force Materiel Command team took home the Meredith 

Trophy as the overall winner for RC IV.

Readiness Challenge V was held in April 1995; it was the first Readiness Challenge to take place 

at the new Silver Flag site at Tyndall AFB. It was a Total Force operation that included 12 teams representing each major command, the U.S. Air Force Academy, plus a team from the Canadian Air Force. 

Events included construction associated with beddown operations, the creation of mobile kitchens, and 

fire and rescue challenges. There were 21 total events; one in particular, the Fog of War, illustrated the 

realities of deployment. According to General Lupia, “the Fog of War gives the feel of a real-world 

experience that shows what a unit will need to accomplish once they get to a deployed location.” For 

some participants, this was their first experience with such a scenario. Public Affairs personnel, who 

had provided media coverage for previous challenges, competed in the Fog of War for the first time 

during Readiness Challenge V. The event featured several situations, testing the logistical capabilities 

of teams within a set timeframe. Bare base assets were used to recreate an actual bed down of forces 

with a full complement of resources including electricity, food services, laundry, and billeting. The 

challenge also required the bare base operation to accommodate a landing helicopter. The Fog of War 

tested each team’s abilities, while also illustrating the importance of working together.491

Some Prime RIBS teams provided services for the personnel of Readiness Challenge V; others, 

representing each major command, competed in challenges. SSgt. James Mitchell, who participated 
Responding To New Challenges 477

in the challenge, remarked, “we came here together as a team. This wasn’t about services or civil 

engineering...in this instance, the combined effort has made mission accomplishment an awesome 

experience. We don’t worry about crossing some imaginary line. It’s a team effort.” Providing support 

services for the challenge allowed Prime RIBS teams to submerge themselves in the larger realm of 

a wartime scenario. This was particularly important for personnel who had trained for such an event, 

but had never actually experienced it. General Lupia remarked “this is an important event for the 

youngsters who need an understanding of the mission’s mobility role.” Readiness Challenge V, like 

its predecessors, presented an unparalleled opportunity for participants to take part in a large Total 

Force endeavor. It reinforced the importance of training, teamwork, and perseverance. Surprisingly, 

the U.S. Air Force Academy team was the overall winner for RC V. In previous years, the Academy 

team had been near the bottom of the pack. 492

When planning began for Readiness Challenge VI, several nations were invited to participate or 

observe. Canada participated once again, along with a British Royal Engineer team. Observers from 

Germany, Japan, Italy, and Turkey also attended. Readiness Challenge VI was held in April and May 

1997. It was the largest Readiness Challenge to-date, with 14 teams participating. Air Force Chaplain 

Services also took part in the challenge and were given the task of establishing a Chaplain Services 

Program. They were required to evaluate the religious requirements of the unit. This evaluation was 

then used to create and execute a program to address those requirements. Once again, Prime RIBS 

participated in the challenge.493

Some activities at Readiness Challenge VI were termed “superbowl events,” with teams competing 

against each other simultaneously. These included the TEMPER (Tent Extendable Modular, Personnel) Tent with Heater; Hard-Back Tent Construction; Access and Recovery of Buried UXO; General 

Purpose Tent; and Camouflage, Concealment and Deception. The atmosphere of each challenge was 

tense, yet exciting. Team members cheered for their peers and the fast-paced environment was exhilarating. There were 25 events total, many of which illustrated the inventiveness that grew out of the 

accumulated experiences of previous Readiness Challenges.494

The competitors charge off the starting line for the General Purpose Tent event at Readiness Challenge V, 

1995.
478 Leading the Way

Similar to Readiness Challenge V, the Fog of War event during Readiness Challenge VI stole 

the show as the most impressive realistic scenario and the most mentally and physically challenging 

assignment. A fictitious air base, government name, and mission were designated. Teams were required 

to complete beddown operations in support of the mission; they also had to accommodate the landing 

of a C-130. Competitors were judged not only on time, but also on safety techniques and methods. In 

closing, General Lupia congratulated Team PACAF as the winner of Readiness Challenge VI. General 

Lupia clarified that with representatives from multiple nations, the “ultimate winner is the Free World...

our world today demands countries work in cooperation. We must be prepared not only for combat 

in wartime but also for any number of military operations other than war. We will serve side-by-side 

and together we will triumph.”495

Readiness Challenge VII was planned for April and May 1999. Twelve Air Force teams were slated 

to participate, along with representatives from Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, Norway, and 

Japan. The challenge was postponed as a result of the crisis in Kosovo; however, the UK team chose to 

complete their trip to Florida. At Silver Flag they competed against each other, holding several events 

incorporating an “obstacle course, pallet build-up, ventilation and fire rescue, CCD, and TEMPER 

Tent construction.” They viewed the experience as vital to their training objective.496

Readiness Challenges provided an abundance of skill-building and team-building experiences. 

The competitions also provided significant exposure for the combat support mission. The events were 

routinely observed by senior leaders, who were able to witness the accomplishments and dedication 

of civil engineers and services personnel. In a 1998 interview, Col. Frank J. Destadio, who served as 

the PACAF Civil Engineer, explained that Readiness Challenges grant “civil engineering individuals 

an opportunity to focus on their wartime skills and develop the techniques they need to accomplish 

wartime tasks. It also stimulates creativity.” Participants gained proficiency, experienced new scenarios and tactics, and built confidence. They also garnered a strong appreciation for the importance 

of teamwork and team support. The challenges were physically and mentally demanding, providing 

a variety of realistic scenarios. They were a vital part of training within the engineering and services 

community; they also were crucial for maintaining relationships with allied forces. General Lupia 

summed up this importance following Readiness Challenge VI, “from this competition we all take 

home the knowledge that our forces and those of our allies have the organic capability to support the 

people, the weapons systems, the operations and the deployments that will keep our world and way 

of life safe.”497

Perhaps the most noteworthy indication of the real value of Readiness Challenge occurred in 1990. 

In late July, Tactical Air Command was holding its internal competition at Hurlburt Field, Florida, to 

determine which base would represent the command in the overall Readiness Challenge competition. 

Brig. Gen. Michael A. “Mick” McAuliffe, the TAC director of Engineering and Services recounted 

what happened:

We were down doing Readiness Challenge; we were preparing to find out which TAC 

team was going to go whip up on the rest of the Air Force at the Air Force Readiness 

Challenge when the bell rang. We literally sent people home from the TAC Readiness Challenge to suit up and go over there [for Desert Shield/Desert Storm]. They 

simply pulled off the line of the competition, went home, took their tool boxes, got 

on a C-141, and went to war. We simply did it.498

Engineering and Services personnel who were practicing their wartime skills for a competition soon 

had the opportunity to demonstrate them in a real-world environment.
Responding To New Challenges 479

DEPLOYMENTS

Introduction

During the 1990s, the United States participated in a variety of multilateral operations that involved 

joint actions among the U.S. Armed Forces and combined operations with forces from other nations. 

Presidents George H.W. Bush and William Clinton worked with other nations through the United 

Nations (UN) and NATO to build coalitions to support military actions. Air Force civil engineers 

served on joint task forces that involved all U.S. services in combat, humanitarian, and civic action 

deployments. In combat zones, Air Force civil engineers were likely to bed down joint service teams, 

as well as teams manned by Air Force personnel. In humanitarian deployments for training situations, 

Air Force civil engineers worked alongside members from other U.S. services to set up joint task forces 

and to execute missions. Greater numbers of deployments in both combat and humanitarian situations 

involved teams with active duty, Reserve, and ANG civil engineer personnel working side-by-side to 

accomplish the mission.

The 1990s began with U.S. Air Force participation in Desert Shield/Desert Storm, a war that 

required large-scale, combat operations. With the end of the Cold War, the dissolution of the U.S.S.R., 

and the freeing of Kuwait, most people expected a decline in military action for the rest of the decade. 

The term “peace dividend” was used to describe the expectation for a smaller, less active U.S. military. 

However, the decade of the 1990s was anything but quiet for Air Force civil engineers as they found 

themselves involved in several military operations in Bosnia, Somalia, and Kosovo, while continuing 

operations over northern and southern Iraq. 

A new reality for Air Force civil engineers was an increasing number of deployments, or increased 

operations tempo. Between 1949 and 1989, seven peacekeeping operations were fielded by the UN. 

In 1994 alone, the number of deployments for U.S. troops rose to 17. These deployments included 

peacekeeping operations, humanitarian missions, drug enforcement efforts, and disaster relief.499

Deployments surged during short-term combat situations, while peacekeeping operations often required 

long-term commitments that necessitated frequent rotations of military personnel. The increasing 

number and length of deployments put stress on deployed personnel and their families. Non-deployed 

military personnel and civilians also faced challenges in maintaining work flow at the home bases. 

By 1996, ACC reported that the number of deployed military civil engineers averaged 500-600 at any 

one time throughout the year. The ACC commander believed that extensive deployments overtaxed 

civil engineer personnel and established the goal that deployments for temporary duty assignments 

be limited to 120 days in a 12-month period. ACC Civil Engineer Brig. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II 

was tasked to review civil engineer deployments to meet that goal and to ensure that work was spread 

evenly among all personnel in all wings and the two RED HORSE units within the command. Deployments longer than 120 days in 12 months impacted the deployed individual, his or her family, and the 

civilian colleagues left behind to cope with an extra work load on the home base.500

At the end of the decade, joint cooperation among the U.S. services was crucial to the performance 

of the military. Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, who became The Air Force Civil Engineer in July 

1999, praised the gains made in inter-service cooperation through consolidating training programs, 

standardizing equipment and operating techniques, and standardizing design and construction technical criteria.501

Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm

On August 2, 1990, Iraqi armed forces under the command of Saddam Hussein swept into Kuwait 

and seized Kuwait City. Iraq’s troops continued southward to position themselves on the Saudi Arabian 

border. Iraq announced the annexation of Kuwait on August 8, 1990. Fearing that Iraq had designs on 

the oil fields of Saudi Arabia, as well as those in Kuwait, U.S. President George H.W. Bush denounced 
480 Leading the Way

the Iraqi attack as “naked aggression.” On August 4, 1990, Gen. H. Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., and 

Lt. Gen. Charles A. Horner, Commander, U.S. Air Forces Central Command (USCENTAF) briefed 

President Bush and his top advisors on a plan to send enough air power into Saudi Arabia to deter 

Saddam Hussein and to allow time for the U.S. Army to deploy 250,000 troops. The operation was 

named Desert Shield. On August 6, 1990, the king of Saudi Arabia met with senior U.S. officials and 

agreed to accept foreign military troops deployed to protect his country. U.S. Air Force aircraft began 

deploying to the region, including F-15s from Langley AFB, Virginia, and B-52s.502

Meanwhile President Bush sought to form an international coalition of nations to deal with the 

crisis to avoid the appearance of the United States acting unilaterally or a group of non-Arab countries 

fighting against a single Arab state. He worked with the UN to obtain Security Council resolutions 

that condemned Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait and then imposed sanctions and embargoes against Iraq. 

President Bush was able to build an alliance against Iraq comprising 38 countries, including the 

U.S.S.R. and several Arab states. On November 29, 1990, the UN authorized “all means necessary” 

to restore international order if Iraqi forces did not leave Kuwait by January 15, 1991.503 On January 12, 1991, the U.S. Congress voted by a slim margin to authorize the use of U.S. forces to drive 

Iraq out of Kuwait. While the political support was being marshaled, the physical build-up of forces 

continued. By January 15, the U.S. Air Force had 1,133 aircraft in place. The U.S. Navy and coalition 

forces contributed 1,481 aircraft to the effort. The Air Force military airlift had transported 500,000 

personnel and over 3.7 million tons of dry cargo to the area.504

On January 17, 1991, Operation Desert Storm began when Special Operations helicopters, stealth 

fighters, and cruise missiles conducted airstrikes in Iraq. The initial assault tore a wide hole in the Iraqi 

air defenses, allowing a strike force of 650 coalition aircraft in to destroy selected targets. Air strikes 

continued throughout January 1991, lasting 41 days; the air-land-sea battle, lasting 100 hours, began 

in February. By February 28, 1991, the ground war was over.505

Although members of the USCENTAF staff deployed with the initial deployment to Saudi Arabia, 

Brig. Gen. Michael “Mick” McAuliffe recognized that they needed a colonel to head up the office and 

he immediately thought of Col. Karsten H. Rothenberg. He recalled, 

I knew that I needed a colonel in the game. I needed to have the raw power and I called 

Colonel Bob Courter, AFLC/DE, because Bob owns him [Colonel Rothenberg]. I said, 

“Bob, he’s the guy for the job.” We negotiated and I said, “I could send one of my 

guys. Wayne McDermott is certainly every bit as capable as a warrior. But Karsten 

has been over there many times and understands the culture. I think he would be the 

guy for the job.” We agreed upon that and I remember talking to Maj. Gen. [Joseph 

A.] Ahearn and Brig. Gen. [James E.] McCarthy, telling them that Karsten was the 

guy for the job and that there was a consensus within the hierarchy of Engineering 

and Services. I went to the Battle Staff and talked to Maj. Gen. Mike Ryan, who was 

the USCENTAF/Rear Battle Staff director, and said, “I need to get a colonel in the 

game. I need to have you send a note over there to General Horner telling him that 

we want to send a colonel as DE.” He did this via the telephone. He said, “You’re 

cleared to do that.”506

In this position, Colonel Rothenberg oversaw all the beddown operations that occurred in the 

area of responsibility (AOR). Colonel Rothenberg’s 18-person staff was selected from the existing 

USCENTAF Engineering and Services Directorate (USCENTAF/DE) at Shaw AFB, South Carolina, 

and augmented by Airmen from several Air Force major commands. This group worked around the 

clock to “plan and coordinate the distribution, installation and maintenance of more than $400 million 

in bare base assets pre-positioned in the AOR; initiate $100 million in billeting, food services, and 

laundry contracts, and to provide beddown, food, laundry, and fire protection.”507
Responding To New Challenges 481

USCENTAF/DE Forward was supported by USCENTAF/DE Rear, which was headed by Col. 

Wayne McDermott, and located at Headquarters TAC, Langley AFB, Virginia. The role of USCENTAF/DE Rear was to allocate Engineering and Services personnel to the AOR, to identify specific 

equipment needs and training requirements, and to coordinate specific assignments in the CONUS to 

support the war effort.508 General McAuliffe tasked AFESC to support TAC and USCENTAF/DE Rear. 

AFESC was assigned resource management and integration functions.509 AFESC worked closely with 

CENTAF and TAC at Langley AFB, and regularly attended meetings and briefings. AFESC also purchased computer equipment to link USCENTAF/DE Forward and Rear, Headquarters TAC, AFESC, 

and the Air Staff. This computer system provided instant access to information to monitor the status of 

beddown and air base construction at each forward location. Information collected through this system 

allowed AFESC personnel to respond to problems quickly and to anticipate future requirements.510

At Tyndall AFB, Florida, Lt. Col. John W. Mogge, Jr., Chief, Readiness Policy division, directed 

sixty AFESC personnel dedicated full time to Desert Shield/Desert Storm.

511 Colonel Nay also 

established a multi-functional division in the Readiness Directorate. The new division comprised seven 

teams that pulled support from other organizations, as needed. The Engineering and Services Center 

Readiness Center operated around the clock, seven days a week. Readiness Center staff was augmented 

with fire, pavement, services, CEMIRT, mortuary, and equipment specialists.512 AFESC’s main task 

was to integrate Prime BEEF, Prime RIBS, and RED HORSE operations, to help ensure that they 

were mobilized and dispatched, and that they were trained and ready.513 Other assignments included:

• Dispatching Center personnel for temporary duty;

• Coordinating requirements for deploying Engineering and Services units;

• Reallocating both active and reserve forces to backfill critical jobs at 

 air bases which have launched their forces for overseas;

• Designing and conducting special training classes for deploying teams 

 at Det. 2, AFESC, Eglin AFB, Florida; and, 

• Satisfying technical and logistical requirements being experienced in the theater.514

AFESC created an acquisition cell to identify off-the-shelf solutions for problems encountered at 

deployment locations. One problem solved by the acquisition cell was locating the appropriate tool 

to shape straight metal structural elements into arched supports to construct aircraft and equipment 

shelters, known as K-Span structures.515 The cell also responded to a requirement for an early warning 

and alert system at Desert Shield sites. Within 35 days, the members designed, procured, tested, and 

delivered “Giant Voice” systems to bases in the AOR. Other equipment purchased for the war effort 

included an expedient airfield marking capability, self-help laundry systems, ice machines, and benchstyle mixers.516 In response to an urgent field request for improved kitchen equipment, the acquisition 

group identified the requirements, prepared a request for proposal, and procured a new mobile kitchen 

unit.517 The Operations and Maintenance Directorate provided data regarding potable water, wastewater 

treatment, and airfield pavements and soils to support teams constructing and maintaining bases and 

airfields. The CEMIRT team provided logistical support, both in the field and CONUS, on electrical 

and air-conditioning system maintenance and the construction of power distribution systems. AFESC’s 

traveling teams were available on an as-needed basis to provide field support.518 One team deployed to 

Saudi Arabia with folded fiberglass mats and equipment to train airfield recovery teams on procedures 

for patching runway craters using the new materials. Fiberglass folded mats had just been accepted 

for operational use by TAC.519
482 Leading the Way

Civil Engineers Deployed in the Gulf War

In our peacetime roles, we are developers, operators, maintainers and firefighters, food 

providers, billeting specialists and innkeepers, family housing landlords, morticians, 

and protectors of the environment. Today, we are warriors.

-Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn, September 1990520

The main mission of Air Force civil engineers sent overseas for the Gulf War was to bed down personnel and airplanes, and then operate and maintain those bases. They worked in diverse environments 

and supported projects that required a variety of skill levels. Duties ranged from general maintenance 

and management to heavy construction. Locations ran the gamut from established airfields with modern 

structures, to underdeveloped sites with limited resources. The Air Force established 19 bases during 

its initial set-up overseas: five in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), one in Egypt, one in Qatar, three in 

Oman, one in Bahrain, one in Diego Garcia, and seven in Saudi Arabia.521 President Bush authorized 

supplementary troops in the Gulf during November 1990. As a result, civil engineers entered a period 

termed Phase II, which incorporated the continued build-up of sites. The Air Force also required two 

new sites in Saudi Arabia during this period, King Khalid Military City (KKMC) and Al Kharj.522

Prime BEEF teams generally deployed for the Gulf War in groups of 50 or 100. Firefighters 

typically deployed in teams of 12, 24, or 48. Prime RIBS personnel usually were sent in groups of 9, 

18, or 25. (Other specialties such as Contracting and Finance specialists, deployed with Prime BEEF 

teams to assist with force beddown activities.)523 ANG and Reserve personnel also were mobilized to 

support operations overseas. In addition, over 1,148 ANG, 867 Reserve, and 301 Individual Mobilization Augmentees (IMA) were mobilized to backfill deployed civil engineer positions.524 General 

Lupia, then Deputy Chief of Staff for Engineering and Services at Headquarters AMC, stated that 

ANG and Reserve personnel formed an important and integral part of AMC’s operations. Active duty 

civil engineers in AMC numbered 3,200 personnel, while ANG and Reserve civil engineer personnel numbered 7,500, forming 77 percent of a Total Force of 10,700 people. ANG and Reserve civil 

engineers served alongside active duty personnel on all missions.525

Ideally, teams were deployed to destinations along with their aircraft unit, but were adjusted for 

size depending on what type of support was needed; however, realistically, there were many unknowns. 

In many instances, host nations did not provide base mapping, making the coordination of troops, 

materials, and machinery particularly challenging.526 RED HORSE units remained under the direct 

command of General Horner and USCENTAF/DE Forward assigned specific tasks as needed.

Another difficulty with deploying troops was the constantly evolving process of assessing the 

resources necessary to support a particular need and organizing those resources efficiently and effectively. In 1989, USCENTCOM began development of an Operations Plan (OPlan) that specifically 

addressed the potential for an Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. The resulting exercise, Internal Look 90, 

began in July less than a month prior to Iraq’s actual invasion of Kuwait. It was a joint exercise that 

took place at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, and Hurlburt Field, Florida.527 One necessity discussed as 

part of the OPlan and Internal Look 90 was the creation of a specific planning mechanism to allow 

the Air Force to precisely pinpoint the number of troops needed to support a particular site. Capt. 

Wayland H. Patterson, who served as Chief of the Exercise Branch for the USCENTAF Directorate of 

Engineering and Services, described the following ideal scenario: once a site was determined, “using 

the War Mobilization Plan, you look up so many of a certain type of aircraft and it tells you how many 

maintenance people, etc. that go with an aircraft package. So now you have a beginning site population.” 

This formula for planning was ideal, but when Desert Shield/Desert Storm began, the mechanism was 

only a discussed concept. According to Captain Patterson, “there was no mix of aircraft, or where they 

needed to go, population or any of that stuff. It was only a theory. So it was a little rough going.”528 This 

does not mean that the Air Force and armed forces in general were not prepared. 
Responding To New Challenges 483

Instruments were in place for organizing deployments, but the scope was astounding. The Gulf War 

necessitated the biggest deployment in United States history within a six-month period. Prime BEEF 

teams began arriving in theater on August 8 with the early teams going to Riyadh AB (from Langley 

and Offutt AFBs) and Dhahran AB (from Langley AFB), Saudi Arabia; Thumrait AB (from Seymour 

Johnson AFB), Oman; and Al Dhafra AB (from Shaw AFB), UAE. Lt. Col. David J. Ruschmann, who 

was involved with the early stages of Desert Shield from the TAC Readiness perspective, clarified 

what the media during Gulf War glossed over.529

One overall perception that has been left by the media, and has even slipped through 

in printed interviews of some of our military personnel, is that support for Desert

Shield was conducted as a no plan operation for deployment support. This is not 

true...the Air Force’s SWA OPlan was a dynamic, updated plan, and had the basic 

requirements in sufficient detail, was well developed for pre-positioned assets, and 

considered the long resupply lines and lift shortages. It was a good starting baseline 

for execution planning.530

Colonel Ruschmann recognized the evolutionary nature of planning in an accelerated environment, 

stating that “there are lessons being learned that will affect not only the Air Force structure well beyond 

this decade, but also the overall structure of the armed forces.”531

Even with plans in place, the U.S. military faced two major issues: the distance between CONUS 

and SWA necessitated heavy reliance on host nation support and the shortage of pre-positioned assets 

meant a heavy reliance on transportation and logistics. Internal Look 90 was clearly a beneficial and 

timely exercise. It illustrated the key and immediate needs required to face the impending war. One 

crucial realization was that, in order to gain a vital upfront lead, the U.S. military had to put forward 

a strong visible force. Although ideal deployments were phased to allow major preparations and beddown prior to the arrival of aircraft and their crews, the Air Force had no choice but to deploy fighter 

aircraft as quickly as possible. The initial hustle to deploy was understandably chaotic; decisions 

had to be made quickly and expectations often dominated judgment. Once airlifts began, engineers 

were frequently left behind to make room for other provisions. As Colonel Ruschmann observed, 

planes were frequently overloaded with equipment and supplies and therefore could not accommodate 

Engineering and Services personnel. This delay required deployed troops to fend for themselves for 

accommodations and sustainment or depend upon their host nation. U.S. Air Force Engineering and 

Services personnel often had no alternative but to arrive afterward and make up for lost time.532

Air Force civil engineers deployed to sites to perform beddown, often with few resources. During 

Desert Shield, Harvest Falcon kits were first used for contingency operations.533 Harvest Falcon kits 

comprised one housekeeping set, one industrial operations set, and one initial flightline set to accommodate 1,100 personnel and one aircraft squadron. Ideally, during constructing of a bare base, the 

housekeeping set was the first component on the scene. Facilities for shelter, food, and hygiene were 

assembled using TEMPER tents. Utilities were connected as each facility was completed.534 The next 

set to arrive at the bare base was the industrial operations set that contained additional TEMPER tents, 

hard wall shelters and expandable shelter containers. This phase of construction produced the structures to house civil engineer shops, vehicle maintenance, administration, and chaplain services. The 

next phase involved the construction of the initial flightline set. This set supplied structures to house 

maintenance, operational support, and utilities for one aircraft squadron.535 As the bare base grew in 

size, additional sets were required to provide adequate support for personnel and equipment. Construction at a bare base was staged to support and launch aircraft within 72 hours after arrival at the site.536

Capt. Marvin N. Fisher was Chief of Operations for the 363d CES at Shaw AFB in South Carolina 

when Kuwait was invaded. As part of the 363d Tactical Fighter Wing assigned to SWA, Captain Fisher 

had no doubts that his troops soon would be deployed. Although initial communications indicated his 
484 Leading the Way

troops were destined for Dhahran on the eastern coast of Saudi Arabia, the Prime BEEF team he led 

was sent to Al Dhafra AB, UAE.537 His account of the initial beddown of troops overseas conveys the 

reality of military operations: 

This was the first time U.S. Air Force personnel had been in the UAE for any extended 

period...they were very possessive of what they were going to allow us to do and 

what we were allowed to use in the initial stages. They basically said, “Here’s the 

caravan area and you can put your tents here.” They didn’t allow us to survey the land 

and pick the best site, like the book says you are supposed to do. They said, “Here is 

where you put your camp,” end of discussion. Being an accommodating guest, we 

said, “Thank you,” and proceeded to plan from there.538

Captain Fisher’s Prime BEEF team was the largest single Prime BEEF team involved in the Gulf War, 

with 176 personnel. Its initial mission was to create a “city” to accommodate the 363d Tactical Fighter 

Wing. Captain Fisher explained the setup of Al Dhafra, 

Basically, we went out to see where the runways were and the direction of the prevailing winds. You want to put your showers and latrines and generators on the downwind 

side...I took out a piece of paper and mapped out the general layout [for the site 

developers].... We had used the wagon wheel method before and knew that we needed 

blocks of 200 x 100 feet for each billeting wheel, as we called them. They just basically went out and laid out the blocks. From there we put up tents and adjusted them 

as we went along. Once the equipment arrived, the first priorities included setting 

up tents and latrines for personnel. Each wagon wheel was set up with 12 tents to a 

wheel. A single 100 kW generator on one SDC [secondary distribution center] supported 12 tents with air conditioning. Additional wheels were added as a “building 

block system.” 539

Fortunately, the Shaw unit had been on two previous deployments into Oman and was familiar with 

the Harvest Falcon equipment and how to set up a base camp quickly. The wagon wheel design offered 

more camouflage for the base, as Captain Fisher explained, “until you are pretty much on top of it, 

you couldn’t see it.”540

Troops at Al Dhafra worked in shifts to speed construction and to avoid the severe heat. Transportation to and from the flightline where materials were delivered was limited. Supply delivery was further 

complicated by the fact that no engineers were available to assist on the shipping end. As a result, 

many items arrived out of sequence slowing down the construction process. The civil engineers also 

installed the air base infrastructure, including underground cables to accommodate the large generators 

and water lines to supply kitchens, restrooms, laundry facilities, and a hospital. In addition, the civil 

engineers were responsible for redirecting roads and supporting the maintenance of planes, including 

the construction of trim pads and barriers.541 Engineers at Al Dhafra additionally fenced in the area and 

constructed a “moat” that encircled the entire camp.542 Al Dhafra became the ammunition depot for 

most of the munitions in the UAE. Engineers built approximately 64 berms for ammunition storage. 543

In addition to beddown restrictions put in place by host nations, other deviations from an ideal 

scenario included the separation of established teams and the last minute formation of new teams. When 

teams were created from varying groups, some leaders reacted differently than others. Some leaders 

viewed the separation of troops as damaging to the teamwork mentality, while others thought it was 

a good way to expand knowledge and encourage new camaraderie. Lt. Col. Rodney Hunt, who had 

just arrived at the 820th RED HORSE Squadron, was selected to lead the Prime BEEF team formed 

from the 99th CES at Nellis AFB because of his deployment experience. His team of personnel was 
Responding To New Challenges 485

initially deployed to Khamis Mushait Air Base, Saudi Arabia. Colonel Hunt immediately assessed 

the area and determined that his workforce was better utilized elsewhere. Within days, he relocated 

to Doha, Qatar, to assess the potential greater need for his team of engineers.544 Two days after his 

arrival in Doha, Colonel Hunt was joined by a group of engineers from Spangdahlem AB, Germany. 

“Boom, they just showed up—a captain, a senior master sergeant, a couple of masters and 35 guys. I 

said, ‘Well, why are they sending you? I’ve got 95 engineers sitting at Khamis.’” Eventually, Colonel 

Hunt combined portions of his Prime BEEF team with the engineers from Spangdahlem AB. Some 

commanders saw this as a potential threat to unit integrity, but the troops worked well together and 

eventually formed their own team. Last minute changes in location and assignments such as this one 

were common, especially during the early deployment period.545

In addition to inevitable changes and relocations, the troops were also dealing with relatively 

unknown bare base assets. Most civil engineers lacked the necessary training and were at a loss as how 

to construct and use the equipment. Recent pre-deployment training, especially in regards to bare base 

assets, proved to be an advantage to deployed Air Force civil engineers. Engineers from the 4449th 

MOBSS also were deployed to SWA to assist in setting up the kits, fixing equipment, and training 

other personnel on the Harvest Falcon kits.546

The RED HORSE ADVON (advance echelon) teams (RH-1) were particularly effective for initial 

assessments during the early deployment period. In August 1990, the 17-person ADVON team of the 

823d RED HORSE Squadron deployed to Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Arriving in September, the team 

assessed the area for an appropriate site for RED HORSE headquarters. The Saudi Arabian government 

suggested a beddown site, Eskan Village near Riyadh in central Saudi Arabia. The 7319th RED HORSE 

An aerial view of the Air Force compound at Al Dhafra AB, UAE. Note the “363 CES” near the bottom of the 

photo, telling everyone the civil engineers deployed from Shaw AFB, South Carolina, built the tent city.
486 Leading the Way

Civil Engineering Flight stationed at Aviano Air Base in Italy provided assistance by transferring equipment to Saudi Arabia for use by RED HORSE. The 823d RH-2 team arrived in October and was soon 

followed by the 823d RH-3 team and the 820th RED HORSE RH-1 and RH-2 teams in November 

1990.547 The 820th RED HORSE Squadron deployed 109 personnel to Saudi Arabia in November.548

RED HORSE squadrons were created following a manpower requirement of 400 personnel per 

squadron. Each squadron contained three echelons, RH-1, RH-2, and RH-3. The three designations 

carried different UTCs and corresponding missions established by Headquarters AFESC through 

the major commands.549

RH-1 was an advanced echelon (ADVON) with 16 personnel. Their primary missions included 

advanced airfield analysis, bed down, and collection of data necessary to predict and support 

future echelons. RH-1 echelons were capable of deploying from the CONUS within 16 hours’ 

notice and could remain self-sufficient for five days. They required 4 vehicles and 12 short tons 

of equipment. Personnel and equipment could be transported within one C-141 or two C-130s.550

RH-2 was a light construction echelon with 94 personnel. Principal missions included site 

preparations and improvements necessary for beddown, construction of temporary facilities, RRR, 

renovation or demolition of resources, installation of aircraft arresting barriers, and establishment 

of water wells. They also supplied preliminary civil engineering support to other deployed troops, 

with the exception of firefighter operations. RH-2 echelons deployed within 48 hours of notification 

and required 58 vehicles and 455 short tons of equipment. They were transported by a C-141 or 

a C-130; when necessary, additional equipment was transported by a C-5. RH-2 echelons could 

remain self-sufficient for 60 days if they had access to necessary replenishments.551

 continued

RED HORSE Echelons

A view of the Air Force tent city at Doha, Qatar.
Responding To New Challenges 487

Eskan Village was a complex of buildings originally constructed a few years earlier by the government of Saudi Arabia for Bedouins, who never used the facility. In an effort to remove U.S. troops 

from public visibility, the Saudi Arabian government encouraged them to relocate from hotels in 

Riyadh to Eskan Village on the outskirts of town. The village featured new facilities but, as a result 

of its lack of use, essentials such as pipes did not function. Civil engineers repaired and cleaned the 

area and readied it for troop housing. The Air Force operated field kitchens to support its troops, as 

well as approximately 10,000 Army personnel stationed at the complex.553

Encouraging a “we” approach was necessary and beneficial, especially for commanders. The 

820th, 823d, and 7319th RED HORSE worked together, completing $14.7 million worth of projects 

during Desert Shield/Desert Storm. Col. Thomas F. Wilson, who served as commander of these 

Airmen, commented on the hard-working RED HORSE personnel, “if you’ve never been in a RED 

HORSE unit, the thing you find out right away is these people can outwork anybody. They can work 

longer, harder, and better than anybody I’ve seen. Anywhere.” His assessment of the amount of work 

accomplished during Desert Shield and Desert Storm was that it “represents about three years’ 

worth of work in four months.” Colonel Wilson stressed the importance of teamwork and encouraged 

his personnel to look beyond their numbered units, “we’re all RED HORSE,...we’re really not one 

numbered unit, 823d, 820th, 7319th. We are a RED HORSE deployed unit and that’s the way I want 

us to think of ourselves.” This mentality was important, not just from a working standpoint; it also 

promoted a better quality living environment.554

At Shaikh Isa AB in Bahrain, the 823d completed hardstands, taxiways, and an apron spanning 

600,000 square feet.555Maj. Timothy Bridges, who was assigned at USCENTCOM, was shocked when 

he visited the base, “Planes were parked so close that the Marines had put the wings up. You could just 

walk through and touch airplanes.”556 Additional parking areas were required at many bases to accommodate the increasing number of aircraft. Civil engineers at Shaikh Isa also erected “264 TEMPER 

tents, 9 latrines, 10 showers, 53 expandable shelters, 13 general purpose shelters, and 5 hangars...

also furnished manpower and/or equipment for the completion of the wing headquarters building...

security police armory, their own CE complex.”557

K-Span construction was a common project for RED HORSE teams. K-Span construction at Al 

Kharj AB alone covered approximately 70,000 square feet of space. Other large construction efforts 

included a 500,000 square foot aircraft apron at Al Minhad. These large projects necessitated aroundthe-clock, seven-day work weeks.558 A March 1991 After-Action Report for the 823d RED HORSE 

CES illustrated the variety of work completed by a RED HORSE team: “we constructed taxiways, 

parking aprons, munitions areas, integrated combat turn pads, trim pads, hot pit refueling pads, constructed earthen berms, erected revetments, installed aircraft barriers and approach lighting systems, 

built tent cities and performed engineering designs and analyses throughout the AOR.”559

RH-3 was a heavy construction echelon with 294 personnel. Their missions included heavy 

repair of buildings and infrastructure, construction of temporary facilities, demolition, RRR, and 

operation of plants. Personnel and equipment for the echelon could be transported within six days 

of notification. They carried 99 vehicles and 994 short tons of equipment. Transportation for RH-3 

required C-5 aircraft; some equipment for the echelon was pre-positioned and transferred to their 

location by ground. Similar to RH-2 echelons, RH-3 could remain self-sufficient for 60 days if 

they had access to necessary replenishments.552

This echelon structure allowed flexibility to support varying contingencies. A complete squadron 

could be used at one location for a particular mission, or it could be divided to address particular 

scenarios. In addition, RH-1 echelons could be joined with RH-2 to fulfill a mission.

RED HORSE Echelons continued
488 Leading the Way

On Diego Garcia, an island in the Indian Ocean, the 351st CES Prime BEEF team from Whiteman AFB, Missouri, completed beddown operations to sustain combat teams for SAC and the Navy. 

They constructed more than 200 tents, provided electricity, and repaired infrastructure. Eventually, 

the initial general purpose tents were replaced with TEMPER tents by the Prime BEEF team and 

additional operations were accommodated with the construction of Expandable Shelters (EXPs).560

Deployed troops did not always have the equipment necessary for the construction of bases. 

Mobility kits sometimes were lacking all essential parts; pallets of supplies often never made it to the 

bare base. It was an important lesson learned by Lt. Col. Alfred B. “Barrett” Hicks, Jr, commander 

of the 36th CES at Bitburg AB, Germany, “do not allow your cargo to be separated from your team. 

An engineer is almost worthless if he doesn’t have his tool box or his materials that he needs to operate with.”561 At Batman, Turkey, it was cold and rainy with deep mud when Colonel Hicks and his 

engineers arrived at the bare site, “There were no showers. There was no dining hall. There was no 

kitchen equipment for a dining hall operation. There were no personal hygiene facilities set up at the 

time.”562 Shortages in the arrival of complete kits resulted in 20 people bunking in tents without tent 

floors. The Prime BEEF team with Colonel Hicks was able to provide the basic support within seven 

days after their arrival.563

Civil engineers showed ingenuity when supplies and equipment did not arrive. Capt. Wayland H. 

Patterson, a key member of the CENTAF staff, related that, at King Fahd, Saudi Arabia, engineers 

needed gaskets to install the Harvest Falcon water system water pipe and “ended-up cutting all the 

grooved-pipe ends off and using plastic glue and plastic connectors to hook all those pipes up.” Al 

Dhafra was another example of civil engineers getting the job done with limited resources. Personnel 

created a trim pad by “just taking the barrier cable and the aluminum stakes from their MAAS—to tie 

an F-16, so that they could run up the engine without having to take the engine out of the plane and 

find an engine stand to put it in...they could work on it while it was still sitting in the airplane.” Other 

engineers at Bateen, UAE, made “high-voltage switch gear for their generator power plant...they took 

Air Force heavy equipment operators at work building a weapon storage area at a Gulf War site.
Responding To New Challenges 489

apart two SDCs, and took the bus bars out of them and made a switch gear.”564 At Masirah AB, Oman, 

Capt. Drew Wright and engineers from McChord AFB, Washington, and Pope Field, North Carolina, 

supported a base population of about 900. The host nation engineer was unable to maintain adequate 

water reserves in the storage tanks and asked the American forces to begin operating a reverse osmosis 

water purification unit (ROWPU) to help alleviate the shortage. Unfortunately, the O-rings for the 

ROWPU filter canisters were dry rotted from long-term storage. When unable to find replacements, 

Captain Wright scoured the supply warehouse and found that the brake seal O-rings for a KC-135R 

were a good match. The engineers installed them in the ROWPUs and soon began producing all the 

water needed.565

Firefighters were another key group that deployed during Desert Shield/Desert Storm. Firefighters 

were deployed to each air base to be first responders to aircraft emergencies and to protect the base 

from fire. They also trained with host nation firefighters and set up programs warning of fire hazards. 

“Basically no open flames are allowed in or around the tents,” MSgt. Steve Foote of the 435th CES outlined.566 Throughout the war, firefighters were on hand in case of emergencies during hot pit refueling 

operations and responded to barrier engagements, malfunctioning ordnance, and hot brake incidents. 567 

Some problems experienced by firefighters were lack of appropriate equipment and training materials. In some cases, aircraft arrived before the firefighters. Fire vehicles arrived at the sites from diverse 

locations. Some were in prepositioned storage in theater, some came from USAFE War Reserves Materiel 

storage, and one came from a base in Korea. Several weeks passed before sites received their full complement of vehicles as USCENTAF/DE attempted to spread the vehicles throughout the theater. Many of the 

vehicles were not fully operational when they arrived at the sites. Some had broken pumps, dry-rotted 

A sign in front of the Air Force fire station at Cairo West, Egypt.
490 Leading the Way

fan belts and hoses, and few tools, hoses, or firefighting agent. At Seeb, one of the prepositioning sites, 

the firefighters needed a P-19. Yet, they could look across the road into the prepositioning yard and see 

one sitting there. When they asked USCENTAF about it, they were told that it was going to another location. After several days, a C-130 aircraft landed and off-loaded a P-19 for Seeb, loaded the one from the 

prepositioning yard, and took it to another base.568 For some deployed units, radio communications were 

nonexistent for the first two months of their deployment.569 Vehicles often arrived without firefighting 

agents, but some supplies were available from the local markets.570

Nearly all of the sites relied upon some level of host nation firefighting assistance. In the early weeks, 

Air Force firefighters often shared a facility and equipment with the host nation. This was not the optimal 

situation, so Air Force firefighters moved into their own facility as soon as practical. The host nation 

capabilities varied widely among the sites. While the equipment was usually first rate, the training of 

the personnel was less than satisfactory in the opinion of Air Force firefighters. At a few sites, the host 

nation fire chief was a retired Air Force firefighter. At bases such as Taif and Jeddah, the situation was 

further complicated by the presence of both a host nation military and civilian fire department. This meant 

coordinating among three different departments and establishing common response procedures. Air Force 

firefighters provided countless hours of training to the host nation firefighters if the local department 

was needed to assist in an incident involving an American aircraft. They taught classes, showed videos, 

conducted walk-throughs, and drilled together. The language barrier hampered the training. Most of the 

host nation firefighters were third country nationals and spoke a variety of languages. In the end, most Air 

Force firefighters simply responded to USAF aircraft incidents and called upon the host nation if needed. 

USAF firefighters lacked confidence in the capabilities of the host nation firefighters.571 Despite the lack 

of equipment and supplies, firefighters were routinely able to respond to emergencies and save lives. 

In only two months at King Khalid Military City, fire personnel responded to 1,076 emergencies and 

logged 4,120.5 hours.572

During Desert Shield/Desert Storm, Disaster Preparedness (DP) personnel provided essential 

services by preparing disaster preparedness plans for air bases. They advised commanders on chemical 

situations and planned for worst case scenarios. They also conducted routine and refresher training 

courses on chemical warfare defenses for deployed Air Force personnel, contractors, and host-nation 

civilians. However, due to limited equipment and their training schedule, DP personnel were unable to 

complete disaster preparedness plans at some bases.573 DP personnel also completed inspections of the 

protective equipment and assisted in the storage and distribution of the chemical defense equipment. 574

During Desert Shield/Desert Storm, EOD teams were essential for troop safety and the missions 

of the war. EOD personnel were deployed to oversee munitions at air bases and depots. EOD’s routine 

missions included disposal of UXO, being on-site for flight and ground emergencies, and disarming 

ordnance. They also worked through such issues as equipment shortages and the lack of information 

regarding ordnance. Among the equipment shortages were lack of portable X-ray devices, small 

generators, power tools, radios, and protective shields.575

Prime RIBS handled housing, food, and other necessary services for U.S. Air Force troops. Prime 

RIBS struggled with kitchen equipment and the sandy hot environment. In many instances, kitchen 

equipment had to be improvised or modified. Air Force personnel ate in fixed dining facilities such as 

existing dining halls at seven sites. The Harvest Falcon 9-1 kitchen was the most common dining facility 

in the theater. Fifteen of the sites in SWA used at least one 9-1. King Fahd and Al Kharj both used four 

each. Thirty-two kitchens were used in SWA. The 9-1, designed for a population of 1,100, often served a 

greater number of people. It used TEMPER-like tent sections to construct a dining area, food preparation 

and serving area, and storage space. Thus, with additional kitchen equipment, it could be reconfigured 

or enlarged to serve above the 1,100 target population. The facility was air conditioned, however, the 

food preparation area, which was not designed to be air conditioned, rarely remained comfortable for 

the workers. The primary heat source for the Harvest Falcon kitchen was the M-2 burner unit fueled by 

gasoline. The M-2 burner was portable, self-contained and designed to be used inside an M-59 field range. 
Responding To New Challenges 491

It was a single burner, two-tank or U-shaped tank type. The burners had to be refueled and relit outside 

the 9-1 for safety reasons. For sites with more than one 9-1 kitchen, this was nearly a full-time job for 

one person. Overall, the facility worked quite well, with only a few shortcomings. The floors quickly 

wore out and were replaced by linoleum or concrete. Kitchen equipment, particularly ice machines, were 

inadequate to handle the constantly growing requirements, but Prime RIBS personnel simply augmented 

the equipment. Bases procured new and larger ice machines and additional kitchen equipment such as 

tilt grills. They also relied on local food supplies.576

Another issue that Prime RIBS personnel encountered was accounting for troops that were located 

off-base. Hotels were commonly used; some were contracted and others were used based on verbal 

agreements. According to Lt. Col. Ronald P. McCoy, who was the deputy USCENTAF/DE and the 

senior Services officer in theater, “it wasn’t surprising after the first two weeks that our first Prime RIBS 

[Readiness In Base Services] Teams to Riyadh, for instance, didn’t have a clue who was actually in the 

hotels. The hotels were accepting forces based on verbal agreements, and as a result the Prime RIBS 

Team were in a catch-up mode trying to build a locator system. There was a lot of confusion on just who 

was where. You can understand that it was quite trying for our Prime RIBS folks.”577

Prime RIBS teams also established Morale, Welfare, and Recreation (MWR) facilities at some 

of the bases. Requests for ballfields, gazebos, and other improvements to increase morale typically 

followed beddown operations. Civil engineer teams frequently created their own MWR facilities, 

which ranged from casual activity areas to more organized events.578 As an additional morale enhancer, 

Prime RIBS created Tactical Field Exchanges. These exchanges sold candy and personal items such as 

toiletries. These exchanges were placed in areas where troops did not have access to a nearby city.579

During the early deployments, Prime RIBS created a theater mortuary operation at Dhahran Air 

Base. They were responsible for preparing bodies and ensuring that they were properly transferred to 

the Port Mortuary at Dover AFB in Delaware. In addition, Prime RIBS organized mini-morgue kits 

for air bases within the AOR and provided training to establish proper procedures for handling and 

processing human remains. This training was extended to include all U.S. military branches and some 

British and Saudi Arabian forces. Once the war began, mortuary responsibilities were transferred to 

the Army.580

The Mortuary Assistance Team in Dhahran and the USAFE Mortuary Processing Centers were 

only part of the entire Mortuary Affairs system. Before the beginning of Operation Desert Storm, 

remains were sent either directly from SWA to the Port Mortuary at Dover AFB or through Ramstein 

AB and then on to Dover. After January 17, the remains were transported from battlefield collection 

points to aerial ports of embarkation within SWA, and then directly to Dover by air. Once at the Port 

Mortuary at Dover, the operations involved the identification, processing, and shipment of remains in 

according to the desires of the next of kin. The Disposition Cell at HQ AFESC contacted the next of kin 

to determine their wishes in the disposition arrangements for the remains and personal belongings.581

The Dover Port Mortuary was a joint service operation, commanded during Operation Desert

Shield/Desert Storm by Brig. Gen. Jimmy G. Dishner, USAF Reserve Mobilization Assistant to the 

Air Force Civil Engineer. Although the Air Force operated the Port Mortuary, people from all services 

were brought in to carry out the mission. In addition to Department of Defense personnel, the FBI sent 

several fingerprint experts to assist in the identification process.582

Initially, the facilities at the Port Mortuary were evaluated and judged too small to handle the possible number of casualties as a result of the Gulf War. Plans were made in November and December 

to enlarge the structure from 26,000 to 36,000 square feet. A stressed skin structure was determined as 

the most expeditious method of expansion and could be easily disassembled and relocated. A programming package was developed and delivered to Deputy Secretary of Defense Donald J. Atwood to use 

Title 10, Section 2808, Emergency Funds for the project. When completed, the facility could handle 

a maximum of 300 sets of remains per day. In addition, a large hangar located away from any public 

access was activated to receive remains directly from returning aircraft and begin the identification 
492 Leading the Way

and processing procedures. A Harvest Eagle kitchen tent was set up to prepare meals for the personnel 

working at the Port Mortuary. Eight double-wide trailers were leased for offices, records management, 

chaplains, uniform build-up, and a break room. The Air Force leased twelve refrigerated vans for 

storage of human remains.583

One specialized area of support was provided by AFESC CEMIRT personnel. During Desert

Shield/Storm, CEMIRT personnel were able to support operations by ensuring that the bare bases 

constructed in the AOR were supplied with reliable electric power. One problem that occurred early 

during the deployment was the shortage of Primary Distribution Centers (PDCs) that complicated the 

establishment of an efficient power distribution system at beddown locations. PDCs were a necessary 

and important component of the Harvest Falcon bare base electrical system. PDCs were high-voltage 

switch gear that distributed the power from the MEP-12 750KW generators to the Secondary Distribution 

Centers (SDCs), which in turn sent power through the Power Distribution Panels to the users. Operation 

Desert Shield caught the Air Force in the midst of a transition from Contactor Control Cubicles to PDCs. 

Only three PDCs were available in SWA, and the likelihood of meeting the power requirements at a growing number of sites was problematic. CONUS contractors were unable to build PDCs for the Harvest 

Bare kits in time, so CEMIRT was able to come through. Acting upon a USCENTAF/DE requirement 

for additional PDCs, CEMIRT technicians went to work and, in just a matter of days, designed a simple 

and reliable PDC using off-the-shelf components. They began constructing the new PDCs at Kelly AFB, 

Texas, at the rate of better than one per day. By September 26, CEMIRT had constructed and shipped 35 

PDCs to Desert Shield sites, enabling Air Force technicians to provide critical power to the bases more 

efficiently.584 CEMIRT personnel also ensured that transportable runway lighting systems reached the 

troops. They devised the requirements, ordered and assembled the components, and shipped them to 

the AOR.585

CEMIRT personnel also visited every in-theater location to assist civil engineer units. They proved 

their worth as Col. Marshall Nay, Jr., remarked, “They became the technical gurus for power generating within the AOR.”586 Troops had never seen the high voltage electrical distribution system before 

their deployment in the Gulf War and had set up their bases using 60kW and 100kW generators. Six 

CEMIRT personnel and SMSgt. Mark Larivee, an instructor for power production courses, deployed 

overseas to set up a depot repair capability for the MEP-12 750kW generators at Thumrait AB, Oman. 

This team visited nearly every site to perform maintenance, train Prime BEEF Airmen, perform emergency in-place repairs, and develop layout plans for the high-voltage systems.587

In November, President Bush ordered additional forces to the Persian Gulf region to provide an 

offensive capability. The Air Force expanded its force at several existing bases with the addition of 

more planes and people. When many of the sites were stretched to their maximum capacity, General 

Horner decided he needed more bases for U.S. forces. For Engineering and Services, this meant 

another push to bed down deploying forces. This time, however, Engineering and Services personnel 

would be in place before the additional forces arrived. Also, the presence of RED HORSE in theater 

to undertake major beddown tasks smoothed the process. 

General Horner wanted to put more aircraft closer to the Kuwaiti border. To do this, he directed his 

engineers to open two new sites in Saudi Arabia. The first was about sixty miles south of Riyadh, near 

the town of Al Kharj. Colonel Rothenberg gave the task to a combined RED HORSE/Prime BEEF/

Prime RIBS team. Colonel Rothenberg, who deployed as USCENTAF/DE, recalled “the beddown 

at Al Kharj was an excellent example of how RED HORSE, Prime BEEF and Prime RIBS can pool 

their resources to ready a bare base for a very large operational mission in a very short period of time. 

The site was fully operational in just 47 days—from start to reception of the last of five squadrons of 

fighter aircraft.”588
Responding To New Challenges 493

Maj. Richard Norris, from the 4th CES at Seymour Johnson AFB, North Carolina, led a 100-person 

Prime BEEF team in Thumrait, Oman, and later in Al Kharj in Saudi Arabia. He discovered early 

on that some of the assets, such as the TEMPER tent and Harvest Falcon, were unknown systems to 

many of his personnel. Those who were trained, even briefly, became great resources in the field. They 

became a principal workforce, not only in assembly and construction, but they also served as trainers 

so others could follow suit.590

When we went to Thumrait nobody had any experience, only a handful of people had any 

experience on a TEMPER [Tent Extendable Modular, Personnel] tent. On the Harvest 

Falcon assets—we had a few guys that had just come back from Field 4 training site at 

Eglin, a few guys that had gone over to Bright Star the previous summer. They were our 

core. They trained our guys, then our guys trained the maintenance guys and then it kind 

of blossomed from there. When we put up the first general purpose [GP] shelters, we 

had to pull out the TO [technical order] and it was kind of trial and error. But that was 

back in Thumrait. We knew how to build it by the time we got to Al Kharj. 591

At Al Kharj, Major Norris’ Prime BEEF team worked with the RED HORSE RH-1 team on 

construction. Together, Prime BEEF and RED HORSE erected approximately 800 TEMPER tents 

and multiple K-Spans to support a large cantonment area for an Air Force wing. In addition to troops, 

the area had to accommodate 100 fighter jets and approximately 20 airlift planes. Teams also had to 

establish septic tanks and electricity for the entire cantonment. According to Major Norris, the teams 

worked well together: “There wasn’t really any competition per se between what we did and what RED 

HORSE did because we all did it. ‘We’ was RED HORSE and Prime BEEF.”592

About the same time that Al Kharj was being constructed, another RED HORSE team was building a forward operating location only 50 miles from the Iraqi border at King Khalid Military City 

(KKMC). This was initially planned as a small 800-person site with limited turnaround capability for 

aircraft flying missions to Iraq and Kuwait. However, the base continued to expand until it reached a 

population of 1650 in mid-January and nearly 2000 in February. The site was extremely busy during 

Operation Desert Storm.

To put more aircraft closer to the Kuwaiti border, Lt. Gen. Charles A. Horner directed his engineers 

to begin bedding down troops sixty miles south of Riyadh near the town of Al Kharj. The base had 

been programmed as a massive Saudi military installation, but only a runway, taxiway, and parking 

apron had been constructed. This project presented one of the biggest challenges facing Air Force 

engineers during the war. On November 12, 1990, RED HORSE accepted overall responsibility 

for construction, and personnel from the 4th Civil Engineer Squadron (CES), Seymour Johnson 

AFB, N.C. and other engineering personnel augmented them. After completion, the 4th CES Prime 

BEEF team operated and maintained the base. On November 25, RED HORSE, Prime BEEF, 

and contractor personnel went to work. The engineers compacted more than 200,000 cubic yards 

of red clay to serve as the foundation for tent city. Eventually, 630 TEMPER tents, 4 kitchens, 

a gymnasium, 21 latrines, and 26 shower and shave units were erected. They also constructed a 

sanitary system, a power plant with 17 750kW generators, assembled an air-transportable hospital, 

and built six K-span structures. Al Kharj was ready for aircraft in early January, and by the 

beginning of the war, the base was home to 4,900 Air Force personnel. Because of the successful 

cooperation between RED HORSE and Prime BEEF personnel and the magnitude of the work, 

Al Kharj became the model for bare base beddowns.589

Al Kharj AB: The Model Bare Base Beddown
494 Leading the Way

In December 1990, the Engineering and Services personnel in USAFE began to deploy to bases 

in Turkey—Operation Proven Force. The United States had yet to receive official approval from 

the Turkish government to conduct operations from their bases. However, an on-going exercise at 

Incirlik AB was extended and Brig. Gen. John R. Harty, USAFE/DE, sent engineers from Ramstein 

AB and Einsiedlerhof AS, Germany, to support the exercise and prepare for a larger deployment. 

The 17-member Prime BEEF team quietly worked inside a warehouse, ordered supplies, and began 

pre-assembling tent floors awaiting the time when the Turkish government granted approval for construction of a tent city. The floodgates were opened on January 16, and engineers, with aircraft and 

other support personnel, deployed to the base. The engineers constructed “Tornado Town” at Incirlik 

and helped bed down the deployed personnel. The base engineering operation at Incirlik was primarily 

contract services, so while there were few in-place military engineers, they did provide outstanding 

support to the deployed personnel by locating supplies and equipment.593

The Incirlik AB permanent party Services staff numbered only 12, thus requiring substantial 

augmentation to support the hundreds of troops deploying to the base. Billeting was a challenge 

because a noncombatant evacuation order had not been issued until after the beginning of the air war. 

Houses did not become available during the buildup prior to the outbreak of hostilities. Gymnasiums, 

professional military education classrooms, and youth association facilities were all used to house 

deployed personnel, prompting the construction of a tent city. The deployed personnel were fed from 

field kitchens in the tent city as the growing population soon overwhelmed the fixed dining facilities.594

A 50-person Prime BEEF team from Bitburg AB, Germany, also deployed to Batman AB, Turkey, 

to support a search and rescue operation. Colonel Hicks, Commander, 36th CES, Bitburg AB, Germany, 

was given responsibility for all support operations at Batman—an unusual, but effective organizational 

structure. Prime RIBS teams from six USAFE bases provided Services functions to the U.S. operation 

at Batman AB.595

Air Force Engineering and Services personnel in SWA represented only a portion of their overall 

role in the conflict. They also deployed to locations in Turkey, Spain, the Indian Ocean, England, 

Germany, France, Italy, Greece and within the United States. Some deployments were in direct support of bomber operations, while others supported tanker beddowns, hospitals, and bases that served 

as throughput nodes for people and materiel.

Several USAFE bases were quite busy throughout Desert Shield. Both Torrejon AB, Spain, and 

Rhein-Main AB, Germany, were major stopover bases for personnel deploying to and from SWA. 

The engineers constructed a tent city at each base to handle the thousands of personnel transiting 

the base. Refueling capabilities were also a major concern for the engineers. Rhein-Main engineers 

redesigned the hydrant system enabling them to double the refueling capacity by using more trucks 

over a shorter distance.596

At the deployed locations, Engineering and Services personnel were ready when Operation Desert

Storm began. Equipment and materiel were dispersed; meals-ready-to-eat stockpiled; mini-morgues 

established; and, personnel and structural protection was complete. Many went out to watch the aircraft launch on their first missions. At Taif AB, Saudi Arabia, base personnel gathered in the outdoor 

recreation area constructed by the engineers to watch the F-111s take off. With other combat support 

personnel, Engineering and Services personnel manned the survivable recovery centers and damage 

control centers, ready to recover their base. Prime RIBS teams surged to provide food service around 

the clock. Firefighters went to 12-hour shifts to support coalition Air Forces. Integrated combat turns 

with hot pit refueling operations, required continuous fire protection. As combat sorties increased, so 

did the in-flight and ground emergencies, barrier engagements, and malfunctioning ordnance responses. 

Firefighters also extinguished fires or initiated preventive actions on armed aircraft with a variety of 

problems resulting from battle damage. 
Responding To New Challenges 495

RED HORSE personnel had constructed security berms for the U.S. Army Patriot batteries at 

Riyadh AB, King Khalid International Airport, and near Eskan Village. They also rigged front-end 

loaders to assist in the reloading of the batteries, reducing the reload time from 45 to 5 minutes. In 

mid-January, RED HORSE formed bomb damage repair teams capable of responding from Riyadh 

within four-hour’s notice. These teams were ready to assist the sites that needed heavy repair in case 

of attack. On January 17, the 820th team deployed to KKMC to complete the integrated combat turn 

project abandoned by the contractor. The team stayed at KKMC for several days assisting the Prime 

BEEF team, ready to assist other bases. RED HORSE personnel were tasked to recover Ali Al Salem 

AB, Kuwait, to minimal standards for C-130 traffic and to construct a tent city. This became unnecessary with the rapid collapse of the Iraqi Army. Within a few days of the beginning of the air war, it 

became apparent that there would be no major air attack on the sites. The greatest danger remained 

the possibility of chemical weapons or the occasional Scud missile.597

Prior to the official cease-fire, General Horner identified the task of denying two Iraqi air bases to 

make them unusable in the future. Colonel Wilson assigned combined RED HORSE/EOD teams; one 

820th RED HORSE team was assigned to one base and two 823d RED HORSE teams to the other. 

They were given the task of runway denial. As Colonel Wilson described, “we used a lot of 500-pound 

bombs and we had to create small craters before we could create the large craters. What we tried to do was 

remove the runway surface from being used for landing or takeoff with other than maybe a helicopter.”598

Teams used 80,000 pounds of explosives at Tallil Air Base in southeast Iraq to create cuts every 2,000 

feet within the runway and taxiway. Further southeast, the RED HORSE/EOD team completed denial 

at Jalibah Airfield, by creating cuts as well as craters. The damage was heavy, with craters measuring as 

much as 40 feet wide and 12 feet deep.599

By the end of Desert Shield/Desert Storm, 3,000 Air Force civil engineers had supported 55,000 

troops and 1,500 aircraft through their beddown efforts at 30 locations in SWA and Europe. Prime 

RIBS involvement totaled 1,200 personnel providing approximately 2 million meals while also coordinating housing and providing mortuary services.Desert Shield/Desert Storm was the first trial for 

Prime RIBS during wartime. They successfully accomplished their duties and provided appropriate 

services. 600

Members of the 820th and 823d RED HORSE teams at Al Kharj AB waiting for airlift to the Iraqi bases. 
496 Leading the Way

At the end of the war, RED HORSE teams were instrumental in dismantling materiel for return 

to the United States They ended their operations by March, and the 820th and 823d had all of their 

materiel packed up ready for transport by early May. A CES history report described the general mood 

of troops following the end of Desert Storm: 

The Storm brought an end to “the mother of all wars.” A cease fire was called and 

allied victory declared. Morale has never been so high! The civil engineers sense their 

return home is near and are putting forth great effort to ensure all salvageable assets are 

stored quickly and properly. The feeling among all is one of purpose and rejoicing. 601

Prior to returning home, civil engineers were responsible for base cleanup. According to Lt. Col. 

Timothy Beally, Site Engineer for Jeddah Air Base in Saudi Arabia, “the general rule of thumb is to 

leave it as good as we found it.”602 Dismantling built resources was much easier and quicker than 

actually building them. For example, a tent that may have taken over an hour to assemble typically 

could be dismantled in less than half that time. 

Although dismantling resources and cleaning the sites was less time consuming and less stressful 

than initial beddown, mechanisms were still in place to ensure efficiency and continued support. Troops 

still had to be fed, and cargo had to be packaged and loaded in a systematic manner. Food services 

personnel remained on site through the dismantling and loading process, providing hot meals. Morale 

was high, and many embraced a positive attitude realizing, “the sooner we get it done, the sooner we 

get home.”603

The Gulf War was a major event for Air Force civil engineers. The logistics of early deployment 

were challenging and beddown operations proved to be demanding, but the civil engineer teams were 

successful. They fulfilled their missions with efficiency and maintained a resilient attitude that was 

contagious. They also garnered a lot of exposure. In particular, Prime RIBS created an identity for 

themselves, illustrating their capabilities and proving their value in the larger realm of military operations. Overall, the civil engineers learned many lessons during the Gulf War, responded superbly to 

the many unknowns, built even stronger teams, adapted to a variety of physical and social environments, and expanded their view of dedication. Following the end of Desert Storm, the durability and 

competence of the Air Force civil engineers were tested even further and they had no time to rest 

before facing yet another challenge.

Operation Provide Comfort

The aftermath of the war created more work for the AF civil engineers who were involved with 

Operation Provide Comfort (OPC). Fleeing Iraq, 500,000 Kurds headed through the snow-covered 

and mountainous terrain towards Turkey. The large group of refugees was stranded without food or 

shelter. President George H. W. Bush agreed to provide help in April 1991. As a result, many Air Force 

personnel were home for only a short period of time before returning to Turkey. Lt. Col. Barrett Hicks, 

Jr., who had deployed from Bitburg AB, Germany, to Batman AB, Turkey, for Operation Proven Force, 

recounted the story of how he was chosen for OPC:

When I left Batman, I went back to Incirlik and was waiting for a flight out, Brigadier 

General [Richard W.] Potter who was the JSOTF commander took me over to the 

Officers Club and bought me dinner one night and said, “Hicks, I want you to know 

that next time I go someplace you’re going with me.” And when he got tasked to go 

back down to Incirlik, as soon as he hit the ground he said, “I want Hicks back down 

here.” So, I got a phone call at about 11:00 in the morning to be in Ramstein to get a 

flight out at 9:00 that night. So, that’s how I found out I was going down.604
Responding To New Challenges 497

Other branches of the military had similar experiences, as well, as the Army, Marines, and Navy 

joined in the relief effort. The mission for everyone had changed from warfighting to humanitarian 

assistance.605

England, Italy, Spain, Denmark, France, and Canada also joined the effort, forming a Combined 

Task Force (CTF). The CTF created a three-phase approach to address the needs of the Kurdish people. 

Phase I included supplying the refugees with the items necessary to address the immediate issues of 

starvation and exposure to the weather. Phase II was the establishment of shelters in the area, and Phase 

III was the creation of a northern Iraq secure zone allowing Kurds to safely go back to their homes.606

Within one day of deployment, 27 tons of food and supplies were airdropped along the mountains. 

The Air Force was asked by the Army to operate bases to support military personnel and allied forces 

involved in the operation. Air Force civil engineers from the 564th (Ramstein) and the 36th (Bitburg) 

Civil Engineering Squadrons quickly began building a camp on a flat piece of land located in Silopi, 

Turkey, just eight miles from the border with Iraq. The site was chosen because of its level terrain which 

allowed for easier and more efficient construction and accommodated aircraft; access to nearby water; 

and, close proximity to Iraq. Prime RIBS teams arrived to offer food service, housing, and mortuary 

services. Kitchen facilities were supervised by the Air Force, but in some cases they were operated by 

the Army. Working in a combined services environment and accommodating large numbers of transient 

troops made it nearly impossible to estimate how many personnel required food on a daily basis. Troops 

traveled from base to base and to and from refugee camps. Eventually, Services worked together to 

ready the necessary supplies and they aptly supported the troops providing aid to the Kurds.607

The camp was initially planned to hold 500-700 personnel assisting with the relief effort, but 

the population soared as a result of the additional forces. The area was eventually designated as a 

Humanitarian Service Support Base (HSSB). Capt. Donald Gleason, who served as head of combat 

services support reported, “we constructed billeting, laundry, latrine, recreation, office, mortuary, 

and equipment storage/maintenance areas for those forces.” It took Air Force civil engineers only 

two weeks to create a base for more than 4,000 multi-national troops. Capt. Darren Daniels, the OIC 

for the 36th CES Prime BEEF team, rightfully bragged about his troops and their work on the camp, 

“not a bad effort for a team that was sized to support a 500-750 man beddown operation.” Captain 

Daniels’ Prime BEEF team members worked particularly well together because of their previous 

six months in Batman, Turkey, supporting Operation Proven Force. According to Captain Daniels, 

“approximately 60 percent of the same individuals redeployed due to the short notice and team spirit 

they had developed at Batman.”608

OPC I lasted from April through July 24, 1991, then OPC II began. Air Force civil engineers 

continued their efforts even after the last Kurdish border camp closed in June. Prime BEEF teams 

from Ramstein, Germany, and Torrejon, Spain, remained in Silopi to transform the original HSSB 

into an air conditioned Harvest Falcon facility and to construct wash racks and other ancillary support 

resources to aid future deployments. The main mission of OPC II was to maintain a presence of troops 

along the border of Iraq to dissuade further aggression from Saddam Hussein.609

OPC III required the repair and renovation of Sirsenk airfield in Iraq. Captain Daniels’ Prime BEEF 

teams were deployed to Sirsenk and became the first Prime BEEF personnel to enter Iraq. Sirsenk 

airfield originally was planned as a private airport for Saddam Hussein during Desert Storm, but was 

eventually bombed and cratered by coalition forces flying over northern Iraq. The Prime BEEF teams 

worked alongside the Navy Seabees and the Army on runway repair and UXO retrieval. According 

to one sergeant who participated in the effort, “it really put our wartime training to test as we cleared 

the UXOs and helped repair the runway for C-130 operations.” Combat Support Commander, Colonel 

Hicks illustrated his pride in the Prime BEEF troops stating, “we rewrote the book for Prime BEEF 

team support...normally we operate from air bases a safe distance from the front lines. But this time 

we marched into Iraq immediately behind the Marines. We even reconnoitered the Sirsenk airfield 

before the area was secured by the coalition forces.” Air Force civil engineers also bedded down 800 

troops near the airfield using Harvest Falcon assets.610
498 Leading the Way

For civil engineers, a significant lesson learned during OPC was the importance of combined and 

joint operations. These operations allowed troops to learn from the capabilities of others. This was 

particularly beneficial for the Prime BEEF and Prime RIBS teams, who were relatively unknown in the 

larger circle of the U.S. and foreign militaries. Colonel Hicks, who served as the Director of Services 

at Silopi during Operation Provide Comfort, discussed the challenges involved in working with others 

who did not realize the capabilities of his teams, “we worked real hard to build a good strong relationship with...the Army and the Marines at Silopi...we really had problems working with the Army. It’s 

true. They don’t know what we do. They didn’t have the slightest idea of what Prime BEEF is all about.” 

Colonel Hicks recounted a visit from an Army commander that illustrated the situation,

Brigadier General [Harold] Burch, who was the Combined Support Command Commander at Silopi, came over here and visited us not too many weeks ago when he 

brought a plate as a presentation to us. He said, “When I got to Silopi, they started 

talking about Prime BEEF. I thought that was something they were going to serve me 

for dinner. Then when they started talking about Prime RIBS I thought, My goodness, 

we’re going to have a really good meal now!” He had no understanding of what the 

capabilities of the Air Force engineers are.611

The Gulf War and OPC allowed Prime BEEF and Prime RIBS personnel to introduce themselves to 

many military personnel who were unaware of their capabilities. They were not only celebrated as 

successful, but were also recognized as a necessity. 

Operation Pacific Haven

On September 15, 1996, a Joint Task Force (JTF) was created to evacuate 6,600 Kurds that had 

fled Iraq and Turkey to Guam. Each branch of the military was involved in the humanitarian effort 

termed Operation Pacific Haven. The geographic location of the small island, as well as the potential 

for typhoons precluded the use of tents for housing. As a result, a housing area located at Andersen 

AFB, near the center of the island, was used as a temporary facility. The 36th CES was responsible 

for assessing the base housing to ensure livability. In addition to the Air Force civil engineers, Navy 

and Coast Guard personnel, as well as personnel from Andersen AFB, aided in the effort to repair, 

clean, and stock the housing. Components from four field kitchens were combined to create a feeding 

facility. The kitchen was supplied with electricity and water lines installed by the combined forces of 

the Air Force and the Navy. In addition to housing and feeding, priorities included medical support. An 

Air Transportable Hospital was relocated by the 374th Air Wing from Yokota AB in Japan. A C-130 

transferring temporary clinic resources and 46 personnel arrived September 17. Tents were built to 

support the clinic and a house on base was used for critical cases.612

In addition to supporting the immediate needs of the evacuees, the JTF had to arrange processing 

prior to offering a safe haven. Offices were created within existing dormitories on base. A school was 

built to offer instructions on the basics of living in the United States, as well as the essentials of the 

English language. Andersen AFB engineers along with the Navy Seabees constructed two mosques 

within two days, following Muslim traditions. Eventually, additional comforts were added to the area, 

and including a community center and an exchange. In order to relieve Services personnel, a selffeeding program for the Kurds was established permitting them to acquire provisions and cook meals 

in their makeshift homes. This freed up personnel and allowed them to improve quarters maintained 

for the military and civilian workforce. Laundry facilities were enhanced and MWR conveniences 

were provided.613

Immigration and Naturalization Services personnel interviewed and processed the evacuees for 

relocation to the United States where they were granted asylum. Operation Pacific Haven concluded 

in April 1997. The operation allowed engineers to illustrate their ingenuity and efficiency through 
Responding To New Challenges 499

their ability to coordinate housing, feeding, medical support, and additional facilities within a short 

period of time. In addition, Operation Pacific Haven demonstrated the ability of each military branch 

to work together as a JTF.614

Other Military Deployments

Khobar Towers, Saudi Arabia 

U.S. Airmen remained in Saudi Arabia after the end of Operation Desert Storm to enforce no-fly 

operations over southern Iraq. It began in 1992 and was known as Operation Southern Watch. Many 

Airmen lived in dormitories in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, as part of a complex known as Khobar Towers. 

On June 25, 1996, a bomb exploded outside one tower. The bomb was fixed to a fuel truck parked 

next to the perimeter fence. The U.S. and Saudi guards had little time to warn personnel to evacuate 

the eight-story building.615 Lt. Col. Robbin Schellhous described the extent of destruction, “The CE 

dorm....was in shambles. Every window was shattered, with many window and door frames blown 

completely out of their openings.”616 The force of the blast embedded the window glass in the concrete walls and metal door knobs. Nineteen Air Force personnel died in the blast at Khobar Towers, 

including Airman First Class Christopher B. Lester, a Power Production Specialist for the 88th CES, 

Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. More than 300 people were wounded. Civil engineer personnel began 

recovery operations immediately. Contractors cleaned and repaired the damaged dormitories while 

civil engineers implemented greater physical security measures, including shatter-proof glass and 

extending the perimeters around the base.617 The Air Force completed two investigations into the 

security and protection of Khobar Towers based on an earlier study by Army Gen. Wayne Downing. 

As a result of the bombings and investigations, the Air Force implemented stronger force protection 

techniques. Sheila E. Widnall, Secretary of the Air Force, stated, “What we learned in the aftermath 

An overall view of the north side of the building that was severely bomb damaged in the Khobar Towers complex, 1996.
500 Leading the Way

of the Khobar Towers bombing and from our review of the facts and circumstances surrounding it 

has drastically altered the way the Air Force thinks about, prepares for and defends against threats to 

the safety of our forces.”618

After the Khobar Towers bombing and subsequent investigations, personnel were relocated to 

Prince Sultan Air Base at Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia. The 823d RED HORSE constructed a bare base 

with Harvest Falcon assets: four housekeeping sets, one industrial set, and flightline facilities.619 The 

823d RED HORSE also constructed a road and guard towers around the perimeter to facilitate force 

protection. The new air base implemented all of the force protection measures and directives from 

General Downing’s report. Permanent construction was completed by Saudi Arabian contractors and 

replaced the temporary tent cities erected by RED HORSE personnel. 

The bombing of Khobar Towers provided the impetus for re-integrating Force Protection (FP) 

measures into Air Force contingency and deployment planning. Force Protection also extended to 

antiterrorism and counterterrorism measures. Air Force civil engineers followed the Force Protection 

Plan developed by the commander and FP Working Group for base construction in contingency operations. The FP Plan comprised “site layout, barrier placement, berm construction, security lighting, 

backup power, water source protection, expedient hardening, and terrain modification.”620 Air Force 

civil engineers also adopted Passive Force Protection measures that included hardening facilities and 

aircraft shelters, constructing fences and berms, and implementing camouflage, concealment, and 

deception tactics.621

In 1997, a new group was formed. The 820th Security Forces Group was established at Lackland 

AFB, Texas. The 80-member group comprised specialists in the fields of security, combat arms training 

and maintenance, civil engineering, communications, intelligence, logistics and supply, medical, personnel, and transportation. Civil engineers assigned to the group included one engineering craftsman, 

three EOD, and two readiness personnel. The purpose of the group was to provide force protection 

for the AEFs, and to establish and to implement effective FP procedures for installations around the 

world.622

Military Operations Other Than War

Military operations other than war (MOOTW) were focused

on deterring war, resolving conflict, promoting peace, and supporting civil authorities 

in response to domestic crises...MOOTW may involve elements of both combat and 

noncombat operations in peacetime, conflict, and war situations. MOOTW involving 

combat, such as peace enforcement, may have many of the same characteristics of 

war, including active combat operations and employment of most combat capabilities. 

However, MOOTW are more sensitive to such considerations due to the overriding 

goal to prevent, preempt, or limit potential hostilities. In MOOTW, political considerations permeate all levels and the military may not be the primary player.

623

Typically MOOTW deployments were international, but not always. They could last a short period 

of time or be of long duration.624 Representative types of MOOTW included enforcement of sanctions, enforcing exclusion zones, protection of shipping, combating terrorism, counterdrug operations, 

ensuring freedom of navigation, noncombatant evacuation, peace operations, recovery operations, 

arms control support, domestic support operations, foreign humanitarian assistance, nation assistance, 

show of force, and support of insurgency.625 Sometimes the lines between war combat situations and 

MOOTW were blurred. After a war situation ended, deployments sometimes evolved into MOOTW. 

For example, Desert Storm was followed by several MOOTW deployments, such as Operation Provide Comfort and Operation Southern Watch. Other MOOTW assignments occurred in such places 

as Somalia, Haiti, and the Balkans.
Responding To New Challenges 501

Somalia

In December 1992, President George H. W. Bush announced that the United States was contributing forces to help stabilize the increasingly horrific civil war in Somalia. During the 1980s, Somalia 

was a defense partner with the United States and allowed the U.S. Navy access to ports and airfields. 

By the end of the 1980s, civil war raged in Somalia and images of starving people were prevalent on 

U.S. television screens. Under increasing pressure to do something, President Bush pledged that the 

mission was confined to opening supply lines, delivering food to the people in the embattled region, 

and preparing the way for UN peacekeepers in Operation Restore Hope.

626

Air Force civil engineers were among the first U.S. troops deployed. In early November 1992, 

11 members of the 823d RED HORSE were deployed to Mombasa, Kenya. This initial deployment 

to Kenya focused on analyzing available airfields in Kenya and Somalia. The data were needed to 

determine operability of airfields and potential repairs required to support the anticipated traffic of 

C-130 aircraft. The 11-man crew also helped identify aerial ports of entry at Mogadishu, Kisamayu, 

and Baledogle to receive increased numbers of troops. At Baledogle, Air Force civil engineers worked 

to prepare the area for the arrival of the Army’s 10th Mountain Division by establishing and repairing 

a 6,000-foot by 140-foot runway with parallel taxiway in three days.627

An additional 83 personnel were deployed on December 17, 1992 to assist 200 Air Force personnel 

assigned to man the operations control center at Mogadishu and another 200 personnel stationed at the 

U.S. embassy compound. These 400 persons were housed in substandard quarters. RED HORSE was 

tasked to ship Harvest Falcon assets stored in Saudi Arabia and to install them in Mogadishu. On a 

site prepared by Navy SeaBees, RED HORSE personnel erected TEMPER tents, installed power and 

air conditioners, installed a latrine and shower unit, set up a mobile kitchen, constructed a perimeter 

road, and installed miles of perimeter concertina wire fencing. Preparation of the site also included 

Capt. Efren V.M . Garcia led the team from the 823d RED HORSE Squadron to Mogadishu Airport, Somalia.
502 Leading the Way

removal of derelict aircraft and old ordnance. In addition, RED HORSE installed a reverse osmosis 

water purification system that transformed water from the Indian Ocean into a steady potable water 

supply. Between November 1992 and March 1993, up to 101 personnel of the 823d RED HORSE 

were deployed to support operation RESTORE HOPE. When beddown activities were completed, 

the RED HORSE personnel turned the facilities over to the Prime BEEF team deployed from Dover 

AFB, Delaware.628

Between September and November 1993, another 19-member team from the 823d RED HORSE 

was deployed to Mogadishu. This group provided force protection for Air Force ground support 

equipment and Army aviation assets. Its primary task was to build bin-type revetments to protect Air 

Force ground equipment and Army helicopters. The team installed metal-panel revetments from kits 

into box-shaped segments around the assets needing protection. The working conditions were hostile 

and included periods of being under fire from small arms and rocket-propelled grenades.629

During 1993, President Clinton modified the U.S. military mission in Somalia from humanitarian 

assistance to nation building by disarming local militias and trying to capture a noted war lord. In 

October 1993, a gun battle in downtown Mogadishu resulted in U.S. and civilian casualties. The United 

States was humiliated by images of a killed U.S. soldier being dragged through the streets. President 

Clinton announced a troop withdrawal by the end of March 1994. As a result of that experience in 

Somalia, the United States became reluctant to intervene in other armed humanitarian interventions, 

which strained relations with the UN.630

Haiti

On September 29, 1991, elected Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide was forced into exile by 

Lt. Gen. Raul Cedras. Aristide had only been in office since February after decades of dictatorship. 

One week later, President George H.W. Bush suspended foreign assistance to Haiti, prohibited U.S. 

companies to make payments to the de facto regime, and froze its financial assets. An international 

trade embargo was next imposed on Haiti at the insistence of the Organization of American States 

(OAS). As a consequence, the financial stress coupled with political violence led to an exodus of 

Haitian refugees.631

Carpenters from the 820th RED HORSE Squadron, Nellis AFB, Nevada, put together a hard wood floor for a 

future tent location in Port au Prince, Haiti in support of Operation Uphold Democracy, 1994.
Responding To New Challenges 503

The UN and the OAS condemned the coup and applied economic sanctions. In July 1994, the UN 

Security Council gave President Clinton authorization to lead an intervention into Haiti. President 

Clinton sent 20,000 troops into Haiti in September 1994.632 As the force approached Haiti, Haitian 

military officials relented and agreed to step down after former President James Carter’s negotiations. 

President Clinton’s military operation instead became a humanitarian operation, known as Operation 

Uphold Democracy.

633 The continuous airlifts provided vital food and support to refugees. The 820th 

RED HORSE Squadron assisted in the operation by constructing bare base camps for 1,500 deployed 

military personnel and repairing transportation routes in 1994. Camps were constructed using 334 

tons of Harvest Eagle assets.634

Concurrently, the 820th RED HORSE Squadron aided in another related endeavor, Operation Sea

Signal. The operation was another joint task force designed to stop the flow of illegal immigrants into 

the United States. Navy and Coast Guard personnel intercepted the Haitian and Cuban refugees and 

transported them to a refugee camp at Guantanamo Bay. RED HORSE constructed camps for relief 

workers and military personnel as well as assisting Seabees with construction of the refugee camps 

for approximately 50,000 refugees.635 In 1995, a RED HORSE advanced echelon unit deployed to 

Haiti to support efforts in planning designs for long-range projects.636 On April 17, 1996, Operation 

Uphold Democracy concluded.637

Balkans and Kosovo

By the beginning of the 1990s, ethnic tensions in the country of Yugoslavia escalated and resulted 

in civil war. Former provinces declared independence from the central government, but Slobodan 

Milosevic, then President of Yugoslavia, was determined to retain control by force. While NATO, the 

European Union, and the United States watched, the former Yugoslavia disintegrated and the subsequent civil war resulted in ethnic cleansing in Croatia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. The European Union 

proposed a peace plan in 1993, but did not gain U.S. support. After the Serbs shelled 70 Bosnians 

in the marketplace in Sarajevo in February 1994, the United States sponsored a diplomatic mission 

to negotiate peace with President Milosevic. When the U.S.-led diplomatic mission failed, NATO 

launched air strikes against Bosnian Serb military targets beginning August 30, 1995 and lasting 11 

days. In all, 3,515 sorties were flown, with the United States flying 2,319 (65.9 percent) of them. The 

air strikes brought President Milosevic to participate in peace talks among the Serbians, Bosnians, and 

Croats at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio, in November 1995.638 The Dayton Peace Accords 

ending three years of fighting in Bosnia was signed in Paris on December 14, 1995.

Allied forces, including the United States, Russia, and 10 other nations, shared in Operation Joint

Endeavor to keep the peace in Bosnia beginning in late December 1995. The United States committed 20,000 soldiers to Task Force Eagle. The Air Force Air Mobility Command (AMC) flew 3,000 

missions, ferrying 15,600 troops and 30,100 short tons of cargo to the region. The airfield at Tuzla in 

Bosnia-Herzegovina served as the primary port of entry.639 Air Force civil engineers from AMC and 

USAFE deployed to Tuzla AB, Bosnia; Taszar AB, Hungary; and, several other locations to support 

tanker airlift control element operations. Air Force civil engineer support included specialists in airfield 

lighting, EOD, firefighting, airfield pavements, and snow removal.640

EOD personnel were deployed early to protect personnel by eliminating or reducing threats posed 

by U.S. and foreign ordnance, such as randomly deployed mines, improvised explosive devices, and 

unexploded ordnance. Many occupied airfields used by Allied forces had been mined. Tuzla AB had 

been mined three times since 1960, and 3,000 mines were estimated to still be in place within the fence 

line of the air base. EOD personnel in deployment situations provided education about unexploded 

ordnance, supported aircraft launch and recovery during all scheduled flights, cleared areas for airfield repair/expansion, removed recovered unexploded ordnance recovery, analyzed and neutralized 

improvised explosive devices, provided very important person protective security, and collected and 
504 Leading the Way

disposed of hazardous souvenirs collected by deployed personnel.641 By fall 1996, EOD technicians 

from the 4100th Group (Provisional) assigned to Tuzla AB had conducted nearly 350 operations and 

destroyed 475 pieces of ordnance.642

The 823d RED HORSE from Hurlburt Field, Florida, was deployed starting December 15, 1995, 

not to restore and expand an airfield in Bosnia as originally planned, but to bed down the Army in a 

tent camp at Tuzla AB. Although Col. Susanne Waylett, unit commander, had been informed that RED 

HORSE was not needed to support the strategic airlift, she sent an advance team to inventory RED 

HORSE equipment stationed in Italy and a second team to Ramstein AB, Germany, with instructions 

to be prepared to order materials. When the formal tasking arrived for the unit to deploy, the advance 

elements were in place. The first team of RED HORSE (RH-1) deployed immediately, followed by 

227 people with equipment. All deployed Air Force personnel headed to Bosnia were required to 

complete three days of training in Germany in cold weather survival, mine awareness, and laws of 

armed conflict. While in Germany, the team repalletized its cargo for airlift into Bosnia and began 

ordering supplies. RH-1 reached Tuzla on December 24, 1995 and found Army troops living in crowded 

conditions. RH-1 members began to build tents for themselves and their incoming unit, as well as 

tents for Army personnel. RED HORSE averaged construction of 20 hardback GP medium tents per 

day to house 1,650 personnel at what became known as Tuzla Main. RED HORSE constructed three 

other tent cities using the Army’s Force Provider beddown equipment and hardback tents. In all, the 

four tent cities accommodated 5,000 personnel.643

Colonel Waylett well remembered her time commanding the RED HORSE unit assigned to Bosnia. 

After the tasking came through to build three tent cities to support 5,500 Army personnel, Colonel 

Waylett met with Army representatives in Europe and found that requirements for the beddown were 

ill-defined, the sites were not selected, and the time frames were unrealistic. The Army’s plans did 

not account for “the rules of doing beddown, like setting priorities for resources, setting priorities for 

equipment, working together, doing this before that and that. When you select a site, you evaluate 

The 823d RED HORSE Squadron, Hurlburt Field, Florida, builds a tent city at Tuzla Air Base, Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Responding To New Challenges 505

things like drainage, power supply, water supply. We had that experience; they didn’t.”644 But the 

Army personnel on the ground were grateful to the RED HORSE for bedding them down. Colonel 

Waylett recalled,

the gratification for that job came from the young soldiers that you met walking down 

the road in the mud at Tuzla. They would stop you and say, “Thank you. We know 

you’re building these for us, and it’s great.” And we were criticized when we came 

back, by some of the Army engineers in some higher places, for providing a standard 

of living that was excessive. We provided the standard that we’re used to providing. 

That was an experience of a lifetime.645

A Prime BEEF team from the 52d CES, Spangdahlem AB, Germany, was deployed to Tuzla AB 

to operate and maintain the base beginning in late December 1995. The team comprised personnel 

with a variety of specialties, including heavy equipment operators, electricians, plumbers, and airfield 

lighting. Snow removal from the runways was particularly important during the winter when 18 inches 

of snow fell in 12 hours. The Prime BEEF team was able to keep Tuzla AB operational when other 

airports had to shut down. At the end of its deployment, the Prime BEEF team turned over most of 

the base operations and maintenance to a U.S. contractor.646

Fire protection for the Tuzla AB was provided by a team of firefighters deployed from the 100th 

CES fire department, Royal Air Force Mildenhall, Great Britain. Three members of the team arrived 

823d RED HORSE Squadron commander Col. Susanne Waylett in Bosnia during Operation JOINT ENDEAVOR with Navy Admiral Leighton Smith (right), commander of Allied Forces Southern Europe.
506 Leading the Way

on December 11, followed by 9 other team members, who arrived on December 22. The first team 

unloaded its fire truck in six minutes, filled it with water, and was ready to start its duties the same night 

it arrived. Deployed firefighters were always on standby near the runway while aircraft were flying. 

The team also installed smoke detectors in all facilities and tents, as well as educated all personnel 

stationed at the base on fire safety and evacuation procedures.647

As Operation Joint Endeavor continued, Air Force civil engineers rotated through air bases. Air 

National Guard and Reserves were integrated with active duty personnel to sustain 24-hour operations 

at Taszar AB, Hungary, during 1997. Civil engineer personnel were deployed in 120-day rotations 

to support the Army’s capability to receive and deploy cargo and personnel and medical evacuation 

airlifts as needed.648

In spring and summer 1998, fighting erupted between the Serbs and the ethnic Albanians in the 

province of Kosovo. In September, the UN demanded a cease-fire and the removal of Serbian troops. 

In October 1998, under the threat of NATO air strikes, the Serbs agreed to discontinue their attack. The 

cease fire held until January 1999, when fighting resumed. Peace negotiations ended in late February 

without agreement. During March 1999, Serbian armed forces began the removal of ethnic Albanian 

citizens of Kosovo who were primarily of Muslim heritage. Citizens were expelled from their homes 

and told to leave the province. Many ethnic Albanians were killed, and homes were looted and burned. 

NATO responded with air strikes to subdue Slobodan Milosevic’s forces. Operation Noble Anvil, 

the U.S. contribution to the overall NATO effort called Operation Allied Force, began on March 24, 

1999 when B-2 and B-52 missions were launched to strike at Serbian military command and control 

stations. In addition to Air Force missions, the U.S. Navy launched Tomahawk land-attack missiles. 

Air strikes continued until June 10, using nearly 1,300 aircraft contributed by 13 countries. The United 

States contributed nearly two-thirds of the aircraft, which came from all four services. U.S. aircraft 

flew from 28 bases in 11 countries. On June 9, 1999, a military technical agreement was signed to end 

the conflict. Yugoslav armed forces were given 11 days to withdraw from Kosovo. The withdrawal 

was monitored by British, French, and U.S. forces.649

Air Force civil engineers were involved in the effort by February 1999 when AFCESA’s Airfield 

Pavements Evaluation team started to receive requests for copies of pavement evaluations completed 

in 1995 during NATO Operation Joint Endeavor. They were also asked to conduct airfield pavement 

evaluations for locations in Albania. By April, airfield pavement specialists from AFCESA were 

deployed to Europe to conduct tests at numerous airfields in Slovenia, Belgium, Germany, Hungary, 

France, Italy, Albania, and Macedonia. In all, 17 airfields in 10 countries were analyzed during April 

and May 1999. The testing program both assessed the structure and determined the load-bearing 

capacity of runway, taxiway, and apron pavements to support aircraft, especially heavy cargo planes. 

The baseline data documented runway conditions prior to use by NATO to determine necessary repairs 

prior to returning to host countries.650

CEMIRT, also part of AFCESA, was tasked to train deploying civil engineer personnel on the 

operation and maintenance of 750-megawatt power generators. CEMIRT supported USAFE to acquire 

hydraulic power units for the mobile aircraft arresting systems placed on bases throughout Europe. 

CEMIRT worked with USAFE to maximize its purchases by researching information on expeditionary airfield lighting systems and construction information for helicopter pads. CEMIRT also provided 

cost estimates for installation of lightweight Fairlead beams to support the mobile aircraft arresting 

systems.651

Throughout USAFE, civil engineers began to plan for a substantial increase of deployed aircraft 

and troops for two major operations: the air campaign known as Operation NobleAnvil and a humanitarian effort to support Kosovar refugees in Albania known as Shining Hope. The first challenge was to 

identify operating bases. In the past, USAFE had main operating bases and collocated operating bases 

to handle overflow during wartime, but the number of bases in USAFE was drawn down to six main 

operating bases and 80 geographically separated units. Operating bases had to be identified, assessed, 
Responding To New Challenges 507

and evaluated for use, and permission for use from host nations was required. Then the bases had to 

be prepared to receive incoming aircraft and personnel. Civil engineers were vital to bedding down 

incoming aircraft and troops and sustaining the bases during the action. In all, more than 900 civil 

engineer personnel were deployed to 20 locations on two continents.652 These included members of 

both Prime BEEF and RED HORSE teams. Specialists included liquid fuels maintenance engineers to 

maintain the liquid fuel systems used to fuel aircraft, runway maintenance personnel to keep runways 

operational and free from foreign objects to prevent damage to aircraft, electricians to maintain airfield 

lighting systems 24 hours per day, and power production troops to maintain electricity and to repair 

aircraft arresting barriers and mobile arresting systems. Seventy firefighters with 10 aircraft rescue 

firefighting vehicles were deployed to 11 locations. EOD specialists worked extended hours to keep 

deployed personnel and aircraft safe from explosives hazards.653

Aviano AB, Italy became the primary launching base in the air campaign. In February 1999, at 

Aviano AB, the 31st Civil Engineer Squadron began construction of a tent city named Caserma Barbarisi to house up to 4,000 additional Air Force personnel deployed to support their aircraft. Assisted 

by civil engineer teams deployed from Ramstein AB and Spangdahlem AB in Germany, Air Force 

Members of the 52d CES, Spangdahlem AB, Germany, assemble a Harvest Eagle shower/wastewater distribution pump for a tent city at Aviano AB, Italy.
508 Leading the Way

civil engineers erected more than 200 tents and a dining facility in less than one week. Air Force civil 

engineers also electrified the tent city, erected an electric substation, and resurfaced six aircraft parking pads.654 Another project completed by the civil engineers was renovation of an Italian dormitory 

in the flightline support area to accommodate 600 additional personnel. Twelve electricians, power 

production specialists, and equipment operators from the 823d RED HORSE Squadron from Hurlburt 

Field, Florida, deployed to Aviano AB to install primary electric cable, three electric substations, three 

secondary distribution lines with 27 power panels, and 224 air conditioning units.655 Other projects 

completed at Aviano AB included construction of a permanent boiler facility with a 1,000-gallon water 

heater, office renovations, and erection of a troop support area in the tent city.656

At Tirana, Albania, Rinas Airport was transformed into an air base. The airport was selected as a 

major hub to receive and transship humanitarian supplies for Kosovar refugees as part of JTF Shining 

Hope. On April 4, 1999, 7 members of an advance Prime BEEF team from the 86th Civil Engineer 

Group from Ramstein AB, Germany, deployed to Tirana. Their mission was to bed down operations 

at the airport, to erect Harvest Eagle kits to accommodate 400 Air Force personnel near the flightline, 

and to bed down Army personnel as part of JTF Hawk. In four-and-a-half days, the civil engineers 

constructed a tent city that typically required 10 days to construct. Followed by 98 additional personnel who arrived on April 7, the Prime BEEF team built-up a muddy former soccer field on which to 

erect more than 100 TEMPER tents using Harvest Eagle assets. Construction proceeded despite days 

of heavy rain. Completed by April 30, a detachment of 36 Prime BEEF personnel remained to sustain 

the base and continued to improve the living conditions.657

For Operation Noble Anvil, the RED HORSE adopted a “hub and spoke” organization. The 823d 

and 820th RED HORSE squadrons were deployed to Ramstein AB, Germany. From there, advanced 

teams were sent to air bases to assess what manpower and equipment was required to make the bases 

operational. The RED HORSE contingent stationed at Camp Darby, Italy, where the pre-positioned 

RED HORSE equipment was located was then able to ship the appropriate equipment as required. 

Larger RED HORSE teams were deployed to complete the work and then redeployed to complete 

other tasks.658 By the end of the campaign, the 823d RED HORSE had deployed 229 personnel to 

operate in seven sites in five countries.659

Eight members of the 823d RED HORSE deployed to Tirana on April 16, 1999, followed by 

an additional 94 members. By early July, the RED HORSE team worked on the following projects: 

replaced failing airfield ramp and constructed new parking pavement, built a new 987-ft concrete 

taxiway, built a cargo storage area, repaired and repaved a three-mile perimeter road, constructed a 

medical evacuation helicopter pad, upgraded the electric power grid to the tent city, and constructed 

fuel pads. Eighty-one members of the 820th RED HORSE from Nellis AFB, Nevada, were deployed 

to Tirana on June 8 to support in-theater civil engineer activities. The 820th completed the concrete 

taxiway at Tirana AB, repaired roads and bridges, and constructed a school in Albania.660

At Taszar, Hungary, a RED HORSE team was tasked to evaluate airfield repairs and upgrades 

necessary to accommodate three squadrons of Marine Corps F-18 Hornets and one squadron of A-10 

Warthogs. The taxiway at the airfield was almost non-operational and required milling and installation 

of a 3-inch asphalt lift. Heavy equipment was required immediately; assets were borrowed from an 

existing camp in Bosnia and arrived in an Army convoy. By the end of the project, the RED HORSE 

team had milled and overlayed with asphalt 80,000 square meters of taxiway, constructed a cargo area 

for ammunition supplies, and constructed a 100 x100-ft radar approach control pad.661

A 40-person RED HORSE team set up two Harvest Falcon sets at Balikesir AB, Turkey, to bed 

down three F-15 Eagle squadrons.662 Given 21 days to erect a tent city for 2,200 persons, the RED 

HORSE team was deployed from Ramstein AB, Germany. Equipment was leased in Turkey using the 

AFCAP program. The first Harvest Falcon assets arrived May 31, 1999. With the help of a bare base 

team from the 49th Materiel Maintenance Squadron, Holloman AFB, New Mexico, the beddown was 

completed on June 7, 1999, two weeks ahead of schedule.663
Responding To New Challenges 509

During March 1999, AFCESA staff and Air Force readiness planners began discussions about constructing and maintaining a refugee camp. The U.S. State Department reported that 560,000 Kosovars 

had fled their homes and become refugees in neighboring countries. Using AFCAP as a funding vehicle, 

the AFCAP contractor RMS L.C. was directed in early April to prepare estimates to construct and to 

maintain a refugee camp for 10,000 persons with expansion to accommodate 20,000. By mid-April, 

the decision was made to contract with the private sector to construct the refugee camp. The Air Force 

issued “execute orders” through AFCAP on April 22, 1999; official notice to proceed was issued on 

April 26, 1999 to build a refugee camp to accommodate 20,000. Tents to shelter 2,500 refugees were 

required by May 12, 1999.664

RMS, L.C., was supported by subcontractors Bechtel National, Inc., Lockwood-Greene Technologies, International American Products, Inc., and Fritz Government Services.665 By April 26, 1999, the 

final site for the camp was selected, two RMS staffers were on site, and 453 military tents were in 

transit from Italy to the Albanian port of entry at Durres. These tents previously were used at a tent 

city at the Prince Sultan Air Base, Saudi Arabia.666 Air Force EOD certified the camp site clear of ordnance on May 1, 1999 and the initial shipment of tents arrived. The first tents were erected by May 4, 

1999. RMS, L.C. staffers on site numbered 13 on May 7, and rose to a peak 81 employees. Labor was 

provided by Albanian workers, who numbered 50 on May 7 and rose to 424 by June 1999. Security to 

the camp was provided by 140 U.S. Marines.667 Leasing local machinery proved challenging due to the 

scarcity of modern equipment. RMS, L.C., subsequently contracted with a supplier in Turkey to provide machinery and equipment operators, who eventually numbered 68.The tents originally provided 

by the U.S. government developed torn seams, fabric sags, and leaks; higher grade commercial tents 

were used for the remainder of the installation.668 On June 15, 1999, Camp Hope was completed and 

officially turned over to the Air Force. The camp had the capacity to accommodate 18,234 refugees. The 

first 490 refugees arrived on May 13, 1999. By May 18, the camp provided shelter to 1,858 refugees. 

By June 9, 3,466 refugees occupied the camp. Two additional camps each housing 20,000 refugees 

were under construction but were not completed before the end of hostilities on June 9, 1999. By the 

end of June, most refugees at Camp Hope had returned to Kosovo and camp operations ceased. On 

July 2, 1999, the JTF Shining Hope mission was declared complete and the camp was dismantled.669

Engineers from the 823d RED HORSE Squadron move dirt at Rinas Airport, Tirana, Albania, during Opera- tion ALLIED FORCE, 1999.
510 Leading the Way

Among the last tasks completed under JTF Shining Hope through AFCAP was shipment of excess 

materiel from Durres, Albania to an Army warehouse in Germany.670

After the air strikes ceased and the combat was over, 7,000 U.S. service members served as part 

of the 48,000 member international peacekeeping mission Operation Joint Guardian headquartered at 

Pristina, Kosovo.671 As part of that mission, EOD specialists remained in the U.S.-assigned sector of 

Kosovo to clean up and clear away the bombs that had been dropped and the mines left by retreating 

soldiers so that returning citizens were safe on their lands. EOD teams were especially pleased with 

the adaptability of the Air Force Research Laboratory’s All-Purpose Remote Transport System.672

Expeditionary Aerospace Force (EAF)

The increasing tempo of Air Force missions and the continuous rotation of personnel overseas 

required a new method to structure deployments. On August 4, 1998, F. Whitten Peters, Acting Secretary of the Air Force, and Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Michael E. Ryan announced a new plan 

to transform the Air Force into an Expeditionary Aerospace Force (EAF). Secretary Peters defined 

the concept to the Pentagon press, “recently we have also been experimenting with moving a large 

integrated force of fighter and bomber aircraft into a foreign theater as a unit with integrated command 

and control to give an area CINC the ability to put large, sustained firepower onto targets within 72 

hours of an execute order. We have called these forces air expeditionary forces” (AEFs).”673

Operation Vigilant Warrior was viewed by many as a catalyst for creating the EAF. In 1994, 

Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq, massed troops along the southern border of Iraq. This move 

induced fears of another invasion of Kuwait or of an attack on Saudi Arabia. As a result, U.S. forces 

quickly acted and transported 21,000 troops and 10,000 tons of supplies into the area within 10 days. 

Prepositioned resources from the Marine Corps and the Army expedited the operation. This operation 

prompted Lt. Gen. John P. Jumper, who served as the commander of USCENTAF and the Ninth Air 

Force, to reexamine Air Force capabilities and the potential to create an expeditionary force.674 One 

year after Operation Vigilant Warrior, the Air Force began working with the Navy in a rotational 

deployment as part of Operation Southern Watch. These operations prompted General Jumper to 

create a prototype AEF and proposed a force of 36 aircraft for a 60-day deployment. Once his plan 

was approved by ACC, CSAF, and CENTCOM, it was put into motion. On October 28, 1995, AEF I 

Camp Hope near Fier, Albania, was built to house up to 20,000 Albanian Kosovar refugees in spring 1999 

through AFCAP.
Responding To New Challenges 511

was deployed to Shaikh Isa, Bahrain; the force was made up of 576 personnel and was deployed for 

51 days. Seven additional AEFs were deployed between April 1996 and March 1998.675

The August 1998 announcement proposed the creation of 10 AEFs. In the past, deployments were 

determined by the selection of units for a specific operation or mission. The proposed EAF structure 

introduced a more integrated mechanism, with 10 AEFs that melded active, Air Force Reserve, and 

Air National Guard personnel from wings, groups and squadrons. The AEF relied increasingly on the 

Total Force concept. Ten percent of each AEF were ANG and Reserve troops.676 Each AEF featured 

a range of weapon systems capabilities and each force was trained as one unit. One key advantage 

of the EAF plan was the potential to control the deployment tempo through advanced planning and 

scheduling. Each proposed AEF deployed for up to 90 days every 15 months. Defined deployment 

periods were a key aspect of the EAF concept, and addressed the greatest complaint among troops 

concerning frequent deployments with little advanced warning.

Deployments overseas also impacted personnel left to maintain CONUS air bases. The creation 

of AEFs addressed these concerns as well. Planners anticipated using ANG and Reserve personnel to 

backfill positions left open by deployed military personnel and contractors to fill less critical roles. 

The support force comprised 5,000 personnel slots to be distributed among bases. Secretary Peters 

stated, “we have wonderful Airmen who will do all that we ask them to do, but we have been asking 

them to do too much. Through the Expeditionary Aerospace Force initiative we hope to address these 

concerns and in the process achieve better retention rates among all of our people.”677

As the EAF concept underwent revisions, the Air Force civil engineer role evolved. Of the potential 

5,000 personnel slots available for home base support, civil engineering had the potential to capture 

1,100 slots. According to Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “AF CEs will play a significant role supporting 

AEFs, at home and abroad, solidifying the requirements for 28,401 active and reserve component 

engineers. Each AEF includes a full complement of Prime BEEF personnel, fire, explosive ordnance 

disposal and readiness capabilities while RED HORSE units will be available as on-call forces to each 

AEF.”678 Brig. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II also commented on the benefits that EAF. He was particularly 

pleased that the EAF structure allowed personnel to schedule around deployments, “whether it be 

pursuing a degree, scheduling annual leave, or just having a much better handle on when they’re likely 

to be called to go somewhere.” General Robbins also praised the efforts made during EAF planning 

stages to address the workload of home bases during deployment, “we’re providing some relief to the 

home-station workload as a consequence of all these deployments...when units like civil engineers, 

security forces, and communications deploy from home station there is a ‘hole’ left behind; there’s a 

void left in the squadron back home that still has to support that base.”679

On March 5, 1999, after multiple drafts, revisions, and reviews, the Air Force released the list of 

17 “lead wings” for the 10 AEFs. In addition to the lead wings, two on-call wings were designated. 

The same month, the crisis in Kosovo overshadowed implementation of the plan. Those involved with 

the EAF initiative realized that the longer EAF was delayed, the more likely that it would be placed 

entirely on the backburner. Delays also increased the likelihood for further refinement of the plan. 

General Ryan continued the push to implement the EAF model. In May, he mandated the “stand up” 

date for the designated 10 AEFs as October 1, 1999. Along with General Ryan, others scrambled to 

illustrate how an EAF scenario could be applied in Kosovo. With the close of conflict in Kosovo in 

June, this priority lost momentum; however, General Ryan did not give up, and on October 1, 1999, 

implementation of the AEF concept began. By May 1, 2000, the first two AEFs under the new plan 

were deployed for Northern Watch.

680

During his announcement on August 4, 1998, General Ryan described the concept of an expeditionary force, 

It’s a systematic way to be able to present rapidly responsive forces that are light 

and lean tailored to the needs of the CINC. It’s an integration of our total Air Force, 
512 Leading the Way

something we haven’t done in the past. Using our Guard and Reserve forces in a much 

more effective way than we have in the past. Using all of our capabilities across the 

spectrum in an effective way. It’s institutionalizing in our force this expeditionary 

culture.681

What General Ryan and many others initially viewed as a hypothetical concept had become a reality. 

Despite future reorganizations and revisions, the Expeditionary Aerospace Force placed the Air Force 

in the 21st century. As predicted by Secretary Peters, the AEFs allowed the Air Force to be lighter and 

leaner, but also increased their air superiority.682

Following the initial AEF deployments, the Air Combat Command recommended that AEFs be 

assigned a designation that credited their lead wing. As a result, earlier deployments were named 

AEF I thru AEF IV; the first AEF using the ACC recommended method was the 4th AEF with 

the 4th FW as the lead.683

The 4th AEF deployed to Qatar in February 1997. Ahead of the main deployment were 35 engineers 

from the 4th AEW Squadron that deployed in January and February. The first group, with seven 

engineers, specialized in electrical work and general utilities. They joined forces with the 823d 

RED HORSE Squadron to complete assignments noted during the earlier AEF III deployment 

to Qatar. Afterward, they began work on electrical grids and water lines. The second group of 

engineers arrived in February. This group included specialists in EOD, HVAC, and construction. 

They supplied force protection and also constructed facilities essential to house and support 

two-thirds of the entire deployment; this construction was completed in advance of the main 

deployment arrival.684

Under the leadership of Maj. Van Fuller, the 4th Air Expeditionary Wing (AEW) CES totaled 

156 personnel by late February. They constructed and provided support for 147 tents, 51 shop 

buildings, and a variety of MWR facilities. During their deployment, they experienced record 

breaking rainfall. The civil engineers quickly installed manufactured floors in the tents to counteract 

the wet environment. The 4th AEF concluded their deployment in June. The unit’s excellence 

was formally recognized when its members received all of the end-of-deployment awards for 

“outstanding performance,” for the entire wing.685

4th Air Expeditionary Force

Civic Action and Training MOOTW

Civic action and training programs were also examples of MOOTW. Deployments under these 

programs often achieved several objectives by combining training with nation building through the 

New Horizons program. The Air Force also continued its participation in the long-standing Civic Action 

Program to support economic development in Trust Territories of the Pacific Islands.

Under Total Force, ANG and Reserve personnel saw a dramatic rise in real world deployments as 

they participated in an increasing number of Air Force operations. Training for ANG and Reserve forces 

radically changed, incorporating more opportunities to train overseas while conducting humanitarian 

and nation building activities.686 This training often occurred with active duty personnel, in a joint 

environment with members of other U.S. Armed Services, and sometimes with members of foreign 

military forces and civilian populations. 
Responding To New Challenges 513

Civic Action Teams

Air Force civil engineers continued to serve on civic action teams sent to the Trust Territories 

of the Pacific Islands to assist in economic development in that region. In 1990, 13 volunteers were 

requested to serve an eight-month tour on Chuuk Island. The team members typically comprised one 

commander, one non-commissioned officer, three heavy equipment operators, two carpenters, one 

plumber, one engineering assistant, one interior electrician, two heavy equipment mechanics, and one 

independent medical technician. The tasks outlined for the teams included medium horizontal and 

small vertical construction projects. Four teams were scheduled through 1990 and two teams were 

selected in 1991. During the early 1990s, the teams were selected and assembled by AFESC. After 

the reorganization in 1991, the Air Force Military Personnel Center assembled the teams, which were 

deployed yearly throughout the decade.687

Deployments for Training

Deployments for training combined annual training required for active duty, Reserve, and ANG 

units with humanitarian assistance and nation building in foreign countries. These programs typically 

were joint efforts comprising personnel from several branches of the U.S. Armed Services combined 

with military counterparts in the host countries. The two programs described below were administered 

by major operational commands.

New Horizons or “Nuevos Horizontes”

The program called New Horizons or “Nuevos Horizontes” grew out of an initiative of Headquarters U.S. Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM) to support the nations in Central and South 

America. Begun in 1984 under Joint Task Force-Bravo, the program was called “Fuertes Caminos” 

and was organized and run by the U.S. Army as a combination civic action and military construction program.688 The Air Force sent RED HORSE members to participate in the exercises as early as 

1988.689 In early 1990, AFESC personnel attended a deployment for training conference sponsored 

by USSOUTHCOM to discuss a strategy to support the militaries in Central American countries in 

nation building activities. Deployment for training activities combined both training for U.S. military 

personnel, but also transferred skills and technical capabilities to others through humanitarian and 

civic action projects in host countries. 690

In March 1990, members of the 820th RED HORSE were assigned to work in Honduras establishing a landing strip and building two schools, five playgrounds and a community well. Eight members 

of the team were wounded during a guerrilla attack.691

After 1992, the Twelfth Air Force, which had assumed responsibility for the U.S. Air Forces in 

USSOUTHCOM in 1987, assigned all deployments for the Fuertes Caminos program, which was 

subsequently renamed New Horizons in 1996.692 The program provided useful training deployments 

for active, Reserve and Air National Guard members. In 1995, members from the civil engineer squadrons from Columbus AFB, Mississippi, and Dyess AFB, Texas, deployed for Fuertes Caminos ’95-El 

Salvador. Joining with members from the U.S. Army, Navy, and the Salvadoran Army, the purpose of 

the deployment was to build 10 schools, 2 bridges, and 15 water wells in local communities. The 36 

members of the 14th CES from Columbus AFB, learned a lot about hands-on construction by having 

to mix their own concrete and place it into molds to form the walls.693

During 1996, approximately 250 Air Force reservists from Grissom ARB, Indiana; Carswell ARS, 

Texas; and, Niagara Falls ARS, New York, joined with soldiers and Marines in a joint task force to 

build schools and medical clinics in several locations in southwestern Honduras. The reservists worked 

in two-week rotations. Projects completed during the exercise included setting up and breaking down 
514 Leading the Way

camp for the exercise participants; building schools, medical clinics, and a kitchen; grading a soccer 

field; installing latrines and running water; and, repairing equipment.694

During 1997, active duty and reserve Air Force civil engineers participated in New Horizons 

projects in Guyana, Haiti, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Panama, Brazil, and Chile. Of particular 

note was New Horizon Guyana 97, which was led by the Twelfth Air Force through Combined Task 

Force (CTF) Falcon. CTF Falcon comprised Air Force civil engineers, Marine Corps engineers, Army 

and Air Force medical personnel, U.S. and Guyanese security forces, and Guyanese Defense Force 

engineers for a total of 377 personnel; U.S. members of the CTF numbered 287. The cost of the project 

was over $7.2 million.695 The 820th RED HORSE at Nellis AFB, Nevada, led the task force, organized 

and implemented the projects, and contributed 120 members to complete the exercise. CTF Falcon was 

tasked with setting up and breaking down a base camp and three outlying camps in remote areas, and 

constructing and renovating school buildings, medical clinics, and a retirement home. The exercise 

lasted from July 16 through September 13, 1997.696

The project New Horizons-Haiti 97 came about after the responsibility for continued operations in Haiti under Operation Uphold Democracy was transferred from the U.S. Atlantic Command 

to USSOUTHCOM. Force protection, administration and logistical support were transferred to the 

Twelfth Air Force as the lead agency. New Horizons-Haiti 97 was designed as a series of deployments 

for training activities that ultimately deployed 645 military personnel between June and December 

1997. The Air Force sent Prime BEEF teams to complete construction projects and drill wells, and 

medical teams.697

New Horizons became an annual series of exercises that took place in several countries for a variety 

of purposes. Typically the program supported engineering, construction, and medical missions. Participants gained valuable training experience in austere conditions in remote areas, as well as training 

in project planning and logistics. In 1998, a 13-member team from the 820th RED HORSE squadron 

from Nellis AFB, Nevada, drilled water wells to provide fresh water to three remote communities in 

Peru as part of Nuevos Horizontes Disease Intervention 98. Pre-project planning involved Air Force 

civil engineers, as well as Army and Navy components. The Army provided the plans, the Air Force 

performed the drilling operations, and the Navy provided the drilling equipment and training to Air 

Force personnel on equipment use. The team included a project engineer, a project manager, an electrician, a utility craftsman, a mechanic, seven pavements and construction equipment personnel and a 

medical technician. The team was deployed between June 5 and July 5 and drilled four water wells.698

Members of the 820th RED HORSE Squadron, Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, work on rebuilding the Malali 

District schoolhouse as part of New Horizons-Guyana 1997.
Responding To New Challenges 515

In 1999, the New Horizons program included projects in El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, the 

Dominican Republic, and Honduras. Many activities included recovery efforts from Hurricane Mitch 

in 1998. One important benefit from these New Horizons deployments was the successful deployments 

to conduct operations following Hurricane Mitch. In all, 20,000 active duty, Air National Guard, and 

Air Force Reserves personnel participated in the training exercises. In Nicaragua, a Prime BEEF 

team built a base camp on an abandoned Nicaraguan military base to support up to 400 persons. This 

required building tent floors, renovating and electrifying existing buildings, repairing the sewer system 

and erecting a hardback toilet facility. The Prime BEEF team worked in coordination with Marine 

Wing Support Squadron to lay out the camp. The base camp served as the home for incoming civil 

engineers, Army, and Marine teams who completed projects to assist the local residents.699 In Honduras, 

Air Force civil engineers from March AFB, California, worked with Army and Air Force Guard and 

Reserve personnel to build a 480-personnel tent city to support later deployments, three schools and 

three medical facilities in local communities, and a new bridge.700

In Bolivia, the 819th RED HORSE squadron joined with a multi-service and multi-national team 

to drill the deepest water well ever drilled by the Air Force. This team drilled two solar-powered water 

wells; both wells were drilled to a depth of over 1,000 feet. This activity was one of many projects that 

occurred between May and September 1999. The team also improved drainage and erosion control 

on a stretch of dirt road by applying runway construction techniques, as well as constructing a bridge, 

laying concrete lanes for stream fords, and constructing a concrete school. The newly activated 819th 

used New Horizons deployments to validate its readiness posture.701

In 2000, contingents from the 307th RED HORSE squadron at Kelly AFB, Texas; Detachment 

1, 307th RED HORSE from Barksdale AFB, LA; and the 820th RED HORSE, Nellis AFB, Nevada, 

deployed from January through March to Dangriga, Belize, as part of New Horizons. As members of 

a joint active/reserve team, the team’s mission was to flush out wells and to repair hand pumps on five 

existing water wells and to drill four additional wells.702

The 823d RED HORSE squadron deployed as the lead unit for a CTF for New Horizons 2000 

Jamaica. The mission comprised constructing two new buildings, drilling two new water wells, and 

providing two weeks of free medical care in local communities. RED HORSE set up the base camp 

and proceeded to work on constructing a school for underprivileged girls and a new concrete-block 

operations center containing 3,000 square feet for the Jamaica Defense Force. All participants were 

able to experience construction techniques using both hand tools and power tools. Part of the training 

was to work in an environment where not all equipment and materials was readily available.703

Cornerstone 2000

In 1995, the U.S. European Command began a deployment for training and humanitarian effort 

in the Balkans. In 2000, the focus of the Cornerstone program was Macedonia. More than 200 civil 

engineer personnel from the active duty, Air National Guard and Air Force Reserves joined with combat 

engineers from the Marine Reserve and active duty and reserve Navy Seabees. During a two month 

period, U.S. personnel worked with over 100 Macedonian soldiers and civilians to build two medical 

clinics, two schools, and a community center. One group lead by a Marine constructed a basketball 

court and playground using donated funds.704

Disaster Response

Air Force civil engineers also provided aid to support international and CONUS disaster recovery 

efforts. When hurricanes, typhoons, floods, and other disasters struck Air Force bases, civil engineers 

often were the first responders to help restore utilities, assess damage, and rebuild, both for their bases 

and their surrounding communities. Everywhere Air Force assistance was greatly appreciated. 
516 Leading the Way

International

In September 1996, Air Force civil engineers participated in a humanitarian effort to support the 

12,000 residents of the island of Koror in the Republic of Palau. A bridge that connected Koror with 

another island, Babeldoab, collapsed and left the residents without potable water and electricity for a 

week. Pacific Command commenced Operation Pacific Bridge to alleviate conditions on the island 

of Koror. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers assessed the bridge damage while the Navy acted as the 

Federal Disaster Control Officer. The Air Force supplied four reverse osmosis water purification units 

and three 60kW generators. Seven Air Force civil engineers accompanied the equipment to Koror to 

oversee the installation and operation of the units. In all, the equipment produced 323,000 gallons of 

potable water over a 90-day period until a permanent solution was implemented.705

Civil engineer personnel from Aviano AB provided relief to civilians of Assisi, Italy, after an 

earthquake in 1998 left 4,000 homeless. Civil engineers assisted Italian military and construction 

crews by clearing roads, grading camp sites, and connecting utilities to temporary units.706 On June 27, 

1998, an earthquake at Incirlik, Turkey, killed approximately 144 people and injured 15,000. Thirty 

personnel from Ramstein AB, Germany, volunteered to assess the damage at the air base. The team 

inspected every building for structural damage and inspected off-base housing for U.S. citizens.707

In October of 1998, Hurricane Mitch swept across El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Belize killing more than 10,000 people and destroying thousands of houses. Because of 

the experiences gained from earlier New Horizons deployments, Air Force engineers were able to 

provide a high level of recovery assistance to the region. Soon following the hurricane, a 30-person 

joint service advance team with Col. Michael A. Aimone as senior Air Force engineer, deployed to the 

area to perform damage assessment and prepare for follow-on engineering teams. A combined RED 

HORSE unit comprising 400 personnel from the 819th RED HORSE Squadron and its Air National 

Guard component the 219th RED HORSE Flight, and the 820th RED HORSE Squadron deployed to 

provide needed assistance. The unit completed over 30 projects, mostly road and bridge repairs and 

construction. The RED HORSE unit also constructed a 275-foot long, 10-foot high sea wall to buffer 

the coasts in the future. In Colonel Aimone’s words, “the amount of nation building the U.S. military 

provided during initial hurricane relief efforts in El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Guatemala has set a 

standard for the Air Force.”708

CONUS and Overseas U.S. Air Force Air Bases

Hurricane Andrew

In August 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused tremendous damage to south Florida. With winds up 

to 175 miles per hour, the hurricane caused damages estimated at over $30 billion. Ninety percent 

of the buildings in the affected area were damaged; most of the damage occurred to roofing systems 

that allowed further damage to building interiors. Homestead AFB, Florida, was in the area of greatest impact. All buildings at the base were damaged. The roof of the chapel collapsed, crushing the 

side walls. Many buildings were left roofless. The winds had stripped metal siding off roofs and side 

elevations; metal framing members were twisted and collapsed.709

When Homestead AFB appeared to be directly in the path of Hurricane Andrew, 90 members from 

the 823d RED HORSE at Hurlburt Field, Florida, mobilized and convoyed to the area. The base CE 

squadron at Homestead AFB, which had survived the storm in a separate location, had already returned 

to begin the massive cleanup efforts. The RED HORSE team assisted in clearing debris, righting power 

poles and restringing power lines, and removing $200 million worth of equipment from ruined buildings. The team also constructed a 1,200-person tent city and eight, K-span structures. Each structure 

contained 5,000 square feet. The team repaired the roof on the commissary, rebuilt the Inter-American 
Responding To New Challenges 517

Air Force Academy cafeteria, and assisted in repairing a local, off-base community hospital.710 Prime 

BEEF teams from Seymour Johnson AFB, North Carolina; Barksdale AFB, Louisiana; and Bergstrom 

AFB, Texas, also assisted. These teams comprised carpenters, electricians, and heating, ventilation, and 

air conditioning specialists. A CEMIRT team from Tyndall AFB, Florida, also worked to stabilize the 

power production system.711 On the conditions after the storm, Maj. Chuck Smiley, team chief of the 

RED HORSE team, reported to his headquarters, “Tell the guys who went up to Shaw (AFB, South 

Carolina), that compared to this, Hurricane Hugo was a thunderstorm.”712

Typhoon Omar

 On August 26, 1992, the eye of Typhoon Omar passed over Guam in the Pacific Ocean, causing 

damage to Andersen AFB, as well as the entire island. The 633d CES had prepared the base and its 

inhabitants over the years for this type of emergency, and emergency precautions were activated. The 

CES installed shutters on buildings, checked emergency power supplies, placed back-up generators 

in strategic locations, and moved equipment and vehicles indoors. The 633d also provided sand bags 

and plywood to secure facilities. When Typhoon Omar hit, the winds reached 160 miles per hour and 

over 16 inches of rain fell. During the storm the 633d CES manned the damage control center and 

informed the 633d ABW Crisis Action Team. Some civil engineers also remained at the water well 

pump and sewage lift stations to keep these systems going during the storm. Storm damage included 

loss of commercial electrical power; loss of the base water system; damage to operational building 

roofs, windows and doors; and, damage to 600 military family houses and some dormitories.713

The first step in base recovery was to deploy damage assessment teams. A typical base had four 

damage assessment teams, but to accomplish damage assessments for Andersen AFB’s 1,700 industrial facilities and 1,734 family housing units in a timely fashion required a larger number of teams. 

CE established 60, two-person damage assessment teams to fill out pre-prepared spreadsheets. Team 

members did not need special training to fill in the blanks on the spread sheets and to determine the 

sizes of the holes in the buildings. The completed spreadsheets were turned into a 50-member cost 

estimating team.714 In all, damages cost $54 million to repair. The recovery efforts were assisted by 

the base CE squadron, as well as Prime BEEF teams deployed from other areas in PACAF, including 

Hickam AFB, Hawaii; Yokota AB, Japan; and, Osan AB, ROK. In all, 800 Air Force civil engineer 

personnel assisted in helping Andersen AFB get back to business.

Tropical Storm Alberto 1994

In July 1994, Tropical Storm Alberto came ashore along the Gulf Coast of the United States. High 

winds and heavy rains caused damage at Eglin AFB and Hurlburt Field, Florida, and severe flooding 

at Robins AFB, Georgia. Robins AFB suffered several million dollars’ worth of damage from severe 

flooding. The 653d CES at Robins AFB strove to protect critical utilities, such as power, airfield 

lighting, and the sewage treatment plant. Its members also stayed busy coordinating sand bagging 

efforts to protect critical facilities. Along with recovery efforts to the base, the 653d CES aided the 

local communities surrounding the base. Community efforts included repairing roads, delivering fresh 

water, and supporting local relief efforts.715

Great Plains Flood 1997

The 319th CES provided aid to the Grand Forks, North Dakota, citizens during the Great Plains 

flood in 1997. Personnel “supported sandbagging, water supply, housing, emergency shelter and 

restoration and recovery efforts” in 24-hour shifts. More than 3,000 civilians were evacuated to the 

base after the dikes broke. Potable water on the base quickly became an issue when the water tower 
518 Leading the Way

on base neared empty. Water was trucked in from outside the flood area and reverse osmosis water 

purification units were delivered by the Army National Guard.716

Hurricane Seasons 1998-1999

Hurricane season of 1998 featured 10 hurricanes and four tropical storms, of which three hurricanes 

and four tropical storms came ashore.717 Civil engineers along the coasts braced for the impacts on 

their installations and on the communities. Several units volunteered their support to locations in other 

states and countries. On August 23, 1998, Hurricane Charley struck Del Rio, Texas, and Laughlin 

AFB. The air base was without potable water or natural gas, and the flightline was covered in four feet 

of water. The base CES kept busy repairing buildings, purifying water, and restoring electricity. The 

307th Reserve RED HORSE squadron from Kelly AFB arrived with a ROWPU and assisted the base 

CES.718 CONUS installations affected during the 1998 and 1999 hurricane seasons included: Keesler 

AFB, Kelly AFB, Langley AFB, Pope AFB, and Seymour Johnson AFB.719

Pacific Typhoon Season 1998-1999

PACAF civil engineers faced similar challenges when coping with typhoons and flood damage. On 

August 8, 1998, the 554th RED HORSE Squadron from Osan, ROK, and 51st CES arrived at Army 

Camp Red Cloud to assist in flood damage control and cleanup. Civil engineers constructed levees 

and cleared roadways of mud. The civil engineers then supplied assistance to Camp Casey and Camp 

Hovey. In 11 days, the civil engineer teams “moved 60,000 yards of debris...and completed 13 major 

cleanup projects.”720

On September 22, 1999 Typhoon Bart struck Kadena AFB, Japan, causing $5.7 million in damage. 

Damage Assessment and Repair Teams responded quickly and were able to return power to the main 

part of the base in under four hours. The majority of work was related to tree damage and flooding.721

Summary

The 1990s was a decade of radical reorganization and restructuring for the Air Force and Air Force 

civil engineers; in many respects it established the tone and tempo for civil engineers to be the flexible 

and expeditionary force they would later become. The 1990s began with Air Force civil engineers 

achieving great success in supporting the Air Force mission during the Gulf War 1990-1991. Despite 

real world challenges in logistics and training, Air Force civil engineers accomplished an impressive 

amount of work to bed down troops during Desert Shield and to prepare for Desert Storm in the 

Persian Gulf region. Desert Shield/Desert Storm proved that the civil engineer community was 

well trained and ready for deployment. Serving with both joint and combined forces, Air Force civil 

engineers participated in an increasing number of international actions ranging from peace keeping 

to humanitarian. These included Somalia, Haiti, Bosnia, and Kosovo.

During the early 1990s, the Air Force civil engineers faced personnel cuts, both military and 

civilian, during the radical Air Force restructuring that affected all levels. Disaster preparedness and 

explosive ordnance disposal joined the civil engineer community, while Services was realigned to the 

MWR community. The reorganization trimmed personnel from both the Air Staff and AFCESA, but 

established AFCEE as a new FOA to direct and to support the burgeoning environmental program.

One component of the restructuring was the formation of the objective squadron at the base level. 

Civil engineer personnel became a multi-skilled force within broader career fields. With fewer military 

and civilian personnel to staff the base CE units, outsourcing and privatization initiatives became viable 

alternatives to operate and to maintain the peacetime bases. Base closures also were implemented to 

reduce the physical plant under Air Force control.
Responding To New Challenges 519

During the 1990s, the Air Force continued its aggressive pursuit of education and training programs. Lessons learned from Desert Shield/Desert Storm provided a review of the force’s strengths 

and weaknesses, requiring an assessment of every aspect of troop preparation. The Air Force civil 

engineer was no exception to this postwar evaluation. Educational opportunities offered by AFIT, 

USAFA, and technical training schools were scrutinized to determine their adequacy. Assessments 

were completed by major commands, base civil engineers, faculty, and representatives throughout 

the civil engineer community. In addition, training programs were evaluated through the Readiness 

Training Review. Training activities, such as Readiness Challenges were further reviewed by readiness personnel. The essential goal of these reviews during the 1990s was to produce the ultimate Air 

Force civil engineer warrior—qualified to fulfill the needs of the civil engineer field and capable of 

surpassing expectations. 

Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, The Civil Engineer, who retired in July 1999, expressed pride in the 

daily contribution civil engineers made to the Air Force, especially in deployments. He was proud to 

be told by senior Air Force leadership that “we don’t want to go anyplace without our blue suit civil 

engineers, we don’t want to be bed down by contractors,...we want our people to go with us when we 

go operational.” General Lupia continued, “this is one reason why we have to keep telling people we 

can never give up our blue suit engineering capability-it’s got to be organic to our operations.”722 Brig. 

Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, the succeeding Civil Engineer, was proud to take the reins of the Air Force 

civil engineer organization and to continue to support Air Force missions throughout the world. The 

civil engineer organization was, in his words, “relevant, right-sized, and ready” for transformation in 

the new millennium.723
520 Leading the Way

CHAPTER 6

MEETING THE NEW CENTURY

2001-2012 

INTRODUCTION

The threat of international terrorism became a stark reality as the United States experienced the 

brutal and well-orchestrated suicide attack by Al Qaeda on September 11, 2001. At 8:46 a.m., Al 

Qaeda operatives flew hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 into the north tower of the World Trade 

Center on the southern tip of Manhattan, New York City, New York.1 A second hijacked aircraft, 

United Airlines Flight 175, struck the south tower at 9:03 a.m. At 9:37 a.m., a third hijacked aircraft, 

American Airlines Flight 77, struck the Pentagon near Washington, D.C. A fourth plane crashed into 

a field in rural Pennsylvania at 10:03 a.m. after passengers and flight crew attempted to gain control 

of the hijacked commercial flight. 

The attack resulted in an unprecedented number of civilian causalities and prompted both a military 

response and revised policies for domestic security. As eloquently summarized by Maj. Gen. L. Dean 

Fox, The Civil Engineer between 2003 and 2006, these events “ripped a hole in our nation and its sense 

of security.”2 After September 11, 2001, the U.S. military establishment focused on transformation to 

meet new challenges in a dynamic global environment. 

The Pentagon attack particularly resonated with the Office of The Civil Engineer, which had moved 

from the D-Ring offices of the Pentagon to Crystal City during the 1997 renovation. The former offices 

were damaged directly during the attack.3 The relocated offices of The Civil Engineer in Crystal City 

provided a reconstitution point for the leadership of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Installations and 

Logistics team in the aftermath of the attack.

The U.S. response to the terrorist attack was swift and direct. The security of the country was safeguarded immediately through Operation Noble Eagle (ONE). Those responsible for the attack were 

sought through the initiation of a new kind of war, the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT), renamed 

Overseas Contingency Operations by 2011. Early military planning focused on Afghanistan, where 

Osama Bin Laden, the leader of Al Qaeda, lived and operated training bases for operatives with full 

knowledge of the Taliban government. Within weeks of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the United 

States formed an international coalition drawn from the United Nations (UN), NATO, and others, to 

support the fight against terrorism. Within a month, U.S. military leaders developed a plan for military 

operations and Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), the code name for the war in Afghanistan, began 

on October 7, 2001.4

 After the initial push, military action in Afghanistan waned for a few years as 

military operations in Iraq rose in prominence. A surge to stabilize Afghanistan occurred near the end 

of the decade and continued through 2011.

By 2002, President George W. Bush and his administration were constructing a case for military 

action against dictator Saddam Hussein in Iraq. Since the end of the Gulf War in 1991, the United 

States had supported a policy of containment in Iraq. UN inspectors had been denied access to Iraq to 

check for weapons of mass destruction for several years prior to September 11, 2001. In early 2002, 

President George W. Bush characterized Iraq as one member of the “axis of evil.” Senior advisors to 

the President linked Saddam Hussein to Al Qaeda and cited evidence that Hussein had developed and 

stockpiled weapons of mass destruction. Citing the threat of terrorism and the actions of Iraq as justification, the Bush Administration developed a policy of pre-emptive action as opposed to containment 

and deterrence. This defense strategy was articulated in The National Security Strategy of the United 

States of America dated September 2002. The United States sought to justify military action against 

Iraq through a UN resolution, but did not receive UN support. In March 2003, the United States, supported by Great Britain, initiated a military action against Iraq, known as Operation Iraqi Freedom
Meeting the New Century 521

(OIF). The initial fighting was quickly over and the United States became involved in an insurgency 

and nation rebuilding program that ended in December 2011.5

The new geo-political realities that shaped the operations of the Department of Defense (DoD) and 

the U.S. Armed Services in the twenty-first century were outlined in the Quadrennial Defense Review 

(QDR) published on September 30, 2001. The QDR established the basis for many of the initiatives 

and changes that occurred throughout the decade and affected every level of the military organization, including Air Force civil engineers. While the QDR was drafted mostly prior to the events of 

September 11, 2001, the attacks served to highlight the need to transform DoD and the U.S. Armed 

Services. The term “transformation” became the watch word of the decade. The revised U.S. military 

strategy recognized that attacks upon the United States and its allies were possible from any direction, 

in a variety of ways, and using a variety of weapons, including chemical, biological, and nuclear arms. 

To meet these threats, the U.S. military must be capable of defeating attacks simultaneously in two 

theaters of operation and to decisively win in one of the theaters of operations. The strategy held that 

U.S. forces would fight from forward bases with immediately deployable personnel, including aircraft 

strike capabilities from within and beyond the theater of operations. The U.S. military also needed to 

participate in small-scale contingencies with allies and friends.6

The Secretary of Defense outlined four key goals for the U.S. Armed Services in the 2001 QDR:

• Assuring allies and friends of the United States steadiness of purpose 

 and its capability to fulfill its security commitments;

• Dissuading adversaries from undertaking programs or operations that could 

 threaten United States interests or those of our allies and friends;

• Deterring aggression and coercion by deploying forward the capacity to 

 swiftly defeat attacks and impose severe penalties for aggression on an 

 adversary’s military capability and supporting infrastructure; and, 

• Decisively defeating any adversary if deterrence fails.7

Key strategies were developed to support the new goals. Among these strategies were managing 

risk, shifting military response to a capabilities-based approach, developing a broad portfolio of military capabilities, and transforming defense. Transformation was a critical component, positioning DoD 

and the U.S. Armed Services for efficient operation in the new decade. The transformation process 

was envisioned as a multi-year endeavor. As stated in the 2001 QDR,

Transformation is at the heart of this new strategic approach. The Department’s [of 

Defense] leadership recognizes that continuing ‘business as usual’ within the Department is not a viable option given the new strategic era and the internal and external 

challenges facing the United States military. Without change, the current defense 

program will only become more expensive to maintain over time, and it will forfeit 

many of the opportunities available to the United States today. Without transformation, the United States military will not be prepared to meet emerging challenges.8

Transformation was initiated incrementally from minor changes, then expanded to comprehensive 

programs comprising the entire U.S. military. A first step was the establishment of the Transformation 

Office within DoD. Transformation was based on four pillars:

• Strengthening joint operations through standing joint task force 

 headquarters, improved joint command and control, joint training, and an 

 expanded joint forces presence policy;

• Experimenting with new approaches to warfare, operational concepts 
522 Leading the Way

 and capabilities, and organization constructs such as standing joint forces...;

• Exploiting United States intelligence advantages...; 

• Developing transformational capabilities through increased and 

 wide-ranging science and technology, selective increased in procurement 

 and innovations in DoD processes.9 

The 2006 QDR continued the emphasis on transformation begun in 2001. The 2006 QDR defined 

two fundamental imperatives for DoD:

• Continuing to reorient the Department’s capabilities and forces to be more 

 agile in this time of war, to prepare for wider asymmetric challenges and to 

 hedge against uncertainty over the next 20 years.

• Implementing enterprise-wide changes to ensure that organizational 

 structures, processes and procedures effectively support its strategic direction.10

DoD’s four priorities were: defeating terrorist networks, defending the homeland in depth, shaping 

the choices of countries at strategic crossroads, and preventing hostile states and non-state actors from 

acquiring weapons of mass destruction (WMD).11 A new Air Force mission statement was adopted 

following discussions and deliberations: “Deliver sovereign options for the defense of the United States 

of America and its global interests...to fly and fight in Air, Space and Cyberspace.”12

Efforts to transform the military organization were wide ranging and varied. Measures included 

organizational restructuring, adopting contemporary business practices to streamline work processes 

to increase efficiencies, reducing staffing through the Force Shaping initiative, building new combat 

capabilities, ensuring flexible and agile combat support, integrating into the joint Service environment, 

adopting an asset management approach, applying innovative approaches to managing Air Force real 

property assets, adopting lean management techniques, and managing the organization as an enterprise. 

Some initiatives for transformation were mandated from the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) 

or the Air Staff, while other initiatives were developed from within the ranks. In February 2006, the 

Secretary of the Air Force created a new program of continuous process improvement known as “Air 

Force Smart Operations 21” (AFSO21). This program combined elements of several business management models including Lean management, Six Sigma, and Theory of Constraints. The primary goal 

of AFSO21 was to eliminate waste – waste of time, manpower, and money. Processes were analyzed 

to examine methodologies that added value to the work and those did not, and to identify ways to 

reduce redundancies and waste.13 The Air Force Smart Operations for the 21st Century CONOPS 

and Implementation Plan was drafted in February 2006 and issued as a Playbook in May 2008.14 The 

AFSO21 Process Council was chartered in June 2006.15

Gen. John P. Jumper, Air Force Chief of Staff between September 2001 and September 2005, led 

the charge for transformation for the Air Force early in the decade. As it had in the past, the Office 

of The Civil Engineer shaped the effects of transformation for the civil engineering organization. As 

Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox wrote, 

The Air Force defines transformation as “a continuous process by which the Air Force 

achieves and maintains advantage through changes in operation concepts, organizations, and/or technologies that significantly improve its warfighting capabilities 

or ability to meet the demands of a changing security environment.”...we as engineers are in the midst of our own dynamic transformation, from the organization of 

MAJCOM CE staffs, to the way we conduct our comprehensive planning, identify 

requirements, and program, prioritize and execute our programs.16
Meeting the New Century 523

During the mid-years of the decade, the Air Force goals were fighting and winning the GWOT; 

developing and caring for Airmen and their families; and, recapitalizing and modernizing the aging 

Air Force weapons systems.17 In 2009, a new set of Air Force strategic priorities was released. The 

new priorities were “reinvigorate the Air Force nuclear enterprise; partner with the joint and coalition 

teams to win today’s fight; develop and care for Airmen and their families; modernize our air and space 

inventories, organizations and training; and, recapture acquisition excellence.”18

Air Force civil engineers contributed to all aspects of military activities throughout the decade. Air 

Force civil engineers were among the first responders at ground zero on September 11, 2001. They supported bases from which combat air patrols were launched during ONE. By the end of October 2001, 

Air Force civil engineers were on the ground in the countries surrounding Afghanistan to bed down 

troops involved in OEF and deployed into Afghanistan itself to build forward bases. Air Force civil 

engineers also were in place early in Southwest Asia (SWA) building and maintaining forward bases 

needed to support OIF. During the early phases of combat, more than 4,500 Air Force civil engineers 

deployed to the area of responsibility (AOR). They expanded 10 existing bases and established 12 new 

bases to accommodate troops and aircraft needed for the fight.19 Air Force civil engineers continued to 

support these long-term military commitments throughout the decade. They also served in new roles 

in combat situations as airborne RED HORSE, supporting Army personnel as “in lieu of” forces, and 

as expeditionary Prime BEEF units. Air Force civil engineers also were active in rebuilding missions 

and served worldwide on Joint Engineer Teams, Civil Affairs Teams, Provincial Reconstruction Teams, 

and Field Engineer Teams.20 Air Force civil engineers served as advisors and instructors in setting up 

new emergency services and military units in Afghanistan and Iraq. No longer were Air Force civil 

engineers necessarily deployed with their units to erect tent cities to support Airmen and aircraft; by 

2010, 53 percent of deployed Air Force civil engineers were tasked to joint expeditionary forces.21

In 1999-2000, the Air Force civil engineer community comprised 64,000 active duty and Air 

Reserve Component (ARC) personnel. The ARC included the Air National Guard (ANG) and Air 

Force Reserves. Air Force civil engineers managed a budget of more than $5.6 billion per year to 

operate and maintain facilities and infrastructure.22 The number of installations worldwide was 168.23

In 2004, 59,700 civil engineers served service-wide; by 2005, the number had decreased to 58,442.24

By 2010, the number of civil engineers remained at nearly 60,000. The Air Force real property portfolio 

contained 160,000 assets comprising buildings, structures, and linear structures, on nearly 10 million 

acres with a total value of over $263 billion. These assets were located on 78 major bases and 121 

ARC installations.25

The Air Force civil engineering community participated fully in the transformation initiatives 

designed to realize a leaner, more agile, and flexible organization responsive to the challenges encountered during deployment, as well as those faced in the management of home bases. Air Force civil 

engineers adopted the changes directed by DoD and the Secretary of the Air Force and expanded 

upon Air Force direction to generate numerous transformation initiatives for the civil engineering 

community. Smart business practices applied to civil engineering management for greater efficiencies 

and cost savings were integral to civil engineer transformation.

CIVIL ENGINEERING STAFF PROGRAMS AND POLICIES

The Civil Engineers

Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II served as The Civil Engineer from July 23, 1999 to May 16, 

2003. He came to the position after serving as Command Civil Engineer at Air Force Space Command 

(1993-96) and at Air Combat Command (1996-99). This was his third assignment at the Pentagon. 

He had served as an action officer in the Programs Division and as the executive officer in the Directorate of Engineering and Services during the first half of the 1980s. General Robbins’ goals when 

he became The Civil Engineer were to support the Air Force leadership and to ensure that the civil 
524 Leading the Way

engineering community was “relevant, right-sized and ready.”26 In 1999-2000, Air Force civil engineers 

were supporting long-term missions in Bosnia and Kosovo and Operations Northern Watch and 

Southern Watch over Iraq. At home, financial resources for civil engineer budgets remained tight. In 

2000, General Robbins requested a $1.65 billion military construction budget to sustain and operate 

existing facilities, to bed down new missions, to uphold the quality of life, to optimize use of public 

and private resources, to reduce infrastructure, and to continue environmental leadership.27 In FY01, 

the U.S. Congress awarded the Air Force an additional $5.15 million for a total Military Construction 

(MILCON) budget of $1.2 billion. General Robbins argued for additional operations and maintenance 

funds for the restoration and modernization of aging base facilities nearing their commercial recapitalization benchmark of 50 years.28 For the FY03 budget cycle, the share of MILCON and operations 

and maintenance funding for facilities sustainment, restoration and modernization (S/R&M) reached 

adequate levels for the first time in a decade.29

General Robbins also oversaw the initial implementation of the Aerospace Expeditionary Forces 

(AEF) under which rotational deployments of combat, combat support personnel, and equipment to 

support long-term Air Force operations were instituted. He worked to implement the core competencies 

identified in the Air Force civil engineer strategic plan: expeditionary engineering, emergency services, 

installation engineering, housing excellence, and environmental leadership.30 General Robbins also 

continued to coordinate closely with his counterparts in other U.S. Armed Services.31 He particularly 

worked with the construction contracting agents the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Naval 

Facilities Engineering Command to improve the acquisition process for facilities and construction 

services.32

General Robbins was The Civil Engineer during the attack of September 11, 2001 and the beginnings of OEF and OIF. Writing shortly after the tragedy, General Robbins expressed pride in the 

professionalism of Air Force civil engineers,

members of the civil engineer team continue to support our Air Force. Despite our 

grief and our concerns for our country and our fellow citizens, we continue to do 

whatever it takes to keep our installations safe and secure, while taking care of the 

important day-to-day functions which keep our installations going....I am reminded 

of the strong bonds of the Air Force civil engineer family and the contributions and 

sacrifices of all the men and women who proudly serve our nation. We will get through 

this together.33

While singling out the exceptional service of the Air Force fire protection specialists, General Robbins 

concluded by praising every military and civilian man and woman in the Air Force civil engineering 

organization for their contributions.34

Upon his retirement in May 2003, General Robbins described his four-year tenure as The Civil 

Engineer as extraordinary. He wrote, 

Despite incredible stresses on the personal and professional lives of our people as 

we’ve spread our “footprint” across the globe, we’ve continued with the same dedication, perseverance and can-do attitude that I first saw way back in 1969 [when he 

joined the Air Force]. My pride in our career field is based not on the breadth and 

depth of the programs we run or on the size of the budgets we manage, but on the 

quality of the products and services we deliver and, most importantly, on the talent 

and enthusiasm of those within our Civil Engineering family.35

General Robbins was credited with challenging Air Force civil engineer perceptions related to the 

essential role played by civil engineers; energizing facility investment programs; making substantial 

improvements to civil engineering readiness capabilities, especially in the nuclear/ biological/chemical 
Meeting the New Century 525

defense programs; developing exceptional rapport with Congress to gain their confidence in Air Force 

initiatives; and strengthening CE training across the board.36

Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox served as The Civil Engineer from May 16, 2003 to June 23, 2006. He 

came to the position from Headquarters AMC, where he was the Director of Civil Engineering, and 

was the second U.S. Air Force Academy (USAFA) graduate to hold the office.37 At the time he assumed 

office, Air Force civil engineers were supporting ONE, OEF, and OIF. He oversaw the largest Air 

Force budgets in over a decade, administering $1.64 billion in MILCON funding for continental U.S. 

(CONUS) projects to cover new mission beddowns, current mission needs, quality-of-life improvements, and environmental compliance. In addition, S/R&M funds also increased.38

General Fox stressed the role of the Office of The Civil Engineer in establishing policy, advocating 

for personnel and financial resources, and supporting civil engineers on the base level in executing 

their mission. “I know that missions are critical, but there are no missions without people. People are 

the root of all success. We talk about quality of life and people programs. I talk about mission and 

people. In my view, everything is people first,” General Fox stated. 39

General Fox launched the initiative “Back to Bases.” He reflected on his priorities, “My perspective, from the eight years that I have spent as a major command civil engineer, is slanted toward taking 

care of people at the base level, so they can take care of the mission. Our missions are flown from 

bases. The preponderance of our people work at, or are attached to, our bases, so we need to focus 

on that base-level mission and people.”40 He also continually stressed safety on the job, at home, and 

during recreation. “Safe work environments and habits are vital to our continued productivity and 

success at home and while deployed,” General Fox wrote.41

In addition to ongoing civil engineer participation in overseas deployments and maintaining the 

CONUS bases, General Fox also implemented the initial steps of Air Force transformation initiatives.42

The Air Staff was reorganized into an A-Staff structure in February 2006, and the Office of The Civil 

Engineer became AF/A7C. General Fox oversaw a round of base realignments and closures (BRAC) 

in 2005 and the preparation of a QDR in 2005-2006. Natural disasters also posed challenges during 

Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox
526 Leading the Way

the period as several Air Force bases were severely damaged during the active hurricane seasons of 

2004 and 2005.43

On his retirement in 2006, the Air Force Civil Engineer paid General Fox the following tribute, 

During Maj. Gen. Fox’s tenure as The Air Force Civil Engineer, there was an exponential increase in the requirement for Air Force civil engineers for contingency 

operations, in support of Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom. His leadership during this demanding time has been both dynamic and concerned, with mission 

needs and warfighter needs always at the forefront. At the same time, his commitment 

to quality for the Air Force’s bases, its Airmen and their families around the world 

created the largest housing program in Air Force history, one of the largest military 

construction programs in the last 15 years, an award-winning energy program, and 

an extraordinary stewardship of the environment.44

The annual award for the year’s most outstanding senior military manager was named for General 

Fox in honor of his service.

Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg became The Civil Engineer, Deputy Chief of Staff, Logistics, Installations, 

and Mission Support, on June 23, 2006 and served until June 5, 2009. General Eulberg was also a 

USAFA graduate and came to the position after serving as Director, Installations and Mission Support 

at AMC.45 At Headquarters AMC, he instituted many reforms in the civil engineer organization of that 

major command. At the Air Staff level, he continued to guide and to implement the reforms begun 

under his predecessor. He furthered the imperative for transformation of the civil engineer enterprise 

by supporting review and revision of civil engineering business practices to foster positive change in 

the civil engineering culture. Under General Eulberg, Air Force civil engineer deployments to SWA 

continued in support of OEF and OIF; more than 2,900 Air Force civil engineers served on assignments 

during 2009.46 An increasing number of Air Force civil engineers filled “in lieu of” positions, taking 

Maj Gen. Del Eulberg
Meeting the New Century 527

on assignments supporting the U.S. Army in direct combat units. At home, the Air Force instituted 

personnel cuts to reallocate money to modernize weapons systems.

General Eulberg summarized the conditions when assuming The Civil Engineer position,

The challenges that we face today come from many directions. We are a nation at 

war, facing a new enemy, in a resource-constrained environment. We have to reduce 

the size of the Air Force by 40,000 personnel to help the Air Force modernize our 

weapons systems to stay relevant for the future. Civil Engineering is a cornerstone 

on the combat support team, and we have to do our part in meeting these demands 

through transformation.47

General Eulberg defined the highest civil engineer priority as maintaining warfighting capability and 

winning the GWOT. These priorities demanded that Air Force civil engineer personnel be “organized, 

trained, and equipped to support the joint warfighter.”48 He instituted a stringent lessons learned 

component into all training programs and transformation processes.49 A second challenge facing the 

civil engineer community was operating and maintaining the Air Force installations around the world. 

General Eulberg forcefully supported Air Force transformation goals and implemented the Civil 

Engineer Transformation Plan.

50 He vigorously supported reexamining and reanalyzing the civil 

engineering business processes. He wrote, 

We cannot ask our people to “do more with less.” It is incumbent upon our leaders at 

every level to come up with ways to do their jobs more effectively and efficiently. We 

must remain focused on those requirements that directly impact mission capability, 

and stop performing those functions that do not. We must also pursue greater reliance 

and interaction between the Services as we jointly go forward, and re-look at how we 

leverage the capabilities of the private sector as well.51

General Eulberg introduced business concepts and practices into the civil engineering organizational 

structure to improve efficiencies. He instituted the asset management approach, the modernization 

of information technology, energy savings, centralization of key processes, risk-management assessments, strategic planning, and activity management plans. The civil engineer transformation vision 

was captured in the phrase “20/20 by 2020.”52 This slogan succinctly summarized an overall goal for 

Civil Engineering. Funding available for installation support had been reduced 20 percent since FY06, 

so civil engineers sought to reduce the Air Force physical plant on which it spent money by 20 percent 

by the year 2020. Since the 2005 BRAC recommendations did not impose a major reduction in the 

total number of Air Force bases, General Eulberg proposed to “shrink the bases from within.” This 

goal helped fund the Air Force goal of recapitalizing and modernizing its weapons systems.

General Eulberg reflected on his accomplishments upon his retirement,

I have never been as proud of the Civil Engineering career field as I am today, and I 

salute each and every one of you for your continued dedication to the mission, and 

commitment to our ongoing journey to transform Air Force installation management. 

Our community is experiencing the highest operations tempo I have seen during 

my 30+ year career because our skills and expertise continue to be in high demand, 

particularly within the joint team.... As you are well aware, we have had to transform 

the way we do business to lessen the burden on our Airmen and to ensure that we can 

continue to bring operational support to the fight. Although it is a lot of work up front, 

I assure you that over time you will reap the benefits of the new tools and processes 
528 Leading the Way

that are continuing to be developed.... We have strengthened our organization and 

continue on our quest to keep our people informed and provide the field with helpful 

tools to manage our installations as effectively as possible.53

When General Eulberg retired, the annual award for the year’s outstanding Asset Management Flight 

was named in his honor.

Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers became The Civil Engineer on June 5, 2009 and occupied the office 

as of October 2012. General Byers was previously the Director of Installations and Mission Support, 

Headquarters, Air Combat Command (ACC), Langley AFB, Virginia. General Byers adopted the 

phrase “Build to Last...Lead the Change” to characterize his philosophy as The Civil Engineer. He was 

committed to continuing his predecessors’ transformational change throughout the civil engineering 

community and wrote, 

As engineers, our fundamental intent is to build something of quality, something that 

lasts, whether we’re talking about facilities or infrastructure or services we provide. 

What we do should last through all kinds of changes - budgetary, environmental, or 

energy, to name just a few. Our installations should grow and change with the needs 

of the Air Force, our mission, our Airmen, and our communities. Even our Civil Engineering enterprise should be able to adjust and change when our strategic priorities, 

our deployments, our budgets change. It’s part of our transformation.54

General Byers identified the following challenges to the civil engineering community as he began 

his service. One was “to capture all the lessons learned, transformation changes, and improvements 

that we’ve made in Civil Engineering so we build ready engineers, build great leaders, and build 

sustainable installations.” Another challenge was to balance superb support to overseas contingency 

operations and increased requests for Air Force civil engineer services associated with high operations 

Maj Gen. Timothy A. Byers
Meeting the New Century 529

tempo, personnel stress and decreasing retention rates. An additional challenge was to maintain high 

quality education and training so that deployed Airmen were prepared to meet combat situations. “We 

need to be more personally engaged with our people to ensure that we’re doing the right things to 

develop them. We have to make sure we have motivated engineers who want to lead at all levels. We 

need to build great leaders,” General Byers said. “Build Ready Engineers, Build Great Leaders, and 

Build Sustainable Installations” became the three goals that General Byers used throughout his time 

as The Civil Engineer to not only guide his work but also as a communications strategy so everyone 

could understand and work his three priorities. General Byers effectively used social media (Facebook 

and Twitter) and a CE Portal to communicate with the entire career field and to provide tools such 

as Commander’s Call Talking Points and the latest version of topical Playbooks. He also instituted a 

monthly CEnterline Video message available on the CE Portal where he or one of his staff could speak 

directly on a particular topic of interest.55

Building and maintaining sustainable installations was yet another challenge identified by General 

Byers. He was committed to continuing the transformational change to standardize civil engineering 

business processes begun under his predecessors and to implement the vision of 20/20 by 2020. He 

further was committed to fielding the technologies of the next generation of information technologies (NexGen IT) and for EOD, fire protection, and Emergency Management. “We need to focus on 

everything from our energy initiatives to environmental sustainability from construction, operations, 

and maintenance to the divesting of all our facilities and infrastructure” General Byers wrote.56 “We 

will have to stop doing some things because is it not about ‘doing more with less,’ but rather ‘doing 

less with less.’”57 He initiated a review of all capabilities and processes from the base, major command, field operating agency (FOA), and Air Staff levels. “We had to ensure we provide the core civil 

engineer capabilities to fly, fight and win across the full spectrum of operations in air, space and cyber 

domains.” General Byers challenged the teams to not only identify, but to prioritize core capabilities 

and streamline “to be” processes to do things “smarter, faster, better and cheaper.” He implemented 

the first Air Force-wide priorities for S/R&M projects using standard asset management principles and 

key performance indicators. He also established the first Installation Governance structure to oversee 

Air Force-wide civil engineering priorities, Program Objective Memoranda, budget and execution of 

facility, infrastructure, environmental and housing programs.

Department of Defense and Air Force Transformation

Transformation of the U.S. military culture, including all levels of the Air Force, was the major 

theme of the first decade of the twenty-first century. Transformation initiatives were incorporated 

into funding vehicles, personnel allocations, and the reorganization of administrative structures. DoD 

emphasized agility, flexibility, and innovation in transforming the military support structure. It proposed review of all processes to define core and non-core functions, to jettison non-core functions, and 

to focus only on those areas contributing directly to warfighting. DoD also proposed transformation of 

business processes and infrastructure “to both enhance the capabilities and creativity of its employees 

and free up resources to support warfighting and the transformation of military capabilities.”58

In response to directives on transformation issued by DoD, the Air Force introduced the continuous process improvement approach to revitalize and transform the entire Air Force culture. Integrated 

process teams were formed to evaluate all processes within the organization. Air Force Smart Operations for the Twenty-First Century (AFSO21) provided the tools to survey and evaluate processes and 

implement changes throughout the organization. Areas selected for transformation included manpower 

reductions, more efficient operations, and modernizing weapons systems.59

The 2001 QDR outlined a reorientation of the global posture of the U.S. military. The Air Force 

was directed to develop plans to establish forward bases in areas beyond the range of existing overseas bases in Europe and northwest Asia. A need was identified for additional operating bases in the 
530 Leading the Way

Pacific, the Indian Ocean, and Middle East regions. Operating bases in Western Europe and northeast 

Asia were maintained to serve as hubs for power projection in support of contingencies in other parts 

of the world.60 The 2001 QDR also emphasized the need to recapitalize weapons systems and aging 

facilities.61

Another initiative contained in the 2001 QDR was a fifth round of base realignment and closure 

(BRAC) recommendations to reduce excess military facilities by 20 percent.62 The Secretary of Defense 

proposed the immediate implementation of BRAC; members of the U.S. Congress voted in 2001 to 

postpone BRAC until 2005.

The Secretary of the Air Force also supported adopting efficient business practices throughout 

the Air Force. The concept of “lean management” was applied to Air Force processes and procedures. 

Lean management was a private-sector business technique originating in the automotive industry to 

streamline production by identifying “value-added work in processes” and eliminating waste.63 On 

November 7, 2005, the Secretary of the Air Force and the Air Force Chief of Staff issued a memo 

directing the Air Force to adopt lean management strategies in 2006 as part of the AFSO21 initiatives.64

Civil Engineer Transformation

Air Force civil engineers embraced transformation and applied it to all aspects of the civil engineer 

organization. Transformation was defined as “exploring every aspect of how CE does business, including its approach, methods, and tools, and incorporating changes where needed.”65 Promising areas for 

civil engineer transformation included manpower reductions, efficiencies from re-engineering civil 

engineer processes, upgrading information technology, and modernizing facilities and infrastructure.66

Transformation initiatives for civil engineers were proposed from all levels of the organization, from 

Air Staff, major commands, and bases. One of the first areas where transformation began was in the 

structure of the civil engineer organization.

Major Command and Air Staff Reorganizations

Air Mobility Command (AMC) was tasked with airlift capability and with increasing the Air Force 

global posture as directed under QDR 2001. AMC embraced transformation early in the decade. The 

AMC Commander Gen. John W. Handy began to reorganize the major command in February 2002 to 

streamline operations. Two numbered air forces were merged into one, the Eighteenth Air Force, to 

streamline the chain of command for AMC’s 12 wings.67 Base-level support provided by the Mission 

Support Group was refined.68

AMC Headquarters staff was reorganized to reflect wartime operations. AMC Civil Engineer Brig. 

Gen. Del Eulberg proposed a new major command civil engineer organizational structure in July 2003. 

As General Eulberg explained, “Reorganizing on ‘day one of the war’ is not the best way to prepare 

for future conflicts...especially when we face a small, highly mobile enemy—global terrorists. We 

need to streamline our headquarters functions so we can quickly adapt and provide maximum support 

to the joint warfighter.”69 On October 1, 2003, AMC adopted the A-Staff structure and established 

the A7—Directorate of Installations & Mission Support. The adoption of the A-Staff organization 

at the CONUS AMC major command paralleled the A-Staff organization of combatant commands 

in the field. The purpose of the AMC major command civil engineer reorganization was “to create a 

directorate that integrated combat support—not just ‘contained’ traditional combat support functions. 

This integration is an essential element in streamlining combat support at the headquarters level, just 

like we have done on the operational side,” said General Eulberg.70 At AMC, this reorganization fully 

integrated Civil Engineering and Services so that one commander led all combat support functions.71

The A7 Directorate incorporated a new division, Mission Support Integration, to serve as a single point 

of contact for Expeditionary Combat Support issues. Other divisions within the directorate included 
Meeting the New Century 531

Readiness Operations, Plans and Programs, Resources, Environmental, Construction, Civil Engineer 

Operations, and Housing.72

By spring 2003, the A-Staff organizational structure had been adopted by the Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) staff at Peterson AFB, Colorado. The new A7 - Mission Support Directorate included 

six divisions: programs, environmental, housing, operations, resources, and emergency services/

expeditionary engineering. The A7 organization eliminated the deputy civil engineer and a separate 

engineering division. The tasks related to planning, programming, and construction were consolidated 

into the Programs Division.73

In 2004, the Office of The Civil Engineer (AF/ILE) in the Air Staff at the Pentagon comprised 

the following divisions: Engineering (AF/ILEC), Technical Services (AF/ILEE), Housing (AF/

ILEH), Resources (AF/ILER), Programs (AF/ILEP), Environmental (AF/ILEV), and Readiness and 

Installation Support (AF/ILEX). Two field operating agencies (FOAs), the Air Force Civil Engineering 

Support Agency (AFCESA) and Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence (AFCEE), reported 

directly to The Civil Engineer (Figure 6.1).74

On February 1, 2006, the Air Staff at the Pentagon adopted the “A-Staff” organizational structure 

similar to the organizational structure of the Army’s G-Staff, the Navy’s N-Staff, and the Joint Chiefs 

of Staff’s J-Staff. The reorganization facilitated internal communications within the Air Staff and 

among other U.S. Armed Services.75 Under the A-Staff organizational structure, the Office of The 

Civil Engineer was slotted under A4/7—Logistics, Installations and Mission Support. The Office 

of The Civil Engineer was organized into the following divisions: Housing, Information Resources 

Management, Programs, Construction & Engineering, Resources, Environmental, and Readiness Plans. 

(Figure 6.2)76 The A-Staff organizational structure was implemented at all major commands by May 

1, 2006.77 The title of the Civil Engineer at the major command level disappeared.

Organizational changes within the civil engineer organization continued. In April 2007, the Air 

Staff was reorganized into the following five divisions: Asset Management and Operations (A7CA), 

Planning (A7CI), Programs (A7CP), Resources (A7CR), and Readiness and Emergency Services 

(A7CX).78 The new Asset Management and Operations Division consolidated the following functions: 

housing, installation management, energy, and environmental quality and restoration. This division 

was tasked to develop a “blueprint for a new asset management approach across the CE enterprise.”79

Source: AF/A7C Organizational Chart, October 25, 2004, AFCEC History Office.
532 Leading the Way

The Planning Division incorporated most of the former Programming Division. A new branch within 

Planning, the Strategic Initiatives Branch, handled strategic planning and communications, and spearheaded the civil engineer transformation effort.80 By 2010, the Air Staff A7 Divisions numbered six. 

The Housing Division was formed on September 10, 2010 when housing moved from the Asset Management Division. This division allowed housing personnel to focus on customers and demonstrated 

civil engineering commitment to quality housing, dormitories, and thriving communities.81

The major commands were directed to reorganize between early 2007 and the end of 2008. The 

proposed new major command organizational structure had eight divisions. These divisions were 

Asset Management (A7A), Contracting (A7K), Civil Engineer Operations (A7O), Programs (A7P), 

Resources (A7R), Security Forces (A7S), Readiness and Emergency Management (A7S), and Expeditionary Combat Support (A7Z).82 ACC and AMC adopted the basic eight-division structure during 

2007. Other major commands adapted the structure to meet their organizational requirements.83

Personnel Evolution

Several changes occurred in civil engineering personnel history. In January 1999, Mr. Michael A. 

Aimone became the first civilian Air Force Deputy Civil Engineer in the Pentagon, upon his selection 

to the ranks of the Senior Executive Service (SES). Previous senior Air Force Civil Engineer civilians 

were known as Associate Civil Engineers, and Deputy Civil Engineers were general officers. In spring 

2002, Ms. Kathleen I. Ferguson, who was promoted to the ranks of the SES in June 2000 as the Chief, 

Combat Support Division, Directorate of Supply, succeeded Mr. Aimone as the Air Force Deputy Civil 

Engineer at the Pentagon. This office was the highest position in the Air Force civil engineer organization attained by a woman.84 Ms. Ferguson served in the position until her 2007 appointment as Deputy 

Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Installations) in the office of the Assistant Secretary of the Air 

Force.85 She was succeeded by Mr. Paul Parker, who was previously the AFCEE Director. He served 

until 2010, when he moved to become the Director of Communications, Installations and Mission 

Support, Headquarters, Air Force Materiel Command. He was followed by Mr. Mark A. Correll, who 

had recently retired from active duty as the Civil Engineer at Air Education and Training Command.86

By 2002, the Air Force civil engineer organization included four SES positions: the Deputy Civil 

Engineer at Headquarters, U.S. Air Force, Washington, D.C.; the Director of AFCEE at Brooks AFB, 

Source: AF/A7C Organizational Chart, October 20, 2006, AFCEC History Office.
Meeting the New Century 533

Texas; the director of the Air Force Base Conversion Agency, Arlington, Virginia; and, Deputy Command Civil Engineer at Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC), Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. The 

SES position at AFMC previously was staffed by active duty military personnel.87

Women rose to higher administrative and command levels in the civil engineer organization. In 

summer 2002, Col. Faith H. Fadok was assigned as the mobilization assistant to The Civil Engineer 

at the Headquarters, U.S. Air Force, Pentagon.88 Col. Beth Brown, served at the Pentagon as the chief 

of the Programs Division and became the Associate Civil Engineer in July 2010.89

Col. Janice M. Stritzinger served as the ANG Civil Engineer between 2001 and 2005.90 Colonel 

Stritzinger achieved a number of “firsts” during her distinguished military career. Colonel Stritzinger 

enlisted in the Air Force in 1971 and was among the first women to enter the career field of site 

development specialist. She was the first woman assigned to an engineering specialty in the Alaskan 

Air Command. Colonel Stritzinger joined the ANG in 1977 and was assigned to Kulis ANG Base in 

Alaska. There she became the ANG’s first female base civil engineer and fire marshal. In 2000, she 

became the first woman to serve as the Civil Engineer at ANG.91

Col. Theresa Carter was the first woman in the civil engineer organization to rise to the rank of 

brigadier general in May 2010 and major general in August 2013. Col. Carter became the Director 

of Installations and Mission Support at AMC during 2008 and the Commander, 502d Air Base Wing, 

Joint Base San Antonio in 2011. In June 2013, she became The Civil Engineer, also the first woman to 

hold that position. This selection marked the completion of the work begun in 1971 when Lt. Susanne 

Ocobock (Waylett) became the first female civil engineer.92

In 2003, the first civilian was appointed as the Civil Engineer of a major command. Mr. James 

R. Pennino, SES, became the Civil Engineer at AFMC after serving as deputy.93 Mr. Timothy K. 

Bridges, SES, was appointed the Civil Engineer at AFMC after the retirement of Mr. Pennino. Mr. 

Bridges became the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Energy, Environment, Safety, 

and Occupational Health, at the Pentagon, Washington, D.C., in 2010 and moved to become Deputy 

Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Installations, Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force 

for Installations, Environment and Logistics, Washington, D.C. in 2012.

94

Challenges to the retention of good military and civilian personnel were addressed during the first 

decade of the twenty-first century. Senior Air Force civil engineer leadership analyzed the obstacles to 

retaining qualified younger officers and identified four areas, or pillars, leading to long-term military 

commitment. The four pillars were leadership, deployments, professional development, and balanced 

living. 

Younger officers, when polled, expressed greater need for direct mentoring and guidance from 

higher grade officers. While email had emerged as a convenient and expedient method for communication between officers, Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers supported more “high tech and high touch” 

leadership. He decided to make extensive use of Facebook and Twitter for the first time as a method 

to communicate at all levels and provide commanders tools to be personally engaged with the units. 

Personal guidance was related to job satisfaction and retention. Continual deployments were another 

concern identified in officer retention. Frequent deployments limited or disrupted professional development opportunities at home stations. Young officers also wanted a balanced lifestyle that provided 

time for the important role of relationships with family and friends, as well as time to recuperate and 

reenergize after deployments. Senior civil engineer leadership initiated a program to address these 

issues. They conducted company grade officer and field grade officer forums to hear from folks in 

the field about potential reasons they would leave the Air Force. Some of these such as improved 

mentoring and new opportunities for continuing education began to make a difference when communicated back to the field.95 By 2011/12, the Civil Engineer retention rate for enlisted and officers 

was at a 17-year high.
534 Leading the Way

Program Budget Decision (PBD) 720

When Air Force Chief of Staff, Gen. T. Michael Moseley took office on September 2, 2005, “he 

inherited an Air Force with old weapons systems and an under-funded modernization program, and 

he directed program funding changes to replace our aging weapon systems,” reflected Maj. Gen. Del 

Eulberg.97 Program Budget Decision (PBD) 720, the Air Force Transformation Flight Plan, issued on 

December 28, 2005, was designed, with Congressional approval, to reduce manpower authorizations 

across the Air Force and to direct those savings towards retiring aging aircraft and acquiring upgraded 

aircraft and weapons systems to maintain air superiority.98 The manpower reductions under PBD 720 

affected 40,000 active duty, 17,000 ARC members, and 2,000 civilians.99 While attrition through retirement and separation was anticipated to contribute to achieving the lower personnel levels in PBD 720, 

Air Force-wide personnel reductions of 20,000 also were required by FY07.100 The first reductions were 

linked with the FY07 budget as a MILCON investment strategy to support Air Force transformation.101

Air Force civil engineer manpower authorizations were reduced by 1,586, comprising 1,408 

enlisted personnel and 178 officers. Civil engineer civilian personnel were reduced by 271.102 The 

Civil Engineer used PBD 720 as an opportunity for a Force Shaping Initiative to ensure that the right 

numbers of Airmen were performing the right jobs. The Force Shaping Initiative required reexamination of staffing levels and the organizational structure on the Air Staff, major command, and base 

levels.103 The goal of this analysis was to rebalance the personnel force through reassigning Airmen 

from over-subscribed career fields to under-manned fields and through assuring that the appropriate 

grade levels existed within the fields. These decisions had consequences for training programs and 

career field development.104

In January 2006, The Civil Engineer authorized a team led by Lt. Col. Greg Cummings to conduct 

a personnel requirements review, also known as a blue suit review (BSR). The BSR team was guided by 

the draft 2006 QDR and the March 2005 National Defense Strategy. The operational defense strategy 

was based on the following parameters:

CMSgt James A. Roy made history when he was chosen to 

serve as the 16th Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force in June 

2009 and became the first civil engineer to hold that position. 

CMSgt Roy began his career in 1982 as a heavy equipment 

operator and served in Civil Engineer squadrons at MacDill 

AFB, Florida; Osan AB, Korea; Andersen AFB, Guam; and 

Keesler AFB, Mississippi. He also served as an instructor at 

Ft. Leonard Wood, Missouri, where he trained other “Dirt 

Boyz.” In 1999, he branched out into new leadership positions 

and was the Senior Enlisted Leader and Adviser, U.S. Pacific 

Command just prior to his selection as Chief Master Sergeant 

of the Air Force. Although he left civil engineer units in 1999, 

he never forgot his roots. When he retired from the Air Force 

in April 2013, CMSgt Roy reflected back on his career, “I 

started my technical training in November 1982. More than 

30 years later, I still sincerely appreciate what civil engineers 

do. I’ll always be a dirt boy.”96

Dirt Boy selected as Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force.

CMSgt James A. Roy
Meeting the New Century 535

• homeland defense was the number one priority, 

• military response could be required in an undetermined number of regional conflicts, 

• simultaneous actions could be conducted in two of three major combat operations, 

• winning decisively in one of those two major combat operations.105

The BSR team exhaustively reviewed war plans, time-phased force and deployment lists, and 

other documents in the vault at the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (AFCESA) between 

January and May 2006. Based on these documents, the team quantified the appropriate manpower by 

Air Force Specialty Code, unit type codes (UTCs), and service component. The results of the rigorous 

review, completed in June 2006, validated current personnel authorizations and were used to identify 

areas for personnel cuts that would have minimal impact to warfighting capabilities. The results also 

enabled The Civil Engineer to avoid additional personnel cuts.106

The BSR found that three Air Force Specialties; i.e., heating, air conditioning, and refrigeration 

(HVAC); electrical; and, engineering assistant, were over-manned, while EOD and the structures and 

pavement and construction equipment career fields in RED HORSE were severely under-manned. A 

recommendation was advanced to rebalance the UTC wartime requirements to increase manpower in 

EOD and RED HORSE squadrons. The need for 159 additional personnel slots was identified in EOD 

to relieve the stress on that career field related to continual deployments. The BSR also identified 318 

positions to strengthen RED HORSE units. These positions did not represent an overall increase in 

manpower authorizations, but were achieved through reductions in the number of military and civilian 

positions in other areas. The proposed increase in RED HORSE personnel came from realigning 185 

positions in horizontal construction specialties and 133 in vertical construction specialties from Prime 

BEEF UTCs to RED HORSE squadrons. Although this rebalancing met wartime manpower requirements, peacetime personnel short falls were projected. The BSR recommended that civilian positions 

be added to replace lost military positions to support installation requirements.107

Process Evaluation

In January 2006, The Civil Engineer chose then-Lt. Col. Jeff Todd to lead a team to examine 

restructuring the civil engineering force and to transform business processes throughout the civil 

engineering organization. The team was charged with identifying initiatives to offset and to lessen 

the effects of personnel reductions under PBD 720 through applying business practices to achieve 

increased operating efficiencies. The team proposed several initiatives to consolidate selected organizational functions.108 These initiatives then were incorporated into the Civil Engineer Transformation 

Plan.

Civil Engineer Transformation Plan

The initiatives developed by the BSR team and the team reviewing business processes were 

integrated into the Civil Engineer Transformation Plan. The plan applied to all active military organizations but exempted the ARC. The plan sought “to minimize the impact of PBD 720 reductions; 

maintain CE support to the installations; increase combat capability based on requirements identified 

in the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review; and, balance CE capabilities across the Air Force.” 109 The 

plan’s initiatives also met the spirit of AFSO21.

The draft Plan was presented to the Vice Chief of Staff of the Air Force in late summer 2006 and 

approved on October 19, 2006. The final version of the Implementation of Civil Engineering Transformation Plan (Program Action Directive (PAD) 07-02) was issued in April 2007. The initiatives 

central to the Plan were:

• Centralizing control for all current and new mission military construction, 
536 Leading the Way

 housing MILCON, and environmental restoration projects at the Air Force 

 Center for Environmental Excellence (AFCEE);

• Issuing a new fire emergency services concept of operations that 

 reduced the number of firefighters;

• Realigning 600 military positions from AFMC;

• Augmenting EOD and RED HORSE personnel; 

• Reorganizing all organizational structures on the Air Staff, major commands,

 and specifically at the base level.110

These initiatives were to be accomplished by October 1, 2008.111

During 2008, management for all current and new mission MILCON, housing MILCON, and 

environmental restoration account funds was consolidated at AFCEE. Since 1991, civil engineers at 

major command headquarters had managed construction and environmental remediation projects. Civil 

engineers at the major commands retained the functions of programming the construction requirements, 

determining the construction priorities, and advocating for funding. All funding was centralized on 

the Air Staff level. Consolidating the functions at AFCEE reduced staffing at major commands by 

200 positions.112 Beginning FY08, AFCEE added 129 personnel to handle the expanded work load. 

Review of the firefighting personnel requirements revealed that the Air Force maintained a high 

number of firefighters on continuous call to meet emergencies. Patterns defined through an analysis of 

the number, types, and hours of emergency calls identified specific periods of high and low risk and 

related demand for emergency services. Acceptable risk analysis demonstrated that the existing level 

of service and response standards were achievable during high risk periods, typically normal working duty hours. Fewer, but adequate, resources were needed during low risk periods, which typically 

occurred at night. The detailed study found that the number of on-duty firefighters could be reduced 

during periods of low probability for base emergencies. This resulted in a reduction of firefighters by 

901 positions or 14 percent.113

AFMC maintained military-manned Civil Engineer Groups at three bases: Robins AFB, Georgia; 

Eglin AFB, Florida; and, Hill AFB, Utah. The Civil Engineer proposed that AFMC convert these three 

organizations to civilian staffing. The Air Force realigned 615 military personnel to other major commands to preserve military authorizations and maintain UTCs. In addition, 258 civilian positions were 

proposed to assume the work load. AFMC was afforded flexibility in developing an organizational 

structure to increase efficiencies in managing work flow.114 A few military positions were retained at 

the bases, including firefighters, readiness, and EOD personnel. Mr. Timothy K. Bridges, Director of 

Installations and Mission Support since July 2006, noted, “Academically, it makes sense. Most of our 

activities are in the CONUS. We really don’t have warfighting platforms; we take care of everyone 

else’s platforms. The support we give our installations can be done by a civilian workforce.”115 The 

transformation of the military work force at AFMC was projected to be achieved in two years.

Augmenting RED HORSE squadrons was accomplished during 2008 when then-Brig. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, ACC/A7, led efforts to reorganize engineer forces to support warfighter requirements. 

RED HORSE units were increased, active duty units were aligned with reserve component forces and 

RED HORSE squadrons were augmented with Prime BEEF engineers to meet deployment requirements to support CENTCOM engineer requirements. RED HORSE squadrons were actively sought 

to support heavy construction requirements for OEF and OIF. At any given time, one of ACC’s three 

RED HORSE squadrons was deployed. When deployed, RED HORSE squadrons were under the 

Commander, Air Force Forces at U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM). ACC worked to add 318 

personnel positions to the RED HORSE squadrons. Engineers from across the Air Force were offered 

the opportunity to join. The increase in the active duty RED HORSE personnel was supported by the 

addition of 446 RED HORSE authorizations in the Air Force Reserve. The new authorizations were 

made available by converting Prime BEEF teams at Charleston AFB, South Carolina, and Seymour 
Meeting the New Century 537

Johnson AFB, North Carolina, to RED HORSE squadrons and supplementing the units with reservists displaced through BRAC. The new RED HORSE squadrons were the 567th at Seymour Johnson 

AFB and the 560th at Charleston AFB. These RED HORSE squadrons continued to be associated with 

active duty Prime BEEF at their respective stations. Standing Reserve RED HORSE units, on the other 

hand, were associated with active duty RED HORSE squadrons to foster total force integration. The 

ANG also increased its RED HORSE staffing to full strength at 404-persons. In addition, the RED 

HORSE personnel and equipment UTCs were revised to develop more modular packages with lighter 

and leaner capabilities during deployment.116

Business Process Re-Engineering Initiatives

Air Force civil engineers adopted business re-engineering principles early during the twenty-first 

century and continued to review and streamline their work processes in all areas throughout the decade. 

The principles of “lean management” were adapted to civil engineering systems to streamline baselevel maintenance and repair operations and general work processes. For example, the design-build 

process was one area where the principles of lean management particularly were applicable to Air 

Force civil engineering. In 2004, a tri-service working group examined existing MILCON designbuild procedures and developed a plan to expedite projects and compress construction schedules. The 

working group proposed efficiencies and associated economies by reducing project time frames from 

966 days to 599 days.117 Air Force civil engineers implemented a Continuous Process Improvement/

Lean game plan to institutionalize the lean management within civil engineering. The game plan 

established a target for training in “Lean awareness” by April 2006 and for 100 process improvement 

events throughout that year.118

In 2005, The Civil Engineer also implemented the Facilities Operation Model at the direction of 

the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD). This model defined a programmatic methodology to 

forecast operating costs for emergency services, utilities, refuse collection, grounds maintenance, and 

custodial services similar to that used by municipalities. The Facilities Operation Model, based on the 

industry standard, was refined by Air Force for planning, programming, and budgeting for expenses 

that exceeded $1.3 billion per year.119

After issuance of the Air Force Civil Engineer Transformation Plan in 2007, Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg expanded civil engineer transformation initiatives to apply best business practices throughout the 

organization. A key aspect of transformation was “to reduce costs and improve the efficiency of the 

core business processes that underpin our mission support capabilities.”120 Private industry provided 

the operational models and prototypes for cost-effective civil engineer operations. “Looking closely 

at processes and workflows, then combining or streamlining them where possible, will garner civilian 

efficiencies that enable us to balance the workload with the right resources,” wrote General Eulberg.121

In late 2006, he established a Corps of Discovery to identify best business practices and automation 

tools used by private corporations. General Eulberg recognized the value of lessons gleaned from 

aligned civilian sectors. He did not send the Corps of Discovery to investigate leading architectural 

or engineering design firms, but directed investigation toward businesses managing large real estate 

portfolios and bankers. The Corps of Discovery derived five major objectives from the investigation:

• Manage real property from a portfolio perspective to avoid sub-optimization;

• Standardize business processes for the enterprise;

• Leverage best practices across the enterprise;

• Use automation and information technology to reduce costs and better 

 utilize personnel resources; and

• Leverage the size of the CE enterprise through centers of expertise and 

 strategic sourcing.122

General Eulberg and the Office of The Civil Engineer also conducted a series of workshops in early 
538 Leading the Way

2007 to analyze the high-level capabilities civil engineers required to carry out their mission. Subject 

matter experts defined core civil engineering responsibilities and correlated those responsibilities to 

business processes during the workshops. Major areas of a civil engineer’s job were categorized as 

projects, work, supply, installation-level assets, enterprise-level assets and finances. During the workshops, the standard business practices and best business practices identified by the Corps of Discovery 

were presented to the participants. The workshops served two further purposes: to identify specific 

business process transformation initiatives and to define the civil engineer capabilities that must be 

supported by information technology in the future.123

In April 2007, the Office of The Civil Engineer began work on a core set of transformation initiatives to focus re-engineering of the civil engineer business model. A poll of the major commands had 

found that over 200 individual transformation initiatives were underway. General Eulberg suspended 

further implementation of all initiatives pending a thorough review and evaluation. The Civil Engineer 

subsequently issued a list of 35 initiatives, of which the first 5 initiatives were from the 2007 Civil 

Engineer Transformation Plan. Points of contact for each commissioned initiative were established 

at the major commands and FOAs. General Eulberg charged each team investigating the 35 commissioned initiatives with clear responsibilities, expectations, guidance, and resources. The role of the 

teams was to report back their findings to The Civil Engineer.124

One initiative implemented by General Eulberg in 2007 was the adoption of the asset management approach to the civil engineer enterprise. General Eulberg defined asset management as “using 

systematic and integrated processes to manage natural and built assets and their associated performance, risk, and expenditures over their life cycles to support missions and organizational goals. Asset 

managers will be expected to apply a disciplined, deliberate approach to managing our asset portfolio 

in a more holistic and proactive manner than we’ve done in the past.”125 Adopting the asset management approach represented a major paradigm shift in the way civil engineers managed facilities and 

fostered a comprehensive strategy to utilize, optimize, and leverage Air Force assets to their fullest 

capacity. Assets were no longer defined as real estate, buildings, and housing, but expanded to include 

the natural environment and energy resources.126

As the number of ideas for transformation increased, The Civil Engineer recognized a need for 

organized and consolidated transformation management. By July 2007, a civil engineer transformation 

governance structure under the oversight of a Board of Directors was established at the Air Staff.127

The board reviewed and vetted ideas and recommendations generated by the commissioned initiative 

teams and by individual Airmen. Once approved, governance structure recommendations were then 

implemented across the civil engineer enterprise.128 In 2008, General Eulberg reflected that implementing all 35 transformation initiatives at the same time had been overly ambitious.129 In 2009, General 

Byers approved a new Governance Structure to help communicate policy and doctrine, manage process 

and IT improvements, and execute initiatives (Figure 6.3). The establishment of Program Groups 

across the nine core business areas to ensure the review of processes to identify efficiencies was a 

key change in this structure.130

Civil Engineer Governance changed again when Program Action Directive (PAD) 12-03, “Implementation of Enterprise-Wide Civil Engineer Transformation,” was signed in October 2012 as part of 

Civil Engineer Transformation—Accelerated (CET-A). Because of the myriad changes involved in 

CET-A, a new framework was established to allow MAJCOM and installation-level input to the Air 

Force Civil Engineer Center (AFCEC) investment plan development through the Installations Governance Structure. It did not replace the established Civil Engineer governance structure (Panels, Program 

Groups, Board, and Council). It provided a forum for considering MAJCOM vice commanders, Air 

Staff and Secretariat vision, priorities, and goals into Civil Engineer decisions and processes through 

the Installations Executive Council. Below the Installations Executive Council was the Civil Engineer 

Council, that included Deputy Assistant Secretaries for Installations, Energy, and Environment, Safety, 
Meeting the New Century 539

Source: Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “Connecting the Transformation Dots,” Air Force Civil Engineer, 

Vol 18, No 1, 2010, 10.
540 Leading the Way

and Occupational Health; the new AFCEC Director; and MAJCOM A7s, A4/7s, and A6/7s as appropriate. The council reviewed and approved Air Force requirements and priorities for execution based 

on the Installations Executive Council’s guidance. The Installations Integration Group integrated all 

requirements to create the Air Force Activity Management Plan and Air Force Comprehensive Asset 

Management Plan. (Figure 6.4)131

Communication was critical to successful transformation management and necessary to inform 

involved parties of the goals, objectives, and results of the process. A wide variety of materials were 

disseminated to the civil engineer community to facilitate communication. These materials included 

a Civil Engineer Transformation Governance Playbook issued in July 2007, a community of practice 

website dedicated to transformation topics, a transformation dashboard, informational videos, and 

a special edition of the Air Force Civil Engineer magazine.132 In addition, regular communications 

were maintained between the Office of The Civil Engineer and the major commands. General Eulberg 

encouraged the major commands to share ideas and to learn from each other during the transformational process. He suggested that civil engineers apply the ideas of other commands in improving and 

transforming their organizations.133 New media also were employed. By 2009, the Air Staff’s Strategic 

Initiatives Branch launched a civil engineer web portal. The web portal provided access to the business 

process playbooks, civil engineering news, a range of interactive resources, publications, and new 

tools to support transformation.134

Source: “Headquarters USAF Program Action Directive 12-03, Implementation of Enterprise-Wide Civil 

Engineer Transformation,” October, 26, 2012, 14.
Meeting the New Century 541

Civil Engineer Transformation: 20/20 by 2020

The phrase “20/20 by 2020” became a slogan for Air Force civil engineer transformation. The 

first “20” represented the 20 percent reduction in installation funding imposed between FY06 and 

FY07. The Air Force goal was to offset the reduction through improved operational efficiency in reengineering base processes and practices. The second “20” reflected the goal to reduce the Air Force 

physical plant, and subsequent maintenance costs, by 20 percent. This was necessary because the 2005 

BRAC effort did not reduce the Air Force’s infrastructure to a level that matched the smaller infrastructure funding. General Eulberg sought to shrink the infrastructure from within through demolition, 

utilities privatization, and enhanced use lease efforts. Air Force funding was to be used to operate only 

the infrastructure needed to “to perform Air Force missions, diverting resources away from excess, 

obsolete, and under-utilized infrastructure capacity.” These goals were to be accomplished by the year 

2020.135 A goal of zero net growth was established for the Air Staff and major commands to eliminate 

the overall growth of square footage of buildings and structures at the bases. Zero net growth was 

monitored beginning in FY07 by tracking square footage added through new construction compared 

to the area decreased through the demolition of obsolete buildings.136 As General Eulberg projected, 

Our goal is to achieve efficiencies to offset the 20 percent reduction in funds available 

for installation support activities, and reduce the amount of the Air Force physical 

plant we spend money on by 20 percent by the year 2020. Collectively, our transformation efforts will enhance support for the warfighters, reduce the cost of installation 

engineering activities, and free resources for the recapitalization of Air Force weapons 

systems.137

Civil Engineer Strategic Plans

The Air Force civil engineering community continually revised its strategic plan to reflect the 

priorities of the Secretary of the Air Force and DoD. The 2004 civil engineer strategic plan established 

key planning priorities and transformational goals, which reflected the DoD installations strategic plan 

goals “to achieve a balance between resources, capabilities, capacities, and military requirements.”138

The civil engineer strategic plan was updated in 2005 and was designed as a dynamic document 

developed with the participation by Air Staff, major commands, and FOAs. However, shortly after its 

publication, further revisions to the strategic plan were suspended until the implementation of staff 

reductions and process improvements.139

Work resumed on strategic planning documents in 2008. The 2008 plan issued by the Office of The 

Civil Engineer revised the mission statement, goals, and objectives of the organization. In addition, the 

plan outlined methods for civil engineer support for the larger Air Force and DoD goals. AFCESA and 

AFCEE also published strategic plans for their organizations. These latter plans were made available 

to all Airmen through the website called “Air Force Knowledge Online.”140

In late 2008, the Secretary of the Air Force and Air Force Chief of Staff released a new Air Force 

strategic plan; the Office of The Civil Engineer began to update its strategic plan. The revised civil 

engineer strategic plan covered the period 2009 through 2013 and aligned priorities with those of the 

Air Force. The revised plan summarized projects completed since 2008 and introduced new objectives.141 The goals of the plan were to “increase readiness and support to the warfighter, strengthen 

our total force, and develop and maintain sustainable installations.”142

Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, appointed The Civil Engineer in June 2009, and the senior civil 

engineer leadership reviewed the proposed 2009-2013 civil engineer strategic plan to ensure that it 

met then-current Air Force goals. General Byers commented on the utility of the latest document: “We 

have integral roles in everything that the CSAF and the SECAF laid out under their five priorities, and 
542 Leading the Way

now have a map, if you will, of how we’re linked.”143 The revised 2009-2013 civil engineer strategic 

plan aligned with the Air Force’s priorities: reinvigorate the nuclear enterprise, partner with the Joint 

and Coalition team to win today’s fight, develop and care for Airmen and their families, modernize our 

air and space inventories, and restore acquisition excellence. It also reflected the fiscal and economic 

challenges facing the nation following the economic slowdown of 2008. The Strategic Plan codified the 

three following goals that became General Byers’ framework for his time as The Civil Engineer: Build 

Ready Engineers, Build Great Leaders, and Build Sustainable Installations. The Strategic Plan also 

included the Civil Engineer Governance Structure discussed above, approved in September 2009.144

AFCESA Developments 2001-2011

The Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency continued to extend broad-based support for the 

civil engineering community from the Air Staff to the base levels. The agency afforded expertise in 

readiness, emergency services, energy, utilities, contracting, and automation, as well as fielded the 

Airfield Pavement Evaluation team and Civil Engineer Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair Team 

(CEMIRT). AFCESA personnel were a source of technical guidance on policies for the Air Staff and 

provided services to base operations. AFCESA continued to serve as the Program Manager for AFCAP.

In 2000, AFCESA, under the leadership of a Commander and Executive Director, was organized 

into four main directorates: Operations Support, Contingency Support, Technical Support, and Field 

Support (Figure 6.5). In 2001, the Operations Support Directorate was restructured and expanded 

from three divisions to four. The three initial divisions were Contracts Support, Management, and 

Training. The fourth division, added in October 2001, was the Technology Integration Division. 

The new division consolidated responsibility for technology related to the Operations Flight in the 

civil engineer squadron at each Air Force base, including the Automated Civil Engineer System, the 

Installation Data Warehouse, and GeoBase. The Contracts Support Division was renamed the Utilities 

Privatization Directorate during the same reorganization and focused exclusively in that area. Another 

new division was the Knowledge Management Division, which was responsible for A-76 competitive 

outsourcing and contracting operations previously assigned to the Contracts Support Division. The 

Knowledge Management Division also assumed the management of other programs that affected the 

base Operations Flights, such as vehicles, financial management, and real estate. The Training Division 

was renamed the Force Development Division and was expanded to include career field management 

positions for the Civil Engineering Air Force Specialty Codes.145

Source: History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency, 1 Jan-31 Dec 2000, Appendix D.
Meeting the New Century 543

On September 11, 2001, AFCESA personnel responded to the terrorist attacks in New York City, 

and Washington, D.C. AFCESA’s Readiness Center, renamed the Readiness Operations Center at 

Headquarters, AFCESA in August 2001, was activated on a 24-hour basis. This alert lasted until 

September 24, 2001. AFCESA dispatched a representative to the command post of the Southeast Air 

Defense Sector headquarters, North American Aerospace Defense Command, which assumed control 

of all U.S. airspace. Col. Bruce Barthold, AFCESA Commander, was at Ft. Leonard Wood, Missouri, at 

the time of the attack and had to return to AFCESA by rental car. Mission-essential personnel reported 

to work on September 12 and on the morning of September 13. Regular working hours were resumed 

at noon on September 13, 2001, with the exception of personnel working in the vault.146

Throughout the decade, AFCESA personnel strove to meet the agency’s mission: “Provide the 

best tools, practices, and professional support to maximize Air Force Civil Engineer capabilities in 

base and contingency operations.”147 The agency supported Air Force civil engineers worldwide at 82 

major and 10 minor active-duty installations, 83 Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard installations, and deployed locations worldwide.148

AFCESA continued to focus on disseminating information throughout the civil engineer community; one of AFCESA’s primary roles was to provide answers. As AFCESA Commander Col. Gus 

G. Elliott, Jr., described AFCESA’s efforts, “If you have a question...We have the answer. If you have 

a problem...We have the solution.”149 Information was disseminated through a wide variety of media. 

Previously printed materials were distributed in electronic formats. On April 1, 2002, AFCESA began 

publishing A-Grams only in electronic format accessible through an internet website.150 The A-Grams 

offered useful advice and instruction on a range of topics useful to civil engineers. 

AFCESA also facilitated communication using the World Wide Web through the creation of a 

knowledge management program to support its customers. One component of the program was Communities of Practice (CoPs) launched in 2004. By summer 2005, 18 CoPs related to civil engineering 

topics had been accessed by more than 3,000 members. CoPs were hosted by the web platform “Air 

Force Knowledge Now” managed by AFMC. Popular topics included full spectrum threat response 

and contingency engineering. Through these virtual workspaces, CoP members queried for advice and 

reviewed best practices.151 By 2008, CoPs became a vital tool for Air Force civil engineers, whether 

deployed or resident at home stations. CoPs evolved into an easily accessible method of communication, a tool to capture lessons learned, and a source of pragmatic information on a selected number of 

topics. By 2008, the AFCESA webmaster maintained the CoPs Index.152

The AFCESA Reach-Back Center, established in April 2005, was a telephone call center that 

forwarded questions to the appropriate subject matter expert and tracked inquiries to their successful 

resolutions. The center was available to all Air Force civil engineer personnel worldwide, whether at 

home stations or at deployed locations. The objective of the Reach-Back Center was to assure “customers access to subject matter experts every time they call or e-mail for support.” Information was 

available on “products, methods, training, criteria, templates, checklists, etc., in thousands of program 

areas that supported base or contingency missions.”153 The new center featured a computer system to 

track expert responses. Many of AFCESA’s 75 subject matter areas were manned by single experts. 

The center facilitated access to these experts. AFCESA promised “accurate, prompt, and decisionquality” answers within hours, or at most, three days. By summer 2005, the Reach-Back Center had 

fielded 800 calls; the average turn-around time for responses was six hours.154 By 2007, the volume of 

inquiries reached over 20,000. The center was managed initially by a team of three contractors, and, 

by 2007, had expanded to include a dedicated two-person emergency management help desk. The new 

help desk was assisted by the AFCESA Readiness Operations Center.155

In late 2004, management of the Sustainment, Restoration and Modernization (S/R&M) program 

was transferred from AFCEE to AFCESA. S/R&M was a budget line item in the overall Air Force 

budget under the Operations and Maintenance accounts dedicated to modernizing Air Force facilities 

and infrastructure. The transition occurred over a year and was completed by October 2005. During 
544 Leading the Way

that year, AFCEE handled overseas projects, while AFCESA handled CONUS projects. The new 

responsibilities assigned to AFCESA required setting up a new directorate, Installation Support, which 

comprised four divisions: POL/Fuels, Vertical, Pavements, and Utilities.156 S/R&M projects involved 

“maintenance, repair, and construction upgrades to existing facilities and infrastructure on Air Force 

bases.” AFCESA staffed its management team from in-house project managers and drew upon inhouse subject matter experts in electrical, mechanical, civil engineering, and architectural disciplines, 

as well as airfield pavements, structural, fire engineering, cathodic corrosion protection, and seismic 

engineering, among others.157

AFCESA’s first real test in managing the S/R&M program occurred in the aftermath of Hurricane 

Katrina in 2005. AFCESA directed S/R&M funds to recovery work at Keesler AFB, Mississippi, which 

was damaged severely by the storm. In FY05, AFCESA awarded a total of $145 million in S/R&M 

contracts, of which $91 million assisted the recovery at Keesler AFB. The S/R&M contract awards 

grew to more than $350 million for FY06. As Keith Cutshaw from the 16th CES at Hurlburt Field, 

Florida, reported, 

The beauty of the S/R&M contracts is that full-blown designs are not required. All 

it takes to get a project underway is to send the funds to AFCESA and provide a 

statement of work, typically a 35 percent design. Once a contractor is selected and 

the project awarded, we manage the day-to-day construction activities locally. It may 

cost a little more using the S/R&M program, but you receive the additional support 

from AFCESA in administering the contracts and the contractors actually develop 

the implementation plan.158

Between 2005 and 2007, AFCESA issued S/R&M awards through AFCEE’s indefinite delivery/

indefinite quantity (ID/IQ) contracts. In January 2008, AFCESA set up its own ID/IQ contracting 

vehicle entitled the S/R&M Acquisition Task Order Contract (SATOC). SATOC was capped at $4 

billion and 16 companies were selected as contractors. SATOC made possible a variety of contracting 

options, including turnkey, design/build, concept work plan/implementation work plan, and designbid-build.159 In 2007, SATOC was the contracting vehicle for 230 projects valued at $325 million 

and executed for all Air Force major commands.160 In 2009, $443.5 million were awarded through 

AFCESA’s SATOC for work at 58 bases.161

By early 2007, the organizational structure of the agency had grown to six directorates: Contingency Support, Engineering Support, Field Support, Operations Support, Installation Support, and 

Business Operations Support.162 During summer 2006, Col. Richard A. Fryer, Jr., transferred from 

the position of Executive Director at AFCEE to become the Commander at AFCESA.163 AFCESA 

underwent a period of transformation. The organizational structure was revised into the following 

directorates: Mission Support, Contract Support, Facility Energy Center, Field Support, Operation and 

Program Support, and Readiness Support (Figure 6.6). Four hundred and six persons worked at the 

agency. Personnel comprised 84 active duty military, 23 Reservists, 102 civilians, and 195 contractors. During the period from 2008 and 2009, the number of persons employed at AFCESA decreased 

by approximately 20, but rebounded to 404 in 2010. This staff included 81 active duty, 163 civilians, 

and 161 contractors. AFCESA was led by a series of Commanders during the period: Col. Richard 

A. Fryer, Jr. (2006-8), Col. Max E. Kirschbaum (2008-10), and Col. David L. Reynolds (2010-12).164

AFCESA continued in its role of support to the Air Staff, major commands, and the bases; it was 

a critical partner facilitating and supporting Air Force civil engineer transformation. In February 2007, 

General Eulberg announced a concerted effort to maximize lessons learned in all areas of civil engineer 

enterprise, from contingency deployments to transformation initiatives, by capturing the experiences 

of Airmen. He appointed AFCESA as the central location for the Air Force Civil Engineer Lessons 

Learned Program. AFCESA served as the central repository for the collection, and validated, tracked, 
Meeting the New Century 545

and disseminated civil engineer lessons learned. Non-classified lessons learned were made available 

through the Advanced Lessons Management System accessible over the web or the Lessons Learned 

CoP. The AFCESA Reach-Back Center was the primary vehicle for disseminating classified lessons 

learned.165

In February 2007, AFCESA created the Air Force Facility Energy Center (AFFEC). Energy had 

been a part of AFCESA’s mission since the mid-1970s and became a major product area for the agency 

in the twenty-first century. The AFCESA Energy Team had been active since 2004 and served as the 

nexus for energy issues among Air Force bases. The team incorporated experts in contracting, finance, 

energy awareness, energy audits, training, and renewable energy. The team also supported installations 

in developing renewable energy projects.166 AFFEC was established to manage all facility energy and 

water conservation programs, as well as to identify funding methods and viable technologies.167 AFFEC 

also monitored the Air Force’s progress in meeting the 2015 energy goals mandated by the Energy 

Independence and Security Act of 2007.168 In this role, AFFEC assisted installations to meet “Federally 

mandated energy efficiency improvement goals by securing reliable and affordable energy through 

facility energy management, energy savings performance contracts, renewable energy, utility rates 

litigation, and utility privatization.”169 In 2007, AFFEC developed a Facilities Energy Strategic Plan.

Readiness and operations along with energy were the three core competencies identified in AFCESA’s 2011 informational brochure. These competencies served to “enhance mission capability and 

warfighter support.”170 AFCESA provided major readiness support in overseas contingency operations. 

Its team of engineers, firefighters, and emergency management and EOD specialists worked in the 

field and alongside deployed civil engineer personnel to solve critical problems and issues. In operations, AFCESA provided the same expertise to support maintenance and operations challenges and 

emergency situations at permanent Air Force bases worldwide.171

Airfield Pavement Evaluation Team

One area of AFCESA expertise was the evaluation and repair of airfield pavements. The Airfield 

Pavement Evaluation (APE) team continued to support Air Force missions in CONUS and overseas. 

The 12-member team (broken down into three or four-person teams for inspections) was responsible 

for evaluations of contingency and peacetime runways at 200 installations.172 During evaluations, 

teams extracted core samples of pavements to determine the thickness and concrete flexural strength. 

The teams then completed tests of the underlying soils. APE teams also performed structural analysis 

of the runways to determine their ability to support varying aircraft. The teams also employed a heavy 

weight deflectometer, a unique trailer-mounted machine to forecast potential pavement failures based 

on different aircraft.

Source: History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency, 1 Jan-31 Dec 2007, Appendix D.
546 Leading the Way

In February 2001, the APE team purchased a new “specialized contingency pavement evaluation 

vehicle.”173 The 12,500 pound vehicle was outfitted with a core drill and automated dynamic cone 

penetrometer, which allowed teams to extract core samples from the stationary vehicle.

Team members were actively engaged in the overseas contingency operations during the first 

decade of the twenty-first century. Six members of the APE team deployed to SWA to evaluate theater airfields in 2001 in preparation of OEF. The team deployed with 21 short tons of equipment and 

evaluated sites in six countries.174 Some airfields evaluated by the pavement team included Pasni and 

Jacobabad in Pakistan; Karshi-Khanabad AB, Uzbekistan; Manas International Airport, Kyrgyzstan; 

and, ten airfields in Afghanistan. Pavement thickness and the underlying soils were assessed by the 

APE team to determine the weight limitations for aircraft and the number of flights that could be 

supported from each airfield.175

In 2003, the results of a pavement assessment at Grand Forks AFB, North Dakota, necessitated 

quick rehabilitation or reconstruction of the 47-year old runways. The resulting $27.5 million runway 

construction project was the largest Air Force O&M project issued that year. Following a year of 

design consultation among contractors, AMC’s Infrastructure Branch, and the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers’ Transportation Systems Center, a design approach utilizing rubblization was agreed upon. 

Rubblization was a process using extant pavement materials as the base foundation for a new pavement. 

The process was cost-effective and environmentally sound.176 A construction innovation for installing concrete in sub-zero temperatures was introduced during the runway project applying antifreeze 

admixture technology. The poured concrete cured properly at air temperatures of 25 degrees Fahrenheit 

and attained the prescribed compressive strength in four days without heat.177 The runway officially 

opened on November 7, 2005.178

The AFCESA Airfield Pavement Evaluation Team uses a dynamic cone penetrometer to evaluate a runway at 

Kandahar, Afghanistan.
Meeting the New Century 547

Dover AFB, Delaware, completed one of the largest AMC airfield rehabilitations in 2009. The 

runway, first constructed in 1943, had deteriorated over time due to continual use exacerbated by the 

chemical reaction between Portland cement and aggregate. The rehabilitation project area required 

the removal of 472,989 square yards of pavement. Nearly 70,000 tons of the removed pavement were 

recycled and used in the construction of overruns, shoulders, and staging areas. The new concrete 

pavement was the equivalent of 47.2 miles of 20-foot wide lanes.179

Airfield Damage Repair 

At the request of the combatant commanders, AFCESA formed an airfield damage repair (ADR) 

working group to evaluate Base Recovery After Attack (BRAAT) and Rapid Runway Repair (RRR) 

methods for use in Southwest and Central Asia. Interest in runway repair techniques was revived 

when it became crucial to maintain airfields at forward bases in hostile environments. In Iraq and 

Afghanistan, incoming mortar and rocket attacks damaged runways that then required repairs. In 

other cases, Air Force civil engineers needed to restore runways damaged either by U.S. attacks or by 

retreating enemy troops. Air Force civil engineers were using the same RRR techniques since 1985, 

and current experiences proved that airfield damage repair techniques needed to be broadened beyond 

RRR and BRAAT. Airfield repairs were still being completed using folded fiberglass panels and even 

AM-2 matting. AFCESA and the ADR working group collaborated with several DoD laboratories to 

develop new materials, new techniques, and new equipment to accomplish airfield damage repair.

180

In 2008, Critical Runway Assessment and Repair (CRATR) was introduced. CRATR was established as a joint-service program involving the Air Force and U.S. Pacific Command to identify 

methods to improve airfield recovery operations using new techniques and materials. CRATR emphasized remote capabilities designed to protect service members in the field. One aspect of CRATR 

was the Rapid Airfield Damage Assessment System that employed remote sensing technology and 

geographic information system mapping tools to perform minimum airfield operating surface reconnaissance.181 Other techniques and equipment advanced by CRATR were the multi-terrain loader, a 

small, maneuverable vehicle that could be used to cut through 18 inches of concrete and haul it away, 

and high-density foam that expanded up to eight times its original volume in a matter of minutes.182

Three demonstrations were held between August 2008 and August 2009 showcasing CRATR methods. 

CEMIRT

The Civil Engineer Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair Team (CEMIRT) continued to provide 

power production, aircraft arresting system overhaul, HVAC, and controls services throughout the 

decade. In 2001, CEMIRT supported Operation Southern Watch in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Personnel completed annual inspection and repair of Harvest Falcon power production systems. Installations 

around the globe received assistance from CEMIRT in a variety of power production areas, including 

troubleshooting/repairing automatic transfer systems, upgrading power plants, installing and overhauling generators, emergency repair of electrical substations, airfield lighting, and maintenance and 

repair of aircraft arresting systems.183 During the California energy crisis of 2001, CEMIRT HVAC 

crews provided assistance in reducing the energy consumption at Air Force installations. In July 2001, 

personnel deployed to Prince Sultan Air Base, Saudi Arabia, to complete routine maintenance on 

generators and complete an airfield lighting vault project.184

During Operation Noble Eagle, CEMIRT supported combat air patrols by providing mobile aircraft arresting systems (MAAS) for jet fighters to installations lacking permanent systems. CEMIRT 

fulfilled a request for one MAAS within 35 days. During that period, CEMIRT overhauled used 

arresting systems, working 12-hour shifts, 6-days a week.185
548 Leading the Way

During OEF, many bases occupied by Air Force personnel were not equipped with aircraft arresting 

systems. The Air Force drew MAAS assets from war reserves and installed the systems at the overseas 

bases. CEMIRT was tasked with restocking the reserves with aircraft arresting systems; 14 systems 

were overhauled by personnel in 20 months while executing ongoing standard assignments.186 CEMIRT 

personnel were also vital to maintaining power systems at installations in use throughout OEF and OIF.

CEMIRT personnel installed Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems at 

installations throughout the Air Force. The system comprised hardware and software that enabled Air 

Force civil engineers to remotely control and monitor equipment across an installation. Operations 

controlled by a SCADA system included “sewage lift stations, standby generators, water wells, water 

treatment plants, and electrical substations.”187 In 2005, three bases received SCADA systems that were 

installed by CEMIRT crews: Hill AFB, Utah; Hickam AFB, Hawaii; and, McGuire AFB, New Jersey. 

Growth of Air Force Contract Augmentation Program (AFCAP)

AFCAP remained a vital tool to augment civil engineering support. The AFCAP program manager 

was located at AFCESA. The AFCAP contractor, RMS, L.C., provided support during its fifth year 

of the AFCAP contract, which extended through February 2002. For most of the final contract year, 

AFCAP was used to sustain ongoing operations. Between January and August 2001, 13 task orders 

were issued through AFCAP. Eight task orders originated from the USAID Office of Foreign Disaster 

Assistance (OFDA) to procure, ship, and stockpile emergency supplies. The types of supplies procured 

for OFDA included plastic sheeting, blankets, water bladder kits, tents and tent frames, and rescue 

boats.188 OFDA supplies were distributed to respond to an earthquake in India and drought conditions 

in Afghanistan, as well as for humanitarian relief for Afghanistan refugees in Pakistan.189 Military 

task orders secured base operating support for Manta AB, Ecuador; power production professionals 

for rotations to SWA as part of Operation Southern Watch; and, 16 electrical, civil, and mechanical 

A Tyndall CEMIRT technician puts the finishing touches on a refurbished Mobile Aircraft Arresting System.
Meeting the New Century 549

engineers and construction inspectors who deployed to Prince Sultan Air Base, Saudi Arabia; Ali Al 

Salem and Al Jaber ABs, Kuwait; and, Al Dhafra AB, United Arab Emirates (UAE).190

Between September 11, 2001 and December 2001, 25 task orders were funded through AFCAP 

and 7 additional requests were issued for bids. Also, 7 additional task orders were issued to procure 

emergency supplies for OFDA. The largest task was to procure and transport 250,000 blankets to 

Pakistan for a cost of over $1.5 million. AFCAP was used extensively to provide engineer support for 

Operations Noble Eagle and Enduring Freedom for humanitarian, logistics support, and force protection efforts. For the first time, AFCAP also was used as a vehicle to support Military Construction 

(MILCON) projects. At Bolling AFB, Washington, D.C., task orders were issued through AFCAP to 

conduct a site survey for Hangar 1, renovate Hangar 1 for use as an air operations center, construct 

open storage for contractor trailers, alter installation entry gates, and construct a perimeter wall between 

north and south gates. At MacDill AFB, Florida, AFCAP was used to secure a site survey for a mobile 

structure staging area and to pave a parking lot. 

Many AFCAP task orders were issued to support operations in SWA. MILCON construction to 

build dorms in Kuwait and facilities in Qatar and UAE were tasked through AFCAP. For the first time, 

RED HORSE squadrons and Prime BEEF teams accessed AFCAP to reach overseas companies to 

procure and deliver materials to remote or undeveloped areas. Examples of these contracts included 

short-term leases for heavy equipment, a Geotech Survey for an airfield, procurement of computer 

support equipment, and designs for hardened aircraft shelters.191

During Operation Enduring Freedom, AFCAP was used to provide logistical support, including 

leasing vehicles and equipment and procuring supplies to support RED HORSE activities. Materials 

acquired to support RED HORSE operations included concrete, fill material, and asphalt. Local leasing 

of equipment and local purchase of materials eliminated potential shipment delays from the United 

States.192 In addition, the AFCAP contractor provided planning support and arranged transportation 

of equipment and supplies to the sites.193

The AFCAP contractor sent representatives to a forward cell located in the operational theater 

to facilitate on-site planning and execution of task orders. The cell comprised the AFCAP Program 

Manager and contracting officer from AFCESA and contractor planning and logistical personnel. In 

total, 38 task orders were funded through AFCAP between January and December 2001. The total 

dollar amount for the fifth year of the AFCAP contract was over $49.5 million.194

The first AFCAP contract expired February 2002. During 2001, AFCESA personnel prepared a 

second AFCAP contract slated to begin February 2002. The new contract extended eight years until 

2010 with a cap of $400 million.195 RMS, L.C., won the second AFCAP award in February 2002.196

RMS, L.C., was an independent subsidiary of Johnson Controls, Inc., and was supported on the second 

AFCAP contract by eight sub-contractors. The second AFCAP contract was structured so that RMS, 

L.C., assigned personnel to be on call 24 hours, 7 days per week to plan and provide estimates once 

a need was identified. Once the individual projects were tasked, the main contractor then mobilized 

larger groups of personnel to accomplish the task.197

Projects assigned to RMS, L.C. under AFCAP during OEF included the construction of two 

aircraft parking ramps. The parking ramps covered an area equivalent to 18 football fields in size 

and construction was completed within a compressed schedule.198 In late 2002, twenty members of 

the 49th Materiel Maintenance Squadron (MMS) from Holloman AFB, New Mexico, were tasked 

with the construction of two portable hangars for the B-2 Spirit Bombers at a deployed location. This 

assignment was completed through the combined efforts of the 49th MMS, CEMIRT, and the AFCAP 

contractor. CEMIRT linked the hangars to the local power grid. The AFCAP contractor acquired and 

expedited delivery of construction equipment, as well as purchased and delivered the electrical systems 

specified by CEMIRT and the 49th MMS. Within ten days of notification to proceed on the project, the 

AFCAP contractor procured the construction equipment, which included a 7.5-ton crane, and arranged 

procurement of a specially manufactured stepdown transformer. The equipment was transported to 
550 Leading the Way

Dubai International Airport in the UAE, then continued to the deployed location via a Ukrainian IL-76 

aircraft. The equipment was in position when the B-2 shelter systems arrived by sea.199

AFCAP also was used extensively in the months preceding OIF. AFCAP was used as a vehicle 

to procure local materials, lease heavy equipment, acquire special equipment, and employ local geotechnical and engineering services. By mid-March 2003, 100 task orders totaling $446 million were 

issued through AFCAP.200

In November 2003, the U.S. Army requested AFCAP support to construct a tent city to house 

10,000 soldiers at Camp Taji in Iraq. CMSgt (Ret) Joe Smith deployed with a site survey team to assess 

the site requirements in order to estimate the cost of the project. He returned to Camp Taji as the interim 

site manager. He held that position for two months until the assignment of a full-time site manager. 

He returned to Iraq a third time to support the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in the construction of a 

20-megawatt power plant and distribution system at Camp Victory, Iraq.201

Many projects supported by the AFCAP contractor comprised maintenance and operations at 

forward bases and locations. For example, by 2004, 60 civilian contract personnel operated the airfield 

at Bagram AB, Afghanistan. This task order was the first civilian contract executed in Afghanistan. 

Civilian contractors served for one year. Contractors operated the airfield control tower at Bagram 

and directed air traffic at the nearby Kabul airport. AFCAP contractors also maintained the runways, 

taxiways, airfield lighting, and communications equipment. Every civilian contractor eliminated the 

four-month rotational deployment of three military personnel.202

By 2005, $950 million was expended through AFCAP to support the U.S. military effort in Afghanistan and Iraq. Task orders were issued by the Air Force, the Army, the U.S. Agency for International 

Development, and the Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq. Projects included the construction and 

maintenance of Camp Cooke in Taji, Iraq; air traffic management at six airfields; electrical power 

support to power fuels systems; water production and distribution systems; and, construction of 

improvements to Air Force locations in Kirkuk and Balad, Iraq.203

Members of the 820th RED HORSE Squadron use a paving machine at Al Dhafra acquired through AFCAP.
Meeting the New Century 551

AFCAP also was used to support humanitarian relief. Funds were expended through AFCAP to 

support relief efforts in the Horn of Africa. In the United States, AFCAP was used as a vehicle for 

relief efforts following Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.204

In 2005, the contracting capacity of AFCAP II was reached and requests for bids to undertake 

AFCAP III were circulated. The bidding process for AFCAP III was managed by the Air Force Program 

Executive Officer for Combat and Mission Support in Washington, D.C. The monetary ceiling for 

AFCAP III was established at $10 billion. The solicitation began in February 2005 and was completed 

in September 2005.205 The 10-year AFCAP III contract was awarded on November 8, 2005 to six 

firms. “The decision to go with more than one contractor helps provide flexibility in our planning and 

helps mitigate the risk of a single contractor possibly being overwhelmed by a large number of task 

orders,” said Wayland Patterson, the AFCAP program manager at AFCESA. For AFCAP III, contract 

management was divided based on the nature of the task orders between AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, and the Air Force Services Agency, San Antonio, Texas.206

By 2007, AFCAP had been in existence for ten years. Wayland Patterson reflected on the value of 

AFCAP to the Air Force when he wrote, “AFCAP was conceived as a means to leverage capabilities 

from the commercial sector and provide civil engineer and Services personnel with a means to do 

‘more with less.’ Ten years later and on its third contract, the program continues to be a significant 

force multiplier, not only for the Air Force, but for other government agencies as well.”207 While 

AFCAP contractors were prohibited from completing initial beddown for Air Force operations or 

participating in combat, AFCAP contractors had provided vital support at nearly all Air Force forward locations. It was estimated that, by 2004-2005, 75 percent of the AFCAP task orders were for 

sustaining services, such as electrical production support, air traffic management, and maintenance 

of infrastructure. Patterson reported that 518 task orders were issued through AFCAP between 1997 

and 2007 for a total of $1.62 billion. In 2007, 35 task orders were underway in seven countries for a 

total amount of $149 million. AFCAP had been used by many agencies in addition to the Air Force, 

including USAID, OFDA, U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, the U.S. State Department, 

U.S. Department of Justice, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration, Homeland Security, and the U.S. International Board of Broadcasters.208

Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence (AFCEE)

AFCEE continued to serve as the center for expertise in environmental issues and housing privatization during the first decade of the twenty-first century. In 2001, AFCEE celebrated 10 years of 

service to the Air Force. That same year, Mr. Gary M. Erickson, AFCEE Director from 1996 until 2003, 

was awarded a Meritorious Executive award, the highest award for SES. The award was presented 

by President George W. Bush for sustained accomplishments and outstanding work ethic. Erickson 

was prompt to pass on the credit to his team. “They’re the ones who did the hard work and made it 

all possible. It’s a double enjoyment for me personally to receive the award and also be part of a team 

that produces a recognition like this.”209

In August 2003, Mr. Paul A. Parker was selected to the ranks of the Senior Executive Service 

and appointed as the AFCEE Director, coming from his position as the Deputy Civil Engineer, Headquarters, Air Education and Training Command. Parker began a reorganization to focus AFCEE on 

the customer and to serve better the Air Force. The organization was reconfigured into the following 

directorates: Technical, Housing, Base Conversion, Major Command & Installation Support-CONUS 

(IC and IS), and Major Command & Installation Support-OCONUS (IW). Commands and installations 

were assigned to a single directorate for assistance with projects and programs. The IW Directorate 

supported PACAF, USAFE, and Defense units providing Air Force-mission support. The IS Directorate supported AFMC, AFSOC, AETC and Air Force Reserve commands, as well as the ANG and 

Massachusetts Military Reservation. The IC Directorate assisted Air Mobility, Air Combat, and Air 
552 Leading the Way

Force Space commands along with the 11th Wing at Bolling AFB, Washington, D.C., and USAFA 

in Colorado.210 By 2007, the IS and IC Directorates were merged into a single Major Command & 

Installation Support-CONUS Directorate (IC), under which specific offices worked with designated 

major commands.211

In 2004, the Housing Directorate replaced the Design and Construction Directorate. Under this 

directorate were MILCON programs and housing privatization. AFCEE accomplished more housing 

work than any other office in DoD. The Base Conversion Directorate provided services for bases that 

were closed or realigned through BRAC. The Technical Directorate was the designated center of expertise for environmental services and design management. Subject matter experts formed the backbone 

of the directorate’s technical and scientific expertise.212 During 2004-2005, the number of divisions 

within the Technical Directorate was reduced from five to four.213 AFCEE’s Contracting, Legal, Mission Support, and Operations and Development Directorates and the Regional Environmental Offices 

remained unchanged.214 The 2004 reorganization expanded AFCEE’s focus. As General Fox, The Civil 

Engineer, said, “We’ve evolved the AFCEE structure over the years. In the beginning we concentrated 

on the environmental staff. Today, AFCEE has a multi-service engineering capability.”215

AFCEE’s Role in Iraqi Reconstruction

One new area of activity for AFCEE was the reconstruction of Iraq through the Worldwide Environmental Restoration and Construction (WERC) contract. WERC was the fifth in a series of AFCEE 

contracting vehicles that began in the 1990s. The immediate predecessor to WERC was the Environmental Remediation and Construction Contract. It had a $750 million cap, which was expended within 

three years of the start of the contract.216 WERC was an indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity contract 

awarded by AFCEE on December 1, 2003. WERC had a ceiling of $4 billion with the potential to 

increase to $10 billion and was awarded to 27 U.S. firms comprising 15 small and 12 large businesses.217

WERC was beginning to function at the time that the U.S.-led Coalition Provisional Authority 

(CPA) was set up to administer Iraq. The U.S. Congress had authorized $18 billion to rebuild Iraqi 

infrastructure. The CPA needed a funding mechanism to begin immediate reconstruction efforts until 

a contracting structure was in place.218 On December 7, 2003, the CPA Administrator in Iraq, L. Paul 

Bremer III formally requested use of AFCEE’s WERC as the contracting vehicle to fund rebuilding 

military installations in Iraq. Draft requests for proposals for construction projects in Iraq were circulated to WERC contractors on December 19, 2003; 20 contractors expressed interest. Formal approval 

for AFCEE involvement was granted by Gen. John J. Jumper, Air Force Chief of Staff, on January 14, 

2004. In December 2003, Sharon Money of AFCEE’s Contracting Directorate was designated as the 

primary contracting officer for Iraqi projects.219 On January 9, 2004, final requests for proposals were 

issued for competitive bids to 22 WERC contractors. One week later, AFCEE received proposals from 

12 contractors. Days later, AFCEE awarded four task orders under WERC and mobilized contractors.220

By February 2004, Gary Bergman and Dan Turek arrived in Iraq to serve as the first on-the-ground 

AFCEE project managers/contracting officer representatives. The project managers were responsible 

for monitoring cost, schedule, and quality. 

By summer 2004, AFCEE had obligated $600 million through WERC for restoration projects at 

four Iraqi military bases, including Al Kasik, Taji, and An Numinayah army bases, and Um Qasr naval 

base. The initial four projects had tight time frames for project completion. The deadline to complete 

the $25 million construction project at Taji army base was March 2004. Other projects were planned for 

completion by mid-April and May 2004.221 Eighty percent of the work contracted through WERC was 

for rebuilding military installations, including eight major military facilities, some for the Iraqi army 

and some for the Iraqi air force.222 Other major military projects included renovating the Iraqi Ministry 

of Defense building and the Rastamiyah Military Academy, and upgrading military bases in Kirkuk 

and Ali.223 Lt. Gen. David L. Petraeus expressed his appreciation for AFCEE’s work in an September 

18, 2004 e-mail to Lt. Gen. Donald L. Wetekam, Air Force Director of Installations and Logistics,
Meeting the New Century 553

First, I want to thank you for the superb support that you, Maj. Gen. Fox, and the 

team from AFCEE have provided for the reconstruction programs underway in Iraq....

The AFCEE team, which, as you know, came into Iraq to execute work early in the 

reconstruction process so that we could generate Iraqi Armed Forces as quickly as 

possible, has contributed significantly to our ability to establish a new Iraqi Army. 

Without AFCEE intervention at a critical time, we would not have been able to generate the forces as soon as we have. AFCEE’s role in this endeavor is a success story.224

As the reconstruction effort in Iraq evolved, WERC contractors worked to complete civilian 

projects. These projects included the renovation or reconstruction of two water-pumping stations and 

installation of more than 12 miles of water distribution line, three bridges, hundreds of schools, eight 

medical clinics, Iraqi government buildings, and infrastructure. In all, the renovation or reconstruction of 645 buildings was completed, with an additional 1,173 building projects underway in 2005.225

Added benefits of the reconstruction effort were to give Iraqi citizens jobs and construction training 

and to support the rebuilding of Iraqi businesses.226

To complete this number of projects, AFCEE used the innovative cost-plus, performance-based 

construction business model. Under the performance-based construction business model, AFCEE 

defined the end result of the project and let the contractors present the plans on how to achieve the 

desired end state. The conceptual plans were approved by the project reviewers and clients and then the 

contractor produced the implementation work plan to accomplish the project. Once the implementation work plan was approved, the contractor began work.227 While in Iraq, AFCEE personnel initially 

worked closely with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, who provided quality assurance.228 By 2005, 

Iraqis complete trenching for perimeter lighting on a project completed under AFCEE’s management.
554 Leading the Way

AFCEE personnel and contractors provided Title II quality assurance.229 This method of contracting 

increased flexibility and rapid response to customer requirements.230

By summer 2004, other funding vehicles were available through the Department of State Iraq 

Project and Contracting Office.231 Although AFCEE continued to work with the Project and Contracting 

Office, by the end of 2004 AFCEE’s major customer using WERC was the Multi-National Security 

Transition Command-Iraq.232 AFCEE established a small office in Iraq which was supported by many 

individuals at AFCEE headquarters, San Antonio, to keep overhead costs low and reduce the risk to 

people stationed in Iraq. In 2005, AFCEE managed $1.5 billion of restoration work in Iraq.233 One 

project beginning in spring 2006 and completed November 2007 required AFCEE contractors to install 

43 wells to provide water to Iraqi installations.234 In 2007, AFCEE Director Paul Parker summed up the 

work that AFCEE had facilitated in Iraq, “as I look back at the last three years, I see that the center has 

managed construction of some 80 military bases, 360 police stations, 469 schools, and 179 miles of 

pipeline in that war-torn country, at a cost of about $3.5 billion.”235 Parker was also proud of AFCEE’s 

efforts working through WERC contracts to employ and to train Iraqi nationals in construction and to 

support Iraqi construction firms. By 2005, Parker felt that Iraqi construction companies were capable 

of executing multi-million contracts as prime contractors without AFCEE oversight. “As far as Iraq 

reconstruction is concerned, a job well done means working ourselves out of a job, and we have done 

just that,” Paul Parker wrote.236

AFCEE employees who traveled to Iraq between 2004 and 2007 numbered 22 civilians and 13 

military staff, but many others at Headquarters, AFCEE were involved to ensure that contracting was 

successful.237 The statistics for work completed between 2004 and 2009 were truly impressive: 585 

projects worth $4.8 billion that encompassed 4,681 facilities totaling over 80 million square feet of 

rebuilding. These facilities included 34 brigades and 115 battalion garrisons, 469 schools, 11 medical 

clinics, the Ministry of Defense headquarters, 3 repaired and expanded airports, 15 border forts and 

expeditionary camps, 264 police stations, and 1 prison.238 Other aspects of the Iraqi rebuilding program 

included labor training for Iraqi construction workers, designers, engineers, and contractors; application of advanced procurement techniques for contracts; and, implementation of a quality assurance 

Iraqis work to complete an enlisted barracks at an Iraqi military base. 
Meeting the New Century 555

program. AFCEE’s program managers collaborated with managers from other U.S. Armed Services 

and Iraqis to compile building construction standards for the Iraqi program.239

In February 2006, the Combined Security Transition Command-Afghanistan requested that AFCEE 

use WERC to assist in rebuilding Afghanistan. The command’s mission was to train and develop 

Afghan National Security forces. The types of projects funded through WERC contracts were barracks, 

and operational, maintenance, and training facilities. Between 2006 and 2009, AFCEE had awarded 

47 contracts in Afghanistan valued at $560 million.240 By 2007, AFCEE extended its work to other 

countries in Southwest and Central Asia, including Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, UAE, and 

Kyrgyzstan.241

In addition to WERC, AFCEE managed two other contracting vehicles, which were established in 

2003. One was the Environmental, Construction and Operations & Services (ECOS) program through 

which construction, repair and demolition projects were completed by seven small businesses. Major 

commands allocated funds through ECOS to contract with small businesses to perform CONUS 

projects related to force protection, homeland security, environmental compliance, and conservation 

and restoration projects.242

The second contract vehicle was Design Build Plus 2003, which was used for family housing and 

commercial and institutional construction projects worldwide. The funding cap was $6 billion. The 

contract had nine full and open contracts and six small business set-asides. AFCEE contract managers 

were proud that $203 million or 22 percent of AFCEE’s total contract awards in CONUS for FY04 

were awarded to small businesses.243

In 2006, AFCEE announced the establishment of another contracting vehicle called Heavy Engineering Repair and Construction (HERC). HERC was designed for worldwide construction support, 

including reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan and Iraq. HERC had an initial cap of $6 billion, with the 

potential to increase to $15 billion over the five-year span of the contract, plus three, one-year extensions. The ID/IQ contract was awarded to 20 firms, 5 of which were small, disadvantaged businesses. 

The contract was used for design and construction of new facilities, remodeling and upgrading existing 

infrastructure and facilities, demolition, and emergency response work. Contracting options included 

turnkey, design-build, design-build-plus, and design-bid-build projects.244 Competition requirements 

for HERC were the most stringent ever for an AFCEE contract. Prerequisite requirements included 

ability to work in austere, remote, and hostile environments worldwide and $50 million bonding per 

project was required.245

Housing Programs

During the first decade of the twenty-first century, the Air Force’s military family housing construction and housing privatization programs continued to earn plaudits from DoD. General Robbins 

established “Housing Excellence” as one of Civil Engineering’s core competencies in 2000. The Air 

Force based its housing program on the 2004 Family Housing Master Plan developed by a team led 

by Col. Emmitt Smith, Chief of the Housing Division, Office of The Civil Engineer. The plan was a 

corporate, requirements-based investment strategy that integrated and prioritized traditional construction and operations and maintenance funding with private sector financing within a single roadmap to 

revitalize, divest through privatization, or demolish most inadequate CONUS family housing by 2007 

and eliminate inadequate housing overseas by 2009. This was in line with DoD’s Strategic Planning.246

AFCEE played an increasing role in the oversight of MILCON family housing construction funds. 

In FY04, AFCEE contracted for the construction of more than $193 million for military family housing, 

and directly managed 40 percent of the housing construction contracts, with the remaining units constructed by the Corps of Engineers or Naval Facilities Engineering Command. AFCEE also managed 

design projects for the construction of 3,000 additional houses at 11 bases in 5 major commands.247
556 Leading the Way

During 2006, AFCEE began oversight of a major family housing construction project at Keesler 

AFB, Mississippi. The military family housing at Keesler AFB had been devastated by Hurricane 

Katrina in August 2005. While 600 houses were repaired at Keesler AFB, another 800 houses were 

demolished. AFCEE completed the design work to construct 1,076 new houses at the base. The new 

house designs incorporated energy saving features including extra insulation, efficient windows and 

doors, and energy efficient lighting and appliances. The military housing construction project at Keesler 

AFB became the largest Air Force housing project. The total cost came to $287 million for the construction of 1,076 new houses. The project was planned in five phases and anticipated to be completed in 

43 months.248 The first houses were completed in 2008 and the entire project was completed in 2010.249

AFCEE also actively worked to increase the number of Air Force military family housing privatization projects. The purpose behind privatizing military family housing was to improve the housing 

stock through partnering with private sector companies to provide modern houses, while maximizing 

Air Force investment dollars. Over the years, it became apparent that MILCON funding could not 

meet the large-scale demand to eliminate inadequate Air Force family housing units and provide new 

or up-graded units. Housing privatization offered a way for the Air Force to leverage its investment 

to provide upgraded housing units at a faster rate and lower costs.250

The Air Force privatization program sought to meet the DoD goal of eliminating all inadequate 

housing by 2007. In 2003, the Air Force had 104,000 MFH units in its inventory; of that number, 

40,000 units were deemed inadequate.251 The Air Force planned to reduce its overall worldwide housing inventory to 86,000 units, 60,000 of which were in CONUS. The Air Force anticipated privatizing 

45,500 MFH units by 2009. Under privatization, private developers took ownership of the housing, 

but the Air Force retained title to the land. The private developer was responsible for maintaining and 

upgrading the units for 50 years.252

After Lackland AFB’s housing privatization in 1998, other bases entered into similar contracts. 

Robins AFB, Georgia, and Dyess AFB, Texas, became the second and third Air Force bases to privatize 

military family housing in September 2000, followed by Elmendorf AFB, Alaska. The initial efforts 

at these four bases privatized 2,320 housing units. Housing privatization projects were underway at 

Patrick AFB, Florida; Kirtland AFB, New Mexico; Dover AFB, Delaware; Wright-Patterson AFB, 

Ohio; and, Goodfellow AFB, Texas. The initial goal contained in the 2001 Family Housing Master 

Plan was to privatize 27,000 housing units.253 By 2005, the construction or renovation of 2,300 houses 

at the original four bases was complete and occupied by military families. Housing privatization 

contracts were in place at nine other Air Force bases and the milestone of privatizing 10,000 housing 

units had been achieved.254

By the end of FY06, AFCEE managed $200 million in Federal investment to obtain $2.4 billion 

in private sector financing to deliver over 17,000 housing units.255 In total, private housing developers had spent $2.57 billion on housing, while the Air Force spent $210.6 million on the privatization 

program.256 In 2007, the Air Force Military Family Housing Privatization Initiative had reached 19 

bases and comprised the construction of 13,811 new units and the renovation of 6,969 units.257 By 

2010, AFCEE had privatized 38,000 housing units on 44 bases, approximately 70 percent of the Air 

Force military family housing inventory.258 An additional 23 bases were planning housing privatization 

projects.259 During 2011, 3,425 housing units on five bases were privatized, including 1,188 family 

houses at Keesler AFB, Mississippi.260 The assessment of the Air Force’s housing privatization program 

was that it resulted in savings of $7 billion in construction and maintenance costs.261
Meeting the New Century 557

Design Programs

AFCEE was charged with establishing a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) 

certification program for Air Force construction programs. LEED was developed by the U.S. Green 

Building Council to assess architecture in terms of energy efficiency, water conservation, air quality, 

sustainable construction materials, and site sustainability. AFCEE incorporated LEED concepts into 

the design of the replacement military family housing at Keesler AFB, Mississippi. In 2008, the first 

houses completed at Keesler AFB were LEED certified, making the 700-house construction project 

the largest LEED certified project in the nation and first LEED certified housing at any Air Force 

base.262 On July 31, 2007, The Civil Engineer signed the Air Force Sustainable Design and Development Policy establishing goals and responsibilities to fully integrate sustainable building practices in 

the facility construction program.263 The goal was to meet LEED Silver Standard in construction of 

all new facilities.264

AFCEE also continued to manage the Air Force Design and Construction Awards. In 2005, sustainable design was added to the competition and the first winner was a consolidated support facility 

constructed at Edwards AFB, California. By mid-decade, all submissions were completed electronically through an internet website. The kinds of projects that won awards between 2000 and 2005 

included a large number of dining halls, conference centers, and non-mission related facilities. In 

2006, Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox requested that more submissions be made for mission-related facilities, 

such as work places and flight line facilities.265

AFCEE’s Environmental Programs

AFCEE’s environmental programs remained unsurpassed in the Air Force and continued to be its 

number one priority. Environmental and restoration budgets were $223.5 million in FY03 and $234.4 

million in FY04. AFCEE Director Paul Parker’s goal for the environmental program was “to see us 

focus more on implementation of emerging environmental technologies in an effort to clean up the 

sins of the past faster and cheaper.”266 Some projects completed during 2004 included encapsulating 

a drainage canal at Homestead AFB, Florida; developing a probe equipped with a sensor to detect 

chlorinated solvents in the subsurface; constructing a 300-foot iron barrier to protect a pond on Cape 

Cod, Massachusetts, from phosphorus contamination; using new technology to inspect fuel pipelines; 

introducing fuel ethanol E85 at gas stations on two bases; replacing aging gas station fuel tanks on 

bases; and, fielding a GIS system to track trees and other landscaping features on bases.267

The Air Force environmental strategic plan was unveiled in summer 2005. The plan transformed 

the environmental program and shifted the focus of the program toward increasing support for the 

warfighter. As General Fox wrote, “Compliance with environmental laws and regulation will continue 

to be important, but we’ll improve how our program supports mission operations. Under the new plan, 

the quality program will concentrate on compliance for mission’s sake rather than for compliance’s 

sake; the restoration program will shift from a milestone to a performance-based focus.”268

One example of the performance-based focus was the establishment of the Air Force’s Remedial 

Process Optimization (RPO) Outreach Office at AFCEE. Established in 2003, the RPO program was an 

Air Staff initiative under the Air Force Cleanup Program Performance-Based Management Policy. RPO 

provided a systematic way “to evaluate and improve effectiveness of site remediation so that maximum benefit is achieved for each dollar spent.”269 The ultimate goal of the program was to cut costs 

required for environmental remediation and monitoring systems. One objective was to quantify true 

costs for environmental services. Another objective was to focus on the end result of the remediation 

project, not on the process. The RPO Outreach Office developed a software tool called the Inventory 

and Optimization Prioritization Software. The data captured by the software gave all participants a 
558 Leading the Way

complete cost picture of environmental cleanup and the effectiveness of the cleanup efforts over time. 

This information assisted major commands in prioritizing cleanup sites and allocating funding.270

AFCEE also adopted Performance-Based Restoration (PBR) contracting to complete environmental remediation and restoration at Air Force bases. In use by 2005, PBR held the promise to accomplish 

environmental cleanup more efficiently, quicker, and less expensively. Using PBR, AFCEE defined the 

results of the project and let the contractor design and implement the process to attain the goals, while 

giving the government a fixed price. The contracting vehicle also did not require AFCEE to choose 

only the lowest bidder, but to evaluate a contractor’s skills and past performance. PBR was applied 

at Whiteman AFB, Missouri. Twelve sites were combined into one larger contract package for phase 

1, and 10 additional sites were bundled together for phase 2. At one site, the contractor installed an 

organic biowall to prevent groundwater contamination from spreading. This method cost $100,000 

in contrast to the typical treatment of constructing a clay-lined barrier costing $1 million.271 In 2007, 

MacDill AFB, Florida, awarded a base-wide, performance-based contract that covered environmental 

remediation on 21 known contaminated sites and assessments of other suspected locations. Both the 

remediation and subsequent monitoring of the locations were conducted and analyzed as one holistic 

system, not by individual locations.272

AFCEE worked to update its environmental tracking system. By summer 2004, the Enterprise 

Environmental Safety and Occupational Health-Management Information System was under development to replace the older Air Force-Environmental Information Management System (AF-EMIS). The 

AF-EMIS program was adopted to help installations manage their hazardous materials and wastes. 

The system tracked the use of hazardous materials from purchase to final disposal. The system printed 

reports required for compliance needs. By 2004, the system was used by 180 installations. The new 

system was web-based and merged environmental and occupational health issues. By 2004, development of the system was transferred to AFCESA, though AFCEE maintained a help desk to answer 

questions for AF-EMIS.273

Throughout the decade, the three regional environmental offices (REOs) stayed abreast of Federal, 

state and local environmental regulations and their impacts to the Air Force mission in their respective 

regions. The offices were located in Atlanta, Georgia for the Eastern Region; Dallas, Texas, for the 

Central Region; and, San Francisco for the Western Region. Each REO was led by a director and had 

a staff of ten. REOs also worked with Federal and state entities to advocate for Air Force interests. 

The REOs also served as DoD’s regional environmental coordinators in EPA regions 2, 6, and 10, and 

as Air Force liaisons for all ten regions. The issues handled by REOs were varied and included clean 

air initiatives, water quality, natural and cultural resources conservation, encroachments to bases, and 

sustainability.274

AFCEE continued its support for PRO-ACT that fielded environmental questions from the bases 

and offered free research time. The service developed an extensive library, which included training 

videos and copies of previous research reports. Information also was distributed through factsheets 

and an online web publication called CrossTalk.275 In 2006, PRO-ACT was discontinued. AFCEE 

launched a new web-based tool in 2011 called Accessible kNowledge for Sustainable Resources. This 

system provided search capabilities to users to answer environmental questions.276 By 2005, AFCEE 

also fielded 15 courses on the DoD-operated Web University.277
Meeting the New Century 559

Changes at AFCEE

Transformation affected both the AFCEE organizational structure and how it conducted business. 

In 2005, AFCEE applied lean management principles to its purchase request process. At AFCEE, the 

purchase request was a document used to obtain government funds to pay for work done by contractors 

for AFCEE customers. By reviewing this work flow, participants reduced the typical ten-day process to 

one-and-a-half days. It also reduced the number of people needed to review and approve the request. 

Invoice payments was another area at AFCEE examined using lean management principles. Results 

of the studies often required internal reorganization of offices and divisions.278 By the end of 2006, 

lean management practices were applied to the process of preparing task order contract packages. As 

a result, the process that once took eleven days was shortened to one day.279

On June 1, 2007, AFCEE was renamed the Air Force Center for Engineering and the Environment (AFCEE). The new name recognized ACFEE’s increased scope of responsibilities for MILCON 

construction, execution, and management under the Civil Engineer Transformation Plan.

280 During 

2008, the management for all current and new mission-related MILCON, housing MILCON, and 

environmental restoration account funds was gradually consolidated at AFCEE from the major commands.281 Under these expanded duties, AFCEE was designated as the Design Manager/Construction 

Manager for the entire Air Force MILCON and Housing MILCON programs. It was also authorized to 

serve as the Design Agent/Construction Agent for up to 15 percent of the Air Force MILCON program 

and up to 100 percent of the Air Force Housing MILCON program. AFCEE also was responsible for 

100 percent of the environmental restoration account funds.282

The new responsibilities resulted in internal reorganization. As outlined in the 2007 Civil Engineer 

Transformation Plan, the organizational structure for AFCEE was reconfigured into the following 

divisions and one office: Technical, Capital Investment Execution, Capital Investment Management, 

Base Conversion, and Housing Privatization Program Management Office. (Figure 6.7)283 AFCEE also 

formed two other program management offices (PMOs): the Environmental Restoration Account PMO 

and the MILCON PMO. Under the Environmental Restoration Account PMO, AFCEE provided full 

services from contract award through management of remediation systems. The new office was tasked 

to develop restoration execution strategies, gather data, and prepare reports for the Air Staff on the 

overall environmental restoration program. It determined the best methods and practices to complete 

the goals of the environmental program on individual bases or on a regional basis. By winter 2006, 

the Environmental Restoration Account PMO was led by interim director Dale Clark.284 The MILCON 

Source: USAF, Program Action Directive 07-02, HQ USAF, Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, 19 April 2007, I-5.
560 Leading the Way

PMO was similarly structured to oversee all military and family housing construction. Stephen Escude 

was appointed interim director.

In response to these expanded duties, AFCEE added more than 130 personnel beginning in FY08.285

AFCEE also opened additional Regional Management Offices to assist with project management. 

Regional management offices were located at Ramstein AB, Germany; Hickam AFB, Hawaii; and, 

at AFCEE Headquarters.286 By the end of 2007, another office was established at Andrews AFB, 

Maryland, to oversee Air Force construction in the Washington, D.C. area.287

In addition to internal organizational changes, AFCEE adopted a new mission statement. Until 

2007, the mission statement read, “To provide Air Force leaders the comprehensive and diverse expertise needed to support the warfighter by protecting, preserving, restoring, developing, and sustaining 

the nation’s environmental and installation resources.”288 By 2008, the mission statement read, “To 

provide integrated engineering and environmental management, execution and technical services 

to ensure sustainable installations that optimize Air Force and joint capabilities through sustainable 

installations.”289 In 2007, AFCEE personnel numbered 45 military and 313 civilian employees. By 

2010, AFCEE personnel numbered 48 military and 500 civilians.290

AFCEE Director Paul A. Parker summed up the changes of the 2007 transformation, 

The changes will make it possible to speak with a single voice about military construction and environmental restoration, and it will be the Air Force’s voice—not 

AFCEE’s. That is a particularly valuable asset in the joint environment that we find 

ourselves.... This is a valuable asset as we speak with one voice also to our Air Force 

installations and major commands. We now take on a large facilitative role between 

installations, major commands, private sector partners and local, state and federal 

regulators to make sure we are meeting not only the needs of the Air Force but also 

the needs of the nation.291

In November 2007, Mr. Paul Parker took a new position as the Deputy Civil Engineer at Air Staff. Mr. 

Dennis Firman was promoted to the ranks of the Senior Executive Service, and became the Director 

of AFCEE, transferring from ACC’s Design and Construction Division, where he served as division 

chief. He brought a wealth of base-level, MAJCOM and FOA experience to AFCEE. He was AFCESA’s first executive director, serving from 1994-2000. As AFCEE Director, he helped institutionalize 

the dramatic changes the organization had experienced as a result of Civil Engineer Transformation 

and streamlined several business processes. Firman retired from the SES in October 2010.292 Terry 

Edwards became AFCEE Director in October 2010.293 On August 15, 2010, AFCEE was relocated 

from the former Brooks AFB to Building 171 on the Kelly Annex area of Lackland AFB, Texas.294 By 

2011, AFCEE’s organization was reconfigured into the following divisions: Technical, Contingency 

Construction, Capital Investment Execution, Capital Investment Management, Environmental Restoration, and Housing Privatization.295

Air Force Real Property Agency (AFRPA)

On October 16, 2002, the Secretary of the Air Force consolidated the Air Force Base Conversion 

Agency with the Air Force Real Estate Division to establish the Air Force Real Property Agency 

(AFRPA). The Air Force Base Conversion Agency was formed in 1991 as the Air Force Base Disposal Agency; the agency was renamed in 1993. AFRPA was designated a field operating agency 

(FOA) within the Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force of Installations, Environment and 

Logistics.296
Meeting the New Century 561

At its founding, AFRPA oversaw the disposal of bases under base realignment and closure (BRAC) 

legislation. Following the 2002 merger, the agency was responsible for real property acquisition, management, and disposal of all Air Force-controlled real property and for all real property transactions 

on active Air Force bases worldwide.297 Its responsibilities extended to the execution of enhanced use 

leases and environmental restoration programs for bases closed under pre-2005 BRAC legislation. 

Headquartered in Arlington, Virginia, the agency initially was headed by Mr. Albert F. Lowas, Jr, a 

member of the Senior Executive Service. Ms. Kathryn Halvorson became the Deputy Director in 2003 

and was appointed Director in December 2004 when she was promoted to the ranks of the Senior 

Executive Service. In that year, the agency had a staff of 150 and managed an annual budget of $150 

million for operations and environmental programs. In 2005, AFRPA aggressively pursued the transfer 

of 10,000 acres and 14 bases from Air Force control to local communities or other Federal agencies.298

In 2005, AFRPA re-invigorated the enhanced use lease (EUL) program to assist major commands 

to realize value from under-utilized assets on non-excess land.299 EULs became practicable after the 

U.S. Congress adopted amendments to Section 2667 of Title 10, U.S. Code enacted in 2000 in Public 

Law 106-398. The changes were widely distributed by the Secretary of the Air Force along with 

instructions for the submission of potential EUL properties to AFRPA for consideration.300 The legislative amendments made a wider range of options possible in the negotiation of EULs. Lessees paid 

fair market value for property, either in cash or in-kind. The range of in-kind options was expanded 

under the amendments to include the construction of new facilities or the in-kind equivalent at another 

installation. The advantage of EULs was the ability to generate cash to support base operations from 

under-used real property assets. By May 2001, leases were under review for Brooks City Base in Texas, 

which had been authorized by special legislation.301 The aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks 

and resulting heightened base security prevented aggressive pursuit of EULs for several years. Lease 

potential was revisited after a memorandum dated April 14, 2003 from the Office of the Secretary 

of the Air Force requested that the civil engineer community explore possible EULs at all Air Force, 

ANG, and Reserve bases, despite the restraints imposed by installation mission and antiterrorism and 

force protection requirements.302 While EULs offered obvious benefits, the program took several years 

to establish and several more years to implement. By 2007, the first EUL was executed at AFMC’s 

Kirtland AFB, New Mexico, and a second EUL was in progress at Hill AFB, Utah.303

In 2007, AFRPA employed more than 200 Federal personnel and contractors. The agency was 

organized into three offices: Operations, Financial, and Information. The agency’s personnel provided 

expertise in real and personal property, real estate law, environmental restoration and compliance, 

environmental law, facility maintenance and operations, financial management, human resources, 

information technology, and public affairs.304

Accomplishments during 2007 included a public auction of the Calgary housing units at the former 

Kelly AFB, Texas; execution of an environmental services cooperative agreement for 62 acres of the 

former McClellan AFB, California; sale of 40 acres on Point Escanaba, Michigan, to the Hannah 

Indian Community, which assumed responsibility for all environmental restoration; and, transfer of 

39 acres to the St. Louis Port Authority in Missouri for redevelopment. The Port Authority also agreed 

to accept all responsibility for environmental remediation. AFRPA reported that the transfer to local 

redevelopment authorities was completed for 17 of the 32 installations closed under pre-2005 BRAC. 

Four additional transfers were completed in FY07 and included Rickenbacker ANGB, Ohio; Carswell 

AFB, Texas; Castle AFB, California; and, Homestead ARB, Florida.305

In July 2008, the agency relocated to San Antonio, Texas; the move was among the 2005 BRAC 

recommendations.306 The agency was collocated with AFCEE, which enhanced AFRPA’s effectiveness. 

AFRPA had an established working relationship with AFCEE. In March 2008, AFRPA and AFCEE 

awarded a performance-based contract for the former England AFB, Louisiana and Myrtle Beach AFB, 

South Carolina. Award of this contract was a major milestone towards the disposal of these properties 

by 2010. AFRPA was proud of their aggressive transfer completion record.307
562 Leading the Way

In August, 2008 AFRPA signed an EUL lease agreement to develop the Falcon Hill Aerospace 

Research Park at Hill AFB, Utah. This EUL was the largest and most ambitious to date. The EUL 

involved a 550-acre site on the west side of Hill AFB; development included facilities for Air Force 

personnel, office parks, hotels, restaurants, and shops accessible to the public.308 By 2008, AFRPA had 

executed leases for 4 EULs and was processing 32 projects. Four projects were under negotiation, while 

4 more were in the project definition and acquisition stage. Twenty projects were under identification. 

The number of projects had increased as a direct result of the Secretary of the Air Force designating 

the EUL program as a High Value Initiative and allocating $3 million in seed money.309

Another promising avenue for creative utilization of Air Force real estate was the exchange of real 

property for construction. The Air Force transferred real property in exchange for the construction of 

Air Force facilities. Land exchange was first used in 2005 by the Air Force Space Command’s (AFSPC) 

Space and Missile Systems Center, which exchanged land for the development of a new Systems 

Acquisition and Management Support complex at Los Angeles AFB, California. The 560,000 squarefoot complex was energy efficient and seismically safe. This exchange required special authorization 

under the FY01 DoD Authorization Act, Section 2861, passed in 2000. The agreement between the 

developer and the Air Force was signed by the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Installations, 

Environment and Logistics. The project was managed by the civil engineer of Headquarters, AFSPC.310

In 2008, proposed projects under consideration by AFRPA for land-development agreements included 

the exchange of 50 acres at Norwalk Defense Fuel Depot for construction at March ARB, California; 

the exchange of 144 acres at the Lynn Haven Fuel Depot for construction at Tyndall AFB, Florida; 

and, the exchange of 72 acres at Buckley Annex, Colorado, property for construction for the Air Force 

Reserve Command at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.311

Mr. Robert Moore became the Director of AFRPA in January 2009, upon his promotion to the 

Senior Executive Service, and oversaw its reorganization to focus on real property transactions, strategic asset management, BRAC program management, and real property management. The agency 

employed 171, including secretariat real property legal advisors. The reorganized agency contained 

six offices and/or divisions: Chief Financial Officer, Chief Information Office, Real Estate Transactions Division, Real Property Management Division, Strategic Asset Utilization Division, and BRAC 

Program Management Division. The reorganization integrated the Air Force’s transformation goals for 

asset management, enhanced use leasing, and energy. The objective of the reorganization was to make 

AFRPA the “leading provider of full-spectrum real property portfolio management and transactional 

services to enable sound decision making by Air Force leadership.” 312

In 2009, the Real Estate Transactions Division processed over 800 real estate transactions, including $19.5 million in real property gifts received during the five previous years. Fisher houses were 

added at Eglin AFB, Florida; Elmendorf AFB, Alaska; and, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. This division 

also processed real estate easements, leases and licenses.313

The Strategic Asset Utilization Division oversaw the EUL program. During 2009, the Air Force 

embarked on an aggressive campaign to promote EULs by hosting EUL Industry Days throughout 

the United States. The Strategic Asset Utilization Division continued work on the EUL at Hill AFB, 

Utah. Another EUL project was the construction of a wastewater treatment plant on land at Nellis 

AFB, Nevada, which supplied the base and the local community with wastewater for irrigation and 

paid for the renovation of a base fitness center.314

The BRAC Program Management Division added 8 bases to the 32 former BRAC properties 

managed by the division. By 2009, 87 percent of land made available through BRAC was transferred 

to local communities. During 2009, Environmental Protection Agency officials announced the delisting of Griffiss AFB, New York, from the National Priorities List following environmental cleanup 

efforts. This announcement allowed AFRPA to transfer 4.5 square miles of land to the city of Rome, 

New York, for development.315
Meeting the New Century 563

In 2010, the Real Estate Transaction Division reported the completion of 400 real property transactions, including real property gifts, real estate easements, leases and licenses, Federal-to-Federal 

property transfers, and BRAC transactions. Several EULs were underway. At Eglin AFB, Florida, 

255 acres were leased to Okaloosa County for the construction of a state-of-the-art water reclamation 

facility to serve both the base and the surrounding area. The annual payment to Eglin AFB provided 

funds for base improvements. At Edwards AFB, California, an EUL was under development for a 

solar energy project, while a waste-to-energy plant was under development at Hill AFB, Utah. In July 

2010, the first property was transferred in accordance with 2005 BRAC; the former General Mitchell 

ARS was transferred to the General Mitchell International Airport in Milwaukee County, Wisconsin.316

By 2011, AFRPA employed 230 civilians and contractors who provided expertise in real property, 

environmental cleanup and compliance, financial management, facility operations and maintenance, 

public affairs, environmental and real estate law, civilian personnel, and information systems.317

Air Reserve Component (ARC) and the Total Force

During the first decade of the twenty-first century, ANG and Air Force Reserve personnel were 

deployed alongside active duty military personnel as total force civil engineer squadrons grew in 

number. Col. Janice M. Stritzinger, who served as the Civil Engineer for the ANG, provided a description of the structure in 2001, “the ANG provides about 29 percent of the total engineering force in the 

Air Force. The Reserve has about 17 percent and the active has the remaining 54 percent. About 10 

percent of our ANG civil engineer force is comprised of full-time personnel. The remaining 90 percent 

are drilling Guardsmen who dedicate their weekends and free time to serving their country through 

augmentation of our total force missions.”318

In 2000, ANG activated the 254th RED HORSE Flight and the Air Force Reserves activated the 

555th RED HORSE Flight. Both were designated under the active duty 554th RED HORSE Squadron, 

making it the first “total force” civil engineer squadron of the Air Force. In 2002, the 200th/201st 

Expeditionary RED HORSE Squadron (ERHS) became the first ANG RED HORSE Squadron to 

support a major wartime operation and perform as a “full” RED HORSE squadron, rather than just 

augmenting active duty operations or backfilling open positions.319 At the beginning of OEF, ANG and 

Air Force Reserve civil engineers were activated to fill positions left vacant by deployed personnel 

at home bases. The ANG and Air Force Reserve civil engineers integrated into the AEF deployment 

rotation and were activated as needed as mission requirements expanded. As a result, all civil engineer 

personnel assets were available for deployment, including Prime BEEF, RED HORSE, active duty, 

ANG, and Air Force Reserve. ANG and Air Force Reserve teams of EOD personnel, firefighters, and 

engineering assistants were called upon frequently to supplement stressed active duty career fields. 

In 2003, Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox praised the level of integration between active duty civil engineer 

personnel and ANG and Air Force Reserve civil engineer personnel. General Fox noted, “we couldn’t 

do the job without them. In some areas we find that our Air Reserve Component (ARC) members are 

a little more experienced than our young active duty people, because they’ve been around a lot longer 

and some are previous active duty themselves. What they bring to the fight is experience and knowhow, and from their civilian jobs an expertise that is unequaled outside this country.”320
564 Leading the Way

The Future Total Force played a significant role in Air Force transformation during the first decade 

of the twenty-first century. Three main advantages were realized through that concept: ARC gained 

experience with new weapons systems, keeping them up-to-date for future missions; ARC’s capability 

was expanded to efficiently contribute to Air Force manpower; and, ARC was a “cost effective force 

multiplier” reducing the load on the active duty military.324

By 2006, the term Future Total Force was removed from the Air Force vocabulary and replaced 

by Total Force Integration. The choice of the word integration reflected the continued commitment to 

incorporating active duty, ANG, and Air Force Reserve personnel into one force. This commitment was 

not a future objective, but an ongoing reality. The level of Air Force commitment was demonstrated 

in 2008. In that year, the Air Force announced the 30-year plan for the permanent assignment of new 

aircraft. ARCs would play a major role in the assignments, serving as “owners or joint users” of the 

new resources. The announcement marked a major step for the Air Force and for the ARC. Reserve 

personnel were no longer a force augmenting the active military; they were full members of the Air 

Force Total Force.325

On March 3, 2001, 3 members of the Florida Army National Guard and 18 RED HORSE engineers 

from the 203d RED HORSE Flight lost their lives in a plane crash in southern Georgia. The 

members of the 203d were returning to Virginia from an annual training event at Hurlburt Field, 

Florida. Their C-23 Sherpa crashed into a farmer’s field in a rural area near Unadilla, Georgia. 

The accident was considered the largest loss during peacetime for the entire Air National Guard. 

The day following the crash, Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld remarked, “Military 

service involves great danger, in times of peace as well as war, and this accident provides stark 

proof of that.”321

Shortly after the crash, the 203d RED HORSE established a fund to create a commemorative 

site. A 30,000 square-foot memorial was created for the guardsmen at the 203d RED HORSE 

headquarters at Camp Pendleton, Virginia Beach. A 7,000 pound piece of polished black granite 

was the focus. The names of the eighteen 203d RED HORSE Flight engineers and the three Florida 

Army Guardsmen from the 171st Aviation Battalion were etched into the stone. A kneeling RED 

HORSE statue was placed in front in honor of the RED HORSE engineers. A pathway lined with 

22 trees encircled the memorial; 21 trees memorialized those killed in the crash, while one tree 

memorialized the victims of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks.322

The memorial was dedicated on March 3, 2002. The 203d RED HORSE continues to commemorate 

the guardsmen each year. In 2011, on the tenth anniversary of the crash, military and civilians 

gathered at the memorial to pay tribute. Lt. Col. Pete Garner, commander of the 203d RED HORSE 

Squadron remarked, “we take time out each year to honor these fallen heroes and what it means to 

be a citizen Airmen and Soldier...we don’t take this commitment lightly because we know there 

is a price to be paid for the freedoms we enjoy in this great nation.”323

203d RED HORSE Flight Plane Crash
Meeting the New Century 565

MANAGING THE PERMANENT BASES

Introduction

Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg relied on the resourcefulness of Air Force civil engineers on the bases to 

achieve transformation. He said, 

Civil Engineers directly support [Air Force] priorities by strengthening our warfighting capabilities; constructing and maintaining facilities that provide quality areas for 

Airmen and our civilians to work, train, and live in; and reducing costs to free up 

resources for modernization. This is a challenging time, but we have our most valuable 

resource – you [the Air Force civil engineers]. I am deeply comforted by the certainty 

that, every day, 60,000 civil engineers come to work with the intent to do what is 

right and best for our country. It is this resource that will guarantee our success in our 

current transformation efforts.326

Transformation affected all areas of installation management. All personnel were called upon to review 

their work processes, eliminate non-productive procedures, and seek improvements in efficiency and 

effectiveness. Transformation required a major reorganization of the civil engineer squadron (CES) 

at the base level and the implementation of new initiatives. While many transformation initiatives 

were developed at higher command level, implementation often fell to installation personnel. Civil 

engineer personnel at the installation level were encouraged to submit suggestions for improvements 

through the chain of command and to commissioned transformation leaders. 

Major transformation initiatives included “Back to Bases,” facilities modernization, asset management, space optimization, GeoBase, airfield obstructions, and major investment in the next generation 

of information technology. Bases were the subject of several exhaustive studies to collect and validate 

baseline data on facilities and current software programs. These studies became the foundation to 

build activity management plans and to conduct energy audits. Aggressive environmental and energy 

programs continued to be implemented on the bases. Housing privatization continued to be a major 

program. Other changes to base operations were the result of increased safety and security concerns. 

The attack of September 11, 2001 had a profound impact upon base level operations. Force protection 

was improved through the construction of new gates and fences. Force protection guidelines were met 

through the retrofit of buildings. Firefighting, EOD, and emergency services also evolved through the 

time period. 

As General Eulberg summarized, 

As Air Force civil engineers, we all know our jobs continue to become more difficult 

and demanding due to budget constraints, a high deployment ops tempo, and the 

simple fact that the facilities and infrastructure we have to maintain are larger than 

what the Air Force requires. These and many other important factors, such as energy 

costs and conservation, Base Realignment and Closure actions, joint basing, new 

organizational constructs, and changes in information technology systems and requirements, are driving Air Force civil engineers to develop new ways of thinking. We are 

using this opportunity to transform how we do business across our Civil Engineering 

mission areas and to institute the industry-proven Asset Management approach; all 

driven by proven commercial off-the-shelf technology solutions.327
566 Leading the Way

Back to Bases Initiative

In spring 2003, Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox became The Civil Engineer and initiated a renewed 

emphasis on the individual bases. In his first column in the Air Force Civil Engineer, General Fox 

introduced a main focus of his tenure: Back to the Bases. General Fox challenged all Air Force civil 

engineer personnel “to look at everything we do across the very broad spectrum of engineering tasks 

and ensure what we’re doing is delivering first-class support to the people and missions at base level.”328

His ‘Back to Bases’ initiative sought to facilitate the base mission by ensuring that civil engineers 

were supported by the policies and resources necessary to execute their jobs.329 General Fox believed 

that the base was the backbone of the Air Force mission; if a base was successful, then ultimately the 

Air Force would be successful.330

A Back to Bases Task Force was established to identify areas for improvement in the base-level 

organizations. There was concern among civil engineer senior leaders about the squadrons’ ability to 

support all aspects of their installation missions. The task force was chartered to “visit a representative 

sample of our bases to identify both “gaps” (areas where the bases need help) and “best practices” 

in our base-level capabilities, and make recommendations” for the major commands, field operating 

agencies, and Air Staff.331

By the end of 2003, the Back to Bases Task Force had completed its field investigation. Major 

commands and field operating agencies used the findings to address problems and areas of concern at 

the installations. Fifty-seven categories for base improvement were identified. Action items included: 

revising the format and content of the Base General Plans, updating as-built drawings, and updating real property records.332 Following the Annual Programmer’s Conference, General Fox charged 

personnel from the Air Staff Divisions, AFCESA, and AFCEE to address the concerns identified by 

the task force. The team generated and applied solutions with the assistance of major commands.333 In 

2005, the Reach-Back Center was established at AFCESA to answer questions and provide additional 

assistance to base personnel.334

Headquarters PACAF followed General Fox’s lead and implemented its own program to evaluate 

the bases in its command and to generate solutions for problem areas. Headquarters, PACAF utilized 

three programs in this process: the Infrastructure Assessment team, the Civil Engineer Management 

Team (CEMAT), and the Vendor Training Program. The Infrastructure Assessment team was focused 

on key mission-critical infrastructure, such as airfield pavements and lighting, aircraft fuel storage, 

electrical power systems, and water and wastewater systems. The team assessed conditions at the 

bases throughout the command to validate project requirements and to allocate funds to renovate the 

most pressing needs.”335 The CEMAT, established in 2000, was similar in intent and purpose to its 

predecessor Civil Engineering and Services Management Evaluation Team from the 1980s. The team 

visited each base and worked primarily with the operations and engineering flights. The purpose of 

the visits was to work with the flights to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of work processes 

and procedures. The third program was the Vendor Training Program where commercial vendors 

provided on-base training in selected equipment. On-base vendor training saved time and money for 

the Air Force since PACAF bases were widely dispersed.336 In 2003, ACC embraced CEMAT for their 

command based on the success of PACAF’s CEMAT. CEMAT for ACC visited each installation twice 

a year to review management practices and to recommend solutions.337

Transforming the Base Civil Engineer Squadron (CES)

Transformation of the base civil engineer squadrons (CES) was one of the five initiatives contained 

in the April 2007 Civil Engineer Transformation Plan. The base CES structure in place since 1993 was 

organized into eight flights: Housing, Engineering, Operations, Environmental, EOD, Readiness, Fire 

Protection, and Resources. The implementation of a radical new CES organizational structure went 
Meeting the New Century 567

into effect on October 1, 2007. The new CES structure contained seven flights: Asset Management, 

Programs, Operations, EOD, Readiness and Emergency Management, Fire Emergency Services, and 

Resources (Figure 6.8).338 A CES reorganization implementation plan was issued in November 2007 

detailing the reorganization of the flights; the plan also included mission statements, objectives, and 

duty changes for each flight. Completion of this transformation initiative was mandated at all bases 

by October 2008.339

The goal of the reorganization was summarized by General Eulberg, “The squadron reorganization 

will create efficiencies by changing, realigning, and, most importantly, standardizing our business 

processes across the entire enterprise. Looking closely at processes and workflows, then combining, 

streamlining, or eliminating them where it makes sense to do so, will garner efficiencies, enabling 

us to balance our workload with the right resources.”340 The new organizational structure assured 

the identical organization of all active duty civil engineer squadrons at Air Force bases, but did not 

extend to bases operated by contractors, most efficient government organizations, or the ARC. The 

implementation plan required adherence down to the flight and element structure.341 General Eulberg 

noted that identical base organizations were the basis for standardizing working processes and dispelling the notion that bases were unique from one another.342 Restructuring also simplified the transfer 

of information and facilitated communication among bases and from base to major command.343

The reorganization accomplished more than renaming the CES flights. The asset management 

approach was adapted to real property and facilities management. The new Asset Management Flight 

had three elements: Natural Resources Management, Asset Optimization, and Capital Asset Management. The new flight structure combined elements from environmental, housing, real property, and 

base-level community planning. The Asset Optimization element functioned as a hub “for aligning 

the squadron’s strategic direction with the wing and higher headquarters, consolidating and reporting 

key performance indicators, and ensuring processes align with standardized Air Force playbooks.”344

Source: USAF, Program Action Directive 07-02, HQ USAF, Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, 19 April 2007, V-5.
568 Leading the Way

Facilities Management Strategies

Asset Management

Asset management marked a major change in Air Force civil engineering culture. Air Force civil 

engineering defined asset management as “systematic and integrated practices through which the 

Air Force optimally manages its natural and built assets and the associated performances, risks and 

expenditures over the life cycle to a level of service to support missions and organizational goals.”345

Although Air Force civil engineering historically had practiced aspects of asset management, the 

integration of the holistic approach required a shift in the civil engineering management paradigm. 

This change promised greater management efficiencies, including “an accurate, transparent built- and 

natural-asset inventory for each Air Force installation; common levels of service and standardized 

civil engineering processes across the Air Force; a capability to analyze and communicate best business cases based on risk, cost, and benefits; better visibility and management of space to shrink our 

footprint; predictive maintenance capability across infrastructure life cycles; use of the Air Force’s 

size to obtain best price and reduce costs; and, a way to credibly advocate and allocate resources.”346

Activity Management Plans

Activity management was a disciplined, standardized process as well as an integrated practice (i.e., 

planning, resources, processes, systems) through which an organization qualitatively and quantitatively 

balanced benefits, costs, and risk to justify the best business case for managing its built and natural 

assets (for example: land, buildings, structures, energy, permits and credits, mineral rights, air space, 

etc.). Air Force civil engineers began using the activity management process to integrate the requirements necessary to deliver installation support services required for successful mission completion, 

to provide the capability to advocate for resources, and support the allocation of those resources to 

provide, operate, maintain, and protect installations and their infrastructure at the lowest life-cycle 

cost. Activity management allowed civil engineers to identify and prioritize investment needs to meet 

the Air Force’s defined levels of service.347

Activity Management Plans (AMPs) were instituted at each Air Force installation to support planning, programming, and prioritizing projects; identifying base needs; and, quantifying risks of deferred 

maintenance. A secondary purpose of the AMP was to codify and standardize information collected 

for civil engineering activities.348 Finally, the AMP standardized the management of assets based on 

life-cycle analysis.349 An AMP was prepared for a single location and contained all information relating to the activity. It allowed for a detailed data analysis and for planning, executing, and assessing 

investment projects necessary to sustainably deliver levels of service cost-effectively. It also included 

process steps, mechanisms for action plan development, process improvement results monitoring and 

implementation for lessons learned.350

The Air Force AMPs were designed to replace multiple facility planning documents, such as the 

family housing and dormitory master plans, base-to-command plans, and the five-year infrastructure 

plans. The AMPs offered the advantages of streamlined processes and leadership access to data on all 

levels to focus monetary resources and to support long-range planning decisions.351 In January 2009, 

AMP training began for Air Force civil engineers. Between February and September 2009, teams 

visited 88 active duty installations to prepare AMPs in five areas: facilities, utilities, transportation, 

waste management, and natural infrastructure. By mid-September 2009, the first base comprehensive 

AMPs (BCAMPs) were prepared and all BCAMPs were completed by January 2010. Planning to 

incorporate the BCAMPS into major command AMPs (MCAMPs) was initiated. MCAMPs were 

begun in November 2009 and completed in September 2010.352
Meeting the New Century 569

By 2010, the AMPs were demonstrating their usefulness. Decisions for the FY12 POM were based 

on the AMP findings, particularly in prioritizing and justifying requirements for fixing infrastructure. 

General Byers wrote, 

For the first time, we can “roll up” all of our requirements within specific activities, 

such as airfield pavements, across bases and MAJCOMs, and produce an integrated 

priority list across the Air Force. The AMPs are helping drive a “worst first” effort 

that targets assets with the greatest need first for better allocation of our limited funds, 

putting our dollars where we need them most. Your efforts in the AMP builds are helping us show senior leadership what impact the years of taking risk in infrastructure 

and reduced funding has had on our installations.353

Space Utilization and Optimization 

“Optimizing Air Force Space” was Air Force Civil Engineer Transformation Initiative M-6. In 

December 2007, the M-6 team was commissioned to define new standards and processes for space 

management Air Force wide. Space optimization was defined as “managing space more effectively 

and efficiently to achieve cost savings.”354 Throughout 2008, the team investigated alternative standards for administrative space allocation and crafted recommendations for new standards, processes, 

and key performance indicators. Recommendations included adopting new standards for measuring 

interior space. Previous interior measurements had only captured the square footage of a building. 

The new approach measured interior space by room. The adoption of General Services Administration 

(GSA) standards to plan for administrative personnel needs also was recommended. The team tested 

a commercial software application for facility management that depicted interior space allocation and 

use, including vacant space. The software linked spatial data to utility costs, energy use, and janitorial 

expenses.355

The purpose of the space utilization investigations was to identify ways to manage space better and 

to reduce facilities footprints, thereby reducing future Air Force investment. “In pursuing improvements 

to the physical plant, we must think holistically; we must look at the sustainability of an entire base, 

beyond the base’s footprint, to ensure we make the best possible decisions for the long term...Rather 

than simply validating the need for space, then programming a MILCON, we scrutinize consolidation 

possibilities and actively encourage demolition or downsizing in association with new construction,” 

General Byers wrote.356

Advances in IT applications for civil engineer business processes provided tools to track interior 

spatial use by organization with an eye towards consolidating spatial needs within sustainable facilities and demolishing inefficient excess facilities. In 2009, a Space Optimization Playbook was issued 

and the space optimization tool known as the S-File was available. The S-File provided a means of 

capturing the use of facility space across the Air Force.357 The playbook was updated in 2010 and 

issued through the civil engineer portal in August 2010.358

In 2010, General Byers announced that the Air Force had adopted the 200 square feet per person 

utilization standard for administrative space. This standard reflected GSA’s space utilization for personnel. This new standard was designed to curb organizational sprawl and to counter the mindset that 

“new mission/realignment equals new building,” thus reducing MILCON costs.359

General Byers summarized the Air Force problem:

Both age and size contribute heavily to the sustainability of each facility. At 32.5 years, 

the average age of an Air Force facility mirrors the industry average. However, when 

facility size is compared, the Air Force averages only 12,000 square feet to industry’s 

250,000 square feet per facility. The Air Force also manages 20 times the number of 
570 Leading the Way

facilities than does industry. This drives higher sustainment costs, since each facility 

has its own HVAC, plumbing, roofs, and other features. By consolidating personnel to 

newer and larger buildings, while divesting older and smaller facilities, the Air Force 

can both reduce operating costs and improve the average condition of its facilities.360

Facilities Demolition

General Eulberg instituted a new goal to reduce the footprint of facilities through demolition. 

General Eulberg maintained that BRAC 2005 had not reduced Air Force facilities and infrastructure 

sufficiently. It was up to the Air Force civil engineers to “shrink from within.” “Develop an Air Force 

Demolition Policy” was Air Force Civil Engineer Transformation Initiative M-5. In March 2009, 

General Eulberg signed the Air Force Demolition Policy that presented a comprehensive strategy for 

the demolition of surplus and inefficient facilities. A team was commissioned to develop “an effective 

approach to identify and prioritize demolition requirements, advocate for and acquire funding, demolish obsolete and excess facilities, and track progress towards meeting footprint reduction goals.” The 

team also developed a playbook to explain and guide the demolition process.361

The demolition policy established demolition targets for each major command. The overall goal 

was to reduce facilities by 86 million square feet from the 431 million square feet recorded in baseline 

data from September 30, 2006. The target for attaining this goal was 2020.362 The DoD goal established 

for FY08-FY13 required the Air Force to dispose of 15 million square feet and $868 million of plant 

replacement value of non-facility assets.363

Funds for facility demolition decreased during the mid-decade pending BRAC recommendations. 

In FY07, General Eulberg pushed facilities demolition and approximately 3 million square feet were 

demolished in both FY07 and FY08. In FY09, the Air Force received $108 million through the AFSO21 

program for demolition.364 Upon assuming the Office of The Civil Engineer, General Byers continued 

the demolition program and linked it to optimizing space utilization. Between 2006 and 2010, the Air 

Force disposed of 23 million square feet of buildings and infrastructure.365

Fire Emergency Services

At CONUS Air Force installations, firefighters continued to provide round-the-clock fire protection 

based on risk management assessments. As part of the 2007 Civil Engineer Transformation Plan, a 

review of the firefighting personnel requirements revealed that high numbers of firefighters remained 

on continuous call to respond to emergencies. Applying acceptable risk analysis identified that high 

risk periods at Air Force bases typically occurred during normal working hours, while low risk times 

were at night. Base-level statistics further established the probability of an aircraft fire at once every 

611 days and a building fire at once every 108 days. Responses to calls for medical assistance were 

more frequent and occurred approximately once every 2.7 days. Medical assistance calls, though 

frequent, required fewer resources. Based on this analysis, a proposal to adjust the level of service 

during low risk periods was advanced. 

In addition, the adoption of new technologies helped reduce fire risk factors in daily operations. 

The introduction of JP-8 jet fuel resulted in fewer aircraft fires. The incorporation of ultra-high pressure 

technology on firefighting vehicles extended and maximized the efficiency of dispersal of firefighting 

agent.

During summer 2006, fire chiefs and civil engineers met and evaluated various staffing options. 

After discussions, the fire chiefs agreed to reduce the number of military and civilian firefighters by 

901 positions or 14 percent. A new firefighting concept of operations was published in June 2007. This 

plan transitioned Air Force firefighting capability from risk avoidance to risk management. Under this 

plan, firefighters emphasized, “fire prevention, early intervention at fires, cross-manning of selected 
Meeting the New Century 571

vehicles, continued leveraging of technology, and the allocation of resources based on accepted risk 

management practices.” This redefined capability enabled the Air Force to reduce Fire Emergency 

Services by 901 authorizations across the service.366

Firefighters remained busy despite the reductions. For example, between October 2006 and March 

2007, firefighters saved 41 lives on Air Force installations and extinguished fires in 6 military family 

housing units.367 In September 2006, firefighters at Vandenberg AFB, California, assisted in containing 

a wild fire. The California fire was the fifth largest wildfire in the state’s history and involved 162,700 

acres. The 18-member Vandenberg Hot Shots crew spent a month on the fire line.368

In response to the 9/11 emergency, Congress gave DoD a way to contract fire protection services 

during an emergency or contingency situation. At Dyess AFB, Texas, approximately 80 percent (55 

military personnel) of the fire department deployed, leaving only 15 personnel in the station to provide 

coverage for the B-1 and C-130 missions. Dyess personnel were able to provide adequate manning by hiring temporary firefighters (Abilene, Texas, firefighters) and paying civilians overtime for 

five months. This incident encouraged the Air Force to seek legislative relief to contract emergency 

response capabilities on a limited basis and only up to one year.369

Training continued to evolve to equip fire protection personnel with the latest technology and 

data on fire hazards. To conserve funds, PACAF established a three-week rescue training course for 

firefighters in 2008 and opened a firefighting training site at Kadena AB, Japan. The Rescue One 

course typically was conducted at Goodfellow AFB, Texas, at a cost of approximately $15,000 per 

firefighter.370 A new multi-media firefighting training program was developed by AFSPC, ACC, and 

AFCESA for firefighting personnel in 2010. The Munitions Firefighting Multi-Media Training Program 

sought to expand the knowledge and skill base of firefighters in ICBM and spacelift operations.371

Firefighters also continued to strengthen capabilities in a combined environment, working with 

other countries to acquire new skills as well as share knowledge. For example, in 2001, Air Force 

firefighters from Rhein-Main Air Base, Germany trained with firefighters from Frankfurt International 

Airport at the German Federal Armed Forces base in Mainz, Germany. The three-day training event 

A new P-34 Rapid Intervention Vehicle uses its high pressure capability at the Silver Flag fire pit.
572 Leading the Way

included a total of 20 firefighters. The primary task was to perform and enhance search and rescue 

operations around a ruinous three-story concrete building. The building was created to duplicate a war 

scenario for training purposes. Teams created medical facilities and shelters, secured the building for 

safety, and removed debris. During the next phase of training, a gas explosion was simulated at the 

building. Personnel rescued “victims” and practiced with breathing devices and thermal imaging.372

The Air Force Research Laboratory’s (AFRL) Fire Research Group continued to experiment 

with new technology and equipment to support firefighters working in unique situations as part of 

expeditionary forces. The Combined Agent Fire Fighting System was developed as a light and air 

transportable alternative to the heavier P-19 vehicle. It was a dual-agent system for combating hydrocarbon fuel fires. The AFRL also began development of an improved suspension system to decrease 

the potential for rollovers.373 The first P-34 Rapid Intervention Vehicle came off the production line in 

September 2011. It was the first Air Force firefighting vehicle to use new ultra high pressure technology. Developed and tested by AFRL, it discharged a mixture of water and firefighting foam at 1,359 

psi, making it 3 to 3.5 times more effective than conventional firefighting vehicles.374

The firefighter award for heroism was renamed in 2010 to honor the Air Force’s most decorated 

firefighter. Robert A. McAllister served 28 years active duty followed by 22 years in the civilian 

sector. While in the Air Force, SMSgt. McAllister received two Distinguished Flying Crosses, two 

Bronze Star medals (one with valor), 33 Air Medals, the Vietnam Armed Forces Honor Medal, four 

Meritorious Service Medals, and four Air Force Commendation Medals. The Robert A. McAllister 

Firefighter Heroism Award was presented annually to personnel who displayed “acts of heroism above 

and beyond the call of duty.”375

Force Protection

Following the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, CONUS installations adopted tighter 

measures for force protection and security. The Air Force Director of Plans and Programs ordered all 

CONUS bases to increase their levels of force protection through 100 percent identification checks 

and adoption of a range of protective measures. AMC took the lead in implementing force protection 

measures. AMC established force protection sustainment teams to visit each installation and evaluate existing security measures. A three-step plan to “detect, deter and defeat potential threats” was 

developed. The first step focused on the perimeters of the installations.376

In less than two years, AMC executed more than 100 projects across the command’s 12 bases and 

increased the security at 29 entry points. The AMC command-wide gate construction program set new 

standards for air bases. As Joe Markin, chief of AMC’s antiterrorism program, explained, “With the 

emphasis on detecting, defending and defeating terrorists, we realized we could no longer do business with an entry control point defined as a gate, a guard and a gun.” 377 Two changes implemented 

at the 12 bases were a new traffic plan and a new gate design. New designs incorporated the latest in 

technology including “Smart Gate entry control technologies, surveillance cameras, visitor check-in 

kiosks and vehicle scanning technology.”378

The AF Entry Control Facility Design Guide was published in February 2003 based on the studies 

completed by AMC.379 At AMC installations, each gate was designed to be architecturally compatible 

with the base master plan. 

New DoD Antiterrorism Construction Standards went into effect with the FY04 program. The 

new standards mandated that projects involving existing buildings were required to adhere to DoD 

standards in cases where renovation surpassed 50 percent of replacement costs or involved a conversion 

in use. Compliance with the standards was mandated for all new construction projects. The standards 

focused on maximizing standoff distances, providing stronger structural systems to prevent building 

collapse, minimizing hazardous flying debris, and limiting airborne contaminants.380
Meeting the New Century 573

Disaster Preparedness Program

The Air Force Disaster Preparedness Program was substantially reshaped to reflect readiness priorities as a result of the September 11, 2001 attacks. Full Spectrum Threat Response (FSTR) replaced 

the former program and expanded personnel training requirements. On January 1, 2006, FSTR was 

expanded and renamed Air Force Emergency Management (AFEM) to reflect the heightened threat 

of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and hazardous materials (HAZMAT).381 The revised program 

integrated essential components identified in the National Response Plan and the National Incident 

Management System. DoD required all agencies to adopt the National Incident Management System 

and, in March 2006, the Air Force created its own version, Air Force Incident Management System. 

Both systems focused on a unified and comprehensive response among emergency responders, at all 

levels, to hazards. Changes in the structure and role of AFEM personnel were described in AFI 10-2501, 

Emergency Management (EM) Program Planning and Operations, published in 2006.382

New training included response to terrorist threats and acts, weapons of mass destruction, and 

improvised explosive devices.383 The FSTR Division at AFCESA reviewed and developed several 

documents in 2001 to assist training and technical matters including AF Visual Aid (AFVA) 10-2512, 

Mission Oriented Protective Postures, AFVA 10-2511, USAF Standardized Attack Warning Signals, 

AFI 10-2602, Nuclear, Biological, Chemical Warfare Defense Operations, AFI-10-2501, Full Spectrum 

Threat Response Planning and Operations, and AFH 10-2502, USAF Weapons of Mass Destruction 

(WMD) Threat Planning and Response Handbook.

384

Airfield Obstructions Initiative

Several investigations ensued after an F-16 accident in 1998 resulted in a pilot fatality. The aircraft had crashed into the approach lights and parts of the instrument landing system after an aborted 

takeoff.385 The Safety Investigation Board report and the Secretary of the Air Force Inspector General 

Report of Review identified airfield designs and airfield obstructions as contributing factors to the accident. The reports included recommendations for improving airfield design standards and requirements. 

Specifically, the Safety Investigation Board recommended that the Air Force implement the Federal 

Aviation Administration standards for Low-Impact Resistant Structures and identify all non-frangible 

structures near runways for removal or replacement.386 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, The Civil 

Engineer, authorized a Tiger Team headed by his executive officer, Lt. Col. Kurt Kaisler, to evaluate the Inspector General’s report, to assess Air Force airfields, and to recommend new standards.387

Simultaneously, the Chief of Safety, the Deputy Chief of Staff for Air and Space Operations, and The 

Civil Engineer directed the major commands to identify all obstructions and estimate removal costs. 

Over 9,900 obstructions were inventoried by major commands; 2,000 obstructions were located within 

1,000 feet of the runway. Colonel Kaisler’s Tiger Team established the goal of removing all high-risk 

obstructions by 2010. In 2000, the team published an Airfield Obstruction Reduction Initiative Report, 

which included additional recommendations.388 In response to the Inspector General’s report, the Tiger 

Team produced a revised Engineering Technical Letter 88-4, Reliability and Maintainability Design 

Checklist, a revised AFMAN 32-1123, Airfield and Heliport Planning and Design, and an Engineering 

Technical Letter on Standard Frangible Designs.389 In January 2001, Headquarters, U.S. Air Force and 

the Secretary of the Air Force approved the Tiger Team’s recommendations and approved funding to 

remove airfield obstructions from FY03 through FY10.390

EOD

The Air Force’s Military Munitions Response Program, begun in 2001, was established to evaluate 

ranges for unexploded ordnance and to clear explosives hazards. The program extended to 81 bases 

and 507 sites comprising 500,000-acres in CONUS.391 In February 2001, EOD team members visited 
574 Leading the Way

Vandenberg AFB, California, to evaluate former World War II ranges and developed site plans for 

clearing hazards.392 Range clearance continued throughout the decade.

In 2007, General Eulberg established the EOD Optimization Integrated Process Team (IPT) to 

assess EOD staffing requirements for flights. The IPT evaluated the current manpower and determined 

the level required to sustain operations for missions at home and while deployed. The Civil Engineer 

Readiness Council accepted the IPT’s recommendations to create four standard EOD flight sizes: 60 

personnel for large range flight, 24 personnel for large projection flight, 17 personnel for small projection flight, and 12 personnel each for two Korean defense flights. Due to this assessment, 159 new 

enlisted positions and 22 new EOD-qualified officer positions were created along with 3 new flights 

at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio; Offutt AFB, Nebraska; and, Tinker AFB; Oklahoma.393

During the decade, equipment and technology for EOD personnel evolved to address the hazards 

of explosives handling. Robots were designed with a variety of applications, particularly in deployed 

situations. The Bombot allowed team members to safely countercharge improvised explosive devices 

from a distance. The All-Purpose Remote Transport System with attachments could clear buried 

ordnance and minefields. One commercial technology adapted by EOD personnel was the Segway 

Human Transporter. This vehicle provided transport at 12 miles per hour for EOD personnel clad in 

70-pound bomb suits. The Segways were maneuverable and responsive in most terrains, with the 

exception of deep sand. By 2004, four Air Force EOD units utilized Segways. These vehicles, which 

did not contain systems or materials that posed a detonation danger, were customized with saddlebags 

and a trailer to carry extra gear.394 The Bomb Squad Emergency Response Vehicle, a standardized 

truck with multiple storage compartments that carried an EOD team’s equipment during an incident 

response, was also developed to provide a “toolbox on wheels.”395

Environmental Programs

Air Force environmental programs marked a number of milestones in the first decade of the twentyfirst century. Air Force civil engineers continued to emphasize resource stewardship, which included 

compliance with the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act and the National Historic 

Preservation Act of 1966, the conservation of wetlands, and installation cleanup. On May 15, 2001, 

the Air Force repatriated human remains and funerary items removed from Shemya Island, Alaska, 

during a runway construction project in 1943. Complying with National American Graves Protection 

and Repatriation Act, cultural resource managers of the 611th Air Support Group at Elmendorf AFB, 

Alaska, completed the necessary consultation and repatriation to the Aleut Corporation.396

The preservation of historic resources on Air Force installations also was addressed by Air Force 

civil engineers. F.E. Warren AFB, Wyoming, completed a $28 million lead-based paint renovation 

project in 2005. The project focused on an area containing 155 historic brick dwellings listed on the 

National Register of Historic Places. The project was completed in accordance with the Secretary of 

Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties.397

Air Force civil engineers continued to adopt experimental and innovative methods for effective 

environmental cleanup. In 2001, Lackland AFB, Texas, applied a process to contain lead in the treatment of 70,000 cubic yards of soil under its Soil Reuse Plan. The process blended environmentally 

safe chemicals into lead-contaminated soil; the chemicals worked as an adhesive agent to confine the 

lead in place. In accordance with the Soil Reuse Plan, the treated soil was used to cap an old landfill 

on the base. An additional 25,000 cubic yards of lead-free soil was added to the site, and grass was 

planted to prevent erosion.398

Installation Restoration Programs (IRP) continued throughout the first decade of the twenty-first 

century. In 2006, Dover AFB, Delaware, met its goal for in-progress remediation for all contaminated 

sites. The IRP at Dover AFB comprised 59 sites listed as Superfund National Priorities since 1989. 

Accelerated anaerobic biodegradation was used in the cleanup process. The biodegradation process 

used native bacteria to break down hazardous contaminants into safe compounds.399
Meeting the New Century 575

The extended IRP at Johnston Atoll in the Pacific Ocean was completed. Civil engineers from 

Hickam AFB, Hawaii, contributed to the environmental cleanup project. The 15th Air Base Wing, 

Detachment 1 was responsible for host management duties at the site. Demolition and cleanup plans 

were developed by AFCEE, the U.S. Army, the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, EPA, the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency in 2001. The FY02 and FY03 

project costs included $26 million for demolition and an additional $20 million for environmental 

cleanup.400 Eight sites were contaminated with petroleum, dioxins, and metal residues. Heat treatment 

was used to decontaminate the soil containing dioxin residue. All structures were dismantled, “clean” 

wood was incinerated, concrete debris was buried, and recyclable materials were transported to the 

mainland for disposal. On June 15, 2004, all personnel vacated Johnston Island and the site was 

dedicated as a wildlife refuge.401 

Air Force civil engineers adopted environmentally friendly construction practices. On December 

19, 2001, General Robbins released a Sustainable Development Policy that stated, “It is Air Force 

policy to apply sustainable development concepts in the planning, design, construction, environmental 

management, operation, maintenance and disposal of facilities and infrastructure projects, consistent 

with budget and mission requirements.” He went on to recommend the LEED system as the preferred 

self-assessment metric.402

On July 31, 2007, General Eulberg signed the Air Force Sustainable Design and Development 

Policy establishing goals and responsibilities to fully integrate sustainable building practices in the 

facility construction program.403 The Air Force endorsed the LEED program and established a goal for 

new construction to meet LEED silver rating criteria beginning in 2007.404 To achieve LEED certification, buildings were constructed with recycled or recyclable materials, and outfitted with efficient 

utility systems to the greatest extent possible. Building materials were free of potentially harmful 

chemicals as well.405 Personnel from AFCEE and AFCESA published the Engineering Technical Letter 

08-13 “Incorporating Sustainable Design and Development and Facility Energy Attributes in the Air 

Force Construction Program” to assist civil engineers in meeting sustainable practices.406

Keesler AFB, Mississippi, became the first Air Force installation to attain LEED-certification for 

housing. The construction project at Keesler AFB was the nation’s largest LEED-certified project; 

it involved 700 houses.407 Edwards AFB, California, and Shaw AFB, South Carolina, also achieved 

LEED Silver certifications for construction projects. A Consolidated Support Facility at Edwards AFB 

featured thermal storage, low-volatile organic compound paint, and energy efficient lighting. A 144-

person dormitory at Shaw AFB integrated “an efficient building envelope” and ground source heat 

pumps, among other energy saving techniques.408 The Tyndall AFB, Florida, Physical Fitness Center 

was the first Air Force facility to achieve LEED Platinum status in 2011.409 

In November, 2007, Peterson AFB, Colorado, became the first base to install a green roof. Adoption 

of vegetative roofs reduced energy consumption, which contributed to Federally-mandated energy 

reduction goals, as well as meeting LEED criteria. Before a vegetative roof could be installed, a thorough structural analysis was completed to evaluate the structure’s capacity to support the additional 

weight of vegetation, soil, and support systems.410

Energy and Water Conservation Programs

The Air Force’s outstanding work in energy conservation and water management routinely has 

been acknowledged publicly through awards and honors. The Air Force continued to lead the U.S. 

Armed Services in meeting energy conservation goals and implementing renewable energy strategies. 

Dyess AFB, Texas, received DOE’s Water Conservation/Beneficial Landscaping Award on October 

12, 2000 recognizing its 30 percent reduction in water consumption. Randolph AFB, Texas, also 

received the same award in 2000. AFCESA received DOE’s Alternative Financing Projects Award in 

2000 for use of Energy Savings Performance Contracts (ESPCs).411 In 2001, the Air Force received 
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five Secretary of Defense Environmental Security Awards followed by six Federal Energy and Water 

Management Awards in 2002.412 Goodfellow AFB, Texas, won the Water Management Award to Small 

Groups for reducing water consumption by 32 percent. Fairchild AFB, Washington, received the 2002 

Innovative/New Technology Award to Individuals for construction of an 11-acre building that utilized 

infrared radiant heating and light pipe technology.413 In 2006, the Air Force Facility Energy Program 

was recognized for its achievements when the EPA awarded the Air Force with the Climate Protection Award and the Green Power Partner of the Year Award for its purchases of renewable energy.414

The Air Force’s energy goals remained consistent throughout the decade: “to reduce demand 

through conservation and efficiency; increase supply through alternative energy sources and create a 

culture where all Airmen make energy a consideration in all we do.”415 The Energy Policy Act of 2005 

mandated additional goals and standards for Federal agencies. The Act focused on renewable energy 

and conservation. A two percent reduction in energy consumption was imposed beginning in 2006. 

For FY07 through FY09, a minimum of three percent of electrical energy was to come from renewable 

sources.416 Section 103 of the 2005 Act directed that all Federal agencies install meters on individual 

buildings, where cost effective, by October 1, 2012.417 The mandate for metering use of electric, natural 

gas, and water was further promoted in the 2008 Air Force Infrastructure Energy Strategic Plan. 

In 2008, the Civil Engineering and Logistics fields developed the Air Force Infrastructure Energy 

Strategic Plan.418 The plan contained goals to “increase use of renewable energy sources as well as 

produce more...on Air Force bases.”419 The plan rested on four pillars: improve current infrastructure, 

improve future infrastructure, expand renewables, and manage costs.420 The Air Force Infrastructure 

Energy Strategic Plan recommended that Air Force civil engineers consider more than the immediate 

impact on their installation and work with the public and private sectors in achieving common energy 

conservation goals. The 2008 plan carried forward several energy goals from the 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act, one of which called for the annual energy reduction of 30 percent by 2015 

based on FY03 baseline usage.421 The Air Force Facility Energy Center recommended the continued 

use of Energy Savings Performance Contracts, Utility Energy Services Contracts, and Enhanced Use 

Leases to meet energy goals. The 2008 Air Force Infrastructure Energy Strategic Plan was unique in 

that it included goals for both “traditional ‘built’ infrastructure” and “natural infrastructure, vehicles, 

and ground fuel initiatives.”422 With implementation of the plan, the Air Force again became the “first 

Service to publish a holistic infrastructure energy plan to support the Office of the Secretary of Defense 

Strategic Plan and White House Executive Orders.”423

During March 2007, the Air Force chose two bases to participate in the Air Force’s Model Energy 

Base Initiative: McGuire AFB, New Jersey, and Barksdale AFB, Louisiana. McGuire AFB quickly 

adopted a “multi-faceted energy awareness program” and instituted goals to make all facilities energy 

neutral by 2015.424

Air Force Bases were encouraged to purchase energy from renewable sources and to assist in 

complying with Federal directives to “increase the use of renewable energy and to reduce total energy 

usage.”425 Edwards AFB, California, became the first Air Force installation to make a major purchase of 

renewable energy, 33 gigawatt-hours in July 2001. During FY03, Dyess AFB, Texas led the Air Force 

in renewable energy purchases, securing 78 gigawatt-hours to fill 100 percent of base requirements.426

Dyess AFB and Fairchild AFB, Washington, were two installations contributing to the Air Force 

renewable energy success. Electric power used for both installations was 100 percent from renewable 

sources.427 The Air Force was one of the first organizations in the world to purchase an excess of one 

million megawatts of renewable energy.428 During FY09, the Air Force surpassed its renewable energy 

goal of 5 percent by utilizing 5.8 percent renewable energy sources. The achievement marked the first 

time that the DoD goal was met without purchasing renewable energy credits.429

To ensure compliance with renewable energy mandates and goals, the Air Force also increased 

the number of energy projects at installations. Hill AFB, Utah, harnessed biomass renewable energy 

using methane gas from a local landfill. The methane gas, emitted from decomposing waste, produced 
Meeting the New Century 577

2.3 megawatts of electricity and saved approximately $400,000 in energy costs per year.430 Another 

promising renewable energy technology was plasma waste-to-energy systems. The plasma waste-toenergy system converted the “organic portion of waste into a synthesis gas to feed electricity-producing 

generators; the inorganic portion is converted into glass-like slag used as aggregate for construction 

purposes.” The system purchased for use at Hurlburt Field, Florida, reduced solid waste by 90 percent and converted the remaining 10 percent into recyclable material.431 By 2010, 45 installations 

were developing renewable energy projects incorporating geothermal, solar, wind, or waste-to-energy 

sources. Projects included a biomass plant at Eglin AFB, Florida; a geothermal well at Mountain Home 

AFB, Idaho; and, net zero installation at USAFA, Colorado.432

Wind and solar energy projects remained the most popular types of renewable energy projects at 

Air Force installations during the early part of the decade. In 1996, the Air Force erected four 225-kW 

wind turbines at Ascension Island in the Atlantic Ocean. Prior to the wind turbines, oil-fired generators 

were the island’s main source of energy. Within five years, Ascension Island conserved 287,000 gallons 

of fuel oil, saving approximately $350,000 each year.433 The wind project was funded through DoD’s 

Energy Conservation Improvement Program. Two additional wind turbines were erected on Ascension 

Island in 2003. Shortly after the first phase of construction, the Air Force won a 1997 DOE Small 

Group Renewable Energy Award. The second phase of construction won the 2004 Citation Award for 

Design Excellence and tripled the total project power output to 9500 MW per year. 434

Use of wind power was an integral part of DoD’s drive to reduce dependence on fossil fuels by 

seven percent by the year 2010. Other renewable energy sources included solar and hydrogen energy. In 

2002, Lackland AFB, Texas, joined the growing ranks of installations incorporating “windtricity” into 

its energy program. Lackland AFB purchased renewable energy from local power companies as part 

of the DoD-wide goal to decrease fossil fuel reliance.435 The energy was generated by the Desert Sky 

Wind Project located 12 miles northwest of the town of Iraan in west Texas. Lackland AFB received 

$54,000 for the first year of a renewable energy source project, part of a 5-year $500,000 program 

included in the FY02 Defense Appropriation Bill. The $54,000 provided an estimated 1.8 million kWh 

The Nellis AFB solar array was one of the largest in North America when it was constructed in 2007.
578 Leading the Way

or 18,000 blocks of windtricity each year. The wind farm was capable of generating 160.5-megawatts 

through 107 wind turbines spread over a 15-square mile mesa.436

Tin City Long Range Radar Station (LRRS), Alaska, was another wind power energy success 

story. In 2009, the first wind turbine was installed by the 611th CES. Power from the project saved an 

estimated 85,000 gallons of fuel, approximately 30 to 35 percent of the annual fuel consumption at Tin 

City LRRS. Engineers and contractors developed new technology to combat the frigid climate during 

installation of the wind turbine. A system was devised to carry warm air through the base of the turbine 

and out the tips of the blades to eliminate icing. “Passive solar blade heating and low-temperature 

lubrication of the nacelle” also were utilized to prevent the turbine from freezing.437

Solar energy was utilized in many different ways by Air Force civil engineers. On December 17, 

2007, Nellis AFB, Nevada, began generating approximately 25 percent of the base’s electricity through 

solar energy. The solar field spanned 140 acres and contained 72,000 solar panels. The project was one 

of the largest in North America at the time of its installation.438 SolarWall technology also provided a 

cost-effective way to heat and cool buildings. This technology was in use on select buildings at Edwards 

AFB, California and Buckley AFB, Colorado. At Buckley AFB, Colorado, the SolarWall was installed 

on a 5,000 square-foot building. The 1,000 square-foot Solar Wall was built in front of one exterior 

wall. The “cool air [is] drawn into the perforated metal wall, [which] is heated by the sun. A small 

interior make-up fan draws the warmed air into a perforated soft duct system extending the length of 

the building. Ventilation holes in the duct system allow air to be directed upwards towards the ceiling 

to create convection currents that move warm air throughout the entire building.”439

Along with energy conservation, the Air Force implemented a water conservation program at 

several bases. The Energy Independence and Security Act dictated a two percent annual reduction 

based on an FY06 water usage baseline.440 National policy encouraged Federal agencies to consider 

alternative sources of water. Utilizing a 2007 baseline, reduction targets for potable water consumption 

were established at 16 percent by the end of 2015. Alternate water sources included reclaimed water, 

gray water, captured rainwater, industrial gray water, and non-potable well water. The primary alternate 

water source used in the Air Force was reclaimed water for irrigation purposes. Edwards AFB used 

treated discharge and the USAFA purchased reclaimed water for irrigation.441 The Air Force had plans 

to implement gray water systems in base facilities. 

Other water conservation initiatives undertaken by the Air Force included the effluent water 

system at Dyess AFB. In 2002, the 7th CES joined Abilene, Texas, to use effluent water to irrigate 

landscaping. Due to drought cycles in the Abilene area, the city instituted a water conservation program 

using effluent water to irrigate golf courses and turf grass areas. Turf grass was a natural cleanser for 

partially treated water and acted as a filter before the water reached streams, rivers, and lakes. Dyess 

AFB entered into a ten-year contract with Abilene to use effluent water on the installation’s irrigation 

projects. The installation simultaneously erected two, 11 million-gallon holding-reservoirs and two 

pump stations. The effluent water project saved over 160 million gallons of potable water annually.442

The Air Force Scientific Advisory Board (SAB) completed three Alternative Base Energy (ABE) 

studies in 2009. The ABE evaluated ways that the Air Force might ensure electrical power to installations while diminishing the use of fossil fuels as a generating source, thus meeting Federal, local and 

Air Force energy policies. The studies responded, in part, to the Defense Science Board’s 2008 report 

on the DoD Energy Strategy, which emphasized the necessity of ensuring that all military installations 

had sufficient sources of electricity at all times. The ABE studies presented an analysis of several 

Air Force installations and the ideal energy generation sources for each. Additionally, security of 

the energy sources and storage facilities was highlighted. Alternative and emergency energy sources 

aside from the commercial transmission grid safeguarded the capability of the military to respond in 

any situation. Small nuclear power systems, which could be buried for higher security and reduced 

reliance on a public energy supplier, were encouraged by SAB.443
Meeting the New Century 579

Automation

Automated Civil Engineer System (ACES)

In 2001, ACES remained on track for implementation for use Air Force wide. The Automation 

Steering Group reported that ACES achieved approval by the chief financial officer and received a 

Certificate of Networthiness in February 2001.444 As the decade progressed, ACES replaced the older 

WIMS and IWIMS systems as the primary computerized management system used at Air Force bases.

By early 2001, the Air Force began investigating the potential of establishing a portal on the 

Internet. In spring 2000, the Air Force logistics community experimented with a prototype web-based 

portal using commercially available software. The prototype portal was successful and was expanded 

Air Force wide through the Global Combat Support System-Air Force Integration Framework. The 

portal allowed access to all unclassified combat/mission support and service applications by July 2001. 

Personnel were able to log onto the network once and access all programs as opposed to logging onto 

each individual program. A single portal assured that all Air Force personnel had access to the most 

current software and programs. During summer 2001, AFCESA worked with the Standard Systems 

Groups to migrate ACES to the web environment linked to the Air Force portal. By fall 2001, the ACES 

Program Management module was moved to the web. Other modules, such as the ACES Housing 

and Real Property modules, were scheduled to be web-based by February 2002. The programs were 

located in a virtual civil engineer community area established within the portal.445

Work continued on the ACES program. During 2003, the Deputy Civil Engineer, Ms. Kathleen I. 

Ferguson, chaired the Automation Steering Group. She recounted that ACES provided the “automated 

tools our installations and major commands need to do their job. It has a multitude of functionalitiesoperations, environmental, real property, housing and project management-those things our personnel 

need to do their jobs more effectively and efficiently.”446

By 2004, the number of available ACES modules included Personnel and Readiness, Real Property, 

Program Management, Housing Management, Explosive Ordnance Disposal, and Fire Department. 

One module that proved problematic was ACES-Operations. The Air Force tried to customize commercial-off-the-shelf software, however, that was not as easy as it sounded. Civil Engineering shared 

data elements and interfaced with other systems such as the financial system and any software changes 

also affected those other systems. The software had limited sharing capabilities among users across 

the Air Force. Eventually, the attempt was left unfinished pending the development of the subsequent 

automation system. Training to use the system included classroom training, but the popularity of 

web-based training was increasing. Web-based training allowed greater access and flexibility to all 

Air Force civil engineers and was less costly than traditional classroom instruction.447

Agile Installation Management and Next Generation Information Technology (NexGen IT)

By 2007, discussions began on the next generation of information technology (NexGenIT). By that 

time, the Air Force had 800 individual databases, including those in ACES, IWIMS, and individual 

base and major command databases. Users of the ACES and IWIMS suites used the same software, 

but the databases generated by those software packages were stand-alone records and not linked to 

other data. General Eulberg related that the only way to determine the total number of Air Force real 

property assets was to manually enter the totals from each individual database onto a spread sheet. It 

was not possible to query a single database for that information. Establishing a single database became 

a goal of the IT transformation.448

The new Air Force civil engineer IT initiative was named Agile Installation Management (AIM). 

AIM was not a specific system or software program. The goal of AIM was to provide “the agility needed 

to easily manage our data from a complete CE enterprise perspective.”449 AIM focused on making all 
580 Leading the Way

Air Force civil engineer processes at the base level more effective and efficient and on enabling an 

enterprise view of installation assets.450 The vision of AIM was expressed by General Eulberg,

Our AIM initiative will enable real estate officers and planners to manage space to 

reduce the physical footprint of our facilities and our overall sustainment costs. It will 

enable engineers to plan and prioritize projects based on a standard set of business 

rules for facilities, airfields, road, or utilities that link priorities to mission-critical 

assets and common levels of service. It will enable strategic sourcing to maximize our 

buying power by consolidating all like purchases into one contract action.... And it 

will enable resource managers to capitalize all reimbursable costs and provide better 

management of our true costs of doing business.451

The IT transformation was driven from the top down. High-level mapping of the civil engineer 

business processes resulted in identifying the requirements for the next generation IT. To this end, The 

Civil Engineer established a new policy to centralize the acquisition, application, and implementation 

of new technology to avoid duplication of efforts and systems. All IT purchases of software, hardware, 

systems, or applications were validated through the Civil Engineer Investment Review governance 

process prior to approval by the Air Force or the OSD. This process imposed a discipline on customized IT software and applications. By 2008, Air Force civil engineering had eight different work order 

automation tools, ten different geospatial system architectures, four different airfield waiver applications, and five different emergency response tools. All future IT applications were required to serve 

the entire civil engineer enterprise.452 During 2008-09, the Office of The Civil Engineer developed 

a concept of operations to create a centralized IT and Business Process Transformation Center of 

Excellence at the Air Staff and worked to establish a Civil Engineer Chief Information Officer position.453 In 2009, the Resources Division in the Office of the Civil Engineer established the Information 

Technology Branch.454

The IT component of AIMS was called NexGen IT. One goal of the IT package was to consolidate 

all databases into a single, authoritative database in a Web setting that allowed real-time sharing of 

data among users across the civil engineer enterprise.455 It also had to meet the requirements of the 

Secretary of the Air Force’s Data Transparency Initiative. In fact, the days of custom-designed software 

unique to the Air Force, such as BEAMS, WIMS, or ACES, were over. The Civil Engineer proposed 

to use software already owned by the Air Force and adopt the best commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) 

software solutions in real estate, space management, and computerized maintenance management 

system.456 Implementation of NexGen IT used a multiple tier approach. The first focus was on the 

core resources areas of financial, personnel, and budget. The next tier was focused on real estate, work 

management, supply management, space management, energy, planning, and project management.457

Advances in IT accessibility were evident during the last years of the decade. In August 2008, 

real property, housing, project management, and environmental data were made available through the 

Air Force Portal to anyone with a Common Access Card. In addition, a system was made available 

that automated the paper forms for Work Requirements, Work Clearance, and Environmental Impact 

capabilities.458 In 2009, the Office of The Civil Engineer reviewed more than 1,000 separate IT programs and applications in use throughout the civil engineer community. The majority of IT applications 

provided individual solutions that were not appropriate enterprise-wide. In addition, the systems did 

not communicate with other systems, and often the data was entered multiple times. Progress was 

made in reviewing the best commercial software applications available for implementation by Air 

Force civil engineers. The timetable to award software and service provider contracts was late 2009. 

Real estate and space planning programs were planned for initial implementation in 2010, followed 

by computerized maintenance management, energy, and project management programs in 2011.459
Meeting the New Century 581

In January 2010, General Byers approved the NexGen IT Program Management Plan to guide the 

efforts over the next two years. General Byers stated,

The strength of our technology is critical to our mission success. It must provide us 

with the reliable, up-to-date information we need to prioritize our projects, validate 

our funding requests, and support our Asset Management culture. We need to think 

and be more like Wal-Mart – delivering supplies and equipment to our Airmen when 

and where they need it.460

A major effort was to identify the data needed to manage Air Force civil engineer business processes, standardize the data, and clean up the data collected in the former automated systems of ACES 

and IWIMS. Some interim systems were in place that searched data in both ACES and IWIMS.461

One resource was the S-File that collected interior space use data for all facilities in the Air Force real 

property inventory. The S-File provided accessible data on building floor plans, space assignments, and 

organization of every room in every building on every base. By the end of 2010, data collection for 

administrative buildings, which represented 21 percent of all Air Force facilities, was nearing completion.462 The new IT package also was planned to give greater accessibility to all Airmen; be compatible 

with high-tech devices, such as scanners, used to capture and upload data; and, automatically program 

real property installed equipment and recurring facility maintenance activities.463

Air Force GeoBase

Mapping was one area that benefitted from automation, particularly through the use of the commercially-available geographic information system. Individual bases experimented with GIS mapping 

during the 1990s. Mapping often was accomplished by various groups on an installation for specific 

purposes, but the data was not assembled in one place or shared among flights at a base. The experience 

of the 10th CES at the U.S. Air Force Academy (USAFA) was typical of other installations. USAFA 

adopted GIS technology by 1992 and developed its own GIS maps for the USAFA using AutoCAD 

with a GeoSQL that linked the maps to WIMS. USAFA named the system USAFA Information Management System. This system was used until 1998. Staff stated that the system was complicated to 

use, accessible only from one personal computer, and difficult to maintain.464

In 1996, the Congress passed the Information Technology Management Reform Act that required 

DoD and the U.S. Armed Services to appoint chief information officers to regulate investments in 

information technology. The Air Force conducted a three-year study to examine the increase and 

decline in use of GIS systems on installations. A new practical mapping proposal evolved as a result 

of this study. The proposal called for a “mission-centered, practical, planned approach to acquiring 

geospatial information resources with balanced attention to both the IT and the organization.”465 In 

1998, the USAFA’s Institute for Information Technology Applications, headed by Gen. James McCarthy (USAF, Retired) scoped out the concept for an Air Force application called GeoBase and an initial 

prototype was prepared. The prototype was tested for two years, then presented at a senior Air Force 

leadership conference in fall 2000.466

In 2001, General Robbins established a new Headquarters Air Force Geo Integration Office (HAF 

GIO) in the Office of The Civil Engineer. Col. Brian Cullis, who had championed the technology while 

assigned to the faculty at the US Air Force Academy, was appointed Chief of the HAF GIO.467 In turn, 

the Office of The Civil Engineer established the base CES as the central point of contact for all base 

mapping. Consolidating the mapping function using GeoBase at the base-level CES eliminated redundant mapping processes. A group comprising representatives from the major commands, Air Staff, and 

FOAs, was formed to spearhead a GeoBase Initiative and to set policies and procedures. In January 

2002, a GeoBase strategic plan was formulated. The main tenet of the strategic plan was summed up 
582 Leading the Way

in the phrase “One Base...One Map.” Guidelines included establishing a full-time GeoBase team at 

all civil engineer levels to identify, organize and apply GeoBase resources; adhering to the Air Force 

approved GeoBase information technology and data standards; using and maintaining current data in 

the system; and, avoiding wasteful redundancies by sharing data.468 During 2002, the HAF GIO also 

received additional funding as a result of the attacks on September 11, 2001.469 By 2003, each major 

command, AFCESA, AFCEE, and four other FOAs had established GIOs to integrate GeoBase into 

their operations and to use the system for a wide variety of applications.470 In June 2003, an Air Force 

Garrison Mapping Concept of Operations Version 2.0 was issued.471

GeoBase had three components: Garrison GeoBase; Expeditionary GeoBase, also known as GeoReach; and, Strategic GeoBase. Garrison GeoBase was the installation mapping program for each 

permanent Air Force base. In October 2002, the Garrison GeoBase IT structure was approved for 

use.472 The basis of the installation map was the Common Installation Picture (CIP) that was a high 

resolution base map typically generated from satellite imagery or aerial photography. Mission data 

sets were added to the base map. Mission data sets were defined as the geospatial data map layers 

that functional organizations on a particular base chose as vital to support their particular mission.473

On the installation level, the GeoBase program became the basis for installation comprehensive 

planning and provided detailed mapping of roads, buildings, installation boundaries, and utility systems. It was used to track environmental restoration sites, compliance, planning activities, and locations 

of cultural and historic properties. For example, the Vandenberg AFB, California, GIO compiled one 

of the largest databases in the Air Force to support the 30th Space Wing and all supporting agencies. 

Its GeoBase supported missile and space launches, EOD disposal management, airfield obstruction 

analysis, fire department fire modeling, toxic hazard modeling, disaster preparedness, and emergency 

response.474

GeoBase also was used to prepare specific maps to meet specific functional needs. For example, 

GeoBase was used to develop explosives site plans for all permanent bases. This was required after the 

implementation of new stricter explosives safety regulations. The Air Force was required to meet these 

new regulations on all bases by 2005. EOD personnel developed an automated explosives site planning 

software known as the Assessment System of Hazard Surveys that used a digital map populated with 

installation-specific data. The system generated the explosives site map and the appropriate Air Force 

form to file with the DoD Explosives Safety Board.475

The ARC also embraced GeoBase. By 2007, the Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) had implemented GeoBase at 14 installations. This system incorporated more than 60 map services and more 

than 130 GIS layers. Access to the AFRC system was web-based. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina 

in 2005, the ANG Readiness Center used an application of GeoBase called Geo Base Engineering 

Toolkit to produce a beddown plan for 4,500 evacuees at England Air Park, Alexandria, Louisiana. 

Beddown planners from the 179th CES, Mansfield, Ohio, who had conducted the physical site survey, 

were able to confirm the presence of existing infrastructure, the locations of utilities, and availability 

of nearby amenities.476

Applications for using GeoBase were wider than just facility data. Operations Flight personnel 

were able to use the system to show approach and departure corridors for airfields and ranges. Data 

on bird aircraft strike hazards also were trackable using the system.

In addition to base mapping, GeoBase had a strategic and an expeditionary role. Launched in 

2002, Strategic GeoBase provided Air Staff and DoD personnel an overview of all installation data for 

use in planning decisions that affected the bases. Questions answered by Strategic GeoBase included 

proximity of Air Force ranges to urban areas and national parks and other areas of political interest. 

It also was used to guide decisions about homeland defense planning, force protection strategies, and 

base closures and realignments. In 2004, the first Air Force-wide library of imagery acquired from 

commercial satellites was linked to the system to provide up-to-date information.477
Meeting the New Century 583

Expeditionary GeoBase, also known as GeoReach, was used to assist contingency planners to 

scope out forward operating locations.478 GeoReach used satellite data to produce real-time imagery to 

evaluate site conditions for potential forward operating locations and aided planning of potential beddown requirements, such as aircraft parking and runway locations, and billet areas.479 The system was 

used to select possible locations, to collect all available recent imagery and related data on proposed 

locations, to assess locations in terms of beddown requirements and potential layouts, and to enable 

the data to be shared on a secure network among civil engineers, logistics planners, operations, and 

deployed personnel. The system also supported all survey and on-the-ground construction activities, 

including surveying actual forward operating locations and mapping installed facilities and utilities. 

The system allowed for monitoring conditions and changes to overall planning as required to support 

continuing force deployments.480

PACAF was the first major command to acquire GeoReach and became the first to apply the 

program in a real world contingency planning situation during OEF. GeoReach was used to produce 

images of potential remote bare base beddown locations prior to inserting personnel on the ground. 

PACAF maintained the Air Force’s GeoReach website. PACAF added six additional contract personnel to input data and was able to keep up with demands for information Air Force-wide. The PACAF 

website reached 843,000 hits during the first six months following the establishment of the website in 

July 2000.481 Using GeoReach, Pentagon planners were able to assess potential beddown options in 

remote areas of Afghanistan in days rather than weeks. Planners were able to preview and determine 

if politically available locations matched force requirements in numbers of aircraft and personnel 

requiring beddown.482

USAFE used GeoReach to plan potential beddown locations for OIF. USAFE civil engineers 

prepared maps of 60 potential forward operating locations in 15 countries beginning in November 

2002. USAFE established a GIO to use the system to prepare maps showing critical factors, such 

as aircraft parking areas, quantity-distance arcs for ammunition storage, fuel storage locations, and 

personnel beddown locations. GeoReach also was used to prepare materials to support pre-deployment 

site visits. Site planners arrived at locations with accurate maps and pre-assembled data to finalize 

beddown plans. Among the required equipment to complete the site visits were laptops containing GIS 

software, a portable color printer, and a Trimble global positioning system (GPS) backpack. Using 

GeoReach, GPS, and the Internet resulted in greater efficiencies in planning deployment locations.483

In January 2004, the Air Force contracted with Trimble to provide GPS surveying and mapping 

systems for use as part of the GeoBase Civil Engineering Program. Under the $5 million contract, 

Trimble supplied several types of GPS systems along with training. The GPS units allowed civil 

engineers to collect accurate data on physical assets and infrastructure on the permanent bases. It also 

assisted in data collection on the airfields and camps worldwide which were sustained by the Air Force 

civil engineers. A further application of the GPS system was to assist during community construction 

projects, and planning and recovery efforts following natural disasters.484

During 2004, the CIP data standards were approved. Major commands were instructed to adopt 

the CIP structure for maintaining database information by October 2005.485 CIPS were prepared for 

all main operating bases throughout the Air Force by December 2005.486

By 2005, the focus of GeoBase had shifted from start-up mode to widening its application to 

support all situations and expanding access to all Air Force civil engineers. In April 2005, selected 

unclassified GeoBase imagery was loaded onto the Air Force portal and available for viewing by all 

Air Force personnel. A further step allowed access to unclassified information in each installation CIP 

for both permanent and expeditionary bases.487

By 2006, the goal for GeoBase expanded to “One Air Force...One Map.” This meant that installation CIPs were similarly structured and standardized to support Air Force-wide queries. The Air 

Force GeoBase program developed quality assurance and quality control standards for CIPs to ensure 

that consistent, reliable, and verifiable mapping data were available. The first GeoBase Air Force 
584 Leading the Way

Instruction (AFI), AFI 32-10122, was issued to establish an Air Force-wide policy and to delineate 

roles and responsibilities for implementing installation GIS.488 Another goal was to achieve the ability 

to allow all CIPs to be viewed through an Internet-centric viewer.

489

A-76 process

The A-76 process for competitive outsourcing continued to impact the Air Force civil engineer 

community throughout the first decade of the twenty-first century. The A-76 outsourcing competitions 

for civil engineer services occurred in the Air Education and Training Command (AETC) and in the Air 

Force Materiel Command (AFMC). These commands did not necessarily require military personnel at 

bases to perform civil engineer functions. Air Combat Command (ACC) and Air Mobility Command 

(AMC) retained, for the most part, blue suit civil engineers at their bases due to readiness requirements.

During the early years of the decade, AETC was heavily involved in the A-76 process. By 2001, 

AETC had a variety of civil engineering organizations under its command. Some civil engineering 

squadrons and base operating support organizations were hybrids of outsourced services, civil service 

most efficient organizations, and military personnel. Installations with hybrid organizations were the 

operations flights at Goodfellow and Laughlin AFBs, Texas; Tyndall AFB, Florida; and, Columbus 

AFB, Mississippi. By 2001, AETC adopted the approach to outsource the entire CES with the exception of the fire departments and EOD flights at five installations while retaining the military CES at 

three bases. One AETC installation, Vance AFB, Oklahoma, had been entirely contractor operated for 

more than 20 years. The five bases selected for A-76 outsourcing competitions were Maxwell AFB, 

Alabama; Lackland, Randolph, and Sheppard AFBs, Texas; and, Keesler AFB, Mississippi. The three 

bases that retained military CESs were Little Rock AFB, Arkansas; Altus AFB, Oklahoma; and, Luke 

AFB, Arizona. In the opinion of Col. Rusty Gilbert, Civil Engineer for AETC, outsourcing was like 

putting the base operating support on a credit card. The Air Force was required to pay for the services 

forever and re-competes for the contract were anticipated. Cost avoidance was not the same as cost 

savings, Colonel Gilbert warned.490

The Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) was the fourth largest command in terms of facilities. By 

the end of 2000, AFSPC reported that the major command had reached the limit of those civil engineer 

functions that could be outsourced. AFSPC retained military personnel at five main bases who were 

assigned to AEF deployment rotations and met readiness requirements. The five bases were Peterson 

AFB, Colorado; Malmstrom AFB, Montana; Vandenberg AFB, California; Patrick AFB, Florida; and, 

F.E. Warren AFB, Wyoming. Even so, some civil engineer functions at these bases were outsourced. 

The civil engineer functions at other AFSPC installations typically were contracted out to the private 

sector, but some were most efficient organizations (MEOs) run by Federal employees. While no A-76 

competitions were anticipated for new functions, previously awarded contracts were reaching their 

five-year limits and required re-competition by the end of 2000. In all cases, contracts administered 

by outside contractors were more expensive than the first bid. The new bids to cover base operations 

support cost the government more money.491

AFMC had a small military civil engineer contingent. AFMC’s Civil Engineer, Mr. James R. 

Pennino, explained that the variety of facilities found on AFMC bases presented unique challenges 

to civil engineers serving the bases. Some of these challenging facilities were huge industrial repair 

shops; testing and evaluation facilities like wind tunnels; laboratories; and, even some bases where 

tenants had flying missions. Between 1995 and 2003, the staffing changes in AFMC were dramatic. 

In 1995, the major command employed 7,300 government civilian and military personnel; by 2003, 

that number was 3,900. In 1995, military personnel numbered 258 officers and 2,274 enlisted personnel; in 2003 the numbers were 81 officers and approximately 1,000 enlisted personnel. Government 

civilians numbered 2,250 personnel, augmented by approximately 3,000 contractors throughout the 

major command. Civil engineer functions at four bases were operated by contractors, while three 
Meeting the New Century 585

bases retained active duty, in-house CESs. These bases were Eglin AFB, Florida; Hill AFB, Utah; and, 

Robins AFB, Georgia. MEOs operated civil engineering at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, and Edwards 

AFB, California, and the environmental program at Tinker AFB, Oklahoma. In these cases, a small 

number of government employees provided oversight for the contracts. The result in both staffing 

configurations was that the same amount of work was done by far fewer persons.492 In 2007, as part of 

the Civil Engineer Transformation Plan, the CE Groups at Robins AFB; Eglin AFB; and, Hill AFB, 

were reengineered to deal with the loss of more than 600 military positions during the manpower cuts 

resulting from PBD 720.493

The A-76 process also was applied to Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) bases. By 2005, ten 

of the eleven major bases under the Air Force Reserve Command had completed the process. Nine 

bases were turned over to entirely civilian work forces, while one base was operated by a government 

MEO. No Base Civil Engineers at Reserve bases were military personnel. AFRC staffed only one or 

two full-time military positions at 57 other Air Force bases with Reserve units.494

Privatization Initiatives

Privatization initiatives for family housing and utilities offered substantial savings in manpower 

and operations and maintenance costs to the bases. The goal of privatizing approximately 70 percent 

of the Air Force’s family housing units relieved individual bases of the maintenance and upkeep costs 

of housing areas. These activities became the responsibility of the private developers who leased the 

land, owned the housing and were responsible for upkeep, maintenance and operation of the housing 

for a 50-year period. Transferring these responsibilities represented substantial savings in the number 

of shop and maintenance personnel required at base level. Overall, the intent was for family housing 

privatization to be a lesser cost than having the Air Force continue to own and operate it. The cost 

analysis compared the Air Force ownership to include in-house operations and construction costs 

to the cost of providing a housing allowance to the service member. As the housing was no longer 

owned by the Government, the service members living in the privatized units could receive their 

housing allowance which was used to pay rent to the project owner and cover the cost of utilities and 

rental insurance. The service member could choose to live in the privatized housing or in the local 

community. AFCEE was charged with oversight of the Air Force housing privatization efforts. This 

family housing privatization program grew to more than 50,000 homes, a scale equal or larger than 

prior large housing construction programs such as the Wherry and the Capehart programs of the 1950’s 

and 1960’s, respectively.

The Air Force continued privatizing utilities as part of the Defense Reform Initiative Directive #9, 

passed in 1997, later revised in 1998 by #49. The reform required privatization of all “governmentowned electric, water, wastewater, and natural gas utility system[s] unless security concerns required 

Federal ownership or privatization was uneconomical” by September 2003.495 In 2001, the OSD 

published the Defense Planning Guidance mandating the revitalization of all infrastructure and facilities to a “minimally acceptable performance” level by 2010.496 The Air Force identified 667 utility 

systems in its inventory across the spectrum of active, Guard, and Reserve installations worldwide. 

As of the end of March 2011, 150 utility systems were privatized (50 since the DoD directive), 129 

were exempt, 156 were deferred, and 62 were owned-by-others. The remaining 170 systems were 

scheduled for evaluation.497

Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) and Joint Basing 

During the early years of the twenty-first century, the Air Force continued the base closure process 

on 32 installations closed between 1988 and 1995. The process comprised environmental cleanup and 

transfer of facilities and real property to local communities or to other Federal agencies. Environmental 
586 Leading the Way

cleanup was overseen by AFCEE, while real property transactions were handled by the Air Force Base 

Conversion Agency, which became AFRPA in October 2002.

Discussions for another round of base closures to shed excess military property occurred during 

2001. However, U.S. Congressional House and Senate negotiators did not agree and delayed the 

next round of base closures. Public Law 107-107 dated December 2001 postponed all new BRAC 

decisions until 2005.498 The BRAC process remained the same as in the 1990s. DoD prepared recommendations for closure and realignment, which the Secretary of Defense submitted to a nine-member 

BRAC Commission. The members of the Commission were selected by the President and the House of 

Representatives and approved by the Senate. The BRAC Commission finalized the recommendations 

and presented them to the President to accept or reject. The President’s acceptance of the BRAC Commission recommendations became final within 45 days unless the Congress passed a joint resolution to 

block the package. If the President rejected the package, the BRAC Commission had the opportunity 

to submit revised recommendations within a specific time frame.499

The BRAC process began in January 2004, when DoD requested the commanders of all military 

installations to assemble data on their installations, including operations, real property, personnel, and 

facilities. The assembled data was submitted for review by DoD and became the basis for making 

recommendations to the BRAC Commission.500

In September 2005, the BRAC Commission forwarded recommendations for base closings, base 

realignments, and joint basing to the President. The Commission altered several Air Force recommendations.501 The President accepted the recommendations and the Congress did not block the package. 

Thus, the work began to implement the largest number of BRAC recommendations ever by September 

2011. BRAC recommendations numbered 190, more than the number recommended by the four 

preceding BRAC commissions combined. Implementing all the BRAC recommendations required 

approximately 837 distinct actions across 160 bases DoD wide. Over 40 BRAC recommendations 

directly affected the Air Force.502 Of these, 78 percent of the implementation actions were required 

by the ARC.503

General Fox wrote, 

The results of the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) jump-started Air 

Force transformation initiatives by maximizing the war fighting capabilities of our 

flying squadrons, realigning Air Force infrastructure with the future defense strategy 

and capitalizing on opportunities for joint activity. Implementation begins in earnest 

this year [2006], as we commence with environmental analysis processes to comply 

with the National Environmental Protection Act in tune with the planning and design 

efforts on $456 million in FY07 BRAC MILCON requirements. We are partnering 

with the other branches to develop business plans to implement the 182 closure or 

realignment recommendations approved in this round of BRAC. BRAC also included 

recommendations for the consolidation of installation management at 12 sites, with 

USAF being the designated lead service at half of those locations. USAF fully supports 

the joint basing concept. The intended efficiencies garnered by the consolidation of 

installation services will assist USAF in its own modernization efforts.504

Implementing the BRAC recommendations required an Air Force-wide effort. According to Ms. 

Kathleen I. Ferguson, Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Installations, “Every major command, the Guard, the Reserve, and Headquarters Air Force have supported this effort with a team of 

dedicated professionals whose sole focus every day is to ensure the more than 400 actions required by 

the Air Force to implement BRAC happen on time, within budget and with minimal negative impact 

on our people and our mission.”505 Only five Air Force properties were scheduled for closure and 
Meeting the New Century 587

another 12 were scheduled for realignment. Many BRAC recommendations resulted in consolidating 

functions.506

Air Force funding to implement BRAC totaled $3.9 billion in the budget years FY06-FY11. 

Funding was spent on facilities required to support the realigned units and their new missions at the 

expanded bases. Years 2006 and 2007 were spent developing implementation business and program 

plans and MILCON planning and design. Between 2005 and 2008, 152 BRAC-related actions were 

completed. These actions required 227 projects on 54 installations in 36 states valued at $2.5 billion. 

Two hundred sixty actions were completed between 2009 and 2011.507

One significant change in the 2005 BRAC process was the implementation of Joint Basing. Under 

the Joint Basing Initiative, 26 installations across the CONUS who either shared a common geographic 

boundary or existed within a relatively confined area were studied for opportunities to be operated as 

Joint Basing. Ten joint basing recommendations affected Air Force bases.508 In each location, a primary 

installation support provider was selected after a review of each functional area at each installation by 

Service Standard Teams. While the Office of The Civil Engineer supported the joint basing concept, 

General Fox remained clear about the following points, “Our underlying precepts are that 1) Airmen 

will command Airmen, 2) Airmen will open and operate airfields, and 3) the Air Force will achieve 

improvements without negative impact to our warfighting capability. We will not support lower standards for our Airmen.”509 Following this study, 12 Joint Bases would emerge.

Three locations initially chosen to implement the Joint Basing Initiative were McChord AFB, 

Washington; McGuire AFB, New Jersey; and, Bolling AFB, Washington, D.C. By fall 2005, personnel from these installations already were working with their Navy and/or Army counterparts to 

accomplish joint basing.510 Other Air Force installations recommended for joint basing were Andrews 

AFB, Maryland; Elmendorf AFB, Alaska; Hickam AFB, Hawaii; Randolph and Lackland AFBs, 

Texas; Langley AFB, Virginia; Charleston AFB, South Carolina; and, Andersen AFB, Guam.511 In six 

instances, the Air Force became provider of base operations support. These were Joint Base AndrewsNaval Air Facility Washington, Maryland; Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, New Jersey; Joint 

Base Charleston, South Carolina; Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Alaska; Joint Base San Antonio 

(Lackland-Randolph-Ft. Sam Houston), and Joint Base Langley-Eustis, Virginia. In four cases, the 

Air Force turned over base operations to another Service. These were Joint Region Marianas, Guam: 

Andersen AFB and Naval Base Guam; Anacostia-Bolling, Washington, D.C.; Pearl Harbor-Hickam, 

Hawaii; and, Ft. Lewis-McChord, Washington. In 2009, the first joint bases became fully operational. 

These were Andrews-Naval Air Facility Washington, McGuire-Ft. Dix-Lakehurst, and Joint Region 

Marianas, Guam. The other joint bases became fully operational in 2010.512

Overseas Closures

In 2005, Rhein-Main AB in Germany closed. This action was the result of negotiations between 

the United States and Germany. The Frankfurt Airport wanted to expand its operations and the United 

States agreed in 1999 to transfer Rhein-Main AB to Germany. It was the end of an era since the United 

States had occupied the base since April 1945 and it had served as the “Gateway to Europe” for most 

U.S. military personnel throughout the years. In order to facilitate the closure, U.S. activities were 

moved and consolidated at Ramstein and Spangdahlem ABs in Germany. The transition planning 

and construction took five years and was under the management of John Thompson, the Rhein-Main 

Transition Program Manager in the Program Management Office in USAFE. Ramstein AB became 

the primary reception hub for AMC airlift operations, while joint fighter and airlift operations were 

moved to Spangdahlem AB. (See Overseas Construction, USAFE)
588 Leading the Way

CONSTRUCTION

CONUS Construction

The military construction (MILCON) program throughout the first decade of the twenty-first 

century was expended on new construction to modernize and upgrade infrastructure for new weapons 

systems, while older systems were dismantled. The Air Force funded projects that supported Airmen 

and their families, such as MFH and dormitories. The Air Force continued to improve living standards 

and the building of thriving communities. 

Other construction projects were financed through different funding sources. For example, early in 

the decade funds available to improve base security increased for permanent Air Force bases in CONUS 

and abroad. More than $630 million were requested in the FY03 Defense Emergency Response Funds 

to install base security measures and build up equipment to improve force protection capabilities.513

Later in the decade, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 allocated $7.4 billion to 

defense agencies, of which the Air Force received $1.7 billion. The funds financed S/R&M projects 

and the construction of dormitories at two bases, child development centers at seven installations, and 

MFH projects at two bases, as well as other Air Force improvement programs.514

The MILCON budget at the beginning of the decade was $1.1 billion. In FY01, the Congress 

increased the MILCON budget for the Air Force by adding 62 projects. With the increase, 13 dormitories, 3 child development centers, 6 physical fitness centers, and many operational facilities 

were constructed.515 The MILCON budget for FY04 was the largest budget award in 14 years. The 

$1.64 billion program covered new mission beddowns, ongoing mission requirements, quality-of-life 

improvements, and compliance initiatives for energy and environmental regulations.516 After middecade, the MILCON budget declined somewhat as the Air Force chose to spend money on upgrading 

outdated weapons systems. The FY11 MILCON budget was $1.5 billion.517

Several installations in the United States entered into large construction projects. Charleston AFB, 

South Carolina, built a 55,000 square-foot corrosion control facility for $18.1 million. The installation 

entered into a new contract where the chosen firm was responsible for all aspects of construction, 

including design.518 At Whiteman AFB, Missouri, a major construction program, begun in 1988 at a 

cost of $800 million, was completed in 2007. Approximately 99 percent of installation facilities were 

new. This effort replaced World War II wooden buildings and prepared for the B-2 bomber mission.519

In Virginia, Langley AFB gained a new mission to replace F-15C Eagles with F/A 22 Raptors, which 

necessitated a major beddown project from 2002-05. The $105 million MILCON project funded the 

construction of three new hangars for the new aircraft, a new base operations facility, a flight simulator, 

and a low observable/composite repair facility. The new facilities at Langley AFB received several 

design awards, including the 2005 Honor Award for Facility Design and the 2005 Merit Award in 

the ACC Design Award Competition.520 AFMC managed nearly $450 million in MILCON projects 

including construction of a $21 million test facility complex at Edwards AFB, California, for the new 

joint strike fighter aircraft.521

The Family Housing Master Plan combined MFH construction funds, operations and maintenance 

funds, and privatization to ensure adequate housing for Airmen by 2010.522 The Family Housing Master 

Plan in 2001 supported revitalization of housing at PACAF installations. Through the plan, funds were 

budgeted to construct or renovate units to standards approved by the Air Force. Through MILCON 

budgets, Hickam AFB, Hawaii, replaced 102 housing units and 501 additional units were improved 

PACAF-wide in 2002 at a cost of $102 million. At the same time, the Family Housing Master Plan 

supported funding allocations of $155 million to replace 761 housing units and to improve nearly 

3,700 units, while privatization efforts at PACAF led to the improvement of 2,070 units. By 2011, host 

nation agreements replaced 3,300 units at Kadena AB and Misawa AB, Japan.523

The goal of the Air Force Dormitory Plan was to upgrade all dormitories to current standards by 
Meeting the New Century 589

2009. In 2002, 3,900 of the 66,700 units in the Air Force inventory did not meet the Air Force standards. 

The FY03 dormitory program allocated $135 million to improve 11 enlisted Airmen’s dormitories.524

A new dormitory housing standard, Dorms-4-Airmen, was approved by the Chief Master Sergeant 

of the Air Force (CMSAF) and Chief of Staff in the early 2000s for unaccompanied personnel. The 

first quad-style dormitory was erected at Nellis AFB, Nevada, in 2004 and opened by CMSAF Gerald 

R. Murray. Each quad housed four Airmen in private rooms with private bathrooms that contained a 

full-sized bathtub. The common living area was shared by the four Airmen and was equipped with a 

full-sized refrigerator, microwave, stove top, kitchen table, ceiling fan, stereo, and a private balcony. 

The dormitory at Nellis AFB comprised 36 quads and housed 144 Airmen.525

MILCON budgeting for FY04 funded $1.5 billion in MFH construction and $128 million directed 

for dormitory construction. Over 10,000 housing units were either renovated or constructed, a move 

towards eliminating all inferior housing domestically by 2007 and by 2009 overseas. Unaccompanied 

personnel housing was increased by 1,104 rooms in 2004.526

In 2006, the Air Force constructed 5,104 MFH through a MILCON budget of $1.2 billion. Part 

of the budget and construction effort included the single largest MFH endeavor undertaken by the 

Air Force. Following the devastation of Hurricane Katrina, Keesler AFB, Mississippi, was in need of 

emergency housing and facilities; $264 million of the MILCON budget was utilized to provide 1,067 

houses.527

The “Building Thriving Housing Communities Strategy” was developed by Air Force civil engineers in 2009 to improve the condition of both family and unaccompanied housing. The strategy was 

based on the Air Force’s definition of a thriving community as “a safe, secure place for Airmen and 

their families to work, live, and play comfortably, with access to quality schools, health care, child 

care, dining, and other support services.”528 New design concepts focused on more than providing 

quality, modern housing for Airmen. The strategy extended to the community and included designs 

for neighborhoods with amenities for families. 

The Air Force’s total infrastructure budget request for FY11 was $5.5 billion, of which $3.1 billion 

focused on facility maintenance and repair. The MILCON portion of the budget was $1.5 billion, with 

continued emphasis on providing superior housing for families and Airmen. Of the total budget, $600 

million was designated for sustaining and renovating overseas housing and privatization of housing 

in CONUS. Approximately $78 million of MILCON funding was requested for MFH programs to 

eliminate substandard housing in Alaska and Hawaii through privatization.529

Overseas Construction

USAFE

During the early years of the twenty-first century, USAFE received generous funding through 

S/R&M. Construction and renovation projects at installations throughout Europe greatly improved the 

working and living conditions of Airmen. Family housing and unaccompanied personnel housing were 

two major areas to receive funding. USAFE established goals to replace stairwell apartment housing 

with duplexes and townhouses for families. Build-lease construction programs for MFH were started 

in Germany, United Kingdom, and Italy.530

The Aviano 2000 construction project continued from the preceding decade. As individual projects began to lag, an Aviano 2000 Program Management Office was established in 1999 to ensure 

the timely completion of construction, as well as to free the wing commander to focus on the 31st 

FW flying mission.531 Col. Gary C. LaGassey was appointed the program manager in February 1999. 

One project required a feasibility study to evaluate force protection capability and traffic reduction. 

Alarm had been raised when an explosive device was tossed onto the installation over a fence that 

separated the air base from the public road. The study was completed in 2001, and, by March 2004, 
590 Leading the Way

all four concerned parties (U.S. Air Force, Italian Air Force, Province of Pordenone, and the City) 

had signed an agreement for land transfers and project construction, known as the Bretella Project. 

The $5 million Bretella Project centered on the consolidation of Area A1 and Area A2 at Aviano AB 

separated by Via Pedemonte.532 One aspect of the project was to close public access to Via Pedemonte, 

which connected Aviano with the small town of Pedemonte. To increase force protection at the base, 

additional property was acquired by the Italian Air Force and alternate transportation routes and gates 

were constructed.533 Sixteen projects were completed in 2004 comprising dormitories, a consolidated 

school, and base exchange/commissary. Construction projects for FY05 included a flight simulator, 

weapons load/maintenance training facility, aircraft ramp, and relocation of the MFH office onto the 

installation.534

A second, large ongoing construction project was underway in Germany linked to the final closure 

of Rhein-Main AB. In March 1998, negotiations began between Germany and USAFE regarding the 

closure of Rhein-Main AB. The final agreement was signed on December 23, 1999 with the following 

provisions: real property of Rhein-Main AB would be vacated by the U.S. Air Force by December 31, 

2005 and the remaining missions transferred to Ramstein and Spangdahlem ABs. Prior to the closure 

of the base, an environmental assessment was completed, which resulted in the identification of several 

sites requiring cleanup. Cleanup costs of contaminated sites were shared among USAFE, the Frankfurt 

Flughafen, and the German government.535

New construction to facilitate the Rhein-Main Transition Program at Ramstein and Spangdahlem ABs required much planning and a large construction budget. Ramstein AB necessitated 14 

projects involving either new construction or alteration work; the construction plan at Spangdahlem 

AB involved 23 major projects. Projects at Ramstein included demolition and reconstruction of runways and facilities. The new 10,500-foot runway was grooved to 16 inches to support heavy cargo 

aircraft. During runway construction, the alignment was shifted 3.8 degrees to keep within the base’s 

Construction of the Kaiserslautern Military Community Center at Ramstein AB, Germany.
Meeting the New Century 591

boundaries. A new maintenance hangar for the C-130s was constructed along with a 90,417 squarefoot freight terminal; a 79,653 square-foot fuel cell hangar; 400-person dormitory; and, a 200-person 

Temporary Living Facility.536

Construction efforts at Ramstein AB began shortly after the decision to transfer missions and 

personnel from Rhein-Main AB. A $355 million improvement plan was adopted and included the 

$150 million Kaiserslautern Military Community Center (KMCC), an 844,000 square-foot facility. 

The KMCC combined components of the Army and Air Forces Exchange Services (AAFES) and Air 

Force Services, while housing business and recreational venues. The new exchange was the largest 

AAFES exchange in the world and replaced existing exchanges at Ramstein and Vogelweh; it opened 

in September 2009.537 An eight-story building containing 350 rooms for visiting quarters was part of 

the KMCC design. The overall project, the Defense Department’s single largest construction project 

at the time, was plagued by construction problems, vandalism, and delays. One significant issue was 

the roof that required a major repair effort because of leaking.538 Other improvements to Ramstein 

were taxiway and apron upgrades, a new passenger terminal, and a 24-hour flight kitchen.539 Nearly 

900 town houses were planned for construction at Ramstein and in the surrounding military communities, creating more than 2,600 housing units.540 The runways at Ramstein again were improved 

in 2006; fully loaded heavy air transports were unable to use the runway during OEF and OIF. The 

north runway was extended by 1,000 feet.541

Spangdahlem AB also initiated a construction program to accommodate new aircraft as part of 

the Rhein-Main Transition Program. A 209,000 square-meter parking ramp and a 30,000 square-meter 

hot cargo pad were built; taxiways were extended and hardened. The acreage was expanded by 240 

acres for the construction of the taxiway.544 Additional construction at Spangdahlem AB included new 

housing; three 400-person dormitories; and, a 200-person Temporary Living Facility.545

In Great Britain, RAF Fairford underwent renovation in 2002 with a 10,000-foot runway upgrade, 

and repairs to the aprons and taxiways. The $80 million project was NATO-funded and completed in 

three phases, which allowed the base’s mission to continue uninterrupted. All airfield lighting, jet fuel, 

and drainage systems were upgraded as part of the renovation project.546

The USAFE Construction and Training Squadron (CTS) celebrated its 50th anniversary of service 

in 2000. The CTS was first established on September 8, 1950 as the 7329th Labor Service Unit 

(LSU) serviced by civilians. The LSU was attached to the 862d Engineer Aviation Battalion 

stationed at Rhein-Main Air Base, Germany, until it moved to Ramstein AB, Germany in May 

1952. In 1963, the 7329th LSU was designated the 7002d Civilian Service Unit and eight years 

later with the addition of military servicemen, the unit became the 7002d Civil Engineering Flight 

(CEF) and was known worldwide as “The Deuce.” The 7219th and 2319th RED HORSE CEFs 

joined the 7002d in June 1990 and three years later the entire unit was redesignated the 702d CES. 

In July 1994, the unit again changed names, this time to the 617th CES. Finally in December 1997, 

the unit was designated the USAFE CTS with the mission of construction, training and maintaining 

aircraft arresting barriers. The CTS is the sole unit to operate the “only all-military, depot-level 

barrier overhaul function in the Air Force.”542 To commemorate the unit’s 50th anniversary, USAFE 

commander Gen. Gregory S. Martin announced the USAFE CTS had “a long and rich tradition 

of service that arose out of the Berlin Airlift to shine in operations ranging from Norway to North 

Africa. Whether responding to high-priority, time-sensitive construction requirements, maintaining 

and repairing aircraft arresting systems, or training our own civil engineers, your work is marked 

by excellence.”543

USAFE Construction and Training Squadron
592 Leading the Way

PACAF

Andersen AFB, Guam, undertook a large MILCON program, which began in the early 2000s and 

continued throughout the decade. The first construction phase comprised three major projects valued 

at $177 million: a new 47,716 square-foot medical clinic; a 54,000 square-foot fitness center; and, a 

forward operating location aircraft hangar.547 The $1.5 billion construction effort later in the decade 

was prompted by BRAC decisions, the Defense Posture Realignment Initiative, and the Strategic 

Policy Initiative. The result was to bed down Global Hawk aircraft at Andersen AFB, construct the 

Expeditionary Combat Support Campus at Northwest Field to house the 554th RED HORSE Squadron 

being transferred from Korea, build infrastructure to support the relocation of approximately 8,000 

Marines, and support the U.S. Pacific Command’s Global Strike Task Force through the establishment of “intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance aircraft; strike aircraft; and aerial refueling 

aircraft.”548 Specific tasks included construction of a clear-water rinse facility, a corrosion-control/

composite-repair shop, dormitories, hangars, and a network of roads. 

Alaska was home to a pair of significant engineering challenges at Shemya and at Elmendorf 

AFB. Eareckson AFS, Alaska, on Shemya Island first hosted an American military presence in World 

War II. Since then, the island on the western end of the Aleutian chain went through periods of great 

activity followed by years of diminished Air Force presence. In 2000, the United States announced 

plans to build X-band radar facilities at the site as part of the National Missile Defense system, along 

with systems at Fort Greeley, Alaska. Shemya was described as “a perfect location for the antiballistic missile radar, but it is a terrible place to try to build anything,” by Col. Patrick M. Coullahan, 

Eleventh Air Force Civil Engineer. The weather conditions, logistical issues, and a tight timeline 

required significant planning and design challenges between the Air Force, Corps of Engineers, and 

Missile Defense Organization. The second project was a large MILCON program for the beddown of 

C-17 and F-22 aircraft. This included projects such as new hangars, shelters, simulators, pavements, 

utilities, and other support facilities built between 2005 and 2013.549

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

During the first decade of the twenty-first century, education and training initiatives for Air Force 

civil engineers were constrained by the Global War on Terror (GWOT). The constant rotation of military personnel limited the time available for coursework and exercises; it also limited the number of 

instructors and funding available to support programs. The Air Force faced challenges to maintaining 

a concise curriculum and to create programs that were readily available and easy to access at any time 

and any location. Computer-based training capabilities increased during this period to address the time 

limitations and instructor shortages created by the GWOT. In addition, the privatization of utilities 

during this period posed the potential to constrain training in water, sewage, and electrical proficiencies 

at bases across the CONUS. As a result, the Air Force partnered with private companies and schools 

specializing in vocational and technical training to adopt new ways of providing opportunities for 

military personnel to master the necessary skills associated with utilities. 

Training in the past, such as that offered during Engineer Capstone Exercise ‘96, incorporated 

joint activities. A strategic effort to enhance joint training was initiated during the first decade of the 

twenty-first century. Joint training increasingly became necessary throughout the GWOT, particularly 

in situations where Air Force civil engineers regularly were tasked with working with and supporting other U.S. Armed Services. The primary goal of education and training was providing military 

personnel with the expertise to perform their jobs and to enhance their abilities to work in specific 

environments. In addition, the skills and knowledge gained were intended to enable personnel to 

advance to positions that fulfilled their professional aspirations. 
Meeting the New Century 593

Education

The educational opportunities offered by the Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) and the U.S. 

Air Force Academy (USAFA) afforded a broad range of options to engineering students. Programs and 

curriculum were constantly revised to present scholars with a spectrum of innovative hands-on learning 

experiences. Students also consistently were required to demonstrate proficiencies through practice 

scenarios. Unlike civilian institutions, AFIT and USAFA provided education specifically focused on 

military operations, practices, and organizations. In addition to presenting current material gathered 

from ongoing military activities, both institutions allowed students to work with personnel outside the 

campus, integrating scholars with professional organizations, active duty military, and private sector 

specialists. As a result of these educational opportunities, students developed knowledge in a variety 

of ways and were able to apply those lessons within diverse areas. These innovative approaches to 

education produced military personnel who were prepared to assume leadership roles, and who were 

confident in their capacity to respond to multiple responsibilities.

AFIT

AFIT continued to offer the Graduate Engineering and Environmental Management (GEEM) 

program through the first decade of the twenty-first century. Although students could choose between 

a civilian institution or AFIT, a degree from AFIT was preferred by many. The education offered 

by AFIT was tailored toward military engineer and environmental management fields. The GEEM 

engineering management program offered two tracks, a human resource management sequence and a 

quantitative decision-making sequence.550

The environmental management program offered an applied environmental sciences sequence and 

an environmental systems analysis and management sequence. The GEEM program was accredited by 

the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools. As a result, a degree from GEEM was equivalent to degrees offered by other accredited institutions. Students in the GEEM program completed 

18 months of study, including 60 hours of courses and 12 hours of thesis work. Preferably, students 

entering the program had at least six years of active duty. This experience enabled students to better 

understand the complexities of military activities and to have a firm grasp of the program prerequisites. 

This level of experience was not always possible and many students entered the program with three or 

four years of active duty. Once a degree was conferred, graduates were required to fulfill a three-year 

Active Duty Service Commitment. Beginning in 2001, Civil Engineer Airmen also participated in the 

new Enlisted to AFIT program that permitted a small number of enlisted members to earn a master’s 

degree through AFIT. Civil Engineering was at the forefront of this program, sending a civil engineer 

NCO for the first three years of the program.551

During AFIT’s re-accreditation assessment in 2000, the Higher Learning Commission of the North 

Central Association of Colleges and Schools gave rave reviews to the GEEM program, as well as 

the other AFIT resident programs, including the Civil Engineer and Services School (CESS) and the 

School of Systems and Logistics. The commission described the GEEM program as “a credit to the 

nation,” specifically because of the program’s military focus. The curriculum, students, faculty, and 

campus resources were all considered superlative. Another benefit offered by AFIT was described by 

Col. George K. Haritos, who served as Commandant of AFIT during this period, 

another advantage we have over civilian institutions is that half our faculty members 

are military officers who stay here an average of only four years. This means we have 

a constant influx from the field, bringing the latest issues to the classroom. There is 

no way our program can become stale, because we know exactly what the Air Force 

needs. 
594 Leading the Way

This current knowledge proved to be extremely valuable as technology advanced rapidly and new war 

scenarios reflecting real world experiences were instructional necessities.552

In addition to coursework and the experiences that faculty brought to the program, students also 

benefitted from research opportunities available to support their thesis projects. Research sponsors 

often included Air Force officers, who directed students to specific research needs, opportunities, or 

topics that were intrinsically linked to a particular career path within engineering. This exposure offered 

students the opportunity to apply their educational experiences to real world issues, while providing 

specialized research and analysis for their sponsors.553

Civil engineers enrolled in programs at AFIT also were viewed as a valued workforce that required 

particular tools to complete specific tasks and fulfill future missions. In 2005, as the GWOT increasingly required experienced civil engineers, the CESS evaluated the curriculum to assess whether 

coursework was sufficient to address specific needs overseas. As a result, a two-week 41.5-hour 

course for junior civil engineers was created. Engineering 480: Simplified Facility Design provided 

civil engineers with the basics for building design. Topics included site selection, soil fundamentals, 

foundations, HVAC systems, electrical and mechanical systems, plumbing, roof designs, and fire 

protection. Each skill gained from the course was applicable in a variety of war scenarios and, in total, 

prepared junior civil engineers to contribute to construction and resource renovations on a larger scale. 

During this same time, the CESS created a field guide for pavements. The guide was available on CD, 

allowing civil engineers access to reference materials from any computer.

554

Lessons learned from OEF and OIF were immediately utilized to boost technical training and 

educational opportunities for Air Force civil engineers. As a result, additional courses were created and 

others were expanded to enhance the CESS curriculum. Power system courses offered a combination 

of DVD-based training and in-residence coursework, providing students with hands-on opportunities 

and interactions with design and construction specialists. In addition, antiterrorism techniques and force 

protection measures were incorporated into design courses offered by CESS. Advanced educational 

opportunities on HVAC systems also were offered, enhancing the skills of personnel and allowing 

them to apply training to real world situations. Instructors teaching the courses were equipped with 

recent experiences during overseas deployments in Afghanistan and Iraq.555

In addition to offering curriculum that concentrated on needs identified during deployments overseas, AFIT also addressed the need for greater experience in a joint force environment. Work on the 

development of a Joint Engineer Operations Course (JEOC) began in 2005. Following three “pilot 

courses” and modifications, the first course officially was held at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, in 

2007. The JEOC was conceived by personnel from all Services. A two-step course that included a 

distributed learning (dL) phase and a resident phase, enrollment was open to engineer officers as well 

as civilians employed by the government with joint staff responsibilities. The dL phase was planned 

as a 40-48 hour module available to engineers who desired increased proficiency in joint task force 

(JTF) operations. Students worked at their own pace, gaining up-to-date information. Participants 

were granted a dL certificate after completion of the first phase. The dL portion of the course equipped 

students with knowledge in seven areas: “national security strategy development; joint operations 

planning; joint engineer capabilities; JTF engineer staff operations and planning; theater engineer 

operations; joint engineering considerations and relations with joint interagency, intergovernmental, 

and multinational organizations; and, joint environmental considerations.”556 Although some students 

only completed this first phase, it was recommended that they also take advantage of the resident 

module to enhance their skills through completion of the entire course.557

Students enrolled in the resident portion of the course were required to have a dL certificate. The 

resident phase of the course included seminars and exercises, guest speakers, and teleconferences with 

specialists in the field. JTF scenarios were established and students were required to apply their comprehension of the JTF environment, providing appropriate solutions and suggestions to illustrate their 

intellectual capacity within a JTF operation. The discussion panels, lectures, and scenarios presented 

during the resident phase covered seven primary subjects: “service engineer capabilities; engineer 
Meeting the New Century 595

support plan; JTF assignments, functions, and roles; horizontal staff integration; engineer functions; 

facilities engineering and general engineering; and outside-the-wire considerations.” Additional topics 

were covered through guest speakers. AFIT CESS became a summer host of JEOC in 2008. 558

In 2008, AFCESA and AFIT worked together to provide an extraordinary experience for students 

enrolled in the dL module of the JEOC. Through the efforts of AFIT instructor, Maj. Christopher 

Stoppel, students were granted the rare opportunity to participate in “webinars,” video teleconferences 

with deployed civil engineers operating in a JTF. In some instances, participants discussed operations with the civil engineers whom they would be replacing during their next deployment. Students 

gained the latest feedback possible. They were exposed to the most current lessons learned from the 

field and were provided with accurate accounts of real life JTF operations. This innovative teaching 

method was intended to counter criticism that information previously presented was often out-of-date 

by the time civil engineers were in the field. The webinar program also benefitted AFIT, making possible revisions to the curriculum to reflect the most current activities and information from ongoing 

operations. AFCESA also saw the webinar program as a valuable resource for assessing previously 

identified and newly recognized lessons learned. The value of webinar extended beyond the JEOC 

classroom; the presentations were made available to engineers who benefitted from their content prior 

to deployment.559

By 2009, the JEOC was held at the U.S. Army Engineer School at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri; 

the U.S. Navy Civil Engineer Corps Officer School at Port Hueneme, California; AFIT at WrightPatterson AFB, Ohio; and, the Marine Corps University at Quantico, Virginia. In 2010, the JEOC 

opened a limited number of enrollment spaces to international engineers. The following year, the U.S. 

European Command held its own JEOC to enhance joint operations.560 The course was beneficial for 

engineers throughout the Services, and internationally. It enhanced preparations for a JTF environment, 

arming personnel with the latest information and familiarizing them with the ongoing operations likely 

faced during the GWOT.

Another AFIT initiative was the Civil Engineer Superintendents Course, targeted to senior NCOs 

and civilian superintendents. CMSgt. Mike Doris, the Civil Engineering Chief of Enlisted Matters from 

2000 to 2005 helped develop and advocate for the two-week course at a school normally reserved for 

officers and civilians. The course provided practical instruction in topics needed by senior NCOs who 

were being called upon to assume more and more responsibilities at the bases. A team of instructors 

presented topics such as personnel, resources, applied leadership, doctrine, Civil Engineer history, 

an overview of the FOAs, Air Staff and the various squadron flights to help round out individuals 

who had spent most of their careers in a single flight. The cross-functional networking and sharing 

of real world experience at the courses were also cited as benefits by the more than 100 students who 

attended each year.561

United States Air Force Academy (USAFA)

Similar to AFIT, the USAFA regularly revised the civil engineer curriculum to provide cadets with 

an education that included the most current information and lessons learned from ongoing operations. 

Creating accurate scenarios for students was a beneficial teaching tool that imparted lessons applicable 

during deployments. Courses presented opportunities for hands-on training. It also enabled students 

to work together solving problems and applying knowledge, preparing many of them for future roles 

as civil engineers.

The mission of USAFA’s Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering remained to “build 

and maintain nationally accredited undergraduate civil and environmental engineering programs with 

a clear linkage to the operational Air Force as we produce leaders of character.”562 The Department’s 

two majors, Civil Engineering and Environmental Engineering, were accredited by the Accreditation 

Board of Engineering and Technology (ABET). ABET accreditation was sought by undergraduate 
596 Leading the Way

programs in engineering because it endorsed the curriculum and educational process of the program 

as fulfilling necessary requirements for graduating a student as an engineer. Accreditation ensured that 

the school’s program provided students with the essentials necessary to enter the field of engineering 

on par with nationwide engineering standards.563

Cadets enrolled in either major were required to complete 91 hours of core curriculum covering 

engineering, humanities, basic science, and social science. In addition, they also completed 48 hours 

specific to a chosen major and five hours of physical education. ABET-required curriculum comprised 

four main themes or topics: structures, environmental, geotechnical, and construction. Along with 

conventional coursework associated with a general degree in engineering, students were exposed to a 

curriculum that provided information specific to Air Force programs. Opportunities offered by USAFA 

for in-depth study included summer courses geared toward actual Air Force activities associated with 

selected majors areas of concentration. By their junior year, cadets majoring in civil engineering or 

environmental engineering were prepared to enter the five-week summer session. The summer program 

was designed by the Department and included two modules, the Operation Civil Engineering Air Force 

(OPSCEAF) and the Field Engineering and Readiness Laboratory (FERL).564

Through the OPSCEAF module, cadets were paired with active squadrons for two weeks to work 

alongside personnel and understand the role of a civil engineer. They studied Air Force missions and 

operations, which allowed them to view firsthand the responsibilities and functions performed by a 

base-level civil engineer. The opportunity allowed cadets to experience many of the programs they had 

studied during their time at USAFA.565 Additional weeks of work at USAFA’s FERL followed completion of OPSCEAF. The FERL program included cadets from USAFA as well as the Reserve Officers’ 

Training Corps. Cadets were involved in several “construct first, design later” projects, preparing 

them for the complex design curriculum completed during the junior and senior years at USAFA.566

Other programs offered by USAFA allowed students to complete research projects, participate in 

competitions, and take part in Department-sponsored chapters of professional engineer associations. 

These programs exposed students to representatives of major command, other civil and environmental 

engineering institutions, and professional groups, such as the Society of Civil Engineers, SAME, and 

the Society of Women Engineers.567

Civil and Environmental Engineering majors concluded their education at USAFA with a capstone 

course. This course provided the opportunity for students to work on the design and building phases of 

actual projects. Instructors played the role of owners, creating a scope of work and making schedule 

demands. Cadets worked with estimates and timetables, and were taught techniques for creating work 

plans and soliciting bids. The course concluded with a competition. Teams were created from the class, 

each representing a company bidding on a contract for an Air Force construction project. Teams created bids, prepared proposals, and presented their ideas to a panel for review. The competition was a 

week-long process that provided accurate scenarios designed to increase cadets’ confidence in project 

management.568

Training

Training for military personnel became integrated in support of the concept “train like we fight.” 

The combination of units with similar missions for training and the expanded initiatives for joint training were especially important to enhance the Air Expeditionary Force. In addition, lessons learned 

from the field were gathered rapidly, allowing training to be particularly tailored toward specific issues 

and needs. Learning new techniques, contributing to a variety of joint environments, and participating 

in lifelike scenarios were beneficial training experiences for all personnel involved. Training was not 

merely considered a way for civil engineers to freshen their skills; it was a critical part of preparing 

them for deployments in support of the GWOT.
Meeting the New Century 597

Utility Systems Training

One aspect of civil engineer training was impacted during the early years of the twenty-first 

century due to the DoD directive to privatize on-base utilities. In the past, Air Force civil engineers 

were accountable for sustaining water, sewage, electric, and gas facilities on base. This responsibility 

provided an important training opportunity and allowed civil engineers to acquire and practice techniques associated with installation, repair, and maintenance of utility systems. In a 2001 interview, 

CMSgt. Michael F. Doris, who served as Chief of Enlisted Matters in the Office of the Civil Engineer, 

discussed the topic of utility privatization. Chief Doris pointed out that “utilities privatization will not

result in lost opportunities for training our folks unless we let it.” He encouraged the use of private 

utility companies and other venues to address training needs.569

In 2001, the civil engineer community teamed up with private utility companies to continue 

established training practices. The choice was logical since both Air Force and private sector training 

were grounded in the National Electric Code. The AFSPC led the program and began testing training 

with Colorado Springs Utility. One advantage to the new training partnership was a dedicated “Pole 

Farm,” maintained by the utility that allowed a variety of training opportunities to Air Force civil 

engineers. The training facility offered modern equipment and was organized and operated by master 

electricians. In addition to the partnership with Colorado Springs Utility, other alternatives to address 

utility training were offered through the publication, A Commander’s Procedural Guide: Obtaining 

Training in Support of EAF and Utilities Privatization. The publication was the initiative of AFCESA, 

which coordinated with representatives from major commands and training programs to assemble a 

directory of sources and strategies to address potential instructional alternatives.570 The privatization 

of utilities affected the opportunities for Air Force civil engineers to train not only for on-base operations but also for overseas deployments. The quick response to this training need and the solutions 

identified allowed the civil engineers to continue their efforts without losing valuable instruction time.

Silver Flag Exercise Site

The Silver Flag Exercise Sites at Tyndall AFB, Florida, Kadena AB, Japan, and Ramstein AB, 

Germany, continued to provide contingency training through the first decade of the twenty-first century, 

promoting realistic situations and exposing personnel to newly advanced equipment. Resources at the 

site were not on hand at most other training venues, making Silver Flag a rare and necessary training 

facility. Training was available for active duty military, reservists, and ANG personnel; it incorporated 

lifelike scenarios to test competence and enhance skills. Runway repair, EOD, firefighting situations, 

and rescue scenarios were simulated and units worked together to solve problems and create innovative solutions to new experiences. Some civil engineers were trained in areas not typically assigned 

to their role in order to address actual needs in the field. The Silver Flag Exercise Sites also provided 

essential training with beddown assets.571

The Silver Flag site increased training initiatives during the first decade of the twenty-first century. 

Rather than providing training for key personnel to share with their units during home station training, 

Silver Flag began accommodating entire teams comprising a unit type code. This allowed for better 

coverage of personnel, especially considering that home station training facilities did not have access 

to the equipment available at Silver Flag. This followed the mentality of “train like we fight,” training 

of an entire unit that would eventually deploy together as a team.572

Readiness Challenges

Readiness Challenge VII, postponed from 1999, was held in May 2000 and featured 16 teams of 

Civil Engineer, Services and Chaplain Service personnel from nine Air Force major commands, two 

direct reporting units, the Air National Guard and four foreign countries competing in 21 competitive 
598 Leading the Way

events at the Silver Flag Exercise Site, Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida. The competition had the largest 

international participation with teams from Canada, United Kingdom, Norway, and Japan. Observers 

also came from France, Greece, Israel, Italy and the Republic of Korea. In the end, the team from Air 

Force Space Command received the Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith Trophy as the overall winner from 

Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Michael E. Ryan. Readiness Challenge VII was the last competition to be 

held. Activities in support of ONE, OEF, and OIF impacted the Air Force’s ability to hold Readiness 

Challenges. The 2001 competition was postponed and eventually cancelled. Readiness Challenge VIII 

was planned for April 2002 at the Silver Flag Exercise Site, with the theme “Expeditionary Excellence.” An increase in international participation was anticipated and teams from Personnel Supporting 

Contingency Operations were slated to attend. At the end of 2001, Readiness Challenge VIII was 

officially called off for 2002. Col. Bruce Barthold, commander of AFCESA explained,

while we regret canceling the competition, the main focus of all our fighting forces is 

the current and future support of activities related to Operations Enduring Freedom

and Noble Eagle...in addition, the increased operational tempo being experienced 

now and into the foreseeable future makes it uncertain whether appropriate personnel 

and resources will be available to support the competition next spring. 

Subsequent Readiness Challenges were also cancelled.573

Air Education and Training Command, 366th Training Squadron, Detachment 7

The Interservice Training Review Organization (ITRO) and the Base Realignment and Closure 

Commission sponsored an initiative to bring units with comparable missions from all service branches 

together at Fort Leonard Wood. The idea was viewed as being financially beneficial; the reorganization 

Air Force Materiel Command firefighters participate in the Search and Rescue event at RC VII.
Meeting the New Century 599

and relocations plan was also advantageous for training. Detachment 7 of the 366th Training Squadron, AETC, originally located at Sheppard Air Force Base, Texas, relocated to Fort Leonard Wood, 

Missouri, as part of the reorganization. In 1998, Detachment 7 of the 366th Training Squadron gained 

control of an Army training area at Fort Leonard Wood and began using the site to instruct students. It 

was soon evident that new buildings and training resources were needed in order to accommodate students and instructional areas. As a result, plans began for a new Pavements and Construction Equipment 

Operator Training Course. The $1.6 million facility was sponsored by AETC, AFCESA, ACC, AMC, 

USAFE, PACAF, AFSOC, and AFSPC. It took three years to complete construction. Facilities created 

as part of the project included classroom areas constructed by the 820th RED HORSE. The rooms 

were more than twice the size of the site’s previous spaces and included environmental controls. The 

819th RED HORSE erected a maintenance building and upgraded the water system. The 823th RED 

HORSE and the 307th RED HORSE worked side by side, erecting an 80 x 200-foot K-Span facility 

to accommodate sheltered training with heavy machinery. The new complex was officially opened on 

September 11, 2001. Although the new training facility was considered a huge accomplishment, the 

opening ceremony was not held because of the incidents of September 11, 2001. The construction of 

the new complex provided an opportunity for teams to work together, offering additional preparation 

for the new deployments they faced for OEF.574

By the following year, Detachment 7 of the AETC 366th Training Squadron was the largest training detachment within AETC. It supported training for Air Force civil engineers and ITRO providing 

instructions for the Air Force, Army, Navy, and Marine Corps using the new Pavements and Construction Equipment Operator Training Complex at Fort Leonard Wood. Its 70-day apprentice course was 

the longest course offered by any Air Force technical training school at Fort Leonard Wood. A second 

ITRO training school was Air Force Engineering, teaching four courses such as Engineering Design 

and Construction Surveying. The Air Force Civil Engineer Readiness School offered courses in disaster response and organized training for Prime BEEF personnel. Courses provided by the Readiness 

School included a 53-day, three-level Readiness Apprentice Course; a 10-day, seven level Readiness 

Craftsman Course; a 5-day Advanced Readiness Course; a 5-day mobile Air-Base Operability course; 

and a 5-day resident and mobile Nuclear/Biological/Chemical Control Cell Course. The entire series 

of courses offered by the Air Force at Fort Leonard Wood made the installation one of the premier 

locations for joint training programs.575

Eagle Flag

A new flag exercise, Eagle Flag, was introduced in 2003. The goal of the exercise was to assess 

and train expeditionary Air Force combat support personnel. Eagle Flag was established and organized 

by the Air Mobility Warfare Center’s 421st Training Squadron located at Fort Dix, New Jersey. In a 

2003 interview Brig. Gen. Del Eulberg explained, 

Eagle Flag is a new integrated training program for key and essential expeditionary 

combat support leaders...this training will not duplicate skills proficiency training we 

receive at home station and at Silver Flag. The training will focus on the integration 

required to support the initial force modules: open the airfield, set up command and 

control, and establish the air base. The idea is to ensure we incorporate “Lessons 

Learned” in OEF and OIF into our training plan. We want our warriors ready to deploy 

anywhere in the world in support of any mission after they finish at Eagle Flag. They 

will know what each functional brings to the fight and won’t have to learn it on day 

one of the war.576
600 Leading the Way

The first Eagle Flag was held in Lakehurst, New Jersey at the Naval Air Engineering Station. Each of 

the three main modules mentioned by General Eulberg, “open the airfield, set up command and control, 

and establish the air base,” influenced key training activities. Participants practiced and enhanced their 

skills in preparation for their contributions to combat support during the GWOT.

577

RED HORSE Troop Training

RED HORSE personnel were continually training to maintain their high levels of expertise while 

not deployed. They especially continued to gear up for future deployments in support of the GWOT. A 

stateside RED HORSE Troop Training program allowed personnel to enhance their skills for overseas 

deployments while also providing needed construction and repairs at Air Combat Command bases 

across the United States. The $12 million program allowed RED HORSE teams to complete ramp 

and runway construction and repairs, drill wells, and build support facilities. In 2007 as part of the 

Troop Training program, RED HORSE teams at Whiteman AFB, Missouri, identified and replaced 

portions of a runway and taxiway to maintain B-2 operations at the base. The 823d RED HORSE 

Squadron worked at the base for two months coordinating with the 509th CES. B-2 operations did 

not stop during the construction and replacement phases of the project. Once the teams finished the 

project, they returned to their home station at Hurlburt Field and continued gearing up for a planned 

deployment. The Troop Training program was beneficial to RED HORSE troops because it prepared 

them for the grueling pace and severe weather they would experience overseas, but it also gave them 

more confidence to handle large projects and work as a team.578

EOD Training

Standard EOD training continued to take place at the joint EOD training complex at Eglin AFB, 

Florida. The EOD training curriculum continued to be revised throughout the decade to meet the challenging and changing needs of overseas deployments. A1C Travis Eygabroad recalled his training, “The 

tech school is supposed to be 27 weeks but with all of the stuff there is to learn and with all of the tests, 

people usually plan on [more than that].... We had 16 hour days at tech school; now that I am here [in 

Iraq], I am going through upgrade training.”579 In 2010, EOD training emphasized its nuclear mission. 

The AFI 32-3001, Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) Program, was revised to reflect new training 

standards. New technical courses included a computer-based nuclear training module and several 

joint service courses: Advanced Improvised Explosive Device (IED) Defeat Course, Joint Nuclear 

Explosive Ordnance Disposal Course, Joint IED Improvised Nuclear and Radiological Dispersal 

Device Recognition Course, and Air Force Improvised Explosive and Nuclear Enhancement Course.580

In 2009, Air Force EOD pre-deployment training was reorganized into the Combat Battlefield 

Ready Airman (CoBRA) course held at the Tyndall Silver Flag Exercise Site. Previously, EOD training was provided by the Army in two courses that took 32 days. The Air Force took control of Air 

Force EOD personnel training to streamline the process and create more specifically targeted instruction. Teams were grouped to replicate how they would be organized within their deployments. EOD 

personnel met at CoBRA training and began building team cohesion before their deployment to the 

AOR. Instructors also incorporated elements specific to their planned AOR and deployment location 

into the 20-day CoBRA course. Instructors also stayed in contact with deployed personnel to maintain 

currency in the fast-changing battle against improvised-explosive devices. The course included tactics, 

life saving techniques, IEDs, target firing, communications, and combat situations. Training EOD 

personnel within their deployment teams built stronger solidarity and allowed troops to adjust easier 

and quicker when deployed. After completing training, teams knew they could work together and rely 

on one another in the actual warzone.581
Meeting the New Century 601

Air Reserve Component (ARC) Training

ARC training was conducted at Regional Training Sites (RTSs) and Regional Equipment Operator 

Training Site (REOTS). In 2005, RTSs operated in North Dakota, North Carolina, Arkansas, California, 

and Pennsylvania. Use of the sites was not limited to ANG personnel; Air Force Reserve and active 

duty personnel also used the facilities. Primary training at RTSs included airfield damage repair, mobile 

power plant, mobile aircraft arresting system, emergency airfield lighting system, reverse osmosis 

water purification unit, power poles set, wartime operations training, field training requirements, global 

positioning systems, expeditionary GeoBase, and 15-ton mobile crane operations. The ANG REOTS 

occupied 20,000 acres at Fort Indiantown Gap in Pennsylvania and the AFRC operated a REOTS 

at Dobbins Air Reserve Base, Georgia. The sites accommodated hands-on operating instruction in 

graders, bulldozers, excavators, and front-end loaders. ANG and Air Force Reserve heavy equipment 

operators were required to train at the REOTS every three years. While REOTS training was not 

mandatory for active duty civil engineers, many were attracted by the opportunity for pragmatic and 

hands-on instruction.582

DEPLOYMENTS

Introduction

Throughout the first decade of the twenty-first century, Air Force civil engineers continued to work 

closely with the other U.S. Armed Services and with their counterparts in other countries. Coordination occurred during contingency operations and through participation in Joint Task Forces. Working 

cooperation, or jointness, was an underlying premise of the 2001 QDR. General Fox characterized 

the Air Force:

We are a purple suit organization. We enhance each other’s capabilities. The Army 

can’t do its job without us. We help get them to the fight, we help supply them once 

they’re in the fight, we provide close air support for them, and we provide a lot of the 

air platform intelligence, like early warning systems. We also work closely with the 

Navy. Some Navy missions interface with Air Force missions, and I think we do that 

better than we ever have. In the civil engineer arena, we clearly complement each 

other’s capabilities.583

Joint operations within a particular AOR required stringent management and a defined organizational structure. Joint operations far exceeded simply assigning U.S. Armed Service personnel to 

perform the same task; planning, organization, communication, and logistics were essential. Joint Task 

Force (JTF) headquarters were created to orchestrate individual operations. Engineer personnel played 

a key role within the JTF environment and were charged to: “establish JTF engineering policy and 

guidance; exercise staff responsibility for facilities, real estate, design and construction, real property 

maintenance and environmental management; and, forecast and monitor the flow of engineer resources 

(people, equipment and supplies) in the Joint Operations Area (JOA).” Executing these responsibilities often required the creation of Joint Civil-Military Engineering Boards, which were tasked with 

creating procedural guidance for civil-military engineering activities within a particular JOA. A firm 

grasp on the competence and qualifications of involved units was necessary. JTF engineer staff also 

assessed equipment and resources and monitored pending projects within the JOA.584

Efforts to achieve more effective joint operations led to formal and informal interactions between 

civil engineers from each U.S. Armed Service and the civilian professional community. In 2004, 

AFCESA and SAME sponsored the first Civil Engineer Joint Senior NCO Symposium at Tyndall AFB, 
602 Leading the Way

Florida. Personnel from the Air Force, Army, Navy, and Marine Corps participated in the gathering. 

The primary goal of the symposium was to assemble senior NCOs and contractors to address specific 

civil engineer lessons learned during OEF. The meeting provided an excellent opportunity for civil 

engineers from each U.S. Armed Service to discuss their experiences and expand their knowledge of 

civil engineering roles throughout the entire U.S. military.585

The Joint Operational Engineering Board (JOEB) worked as an advisory/proponent group comprised of senior engineers from all combatant commands and U.S. Armed Services. Engineers from 

all U.S. Armed Services participated in four working groups: Doctrine/Training, Interoperability, 

Transformation, and Capabilities.586 The board conducted discussions on common engineering requirements for all U.S. Armed Services. Typically, The Civil Engineer chaired one committee on the 

board. General Eulberg, for example, chaired the Interoperability group. He reported progress on 

standardizing engineering expeditionary construction equipment across all U.S. Armed Services. Such 

standardization in combat areas helped assure proficient equipment operation by engineers across the 

U.S. Armed Services.587

Another area where jointness was vital was formulating cross-Service standards, criteria, guidelines, and operability for engineers. One area of standardization among the U.S. Armed Services was 

the formulation of technical criteria for design and construction. The Tri-Service Committee for Unified Design Guidance reviewed the design and construction standards of all U.S. Armed Services to 

establish single unified guidance. It was a multi-year project. As of 2000, less than 20 percent of the 

technical criteria had been unified. By 2011, it had reached 70 percent.588

While Air Force civil engineers illustrated their capabilities within the joint environment, they 

also were determined to maintain their core competencies in contingency operations. General Fox 

was adamant that Airmen supported airfields. Airmen were specifically trained to work on and around 

airfields. They had expertise to operate and maintain specialized equipment, such as airfield lighting 

systems, power production, and generator support for airfield lighting operations. Airmen were trained 

on airfield safety clearances, crash rescue, and Air Force munitions. General Fox stated, 

The doctrine is in place. It says Airmen are best qualified to operate airfields. Where we disconnect 

is when we have an Army installation in a contingency environment that just happens to have a large 

runway on it. My view is, if the Army wants to support the cantonment area, that’s fine. But if the Air 

Force is going to fly airlift or tanker missions in and out of there, or if fighters are going to frequent 

that airfield, then the Air Force ought to be manning that airfield, because we operate differently in 

our airfield environments. It’s roles and missions, but it’s also expertise.589

Joint Publication 3-34: Joint Engineer Operations doctrine published in 2007, described the 

specialized role of the Air Force Engineer. In 2011, civil engineers worked with the Curtis E. LeMay 

Center to once again publish their own separate doctrine, 3-34 Engineer Operations.

590

Aerospace Expeditionary Force (AEF) Personnel Deployment Challenges

Deployments under the Aerospace Expeditionary Force (AEF) structure were integrated into 

the working operations of Air Force civil engineers during the first years of the twenty-first century 

to support ongoing missions such as Operations Northern Watch and Southern Watch. The AEF 

deployment cycle was a way to supply continuing rotations of military personnel to combatant commanders. The typical AEF cycle was fifteen months. Military personnel were assigned to one of ten 

standing AEFs. Personnel associated with two AEFs were available for deployment during specific 

90-day periods when the AEFs were “in the bucket.” The first AEF cycle began on October 1, 1999; 

the second AEF began in January 2001. The implementation of the AEF structure fostered regularity 

in personnel deployments and enabled agile and flexible responses to contingency situations.591 The 

Air Force civil engineer component of the two AEFs numbered approximately 1,800 engineers and 

included traditional engineering, fire protection, and EOD personnel. An additional 700 Air Force civil 
Meeting the New Century 603

engineers with specialized expertise were on-call during each 90-day AEF rotation. These experts were 

assigned from RED HORSE units, CEMIRT, or other specialty teams. Approximately 10 percent of 

this force was drawn from the ARC comprising the ANG and the Air Force Reserve.592 Integrating 

the ARC civil engineers fully into the AEF schedule was a challenge during the first two AEF cycles; 

by the third cycle, full integration was complete.593 Typically, 1,500 active, ANG, and Reserve civil 

engineers were deployed monthly around the world during the first AEF.594

Implementation of AEF required restructuring of the civil engineering UTCs. Existing lead team 

and follow-on teams were too large for typical mission requirements. Smaller teams were needed. 

For example, firefighter UTCs were adjusted to six firefighters, which matched the number of personnel required to operate a fire vehicle. The equipment UTC packages were similarly reconfigured.595

The new UTC list afforded greater options in both team size and equipment packages, resulting in 

smaller, modular UTCs comprising personnel with tailored skill sets and experience levels to meet a 

variety of contingency requirements. “Operational expeditionary changes also dictate we use innovative approaches and new technologies to continue making our teams lighter, leaner and more rapidly 

deployable and employable,” wrote General Robbins.596

The restructured UTCs allowed more Airmen to be assigned to AEF units. When the second 

AEF cycle began in January 2001, 114,000 Air Force personnel, or approximately one-third of the 

total force, were assigned to AEFs. During the third AEF cycle, the number rose to 173,000 of the 

272,000 total AEF deployable Airmen. One goal of then Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. John Jumper 

was to assign every Airman to an AEF and for each Airman to understand that he or she was part of 

an expeditionary air force.597

Before the end of the second AEF, the attacks of September 11, 2001 spurred Air Force civil engineers to undertake a totally different kind of war, the GWOT, in addition to meeting ongoing mission 

requirements. GWOT was a crisis of unknown intensity and duration. Immediately, the numbers of 

deployed Air Force civil engineers doubled to meet an increasing number of mission requirements as 

the U.S. military focused on homeland security and Afghanistan.598 During fall and winter 2001, 2,000 

Air Force civil engineers deployed as part of OEF, in addition to the 500 already deployed as part of 

ongoing, “steady state” commitments of Operations Northern Watch and Southern Watch.

599 During 

2002, approximately 1,900 civil engineers were deployed to support OEF.

600

Personnel were drawn from additional AEFs to meet the increased requirements and deployments 

began to be extended beyond the normal 90 days. By July 2002, ten percent of Air Force personnel 

were deployed on tours longer than 90 days. The USCENTCOM sought to increase the tour duty to 

179 days to foster cohesion among forces in the combat zone. In 2004, the Air Force AEF deployment 

schedule officially was changed to 120 days within a 20 month cycle to support OEF and OIF.

601

Deployment strategies were complicated further by the fact that some forces with unique capabilities were not assigned to a regular AEF library, but to an “Enabler Library.” These specialized 

personnel, such as EOD, were not necessarily deployed within the regular AEF cycle guidelines 

and operated under an “alternative battle rhythm.”602 Air Force civil engineers also were deployed 

in individual augmentation (IA) and “in lieu of” (ILO) taskings to the U.S. Army. IA assignments 

typically followed the AEF cycle, but, by 2007, deployments of 179 or 365 days became typical. ILO 

assignments to the U.S. Army, begun in 2004, also resulted in deployments extending 179 or 365 

days.603 These longer deployment periods typically affected those personnel in expeditionary combat 

support career fields, such as civil engineer, EOD, and firefighters. In 2005, 855 Airmen were on 

ILO assignment to the U.S. Army; the number reached 1,119 by 2006. In these deployments, Airmen 

completed combat skills training to ensure that they could open, operate, and sustain facilities within 

base perimeters, as well as operate in a hostile combat environment “outside the fence.”604

Demand for particular skill sets taxed some civil engineer career fields, in particular firefighting, 

EOD, power production, and readiness. Manpower shortages in these and other career fields in the 

AEFs required the activation of stop-loss rules, which froze retirements and postponed release dates 

for active duty personnel. One measure for relieving the shortage in certain career fields was to expand 
604 Leading the Way

the manpower pool by assigning all military civil engineers to deployable UTCs for AEF assignment. 

Short-term measures were used to address the immediate personnel shortfalls, since a long-term 

solution to increase the number of permanent personnel required authorization from the Air Force 

Manpower and Innovation Agency.605 The effects of more frequent and longer-term deployments were 

monitored by The Civil Engineer.606

During 2007, the UTCs were revised again to allow greater flexibility. The previous set of UTCs 

anticipated beddown operations, building bases, waging war, and removing and reconstituting assets. 

By 2007, most taskings were related to sustainment operations and non-traditional taskings, such as 

service with joint missions. The UTCs were refined to reflect evolving specific mission requirements in 

numbers of personnel and appropriate skill sets. The integrated process team charged with transforming 

the UTCs established the following goals:

• Develop a modular Prime BEEF UTC construct to provide Air Force and joint 

 base operating support, and to augment RED HORSE when needed;

• Reduce UTC tailoring for sustainment operations, and reduce personnel not 

 postured on a standard UTC;

• Minimize cross-training impact on the Air Reserve Component and ensure 

 career progression within UTCs; and,

• Provide a flexible engineer force to Combatant Commanders (COCOMs).607

Reconfiguring the personnel UTCs required commensurate adjustment to equipment UTCs. AFCESA 

undertook the development of the equipment repackaging guidelines. The revised UTC codes were 

implemented in January 2008.608

Deployment pressure on Air Force civil engineer personnel continued to increase throughout the 

decade. A surge in deployments accompanied the U.S. military attention on Iraq during fall and winter 

2002 in preparation for the March 2003 OIF. At the peak of operations, the Air Force deployed over 

4,500 active duty, ANG, and Reserve civil engineers. Air Force civil engineers established and maintained 38 bases and extended $445 million in contingency MILCON funds.609 By 2004, approximately 

2,500 Air Force civil engineers were deployed to maintain 16 bases and selected Army camps.610 By 

2008, more than 3,000 Air Force civil engineers were deployed in support of the GWOT, OIF, and 

OEF.611 In 2010, 4,000 Air Force civil engineers were deployed; 60 percent supported joint and coalition teams.612

Contingency Deployments

Following the attack on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, Air Force civil engineers 

immediately supported response operations in CONUS and in oversea areas of responsibility. Major 

activities executed by Air Force civil engineers included bed down for troops and aircraft. Force protection measures were at the forefront of overseas beddown activities. Perimeter security was a major 

priority. Air Force civil engineers typically installed fences, concertina wire, perimeter lighting, and 

constructed berms, ditches, and barriers. Areas outside of the perimeter were cleared and maintained 

to provide a clear zone of visibility. In addition, Air Force civil engineers established and maintained 

secure and continuous primary and secondary power sources.613

EOD and firefighters also were in demand. EOD flights provided myriad services to the Air Force 

and Joint Service operations ranging from to aircraft munitions response to unexploded ordnance and 

IED removal. Fire protection personnel were active at every installation and bare base with an Air 

Force presence in the theater. In addition to standing ready for hot pit refueling and responding to fire 

alarms, firefighters trained host nation civilians and military personnel, and responded to calls outside 

base perimeters.614
Meeting the New Century 605

Post-September 11, 2001 - the Immediate Aftermath

Air Force civil engineers were tasked with immediate rescue, fire, and logistics support in the 

aftermath of September 11, 2001. At the World Trade Center site, Ground Zero in New York City, civil 

engineers contributed to rescue efforts and organized equipment stations. Civil engineers worked with 

the New York City Mayor’s Office of Emergency Management. At the governor’s request, approximately 150 ANG fire service and Prime BEEF personnel reported to the scene from New York’s five 

Air National Guard civil engineer squadrons: the 105th CES, Stewart ANGB, Newburgh; the 106th 

CES, Francis S. Gabreski Airport, Westhampton Beach; the 107th CES, Niagara Falls; the 109th CES, 

Stratton AGB, Scotia; and, the 174th CES, Syracuse. Civil engineer squadrons also responded with 

critical engineering and logistics support. According to Maj. Earl Evans, 174th Fighter Wing Base 

Civil Engineer, “we worked with the New York Housing Authority in distributing and controlling items 

such as small generators and government trucks. We assisted the Army National Guard in setting up 

a sort of central warehouse facility, collecting stock from drop off points all over the city, setting it 

up, cataloging and distributing it.” Air Force civil engineers also were a source of expertise on rapid 

decontamination methods for personnel working at Ground Zero.615

ANG teams worked alongside Army National Guard personnel to enhance force protection. Guard 

members from the Air Force and Army initially were bedded down in armories and other locations 

throughout the city. The civil engineers were tasked with finding alternate locations for troop billets. 

They contacted the Coast Guard to use the facilities at Governor’s Island located in the harbor. The 

Coast Guard had suspended operations on the island in 1997, but several apartment buildings remaining on the site offered the potential for housing personnel. A Prime BEEF team was formed from New 

York ANG personnel; they re-opened apartment buildings and a dining hall on the island for troops 

working in New York. Eight firefighters joined the small existing fire crew at Governor’s Island to 

provide fire protection for the newly reopened site.616

At the site of the Pentagon attack, then-Col. Timothy A. Byers, Chief of the Readiness Division 

for The Civil Engineer set up a civil engineering command post within hours of the attack. Maj. Gen. 

Earnest O. Robbins, II, The Civil Engineer, was stranded in Missouri at a dedication ceremony for a 

new training facility at Ft. Leonard Wood. Colonel Byers was fortunate to have several members of 

his staff such as Mr. Dick Pinto who had worked the Tactical Air Command battle staff throughout 

the Gulf War and had worked contingency issues for years, and Lt. Col. Greg Cummings, who had 

worked readiness issues at AFCESA. In addition to ensuring the Total Force engineers were postured 

and ready to respond where needed, the group worked initial beddown planning for Air Force weapons systems and personnel using GeoReach. They also began to work the protection for installations 

within the CONUS, and a renewed emphasis on chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and high 

explosive issues.

In addition to rapidly responding to the New York tragedy, Air Force civil engineers were assigned 

several responsibilities associated with strengthening U.S. defenses. Air Force civil engineers with the 

fighter wings of the First Air Force supported combat air patrols over cities and critical areas across 

the United States under Operation Noble Eagle. On-base civil engineer assignments included force 

protection, EOD and power production. Power production specialists operated aircraft arresting barriers to support sortie missions on bases across the country.617

In the immediate aftermath of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, Air Force civil engineers 

performed quickly and efficiently during a most challenging event in U.S. history. Maj. Jesus Figueroa, 

commander of the 106th CES at Ground Zero, reflected, “especially because it was in our homeland, 

there was a lot of stress and what we call combat fatigue, even though we weren’t in combat. The 

adrenalin and the tension were so high that people didn’t sleep well. There were a lot of obstacles to 

overcome, but we did our best.”618
606 Leading the Way

The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks were a singular blow with far reaching human and 

psychological effects upon the United States apart from the destruction and significant loss of life. 

Air Force civil engineers were highly trained military personnel, but also U.S. citizens who directly 

witnessed the tragedy. They demonstrated dedication to the defense of country and compassion as 

citizens. SSgt. Tyree Bacon, who served with the 514th CES in New Jersey, was on duty as a civilian 

officer for the New York State Supreme Court in Manhattan when the first tower was struck. He and 

nine co-workers quickly responded at the scene to offer assistance. SSgt. Bacon, who was trained as 

an EMT, entered Building 5 and was rescuing a burn victim when the first tower collapsed. When he 

emerged from Building 5, the environment of his hometown and the nation was completely changed. 

SSgt. Bacon articulated his experience months later, “I’ve never experienced war before in my life, 

but I’ve seen hell.”619

Operation Noble Eagle

Operation Noble Eagle (ONE) was established after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. 

This operation ensured national security through round-the-clock combat air patrols (CAP). Initially, 

the Navy and Marine Corps were involved in the operation; it was quickly designated an Air Force 

mission. The operation utilized the North American Aerospace Defense Command’s radar system 

and data from the Federal Aviation Administration. Immediately following the September 11, 2001 

attacks, Air Force civil engineers with the fighter wings of the First Air Force were called to support 

CAPs over cities and critical areas across the United States. CAP sorties in CONUS outnumbered 

those in the Middle East during fall 2001. Over 500 Air Force civil engineers were supporting ONE 

by the winter of 2001.620

Eventually, ONE shifted to ready alert aircraft crews. This decision was made to relieve overextended pilots and crews that had supported the 24/7 operation. Using the ready alert system also was 

less expensive. ONE cost an estimated $200 million per month using continuous CAPs. At the time 

of the terrorist attacks, the Air Force had seven sites with ready alert capabilities; this number was 

increased to 18 by 2004. During ONE, the Air Force retained at least 35 fighter aircraft, eight fuel 

tankers, and two E-3 Airborne Warning and Control System aircraft on ready alert. Within two years 

of the attack, the Air Force completed over 32,000 sorties for ONE.621

Operation Enduring Freedom

Air Force civil engineers faced numerous challenges during Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF). 

The focus of this operation was seeking out Osama bin Laden, the infamous leader of Al Qaeda, and 

the Al Qaeda terrorist training camps operating in Afghanistan, a mountainous country with a challenging physical environment. In addition, the immediacy of the operation left little time to build up 

forces and establish forward bases between the September 11, 2001 attacks and the first air strikes on 

Al Qaeda and Taliban airfields on October 7, 2001.

Army Gen. Tommy R. Franks served as USCENTCOM chief. U.S. Central Command Air Forces 

(USCENTAF) was represented by the Combined Forces Air Component Commander, Lt. Gen. Charles 

F. Wald. USCENTAF established a Combined Air Operations Center (CAOC) at Prince Sultan AB, 

Saudi Arabia.622 In February 2002, USCENTAF established a separate civil engineer staff function led 

by Col. Tom Ryburn, chief, Readiness Division, Directorate of The Civil Engineer, Headquarters, Air 

Combat Command (ACC), who deployed from Langley AFB, Virginia.623 This organization was similar 

to the command structure used during Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm. ACC, through the 

Civil Engineer Directorate’s Contingency Readiness Center, provided planning support and AFCESA 

supplied expertise in airfield pavements and other areas, as required.624
Meeting the New Century 607

Brig. Gen. Patrick A. Burns, who served as the ACC Civil Engineer during OEF, described the 

environment as “a whole new ball of wax” in comparison to the conditions encountered during Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm. Afghanistan and its neighboring countries were mountainous, arid 

lands that required troops to adapt to both blistering sun and severe cold. In addition to the challenging climate and terrain, the water supply in many isolated areas was either unavailable or extremely 

limited.625 General Burns provided a good description of what Air Force personnel faced during OEF: 

our engineers, as well as those of the other Services, faced some of the most austere 

“bare base” environments in the “stans” we’ve ever encountered. Things like worn out 

airfield pavements, no utilities whatsoever, and no sources of equipment or supplies 

within hundreds of miles. When you couple that with the typical iron flow arriving 

before the combat support forces as I mentioned earlier, the first 30 days at those sites 

were challenging to say the least.626

Two types of bases were utilized during the initial deployments, both were challenging. Bases 

on the Arabian Peninsula had adequate runways but little room for bedding down troops, parking, 

or fuel supply. Other bases, located within the “stans,” were out-of-date or partially destroyed and 

offered little opportunity for development. Bases in the Arabian Peninsula included Al Udeid AB in 

Qatar, Masirah AB in Oman, and Al Dhafra AB in UAE. Bases located within the “stans” comprised 

Shahbaz AB in Pakistan, Khanabad AB in Uzbekistan, Manas AB in Kyrgyzstan, and Bagram AB and 

Kandahar AB in Afghanistan.627

The United States identified two significant issues during the initial planning for the war in 

Afghanistan: Afghanistan was a landlocked country and the United States held no bases near its 

borders. Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf agreed to provide the United States with access to 

bases in Pakistan; the principal base was Shahbaz AB in Jacobabad near the border with India. As in 

the case of Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm, support personnel arrived at the base after the 

aircraft and crews. Air Force Special Operations Forces (SOF) were housed in a hangar and using an 

outdated septic system when the first Air Force civil engineers arrived in late October 2001. Sewage 

leaked through the vents of the makeshift latrine posing a health risk and attracting disease-carrying 

mosquitoes. Personnel became ill due to contaminated water. A RED HORSE member specializing in 

water facilities quickly corrected the water quality problem by equipping the site with a chlorination 

system and installed a Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit.628

During the initial establishment of beddown sites in Pakistan, personnel faced the differences 

between American and Pakistani culture, lack of access to technology, and a lack of experienced and 

efficient local labor. The Air Force depended on local contractors for selected materials and labor, 

particularly during the preliminary stages of establishing sites for troops. Local sources were often 

inadequate. At Shahbaz AB, for example, installation of Harvest Falcon kits in a former rice field 

required a two foot increase in the site elevation for adequate drainage. Civil engineer Maj. Jeff Perham 

determined that this grade change required 1,200 truckloads of gravel. Local labor was requested and 

within a matter of days the American Embassy in Islamabad secured a contract for the work. Expecting to receive several truckloads of fill, Major Perham was surprised when one colorful truck without 

dumping capacity arrived accompanied by two men. The truck was unloaded by hand using shovels. 

Manual labor continued for several days. Attempting to remedy the situation at Shahbaz, the United 

States rented supplementary equipment for the local contractors; however, Pakistani law prohibited 

use of the equipment and instead supported labor intensive approaches to employ the largest number 

of people possible. Major Perham recalled, “They said they were not allowed to be efficient; they 

had to be more concerned about employment.” Eventually, gravel deliveries were increased and the 

beddown site at Shahbaz was completed.629
608 Leading the Way

Another site within the “stans” was Khanabad Air Base in Uzbekistan, later known as KarshiKhanabad or K2. The base was strategic for U.S. military troops because of its location within 300 

miles of Kabul, Afghanistan. Originally, the U.S. Army was tasked with providing base support; the 

majority of troops proposed for deployment to the site were Army personnel. Once OEF commenced, 

base responsibility was turned over to the 16th Special Operations Wing. A team of 55 Air Force civil 

engineers was formed with members from Hurlburt Field, Florida; Minot AFB, North Dakota; and, 

Eglin AFB, Florida. Similar to previous experiences, the aircraft and crews arrived prior to support 

personnel, forcing makeshift living arrangements and over-taxed septic systems. Once support personnel arrived, they faced the hurdle of organizing site work and people at the base. Often, unexpected 

planes arrived with unknown cargo. Lt. Col. Timothy Boone, who was the commander for the 16th 

CES from Hurlburt Field, explained the extent of the confusion, “we never knew day-to-day what 

was coming. It was just, ‘go open the plane and see who comes out, what comes out, and then we’ll 

react. Make sure we’ve got enough tents to cover them all.’”630

At K2, Air Force civil engineers utilized Harvest Eagle assets, as well as Army Force Provider 

beddown kits. The Army kits did not include items that the Air Force civil engineers considered 

necessary, such as fire extinguishers and heating devices. Colonel Boone clearly was pleased with the 

performances of the Air Force civil engineer teams at K2, “it was rough when we got there...a dust 

bowl with nothing, in the middle of nowhere. When we left, it was in good shape...we improved the 

quality of life for folks there.”631

Near the end of 2001, the United States entered into an agreement with Kyrgyzstan to build a 

coalition air base at Manas International Airport near Bishkek in northern Kyrgyzstan. The airfield 

offered an up-to-date 13,800-foot runway, as well as modern taxiways, parking, and lighting capabilities. Weather at the site was harsh, with temperatures dipping below zero. Lt. Col. Kevin Rumsey, 

base civil engineer at Manas, recalled working in the cold environment, “it was freezing cold; it would 

Pakistani local labor unload gravel using shovels.
Meeting the New Century 609

reach temperatures below zero frequently the first four weeks we were there. We were able to work 

through the challenges of freezing pipes and freezing boilers and diesel fuel that gelled and wouldn’t 

flow through the heaters...to me, that’s a major accomplishment. That’s the most significant one. And 

we were able to do that, for the most part, within 30 days.”632

At Manas, unlike other bases, support personnel arrived before the aircraft crews, in the form of 

the 86th Contingency Response Group from Ramstein AB. A handful of civil engineers in the group 

began planning for the tent city and utilities for the site. This schedule allowed for the establishment 

and rehabilitation of resources prior to the arrival of the majority of personnel. After establishing tents 

for occupancy, the support personnel at Manas used some of their “extra” time to create amenities such 

as a gymnasium, a post office, and a chapel. Air Force civil engineers also installed concrete floors 

within the tents, despite freezing temperatures. The U.S. troops christened the base Peter J. Ganci, 

Jr., Air Base, in honor of the chief of the New York City Fire Department who died during the rescue 

operations following the September 11, 2001 attacks.633

Other locations did not boast modern facilities comparable to those found at Manas. At Kandahar 

AB in Afghanistan, the existing 10,000-foot runway was constructed in 1960 by the U.S. Air Force to 

support reconnaissance missions over the former Soviet Union. The runway later was operated by the 

Soviet Union, but then abandoned. At the beginning of OEF, U.S. bombs nearly destroyed the airfield 

to prevent its use by enemy forces. When the U.S. coalition forces and the Northern Alliance acquired 

control of the majority of Afghanistan, Kandahar AB was identified as one of two bases for restoration. 

Army Forces Central Command was tasked with providing base operating support for Kandahar by 

USCENTCOM. Although Kandahar AB primarily was used by the U.S. Army, the Air Force provided 

support to the Army in some areas. In particular, Air Force EOD teams removed airfield ordnance. Air 

Force EOD personnel had access to the latest machinery, such as the All-Purpose Remote Transport 

System and a modified Hummer that supported Standoff Munitions Disruption.634 Air Force firefighters 

provided services to the base and participated in joint training exercises with the host nation’s military 

Members of the 376 Expeditionary Civil Engineer Squadron clear snow and ice from runways for aircraft at 

Ganci Air Base, Manas International Airport, Kyrgyzstan. 
610 Leading the Way

and international airport fire department.635 Air Force civil engineers at Kandahar AB also undertook 

runway repairs. The runway at Kandahar was considered unstable and aircraft were breaking through 

the surface upon landing. Navy Seabee engineers, located at Kandahar, used compressed soil to remedy 

the damage, but this approach required daily upkeep. Eventually, Air Force civil engineers worked 

alongside Army engineers to renovate the runway.636

Other projects included repairs to the runway at Bagram AB in Afghanistan. At Bagram AB, the 

200th RED HORSE Squadron from Camp Perry ANG Station, Ohio, and the 201st RED HORSE Flight 

from Fort Indiantown Gap, Pennsylvania, were called upon to repair a runway bombed by U.S. and 

Allied forces during the effort to drive the Taliban from Afghanistan. The runway repair was challenging for the civil engineer teams because it originally was constructed using Soviet Union construction 

practices. Soviet Runways were built using a concrete slab method, as opposed to the continuous pour 

concrete runways preferred by the United States. The slab technique was simpler to build, but harder 

to maintain. The joint seams between slabs made smooth surfaces problematic. Initially, 70 slabs 

were identified for repair. RED HORSE teams along with other Air Force civil engineers from four 

separate units arrived at Bagram AB with a deployable pavement repair system (DPRS), anticipating 

a task of about 45 days.637

When pavement evaluation teams completed the on-the-ground assessment at Bagram AB, the 

number of slabs requiring repairs rose to 504. Each slab measured approximately 11 by 13 feet; restoration required at least an hour per slab. Due to the increased scope of repairs, acquiring a concrete 

batch plant quickly became a priority. Procuring the plant took time but, in the meantime, the Air 

Force civil engineers pushed forward with the DPRS. Over 1,800 cubic yards of concrete were placed 

within the initial three months of repairs using DPRS. Lt. Col. Michael P. Skomrock, a member of the 

200th RED HORSE Squadron involved in the project, remarked, “those who have used a DPRS will 

understand what a major undertaking that was.” The DPRS was designed to accommodate relatively 

small amounts of concrete, but the three months of use at Bagram AB truly put the system to the test. 

In addition to the unusual quantity of concrete expected from the system, the DPRS struggled to adapt 

The 200 RED HORSE Squadron and 201 RED HORSE Flight make repairs to the runway at Bagram AB, 

Afghanistan in 2002.
Meeting the New Century 611

to the varying size of rocks utilized. These combined complications kept the equipment mechanics 

busy; weekly repairs for the system numbered between 60 and 70. The concrete batch plant arrived, 

bringing relief to all involved in the project. With the batch plant, it was possible to repair up to 38 

slabs per day. Eventually, more than 600 slabs were repaired at Bagram, necessitating the use of 2,500 

cubic yards of concrete. For security reasons, some of the work had to be completed after dark. This 

created yet another obstacle and required the use of night vision goggles (NVG). Although the use 

of NVG complicated operations, it also offered an excellent training opportunity. Colonel Skomrock 

used NVG at Bagram AB and offered this lesson learned: “lesson one is to spend a lot of time using 

the NVGs prior to doing a full repair...It’s only after you start working in them that you realize how 

severe the loss of depth perception is...The viewpoint through NVGs is very different.”638

In addition to runway repairs, Air Force civil engineers deployed to Bagram AB rebuilt Air Force 

Village, reinforced force protection fencing, constructed lavatory and laundry facilities, and assisted 

with the creation of a sports court.639 The 200th/201st ERHS were instrumental in improving living 

conditions on the base. In May 2002, an Air Force civil engineer team traveled to Bagram AB to assess 

the quality of beddown resources provided for Air Force personnel and sustained by the U.S. Army. 

Air Force civil engineers discovered under-maintained tents in need of repair or replacement. They 

also noted that the tents were wired incorrectly and assembled too close to one another, thus presenting 

fire and safety hazards. In June, a team of 40 Air Force civil engineers was sent to Bagram to provide 

and erect TEMPER tents. They also provided materials for new electrical systems. Tent demolition 

and construction was completed in stages to avoid disrupting routine operations on the base. The U.S. 

Army Prime Power workforce assisted the Air Force civil engineers in the installation of the electric 

system. The tent area, fire house, and operation facilities were reconstructed within six weeks.640

During their 180-day deployment as part of OEF, the 200th/201st ERHS had deployed more than 

350 personnel to 13 bases in 10 countries. Maj. William Giezie, a member of the 200th RED HORSE 

Squadron who served as operations officer for the 200th/201st during the deployment, summed up 

the accomplishments of the civil engineer teams:

We executed over $14.5 million in construction material procurement and heavy 

equipment rental. We placed 10,000 cubic meters of concrete and 15,000 metric tons 

of asphalt, used 1 million gallons of construction water and consumed 100,000 metric 

tons of crushed aggregate. We deployed more than 50 C-17 loads of heavy equipment, 

materials and personnel from our headquarters at Al Udeid AB to our spoke locations 

throughout the AOR.641

Major Giezie’s summary of tasks illustrated the sheer volume of work accomplished by the Air Force 

civil engineers. It also demonstrates the breadth of their abilities and the level of contribution made 

during the initial stages of OEF. The 200th/201st ERHS was the first ANG RED HORSE squadron to 

perform as a “full” RED HORSE squadron, instead of supporting or providing additional manpower 

to an active duty RED HORSE team.642

In addition to work in the “stans,” Air Force civil engineers worked at bases on the Arabian 

Peninsula. Many of these bases were improved during Desert Shield/Desert Storm; however, the 

majority lacked facilities to support deployments during OEF. On September 30, 2001, members of 

the 366th CES from Mountain Home AFB, Idaho, along with a bare base team from Holloman AFB, 

New Mexico, reported to Al Udeid AB to provide fuel storage, a fuel pipeline, and build 150 tents and 

additional facilities. A major obstacle encountered in Qatar was base restrictions. U.S. forces were 

not allowed to choose their beddown locations on-base; this prohibition often meant that Air Force 

civil engineers graded sites only to have the host nation change the sites. In addition, strict security 

prohibited easy access to the base; security was particularly frustrating for ADVON teams who required 

frequent access to assess and prepare for follow-on teams.643
612 Leading the Way

To expand the airfield at Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar, the 820th RED HORSE Squadron from 

Nellis AFB, Nevada, and the 823d RED HORSE Squadron from Hurlburt Field, Florida, constructed 

a massive 15,000-foot long concrete parking ramp capable of accommodating flight line areas for 

more than 100 aircraft. The construction period spanned from November 2001 to April 2002. The 

MILCON project included taxiways and lighting and cost approximately $9.1 million to complete. 

The size of 18 football fields, this was the biggest assignment to-date for RED HORSE. More than 

1,000 cubic yards of concrete were laid at the site per day, with 350 trucks delivering rock every 24 

hours. Almost immediately after completion, Al Udeid AB supported approximately 24 KC-135 and 

K-10 fuel tankers. The Air Force civil engineer accomplishments at the airfield were noteworthy; 

the airfield made in-flight refueling possible for many of the aircraft fighters and bombers headed to 

Afghanistan. In addition to the aircraft ramp and associated facilities, RED HORSE also completed 

sheltered maintenance areas, hangars, and a fire station. They also established water and electricity 

capabilities for newly constructed buildings and for firefighting functions.645

The 823d RED HORSE team at Al Udeid AB initially was scheduled to deploy earlier in 2001 

to Masirah AB on Masirah Island located off the coast of Oman. The U.S. Congress had allotted $18 

million in MILCON funding in early 2001 for repairs to the runway and taxiway at Masirah AB. The 

September 11, 2001 attacks resulted in a drastic change in priorities and the 823d team was sent to 

Al Udeid AB to construct the aircraft ramp. Work at Masirah AB was postponed until 2002. In the 

meantime, Air Force civil engineers from nearly two dozen bases in CONUS deployed to Masirah AB. 

On October 10, 2001, MSgt. Evander E. Andrews with the 366th Civil Engineer Squadron died in a 

heavy equipment accident at Al Udeid AB, Qatar. He was the first American casualty of Operation 

Enduring Freedom. Sergeant Andrews served 

18 years with the Air Force. He was buried in 

Arlington National Cemetery on October 22. 

General Robbins remarked on the sacrifices of 

the civil engineers, “we are grateful for MSgt. 

Andrews, his service and the service of all the 

members of Air Force civil engineering. The 

nation is grateful, too.” In honor of Sergeant 

Andrews, fellow troops named the tent city at Al 

Udeid AB, Qatar “Camp Andy” and a memorial 

was established at the Heavy Construction 

Equipment Operator School, Fort Leonard 

Wood, Missouri.644

First Fatality of Operation Enduring Freedom

Taking time off from their work, members of the 366th Expeditionary Civil Engineer Squadron pose for the 

initial opening of Al Udeid AB, Qatar.
Meeting the New Century 613

Personnel included squadrons from Louisiana, Texas, Missouri, Pennsylvania, and Indiana. Air Force 

civil engineers quickly began erecting tent cities. The first tent city accommodated 1,800 personnel. 

Teams completed the city in less than ten days. The second tent city was for the future deployment 

of 2,200 troops and the third was for an additional 1,400. Air Force civil engineers also established a 

large power plant and reverse osmosis water purification unit facility to support the growing number 

of personnel.646

The ADVON team of the 819th/219th Expeditionary RED HORSE Squadron (ERHS) from Malmstrom AFB, Montana, arrived at Masirah AB in September 2002 to kick-off the runway repair project. 

The task included the rehabilitation of 2,000 feet of the runway and 1,775 feet of the taxiway. Flooding posed a problem at the Masirah AB airfield. RED HORSE teams installed drainage facilities to 

divert water from the airfield. They then installed tunnels below the surface using boring machines to 

accommodate steel drain lines. The work required innovative field engineering. Using non-traditional 

advanced methods, RED HORSE members used trenchless technology to save money and time. This 

was the first time in DoD history that a construction unit completed a project using horizontal boring 

techniques.647

The solution to the drainage issues at Masirah AB was not the only accomplishment that distinguished the 819th/219th ERHS. The airfield at Masirah AB comprised a 12 million square foot area. 

One of the many jobs associated with the airfield renovations was a complete survey of the area. Once 

again, RED HORSE teams found a way to complete the task while saving money and time. Personnel 

utilized Global Position System (GPS) technology to map the entire site in two days. For construction, 

they utilized a grader that incorporated GPS equipment. This advanced technology revolutionized 

military construction. Capt. Ryan Novotny, who was a project engineer with the 819th RED HORSE 

Squadron at Masirah, remarked, “anywhere the operator drove on the airfield, the grader blade would 

match the design required at that location. GPS was used for every aspect of the project, saving 6,000 

hours in surveying and construction.” Once more, the 819th/219th ERHS made DoD history. They 

were considered the first construction unit to apply GPS for both project surveying and construction. 

They were also the first Air Force unit to use GPS-guided construction vehicles.648

Once the runway and taxiway at Masirah AB were restored and covered with asphalt, the teams 

installed and verified the operational capability for 706 lights and 48 electronic signs. The system 

was tedious, necessitated precision in installation, and incorporated 150,000 feet of channels to 

accommodate electric wires and lightning protection.649 The runway and taxiway work was a huge 

accomplishment for the RED HORSE teams. Captain Novotny summarized the achievements of the 

project, 

all said and done, the team pumped enough water to fill eight Olympic-sized swimming pools, hauled the equivalent weight of 1,665 fully loaded C-17s, paved an area 

the size of 60 football fields, and placed enough electrical cable, counter poise and 

conduit to stretch up and down Mount Everest six times. In 170 days, the 819th/219th 

ERHS made its mark at this forward location and contributed to the capability of the 

United States Air Force. To the HORSE!650

Beginning in fall 2000, AFRES civil engineers assumed responsibility for civil engineer operations 

at Al Dhafra AB, UAE, as part of a peacetime AEF deployment. Personnel from the ANG as well as 16 

AFRES units established and supported a base civil engineer function. Following the September 11, 

2001 attacks, additional troops were deployed to Al Dhafra and the base was transformed overnight 

into a forward operating base (FOB). The 49th CES from Holloman AFB, New Mexico, joined the 

ANG and AFRES units to assist with beddown operations. The rapid escalation in troop population at 

Al Dhafra taxed the capacities of on-base water and sewage facilities. The host nation, UAE, served 

as a resource to the Air Force civil engineers on purchasing water and advising troops on the most 
614 Leading the Way

efficient supply routes. In addition, UAE provided engineering assistance when needed and UAE base 

firefighters trained with the Air Force firefighters on base.651

In January 2002, the 820th RED HORSE Squadron deployed to Al Dhafra AB and began construction of an aircraft ramp. This $17.6 million MILCON project took six months to complete. The one 

million square-foot project was larger in area than the ramp at Al Udeid. In addition to the ramp, a 

taxiway was constructed along with lighting equipment, and a hydrant system. RED HORSE completed 

the project with AFCAP assistance.652

In January 2003, a 20-person team from the 320th Expeditionary Civil Engineer Squadron (ECES) 

forward deployed to Kandahar AB in Afghanistan from its location at Seeb, Oman. The team’s primary 

mission was reconstruction of Air Force Village, a tent city. Although the U.S. Army was the principal 

military branch overseeing base operating support at Kandahar AB, the Air Force often was called 

upon to complete specialized tasks. The Air Force team was assigned several tasks that included repositioning 16 TEMPER tents, constructing five hardback tents, and creating a medical supply storage 

area. One challenge was relocating and constructing tents without disturbing routine base operations; 

medical activities were a particular concern. Disruptions to electrical power were kept to a minimum. 

Air Force civil engineers obtained permission for a 48-hour shut-down of certain facilities. To accomplish the work within the 48-hour time frame, personnel worked two 18-hour days back-to-back. In 

addition to their other assignments, Air Force civil engineers installed trailers with modern lavatory 

facilities. The 320th ECES worked together with the U.S. Army and other civil engineers assigned to 

the base to accomplish the assignment.653

Firefighters from 354th CES from Eielson AFB, Alaska, faced many difficulties during their 

deployment in 2002 to Bagram AB, Afghanistan, ranging from equipment shortages to base duties 

and off-base humanitarian responses. Fire calls from outside the base often necessitated that security 

forces accompany Air Force personnel for protection and to keep interested civilians and media away 

from the fire. Other fire responses involved land mines and presented unique challenges.654 The 320th 

ECES Fire Protection Flight not only provided regular emergency services, but also trained in joint 

exercises with the host nation’s military and international airport fire department.655

EOD members of the 320th ECES deployed to Bagram AB provided vital force protection. Teams 

constructed protective barriers and a search pit. The EOD flight also conducted hands-on-training twice 

a week to educate Airmen on the weapons systems found in Iraq and Afghanistan.656 Other members 

of the 320th ECES cleared the perimeters of the base from debris and obstructions for the placement 

of 165 barriers.657

By 2002, the cost of RED HORSE projects supporting OEF totaled approximately $90 million; 

RED HORSE efforts resulted in the largest volume of troop labor construction work since the Vietnam Conflict.658 The projects completed by Air Force civil engineers during the early years of OEF 

were large, complex, and challenging. The Air Force civil engineers achieved many “firsts” during 

this period in construction technology and field engineering. They encountered challenging working 

conditions, performed with distinction, and proved to be instrumental to wartime operations. Col. 

Tom Ryburn, who served as Director of Civil Engineering for the Combined Forces Air Component 

Command, recalled his observations during OEF: 

All our engineers demonstrated leadership, training, motivation and ingenuity. The 

results we achieved were certainly satisfying to those of us who’ve watched the Air 

Force civil engineer business grow and develop. It was an honor to serve with the 

great engineers of OEF. To sum it up, “No one comes close!” 659
Meeting the New Century 615

Sustainment and Reconstruction in Afghanistan

The U.S. military focus shifted away from Afghanistan after the start of Operation Iraqi Freedom 

in March 2003. Operating bases in and around Afghanistan continued to be sustained. Towards the end 

of the decade the U.S. military focus shifted back to Afghanistan. Air Force civil engineers continued 

to support air bases in the region and joined in reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan.

In summer 2005, Air Force civil engineers collaborated with U.S. Army personnel to dismantle K2 

AB in Uzbekistan. On July 29, 2005, Uzbekistan advised the United States to remove all U.S. forces 

from the base within 180 days. Air Force civil engineers had deployed to and from K2 since 2001. 

Millions of dollars in projects, including aircraft ramps and lighting systems, had been invested in the 

base. Funding for $700,000 in new projects was authorized, but canceled upon announcement of the 

closure. Air Force civil engineer teams completed the projects that were already in-progress. As Air 

Force civil engineers organized the transfer of supplies and material to other bases within the AOR, 

the U.S. Army initiated site cleanup. The removal effort was an immense logistical challenge for both 

Services. The Air Force assets had to be removed prior to the environmental remediation by the U.S. 

Army. Other bases in the theater had to accommodate additional aircraft and equipment. Local contracts 

needed to be negotiated to support temporary on-base facilities, water supply, and generators during the 

closure. The removal effort required close coordination and open communications between the U.S. 

Air Force and Army. The success of the withdrawal from K2, completed November 21, demonstrated 

the ability of the Services to work together effectively in a fast-paced, high-stress situation.660

During 2007, Bagram AB in Afghanistan was expanded under the Accommodation Consignment 

Agreement between the United States and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Minister of Defense. 

The agreement authorized the base expansion by over one thousand acres. Bagram AB was the main 

staging center for coalition troops in Afghanistan and the expansion made possible the development 

of improved accommodations for personnel. With the 755th ECES in charge, facilities added to the 

base included a “gym, dining facilities, a multipurpose facility, a contractor village for large military 

construction projects, surge housing, war reserve materiel storage, a landfill with an incinerator, and 

a wastewater treatment plant.”661 Bagram AB was improved on an ongoing basis to support the influx 

of coalition forces. In 2008, plywood structures, B-Huts, were replaced with more permanent construction under a multi-year project involving both U.S. Air Force and Army personnel. The project 

made reassignment of approximately 18,000 personnel from plywood buildings to masonry or metal 

facilities possible. During this same period, base roads were repaved, traffic lights were installed, 

water and sewer capabilities were enhanced, and the runway was expanded. Once again, the 755th 

ECES was involved in the project.662

Replacement of B-Huts was not the only project underway at Bagram in 2008. The 455th ECES 

was involved in an immense effort to improve the airfield, which incorporated 25 projects totaling 

over $73 million worth of work. An additional $221 million in work was anticipated for the following 

year. Primary projects in the 2008 work plan included the enlargement of ramps and the addition of a 

taxiway. Areas to accommodate aircraft ammunition handling also were created. Work was undertaken 

by the 455th ECES, 1st Expeditionary RED HORSE Group, the Bagram facility engineer team, and 

contractors. In addition to providing construction capabilities, the 455th ECES also provided force 

protection escorts, safeguarding project sites from potential threats.663

In 2006, the Air Force joined the Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRTs), which were first introduced in Afghanistan in 2002. PRTs were developed to rebuild the infrastructure of the country and 

comprised such civic projects as bridges, roads, schools, and irrigation systems. Air Force firefighters 

established fire academies and trained their Afghan counterparts in techniques and equipment.664 A 

single team of three Air Force civil engineers managed nearly 90 construction projects in the Paktya 

province of Afghanistan in 2008 and 2009. The team oversaw the construction of 20 schools and hybrid 

power grids, which utilized solar power.665 Air Force civil engineers working with PRT teams in the 
616 Leading the Way

Kapisa and Parwan PRT in 2009 provided guidance for the construction or renovation of 14 roads, 14 

schools, 2 courthouses, a mosque, and a medical clinic within a period of two months.666

With the drawdown of troops in Iraq in 2009, military personnel once again began deploying 

to Afghanistan as the United States shifted its focus to Operation Enduring Freedom. On June 3, 

2009, the 809th Expeditionary RED HORSE Squadron was activated in Afghanistan to support joint 

requirements and under NATO tactical control. The unit completed major airfield construction also 

at FOB Dwyer in southern Afghanistan. In 2009, the 809th ERHS, for the first time in RED HORSE 

history, undertook the comprehensive design, construction, and operation of an assault airfield. The 

new flightline for the airfield extended 4,300 feet and the overall construction site was 645,000 square 

feet in size. The project was not only large, but also complicated by over 100 degree temperatures 

and high winds. In addition, the arid environment was conducive to rapid evaporation and water for 

site preparation was at a premium. As a result, RED HORSE personnel trained at Kandahar AB to 

gain expertise in well drilling. Three wells were drilled to supply water for construction. When the 

subsurface of the airfield was readied, area contractors were unable to deliver the materials necessary 

to install the final layer of aggregate. As a result, RED HORSE personnel worked with the 371st 

Air Force Master Sgt. Jonathan Estrada, Civil Engineer for Kapisa Provincial Reconstruction Team from 

Yuba City, Calif., takes a measurement during a site survey for the proposed Abdul Hadi Padar secondary 

school in the Nijrab valley.
Meeting the New Century 617

Marine Wing Support Squadron from Yuma, Arizona, to complete the project. Labor and equipment 

also were provided by the Navy Seabees and area contractors. An AM-2 mat system was designed to 

accommodate heavy cargo planes travelling to and from FOB Dwyer. The joint teams produced and 

installed the matting, which comprised 40,000 aluminum components. Other projects at FOB Dwyer 

included the creation of a 200-foot by 2,000-foot helipad.667

In 2011, the 809th ERHS constructed two runways at a forward operating base in southern Afghanistan in less than 45 days to support preparation for an expected surge in Taliban operations in the area. 

Working with Seabees, they built a 3,000-foot expedient runway using materials available on-site and 

a 3,000-foot cement stabilized runway. By 2012, the unit had shed its joint taskings and was supporting 

operations at only Kandahar in preparation for inactivation.668

On September 18, 2009, USCENTCOM issued a Fragmentary Order creating the 577th Expeditionary Prime BEEF Group (EPBG). This was the first Air Force organization to actually use the 

Prime BEEF moniker. The 577th Expeditionary Prime BEEF Squadron (EPBS) was established at 

Bagram AB and the 777th EPBS was created at Kandahar AB in southern Afghanistan. Six months 

afterward, the 877th EPBS was added at Mazar-e-Sharif in northern Afghanistan. The 577th EPBG 

included active duty, AFRES, and ANG personnel with a wide range of qualifications.

Based on the experience of the 732d Expeditionary Civil Engineer Squadron in Iraq, the EPBG 

concept increased troop flexibility and facilitated the relocation of personnel between FOBs and specific areas as required in support of operational needs. The EPBG organizations remained under the 

Air Force chain of command, but were specifically focused on delivering all planning, programming, 

and sub-MILCON design and construction management to the joint command. The new organizations 

were assigned based on the “hub-and-spoke” model, so teams of Air Force civil engineers could be 

sent from the main bases to meet specific needs. This new organizational structure was designed to 

maximize use of Air Force civil engineering capabilities and core competencies in an efficient manner. 

Airmen assigned to the 809th Expeditionary RED HORSE Squadron work on an assault airfield at FOB 

Dwyer, Afghanistan.
618 Leading the Way

By 2010, EPBG personnel were assigned in more than 90 localities across Afghanistan. In May 

2010, the 577th EPBG paired Air Force civil engineers from the 877th EPBS with the 777th EPBS to 

support Hamkari Baraye Kandahar (Cooperation Kandahar). Prime BEEF personnel, along with Army 

and Navy forces, surveyed policed areas, such as checkpoints and governmental buildings, to assess 

weaknesses in force protection. Many of the surveyed sites were enhanced or enlarged to provide 

greater security and to create stability for the citizens of Kandahar.

669

The 777th EPBS provided beddown support for the 2d Brigade 101st Airborne Division and the 

1st Battalion of the 71st Cavalry Regiment during Hamkari Baraye Kandahar. For the 101st, Prime 

BEEF personnel bedded down over 3,000 personnel in three weeks. They provided training for the 

101st and for a Naval Mobile Construction Battalion, in tent construction techniques as well as utility 

and general maintenance skills. The 777th EPBS proved repeatedly that its members were experts in 

their fields. The group was known as “Afghanistan’s 9-1-1 Engineer Force” for its expedient work 

and training efforts in a joint environment.670

Operation Iraqi Freedom

Setting the Stage for Operation Iraqi Freedom

During the years leading up to Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), Air Force civil engineers enlarged 

and rehabilitated bases in the Arabian Peninsula to support ongoing U.S. missions. Work in the region 

included projects at Doha International Airport and Al Udeid AB in Qatar and Ali Al Salem AB in 

Kuwait. At Camp Snoopy, located at the Doha International Airport, the 200th RED HORSE Squadron 

and the 201st RED HORSE Flight worked cooperatively to improve the camp in accordance with force 

protection guidelines. They also executed 15 additional projects at the camp, including infrastructure 

SrA Jonathan Carmona, a structural journeyman assigned to the 777th Expeditionary Prime BEEF Squadron, 

secures square tubing to a metal frame at Kandahar Airfield, Afghanistan.
Meeting the New Century 619

improvements, construction of a Base Defense Operations Center, and erection of observation towers. 

The 820th Security Forces Group specifically requested RED HORSE for the job. Personnel deployed 

on March 26, 2000 to initiate project planning and to compile site-specific data. The civil engineers 

encountered extreme temperatures and challenging soil conditions. Consolidated soils posed difficulties 

for tasks that required digging. Work at the camp continued for eleven weeks. 1st Lt. Eric H. Mannion, 

who served as an environmental engineer for the 201st RED HORSE Flight, characterized some of 

the assignments completed by RED HORSE teams at Camp Snoopy: “the 200th and 201st completed 

more than 16 projects: erecting a 15-foot-high berm surrounding the base camp for force protection, 

pouring more than 650 cubic yards of concrete, moving 10,000 cubic yards of dirt, erecting more 

than 50,000 pounds of steel and laying more than 780 tons of asphalt.” The improvements at Camp 

Snoopy were seen as a training opportunity for the civil engineers, affording opportunities to test their 

performance in a harsh environment.671

A new urgency to improve and expand bases in SWA occurred after the September 11, 2001 attacks 

to support Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan. Then the U.S. focus shifted to Iraq. Between 

late 2001 and early 2003, a large buildup of U.S. military personnel and equipment occurred in SWA. 

Established bases were expanded, new bare bases were established, and airfield pavements were 

evaluated. Personnel and equipment were positioned in the region.672 For example, large volumes of 

firefighting equipment were transported overseas to support air base fire protection efforts. In October 

2001, 17 P-19R 1500-gallon fire trucks, 7 P-23R 3000-gallon fire trucks, and 28 P-31 rescue vehicles 

were shipped to SWA.673

In November 2002, civil engineers from Travis AFB, California, were sent to Shaikh Isa AB 

in Bahrain to support the buildup for OIF. Air Force and Marine KC-135 and KC-130 aircraft were 

slated to use the base and personnel numbers increased from 800 to 2,300. As a result, Air Force civil 

engineers were deployed to build an Expeditionary Village to house 1,600 people. The increased 

Engineers lay AM-2 matting in a dust storm at a base in preparation for Operation Iraqi Freedom combat 

operations.
620 Leading the Way

number of aircraft necessitated the construction of a 385,000 square-foot ramp; an additional ramp 

was subsequently built at a cost of $20 million. In addition to these projects, Air Force civil engineers 

were instrumental in establishing a “hydrant loop refueling system.” The system required the installation of 3,100 feet of hose to accommodate four aircraft parking locations. The refueling system was 

completed in ten days and had a capacity to deliver 1,200 gallons per minute. The system ultimately 

delivered over 20 percent of the fuel expended in OIF.674

Air Force civil engineers specifically were requested for an assignment to construct an Air Operations Center (AOC) at Al Udeid AB in Qatar. The center served as the Combined Joint Special 

Operations Area Command. In January 2003, 13 personnel from the 16th CES at Hurlburt Field, 

Florida, were deployed to begin construction. Although construction was scheduled to take three weeks, 

the civil engineer team finished the AOC within 17 days. The project “converted a Frame Supported 

Tensioned Fabric Shelter warehouse into a facility with 6,000 square feet of office space, intelligence 

areas, a sensitive compartmented information facility, a communications area, and a 5,000 square-foot 

auditorium with live feed projection screens to track all operations in theater.”675

While construction continued at Al Udeid AB, a group from the 16th CES traveled to Diyarbakir, 

Turkey, to begin work at another special operations site in March 2003. This site was intended to 

support military activities on the northern front and required beddown facilities to support 7,700 

troops. Air Force civil engineer teams from Langley AFB, Virginia, and Little Rock AFB, Arkansas, 

joined the 16th CES to complete the task. Meanwhile, members of the 16th CES who remained at 

Hurlburt Field organized teams and equipment for the project in Diyarbakir. Additional teams arrived 

at Diyarbakir in March. Once the area was prepared for construction, 77 TEMPER tents were erected. 

The tents featured wood flooring and environmental control units. Air Force civil engineer teams also 

established a power plant, lavatories, and field kitchens. Before work was completed, the Turkish 

Parliament did not approve the request for the United States to support OIF from Turkish soil. As a 

result, the Air Force civil engineers dismantled the expeditionary facilities and vacated Diyarbakir 

AB on April 20, 2003.676

Civil engineers from Travis AFB, California, support the buildup of forces at Shaikh Isa AB, Bahrain.
Meeting the New Century 621

Operation Iraqi Freedom Begins

Operation Iraqi Freedom commenced March 19, 2003. By mid-March 2003, “more than 2,600 

Air Force civil engineers were deployed to Southwest and South Central Asia, supporting 18 air and 

space expeditionary units on 23 bases in 11 countries.” 677 Prime BEEF teams provided beddown for 

deployed troops and supported airfield operations through the maintenance of lighting and aircraft 

arresting systems. In addition, civil engineers evaluated airfield pavements, maintained electrical power 

systems, and provided fire protection and EOD support. RED HORSE personnel were organized as the 

1st Expeditionary RED HORSE Group comprising the 823d ERHS, the 819th/219th ERHS, and the 

307th ERHS. These units were instrumental in completing projects at four bases during the month of 

March 2003. Initial fighting was over quickly. Baghdad, Iraq, was captured in April 2003 and Saddam 

Hussein was deposed. After that, Air Force civil engineers continued to serve in Iraq as part of the 

anti-insurgency and nation building efforts. 678

Tallil AB (later known as Ali AB), located southeast of Baghdad near Nasiriyah, was one of the 

first bases in Iraq captured by coalition forces. Tallil was a strategic location during OIF because it 

provided a forward operating location for the aircraft and helicopters providing air support for ground 

troops advancing on Baghdad. Tallil AB was the barest of bare bases. It was one of the bases denied 

by RED HORSE and EOD following Operation Desert Storm in 1991. The majority of the base had 

been abandoned for over a decade due to its location within the southern no-fly zone. It lacked access 

to electricity and water. Sand covered every surface. In addition, Iraqi forces had sabotaged the installation to render it inoperative. Iraqi forces had removed electrical wiring, and planted obstructions, 

including vehicles, at 100 foot intervals along the runways. Lighting was limited and the base initially 

lacked radar. Coalition forces tasked with rebuilding Tallil AB worked quickly and efficiently. Safety 

was a priority. Within a week, the airfield was sufficiently repaired to accommodate the arrival of a 

detachment of A-10s.679

Rebuilding Tallil AB was complicated further by mines and booby traps, and unexploded ordnance 

(UXO) proved a significant challenge for EOD teams. The 407th ECES, the first CES assigned to Iraq, 

arrived at Tallil on March 27, 2003. The squadron included 28 civil engineers, as well as fire, EOD, and 

readiness personnel. The Airborne RED HORSE EOD team divided the base into sections and quickly 

identified and mapped locations of UXO. Disposal of UXO consumed weeks; hidden ordnance were 

found continually during the ensuing years. EOD teams were kept on standby to assist with ordnance 

disposal due to the volume of UXO on the base.680

Work at Tallil AB continued through summer 2003. Members of the 407th ECES began enhancing the initial systems at Tallil. A water plant and a sewage system were developed. The latter system 

drew water from the Euphrates River canal located three miles away. Large portable generators were 

installed making possible air conditioning and laundry services, and reverse osmosis water purification 

units were activated. 

In June 2003, members of the 1st Expeditionary RED HORSE Group arrived at Tallil AB. The 

11-man heavy operational repair team renovated flaking sections of the runway surface. The rehabilitated runway sustained aircraft landings over a longer period and enabled larger planes to land at 

the base. According to 1st Lt. Bryan Cooper, who served as the group’s deployed commander, the 

runway “hasn’t been repaired for the past twelve years—probably not since the Iraqis left it after the 

end of the first Gulf War.”681

Within four months, the 407th ECES completely changed the landscape of Tallil AB. According 

to MSgt. Don Perrien, who served with 407th AEG Public Affairs, the 407th ECES “moved more than 

9,500 truckloads of fill dirt, assembled over 350,000 square feet of facilities, trenched over 40,000 

feet of electrical cable and buried more than five miles of underground water piping.”682 In September 

2003, the 332d ECES, with the 332d Expeditionary Mission Support Group (EMSG), began work 

on tent improvements throughout the base. The tents were elevated atop poured concrete floors. The 
622 Leading the Way

higher tent elevation eliminated flooding and discouraged rodent infestation. The work was completed 

in phases to accommodate the day-to-day activities of the base. Equipment shortages resulted in minor 

delays in the project schedule. When all tents were elevated, the structures were cleaned and treated 

with insecticide to control flies. The project improved living conditions at Tallil and was a source of 

pride to the occupants.683 Maj. Michael R. Wehmeyer, commander of the 332d ECES, explained, “our 

mission is to protect, operate, maintain, and improve the physical environment (facilities, infrastructure, 

and utility systems) of the Tallil Air Base community...however, without the other EMSG squadrons 

backing us up, we’d just be bystanders.”684

Maintaining Tallil AB was a continuous project throughout the decade. Typical projects included 

maintaining and repairing environmental control units, air conditioners, and refrigerators. Extreme temperatures and blowing sand cause heavy wear on the equipment and necessitated frequent maintenance 

checks.685 In 2005, civil engineers from the 407th ECES enlarged the base medical clinic. Prior to the 

construction effort, the clinic occupied one expandable storage container with a second unit utilized 

for storage. The expansion project provided welcomed privacy to patients and to the medical staff.686

In April 2003, U.S. military forces entered Saddam International Airport. The airport soon was 

renamed Baghdad International Airport (BIAP). Maj. Richard Reid, who served as the officer-in-charge 

for the 114th CES ANG Prime BEEF team, was the interim base civil engineer for BIAP. Major Reid 

described the situation when he arrived:

I started the whole bare base process. Here I was, a guy who had once been active 

duty for a long time and was now in the Guard, who suddenly found himself on the 

spot, as the first civil engineer in Baghdad, in charge of setting up a bare base with 

no resources: no vehicles, no tents, no sources of food, and many other things. It was 

a unique opportunity.687

An Airborne RED HORSE team poses in the “Mother of all Craters” at Baghdad International Airport before 

beginning repairs. The crater was 135 feet wide and 40 feet deep and filled with water 15 feet deep.
Meeting the New Century 623

Even though resources were not immediately available, Major Reid and a group of civil engineers 

began planning for a tent city. Airborne RED HORSE EOD teams assessed the site, which covered one 

million square yards. They also initiated crater repairs, repaired the runway, and installed an Emergency 

Airfield Lighting System.688 Maj. Markus Henneke and a team of engineers from Ar’Ar, Saudi Arabia, 

arrived in mid-May, joining engineers from Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona, and Langley AFB, Virginia. 

Over the next few years, Air Force civil engineers completed numerous projects at BIAP. Air Force 

civil engineers of the 447th ECES installed over 5,000 feet of pipe to connect with a 5,500 gallon 

water holding tank. The utilities team established water service for more than 20 base facilities. In 

addition to the water system, the civil engineers erected a lift station and wastewater pipe at the site.689

Balad AB was another base sustained by Air Force civil engineers. Considered the DoD’s “busiest 

single runway,” Balad AB was home to “the largest combat search and rescue operation since Vietnam, the most forward deployed Predator operation, the largest C-130 squadron, and more than 2,000 

combat sorties per month.” Between 2005 and 2008, Air Force civil engineers deployed to Balad AB 

completed $330 million in construction projects.690 A critical ongoing project was maintenance of the 

runway by the 332d ECES. The engineers responded to live-fire attacks, assessed damage, removed 

debris, and executed repairs necessary to keep the runway operational. In 2005, members of the 332d 

ECES constructed a second runway at Balad AB in 40 days.691 In July 2007, the 332d ECES completed 

an “emergency partial-depth repair” of the runway. After the temporary repair was complete and flight 

operations restored, the Air Force civil engineers planned for a full-depth repair of the spall and of an 

expansion joint. Permanent repairs were completed in three weeks and the runway was completely 

operational.692

The 332d ECES also provided services to the Air Force Theater Hospital in Balad. Members of 

the team replaced deteriorated tents under extreme stress. Due to the intense combat situation at Balad, 

construction of the intensive care units had been completed in 24 hours. Prior to the tent replacement 

project, Air Force civil engineers corrected the site drainage. Flooding around the tents was a major 

problem during the rainy seasons. Utilities and Heavy Repair experts installed drain pipes at regular 

intervals in the Hesco barriers to drain water away from the tents. The project was completed in 13 

days and involved the replacement of 46 tents, 20,000 sandbags, 12,000-feet of power cable, and over 

a mile of electrical wiring.693

The 332d Expeditionary Civil Engineer Squadron worked with the 332d Expeditionary Medical 

Group at Balad AB, Logistics Support Area Anaconda to preserve an important structure. During 

Operation Iraqi Freedom, the Balad Hospital was known in the medical community as “the place 

where the most American blood was spilled since the Vietnam War.”694 An August 2007 visit by 

a Congressional delegation began an effort to save the emergency room after the new Air Force 

Theater Hospital was completed. In 2007, plans were established to save Bay II and as much 

as possible of the temporary tent structure that served as the Balad hospital. The 332d ECES 

faced several obstacles in tearing down the structure without damaging the historical integrity. 

Maj. Scott Bryant, 332d ECES operations flight commander commended his troops on their job, 

“Successfully removing the 7-foot by 7-foot, 6-inch thick solid concrete slab, weighing more than 

6,000 pounds, without an extra crack or chip shows the tremendous effort, dedication, and pride 

our civil engineers took in preserving this piece of history.” The project was a complete success 

with all artifacts and objects being packaged as well. The entire emergency room was shipped 

to the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Washington, D.C., and put on public display 

in 2008.695

Preservation of Balad Hospital
624 Leading the Way

Members of the 332d ECES Fire Protection Flight worked alongside Army firefighters to combat 

a fire at Joint Base Balad, Iraq in 2008. The fire resulted in $1 million in damage and destroyed six 

structures.696

In 2008, base support at Balad AB was turned over to the Air Force; the U.S. Army retained its 

logistical headquarters on base. On June 15, 2008, Balad AB was renamed Joint Base Balad to reflect 

joint use of the base by both Services. Joint Base Balad was the preferred base for launching aircraft 

missions in Iraq.697

“In Lieu Of” Taskings

Over 4,500 Air Force civil engineers responded during the early years of OIF, supporting approximately 64,000 Air Force personnel. Construction projects involved 211 contracts totaling $329 

million.698 As OIF continued, Air Force civil engineers began providing direct support to the U.S. Army 

through “in lieu of” taskings to Army missions. Air Force civil engineers were utilized by the Army to 

fill gaps in several areas, including engineering, utilities, EOD, and fire protection services. Beginning 

in January 2004, the 732d ECES at Balad AB in Iraq played a major role in meeting the needs of the 

Army through the support of the U.S. Army Combat Support Service. The 732d was part of the 732d 

Expeditionary Mission Support Group at Balad. The unit’s mission was to “provide engineer utilities, 

design and firefighting direct and general support to the U.S. Army Combat Service Support from 

platoon to corps level throughout Iraq and Kuwait.”699 Lt. Col. Karl “Boz” Bosworth was the unit’s 

first commander, coming from the position of commander of the 355th CES at Davis-Monthan AFB, 

Arizona. The 732d’s mission was a first for Air Force civil engineers and was a dramatic change in the 

historic relationship between the Air Force and Army, where the latter was responsible for providing 

engineering support to the Air Force.700

The 732d ECES was placed in charge of developing a “combat-ready engineer,” qualified to 

perform security functions and to deploy rapidly in response to Army missions. Teams completed 

specialized training under the early phase of coordination between the 732d ECES and the U.S. Army. 

This training was organized and led by military personnel with recent and extensive field experience. 

Navy SEALS, Special Forces, and Army Rangers were involved in the training, which prepared Air 

Force civil engineers to operate “outside the wire.” Training with live ammunition, Air Force civil 

engineers mastered techniques for firing from moving vehicles and weapons proficiency appropriate 

to a rapid combat environment. Participants trained under realistic scenarios. Simulated Iraqi villages 

with randomly placed “adversaries” armed with a variety of weapons, including grenade launchers, 

were used. Training culminated in a five-day event using live-fire. Lt. Col. Jeffery A. Vinger, the second 

commander of the 732d ECES explained the skills of the successful trainees: 701

the team must demonstrate the lessons they’ve learned in all aspects of convoy 

operations, including preplanning, conducting rehearsals, giving convoy briefings, 

establishing correct vehicle placements, massing fire on the move, suppression of 

enemy fire, executing rally point operations, recovery of disabled vehicles, defense of 

the stopped convoy, treating and evacuating casualties, and the increasingly important 

task of identifying, avoiding and reporting improvised explosive devices. 702

Following the training, 732d ECES members received Army assignments. Air Force personnel 

then “shadowed” and worked alongside the outgoing Army personnel, who were charged with assessing their performance. By the end of 2004, approximately 500 Air Force civil engineers were divided 

into separate detachments throughout Iraq, Kuwait, and Qatar.703 The detachments provided direct and 

general support to the U.S. Army Combat Service Support from platoon to corps level throughout Iraq 

and Kuwait and were divided into several categories:
Meeting the New Century 625

• Design Flights: Provide engineering design, surveying and master planning.

• Utility Flights: Provide engineer utilities, infrastructure, operations, 

 maintenance, and construction support.

• Fire Flights: Provide firefighting direct and general support.704

The command relationships for these detachments were a challenge for 732d ECES leaders. 

The Air Force retained administrative control (ADCON) and operational control (OPCON) over the 

Air Force members supporting the Army. The Army was given tactical control (TACON). The exact 

definition of TACON was a frequent item of interpretation for Army and Air Force leaders. Lt. Col. 

Jeffrey Vinger, 732d ECES commander described one situation:

In one case,...they [Army] wanted to break up one of our utility teams and send them 

to another site somewhere else to provide oversight, construction management and 

utility support. This other site was half a country away so there would be no interaction 

really other than e-mails and telephone calls between that new flight commander and 

his flight commander that he deployed with. That to me, was essentially an OPCON 

issue where they shouldn’t be able to break up our teams. They can give them the 

day-to-day operations of what they are to do but not to break our teams up and send 

them all over the place.... But to physically break a team apart and now decide you 

have a new mission over here full time for the rest of your tour, was a foul as far as I 

was concerned and I battled that one all the way to the end.705

In 2004, Air Force civil engineers were deployed to Abu Ghraib Prison in Iraq as Detachment 5 

of the 732d ECES. The deployment was part of Multi-National Force-Iraq Detention Operations. The 

facility had been abandoned in 2003. Air Force civil engineers and contractors assisted the U.S. Army 

in operating and maintaining the prison as a FOB. Air Force civil engineers completed daily tasks, 

such as repairing infrastructure and maintaining HVAC systems. Civil engineers also were required 

to sustain proficiency in ground transportation and supply.706

Abu Ghraib was a particularly challenging assignment due to its location. The prison was surrounded by an anti-coalition population. All areas outside the perimeter of the prison were within the 

war zone. Air Force civil engineers at Abu Ghraib were armed. Maj. Marie Kokotajlo, commander 

of a Prime BEEF team located at Abu Ghraib, and the Airmen under her command, experienced the 

extreme vulnerability of the location, “only a few days after our arrival, a mortar round hit in the yard, 

scattering a dozen Airmen into the bunkers and nearby buildings; three of my Airmen received Purple 

Hearts.” Major Kokotajlo’s team worked outside of the prison boundary to repair barriers and remove 

debris while on constant alert for IEDs. This work required Army and Marine escorts in gun trucks. 

In some cases, tanks were used to create a barrier between the civil engineers and nearby residences. 

Helicopter gunships also circled while work was completed.707

Regular supply trips from Abu Ghraib to BIAP were undertaken under the constant threat of 

attack. Strategically planted IEDs appeared daily along the routes used by U.S. forces. Major Kokotajlo commented on the exemplary performance of the Air Force civil engineers at Abu Ghraib, “they 

represent a whole new breed of Combat Airmen: engineering professionals with veteran combat and 

soldier skills. They’ve proven their adaptability, skill and courage in a violent combat environment, 

and they’ve learned to depend on each other, no matter the threat.” In addition to the Air Force civil 

engineers’ stellar performance in a hostile environment, the work at Abu Ghraib also demonstrated 

strong solidarity to the joint operation.708

Members of the 732d ECES, Detachment 6 deployed to Logistic Support Area Anaconda for an 

“in-lieu-of” tasking. The civil engineers supplemented Army engineers to construct two hardened 

operating facilities for munitions. To complete the facilities, the 732d ECES moved 7,000 cubic yards 

of fill and constructed earthworks to correct flood problems in the area. In addition to the hardened 
626 Leading the Way

facilities, the civil engineers constructed 10-foot revetments stretching 915 linear feet.709 The 732d 

ECES also completed extensive construction and infrastructure projects at joint force locations in 

the Diyala River Valley and FOB Base Caldwell. Army Captain Timothy Hsia commended the unit, 

The Det 6 team planned, procured, resourced, and established several life-support 

functions at the JCOP [joint combat outpost], including a power grid; electrical wiring; 

generator set-up and maintenance; heating, ventilation, and air conditioning unit configuration; and latrine and shower unit establishment...they ensured all 72 living 

containers were wired for power and air conditioning units. The team also engineered 

and built several structures on the JCOP such as civil military operations center building, the company tactical operations center, and five Iraqi army buildings.710

Work with the U.S. Army presented new challenges for Air Force civil engineers and training 

continued to be a priority. General Eulberg, The Civil Engineer, discussed these joint projects in a 

2006 interview: 

Half of the folks deployed—roughly 1,500—are doing “in-lieu-of” taskings, primarily 

supporting mission areas that typically reside in other Services, such as the Army, and 

doing some things that we weren’t traditionally organized, trained and equipped to 

perform. So we’ve had to jump into the fray and develop pre-deployment training to 

ensure that our troops are prepared before they are deployed. This has been and will 

continue to be a priority of the Air Force Chief of Staff.711

In 2009, “in lieu of” taskings became known as Joint Expeditionary Taskings.712

Airmen and soldiers load into the back of a Mine-Resistant Ambush-Protected vehicle at Joint Base Balad, 

Iraq. The Airmen, who are assigned to the 732d Expeditionary Civil Engineer Squadron, Detachment 6, 

undertake construction projects for the Army, while the soldiers provide convoy security.
Meeting the New Century 627

RED HORSE in Iraq

As discussed above, RED HORSE played an important role in support of OEF and OIF. Multiple 

units deployed personnel to all areas of the AOR to provide their specialized engineering capabilities. 

One new capability that was developed during this time was Airborne RED HORSE. The formation of 

an airborne RED HORSE capability began in 2001. In 2002, Brig. Gen. Patrick A. Burns, who served 

as the ACC Civil Engineer during OEF noted:

The one capability I wish we had is airborne or air-droppable RED HORSE. There 

were several times when we would have liked to have a small team of engineers and 

heavy equipment air-inserted into Afghanistan locations to make expedient repairs 

in order to land C-130s and C-17s. We were already studying the idea, but as a result 

of September 11 we are now pursuing it aggressively.713

Gen. John P. Jumper was another proponent of the airborne RED HORSE. General Jumper had noted 

situations in the field during Desert Shield/Desert Storm where a RED HORSE team with airborne 

capabilities would have been extremely beneficial. When he became ACC Commander, General 

Jumper advocated a “jumping HORSE.” The need for a lean, compact, rapidly deployable, airfield 

repair team was evident based on the early days of OEF and the “jumping HORSE” was born.714

The airborne engineer idea was not a new one. Sixteen Airborne Engineer Aviation Battalions 

were formed during World War II. The key issue with these early airborne engineers was equipment. 

They utilized small-scale air-transportable machines, including bulldozers, graders, jeeps, and carryalls. The equipment was cumbersome to transport and could not sustain extended use, especially 

in muddy terrain. By 1944, the majority of airborne battalions had abandoned their equipment and 

joined conventional battalions. The need for airborne engineers in the twenty-first century was revisited 

during OEF as a result of the need for rapid responses to new locations.715

The early planning stages for the airborne RED HORSE included the evaluation of equipment. 

Representatives from the 819th, 820th, and 823d RED HORSE Squadrons participated in field training exercises with U.S. Army engineers to evaluate techniques and machinery. General Burns then 

established a timetable for the 819th RED HORSE Squadron to begin its own exercises in airfield 

damage repair. The exercises allowed engineers to determine what equipment was necessary, focusing 

on efficiency and durability. As a result, a new equipment package was created, Mobile Airfield Repair 

Equipment Set. The packages were light, yet able to endure sling loading and parachute drops.716

Another requirement to execute a RED HORSE squadron with airborne capabilities was the 

creation of a “parachute-qualified team of engineers.” Members of an airborne engineer team were 

required to deploy rapidly to sites with their equipment and address future landing capabilities. These 

activities included repairing existing runways or clearing areas for new landing sites. During the 

planning phase, it was anticipated that an airborne engineer team would deploy as one unit or work 

within a group during large operations. The team would not be tasked with capturing airfields, but only 

deployed to airfields operated by U.S. or allied forces. The airborne RED HORSE was projected to 

have self-supporting capability during the initial 72 hours at a location. Once sustainment was available through additional forces, the teams could remain operational for at least 14 days before being 

replaced or augmented by follow-on teams.717

Four stages of contingency operations for the airborne RED HORSE were “deploy, assess, prepare, 

and establish.” These stages were aligned with the Air Force Air and Space Expeditionary Force “force 

modules.” The actual responsibilities for each stage were extensive. Tasks for the airborne engineers 

included: 
628 Leading the Way

rapidly deploy into austere locations, assess airfield capabilities, prepare helicopter or 

aircraft landing areas, clear obstacles, install emergency airfield lighting systems...

make expedient airfield damage repairs...test for potable water sources, perform 

expedient force protection construction, clear explosive hazards, assess potential 

nuclear, biological and chemical and toxic industrial material hazards, and provide 

fire rescue and emergency medical services.718

These tasks had been part of contingency operations in the past, but usually involved prepositioned 

resources, materials, and equipment.719

Airborne RED HORSE deployed to three sites in Iraq during 2003. The teams were formed from 

portions of the 819th, 820th, and 823d RED HORSE squadrons. Each airborne team had 35 airbornequalified airmen comprising 21 with a range of engineering skills, 6 EOD personnel, 6 fire prevention 

and rescue personnel, and 2 Nuclear, Biological and Chemical specialists.”720

In April 2005, the 557th Expeditionary RED HORSE Squadron (ERHS) was activated with ANG 

RED HORSE civil engineers from the 200th RED HORSE Squadron at Camp Perry, Ohio, the 201st 

RED HORSE Flight at Fort Indiantown Gap, Pennsylvania, and active duty Prime BEEF units from 

eight different bases. Reactivating a unit designation from the Vietnam era, the 557th ERHS became the 

in-place unit that accepted other RED HORSE units deploying to Iraq. The combined skills of Prime 

BEEF and RED HORSE personnel forged a powerful team capable of construction, maintenance, 

and rehabilitation. The 557th ERHS completed training in CONUS and overseas and was deployed 

to Ali AB (previously Tallil AB) in Iraq. The 557th worked alongside the U.S. Army 980th Engineering Battalion until the Army departed. Its primary mission was to establish a heliport for the U.S. 

Army; the project was among the largest construction efforts undertaken within the AOR. The 980th 

Engineering Battalion finished approximately 60 percent of the project. Completion of the 600,000 

square feet of construction fell to the 557th ERHS. A total of 30,000 feet of forms were erected and 

U.S. Air Force SrA Franklin Travis Kee, with the 557th Expeditionary RED HORSE Squadron, clamps two 

panels together while building a new supply warehouse at Camp Ripper, Iraq.
Meeting the New Century 629

14,000 cubic yards of concrete were poured in the project. The dedication of the team was illustrated 

by its response to obstacles. When a bomb explosion resulted in crater damage rendering the supply 

route impassable, the 557th ERHS dispatched a crater repair team and promptly reopened the road.721

The 557th ERHS at Ali AB faced challenges while processing cement with a batch plant similar 

to those encountered in Afghanistan during OEF. The machinery was too small to process the size of 

the available rock, requiring the far less efficient method of hand picking materials. The water system 

supplying the batch plant was not dependable, necessitating the transportation of large amounts of 

water. In addition to the obstacles encountered with construction, personnel faced the constant threat 

of attack. Rocket and mortar strikes, as well as attacks on vehicles, required the team to be on constant 

alert. Security for deliveries to the heliport site was expedited when the 557th was authorized to handle 

commercial vehicle searches. Weather and site conditions also were challenging. Two days of rain 

prompted a four-day suspension of work in the fourth week of the project; 500,000 gallons of water 

were removed or redirected from the site. The U.S. Army 70th Engineering Battalion worked with the 

557th ERHS to install a 70-foot bridge over a culvert at the site to provide access for supply trucks and 

heavy equipment. An additional shift was added to meet the project deadline, and the 557th worked 

day and night to complete the project two days ahead of schedule.722

The success at Ali AB in 2005 demonstrated the newly formed 557th ERHS’s competency. General Fox traveled through the AOR during the 557th ERHS’s initial assignment in OIF. He remarked, 

“I’m extremely impressed with how this squadron blended, Guard and active units combined.”723 The 

team brought a range of expertise and adapted easily to project scenarios, illustrating once again the 

dedication, capability, and professionalism of Air Force civil engineers. By 2007, the 557th ERHS 

comprised approximately 400 personnel who performed “in lieu of” Army tasks at a dozen sites across 

Iraq. These projects included tent construction, aircraft ramp repair, equipment repair, and logistics 

operations. The squadron members viewed themselves as a united team regardless of home unit affiliations. Maj. Richard Sater, a member of the 557th stated, “unit designations don’t mean anything over 

here—you’re part of the HORSE.”724

In 2007, Air Force civil engineers worked with the U.S. Army to construct facilities for FOB Kalsu 

near Baghdad, Iraq. According to Capt. Kelvin Haywood, who served as the engineer flight commander 

for the 557th ERHS, “the Army got with the Air Force RED HORSE because we are the experts in 

construction...because of the many taskings they have for the surplus of Soldiers, they asked us to 

come out and help them with their headquarters construction here.” 725 The team working at Kalsu 

included 37 personnel deployed from Balad AB, Iraq. Due to evening security black-outs, work was 

restricted to daylight hours when temperatures rose to over 100 degrees. In addition to the heat, the 

base was the target of mortar attacks. The 557th team completed work on four operations centers for 

the U.S. Army, strengthening the functions of FOB Kalsu.726

The 557th ERHS Combat Logistics Patrol (CLP) team also provided assistance in the transportation of supplies, personnel, and machinery throughout Iraq. By 2008, the 557th ERHS CLP had 

transported material to 18 FOBs. At Balad AB, the CLP team included mechanics, as well as security 

and medical personnel. The team was proficient in security-equipped cargo transportation and able 

to convoy up to 500 tons a day. Teams also were proficient in the installation of secure boundaries to 

enhance safety within project areas. Convoy operations were, again, complicated by IEDs and bombs 

planted along transportation routes. SSgt. Mitch Romag, who served as a gunner for cargo operations 

with the 557th ERHS, explained the stressful conditions that accompanied the identification of an 

IED:727

A lot of things run through your head while stopped for an IED on a main or alternate 

supply route traversing the middle of Baghdad. Until it’s defused, we’re sweating in 

a cramped HUMVEE gun truck with our night vision goggles on, looking for any 

potential threats. We don’t like to take an alternate route around, because we don’t 
630 Leading the Way

want to leave [the IED] there to detonate on the next coalition force convoy passing 

through. It’s pretty unnerving, though just sitting there, waiting for the enemy to draw 

a bead on your location. 728

Civil engineers supporting construction and cargo transport within Iraq expanded the Air Force portfolio of experience of war zone operations. These on-the-ground assignments fostered team solidarity 

and cooperation among the U.S. Armed Services. 

Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) Personnel

Adopting the motto “Initial Success or Total Failure,” Air Force EOD personnel provided critical 

services during overseas operations. EOD personnel initially were tasked with maintaining security 

for aircraft and their weapons, securing air bases and operating locations from incoming rocket and 

mortar attacks, and force protection. Force protection extended to recommending improvements to 

installation base security, screening suspicious packages, and dismantling IEDs to protect deployed 

U.S. troops. One major continuous job at all bases was dismantling and removing booby-traps and 

destroying caches of abandoned Iraqi munitions. All new construction or digging to construct air bases 

required UXO clearance prior to beginning the projects. The hierarchy established by EOD personnel was to clear airfield areas first, then beddown areas, then munitions storage areas. Stockpiles of 

abandoned ordnance were disposed of through controlled demolitions. At Jalibah Airfield, for example, 

EOD personnel destroyed over 2,000 UXO left over from the first Gulf War prior to bedding down a 

Marine Corps aircraft wing. At Tallil AB, EOD teams estimated it would take ten years to dispose of 

the stockpiles of abandoned Iraqi ordnance. At Kirkuk AB, over a million pounds of explosives were 

destroyed in the early years of the war.729

U.S. Air Force SSgt. Matt Skelton and SSgt. Charles Hodge, 506th Expeditionary Civil Engineer Squadron/

Explosive Ordnance Disposal prepare to detonate a stack of 120-mm Russian mortar rounds discovered near 

K-3, Iraq. 
Meeting the New Century 631

During the initial months of OIF, nearly 200 EOD personnel were stationed in 25 locations in 13 

countries. EOD personnel deployments were managed through the Combined Air Operations Center 

at Prince Sultan AB, Saudi Arabia. EOD personnel were stationed to support bases operations and 

tasked to joint missions.730 One of the first joint missions paired Air Force and Navy EOD personnel in Operation Restore Iraqi Oil to identify and dispose of UXO and IEDs located in the Iraq oil 

fields. The oil wells were booby-trapped with remote detonation devices and surrounded by UXO. 

EOD personnel from the 321st ECES and the 384th ECES cleared pathways to the wells and rendered 

nearly 400 oil wells safe from explosive hazards in 30 days. Over 5,000 UXO and explosive charges 

were dismantled and neutralized.731

Tasks assigned to Air Force EOD personnel expanded to support U.S. Army ground combat operations outside the air bases. In this role, Air Force EOD personnel dismantled and neutralized UXO 

and IEDs outside air bases to protect both U.S. Army personnel and local civilians. The 447th ECES 

EOD team deployed to Baghdad in 2003 found its expertise in high demand. In a single day, the team 

disarmed seven IEDs in widely varying circumstances. The team was summoned to contain further 

explosions around U.S. Army vehicles that had run into an IED in a local civilian market place and to 

dismantle IEDs along a major highway used as a U.S. convoy route. The team also dislodged unexploded mortars from buildings. The EOD team worked continually, often under perilous conditions. 

In one instance, EOD members came under direct fire while disarming an IED. U.S. Army tanks and 

coalition servicemen provided cover while the 447th EOD team neutralized the IED.732

Air Force EOD personnel also continuously trained Air Force personnel about UXO and IEDs, 

particularly firefighters and first responders. It was critical to ensure the safety of military personnel 

when encountering UXOs and IEDs and to warn them against collecting UXO as souvenirs. Another 

critical aspect of the EOD work was to gather information on the ever-changing composition of 

IEDs and to disseminate the information widely to all personnel needing to recognize and neutralize 

IEDs.733 Air Force EOD personnel participated in the joint Weapons Intelligence Teams to go beyond 

a reactive posture in dealing with IEDs. The teams did sophisticated collection, analysis, and tactical 

U.S. Air Force Explosive Ordnance Disposal craftsman MSgt. Joe Cross ropes off a safe area far from an 

uncontrolled natural gas fire in the Rumaylah Oil Field in southern Iraq.
632 Leading the Way

exploitation of IEDs in an effort to gain clues on the enemy’s identity and methods and prevent the 

IEDs from ever exploding. The teams also uncovered weapons caches to prevent them from being 

used against coalition forces. Air Force EOD personnel also trained in-country counterparts in EOD 

techniques and worked with local civilians to remove caches of UXO.734

Because EOD personnel became such a valuable asset in Iraq, many were put under Combined 

Joint Task Force Troy that was established in 2005 as the first operational counter-IED task force in U.S. 

military history. Serving with their fellow EOD technicians, EOD Airmen brought their expertise and 

experience to combat the Counter-IED threat throughout Iraq. Troy brought together EOD personnel 

with a variety of backgrounds to gain information and intelligence that could be shared with coalition 

forces to improve their safety.735

As U.S. involvement in Iraq continued, a marked increase occurred in the use of IEDs against 

U.S. military personnel. In 2005, 50 percent of attacks against U.S. and coalition forces involved 

IEDs; in late 2006, IEDs accounted for 75 percent of attacks. Air Force EOD personnel participated 

in 45 percent of joint-force EOD missions in USCENTCOM during 2006, which numbered 8,319 

incidents, of which 3,456 involved IEDs. EOD personnel were the first line of defense against IEDs 

in both Iraq and Afghanistan. This role was recognized in May 2006 when EOD became one of four 

Air Force specialty codes included on the Secretary of Defense’s critical skills list. Reorganizing the 

deployment rotation to increase the number of available Air Force EOD personnel became a high 

priority for Air Force civil engineer leadership. The minimum standard for EOD personnel deployment 

became 179 days. Many EOD Airmen served multiple deployments to the AOR, often volunteering 

for these dangerous missions.736

In 2007, the Air Force EOD personnel numbered approximately 1,200 active duty members who 

were 100 percent deployable.737 The number of EOD personnel deployed to Iraq in late 2007 was 157. 

An additional 67 EOD Airmen were deployed in Afghanistan. Personnel assigned to Iraq were stationed 

at Baghdad International Airport, Balad, Kirkuk, and Ali ABs, in Baghdad, and at 11 Army forward 

operating bases.738 During FY07, EOD personnel responded to 8,776 requests for support, including 

3,706 IEDs, 3,682 UXOs, and 1,388 weapons caches. EOD personnel also were assigned to “in lieu 

of” Army positions. Air Force EOD personnel supplied approximately 30 percent of EOD personnel 

in joint task forces in both Afghanistan and Iraq.739 During FY08, EOD personnel responded to 4,612 

incidents, comprising 2,091 IEDs, 2,237 UXO, and 284 munitions caches. This significant decrease 

was the result of a surge of U.S. military forces into Iraq that improved security.740

On December 9, 2011, the last Air Force EOD personnel left Iraq. Between March 2003 and 

December 2011, Air Force EOD personnel conducted over 36,000 missions, 13,400 of which were 

calls to defuse IEDs.741 EOD Airmen routinely were recognized for their service during OIF and OEF, 

receiving Purple Hearts and other citations. By 2012, 9 EOD Airmen had lost their lives in Iraq serving 

their country.742

Iraqi Military Progress and U.S. Drawdown

Once the heavy fighting in Iraq ended, Air Force civil engineers became involved with the stabilization of the security of Iraq and its reconstruction. By 2005, Air Force construction efforts in Iraq 

exceeded $1 billion. According to Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, Air Force civil engineers “have rebuilt 

schools, clinics, Iraqi military installations...and have rebuilt the Iraqi Ministry of Defense from the 

ground up.”743 Of vital assistance to the rebuilding effort was the ability to access AFCEE’s contracting 

vehicle WERC described above.

Air Force firefighters, who continued to provide critical services to all air bases throughout the 

area of responsibility, became involved in rebuilding Iraqi firefighting capabilities. During 2003, a 

series of four Air Force chief master sergeants served their assignments at the Iraqi Ministry of the 

Interior to lend their guidance to the process. These firefighters identified needs, budgeted personnel 
Meeting the New Century 633

and equipment requirements, developed a seven-year strategic civil defense, and secured funding to 

build a fire training academy and to contract for training staff. During this time, 100 fire stations were 

renovated, 27 new fire stations were funded, and 600 new fire trucks were purchased.744

Air Force firefighters continued to support Iraqi firefighting training throughout the decade on 

both the national and local levels. Air Force civil engineers were involved setting up the coursework 

for the national Iraqi fire academy and served as instructors. A 60-day introductory course conducted 

by a Coalition Air Force Training Team was adapted for Iraqi participants from the Air Force fire 

apprentice course. The course taught basic firefighting skills, medical issues, fire control, hazardous materials, structural training, and aircraft firefighting. The first class of firefighters graduated in 

December 2007. The school was moved in 2008 to the Green Zone in Baghdad where both civilian 

and military firefighters participated in joint training. A 10-day course to train management skills to 

firefighting leadership also was offered. The new Iraqi national fire academy opened in Baghdad in 

January 2009.745 In January 2009, Air Force firefighting experts from AFCESA deployed to Iraq to 

assess the fire departments at four Iraqi Air Bases and to establish training standards for the Iraqi air 

force fire service. Courses were designed to train Iraqi air force firefighters to a level “two” capability, 

enabling them to “conduct basic interior and exterior firefighting, aircraft rescue firefighting, rescue, 

first aid and fire prevention.”746

In addition to efforts to support the national training goals, Air Force firefighters also worked on 

the local level. At Ali AB, firefighters deployed with the 407th Expeditionary Civil Engineer Squadron 

Fire Department conducted six week training courses for Iraqis from the local village between 2006 and 

2008. These courses provided training for 8-to-10 person classes in basic firefighting techniques, search 

and rescue, and lifesaving skills. The Iraqis attended six, three-hour training blocks. Class attendees 

were sent back to their local fire stations with information to share. Another goal was to distribute to 

the Iraqis donated equipment collected from fire stations in the United States.747

In 2007, the political situation in Iraq had deteriorated and the United States sent a surge of troops 

to provide stability to Baghdad. Air Force civil engineers supported the surge by building facilities for 

U.S. Air Force, Army and Marine forces in such places as FOB Hammer, Balad AB, and Al Asad AB. 

Nearly 2,700 Air Force civil engineers were deployed throughout 2007; approximately half of them 

were assigned to joint or “in lieu of” Army missions. During FY08, the focus of the civil engineers 

deployed to Iraq shifted to working with Iraqi civilians to improve their living conditions and with the 

Iraqi military to improve their facilities and to train their engineers and firefighters.748

The Provincial Reconstruction Development Committee (PRDC) Program in Iraq was established 

in 2007 to promote economic and political stability in the region and was identical to the PRTs operating in Afghanistan. Air Force civil engineers were vital to the program. The PRDC originally began 

with simple infrastructure projects but soon expanded to include the construction of medical facilities, 

schools, and water utilities. As the projects were completed, they were turned over to the Iraqis. Lt. 

Col. Douglas P. Wise was the project manager for the 94-bed pediatric oncology and training hospital 

at Basra.749

In 2007, four Air Force civil engineers worked with the Army and Navy at Camp Habbaniyah 

to train Iraqi Army personnel in base operations. One civil engineer officer, two power production 

specialists, and one structures specialist provided their expertise to the effort. The Air Force civil 

engineers worked with Iraqi Army engineers, demonstrating maintenance practices and providing 

instruction on the maintenance and repair of generators. Civil engineers also provided instruction on 

water conservation techniques and electrical systems. In addition, the civil engineers provided advice 

to contractors in planning and organization. Work at Camp Habbaniyah was not limited to training. 

Capt. Emil Rebik, the civil engineer OIC at the camp, reported that “we responded to suicide bombers, 

improvised explosive devices, and vehicle-borne explosive devices at the camp’s perimeter and entry 

point.” The project proved the civil engineers’ capability to work in a wartime environment while 

maintaining the mission of training the forces from a foreign country.

750
634 Leading the Way

In 2009, Col. Jeffry D. Knippel became the first U.S. Air Force personnel to assume command 

of a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers District. Colonel Knippel took command of the Gulf Region 

Division in Iraq. As noted by General Byers, this represented a major milestone “that highlighted the 

interdependencies of the different service engineers in the Central Command AOR.”752

While war is an inherently destructive event, military engineers often use their skills to build 

and rebuild facilities and communities during and after the conflict. One such example during 

Operation Iraqi Freedom was the Village of Hope project at Hawr Rajab, Iraq. Following the surge 

of Coalition Forces in 2007, the village had become a relatively safe area as Sons of Iraq members 

had assisted in pushing out Al Qaeda forces and reconstruction and counterinsurgency operations 

could begin. Multinational Corps-Iraq created the Village of Hope concept that envisioned the 

construction of 100 new homes and community facilities. More importantly, it also included a 

construction training program carried out by 30 members of the 557th Expeditionary RED HORSE 

Squadron. The students were former members of the Sons of Iraq who learned marketable skills 

and could then assist in rebuilding their community. The courses were based on existing Air Force 

skills training curriculum tailored with local building customs and construction materials. While 

the 557th members were awaiting tools and supplies to begin the course, they began teaching 

courses in literacy and remedial math, useful skills for engineering work. Eventually, the materials 

arrived and the Air Force engineers began teaching masonry, plumbing, and electrical skills to 

210 students during a 10-month period. The students and instructors remodeled four houses and 

built a boys’ school and a community center. The Airmen also developed a training program for 

a local concrete-block fabricator to improve the quality of the product with the expectation that 

Coalition Forces would purchase materials for future construction projects. When Capt. Josh R. 

Aldred, one of the first instructors, prepared to return to the United States, a group of students 

wrote a letter that captured the true value of the Village of Hope program, 

In the past, we had different feelings and a kind of misunderstanding towards 

the American people. After being close to you, we found out that we are almost 

the same.... This removed the fears we had before, and now we have become 

very good friends. Tell your people and families about us when you arrive to the 

United States. Tell them about our good friendship and experience we have had 

together.751

Village of Hope

Air Force civil engineer Col. Jeffry D. Knippel made history in 

2009 when he became the first Air Force officer to command a 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineer district. Army COL. Jack Drolet 

relinquished command of the district during a one-hour ceremony 

in Tallil, Iraq, on July 9, 2009. Gulf Region Division Commanding 

General, Maj. Gen. Michael R. Eyre presided. Colonel Knippel was 

the 7th South district commander and was responsible for providing 

engineering and construction management services for the Gulf 

Region Division’s largest geographic area. The district managed 146 

construction projects totaling $688M throughout the nine southern 

provinces of Iraq (64,000 square miles).

 continued

Colonel Knippel Made History
Meeting the New Century 635

During 2010, the United States began to draw-down the number of U.S. forces in Iraq. U.S. troop 

strength was reduced from 112,000 in January to 50,000 in August 2010.754 During 2010, 20,000 troops 

were projected to travel through Joint Base Balad, Iraq, as U.S. forces withdrew from Iraq. The 557th 

ERHS was instrumental in guaranteeing adequate housing for personnel in transit. This task included 

the establishment of a transient village named “All American Square.” The village featured dining 

options, laundry facilities, MWR resources, transfer facilities, and a cargo area. Construction began 

January 2010. In May, All American Square was occupied by troops while still under construction. The 

village was located in close proximity to the passenger terminals for the convenience of the population 

in transit. The construction of the village was gratifying for members of the 557th ERHS who viewed 

the project as contributing to sending troops home. Capt. Jeffery Brandenburg, who served as chief 

of construction with the 332d ECES, explained the need for the village, 

What we discovered was that we had Soldiers, Sailors, Airmen and Marines stacked 

on top of each other due to overcrowding in the terminal, which is rather unfair after 

a hardship tour...so, we created the lounge with the expectation that this would give 

an area for overflow passengers to relax, grab a bite to eat, watch some TV, and use 

the wireless Internet, so they’re not sleeping on the floor. 755

These simple provisions were appreciated by the troops. 

After more than seven years of combat operations, the last elements of the 557th ERHS departed 

Iraq on August 20, 2010. At the end, the 200th and 201st RED HORSE Squadrons were the primary 

units of the 557th ERHS as it left Iraq. These two units were part of the initial activation of the 557th 

ERHS back in 2005. At the peak of operations in Iraq there were 500 RED HORSE personnel deployed 

providing engineer support to approximately 20 FOBs throughout Iraq. They completed over 100 

major construction projects valued over $60M.756 The last U.S. Air Force civil engineers left Iraq in 

December 2011.

Contingency Innovations

As in most combat situations, field conditions in Afghanistan and Iraq resulted in the development 

of a variety of equipment innovations for Air Force civil engineering operations. Beddown packages 

typically comprised Harvest Eagle and Harvest Falcon assets. Among the technological changes was 

the adoption of new beddown packages. The Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) civil 

“Napoleon declared that ‘nothing is so important in war as an undivided command.’ I believe there 

is an incredible opportunity here for us to strengthen the bonds within our joint command and I 

am confident that this outstanding leader from one of our sister services is the person for the job,” 

said General Eyre. “Colonel Knippel is one of the Air Force’s finest engineer officers and it is our 

great fortune that he is joining us.”

As he accepted command of Gulf Region South (GRS), Colonel Knippel said, “I pledge to uphold 

the strongest traditions of the military engineer that are indicative of both of our services. GRS 

will continue to live up to the proud traditions of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.” Colonel 

Knippel was previously AFCEE’s chief of Contingency Construction Division. During his tenure 

with AFCEE, he was responsible for construction management of the Air Force’s $700 million 

military construction program and for construction execution of a $1.8 billion joint and host nation 

construction program, both in the Central Command area of responsibility.

753

Colonel Knippel Made History continued
636 Leading the Way

engineers began development of a new deployment package in 2001. The package was designed to 

be a “right-sized deployment” kit to provide troops with basic quality of life functions. Col. Ed Keith, 

the AFSOC civil engineer, explained the concept, “When we went to war, we found out that our guys 

were getting there earlier than everybody else. We had nothing to give our warriors so they operated 

out of their aircraft. They had no place to sleep, no latrines; they had absolutely no structure.”757 The 

answer to the dilemma was the Air Rapid Response Kit (ARRK). The ARRK provided equipment and 

assets for smaller units who first arrived at a deployed site or were ordered beyond the lines. The kits 

provided enough equipment and supplies to maintain the deployment until the arrival of the initial 

forces and the bare base assets, Harvest Eagle and Harvest Falcon. Four options existed for the kits: 

ARRK to support 100 personnel, ARRK Lite for 50 personnel that could be assembled by combat/

ground troops, ARRK ST (special tactics) for 20 personnel, and ARRK Mini. The ARRK Mini was 

A total of 23 Air Force civil engineers lost their lives in the line of duty between 2001 and 2012. 

This included a firefighter, a heavy equipment operator, an engineer officer, an EOD officer, and 

19 enlisted EOD personnel. Each have been honored in a variety of methods, including buildings, 

streets, highways, and rooms named in their memory. Numerous bases established memorial 

plaques or displays with the names and photos of the 23 fallen warriors to honor their service 

and keep their memory alive.

Operation Enduring Freedom

MSgt. Evander Earl Andrews October 10, 2001 Al Udeid AB, Qatar

Maj. Rodolfo Rodriguez September 20, 2008 Islamabad, Pakistan

TSgt. Phillip A. Myers April 4, 2009 Helmand Province, Afghanistan

SSgt. Bryan D. Berky September 12, 2009 Bala Baluk, Afghanistan

TSgt. Anthony C. Campbell, Jr. December 15, 2009 Helmand Province, Afghanistan

TSgt. Adam Kenneth Ginett January 19, 2010 Near Kandahar, Afghanistan

SrA. Michael J. Buras September 21, 2010 Kandahar, Afghanistan

SrA. Daniel Johnson October 5, 2010 Kandahar, Afghanistan 

TSgt. Kristoffer Solesbee May 26, 2011 Kandahar, Afghanistan

SSgt. Joseph Hamski May 26, 2011 Kandahar, Afghanistan

TSgt. Daniel L. Douville June 26, 2011 Helmand Province, Afghanistan

SrA. Bryan R. Bell January 5, 2012 Helmand province, Afghanistan

TSgt. Matthew S. Schwartz January 5, 2012 Helmand province, Afghanistan 

A1C. Matthew R. Seidler January 5, 2012 Helmand province, Afghanistan 

 

Operation Iraqi Freedom

SSgt. Ray Rangel February 13, 2005 Balad, Iraq

TSgt. Walter Moss, Jr. March 29, 2006 Baghdad, Iraq

MSgt. Brad A. Clemmons August 21, 2006 Taji, Iraq

Capt. Kermit Evans December 3, 2006 Al Anbar Province, Iraq

TSgt. Timothy R. Weiner January 7, 2007 Baghdad, Iraq

SrA. Elizabeth A. Loncki January 7, 2007 Baghdad, Iraq

SrA. Daniel B. Miller, Jr January 7, 2007 Baghdad, Iraq

SrA. William N. Newman June 7, 2007 Balad, Iraq

TSgt. Anthony Capra April 9, 2008 FOB Paliwoda, Iraq

U.S. Air Force Civil Engineers Killed in Action 

following September 11, 2001
Meeting the New Century 637

essentially a high-tech folding cot with a built-in tent, anti-bacterial hygiene cloths and a few chemical 

potty bags.”758 Each ARRK supporting 100 personnel comprised “military tents, commercial shower/

shave unit, water bladder, diesel water heart, generators, expeditionary latrines, and ancillary assets 

such as housekeeping items, fire extinguishers and smoke detectors.”759 The ARRK was first used 

during OIF for the command and control area and as part of the beddown at Diyarbakir, Turkey.760

In 2002, war reserve materiel (WRM) assets were streamlined to make deployments easier on 

troops and consistent with the Air Force expeditionary force concept. Harvest Falcon and Eagle assets 

were modified for ease of assembly. The Air Force expeditionary concept became the Basic Expeditionary Airfield Resources (BEAR). BEAR assets were comprehensive kits designed to accommodate 

all deployment locations. The Swift BEAR set supported 150 persons for the outset of a bare base. 

The BEAR 550 Initial set supported 550 personnel at a bare base and could be expanded through the 

addition of the BEAR 550 Follow-On set, BEAR Industrial Operations Set, and BEAR Flightline 

Set.761 Five years after the BEAR concept originated, the BEAR Order of Battle evolved. The system 

divided the BEAR packages into smaller modular units. Specific parts could be ordered rather than the 

entire BEAR package. Partial package assets were lighter, more easily transported, and supplied only 

the necessary items to Air Force civil engineers.762 The 49th Materiel Maintenance Group (MMG) was 

the only Air Force unit with the mission to “advise, assist and train deployed units” on the operation 

and maintenance of BEAR assets. During OEF, the 49th MMG deployed eight units to SWA; sixteen 

units were deployed during OIF. The teams assisted in beddown operations at Kirkuk AB, Tallil AB, 

and Baghdad International Airport.763

AMC tested a new structure developed by the Army in 2001. The Transportable Collective Protection System (TCPS) protected deployed service members from contact with airborne chemicals. The 

TCPS was a 96-foot “expandable TEMPER tent with a special protective lining and a powerful air 

An EOD technician prepares a Talon robot before sending the robot to inspect a possible improvised explosive device.
638 Leading the Way

management plant...[which] over-pressurizes the inside of the tent with filtered air so that airborne 

contaminants cannot penetrate the outside lining.”764 The system provided a safe environment for 

servicemen while stationed in an area of potential chemical attack. The TCPS could accommodate any 

function including personnel shelters, dining and medical facilities. AMC maintained twelve TCPS 

units at McGuire AFB.765

Robots became critical tools for EOD personnel to address the evolving hazards of explosives 

handling in Afghanistan and Iraq. The Bombot allowed team members to safely countercharge IEDs 

from a distance. The All-Purpose Remote Transport System (ARTS) with attachments was used to 

clear buried ordnance and minefields. The Remote Ordnance Neutralization System was developed 

as a remotely controlled bomb disposal robot. Other robots utilized by EOD included the Pacbot, a 

joint-service developed machine; the MACV, a Danish-designed robot for mine clearance; and, the 

Talon.766 In SWA, robots were used by EOD flight members to clear UXO at bases used during the first 

Gulf War. The ARTS cleared 2-feet of subsurface for 50 acres, which allowed the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers to safely construct new parking ramps.767 In 2007, a new EOD vehicle was introduced. The 

Joint EOD Rapid Response Vehicle provided personnel with greater protection and improved technology than the traditional Humvee. It was outfitted with optical cameras and infrared technology.768

Energy conservation became a major concern at expeditionary locations because of the cost in 

dollars and lives to purchase and transport fuel in Iraq and Afghanistan. A reduction in electricity at 

deployed locations meant less fuel was needed to operate generators and fewer fuel trucks on the road. 

In 2008, AFCESA and the AFRL evaluated the feasibility of installing solar flys over tents used with 

BEAR assets. The following year, the BEAR program funded the Air Force’s involvement in the Net 

Zero Plus Joint Capability Technology Demonstration. The focus of the demonstration was to “reduce 

fuel consumption at forward operating bases and expeditionary bases.”769 Results of the demonstration were shared among the military branches. The goal of the Air Force was to implement a Solar 

Integrated Powered Shelter System that increased “energy efficiency by fifty percent and generates at 

least 3 kW of solar power.”770 Other energy programs for use at expeditionary bases were the Integrated 

Smart BEAR Power System and the BEAR Power Unit. The Integrated Smart BEAR Power System 

was a smart micro-grid that used renewable energy sources. The BEAR Power Unit was an 800kW 

generator that used “an electronic computer-controlled fuel injection system.”771

Other Military Deployments

Between 2000 and 2010, Air Force civil engineers were in high demand to support other U.S. 

Armed Services and Federal agencies in addition to assignments to support OEF and OIF. These 

other taskings ranged from repair, construction, and support projects on CONUS bases to overseas 

deployments. Some deployments were completed during rotational training on in-progress construction 

projects. Other deployments were in response to support specific taskings. ANG and Reserve civil 

engineers also participated in these types of deployments, often as part of their training requirements. 

In February 2002, 15 members of the 219th RED HORSE Squadron from the Montana ANG 

deployed to Israel for approximately a month to perform construction work. This Exercise Related 

Construction project was ordered through the U.S. European Command. The purpose of the deployment was to erect a metal, 119 x 48-foot K-span structure and to repair concrete airfield taxiways 

at an Israeli air base. The K-span construction project required multiple skills, including carpentry, 

equipment operation, and mechanical work. The project provided both hands-on team experience for 

Airmen, and project and logistics experience for NCOs. Most materials and equipment were procured 

locally, which required coordination with the host country. The RED HORSE team was hosted by 

the Israeli military personnel and was exposed to the local culture, including the participation in the 

Sabbath dinners on Friday nights.772

Air Force civil engineers participated in Alaska Shield-Northern Edge 2005, the largest homeland 

defense/homeland security exercise conducted in Alaska. As part of an exercise scenario, Airmen from 
Meeting the New Century 639

the 611th CES at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, rapidly deployed to a small village west of Anchorage to set 

up a portable runway lighting system. The airfield was the only access into the village, and previously 

was only suitable for daytime use. The Airmen benefitted from the real world training experience, 

while the lighting system made possible 24-hour use of the field. The village qualified for the lighting 

system through the Rural Alaska Lighting Program.773

In 2007, the DoD Office of Military Commissions required the construction of a legal complex 

at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, in which to conduct trials for detainees. A camp had been established at 

Guantanamo Bay to house detainees from the conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq. The time frame for 

the delivery of the legal complex was compressed and did not accommodate the negotiation of an 

outside contract. DoD requested assistance from the Air Force civil engineers. Ongoing deployments 

prohibited the assignment of an active duty RED HORSE squadron to the task, but the National Guard 

Bureau volunteered for the project. ANG civil engineers from the 122d CES from Fort Wayne, Indiana, led the project. Five other ANG units joined the team: the 121st CES from Columbus, Ohio; the 

128th CES from Milwaukee, Wisconsin; the 150th CES from Albuquerque, New Mexico; the 158th 

from South Burlington, Vermont; and, the 163d CES from March ARB, California. These ANG units 

were constituted into the 474th Expeditionary CES attached to Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona. Civil 

engineers from the 823d RED HORSE Squadron at Hurlburt Field, Florida, developed the construction 

designs. The construction unit, comprising members from the ANG Prime BEEF teams and a RED 

HORSE design team, were known as the “red bulls.” 774

The advance party arrived at Guantanamo Bay in July 2007. The party surveyed the proposed site 

of the legal complex, a former airfield overgrown with tall grass and small trees. After the site work 

was completed, the team began construction on July 25. Forty shipping containers of materiel were 

delivered to the site. In all, 150 structures were built, including a courthouse, 15 administrative support 

facilities, and the tent city to house 500 persons. The first phase of work focused on the construction 

of a tent city using BEAR assets to house the expeditionary forces. Water, sewer, and waste disposal 

services were coordinated with the Guantanamo Naval Station. The tent city was completed by August 

2007. The second phase of work involved the construction of the courthouse and legal support buildings. This construction commenced on September 11, 2007 and was completed to 100 percent of 

the initial design requirement in January 2008.775 ANG civil engineers were assigned in rotations to 

complete the initial construction work. They continued the rotation schedule to sustain and maintain 

the complex, as well as complete additional construction work, as needed.776 Lt. Col. James Starnes, 

122d CES, summarized the unusual parameters of the project: 

“Red Bull” civil engineers from the 474th Expeditionary Civil Engineer Squadron construct facilities at 

Camp Justice, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.
640 Leading the Way

The Camp Justice legal complex was a unique collaborative effort. It was a DoD/

Office of Military Commissions project; designed by active duty Air Force engineers 

from Hurlburt Field in Florida; managed by United States Southern Command, located 

in Miami; supported financially by United States Army South out of San Antonio; and 

constructed by ANG engineers from six different states on a United States naval base 

operated by civilian contractors, located in a communist island country.777

Humanitarian and Training Deployments

Humanitarian deployments for Air Force civil engineers were ongoing throughout the first decade 

of the twenty-first century. The civic action projects in Micronesia continued. Humanitarian projects 

incorporated the strategy for winning the war on GWOT. Other projects were completed to satisfy 

training requirements, primarily for ANG and Air Force Reserve personnel. Still other humanitarian 

projects were emergency responses to devastation resulting from natural disasters. 

Combined Joint Task Force-HORN OF AFRICA

The Combined Joint Task Force (CJTF)-HORN OF AFRICA (HOA) under U.S. Central Command was a humanitarian component of OEF. The initial purpose of the CJTF was to track Al Qaeda 

activity in the area, to eliminate safe havens for violent extremist terrorists, and to build enduring 

regional partnerships to strengthen the countries in East Africa. The program was active in the countries of Kenya, Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Uganda, Tanzania, and Seychelles. The 

humanitarian project was established by the U.S. Marine Corps on October 19, 2002 in Camp Lejeune, 

North Carolina. In November 2002, Marines embarked aboard the U.S.S. Mount Whitney to the Horn 

of Africa. The participants worked from the ship until May 2003, when the mission moved ashore to 

Camp Lemonier in Djibouti. From the beginning, the CJTF-HOA included representatives from all U.S 

Armed Services. The humanitarian portion of the mission was to build and renovate schools, medical 

clinics, and hospitals. Medical Civil Action and Veterinary Civil Action projects also were conducted.778

Thirty-six members of the 823d RED HORSE Squadron deployed to Camp Lemonier in July 2004 

for a period of 180 days. Projects accomplished by the team were the repair of 35 km of gravel road 

and construction of a 45-foot concrete culvert bridge and concrete ford crossings. Other team members were sent to northern Ethiopia to renovate military billets for the Guam National Guard, which 

was training the Ethiopian Army. The RED HORSE team constructed latrines, hot water showers, 

and a water storage structure, and installed a backup electrical generator. At the same time, the team 

erected a 1,000 square-foot medical clinic in a nearby village. The team constructed a 3,000 squarefoot school in a second isolated village. In southern Ethiopia, another team renovated and repaved 

the decking of a 12 x 400 foot bridge that served a population of 200,000. Team members also built 

a corral to support a future veterinary civil action program. RED HORSE team members conducted 

airfield pavement assessments in Kenya, Ethiopia, and Djibouti. Throughout the deployment, RED 

HORSE team members worked with members from other U.S. Armed Services, as well as military 

in the host countries.779

Between September 2003 and March 2005, 1,000 U.S. military personnel from all U.S. Armed 

Services staffed the CJTF-HOA. Projects included renovating 33 schools, 8 clinics, and 5 hospitals; 

digging 11 wells; and, conducting approximately 40 veterinary clinics. In August 2005, the workforce numbered 1,600 and included active duty, Guard, and Reserve personnel. In 2008, CJTF-HOA 

was transferred to the newly established U.S. Africa Command. By late 2009, emphasis on counterterrorism activities decreased while support to partner countries increasingly focused on building 
Meeting the New Century 641

in-country military and security capacity and undertaking civil-military humanitarian projects.780

Between 2007 and 2010, the CJTF-HOA participants completed 285 humanitarian projects valued at 

$24.3 million. The projects included 146 educational, 77 medical, and 62 essential services projects. 

Essential services encompassed well and water projects, community services, disaster response, and 

delivery of humanitarian assistance supplies. Countries served included Djibouti, Ethiopia, Tanzania, 

Uganda, Kenya, and Islands of Comoros.781

Civic Action Teams

Formally-constituted Civic Action Teams supported the U.S. national treaty commitment to Micronesia through 2003.782 The deployment combined economic development and humanitarian projects 

with training in a remote international environment. Every six months, the Air Force deployed a 

13-member team to Truk Island. Every 12 months, a team was deployed to Pohnpei. The teams 

provided technical assistance and training in maintenance skills. The teams comprised an officer-incharge, an assistant officer-in-charge, three structural specialists, two pavements and construction 

equipment operators, one utilities specialist, one electrician, one independent medical technician, one 

supply specialist, and two vehicle mechanics. While deployed, each team trained local apprentices, 

completed construction projects, conducted community relations programs, and provided technical 

assistance.783 Team members were selected from throughout the active duty civil engineer ranks from 

bases and from FOAs.784

CAT 02-01 was assigned to the Truk Island between October 2001 and May 2002. CAT 02-01 

completed the following projects: renovation of a hospital pediatrics ward, road maintenance, new 

road construction, renovation of electrical systems in a government administration building and a 

school, maintenance of HVAC equipment, distribution of potable water, and vehicle maintenance. 

The medical technician provided medical support for the team members, as well as training to local 

health care workers. Medical care was received by 1,000 people on the main island and surrounding 

outer islands. CAT also provided emergency assistance. When tropical storm Chata’an struck the 

island, the team supported the local residents by pumping water from flooded homes. The team served 

as the local liaison for the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for the receipt of relief 

supplies. In the 15 days following the storm, CAT members off-loaded more than 500,000 pounds of 

supplies from twenty-eight C-130 aircraft. The team members also distributed food, water, blankets, 

and other needed supplies.785

Following the 2003 conclusion of the CAT program in the Federated States of Micronesia, Air 

Force teams began serving in the Republic of Palau under the U.S. Pacific Command (USPACOM) in 

partial fulfillment of the U.S. Compact Treaty. In October 2004, CAT 05-01 arrived at Camp Katuu in 

the Republic of Palau for a six-month tour of duty. The team’s purpose and structure were similar to 

earlier CATs. The 13-person team comprised nine Air Force civil engineers, two vehicle mechanics, one 

supply technician, and one physician assistant. The team members were chosen from bases throughout 

the Air Force. A major task for CAT 05-01 was the construction of a 40 x 60 foot pre-engineered police 

and fire emergency building at Melekeok village. Team members also performed electrical repairs in 

such buildings as schools. CAT members mentored local residents as trade apprentices.786

CATs continued to be deployed throughout the decade. By 2009, responsibility for the Palau CAT 

program was moved to the Fifth Air Force. Program administration was maintained by the 36th CES 

stationed at Anderson AFB, Guam. Selection for the CAT teams was competitive and application was 

open across the entire Air Force. The goals of the mission as defined in 2009 were: 
642 Leading the Way

1. Maintain a favorable presence in support of the USPACOM Theater 

 Security Cooperation Plan

2. Assist and train the local population in engineering, administrative, and 

 medical skills

3. Provide construction support to the Republic of Palau in their [sic] basic 

 infrastructure development.787

In 2009, the CAT members worked on three USPACOM-funded projects. One project was a 

medical clinic with a reception area, two examination rooms, a laboratory, a pharmacy, and a restroom. The second project was a restroom facility for an isolated elementary school located on a small 

island that was a three hour boat trip from the base camp. The third project was a 2,400 square-foot, 

pre-engineered building to house emergency services on the Palau’s largest island. The building was 

designed to match a similar building constructed by a CAT in 2005.788

Deployment for Training

The deployment for training program was scheduled each year to meet the two-week Reserve and 

ANG training requirement. The purpose of deployments was to provide real world training opportunities for AFRC and ANG civil engineers outside the limited construction opportunities found at their 

home bases. Deployment for training projects included a wide range of activities, including deployments to remote areas to support humanitarian efforts, specific construction projects for the major 

commands, and participation in joint task forces. These training opportunities allowed civil engineers 

to hone their skills, enhance competency, and work with military personnel from other U.S. Armed 

Services. Those who deployed to other countries through the deployment for training program were 

also exposed to new environments and host nations.789

The identification of appropriate projects was a joint effort involving the AFRC, the ANG, and 

AFCESA. AFCESA contacted the major commands to identify training opportunities, while AFRC 

and the ANG polled the Reserve units about their training needs. Matching opportunities with training 

needs was a complicated process that required full-time support. A critical path for finalizing training 

deployments was identifying the transportation requirements to the training sites. Ongoing programs 

routinely supported by ANG and Reserve units were the New Horizons and the Joint Task Force Para 

Los Ninos programs, which were organized by the Twelfth Air Force for USSOUTHCOM. Another 

program overseen by the Secretary of Defense was the Civil-Military Innovative Readiness Training 

Program.790 Supporting construction at major commands also became training opportunities; these 

projects were particularly useful in maintaining home bases while active duty civil engineers were 

deployed.

Nuevos Horizontes/New Horizons

New Horizons was an ongoing annual program that combined humanitarian civic action and 

training opportunities. Headquarters, U.S. Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM) administered the 

program, which aided countries in the Caribbean, and Central and South America through the construction of infrastructure and through medical support. Projects typically included the construction of 

medical clinics, schools, and water wells. The program was structured to include components from all 

U.S. Armed Services and often military units from the host countries. The Twelfth Air Force oversaw 

Air Force participation in the program.

New Horizons 2001 sent U.S. military teams to Guatemala, Honduras, Paraguay, Saint Lucia, 

Saint Vincent, and the Bahamas. Air Force civil engineers participated in projects in Saint Lucia, 

Guatemala, and Paraguay. In Saint Lucia, members from the 820th RED HORSE Squadron from 

Nellis AFB, Nevada, deployed with Army and Marine personnel to construct a two-story barracks 
Meeting the New Century 643

for the St. Lucian Coast Guard. The group also renovated a local community center. In Guatemala, 

members from Detachment 1, 307th RED HORSE Squadron deployed to construct the base camp for 

the mission. Members of the 820th RED HORSE Squadron deployed to lay the concrete foundations 

for five schools. Follow-on teams included the reserve 917th CES from Barksdale AFB, Louisiana, 

which completed a concrete-block school. The new school building encompassed a classroom, kitchen, 

and restrooms. In Paraguay, projects included the construction of two medical clinics and four school 

buildings and the drilling of four wells. Members from the 823d RED HORSE Squadron worked with 

Army and Marine engineers and members of the Argentine and Paraguayan military forces. In all, the 

joint and combined task force comprised 300 engineers, medical, and support personnel. The entire 

project spanned 100 days.791

During 2002, New Horizons projects were completed in Nicaragua and Jamaica. In February 2002, 

Air Force civil engineers participated in a project in Nicaragua known as Joint Task Force Chontales. 

Air Force units included the 507th CES (reservists) from Tinker AFB, Oklahoma; the 434th CES from 

Grissom Air Reserve Base, Indiana; active duty Army personnel; and, members of the 829th Engineer 

Detachment, Wisconsin Army National Guard. The goal of the two-week deployment for the 507th 

CES was to complete construction of hardback tents in the base camp begun by the U.S. Army. The 

base camp was designed to house future groups assigned to complete the humanitarian mission. Construction of the base camp was plagued by unseasonably wet weather, which turned the site, a former 

cow pasture, into a sea of mud. The 507th CES plunged into the mud to build the bare base camp. In 

twelve days, the unit completed construction of the camp hospital, mess, and dining facilities; built 

three latrines and a changing room and shower; constructed the commander’s operational center; and, 

completed 22 tent pads and raised the hardback billeting tents. The team electrified the camp using 

10,000 feet of electrical cable and installed 2,500 feet of water and wastewater distribution pipes.792

Teams from the 202d RED HORSE Squadron from the Florida ANG, the 200th RED HORSE 

Squadron from Ohio, the 201st RED HORSE Flight from Pennsylvania, and the 203d RED HORSE 

Squadron from Virginia, joined Joint Task Force Blue Mountain to construct a medical clinic for a local 

community and a barracks in Jamaica. The RED HORSE units worked alongside units from the Marine 

Corps and interacted with members of the Jamaican Defense Force. The members of the Jamaican 

Defense Force were grateful for the new barracks, which were electrified and climate controlled.793

In 2004, Honduras was one site for New Horizons projects. Members of the 934th CES, a Reserve 

unit located at Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport, were deployed to Saba, Honduras. This 

group established the base camp, which was used throughout the summer by other teams to complete 

the construction of schools and medical clinics. This group repaired roads, set up tents, installed airfield 

and perimeter lighting, and connected water to portable latrines and showers. The team also poured 

concrete pads for the humanitarian projects that were accomplished by later incoming teams. All team 

members enjoyed the work and helping others.794

Between January and June 2005, approximately 3,500 Army and Air Force Reservists participated 

in New Horizons 2005. Projects occurred in Panama, El Salvador, and Caribbean countries.795 El Salvador suffered an earthquake in 2004 and Air Force civil engineers assisted in rebuilding schools and 

clinics.796 The 507th CES Air Refueling Wing from Tinker AFB, Oklahoma, participated in Joint Task 

Force Para Los Ninos (for the children) in El Salvador. From February 11 until May 7, 54 members of 

the 507th CES worked in six, two-week rotations to build a new three-room school. One group laid the 

concrete foundation, while the next group started construction of the walls. At the end of four weeks, 

the foundation, water supply, sanitation system, and six courses of concrete block were completed. 

The school was completed by June. The squadron also completed a playground, made minor repairs 

on the old school, and donated $250 worth of school supplies.797

In 2007, nearly 250 military personnel, led by the 820th ERHS participated in the New HorizonsNicaragua 2007 “Juntos Podemos,” meaning “together we can.” Members from the 820th ERHS 

arrived in late December 2006 to begin planning the projects and laying out the base camp. The camp 
644 Leading the Way

was established in time for the arrival of 800 tons of equipment. The camp accommodated the following facilities: billeting, offices, kitchen, laundry, shower/shaves, vehicle maintenance, supply, fitness 

center, and a helicopter landing pad. The base camp was shipped in seavans, vehicles, and slingablecontainer units. Materials for the actual construction projects were purchased in Nicaragua. Projects 

completed as part of this $7.5 million humanitarian and training exercise included construction of 

a three-room school and a five-room medical clinic, repair of 44 miles of roads, repair of one water 

well, and drilling of two new water wells.798

In 2008, the program was renamed Beyond the Horizon.799 During one project in 2008, members 

of the 820th RED HORSE, the 555th RED HORSE, and the 219th RED HORSE Squadrons led a 

task force to Peru. Projects included construction of a school and a medical clinic at Panama, and a 

medical clinic in San Cristobal.800 In 2009, nearly 650 Army, Navy, Marines, and Air Force personnel 

deployed to Guyana. Work in Guyana included the construction of a new medical clinic and a school 

house, and the renovation of a second school house. The team included U.S. military medical personnel, who conducted five medical clinics and two dental clinics.801

Innovative Readiness Training (IRT) Program

Begun in 1996, the focus of IRT was “Americans helping America.” In 2004, 14 IRT projects 

were fielded. Most projects assisted Native American groups.802 In 2006, 150 Reservists from Oregon, 

Maryland, and Ohio worked in two-week rotations for 12 weeks at the Washoe Indian Reservation 

near Carson City, Nevada. Construction projects included the completion of a 5,100 square-foot early 

childhood education building. Work included interior finishes and the installation of electrical systems, 

kitchen equipment, bathrooms, and classrooms. The Reserve civil engineers also constructed sidewalks 

and a playground. Other projects included the conversion of a 2,100 square-foot former convenience 

store into a tribal wellness center, paving a parking lot, and building a home for an elderly, handicapped 

tribal member.803

In 2007, 100 IRT projects were selected. In May 2007, 22 civil engineers from the 301st CES, 

Naval Air Station, Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Texas, deployed to Oahu, Hawaii, to build homes 

for the disabled and elderly. This marked the second year that the AFRC had participated in an IRT 

project with ORI Anuenue Hale (Rainbow House), a local non-profit group. In 2006, the Air Force 

Reserve constructed three, five-bedroom homes. During their two week training deployment in 2007, 

the 301st Fighter Wing CES installed a fence, framed three cabins, installed ten street lights, set up 

and converted a trailer into an office, set up a supply tool system, and installed a water line.804

Exercise Tropical Hammer

In March 2009, members of Oregon ANG’s 142d CES participated in the Canadian-hosted Exercise 

Tropical Hammer, a multi-national training exercise in Kingston, Jamaica. The project was conducted 

in cooperation with the Jamaican Defense Force. Members from four countries participated in the 

exercise, including a unit from England. The purpose of the deployment was to convert metal storage 

pods, known as “conex boxes,” into classrooms, a trade school, and a counter-terrorism school for the 

Jamaican Defense Force. Challenges in the construction were the heat and humidity, inferior tools, 

and a shortage of supplies. However, the training opportunity afforded participants a chance to acquire 

new skill sets and to participate in assignments beyond their normal daily routine.805

Base-to-Base Deployments

In 2003, members of the 819th RED HORSE Squadron from Malmstrom AFB, Montana, deployed 

to Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, to construct a new Base Information Transfer Center. The center 
Meeting the New Century 645

received and distributed all incoming mail to the base and required a stand-alone building apart from 

inhabited areas as a force protection measure. The building measured 44 x 70 feet and included 

containment rooms for handling possible explosive devices and materials suspected of chemical and 

biological contamination. The original design called for 12-inch thick walls constructed of concrete 

masonry units, but the RED HORSE received approval to use insulated concrete forms instead. This 

innovation expedited the construction project.806

In 2004, the 124th CES of the Idaho ANG sent 37 members on a two-week training deployment 

to the former Ramey AFB, Puerto Rico. The former Air Force base was occupied by the U.S. Coast 

Guard, which operated approximately one-fifth of the base. With manpower and budget cuts, the 

Coast Guard requested Air Force civil engineering construction and maintenance support through the 

National Guard Bureau. The National Guard Bureau utilized this request as an opportunity for a real 

world training project. Construction projects completed by the ANG crew included the installation of 

new windows and electrical outlets in a child care center, demolition and construction of walls in a 

maintenance hangar, HVAC and electrical installation, and cyclical maintenance for several facilities.807

In the Republic of Korea, the 554th RED HORSE Squadron completed a series of construction 

projects at air bases with the help of 170 RED HORSE personnel. In 2006, active duty, ANG, and 

Reserve personnel were drawn from the 307th RED HORSE Squadron at Barksdale AFB, Louisiana; the 555th and 820th RED HORSE Squadrons at Nellis AFB, Nevada; and, the 254th CES from 

Andersen AFB, Guam. Some personnel deployed for their two week training requirement, while 

others stayed longer. Construction projects included replacement of the aircraft arresting systems, 

road construction, installation of drainage culverts, and construction of buildings to contain the aircraft 

arresting systems at Kunsan AB. At Kimhae AB, two steel-arch warehouses were constructed to store 

war reserve materiel. In addition, 30 contingency cabins were built to support air force expeditionary 

rotations. At Suwon AB, a new latrine and laundry facility was constructed.808

Other Humanitarian Deployments and Responses 

Air Force civil engineers also were deployed as members of other humanitarian projects. In 2001, 

41 members from the 176th CES Alaska ANG, and 35 members from the 157th CES from the New 

Hampshire ANG worked together to construct a new school in the village of Pacoche en Medio in 

western Ecuador. The project required construction of a two-room school, a home economics building, 

a water storage tower, and a latrine system for the village. In four weeks, the engineers mixed more 

than 55 cubic yards of concrete and 2 cubic yards of stucco, and shoveled 15 cubic yards of rocks and 

10 cubic yards of sand. The project required laying over a thousand concrete blocks and installation of 

2,100 square feet of metal roofing. The project was completed despite challenges. Wet weather delayed 

work on the concrete foundation, which had been scheduled for completion by local contractors prior 

to the arrival of the first team. Instead, the first team assisted in pouring the foundation. Heavy rains 

blocked the road to the construction site during the rotation of the second team. This team hiked 3.5 

miles to the site in order to complete the work. Other challenges included a lack of heavy equipment, 

such as a concrete mixing truck. Concrete was mixed by hand. The manual labor was strenuous and 

accomplished in average 85-90 degree heat. All participants noted the friendliness and gratitude of 

the local villagers and agreed that the effort was worthwhile.809

From August to December 2008, 40 Airmen and 20 Navy Seabees commanded by Maj. Thomas 

DeFazio of the 5th CES from Minot AFB, North Dakota, set sail on the U.S.S. Kearsarge as members 

of Operation Continuing Promise (08). The purpose of the sea-based operation was to visit countries in 

the Caribbean and to provide joint humanitarian and civic assistance. The nations scheduled for visits 

were Nicaragua, Colombia, Curacao, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, and the Dominican Republic. 

Operation Continuing Promise was the vision of SOUTHCOM Commander Adm. James G. Stavridis to demonstrate U.S. commitment to neighbors in the region. The purpose of the project was to 
646 Leading the Way

improve health care and education, and to construct childcare centers and community buildings. Air 

Force civil engineers completed 23 projects in five countries. The team gained experience in logistics, 

naval engineering operations, and life aboard ship. The projects included construction of three new 

schools, renovation of five schools, renovation of five medical clinics, ten recreation projects, and five 

infrastructure repairs. An unscheduled stop was made in Haiti to provide disaster relief from the effects 

of three devastating storms. Air Force civil engineers assisted in conducting 15 bridge assessments, 

surveying 450 miles of roads, and restoring a 2,000 foot water pipeline in a remote village. “CP08 

provided our engineers with training, cross-training, and a service-to-service exchange of expertise,” 

wrote Major DeFazio.810

When a devastating 7.0 magnitude earthquake struck Port-au-Prince, Haiti, on January 12, 2010, 

Air Force civil engineers were among the first responders. Within 24 hours, civil engineers from the 

Air Force Special Operations Command at Hurlburt Field, Florida, were deployed to the Toussaint 

L’Ouverture International Airport in Port au Prince. The civil engineer team specialized in rapid beddown of the Air Rapid Response Kit (ARRK) to support small unit operations. The initial tasks were 

to secure the airport, to set up a joint operations center, and to construct the ARRK beddown package 

to house 280 joint military staff. The civil engineers helped to restore airport operations and supported 

airfield security, evacuations, humanitarian airdrops, communications, and logistics. Members from the 

820th RED HORSE Squadron were in the country by February 2010 to help implement the Government 

Air Force SSgt. Arthur Malecki makes repairs to a hospital in West Demarara, Guyana, as part of Continuing 

Promise 08. 
Meeting the New Century 647

of Haiti’s safer shelter strategy. RED HORSE members assisted in identifying persons for relocation 

to government camps and then assisted with the planning and construction of those camps. The civil 

engineers also worked on projects to mitigate flooding and landslides; these projects included clearing 

debris from drainage canals to prevent flooding during the rainy season.811

Air Force civil engineers also worked to be good neighbors in their communities. During 2000, 

members of the 423d Air Base Squadron from RAF Alconbury, England, volunteered for Habitat for 

Humanity to build houses in London’s Southwark borough. Organizers of the Habitat for Humanity 

project were delighted when Air Force personnel arrived. The organizers described their needs and 

provided house plans. The Air Force civil engineers took it from there. The Air Force civil engineers 

benefitted from the hands-on work required at the construction site and added professional knowledge 

to the volunteer labor pool.812

Disaster Response in the United States and at U.S. Air Force Bases

Air Force civil engineers are responsible primarily for operating and maintaining bases. When 

emergency situations arise, Air Force civil engineers mobilize quickly to protect CONUS and overseas 

Air Force bases. 

Between August 24 and 27, 2000, 23 inches of rain deluged Kunsan AB in the Republic of Korea. 

The 8th CES activated the damage control center as base facilities began to flood. Flooding occurred 

in many operational buildings, the theater, the food court, and recreational buildings. Facilities that 

did not flood developed leaks. Base civil engineers fixed leaks and operated suction pumps to drain 

water out of the buildings. In addition, Air Force personnel responded to a request for assistance from 

Kunsan City to reopen a major four-lane highway between the city and the air base. Air Force civil 

engineers teamed with the Republic of Korea army to remove a mudslide from a highway. The 8th 

CES contributed personnel and the use of three front-end loaders and two dump trucks to support the 

removal of 2,600 tons of mud, concrete, and debris from the highway.

813

Air Force civil engineers at Randolph AFB, Texas, weathered drought, a well contamination, and 

flooding during summer 2001. In July, drought conditions taxed the base potable water system. On 

August 2, residents reported a dark syrupy substance coming out of faucets in the housing areas. This 

was traced to one well contaminated with petroleum fuel. Water was trucked in for base residents 

and employees; base firefighters relied on water supplied by nearby communities through mutual 

aid agreements. Remediation required flushing the entire water system, including the water towers 

and water mains. The pressure from flushing the system burst many aged pipes, requiring the repair 

of ten water mains and the replacement of 10,000 feet of pipe within 72 hours. Base plumbers from 

the 12th CES were augmented by plumbers from the 37th CES from nearby Lackland AFB. Repair 

teams included personnel from the 37th CES, the 307th RED HORSE Squadron, and the San Antonio 

Water System. Contracts were prepared and awarded by dedicated base contracting personnel. AFCEE 

provided expertise on the aquifers and ground water wells. By the following Tuesday, non-potable 

water was restored to the base. One week later, Randolph AFB experienced torrential rain that resulted 

in the flooding of several facilities, downed tree limbs, and debris on the roads. The civil engineers 

from the 12th CES pumped water from flooded facilities, removed debris from roadways, and cleared 

away tree limbs.814

On July 5, 2002, Typhoon Chata’an struck Andersen AFB in Guam. The 100 mile-per-hour winds 

knocked out electrical power and damaged transformers and switch boxes. The typhoon also damaged 

base buildings. By July 12, 20 members of the 15th CES from Hickam AFB, Hawaii, and 6 members 

from the 3d CES from Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, arrived to augment the 36th CES at Andersen AFB. 

The new arrivals brought eight electrical generators, seven portable air conditioning units, ten ice 

machines, additional electrical wiring, and other essential supplies. Two staff personnel sent from 

Headquarters, PACAF, and one CEMIRT staff member traveled to the base. The initial focus for the 
648 Leading the Way

team was to restore power to living quarters by reconfiguring electrical wiring. This was accomplished 

by July 13. Restoration of electricity to the entire base and quality assurance of the electrical system 

followed in the next few days.815

In May 2003, nature provided an exercise in disaster preparedness and base recovery at Tinker 

AFB, Oklahoma. On May 8, a F4-force tornado struck Tinker AFB. With winds from 150 to 260 

miles-per-hour, the tornado resulted in estimated damage of more than $10 million. The damage 

estimates included the total cost of the impact, cleanup, and repair/replacement. The team responded 

appropriately and efficiently to the situation. Security forces directed personnel to storm shelters. 

After the tornado, the fire department and engineering operations personnel immediately conducted 

damage assessments and implemented recovery measures. The base civil engineers quickly assessed 

the damage, replaced base security fencing, and restored electrical power. “It was an outstanding effort 

on everyone’s part,” said Base Civil Engineer Stephen Mallott.816

Hurricane Isabel struck the east coast of the United States on September 19, 2003. Langley AFB, 

Virginia, was the hardest hit AFB, although several bases were in the storm’s path. Damage was sustained by 121 buildings and structures. This damage primarily involved roofs. Mature trees, many of 

which dated from the permanent development of the base following World War I, were the hardest hit 

asset on base. Downed trees numbered 800 on the main post, 300 on the golf course, and 140 trees in 

an off-post housing area. Lt. Col. Richard Wheeler, commander of the 1st CES at Langley AFB, said 

“Langley’s landscape was noted for its large shade trees and you can’t imagine the way the base looked 

after the storm passed.”817 Civil engineers from Langley AFB and Shaw AFB, South Carolina, and 

823d RED HORSE Squadron from Hurlburt Field, Florida, began the cleanup. Damage assessments 

were completed, power was restored, and water was removed from flooded buildings. In addition, the 

downed and damaged trees were removed. CEMIRT members from Dover AFB, Delaware, assisted 

in restoring electrical power to the base, while CEMIRT members from Tyndall AFB, Florida, worked 

1st Civil Engineer Squadron sweepers clear the large amount of debris left by the receding flood waters on 

the Langley AFB parking areas following Hurricane Isabel.
Meeting the New Century 649

to restore heating, ventilating, and air conditioning services. The total damage to the base was estimated at $200 million. The AFCAP contract was accessed for $14.5 million to facilitate building and 

infrastructure repairs; pump water from flooded basements; procure carpet cleaning services; and, 

implement cleaning and sanitizing of water-damaged basements. Military families were allowed to 

return to their homes within three days and the flying mission resumed a week later.

818

In August-September 2004, four major hurricanes struck Florida, resulting in damage to several 

AFBs and surrounding areas. Air Force civil engineers supported both base cleanup and recovery 

efforts in nearby communities. Patrick AFB was damaged by rain and winds from Hurricanes Frances 

and Jeanne. The 45th CES at Patrick AFB battled gale force winds to keep a vital generator operational. 

After Hurricane Frances, the CES quickly completed damage assessments. Damage estimates from 

Hurricane Frances were $32.7 million; several more millions of dollars in damage was sustained from 

Hurricane Jeanne. Hurricane Ivan caused $87 million worth of damage at Eglin AFB and another $40 

million at Hurlburt Field. The hurricane caused heavy damage to the electrical system at Eglin AFB 

and members of the 796th CES worked with civilian electricians to restore power. Recovery work at 

Hurlburt Field was assisted by staff from AFCESA and 55 ANG civil engineers from 11 states, who 

worked alongside the 823d RED HORSE Squadron. Air Force civil engineers also extended a hand 

to community recovery efforts. Seventy members of the 202d RED HORSE Squadron assisted in 

cleanup efforts at the Charlotte County Airport, and then assisted to restore a residential retirement 

building to operability.819

On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina slammed into the Gulf Coast and ravaged the area between 

Florida and Texas, inflicting significant damage in Mississippi and Louisiana. Hurricane Rita followed 

in September 2005. Immediately after Hurricane Katrina, Air Force civil engineers provided support 

to initial recovery efforts. Prime BEEF teams established BEAR camps at New Orleans International 

Airport, Louisiana, and at Gulfport ANG Combat Readiness Training Center (CRTC), Mississippi, to 

bed down 1,650 personnel. RED HORSE personnel deployed to Keesler and Columbus AFBs to aid 

recovery efforts. Prime BEEF teams were deployed to New Orleans, Louisiana, and Gulfport, Mississippi, to bed down the relief effort and assist evacuees. Lackland AFB, Texas, hosted 11,000 evacuees 

in transit to state and local reception centers.820 In all, 1,300 civil engineers from ANG, Reserves, and 

active duty supported Federal recovery efforts in the aftermath of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.821

Keesler AFB and ANG’s CRTC in Mississippi were hard hit by Hurricane Katrina. Winds averaging 50 miles-per-hour with gusts up to 90 miles-per-hour knocked out electrical power. The storm 

surge produced a massive wall of water that inundated the coast. At Keesler AFB, flood waters covered 

the entire base. The base lost electrical power and many power poles were damaged. In the words of 

Lt. Col. Claudia Foss, the 81st Training Wing Public Affairs Office, a “good 95 percent” of Keesler 

AFB was damaged by the hurricane. Mud and debris were everywhere. Trees were downed. The 

industrial and housing areas exhibited drastic damage. Telephone and communications systems were 

not operational.

Recovery efforts began immediately after the storm. About 6,000 base personnel weathered the 

storm in seven shelters on base. Keesler AFB staff was directed to treat the base “like a deployed 

environment.” Airmen worked around the clock, seven days a week to bring the base back online. Commanders of nearby installations, such as Pensacola Naval Air Station, also supplied aid. An advance 

team of Airmen from the 823d RED HORSE Squadron from Hurlburt Field, Florida, arrived within 

12 hours of the storm with emergency supplies and all supplies and equipment that they needed to 

deploy. Roads had to be cleared for the first team to reach the base. Once at the base, RED HORSE 

personnel conducted damage assessments and removed debris from base roads and operation areas.822

A nine-member CEMIRT arrived from Tyndall AFB, Florida, with three large trailer-sized, 500kW 

electrical generators, several smaller generators, and truckloads of cables and equipment. CEMIRT 

initially provided emergency electrical power to facilities, like the base lodging facility, to house 

the 6,000 people on the base. Shortly thereafter, power was supplied to the dining facility, student 
650 Leading the Way

dormitories, the community center, and portions of the medical facility. Five days after the storm, the 

local utility company restored the high-voltage transmission lines to the base substation and electrical 

power was restored.823

The runway at Keesler AFB was flooded. Once the flood waters receded, RED HORSE teams 

worked to clear the runway of debris and to restore operations. Members of AFCESA’s airfield pavement evaluation team assessed runway damage. The runway initially was serviceable only for daytime 

use; runway lights and navigational aids were damaged. The 823d RED HORSE Squadron sent an 

emergency airfield lighting system to expand operations. By September 5, 2005, the runway was fully 

operational, and the base became a hub for the distribution of humanitarian aid throughout the region. 

C-17 Globemaster and C-130 transport aircraft were able to land to bring in supplies. Water, food, 

blankets, clothing and medical support were delivered through the base.824

Repairs to Keesler AFB from Hurricane Katrina amounted to $950 million. “After safety and critical infrastructure, recovering training was our next focus. It helped that our training facilities—many 

one-of-a-kind—came through the storm in good shape,” said Lt. Col. Ray Mottley, the 81st CES 

Commander. Training activities began within three weeks after the storm. Much work was required 

to restore the base back to complete operation. The 81st CES began a three-year program to repair, 

modernize, and rebuild installation facilities. Emergency preparedness for the next storm was initiated. Eighty percent of the base’s 1,820 family housing units were damaged by the storm or by the 

subsequent flooding. Planning efforts began immediately to repair 600 houses, demolish 800 damaged 

houses, and build 1,067 new units through AFCEE’s Housing program. Construction began in 2007 

and was completed in 2010. Another large renovation/construction project was undertaken at the base 

hospital, the second largest hospital in the Air Force. Other projects included a new base commissary, 

hangar, fire station, and multi-purpose services facility.825

Hurricane Katrina did extensive damage to Building 4422 at Keesler AFB, Mississippi.
Meeting the New Century 651

SUMMARY

Throughout the first decade of the twenty-first century, Air Force civil engineers transformed 

their organizations and adopted new or expanded roles to serve the missions assigned to the U.S. Air 

Force in challenging and hostile environments. Air Force civil engineers served as Battlefield Airmen, 

airborne RED HORSE, and on joint task forces during the rebuilding of Iraq and Afghanistan. The 

2008 Air Force Civil Engineer Almanac aptly characterized Air Force civil engineers as “warrior, 

professional and ambassador.”826

During 2011, the drawdown of troops in Iraq was completed, but a surge of U.S. forces occurred 

in Afghanistan. On April 30, 2011, the hunt for Osama Bin Laden, the leader of Al Qaeda, ended with 

his death at a hideout in Pakistan. This event resulted in re-assessment of the role of U.S. forces in 

Afghanistan. Troop drawdowns coupled with an increasing call for budget austerity in the United States 

to lower the high national debt signaled another period of budget cuts and reorganization of DoD. 

As The Civil Engineer Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers wrote to the Air Force civil engineering community at the end of 2010, 

I continue to be amazed with what you do every day. With our unique capabilities, 

backed by a long and proud heritage, we’ve led and supported a number of high impact 

missions on the home front, in the Southwest Asia area of responsibility (AOR) and 

around the world. Because of what we bring to the fight, we’ve earned the recognition 

and respect of our Joint and Coalition partners – you are simply the best!...I’m excited 

about what lies ahead in 2011, and am eager to start building toward new heights. 

And, as we move forward, I expect all civil engineers to be ready to “Build to Last 

and Lead the Change!”827

Whatever the future holds, Air Force civil engineers can adapt and know that

 Engineers Lead the Way!
652 Leading the Way

Epilogue

Forging the future

2012 and beyond

On October 1, 2012, hundreds of people gathered inside Hangar 1610 on the former Kelly AFB, 

Texas, flightline to witness history being made when Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, The Air Force Civil 

Engineer, presented a flag representing the new Air Force Civil Engineer Center to Mr. Joe Sciabica, 

the field operating agency’s (FOA’s) first director. The ceremony was the culmination of months of 

planning for the new organization and also its initial operating capability milestone. According to 

General Byers, the new FOA represented “more than an organizational change. We are witnesses to 

the debut of the next generation of installation and expeditionary support capability. We are forging 

the future of Air Force Civil Engineering today.”1

 The rationale behind the Air Force Civil Engineer Center arose several years earlier from the Air 

Force’s budgetary constraints and the need to make Civil Engineering more efficient. Civil Engineer 

Transformation began under Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg in 2007 as part of Program Action Directive (PAD) 

07-02, Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan. Civil Engineer leaders believed 

the first round of Transformation would take about 10-15 years to implement throughout the career 

field, based on examples from private industry they had studied. However, when Secretary of Defense 

Robert Gates announced additional efficiencies in 2010, they recognized dramatic and accelerated 

additional changes would be required. The Air Force faced a $33 billion reduction over a five-year 

period. This was followed by the 2011 Budget Control Act, which required an additional $10 billion 

reduction each year for 10 years for the Air Force. Under Resource Management Directive 703, the 

Air Force was directed to reduce civilian manning to FY10 levels representing a decrease of 13,500 

civilian positions across the Air Force, 1,600 of which were Civil Engineer civilians. Civil Engineer 

Mr. Joe Sciabica addresses the audience at the AFCEC activation ceremony while Maj. Gen. Timothy A. 

Byers, Mr. Robert M. Moore, Mr. Terry G. Edwards, and Col. David L. Reynolds listen.
Forging the Future: 2012 And Beyond 653

leaders realized they could not afford to continue “business as usual” and decided to find transformational ways to operate more efficiently and effectively and to do it much sooner than anticipated. After 

more than a year of work under strict nondisclosure agreements, General Byers announced Spirals 2, 

3, 4 of Civil Engineering Transformation...Accelerated (CET-A) in November 2011.2

As formalized in PAD 12-03, Implementation of Enterprise-Wide Civil Engineer Transformation, 

CE Transformation...Accelerated comprised four spirals. Spiral 1 was the first phase of Transformation 

announced in 2007 and detailed in PAD 07-02. Spiral 2 streamlined and reduced manning at the Air 

Staff and consolidated three FOAs into AFCEC. This included the Air Force Civil Engineer Support 

Agency (AFCESA) at Tyndall AFB, Florida; the Air Force Center for Engineering and the Environment (AFCEE) at Port San Antonio, Texas, and the Air Force Real Property Agency (AFRPA), also 

located at Port San Antonio, Texas. The physical location of the three organizations did not change. 

Spiral 3 centralized major command Environmental Quality, National Environmental Policy Act 

Compliance, and Real Property management at AFCEC to provide more efficient support to major 

commands (MAJCOMs) and installations. Spiral 4 built upon Spiral 1’s effort to reorganize Civil 

Engineer squadrons and called for transforming their programming, design, environmental quality 

and restoration capabilities, and realigning Operations flights and the Housing elements within the 

squadrons. This initiative reduced base-level authorizations by 968 civilian positions across the Air 

Force. However, to minimize risk, the Air Force reinvested 222 of those positions as part of AFCEC 

operating locations to support the installations. AFCEC used these positions to support centralized 

program management and provide execution oversight and overall facility planning and programming.3

Following Air Force lineage and honors guidance, the Air Force redesignated AFCESA as AFCEC 

because it had the oldest lineage. AFCEE and AFRPA were inactivated. Merging the three FOAs 

was not an easy process, especially with one at Tyndall and the other two in San Antonio. All three 

had different and distinct missions and cultures. Bringing them together was the responsibility of 

Mr. Joe Sciabica, the new AFCEC Director and member of the Senior Executive Service. He was 

previously the Air Force Research Laboratory Executive Director and had no Civil Engineer background. His relevant experience in merging diverse organizations in previous assignments played a 

major role in his selection. He also brought a fresh outlook to the organization that proved valuable 

in smoothing the transition. AFCEC had two deputies, one in San Antonio and one at Tyndall. Brig. 

Gen. Vincent M. Saroni, the Mobilization Assistant to The Air Force Civil Engineer became the 

initial deputy at San Antonio. As the head of the AFCEC Transition Team, General Saroni had been 

intimately involved in the merger preparations. Col. David L. Reynolds, the AFCESA Commander, 

became the AFCEC-Tyndall Deputy Director. Mr. Robert M. Moore, AFRPA’s last Director, became 

the AFCEC Installations Director. (Sadly, Mr. Moore passed away suddenly on June 3, 2013.) Mr. 

Terry G. Edwards, AFCEE’s last director, became the Director of Communications, Installations and 

Mission Support, HQ Air Force Materiel Command in 2012. Both Mr. Moore and Mr. Edwards were 

members of the Senior Executive Service.4

AFCEC was organized into seven directorates: Energy; Environmental; Facility Engineering; 

Installations; Operations; Planning and Integration; and Readiness. The FOA also included a Chief 

Financial Officer, Chief Information Office, Staff Judge Advocate, Director of Staff, and an office that 

was part of the Air Force Deputy General Counsel (Installations, Energy, and Environment Division). 

Because AFCESA and AFCEE both reported to the Office of The Civil Engineer, an Air Staff 

office, and AFRPA was under the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Installations, Environment 

and Logistics, the lines of authority and delegations of authorities for the new FOA had to be ironed out 

before the merger. After much discussion, the existing Secretariat delegations of authority remained in 

place. PAD 12-03 established a direct line of authority between the AFCEC Installations Directorate 

and the Secretariat concerning real property and Base Relocation and Closure real property transactions. The PAD also included the requirement to keep the AFCEC Director and the Air Staff informed 

on pertinent issues.5
654 Leading the Way

AFCEC represented an important change in the nature of its predecessor FOAs, becoming an 

execution agency and not one serving solely as a customer response center. PAD 12-03 centralized 

several Environmental and Real Property functions at AFCEC. Building on the successful centralization of military construction execution and Environmental Restoration Account activities at AFCEE 

through PAD 07-02, the Air Force continued to consolidate additional activities at AFCEC, specifically 

MAJCOM Environmental Quality programs and National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) Environmental Planning Function management and responsibilities. AFCEC’s Environmental Directorate 

fully assumed MAJCOM responsibilities on October 1, 2012, while squadrons retained compliance 

responsibilities. A NEPA Center of Excellence, established at AFCEC to support Air Force Environmental Impact Analysis Process program management, included positions transferred from the 

MAJCOMs. Transitioning environmental programs to AFCEC required the use of Installation Support Teams as a temporary bridging strategy until full consolidation at AFCEC could be achieved. 

Centralization was expected to streamline program processes and improve information flow between 

the installations and AFCEC while increasing accountability, standardization, and transparency for the 

environmental program. AFCEC’s Installation Directorate centralized all real estate responsibilities 

from the MAJCOMs. This included real estate transactions, real property accountability, execution of 

value-based transactions and post-closing management related to long-term leases, housing privatization and utilities privatization.6

One of AFCEC’s most transformational elements was the Planning and Integration Directorate, 

which supported the Air Force and other services through the development of comprehensive investment strategies. Its purpose was to centralize, standardize, prioritize, and optimize the delivery of 

installation support by advocating and allocating resources to reduce the risk to the Air Force mission and Airmen. It provided strategic comprehensive planning, analyzed enterprise-wide common 

output level standards, and developed the Integrated Priority List, Air Force Activity Management 

Plan (AFAMP), and Air Force Comprehensive Asset Management Plan. The Planning and Integration 

Directorate include all AFAMP managers (Real Estate, Facilities, Utilities, Airfield and Transportation 

Networks, and Natural Infrastructure). The directorate centralized planning and integration strategy 

development to enable Air Force-wide portfolio management for the first time by combining mission 
Forging the Future: 2012 And Beyond 655

risk, real-time facility condition assessment, and financial impacts to produce a single priority list for 

Air Force investment.7

As part of CET-A, MAJCOMs and installation-level units changed their organizational structure 

to consolidate, standardize, streamline, and enhance efficiency. Under Spiral 3, major command Environmental Quality, National Environmental Policy Act compliance, and real property management 

programs and processes were centralized at AFCEC. It also reorganized MAJCOM Civil Engineer 

staffs, which typically contained six divisions: Asset Management; Programs; Resources; Readiness; 

Operations; and Expeditionary Combat Support. The new structure reduced the number of divisions 

to five, realigning Asset Management, Programs, and Resources divisions into two new divisions: 

Engineering and Installation Management. Brig. Gen. Dave C. Howe, Director of Installations and 

Mission Support at Air Combat Command and the lead for designing the MAJCOM of the Future, said 

the MAJCOM Civil Engineer staff remained, “the primary interface between the bases, Headquarters 

Air Force and the Field Operating Agency and will continue advocating for facility and infrastructure 

needs while supporting Combatant Commanders, Numbered Air Forces and our installations.”8

Changes were also made at the installation level under Spiral 4. In 2007, PAD 07-02 restructured 

the squadrons, enhanced the EOD capabilities, and adopted a new Fire Emergency Services concept 

of operations. Therefore, the EOD, Readiness, and Fire Emergency Services flights were not changed 

as part of CET-A. One complicating factor for General Byers and his CET-A planners was that decisions related to Resource Management Directive 703, which directed that civilian staffing return to 

fiscal year 2010 levels, were done under a separate nondisclosure agreement. The mandated reduction 

of 1600 civilian positions within Civil Engineering heavily influenced CET-A’s Spiral 4 base-level 

efficiency initiatives. PAD 12-03 continued the PAD 07-02 call for squadrons to become smaller, 

more dependent on centralized planning, and adopt asset management business activities. PAD 12-03 

changed the existing standard squadron that included seven flights: Asset Management, Operations, 

Readiness and Emergency Management, Resources, Programs, EOD, and Fire Emergency Services. 

The post-2012 revised squadron had six flights: Engineering, Operations, Readiness and Emergency 

Management, EOD, Installation Management, and Fire Emergency Services. The previous Resources, 

Programs, and Asset Management flights were integrated into Engineering and Installation Management flights. The 12-03 organizational framework implemented a more mature asset management 

vision and ensured that Activity Management Plan responsibilities were consistently assigned at all 

levels of Civil Engineer organizations.

While a new era in Air Force Civil Engineer history began on October 1, 2012, everyone present 

that day knew that more changes were to come. Civil Engineer leaders would face tightening budgets 

and increased centralization. However, civil engineers have a long record of overcoming challenges. 

Building on the foundation created by the thousands of civil engineers who had gone before them, 

today’s civil engineers approach each new challenge with the same spirit, enthusiasm and professionalism shown by their predecessors and continue their unsurpassed support to the Air Force mission.
656 Leading the Way
657

Acknowledgements

This book represents the vision and energy of Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, AFCEC History Office, and 

has been years in the making. During his career, Dr. Hartzer has assembled a comprehensive archive of 

material related to Air Force Civil Engineering at the AFCEC History Office at Tyndall AFB, Florida. 

The authors extend their thanks to the following persons and entities. 

AFCEC History Office: Over the past three decades, Dr. Hartzer and the History Office staff have 

prepared the ground work for this book. They have collected materials and compiled research notes. 

Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer and Mrs. Lois E. Walker conducted oral interviews of former Air Force Civil 

Engineers and other key personnel throughout the Air Force Civil Engineer organization. Nameless assistants prepared typescripts, scanned magazine and paper archives, assembled graphics, and 

organized files. Mrs. Lois E. Walker prepared topics lists and preliminary chapter outlines, as well as 

drafts of topics for Chapters 1 and 2. Ms. Teresa Hood provided access to back issues of the Air Force 

Civil Engineer magazine. All data were shared unstintingly with the research team of R. Christopher 

Goodwin & Associates (RCGA), Inc., who began in late 2008 to prepare the book manuscript. Dr. 

Hartzer guided the final selection of topics included in the book; provided countless hours of advice on 

the significance of particular issues; unfettered access to his files, often providing the key documents 

for each topic; ensured adequate coverage of the topics; prepared the front and back matter; drafted 

numerous sections of the manuscript; and carefully read and checked each draft chapter.

Research Repositories: Several research repositories were accessed during the preparation of this 

book: the Muir S. Fairchild Research Information Center, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, 

Alabama; the Air Force Historical Research Agency, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama; 

the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; and, the National Archives and Records Administration, 

College Park, Maryland. At each repository, the RCGA, Inc., research team was assisted greatly by the 

professional librarians and staff members who answered questions, provided guidance, and retrieved 

materials. In particular, we were assisted by Ms. Tammy Horton and Dr. Daniel Haulman at the Air 

Force Historical Research Agency at Maxwell AFB.

Air Force Civil Engineers: The authors wish to extend their thanks to all Air Force civil engineers, 

past and present, who wrote about their experiences in the Air Force Civil Engineer magazine, consented to being interviewed about their experiences, and saved and shared their documentation. This 

history reflects their stories and their pride in the work they do.

Mr. Jeff Pendleton, a graphic specialist at AFCEC, did the layout for the book and used his exceptional talents to improve the overall appearance.

Ms. Vicki Brown, a Northrop Grumman employee, did a thorough review of the entire manuscript 

and offered several improvements to the chapters.

Cheryl Hartzer spent many nights and weekends painstakingly reviewing chapters of the book 

multiple times and helped make it a much better product.

Civil Engineer Founders willingly volunteered their time to review all or part of the manuscript 

and offered numerous suggestions.

R. Christopher Goodwin & Associates, Inc.: The authors wish to thank R. Christopher Goodwin 

for his support throughout the preparation of this history, which was a long-term, multi-year effort.
658 Leading the Way
659

APPENDIX A

CIVIL ENGINEER LEADERS

DIRECTORS/AIR FORCE CIVIL ENGINEERS

Brig Gen Robert Kauch Director of Air Installations Sep 1944-Jun 1948

Maj Gen Colby M. Myers Director of Air Installations Jun-Sep 1948

Maj Gen Grandison Gardner Director of Air Installations Sep 1948-Mar 1949

Maj Gen James B. Newman Director of Installations Mar 1949-May 1950

Maj Gen Colby M. Myers Director of Installations May-Dec 1950

Lt Gen Patrick W. Timberlake Director of Installations Dec 1950-Jan 1952

Maj Gen Colby M. Myers Director of Installations Jan-Jun 1952

Maj Gen Lee B. Washbourne Asst Chief of Staff, Installations Jun 1952-Mar 1957

Maj Gen Augustus M. Minton Director of Installations Jul 1957-Mar 1959

Director of Civil Engineering Mar 1959-Jul 1963

Maj Gen Robert H. Curtin Director of Civil Engineering Jul 1963-May 1968

Maj Gen Guy H. Goddard Director of Civil Engineering May 1968-Dec 1971

Maj Gen Maurice R. Reilly Director of Civil Engineering Jan 1972-Mar 1974

Maj Gen Billie J. McGarvey Director of Civil Engineering Mar 1974-Apr 1975

Maj Gen Robert C. Thompson Director of Engineering & Svs Apr 1975-Jun 1978

Maj Gen William D. Gilbert Director of Engineering & Svs Jul 1978-Aug 1982

Maj Gen Clifton D. Wright, Jr. Director of Engineering & Svs Aug 1982-Feb 1986

Maj Gen George E. Ellis Director of Engineering & Svs Mar 1986-Feb 1989

Maj Gen Joseph A. Ahearn Director of Engineering & Svs 1 Mar 1989-31 Jan 1991

The Air Force Civil Engineer 1 Feb 1991-31 Jan 1992

Mr. Gary S. Flora The Air Force Civil Engineer 1 Feb 1992-27 Oct 1992

Maj Gen James E. McCarthy The Air Force Civil Engineer 28 Oct 1992-21 Jul 1995

Maj Gen Eugene A. Lupia The Air Force Civil Engineer 22 Jul 1995-23 Jul 1999

Maj Gen Earnest O. Robbins II The Air Force Civil Engineer 23 Jul 1999-16 May 2003

Maj Gen L. Dean Fox The Air Force Civil Engineer 16 May 2003-23 Jun 2006

Maj Gen Delwyn R. Eulberg The Air Force Civil Engineer 23 Jun 2006-5 Jun 2010

Maj Gen Timothy A. Byers The Air Force Civil Engineer 5 Jun 2010-22 Jun 2013

Maj Gen Theresa C. Carter The Air Force Civil Engineer 22 Jun 2013-10 Mar 2014

Brig Gen Timothy S. Green Director of Civil Engineers 31 Mar 2014-Present
660 Leading the Way

ASSOCIATE/DEPUTY AIR FORCE CIVIL ENGINEERS

Mr. John R. Gibbens Associate Dep Director for Construction1963-1969

Mr. Rufus (Davy) L. Crockett Associate Director, Civil Engineering 1969-1972

Mr. Harry P. Rietman Associate Director, Engineering & Svs 1973-1985

Mr. Gary S. Flora Associate Director, Engineering & Svs 1985-1991

Associate Civil Engineer 1991-1994

Dr. Robert D. Wolff, Associate Civil Engineer 1994-1997

Mr. Michael A. Aimone Dep Air Force Civil Engineer Jan 1999-Mar 2002

Ms. Kathleen I. Ferguson Dep Air Force Civil Engineer Apr 2002-Oct 2007

Mr. Paul Parker Dep Air Force Civil Engineer Nov 2007-Jul 2010

Mr. Mark A. Correll Dep Air Force Civil Engineer Nov 2010-Jun 2014

CIVIL ENGINEER CHIEFS OF ENLISTED MATTERS

CMSgt Larry R. Daniels Chief, Enlisted Matters Sep 1989-Jun 1992

CMSgt Larry R. Ward Chief, Enlisted Matters Mar 1994-Jul 1995

CMSgt Kenneth E. Miller Chief, Enlisted Matters Aug 1995-Jul 1998

CMSgt Richard D. Park Chief, Enlisted Matters Aug 1998-Jun 2000

CMSgt Michael F. Doris Chief, Enlisted Matters Jun 2000-Jun 2005

CMSgt Wayne E. Quattrone II Chief, Enlisted Matters Jun 2005-Feb 2008

CMSgt Patrick D. Abbott Chief, Enlisted Matters Feb 2008-Aug 2011

CMSgt Jerry W. Lewis Chief, Enlisted Matters Aug 2011-Present
661

APPENDIX B

OUTSTANDING CIVIL ENGINEER UNITS

(MAJ. GEN. ROBERT H. CURTIN AWARD)

YEAR CATEGORY UNIT BASE

1966 4510th CES Luke AFB, AZ

1967 96th CES Dyess AFB, TX

1968 355th CES Takhli Royal Thai AB

1969 4756th CES Tyndall AFB, FL

1970 27th CES Cannon AFB, NM

1971 3202d CES Eglin AFB, FL

1972 Civil Engineering School Wright-Patterson AFB, OH

1973 317th CES Pope AFB, NC

1974 90th CES F. E. Warren AFB, WYO

1975 67th CES Bergstrom AFB, TX

1976 341st CES Malmstrom AFB, MT

1977 475th CES Yokota AFB, Japan

1978 52d CES Spangdahlem AB, W. Germany

1979 100th CES Beale AFB, CA

1980 56th CES MacDill AFB, FL

1981 436th CES Dover AFB, DE

1982 42d CES Loring AFB, ME

1983 2849th CES Hill AFB, UT

1984 432d CES Misawa AB, Japan

1985 18th CEG Kadena AB, Japan

1986 6510th CES Edwards AFB, CA

1987 Large 325th CES Tyndall AFB FL

1987 Small 347th CES Moody AFB, GA

1988 Large 36th CES Bitburg AB, W. Germany

1988 Small 1010th CES Cheyenne Mt. Com., CO

1989 Large 2852d CES McClellan AFB, CA

1989 Small 27th CES Cannon AFB, NM

1990 Large 90th CES F. E. Warren AFB, WY

1990 Small 5099th CE Ops Sq Elmendorf AFB, AK

1991 Large 351st CES Whiteman AFB, MO

1991 Small 27th CES Cannon AFB, NM

1992 Large 355th CES Davis-Monthan AFB, AZ

1992 Small 96th CES Dyess AFB, TX

1993 Large 432d CES Misawa AB, Japan
662 Leading the Way

1993 Small 17th CES Goodfellow AFB, TX

1994 Large 20th CES Shaw AFB, S.C.

1994 Small 14th CES Columbus AFB, MS

1995 Large 12th CES Randolph AFB, TX

1995 Small 437th CES Charleston AFB, SC

1996 Large 10th CEG US Air Force Academy, CO

1996 Small 31st CES Aviano, Italy

1997 Large 52d CES Spangdahlem AB, GE

1997 Small 4th CES Seymour Johnson AFB, NC

1998 Large 86th CES Ramstein AB, GE

1998 Small 92nd CES Fairchild AFB, WA

1999 Large 49th CES Holloman AFB NM

1999 Small 56th CES Luke AFB AZ

2000 Large 52d CES Spangdahlem AB, Germany

2000 Small 92d CES Fairchild AFB, WA

2001 Large 437th CES Charleston AFB, SC

2001 Small 31st CES Aviano AB, Italy

2002 Large 86th CEG Ramstein AB, Germany

2002 Small 43d CES Pope AFB, NC

2003 Large 52d CES Spangdahlem AB, GE

2003 Small 27th CES Cannon AFB, NM

2003 ARC 114th CES Sioux Falls, SD

2004 Large 18th CEG Kadena AB, Japan

2004 Small 341st CES Malmstrom AFB, MT

2004 ARC 934th MSG/CE Minneapolis-St. Paul IAP-ARS, MN

2005 Large 35th CES Misawa AB, Japan

2005 Small 314th CES Little Rock AFB, AR

2005 ARC 94th MSG/CE Dobbins ARB, GA

2006 Large 3d CES Elmendorf AFB, AK

2006 Small 100th CES RAF Mildenhall, UK

2006 ARC 118th CES Nashville, TN

2007 Large 4th CES Seymour Johnson AFB, NC

2007 Small 21st CES Peterson AFB, CO

2007 ARC 126th CES Scott AFB, IL

2008 Large 18th CEG Kadena AB, JAPAN

2008 Small 100th CES RAF Mildenhall, UK

2008 ARC 108th CES McGuire AFB NJ

2009 Large 60th CES Travis AFB, CA

2009 Small 554th RED HORSE SQ Andersen AB, Guam

2009 ARC 134th CES McGhee Tyson ANGB, TN
663

2010 Large 4th CES Seymour Johnson AFB, NC

2010 Small 23d CES Moody AFB, GA

2010 ARC 482d CES Homestead ARB, FL

2011 Large 52d CES Spangdahlem AB, GE

2011 Small 355th CES Davis-Monthan AFB, AZ

2011 ARC 115th CES DCRA-Truax ANG Base, WI

2012 Large 49th CES Holloman AFB, NM

2012 Small 27th SOCES Cannon AFB, NM

2012 ARC 145th CES Charlotte Douglas ANGB NC

2013 Large 87th CES JB McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, NJ

2013 Small 355th CES Davis-Monthan AFB, AZ

2013 ARC 439th CES Westover ARB, MA
664 Leading the Way
665

ACRONYMS

AAA Ascension Auxiliary Airfield 

AAC Alaskan Air Command 

AAFES Army and Air Forces Exchange Services 

AARO Assault, Assessment, and Repair Operations 

AAS Antigua Air Station 

AB Air Base 

ABE Alternative Base Energy

ABET Accreditation Board of Engineering and Technology 

ABO airbase operability 

AC&W Aircraft Control and Warning 

ACC Air Combat Command 

ACE Aerospace Combat Engineer Force 

ACES Automated Civil Engineer System 

ACRFAET Aircraft Rescue Field Assistance and Evaluation Team 

ADC Air Defense Command 

ADCON administrative control 

ADR airfield damage repair 

ADVON advance echelon 

AEDC Arnold Engineering Development Center 

AEF Aerospace Expeditionary Forces 

AEF American Expeditionary Forces

AEF Aviation Engineer Force 

AETC Air Education and Training Command 

AEW Expeditionary Wing 

AFACA Air Force Academy Construction Agency 

AFB Air Force Base

AFBDA Air Force Base Disposal Agency 

AFBMD Air Force Ballistic Missile Division 

AFCAP Air Force Contract Augmentation Program 

AFCEC Air Force Civil Engineering Center 

Air Force Civil Engineer Center

AFCEE Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence, changed to Air

Force Center for Engineering and the Environment in 2007

AFCEMET Air Force Civil Engineering Management Engineering Team 

AFCESA Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency 

AFDD Air Force Doctrine Document 

AFEM Air Force Emergency Management 

AF-EMIS Air Force-Environmental Information Management System 

AFESA Air Force Engineering and Services Agency 

AFESC Air Force Engineering and Services Center 

AFETO Air Force Engineering Technology Office 

AFFEC Air Force Facility Energy Center 

AFFF Aqueous Film-Forming Foam 

AFI Air Force Instruction 

AFIR Air Force Installations Representatives 

AFIT Air Force Institute of Technology 

AFLC Air Force Logistics Command 

AFM Air Force Manual 
666 Leading the Way

AFMC Air Force Materiel Command 

AFMEA Air Force Management Engineering Agency 

AFMPC Air Force Military Personnel Center 

AFR Air Force Regulation 

AFRCE Air Force Regional Civil Engineer 

AFRCE-CR Air Force Regional Civil Engineer-Central Region 

AFRES Air Force Reserves 

AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory 

AFRPA Air Force Real Property Agency 

AFSC Air Force Specialty Code 

AFSC Air Force Systems Command 

AFSO21 Air Force Smart Operations 21

AFSOC Air Force Special Operations Command 

AFSOS Automated Food Service Operations System 

AFSPC Air Force Space Command 

AFWL Air Force Weapons Laboratory 

AICUZ Air Installation Compatible Use Zone 

AIM Agile Installation Management 

AIO Air installation officer

ALC A La Carte 

ALCM Air-Launched Cruise Missile 

AM-2 Aluminum Matting

AMC Air Materiel Command 

AMC Air Mobility Command

AMP Activity Management Plan

ANFA Aniline Furfuryl Alcohol 

ANG Air National Guard 

AOR area of responsibility 

APE Airfield Pavement Evaluation 

ARDC Air Research and Development Command 

ARF Air Reserve Forces

ARRK Air Rapid Response Kit 

ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers 

ASD Aeronautical Systems Division 

ASTF Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility 

ATC Air Training Command 

AWACS Airborne Warning and Control System 

BAK Barrier Arresting Kit 

BALANCE Basic and Logically Applied Norms-Civil Engineering

BASH Bird/Aircraft Strike Hazard 

BCAMPs base comprehensive AMPs 

BCE base civil engineer 

BDP base development plans 

BDR bomb damage repair 

BEAMS Base Engineer Automated Management System 

BEAR Basic Expeditionary Airfield Resources 

BEET Base Engineer Emergency Team Concept 

BIAP Baghdad International Airport 

BMAG Base Management Action Group 
667

BMAR Backlog of Maintenance and Repair 

BMD Ballistic Missile Division 

BMEWS Ballistic Missile Early Warning System 

BMO Ballistic Missile Office

BMS Ballistic Missile Support 

BOS Base Operating Support 

BRAAT base recovery after attack 

BRAC Base Realignment and Closure 

BSD Ballistic Systems Division 

BSR blue suit review 

CAA Civil Aeronautics Authority 

CADD Computer Aided Design and Drafting 

CAOC Combined Air Operations Center 

CAP combat air patrol 

CAT Civic Action Teams 

CCC Civilian Conservation Corps 

CCD camouflage, concealment, and deception 

CCMAS Construction Cost Management Analysis System 

CEC Civil Engineer Council 

CEC Civil Engineering Center 

CECOG Civil Engineer Construction Operations Group 

CECORS Civil Engineer Contract Reporting System

CEEDO Civil and Environmental Engineering Development Office 

CEF Civil Engineering Flight 

CEFAC Civil Engineering Field Activities Center 

CEG Civil Engineer Group 

CEMAS Civil Engineering Materiel Acquisition System 

CEMAT Civil Engineer Management Team 

CEMET Civil Engineering Management Evaluation Team 

CEMIRT Civil Engineering Maintenance, Inspection, Repair, and Training.

The name was changed in 1991 to become Civil Engineering

Maintenance, Inspection, and Repair Team

CES Civil Engineering Squadron

CES (HR) Civil Engineering Squadron (Heavy Repair)

CESMET Civil Engineering and Services Management Evaluation Team 

CESS Civil Engineer and Services School 

CET-A Civil Engineer Transformation—Accelerated

CETSO Civil Engineer Technical Support Office 

CFETPs Career Field Education and Training Plans 

CIF Consolidated Instrumentation Facility 

CINC Commander-in-Chief 

CINCPAC Commander-in-Chief, Pacific 

CIP Common Installation Picture 

CJTF-HOA Combined Joint Task Force-HORN OF AFRICA

CLP Combat Logistics Patrol 

CMSAF Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force 

CMSgt Chief Master Sergeant

CNR Composite Noise Rating 

COB Colocated Operating Bases 
668 Leading the Way

CoBRA Combat Battlefield Ready Airman 

COCESS Contractor Operated Civil Engineer Supply Store 

COCOM Combatant Commander 

ConAC Continental Air Command 

CONOPs concept of operations 

CONUS Continental United States 

CoPs Communities of Practice 

CORE Combat Oriented Results Engineering 

COTS commercial-off-the-shelf 

CPA Coalition Provisional Authority 

CPM Critical Path Method 

CPU central processing unit

CRATR Critical Runway Assessment and Repair 

CREATE Computational Resources for Engineering and Simulation,

Training and Education

CRTC Combat Readiness Training Center 

CSG Combat support group 

CSOC Consolidated Space Operations Center

CSU Civilian Service Unit 

CTC Closing the Circle 

CTF Combined Task Force 

CTS Construction and Training Squadron 

CUD Compatible Use Districts 

DCS/PR Deputy Chief of Staff/Programs and Resources 

DEW Distant Early Warning 

dL distributed learning 

DMRD Defense Management Report Decision 

DoD Department of Defense 

DP Disaster Preparedness 

DPRS deployable pavement repair system 

DRID Defense Reform Initiative Directive 

EA environmental assessments 

EAEC European Aviation Engineer Command 

EAF Expeditionary Aerospace Force 

EAG Engineer Aviation Group 

ECES Expeditionary Civil Engineer Squadron 

ECIP Energy Conservation Investment Program 

ECOS Environmental, Construction and Operations & Services 

EIS environmental impact statement 

EMSG Expeditionary Mission Support Group 

ENCAP Engineering civil assistance program 

ENCOM Engineer Construction Command 

ENVEST Environmental Estimating 

EO Executive Order 

EOD Explosives Ordnance Disposal 

EPA Environmental Protection Agency 

EPBG Expeditionary Prime BEEF Group

EPBS Expeditionary Prime BEEF Squadron 

ERDA Energy Research and Development Agency 
669

ERHS Expeditionary RED HORSE Squadron 

ESCCMP Engineering and Services Civilian Career Management Program 

ESD Electronic Systems Division 

ESIMS Engineering and Services Information Management System 

ESL Engineering and Services Laboratory 

ESPC Energy Savings Performance Contract

EUL enhanced use lease 

EWI Education-With-Industry 

EXP Expandable Shelter 

FEAF Far East Air Forces 

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency 

FERL Field Engineering and Readiness Laboratory 

FHA Federal Housing Administration 

FMS foreign military sales 

FOA field operating agency 

FOB Forward operating base 

FP Force Protection 

FRELOC Operation FAST RELOCATION 

FSTR Full Spectrum Threat Response 

FWPCA Federal Water Pollution Control Act 

GAO General Accounting Office 

GEEM Graduate Engineering and Environmental Management 

GEM Graduate Engineering Management 

GES Graduate Education Subcommittee 

GIS Geographical Information System

GLCMs Ground-Launched Cruise Missiles 

GMAT Graduate Management Aptitude Test 

GPA grade point average 

GPS Global Positioning System 

GRE Graduate Records Examination 

GRS Gulf Region South 

GSA General Services Administration 

GWOT Global War on Terrorism, renamed Overseas Contingency Operations (OCO)

HAF GIO Headquarters Air Force Geo Integration Office 

HAZMAT hazardous materials 

HERC Heavy Engineering Repair and Construction

HSSB Humanitarian Service Support Base 

HUD U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

HVAC heating, air conditioning, and refrigeration 

IA individual augmentation 

IBM International Business Machines 

ICAF Industrial College of the Armed Forces 

ICBM intercontinental ballistic missile 

ID/IQ Indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity 

IED improvised explosive device

ILO in lieu of 

IMA Individual Mobilization Augmentees 

IPT Integrated process teams 

IRBM intermediate range ballistic missile 
670 Leading the Way

IRFNA inhibited red fuming nitric acid 

IRP Installation Restoration Program

IRS Information Requirements Study 

IRT Innovative Readiness Training 

ITRO Interservice Training Review Organization 

IWIMS Interim Work Information Management System 

JCA Joint Construction Agency 

JEOC Joint Engineer Operations Course 

JET Joint Expeditionary Taskings 

JLUS Joint Land Use Study 

JOA Joint Operations Area

JOEB Joint Operational Engineering Board 

JTF Joint Task Force 

KKMC King Khalid Military City 

KMCC Kaiserslautern Military Community Center 

LAN local area networks 

LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design 

LRRS Long Range Radar Station 

LSU Labor Service Unit 

MAAS mobile aircraft arresting systems 

MAC Military Airlift Command 

MACV Military Assistance Command, Vietnam 

MAJCOM major command 

MAP Management Action Plan 

MATS Military Air Transport Service 

MCAMP major command AMP

MCP Military Construction Program 

MCST Mobile Combat Support Team 

MEF Minimum Essential Facilities 

MET Mission Essential Tasks 

MFH Military Family Housing 

MILCON Military Construction 

MMS Materiel Maintenance Squadron 

MOOTW military operations other than war 

MOS Military Occupational Specialty 

MST mobile service tower 

MTO Mediterranean Theater of Operations

MWR Morale, Welfare, and Recreation 

MWRS Morale Welfare, Recreation and Services 

MX Missile-X 

NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 

NAF non-appropriated funding 

NAS Naval Air Station 

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization 

NBC Nuclear, Biological and Chemical 

NCO non-commissioned officer 

NEF Noise Exposure Forecast 

NEPA National Environmental Protection Act 
671

NFPA National Fire Protection Association 

NHPA National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 

NORAD North American Air Defense Command 

NSC National Security Council 

NVG night vision goggles 

O&M operations and maintenance 

OAF Occupation Air Forces 

OAS Organization of American States 

OEF Operation ENDURING FREEDOM 

OER Officer Evaluation Report

OFDA Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance 

OFE officer field education 

OICC Officer in Charge of Construction 

OIF Operation IRAQI FREEDOM 

OJT on-the-job training

OMB Office of Management and Budget 

ONE Operation NOBLE EAGLE 

OPC Operation PROVIDE COMFORT 

OPCON operational control

OPlan Operations Plan 

OPSCEAF Operation Civil Engineering Air Force 

OPSTEMPO operations tempo 

ORI operational readiness inspection

OSD Office of the Secretary of Defense 

P2OA Pollution Prevention Opportunity Assessment 

PACAF Pacific Air Forces 

PAD Program Action Directive 

PBD Program Budget Decision 

PBR Performance-Based Restoration 

PCR Payload Changeout Room 

PCS permanent change of station 

PDC Primary Distribution Center 

PDC Programming, Design and Construction 

PE Professional Engineer 

PEACE Program Evaluation and Assistance-Civil Engineering 

PERT Program Evaluation and Review Technique 

PMO program management office

POL petroleum, oils, and lubricants 

POM Program Objective Memorandum 

PPR Payload Preparation Room 

PRAM Plastic Reclaimable Abrasive Machine 

PRC Program Review Committee 

PRDC Provincial Reconstruction Development Committee 

Prime BEEF Prime Base Engineer Emergency Force 

PRT Provincial Reconstruction Team

PSP pierced steel planking 

QDR Quadrennial Defense Review 

R&D research and development 

RAA Resource Recovery Act 
672 Leading the Way

RACER Remedial Action Cost Estimating and Requirements 

RAF Royal Air Force 

RC Readiness Challenge

RCA Radio Corporation of America 

RDJTF Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force 

RED HORSE Rapid Engineer Deployable Heavy Operational Repair Squadron, Engineer 

REOTS Regional Equipment Operator Training Site 

RFP requests for proposal 

RIBS Prime Readiness in Base Services 

RMK-BRJ Raymond, Morrison-Brown and Root and A.J. Jones 

RMS Readiness Management Support, L.C. 

ROOM Readiness and Ownership Oriented Management 

ROWPU reverse osmosis water purification unit 

RPIE real property installed equipment 

RPO Remedial Process Optimization 

RRR rapid runway repair 

RSAF Royal Saudi Air Force

RTAFB Royal Thai Air Force Base 

RTS Regional Training Site 

S/R&M Sustainment, restoration and modernization 

SAB Scientific Advisory Board

SAB Shuttle Assembly Building 

SABER Simplified Acquisition of Base Engineering Requirements 

SAC Strategic Air Command 

SAGE Semi-automatic Ground Environment 

SAME Society of American Military Engineers 

SAMSO Space and Missile Systems Office 

SARPMA San Antonio Real Property Maintenance Agency 

SATOC S/R&M Acquisition Task Order Contract 

SATS Short Airfield for Tactical Support 

SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition 

SCARWAF Special Category Army Personnel with Air Force 

SDC Secondary Distribution Center

SETAF Southern European Task Force 

SFG Security Forces Group 

SGC Space Guidance Center 

SIMS Services Information Management System 

SMART Structural Maintenance and Repair Teams 

SO&M Skidmore, Owings and Merrill 

SOA separate operating agency 

SOF Special Operations Forces 

SON Statement of Need 

SORTS Status of Resources and Training 

SRB solid rocket booster

SSD Space Systems Division 

S-Teams Staff Augmentation Teams 

STS Specialty Training Standards 

SVE soil vapor extraction 

SWA Southwest Asia 
673

TABVEE Theater Air Base Vulnerability Estimate and Evaluation 

TAC Tactical Air Command 

TACON tactical control

TCPS Transportable Collective Protection System 

TEMPER Tent Extendable Modular, Personnel

TFW Tactical Fighter Wing 

TKC Turnkey Contract 

TLF temporary living facility 

TLQ Temporary Living Quarters

TO&E Tables of Organization and Equipment 

TRACES Tri-Service Automated Cost Engineering System 

TT Texas Tower 

U.S.S.R. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

UAE United Arab Emirates

UN United Nations 

UPH unaccompanied personnel housing 

USAFA U.S. Air Force Academy 

USAFE U.S. Air Forces in Europe 

USAREUR United States Army in Europe 

USCENTAF U.S. Air Forces Central Command 

USCENTCOM U.S. Central Command 

USPACOM U.S. Pacific Command 

USSOUTHCOM U.S. Southern Command 

USSTAF U.S. Strategic Air Forces 

UTC Unit Type Codes 

UXO unexploded ordnance 

WADC Wright Air Development Center 

WAN wide area networks 

WDD Western Development Division 

WECO Western Electric Company 

WERC Worldwide Environmental Restoration and Construction 

WES Waterways Experiment Station 

WIMS Work Information Management System 

WMD weapons of mass destruction 

WRM war readiness materials 
674 Leading the Way
Endnotes 675

Chapter 1 Endnotes

1 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 3 (page citations are to the reprint 

edition); Alfred F. Hurley and William C. Heimdahl, “The Roots of U.S. Military Aviation,” Winged Shield, 

Winged Sword, A History of the United States Air Force, Government Printing Office, 1997, Washington DC, 

14; Dr. Ronald B, Hartzer “Foundations for the Future A History of Air Force Civil Engineers,” 2005, Files of 

AFCEC History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida [hereafter cited as AHO].

2 Lois E. Walker, and Shelby E. Wickam, From Huffman Prairie to the Moon: The History of WrightPatterson AFB, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1986, 9, 17-18.

3 Ibid. 18-19.

4 Ibid. 18.

5 Henry H. Arnold, Global Mission, Harper, New York, 1949, 30; Juliette A. Hennessy, The United States 

Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917, Office of Air Force History, Washington, D.C., 1985, 55-57, 61, 73; 

David R. Jones and Royden W. Marsh, Flight Surgeon Support to United States Air Force Fliers in Combat, 

United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine, Brooks City-Base, Texas, 2003, 2.

6 Juliette A. Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917, Office of Air Force 

History, Washington, D.C., 1985, 73.

7 Ibid. 76.

8 Juliette A. Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917, Office of Air Force 

History, Washington, D.C., 1985, 86, 91, 121-122, 136, 137; Jerold E. Brown, Where Eagles Roost: A History 

of Army Airfields Before World War II, PhD Dissertation for Department of History, Duke University, Durham, 

North Carolina, September 1977 [hereafter cited as Eagles Roost], 50. 

9 Eagles Roost 50-51, 53; Jerold E. Brown, Where Eagles Land, Planning and Development of U.S. 

Army Airfields, 1910-1941, Greenwood Press, New York, New York, 1990, 2. 

10 Juliette A. Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917, Office of Air Force 

History, Washington, D.C., 1985, 79-80, 84. 

11 Ibid. 78, 132.

12 Ibid. 109-110. 

13 Frederick J. Shaw, ed., Locating Air Force Base Sites, History’s Legacy, Air Force History and Museum 

Program, Washington, D.C., 2004, [hereafter cited as Shaw]10.

14 Eagles Roost 48; Juliette A. Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917, 

Office of Air Force History, Washington, D.C., 1985, 160.

15 Roger G. Miller, A Preliminary to War: The 1st Aero Squadron and the Mexican Punitive Expedition 

of 1916, Air Force History and Museums Program, Washington, D.C., 2003; Eagles Roost 57.

16 Roger G. Miller, A Preliminary to War: The 1st Aero Squadron and the Mexican Punitive Expedition 

of 1916, Air Force History and Museums Program, Washington, D.C., 2003, 47.

17 Ibid; Maj. Gen. Benjamin D. Foulois with Col. C.V. Glines, USAF, From the Wright Brothers to the 

Astronauts, The Memoirs of Major General Benjamin D. Foulois, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 

New York, 1968, 139-140.

18 Ibid.

19 Roger G. Miller, A Preliminary to War: The 1st Aero Squadron and the Mexican Punitive Expedition 

of 1916, Air Force History and Museums Program, Washington, D.C., 2003, 47.

20 Juliette A. Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917, Office of Air Force 

History, Washington, D.C., 1985, 165, 192. 

21 Ibid., 1985, 154; Lois E. Walker, and Shelby E. Wickam, From Huffman Prairie to the Moon: The 

History of Wright-Patterson AFB, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1986, 20-21.

22 Juliette A. Hennessy, The United States Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917, Office of Air Force 

History, Washington, D.C., 1985, 192. 

23 Eagles Roost 58-59.

24 Eagles Roost 64-65; Lois E. Walker, and Shelby E. Wickam, From Huffman Prairie to the Moon: The 

History of Wright-Patterson AFB, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1986, 85-87.

25 Eagles Roost 77.

26 Ibid. 93, 103.

27 Ibid. 79-80.

28 Lenore Fine and Jesse A. Remington, United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, 

The Corps of Engineers: Construction in the United States, Center of Military History, U.S. Army, Washington, 

D.C. 1989, 18-21.

29 Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen, II, “The Buildings and Grounds Office of the Army Air Corps, 1918-1944,” 

AFHRA No 00117504, 29 March 1944, 5-6, AHO.

30 Eagles Roost 72.

31 Ibid. 22, 79-82.

32 Lois E. Walker, and Shelby E. Wickam, From Huffman Prairie to the Moon: The History of WrightPatterson AFB, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1986, 21-22; Juliette A. Hennessy, The United 
676 Leading the Way

States Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917, Office of Air Force History, Washington, D.C., 1985, 27-29.

33 Eagles Roost, p 89.

34 Lois E. Walker, and Shelby E. Wickam, From Huffman Prairie to the Moon: The History of WrightPatterson AFB, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1986, 36.

35 Ibid. 36.

36 Ibid. 36, 44;

37 “Statistics,” The Military Engineer [hereafter cited as TME], Vol 12, January-February 1920, 39. 

38 Maj. E. Graves, “The Methods of Construction in War,” TME, Vol 12, July-August 1920, 432.

39 Ibid. 432.

40 “History of the 462d Aero Squadron,” Provided to AFCEC History Office by Lt. Col. James D. Martin 

(USAF Retired) through 7 September 2007 correspondence, Files of AFCESA History Office, Tyndall, AFB, 

Florida; “Air Force Historical Research Agency Fact Sheet,” U.S. Air Force, accessed 4 October 2011, www.

afhra.af.mil. 

41 See note above. 

42 See note above.

43 See note above.

44 See note above.

45 Maurer Maurer, ed. The U.S. Air Service in World War I, Vol IV, The Albert F. Simpson Historical 

Research Center Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1978, 241-243. 

46 H.A.Toulmin, Jr., “Air Corps, A.E.F., 1918,” TME, Vol 23, September-October 1931, 413-432; “Colonel 

Mason M. Patrick, Corps of Engineers, Appointed Chief of the Army Air Service,” TME, Vol 13, SeptemberOctober 1921, 478.

47 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 22-26 (page citations are to the 

reprint edition). 

48 Lois E. Walker, and Shelby E.Wickam, From Huffman Prairie to the Moon: The History of WrightPatterson AFB, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1986, 65.

49 Col. R. R. Ralston, “Engineer Duties in the Field of War,” TME, Vol 13, January-February 1920, 21; 

Maj. Gen. Mason M. Patrick, “Report of Chief of Air Service, AEF,” TME, July-August 1921, 364.

50 “Statistics,” TME, Vol 12, January-February 1920, 39. 

51 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 29 (page citations are to the reprint 

edition); Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen, II, “The Buildings and Grounds Office of the Army Air Corps, 1918-1944,” 

AFHRA No 00117504, 29 March 1944, 12, AHO.

52 Eagles Roost 110-111.

53 Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen, II, “The Buildings and Grounds Office of the Army Air Corps, 1918-1944,” 

AFHRA No 00117504, 29 March 1944, 6-7, AHO.

54 Ibid., 9-10, AHO; Eagles Roost 17-18.

55 Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen, II, “The Buildings and Grounds Office of the Army Air Corps, 1918-1944,” 

AFHRA No 00117504, 29 March 1944, 6-8, AHO.

56 Manufacturers Aircraft Association, Inc., Aircraft Year Book, Doubleday, Page and Company for the 

Manufacturers Aircraft Association, Inc., New York, New York 1920, 298.

57 Lois E. Walker, and Shelby E. Wickam, From Huffman Prairie to the Moon: The History of WrightPatterson AFB, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1986, 78.

58 Ibid.; Maurer Maurer, Aviation in the U.S. Army 1919-1939, Office of Air Force History, Washington, 

D.C., 1987, 150-152.

59 Eagles Roost 147-148.

60 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 36 (page citations are to the reprint 

edition). 

61 Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen, II, “The Buildings and Grounds Office of the Army Air Corps, 1918-1944,” 

AFHRA No 00117504, 29 March 1944, 14, AHO.

62 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 36-37 (page citations are to the 

reprint edition); Eagles Roost 54-55.

63 Eagles Roost 54-55.

64 George B. Ford, “New Army Posts for Old,” The Quartermaster Review, Vol 9, November-December, 

1929, 19-22; Howard Nurse, “The Planning of Army Posts,” The Quartermaster Review, Vol. 8, SeptemberOctober, 1928, 14-16; Francis B. Wheaton, “The Architecture of the Army Post,” The Quartermaster Review, Vol 

8, September-October 1928, 10-13; Francis B. Wheaton, “Housing the Army,” The Quartermaster Review, Vol 11, 

March-April 1931, 11-18.

65 George Lamb, “Some Interesting Facts About Barksdale Field” Service News, Vol 1 No 1, December 

1932. 

66 Thomas Manning, “The Origins of Randolph AFB” 1987, n.p., MSS, Air Training Command History 
Endnotes 677

Office, Randolph Air Force Base, Texas.

67 Maj. E.G. Thomas, “Housing for the Army,” The Quartermaster Review, Vol 20, May-June, 1940, 27-29, 

62-64.

68 Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen, II, “The Buildings and Grounds Office of the Army Air Corps, 1918-1944,” 

AFHRA No 00117504, 29 March 1944, 14-15, AHO.

69 Goldberg, A History of the USAF 1907-1957, p 37; Victoria Clow, et al., The Architecture of Randolph 

Field, 1928-1931, Plano, Texas: Geo-Marine, Inc., 1998.

70 Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen, II, “The Buildings and Grounds Office of the Army Air Corps, 1918-1944,” 

AFHRA No 00117504, 29 March 1944, 17-18, AHO; Historic American Buildings Survey/Historic American 

Engineering Records [hereafter cited as HABS/HAER], The Engineering of Flight: Aeronautical Engineering 

Facilities of Area B, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, Washington, D.C., National Park Service, 1993, pp xvi-xvii; 

Walker and Wickam, Huffman Prairie to the Moon, p 79. 

71 Shaw, Locating Air Force Base Sites, p 18.

72 HABS/HAER, The Engineering of Flight, p 11.

73 Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen, II, “The Buildings and Grounds Office of the Army Air Corps, 1918-1944,” 

AFHRA No 00117504, 29 March 1944, 15-17, AHO; Eagles Roost 184.

74 Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen, II, “The Buildings and Grounds Office of the Army Air Corps, 1918-1944,” 

AFHRA No 00117504, 29 March 1944, 19, AHO; Eagles Roost 177-182.

75 Eagles Roost 185-186.

76 Eagles Roost 188; Shaw, 18-19.

77 Brown, Where Eagles Roost, pp 189-191, 239, 249.

78 Walker and Wickam, Huffman Prairie to the Moon, pp 142, 264; Guthrie, Maj John D., “The Civilian 

Conservation Corps,” TME, Jan-Feb 1934, pp 15-19. 

79 Office of Construction Branch, Army Quartermaster Corps, “Army Construction,” Quartermaster 

Review, Jul-Aug 1937.

80 Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen, II, “The Buildings and Grounds Office of the Army Air Corps, 1918-1944,” 

AFHRA No 00117504, 29 March 1944, pp 20-23.

81 Office of Construction Branch, Army Quartermaster Corps, “Army Construction,” Quartermaster 

Review, Jul-Aug 1937.

82 Shaw, 19; Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand 

Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 39-40 (page citations 

are to the reprint edition).

83 Eagles Roost 208-09; Shaw, 19.

84 Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen, II, “The Buildings and Grounds Office of the Army Air Corps, 1918-1944,” 

AFHRA No 00117504, 29 March 1944, 23-24, AHO.

85 Office of Construction Branch, Army Quartermaster Corps, “Army Construction,” Quartermaster 

Review, Jul-Aug 1937.

86 Ibid.

87 Shaw, 20-22; Eagles Roost 218, 231.

88 Maj. John A. Hunt, “Construction of Hickam Field,” Quartermaster Review, Nov-Dec 1940, 41-43, 

77-78.

89 Shaw, 21; “Sustineo Alas (I Sustain the Wings): The History of Lowry Air Force Base,” AHO.

90 Douglas E. Courchene, Pioneers with Intent: Memoirs of an Air Force Fire Fighter, Air Force Civil 

Engineer Support Agency, Tyndall AFB, Florida, July 2003, 3.

91 Eagles Roost 3.

92 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 47-48 (page citations are to the 

reprint edition).

93 Eagles Roost 287; George R. Goethals, “The Present Status of Airport Engineering,” TME, Vol 23, 

May-June 1931.

94 Eagles Roost 249-253; 275-76, 287; Dr. Charles Hendricks, “Building the Atlantic Bases: The Northern 

Route,” TME, Vol 84, January-February 1992; Dr. Charles Hendricks, “Building the Atlantic Bases: The Southern 

Route,” TME, Vol 84, March-April 1992.

95 Shaw, 28-29.

96 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 50 (page citations are to the reprint 

edition).

97 Ibid.; Bernard C. Nalty, ed., Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History of the United States Air Force, 

Vol I, Air Force History and Museums Program, Washington, D.C., 1997, 157.

98 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 50-51 (page citations are to the 

reprint edition); Eagles Roost, 271-72.

99 Eagles Roost, 271-72.

100 Ibid, 269-70; “Tuskegee Airmen Civilian Pilot Training,” National Park Service, accessed December 
678 Leading the Way

2011, www.cr.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/tuskegee/airtrain.htm.

101 “Tuskegee Airmen Civilian Pilot Training,” National Park Service, accessed December 2011, www.

cr.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/tuskegee/airtrain.htm.

102 Eagles Roost, 278-279.

103 Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen, II, “The Buildings and Grounds Office of the Army Air Corps, 1918-1944,” 

AFHRA No 00117504, 29 March 1944, 31-34, AHO; Arlie C. Huffman, “Development of the Air Force Civil 

Engineering Function, 1918—Present,” Directorate of Civil Engineering, May 1962; U.S. Air Force Biographies: 

Brigadier General Robert Kauch, U.S. Air Force, accessed various dates, www.af.mil/information/bios.

104 Lt. Col. Thomas E. Greacen, II, “The Buildings and Grounds Office of the Army Air Corps, 1918-1944,” 

AFHRA No 00117504, 29 March 1944, 36, AHO; Shaw, 41; “Highway Landing Strips Proposed Directive,” 

Aviation Engineer Notes [hereafter cited as AEN], No 8, August 1942.

105 Wesley Frank Craven, and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II, [hereafter cited 

as Craven and Cate]Vol 6: Men and Planes, 120.

106 Bernard C. Nalty, ed., Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History of the United States Air Force, Vol I, 

Air Force History and Museums Program, Washington, D.C., 1997, 176-77.

Shaw, 41.

107 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Civil Engineering’s Golden Legacy: A History of Air Force Civil Engineers,” 

Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 5, No 2, Summer 1997, 14; Shaw, 41-42; Wesley Frank Craven, and James Lea 

Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II, Vol 6: Men and Planes, 165-166.

108 William C. Baldwin, “Engineers in the Southwest Pacific, 1941-1944,” TME, Vol 85, Mar-Apr 1993, 

76; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Black Aviation Engineer Units of World War II,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 5, 

No 4, Winter 1998, 20; Craven and Cate, Vol 1: Plans & Early Operations, January 1939 to August 1942, 239; 

AF Pamphlet 10-219, Vol 1, Contingency and Disaster Planning, 1 December 1995, 8; “Story of the Airborne 

Aviation Engineers,” AEN, No 12, February-March 1943.

109 Col. Stuart C. Godfrey, “Engineers with the Army Air Forces,” TME, Vol 33, November 1941; AF 

Pamphlet 10-219, Vol 1, Contingency and Disaster Planning, 1 December 1995, 8; Lt. Robert S. McConnaughey, 

“Salvage at Eglin Field,” Quartermaster Review, July-August 1944, 55-56.

110 Col. Stuart C. Godfrey, “Engineers with the Army Air Forces,” TME, Vol 33, November 1941; History 

of the First Air Force, Part II, Chapter IV: “Engineer Training,” Headquarters First Air Force, August 1946; 

“Vinsol Resin Stabilization,” AEN, No 8, August 1942. 

111 Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 240.

112 “Vinsol Resin Stabilization,” AEN, No 8, August 1942, 488-89; Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services 

Around the World, 240.

113 Col. Stuart C. Godfrey, “Engineers with the Army Air Forces,” TME, November 1941, Dwight F. 

Johns, “Maneuver Notes of Aviation Engineers,” TME, November 1941, Vol 33, 495-496; Craven and Cate, 

Vol 7: Services Around the World, 241; Col. Dwight F. Johns, “Maneuver Notes of Aviation Engineers,” TME, 

November 1941, Vol 33, 495-496; “Engineer Troop Activities,” TME, Vol 33, December 1941, 583-584; Col. 

Dwight F. Johns, “Maneuver Notes of Aviation Engineers,” TME, March 1942, Vol 33, 133-135; “Notes on the 

Carolina Maneuvers,” Notes on Aviation Engineers, Air Force Combat Command Engineer Section, Bolling 

Field, Washington, D.C., 6 February 1942; “Commendation of Aviation Engineers,” AEN, No 5, April 1942.

114 “Army: No More Phony Maneuvers,” Time, 16 June 1941, n.p., accessed 4 October 2011, www.time.

com.

115 Col. Dwight F. Johns, “Maneuver Notes of Aviation Engineers,” TME, November 1941, Vol 33, 495-

496; G. Patrick Murray, The Louisiana Maneuvers: Practice for War, The Journal of the Louisiana Historical 

Association, Spring 1972, Vol 13, No 2, 117.

116 Col. Dwight F. Johns, “Maneuver Notes of Aviation Engineers,” TME, November 1941, Vol 33, 495-

496; Blance D. Coll, Jean E. Keith, and Herbert Rosenthal, The Corps of Engineers: Troops and Equipment, 

Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington, D.C., 1958, 129.

117 Col. Dwight F. Johns, “Maneuver Notes of Aviation Engineers,” TME, November 1941, Vol 33, 495-

496; “Big Maneuvers Test U.S. Army,” Life, October 6, 1941, Vol 11, No 14, 33-43.

118 Christopher R. Gabel, The U.S. Army GHQ Maneuvers of 1941, Center of Military History, United 

States Army, Washington, D.C., 1992, 182.

119 Col. Stuart C. Godfrey, “Engineers with the Army Air Forces,” TME, November 1941, Dwight F. 

Johns, “Maneuver Notes of Aviation Engineers,” TME, November 1941, Vol 33, 495-496; Craven and Cate, 

Vol 7: Services Around the World, 241; Col. Dwight F. Johns, “Maneuver Notes of Aviation Engineers,” TME, 

November 1941, Vol 33, 495-496; “Engineer Troop Activities,” TME, Vol 33, December 1941, 583-584; Col. 

Dwight F. Johns, “Maneuver Notes of Aviation Engineers,” TME, March 1942, Vol 33, 133-135; “Notes on the 

Carolina Maneuvers,” Notes on Aviation Engineers, Air Force Combat Command Engineer Section, Bolling 

Field, Washington, D.C., 6 February 1942; “Commendation of Aviation Engineers,” AEN, No 5, April 1942.

120 Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering Wartime 

and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis 85S-23, Air University, AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, 

September 1985, 38.

121 Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 244; Craven and Cate, Vol 6: Men and Planes, 

43; Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering Wartime and 
Endnotes 679

Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis, Air University, AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, 1985, 34-35, 

39.

122 Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 244; Craven and Cate, Vol 6: Men and Planes, 

43; Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering Wartime and 

Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis, Air University, AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, 1985, 39-40.

123 Henry H. Arnold, Global Mission, Harper, New York, 1949, 211-212.

124 Craven and Cate, Vol 1: Plans & Early Operations, January 1939 to August 1942, 169.

125 Karl C. Dod, United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers: 

The War Against Japan, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington D.C., 1966, 

[hereafter cited as Dod]19, 22.

126 Stetson Conn, Rose Engelman, and Byron Fairchild, Guarding the United States and Its Outposts,

Center of Military History, Washington, D.C., 2000, 229; Eagles Roost 247.

127 Dod, 7.

128 Brig. Gen. W. A. Danielson, “Wings Over Panama: A Defense Airfield in Panama’s Jungle,” Quartermaster Review, Jul-Aug 1941, 22-23, 83.

129 Dod, 9, 14-15.

130 Ibid. 29-30, 124-5.

131 Alfred M. Beck, et al., United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of 

Engineers: The War Against Germany, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington 

D.C., 1985, 10-16. 

132 Ibid. 

133 Ibid., 10-16; Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand 

Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 53 (page citations are 

to the reprint edition).

134 Col. Joseph D Arthur, Jr., “Military Construction in the Atlantic Bases,” TME, Vol 33, No 191, September 1941, 390-393; Dr. Charles Hendricks, “Building the Atlantic Bases: The Northern Route” TME, Vol 

84, January-February 1992; Dr. Charles Hendricks, “Building the Atlantic Bases: The Southern Route,” TME, 

Vol 84, March-April 1992.

135 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 52 (page citations are to the reprint 

edition).

136 Craven and Cate, Vol 1: Plans & Early Operations, January 1939 to August 1942, 125.

137 Ibid. 

138 Dod, 45.

139 Dod, 46-47.

140 Ibid. 61-63.

141 Ibid. 63.

142 Alfred M. Beck, et al., United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of 

Engineers: The War Against Germany, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington 

D.C., 1985, 44; Col. F. M. Albrecht, “Engineer Aspects of Operation Bolero,” TME, Vol 42, March-April 1950, 

116-120; “American Engineers Rush Bomber Bases in England,” AEN, No 8, August 1942.

143 Alfred M. Beck, et al., United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of 

Engineers: The War Against Germany, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington 

D.C., 1985, 44.

144 Ibid. 46, 48.

145 Ibid.1985, 55.

146 Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering Wartime 

and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis 85S-23, Air University, AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, 

September 1985, 40-41. 

147 Alfred M. Beck, et al., United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of 

Engineers: The War Against Germany, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington 

D.C., 1985, 85.

148 AF Pamphlet 10-219, 9; Brig Gen Stuart Godfrey Memo, Headquarters AAF Directorate of Base 

Services, Engineer Section, to Commanding General, AAF, “Report on Airdromes and Aviation Engineers in 

North Africa,” 4 January 1943

149 Alfred M. Beck, et al., United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of 

Engineers: The War Against Germany, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington 

D.C., 1985, 86.

150 “The Aviation Engineers in North Africa,” AEN, No 14, August 1943; Brig Gen Stuart Godfrey Memo, 

Headquarters AAF Directorate of Base Services, Engineer Section, to Commanding General, AAF, “Report on 

Airdromes and Aviation Engineers in North Africa,” 4 January 1943.

151 Alfred M. Beck, et al., United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of 

Engineers: The War Against Germany, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington 

D.C., 1985, 86-87; “Criteria for Dispersed Airdromes,” AEN, No 8, August 1942, and No 14, August 1943.
680 Leading the Way

152 “The Aviation Engineers in North Africa,” AEN, No 14, August 1943; Alfred M. Beck, et al., United 

States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers: The War Against Germany, 

Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington D.C., 1985, 87; Craven and Cate, Vol 

2: Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to December 1943, 118.

153 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Nearly Indispensable: Aviation Engineers in North Africa,” Air Force Engineering & Services, Update, Vol 2, No 9, November 1990, 12-13; “Wing Talk,” Collier’s, 18 December 1943.

154 Brig. Gen. Donald Davison, “Brigadier General Donald Davison Interview,” 21 June 1943, unpublished 

manuscript at Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 638.951; “Wing Talk,” Collier’s, 

18 December 1943.

155 Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 253. 

156 Craven and Cate, Vol 2: Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to December 1943, 561; Alfred 

M. Beck, et al., United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers: The War 

Against Germany, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington D.C., 1985, 90; HQ 

Army Air Force Engineer Command, MTO (Prov), A History of Policies Affecting Aviation Engineers in the 

Mediterranean Campaigns, Jan 1945, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, Jan 1945. 

157 “The Sicilian Operations,” AEN, No 22, April 1944; Alfred M. Beck, et al., United States Army in 

World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers: The War Against Germany, Office of the Chief 

of Military History, United States Army, Washington D.C., 1985, 446.

158 Alfred M. Beck, et al., United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of 

Engineers: The War Against Germany, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington 

D.C., 1985; Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 254-256; History of the Aviation Engineers in 

the Mediterranean Theater of Operations,” Historical Section, AAF Engineer Command, MTO (P), 12 June 

46, 165. 

159 Craven and Cate, Vol 2: Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to December 1943, 526; Historical 

Section, AAF Engineer Command, MTO(P), History of the Aviation Engineers in the Mediterranean Theater 

of Operations,12 June 1946, 191-195.

160 Craven and Cate, Vol 2: Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to December 1943, 561; Craven 

and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 259, 262; AF Pamphlet 10-219, 10.

161 Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 262.

162 Craven and Cate, Vol 2: Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to December 1943, 561-562; Craven 

and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 263.

163 Craven and Cate, Vol 3: Europe: Argument to V-E Day, January 1944 to May 1945, 325, 345; Craven 

and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 264-265. 

164 The History of IX Engineer Command: From its beginning to V-E Day, Schlangenbad, Germany 1945, 

9-14; Office of Air Force History, Condensed Analysis of the Ninth Air Force in the European Theater of Operations, Office of Air Force History, Washington D.C., 1984, 10-11; AF Pamphlet 10-219, 10.

165 The History of IX Engineer Command: From its beginning to V-E Day, Schlangenbad, Germany 1945, 

15-20; Craven and Cate, Vol 3: Europe: Argument to V-E Day, January 1944 to May 1945, 117-118; AF Pamphlet 

10-219, 10; Condensed Analysis of the Ninth Air Force in the European Theater of Operations, Office of Air 

Force History, Washington, D.C. 1984, p 10.

166 Quoted in Aviation Engineers in Mobile Warfare, IX Engineer Command, IX Engineer Command, 

1945, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama; History of IX Engineer Command, 48-60; 

Craven and Cate, Vol 3: Europe: Argument to V-E Day, January 1944 to May 1945, 131.

167 History of IX Engineer Command, 62; AF Pamphlet 10-219, 11.

168 Ibid., 62-4; AF Pamphlet 10-219, 12; Craven and Cate, Vol 3: Europe: Argument to V-E Day, January 

1944 to May 1945, 563.

169 History of IX Engineer Command, 62-74; Craven and Cate, Vol 3: Europe: Argument to V-E Day, January 1944 to May 1945, 203-204; Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 268; Col. R. E. Smyser, 

Jr., “Airfield Construction in France,” TME, Vol 37, June 1945, 215. 

170 History of IX Engineer Command, 66-7; Craven and Cate, Vol 3: Europe: Argument to V-E Day, January 1944 to May 1945, 204, 563, 565; AF Pamphlet 10-219, 12.

171 Craven and Cate, Vol 3: Europe: Argument to V-E Day, January 1944 to May 1945, 416-418, 426-434. 

172 History of IX Engineer Command, 82-98; Craven and Cate, Vol 3: Europe: Argument to V-E Day, 

January 1944 to May 1945, 568; Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 270; AF Pamphlet 10-219, 

15; Second Report of the Commanding General of the Army Air Forces to the Secretary of War, 27 February 

45; David Little, “Col. Augustine Patterson Little, Jr., Military History,” available at http://macgruffus.com, 

accessed 21 December 2011. 

173 “Fall and Winter Airfield Construction in France,” AEN, No 34, April 1945; Craven and Cate, Vol 3: 

Europe: Argument to V-E Day, January 1944 to May 1945, 568, 571; Vernon Noble, “‘Blitzed’ Runways Made 

New,” TME, Vol 37, March 1945, 8587.

174 History of IX Engineer Command, 100-2; Craven and Cate, Vol 3: Europe: Argument to V-E Day, 

January 1944 to May 1945, 547, 566.

175 Condensed Analysis, 108-9; Craven and Cate, Vol 3: Europe: Argument to V-E Day, January 1944 to 

May 1945, 570-571; Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 272-273.
Endnotes 681

176 History of IX Engineer Command, 118-130; Craven and Cate, Vol 3: Europe: Argument to V-E Day, 

January 1944 to May 1945, 572.

177 History of IX Engineer Command, 130; AF Pamphlet 10-219, 15.

178 Dod, 53, 340-341.

179 Dod, 370; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Aviation Engineers Overcome Pacific Hardships,” Air Force Civil 

Engineer, Vol 3, No 2, Summer 1995, 14.

180 Dod, 348-349, 370.

181 Ibid. 277-278.

182 Ibid. 281.

183 “An Engineer Job in the Aleutian Islands,” AEN, No 14, August 1943; Dod, 186.

184 Dod, 285.

185 Ibid.

186 Dod, 286-287; “Amchitka Airstrip Built in 20 Days Despite Japs and Weather,” AEN, No 15, September 

1943; “Field Airdrome Construction by the 807th Engineer Aviation Battalion,” AEN, No 21, March 1944.

187 Dod, 292, 330-331.

188 Ibid. 293-294, 296-297.

189 Ibid. 110, 136-38.

190 Lt. Col. Ralph C. Glover, The History of the 808th Engineer Aviation Battalion, SWPA File A167, Air 

Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

191 Ibid.

192 Ibid.

193 Dod, 129-130.

194 William C. Baldwin, “Engineers in the Southwest Pacific, 1941-1944,” TME, Vol 85, March-April 

1993; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Aviation Engineers Overcome Pacific Hardships,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 

3, No 2, Summer 1995, 14.

195 Dod, 125-26, 129-30.

196 Craven and Cate, Vol 4: The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944, 11-13.

197 Dod, 163-64.

198 Gen. George C. Kenney, General Kenney Reports: A Personal History of the Pacific War, Air Force 

History and Museums Program, Washington, D.C., 1997, 102; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Aviation Engineers 

Overcome Pacific Hardships,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 3, No 2, Summer 1995, 14.

199 William C. Baldwin, “Engineers in the Southwest Pacific, 1941-1944,” TME, Vol 85, Mar-Apr 1993.

200 Karl C. Dod, United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers: 

The War Against Japan, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington D.C., 1966, 

150-52.

201 Ibid. 150-52.

202 Lt. Col. Ralph C. Glover, The History of the 808th Engineer Aviation Battalion, SWPA File A167, Air 

Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 102-103.

203 Karl C. Dod, United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers: 

The War Against Japan, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington D.C., 1966, 

219-220.

204 Ibid. 186-187, 243.

205 Ibid. 206-207.

206 Ibid. 225, 227, 231.

207 Capt. Everette Frazier, The Saga of Tsili Tsili, E.E. Frazier, San Antonio, Texas, 1992; Capt. Everette 

Frazier, “Airfield Reconnaissance in New Guinea,” AEN, No 33, March 1945; Warrant Officer William C. Hautz, 

“The Airborne Mission,” AEN, Vol 15, September 1943, 3; Craven and Cate, Vol 4: The Pacific: Guadalcanal 

to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944, 174-176; Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 280.

208 William C. Baldwin, “Engineers in the Southwest Pacific, 1941-1944,” TME, Vol 85, March-April 

1993.

209 Dod, 380; Craven and Cate, Vol 4: The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944, 

294.

210 Dod, 383-384; Dr. Harold T. Stearns, “Characteristics of Coral Deposits,” AEN, No 28, October 1944.

211 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Aviation Engineers Overcome Pacific Hardships,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 

3, No 2, Summer 1995, 14; Karl C. Dod, United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps 

of Engineers: The War Against Japan, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington 

D.C., 1966; Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering 

Wartime and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis 85S-23, Air University, AFIT, WPAFB, 

Ohio, September 1985, 76-77.

212 Col. George E. White, “From Pearl Harbor to Tokyo,” TME, Vol 38, January 1946, 1-8. 

213 Craven and Cate, Vol 4: The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944, 693; AF 

Pamphlet 10-219, 17; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Aviation Engineers Overcome Pacific Hardships,” Air Force Civil 

Engineer, Vol 3, No 2, Summer 1995, 14.

214 Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 415, 523.
682 Leading the Way

215 “Aviation Engineers on Saipan,” AEN, No 32, February 1945; Dod, 518; Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The 

Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 517; Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the 

World, 305.

216 Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 512-17; Lt. 

Col. Herbert E. Brown, Jr., “Aviation Engineers on Guam,” TME, Vol 37, October 1945, 398-401.

217 Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 518-19, 

708.

218 Dod, 55. 

219 Dod, 100-101, 105; AF Pamphlet 10-219, 16; Capt. Samuel A. Goldblith, “The 803d Engineers in 

the Philippine Defense,” TME, Vol 38, August 1946, 323-325; Col. Jose A. Bernales and Perfecto M. Vasques, 

“Engineers in the Death March,” TME, Vol 39, May 1947, 191-195.

220 Dod, 105-106; Louis Morton, U.S. Army in World War II: The Fall of the Philippines, Center of 

Military History, Washington, D.C., 1953.

221 Dod, 642-660; Col. John H. Dudley and Maj. William G. Staggs, “Engineer Troops on Airdrome 

Construction,” TME, Vol 37, October 1945, 385-389.

222 Dod, 568. 

223 Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 448.

224 Dod, 579.

225 Dod, 579-80; Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 

1945, 373; Brig. Gen. S. D. Sturgis, Jr., “Engineer Operations in the Leyte Campaign,” TME, Vol 39, November 

1947, 457-462; TME, Vol 39, December 1947, 513-518; TME, Vol 40, January 1948, 15-19.

226 Maj. W. G. Caples, “Airfield Construction on Leyte,” AEN, No 33, March 1945; Dod, 583.

227 Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 398, 400-

401, 443-444.

228 Dod, 582, 598-600.

229 Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 445.

230 AF Pamphlet 10-219, 17; Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 

to August 1945, 447; Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 291, 293.

231 Dod, 389, 393-394.

232 Ibid. 429.

233 Dod, 427; Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 301; Donovan Webster, The Burma 

Road: The Epic Story of the China-Burma-India Theater, Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York, 2003.

234 Brig. Gen. Stuart Godfrey, “Glider-Borne Engineers,” AEN, No 24, June 1944; Dod, 445-446. 

235 Dod, 445-446; Headquarters First Air Force, Arms and Services, February 1941 to December 1944, 

Vol I, Chapter IV, “Engineer Training,” Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama; Capt. 

Stephen A. Derry, “Airborne Engineers,” TME, Vol 35, September 1943; Capt. Ed J. Flynn, “Airborne Engineer 

Training,” TME, Vol 36, November 1944, 359-363; “Training Missions of Airborne Engineers,” AEN, No 15, 

September 1943; “Special Projects of I Troop Carrier Command, Part I: The Training of Airborne Engineer 

Aviation Battalions Within I Troop Carrier Command,” Headquarters IX Troop Carrier Command, November 

1945. 

236 Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 301-302; Dod, 455; Leslie Anders, “The Engineers 

at Myitkyina,” TME, Vol 44, November-December 1952, 446-450. 

237 Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 301-302; Karl C. Dod, United States Army in 

World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers: The War Against Japan, Office of the Chief of 

Military History, United States Army, Washington D.C., 1966, 455. 

238 Dod, 302. 

239 Dod, 442, 450; Leslie Anders, “Building the Dudhkundi Air Base,” TME, Vol 45, September-October 

1953, 355-356.

240 Ulysses Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Army, 

1966.

241 Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 299; Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 351. 

242 Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 404. 

243 Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 299; Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 62. 

244 James W. Dunn, “The Ledo Road,” in Barry W. Fowle, ed., Builders and Fighters: U.S. Army Engineers in World War II, Office of History, United States Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, 1992, 

327-346.

245 Ibid. 327-346.

246 Ibid. 327-346.

247 James W. Dunn, “The Ledo Road,” in Barry W. Fowle, ed., Builders and Fighters: U.S. Army Engineers in World War II, Office of History, United States Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, 1992, 

327-346; Karl C. Dod, United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers: 

The War Against Japan, Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington D.C., 1966, 
Endnotes 683

664. 

248 James W. Dunn, “The Ledo Road,” in Barry W. Fowle, ed., Builders and Fighters: U.S. Army Engineers in World War II, Office of History, United States Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, 1992, 

327-346.

249 Ibid. 327-346.

250 James W. Dunn, “The Ledo Road,” in Barry W. Fowle, ed., Builders and Fighters: U.S. Army Engineers in World War II, Office of History, United States Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, 1992, 

327-346; Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 300; Dod, 662-664. 

251 Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 429, 440; Dod, 451; Ernest Hemingway, “How 

100,000 Chinese Built an Airport,” AEN, No 8, August 1942.

252 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Aviation Engineers Overcome Pacific Hardships,” Air Force Civil Engineer, 

Vol 3, No 2, Summer 1995; Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 71.

253 Dod, 468-469. 

254 Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 303-304. 

255 Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 596.

256 Ibid. 596-598.

257 Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 691; “First 

All-American Runway in the Ryukyus Islands,” Aviation Engineer Notes, No 40, October 1945.

258 Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 692.

259 Ibid. 691, 683, 695-697; Craven and Cate, Vol 7: Services Around the World, 307.

260 Craven and Cate, Vol 5: The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945, 538.

261 Ibid. 692; AF Pamphlet 10-219, 17.

262 Office of the Air Engineer, HQ USAF, “Aviation Engineers: From Origin to Termination of World War 

II,” circa 1947, AHO; Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering Wartime and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis, Air University, AFIT, WPAFB, 

Ohio, 1985, 35.

263 Craven and Cate, Vol 6: Men and Planes, 120.

264 Capt. Cecil L. Reynolds, Historian, “Construction for United States Air Forces in Europe, 8 May 1945-1 

July 1947,” Headquarters USAFE, 1 August 1948, 45,46, 63-66.

265 Ibid. 124-126, 137-141, 146. 

266 Ibid. 26-27. 

267 Ibid. 40, 45-46, 59. 

268 Ibid. 60, 117-118.

269 Dr. William C. Baldwin, “Army Engineers in Post-War Reconstruction: The Philippines, Japan, and 

Germany, 1945-1947,” Office of History, Headquarters U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, n.d.

270 Ibid.

271 Ibid.

272 Ibid.

273 War Department Adjutant General’s Office to Brig. Gen. George J. Nold, Letter, “Board of Officers 

to Review Engineer Aviation Experiences, World War II,” 3 July 1946; Brig. Gen. Reuben C. Hood, Deputy 

Chief of Air Staff, to Board of Officers Appointed by War Department, Letter Order AGPC-A-G 334, “Study of 

Aviation Engineers in Support of Army Air Forces,” 8 July 1946. 

274 “Report of a Board of Officers on Aviation Engineers,” submitted to the Commanding General, AAF, 

29 July 1946, Tab B, 3, AHO.

275 “Analysis of Aviation Engineer Board Report Recommendations and Comments,” n.d., AHO.

276 Ibid.

277 Ibid. 

278 Herman Wolk, Planning and Organizing the Postwar Air Force 1943-1947, Office of Air Force History, 

Washington, D.C., 1984, 36, 98, 210, 214. 

279 Shaw, 42-43; Herman Wolk, Planning and Organizing the Postwar Air Force 1943-1947, Office of 

Air Force History, Washington, D.C., 1984, v.

280 Herman Wolk, Planning and Organizing the Postwar Air Force 1943-1947, Office of Air Force History, Washington, D.C., 1984, 134, 139; “Organization and Functions of Engineers in Autonomous AF,” n.d., 

ca. May 1947, 10-11.

281 Shaw, 43. 
684 Leading the Way

Chapter 2 Endnotes

1 Frederick J. Shaw, ed., Locating Air Force Base Sites, History’s Legacy, Air Force History and Museum 

Program, Washington, D.C., 2004, 53. 

2 Lt. Col. Bernard Card, “The Role of Engineers in the Air Force,” Research report, Air War College, 

Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1948, 68, 61-62. 

3 Brig. Gen. S. D. Sturgis, Jr., “Engineers in an Autonomous AAF,” staff letter, 17 May 1946, Files of 

AFCEC History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida [hereafter cited as AHO]; “Organization and Functions of Engineers in Autonomous AF,” 6 Jun 1946, AHO; Air Engineer Plan for Engineer Service in the United States Air 

Force, 1 May 1947, AHO.

4 Lt. Col. Bernard Card, “The Role of Engineers in the Air Force,” Research report, Air War College, 

Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1948, 86, 93. 

5 Air Engineer Plan for Engineer Service in the United States Air Force, 1 May 1947, AHO. 

6 Ibid; Herman Wolk, Planning and Organizing the Postwar Air Force 1943-1947, Office of Air Force 

History, 1984, 76, 78. 

7 United States Congress, U.S. Public Law 253, 80th Congress, 1st Session, 26 July 1947.

8 Air University, Legislative History of the AAF and USAF 1941-1951, USAF Historical Studies: No.84. 

USAF Historical Division, Research Studies Institute, September 1955, 57, 59.

9 Ibid. 59.

10 Richard I. Wolf, The United States Air Force: Basic Documents on Roles and Missions, Office of Air 

Force History, Washington, D.C., 1987, 73-75, 116-117; Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its 

Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 6.

11 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War 

College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 6; Richard I. Wolf, The United States Air Force: Basic 

Documents on Roles and Missions, Office of Air Force History, Washington, D.C., 1987, 116.

12 Richard I. Wolf, The United States Air Force: Basic Documents on Roles and Missions, Office of 

Air Force History, Washington, D.C., 1987, 116-117; Lt. Col. Floyd Ashdown, “A History of the Warfighting 

Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering,” Research Report, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1984 

[hereafter cited as Ashdown], 9; Herman Wolk, Planning and Organizing the Postwar Air Force 1943-1947, 

Office of Air Force History, 1984, 207.

13 Richard I. Wolf, The United States Air Force: Basic Documents on Roles and Missions, Office of Air 

Force History, Washington, D.C., 1987, 98; Herman Wolk, Planning and Organizing the Postwar Air Force 

1943-1947, Office of Air Force History, 1984, 95. 

14 Ashdown, 10-11; Lenox R. Lohr, “Engineer Shortage and National Security,” The Military Engineer 

[hereafter cited as TME], Vol 46, No 313, September-October 1954, 343-345; Letter to Editor by Maj. Gen. Lee 

B. Washbourne, TME, Vol 46, No 314, November-December 1954, 439; “The Shortage of Technical Manpower: 

A Summary,” TME, Vol 47, No 317, May-June 1955, 199-203. 

15 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 106; Air University, Legislative 

History of the AAF and USAF 1941-1951, USAF Historical Studies: No. 84. USAF Historical Division, Research 

Studies Institute, September 1955, 59.

No.84. USAF Historical Division, Research Studies Institute, September 1955, 65-66.

16 Air University, Legislative History of the AAF and USAF 1941-1951, USAF Historical Studies: No. 

84. USAF Historical Division, Research Studies Institute, September 1955, 65-66.

17 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1950, n.p., AHO; Wolk, Planning and Organizing 

the Postwar Air Force, 203-204. 

18 Air University, Legislative History of the AAF and USAF 1941-1951, USAF Historical Studies: No. 84. 

USAF Historical Division, Research Studies Institute, September 1955, 66, 69-70; Air Reserve Forces Review 

Magazine, November 1951, 10.

19 W. Stuart Symington, “Military Engineers in the Air World of Tomorrow,” TME, Vol 39, No 266 ,

December 1947, 4.

20 E.R. Jackson, “The Engineer Segment within the Air Force,” TME, Vol 41, No 279, January-February 

1949, 42; “AFIRO,” TME, Vol 50, No 334, March-April 1958, 137; Directorate of Installations History, 1 Jul 

1949 to 30 June 1950, n.p., AHO; George K. Dimitroff, “A Chronicle of Progress, 1960-1969,” Air Force Civil 

Engineer, Vol 11, No 1, February 1970, 2.

21 E.R. Jackson, “The Engineer Segment within the Air Force,” TME, Vol 41, No 279, January-February 

1949, 42.

22 Directorate of Installations History, July 1949 to 30 June 1950, n.p., AHO.

23 E.R. Jackson, “The Engineer Segment within the Air Force,” TME, Vol 41, No 279, January-February 

1949, 42.

24 “Air Force Engineer Staff,” TME, Vol 40, No 276, October 1948, 473.

25 Brig. Gen. William Leonhard (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by John Lonnquest, Office of History, Headquarters U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, August 2000, October 2001, 27-28.

26 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 
Endnotes 685

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 2003, 17-18; Brig. Gen. Archie S. 

Mayes (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, May 2006, 31-32; Brig. Gen. John D. Peters (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed 

by Lois E. Walker and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 10-11.

27 Air Force Civil Engineer Manpower, AHO.

28 U.S. Air Force Biographies: Brig. Gen. Robert Kauch, Maj. Gen. Colby M. Myers, Maj. Gen. Grandison 

Gardner, Lt. Gen. Patrick W. Timberlake, U.S. Air Force, accessed various dates, www.af.mil/information/bios.

29 Lois E. Walker, “A Tradition of Excellence,” The CE, Vol 7, No 2, Summer 1999, 35.

30 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 30, September 1956, 1.

31 Directorate of Installations History, 1 July 1949-30 June 1950, January-June 1951, n.p., AHO.

32 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 198.

33 General Order 84, 28 December 1951.

34 U.S. Air Force Biographies: Maj. Gen. Lee Bird Washbourne, U.S. Air Force, accessed various dates, 

www.af.mil/information/bios; “Know Your Boss,” Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 18, August 1955, 1.

35 Directorate of Installations History, 1 July-31 December, 1952, n.p., AHO; Installations Engineer 

Beacon, Vol 13, March 1955, 1.

36 “Office, Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations, Headquarters, United States Air Force,” TME, Vol 48, 

No 322, March-April 1956, 118-119; Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, 1 January -30 January 1954, 

AHO; Arlie C. Huffman, “Development of the Air Force Civil Engineering Function, 1918-Present,” May 1962, 

AHO.

37 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 38, May 1957, 1.

38 General Order 36, 27 June 1957.

39 “The Directorate of Installations, Headquarters, United States Air Force,” TME, Vol 50, No 335, MayJune 1958, 197-198.

40 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1957, n.p., AHO.

41 Fred Hamlin, “Can Air Force Bases Stay in Step?,” Armed Forces Management, November 1958, 

12-14.

42 “What’s Ahead: Interview with Maj. Gen. M.R. Reilly,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 15, No 1, 

February 1974, 8-9.

43 Directorate of Installations Histories, July 1949-June 1950 and January-June 1951, n.p., AHO; Frederick J. Shaw, ed., Locating Air Force Base Sites, History’s Legacy, Air Force History and Museum Program, 

Washington, D.C., 2004, 54-55. 

44 “Air Force Facilities,” TME, Vol 40, No 277, November 1948, 517.

45 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, vi, 35, 38-39.

46 “Meet...John R. Gibbens,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 3, No 1, February 1962, n.p.; “Deputy Air 

Force Civil Engineers,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 19, No 4, 2011, 7.

47 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 38-39.

48 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 39-41.

49 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, iii, ix, 3.

50 Ibid. 27-30, 36-49, 26.

51 Ibid.

52 Ibid. 36-49, 26.

53 Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1951, n.p., AHO; Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force 

Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 

1954, 96-99.

54 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 99-100; Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith (USAF, Retired), 

“Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 39-41. 

55 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 101-104; Alfred Goldberg, editor, A History of the United 

States Air Force, Arno Press, New York, reprint edition, 1974, 191.

56 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 8, October 1954, 5.

57 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 6, August 1954, 1; Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 13, March 

1955, 4.

58 Directorate of Installations History July-December 1959, n.p., AHO.

59 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker , HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 41-42.

60 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, July-December 1954, n.p., AHO; Installations Engineer 

Beacon, Vol 9, October 1954, 1.
686 Leading the Way

61 “Air Engineer Notes,” TME, Vol 47, No 320, November-December 1955, 478-479; “Air Force Installations Conference,” TME, Vol 48, No 322, March-April, 1956, 144.

62 Chronology of Significant Historical Events in Air Force Civil Engineering, files of Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida; Air Staff History Jul-Dec 54; “Air Engineer Notes,” TME, November-December 1955, 478-479; “Air Force Installations Conference,” TME, March-April, 1956, 144.

63 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 33, December 1956, 1.

64 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations, January-June 1956, AHO; Fred Hamlin, “Can Air Force Bases 

Stay in Step?,” Armed Forces Management, November 1958, 12-14; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “History Lesson: 

What’s In a Name?,” The U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 2, March 1994, 2-3.

65 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interview by Dr. Ronald 

B. Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, iii-iv; Installations Engineer 

Beacon, Vol 38, May 1957, 1.

66 Maj. Gen. Augustus A. Minton, “Message from the director...,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 1, No 

2, May 1960, 2.

67 George K. Dimitroff, Editor, “A Chronicle of Progress 1960-1969, Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 11, 

No 1, February 1970, 2.

68 Ibid. 3.

69 Anders, James M. “Preparatory Assistance Available for AFRCEs Seeking Registration as Professional 

Engineers,” Civil Engineering Beacon, Vol 6, No 60, August-September-October, 1959, 3-4.

70 Ibid. 4-5.

71 Directorate of Installations, History, January-June 1951, n.p., AHO.

72 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 93-94; Directorate of Installations History January-June 

1951, 31-33, AHO; Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand 

Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 189-190; Merrill De 

Longe, “Effects of Jet Aircraft on Air Base Planning,” TME, Vol 48, No 326, November-December 1956, 420-

422; Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1951, n.p., AHO.

73 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 7-10.

74 Col. Edwin M. Eads, “The Air Force Installations Representatives,” TME, Vol 48, No 325, SeptemberOctober 1956, 362-363.

75 Directorate of Installations History, 1 July 1949-30 June 1950, July-December 1950, January-June 

1951, July-December 1951, January-June 1952, n.p., AHO; Col. Edwin M. Eads, “The Air Force Installations 

Representatives,” TME, Vol 48, No 325, September-October 1956, 362-363; Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force 

Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 

1954, 139.

76 Directorate of Installations History, 1 January-30 June 1952, n.p., AHO.

77 Continental Air Command, “Air Installations Volume I, ConAC Manual 50-10,” 1952, 8.

78 Directorate of Installations History, 1 January-30 June 1952, n.p., AHO.

79 Air Force Regulation 93-17, Installations-Control Procedures, 23 June 1954.

80 Directorate of Installations History, 1 January-30 June 1954, n.p., AHO.

81 Directorate of Installations History, 1 January-30 June 1954, n.p., AHO.

82 Air Force Regulation 93-17, Installations-Control Procedures, 23 April 1957.

83 Col. Edwin M. Eads, “The Air Force Installations Representatives,” TME, Vol 48, No 325, SeptemberOctober 1956, 362-363.

84 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 108.

85 Ibid. 1954, 109.

86 Ibid. 109.

87 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, faculty of the 

Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 32; Air Force Regulation 85-5, Maintenance 

of Installations, 30 June 1951, 1.

88 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1950, n.p.; AHO.

89 “Planning Buildings for the U.S. Air Force,” Architectural Record, Vol 111, No 1, January 1952, 96-97.

90 Ibid, 97.

91 Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1951, n.p., AHO; Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 

11, January 1955, 6; Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 21, November 1955, 3; Installations Engineer Beacon, 

Vol 6, No 60, August-October 1959, 2; Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 13, March 1955, 7.

92 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 6, No 60, August-October 1959, 2; Installations Engineer Beacon, 

Vol 13, March 1955, 7; Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, July-December 1956, n.p., AHO; Lt. Col. 

J. N. Kruppa, “Definitive Design in the Air Force,” TME, Vol 49, No 330, July-August 1957, 261.

93 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 32-33.

94 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1951, n.p., AHO
Endnotes 687

95 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 32-33; Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 26, April 1956, 

4.

96 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 32-33; Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 26, April 1956, 

4.

97 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, July-December 1954, n.p.; Assistant Chief of Staff, 

Installations History, January-June 1955, n.p.

98 Maj. Gen. Charles G. Holle, “Military Engineering for Modern Warfare,” TME, Vol 48, No 325, 

September-October 1956, 333-336; Merrill De Longe, “Effects of Jet Aircraft on Air Base Planning,” TME, Vol 

48, No 326, November-December 1956, 420-422; Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 

1956, n.p.; Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 195; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “An 

Interview with Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton,” The CE, Vol 4, No 2, Summer 1996, 9.

99 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1957, AHO.

100 Installations Engineering Beacon, Vol 8, October 1954, 5.

101 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1957, AHO; Directorate of Installations 

History, January-June 1958, n.p., AHO.

102 Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1958, January-June 1959, n.p., AHO.

103 Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1959, July-December 1959, n.p., AHO.

104 Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1951, July-December 1951, July-December 1953, 

July-December 1954, n.p., AHO.

105 Kirsten Peeler, Christine Heidenrich, Katherine E. Grandine, and Dean A. Doerrfeld, “Housing an Air 

Force and a Navy: The Wherry and Capehart Solutions to the Postwar Family Housing Shortage (1949-1962),” 

prepared for the United States Department of the Air Force and the United States Department of the Navy by 

R. Christopher Goodwin and Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, June 2007, 17-19.

106 Ibid. 21-22, 54.

107 Col. Guy H. Goddard, “Air Force Builds Its Own Family Housing,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 1, 

No 3, August 1960, n.p.

108 William C. Baldwin, “Wherry and Capehart: Army Family Housing Privatization Programs in the 

1950s,” Engineer, April 1996, 42-44; Kirsten Peeler, Christine Heidenrich, Katherine E. Grandine, and Dean 

A. Doerrfeld, “Housing an Air Force and a Navy: The Wherry and Capehart Solutions to the Postwar Family 

Housing Shortage (1949-1962),” prepared for the United States Department of the Air Force and the United 

States Department of the Navy by R. Christopher Goodwin and Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, June 

2007, 69,70.

109 Kirsten Peeler, Christine Heidenrich, Katherine E. Grandine, and Dean A. Doerrfeld, “Housing an Air 

Force and a Navy: The Wherry and Capehart Solutions to the Postwar Family Housing Shortage (1949-1962),” 

prepared for the United States Department of the Air Force and the United States Department of the Navy by 

R. Christopher Goodwin and Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, June 2007, 83.

110 Directorate of Installations History, July 1949-June 1950; July-December 1953, n.p., AHO.

111 William C. Baldwin, “Wherry and Capehart: Army Family Housing Privatization Programs in the 

1950s,” Engineer, April 1996, 42-44. 

112 Kirsten Peeler, Christine Heidenrich, Katherine E. Grandine, and Dean A. Doerrfeld, “Housing an Air 

Force and a Navy: The Wherry and Capehart Solutions to the Postwar Family Housing Shortage (1949-1962),” 

prepared for the United States Department of the Air Force and the United States Department of the Navy by 

R. Christopher Goodwin and Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, June 2007, 71-72, 74-77; Directorate of 

Installations History 1951, n.p., AHO. 

113 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 4, June 1954, 3.

114 William C. Baldwin, “Wherry and Capehart: Army Family Housing Privatization Programs in the 

1950s,” Engineer, April 1996, 44; Kirsten Peeler, Christine Heidenrich, Katherine E. Grandine, and Dean A. 

Doerrfeld, “Housing an Air Force and a Navy: The Wherry and Capehart Solutions to the Postwar Family Hous- ing Shortage (1949-1962),” prepared for the United States Department of the Air Force and the United States 

Department of the Navy by R. Christopher Goodwin and Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, June 2007, 83. 

115 Col. Rio G. Lucas (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interviewed by Lois E. Walker, HQ 

AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, July 1999, 24-25.

116 Air Staff History July-December 1959, AHO. 

117 Kirsten Peeler, Christine Heidenrich, Katherine E. Grandine, and Dean A. Doerrfeld, “Housing an Air 

Force and a Navy: The Wherry and Capehart Solutions to the Postwar Family Housing Shortage (1949-1962),” 

prepared for the United States Department of the Air Force and the United States Department of the Navy by 

R. Christopher Goodwin and Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, June 2007, 91.

118 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 26.

119 Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, February 2003, 7. 
688 Leading the Way

120 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 42. 

121 Kirsten Peeler, Christine Heidenrich, Katherine E. Grandine, and Dean A. Doerrfeld, “Housing an Air 

Force and a Navy: The Wherry and Capehart Solutions to the Postwar Family Housing Shortage (1949-1962),” 

prepared for the United States Department of the Air Force and the United States Department of the Navy by 

R. Christopher Goodwin and Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, June 2007, 116.-117.

122 Col. Rio G. Lucas (USAF, Retired) “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Mrs. Lois E. Walker, HQ 

AFCESA, Tyndall, AFB, Florida, July 1999, 25-26. 

123 Colonel Guy H. Goddard, “Air Force Builds Its Own Family Housing,” Air Force Civil Engineer, 

August 1960.

124 Kirsten Peeler, Christine Heidenrich, Katherine E. Grandine, and Dean A. Doerrfeld, “Housing an Air 

Force and a Navy: The Wherry and Capehart Solutions to the Postwar Family Housing Shortage (1949-1962),” 

prepared for the United States Department of the Air Force and the United States Department of the Navy by 

R. Christopher Goodwin and Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, June 2007, 2.

125 Directorate of Installations History, July 1949-June 1950, July-December 1950, n.p., AHO.

126 Directorate of Installations History, July 1949-June 1950, July-December 1950, January-June 1952, 

n.p., AHO; Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, July-December 1952, n.p., AHO.

127 Mandy Wharton, “The Cultural Significance of the U.S. Air Force Defensive Radar System,” paper 

for session at WAC4, Jan 1999. 

128 Haile, John and Ron Dalby, Top Cover and Global Engagement: A History of the Eleventh Air Force. 

Alaska Quality Publishing, Anchorage, Alaska, 2001.

129 Ibid.

130 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, 1952 to 1954, AHO.

131 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, 1952 to 1954, AHO; Walter Boyne, “The Rise of Air 

Defense,” Air Force Magazine, December 1999. 

132 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 133-135, 193-194; David 

F. Winkler, “Searching the Skies: The Legacy of the United States Cold War Defense Radar Program,” 1997, 

26, 33, Prepared by U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories for Headquarters Air Combat 

Command. 

133 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, July-December 1954, n.p., AHO; Alfred Goldberg, ed., 

A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 

1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 193-194. 

134 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 193. 

135 Richard E. Goodman, Karl Terzaghi. The Engineer as Artist, ASCE Press, 1999, 216; W. Marks Jaillite, “Permafrost Research Area,” TME, Vol 39, No 263, September 1947, 375; Col. Walter K. Wilson, Jr., “The 

Problem of Permafrost,” TME, Vol 40, No 270, April 1948, 162-163.

136 David Neufeld, “Implementing Parks Canada’s Cultural Resource Management Policy, Commemorating the Cold War in Canada: Considering the DEW Line,” The Public Historian, Vol 20, No 1, Winter 1998, 

9-19; Rufus D. Crockett, “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, April 2005, 8.

137 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 193; Col. B. Bagnall, “Building 

the Distant Early Warning Line,” TME, Vol 47, No 320 , November-December 1955, 429. 

138 Col. B. Bagnall, “Building the Distant Early Warning Line,” TME, Vol 47, No 320, November-December 1955, 429; Mandy Wharton, “The Cultural Significance of the U.S. Air Force Defensive Radar System,” 

paper for session at WAC4, Jan 1999. 

139 David Neufeld, “Implementing Parks Canada’s Cultural Resource Management Policy, Commemorating the Cold War in Canada: Considering the DEW Line,” The Public Historian, Vol 20, No 1, Winter 1998, 

9-19.

140 Col. B. Bagnall, “Building the Distant Early Warning Line,” TME, Vol 47, No 320, November-December 1955, 429; Mandy Wharton, “The Cultural Significance of the U.S. Air Force Defensive Radar System,” 

paper for session at WAC4, Jan 1999. 

141 Col. B. Bagnall, “Building the Distant Early Warning Line,” TME, Vol 47, No 320, November-December 1955, 430; Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1955, n.p., AHO. 

142 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1957, January-June 1958, n.p., AHO; Boyne, “The 

Rise of Air Defense,” Air Force Magazine, December 1999 

143 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, July-December 1954, n.p., AHO; Walter Boyne, “The 

Rise of Air Defense,” Air Force Magazine, December 1999. The Collins-Vandenberg Agreement, signed on 1 

Aug 1950, established cooperation between Air Defense Command and the Army Anti-Aircraft Command for 

the air defense of the U.S. 

144 Harold B. Goyette, “DEW Line Canada-Iceland Link,” TME, Vol 54, No 361, September-October 

1962, 325-328. 
Endnotes 689

145 Harold B. Goyette, “DEW Line Canada-Iceland Link,” TME, Vol 54, No 361, September-October 

1962, 325-328; E. H. Vaughn, Jr., “Construction Planning for Greenland,” TME, Vol 53, No 353, May-June 

1961, 206-208; Gene Augustine, 611th CES Natural Resources Program Manager, to Lois Walker, Email, 16 

Oct 2001. 

146 E. H. Vaughn, Jr., “Construction Planning for Greenland,” TME, Vol 53, No 353, May-June 1961, 

206-208; Harold B. Goyette, “DEW Line Canada-Iceland Link,” TME, Vol 54, No 361, September-October 

1962, 325; Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1957, n.p., AHO.

147 Harold B. Goyette, “DEW Line Canada-Iceland Link,” TME, Vol 54, No 361, September-October 

1962, 327. 

148 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1954, AFIR section, AHO; F. F. Newburg, 

“Tilt-Up Construction Project,” TME, Vol 46 No 311, May-June 1954, pp 191-193. 

149 Harold B. Goyette, “DEW Line Canada-Iceland Link,” TME, Vol 54, No 361, September-October 

1962, 326. 

150 Ibid.

151 Ibid.

152 Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1958, n.p., AHO; Harold B. Goyette, “DEW Line 

Canada-Iceland Link,” TME, Vol 54, No 361, September-October 1962, 326; H. Vaughn, Jr., “Construction 

Planning for Greenland,” TME, Vol 53, No 353, May-June 1961, 206-208.

153 H. Vaughn, Jr., “Construction Planning for Greenland,” TME, Vol 53, No 353, May-June 1961, 206-

208; Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1959, n.p., AHO.

154 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1959, n.p., AHO; Harold B. Goyette, “DEW Line 

Canada-Iceland Link,” TME, Vol 54, No 361, September-October 1962, 326. 

155 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1954, n.p.; Col. George F. Tait, “Texas 

Towers,” TME, Vol 47, No 320, November-December 1955, 436-439. 

156 Thomas W. Ray, “A History of Texas Towers in Air Defense, 1952-1964,” ADC History Office, March 

1965. 

157 Ibid. 

158 Thomas W. Ray, “A History of Texas Towers in Air Defense, 1952-1964,” ADC History Office, March 

1965; Col. George F. Tait, “Texas Towers,” TME, Vol 47, No 320, November-December 1955, 437. 

159 Col. George F. Tait, “Texas Towers,” TME, Vol 47, No 320, November-December 1955, 437. 

160 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, July-December 1954, July-December 1955, n.p. AHO; 

Thomas W. Ray, “A History of Texas Towers in Air Defense, 1952-1964,” ADC History Office, March 1965. 

161 Thomas W. Ray, “A History of Texas Towers in Air Defense, 1952-1964,” ADC History Office, March 

1965. 

162 Ibid. 

163 Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1958, July-December 1958, n.p., AHO; Col. Stanley 

W. Dzuiban, “Bases for Deterrence,” TME, Vol 52, No 349, September-October 1960, 375-376. 

164 Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1958, n.p. AHO; P.N. Rova, “AF Ballistic Missile 

Early Warning Construction,” Civil Engineering Beacon, Vol 6, No 57, February-March 1959, 13; Mandy Wharton, “The Cultural Significance of the U.S. Air Force Defensive Radar System,” paper for session at WAC4, Jan 

1999. 

165 Maj. Gen. E. C. Itschner, “Missile Construction for Security,” TME, Vol 51, No 342, July-August 

1959, p 262; Col. Stanley W. Dzuiban, “Bases for Deterrence,” TME, Vol 52, No 349, September-October 1960, 

375-376. 

166 P.N. Rova, “AF Ballistic Missile Early Warning Construction,” Civil Engineering Beacon, FebruaryMarch 1959, 13. 

167 Brig. Gen. John D. Peters (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001; Brig. Gen. Sheldon J. Lustig 

(USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 

November 2004; Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois 

E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, AFCESA History Office, 2002. 

168 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 39; Brig. Gen. William Leonhard, (USAF, Retired), “Interview of Brigadier General William Leonhard, 

USAF (retired),” Interviewed by Dr. John Lonnquest, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Office of History, 2000-

2001, 29-30. 

169 Brig. Gen. William Leonhard, (USAF, Retired), “Interview of Brigadier General William Leonhard, 

USAF (retired),” Interviewed by Dr. John Lonnquest, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Office of History, 2000-

2001, 29-30.

170 Ibid. 32-33.

171 Ibid. 35.

172 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 39. 
690 Leading the Way

173 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 3; Donald R. Baucom, “Eisenhower and Ballistic Missile Defense, the Formative Years, 1944-1961,” Air 

Power History, Winter 2004, 6-17. 

174 John M. Norvell, “Base Construction for Bomarc,” TME, Vol 63, No 352, March-April 1961, 129-130; 

Directorate of Installations History, January-December 1956, n.p., AHO. 

175 Robert L. Cotterman, “BOMARC. ADC’s Silent Sentry,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 2, May 

1961, 16. 

176 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 3; John M. Norvell, “Base Construction for Bomarc,” TME, Vol 53, No 352, March-April 1961, 130; 

Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1958, n.p., AHO. 

177 Robert L. Cotterman, “BOMARC. ADC’s Silent Sentry,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 2, May 

1961, 16-17. 

178 Ibid. 17-18. 

179 Robert L. Cotterman, “BOMARC. ADC’s Silent Sentry,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 2, May 

1961, 18.; Richard B. Hinckley, “Cleanliness . . . a state of mind,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 2, May 

1961, 8-11. 

180 “BOMARC Base,” TME, Vol 51, No 344, November-December 1959, 499.

181 Robert L. Cotterman, “BOMARC. ADC’s Silent Sentry,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 2, May 

1961, 19, Directorate of Civil Engineering History, January-December 1959, n.p., AHO. 

182 Robert L. Cotterman, “BOMARC. ADC’s Silent Sentry,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 2, May 

1961, 19. 

183 John T. Correll, “How the Air Force Got the ICBM,” Air Force Magazine, July 2005, 69-74. 

184 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 41; “Early Developments,” Federation of American Scientists, accessed December 2011, http://www.fas.

org/nuke/guide/usa/icbm/early.htm.

185 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 326; Col. Paul D. Troxler, “Space Missile Facilities,” TME, Vol 53, No 352, March-April 1961, 104; 

Brig. Gen. William Leonhard, (USAF, Retired), “Interview of Brig. Gen. William Leonhard, (USAF, Retired),” 

Interviewed by Dr. John Lonnquest, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Office of History, 2000-2001. 

186 Col. Paul D. Troxler, “Space Missile Facilities,” TME, Vol 53, No 352, March-April 1961, 104.

187 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1955, n.p., AHO; Col. Paul D. Troxler, “Space 

Missile Facilities,” TME, Vol 53, No 352, March-April 1961, 104. 

188 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 326; Col. Paul D. Troxler, “Space Missile Facilities,” TME, Vol 53, No 352, March-April 1961, 104; 

Brig. Gen. William Leonhard, (USAF, Retired), “Interview of Brig. Gen. William Leonhard, (USAF, Retired),” 

Interviewed by Dr. John Lonnquest, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Office of History, 2000-2001. 

189 Col. Paul D. Troxler, “Space Missile Facilities,” TME, Vol 53, No 352, March-April 1961, 105. 

190 Directorate of Installations Histories, January-June 1954; July-December 1956, n.p., AHO. 

191 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 313-314. 

192 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, AFCESA History Office, 2002, 11-14.

193 Ibid. 

194 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 314. 

195 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, AFCESA History Office, 2002, 14-15; Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, 

Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Douglas M. Merkle and Mrs. Lois E. Walker, September 

2007, 11-15. 

196 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, AFCESA History Office, 2002, 14-15.

197 Brig. Gen. John D. Peters (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 21-22. 

198 Correll, “How the Air Force Got the ICBM,” Air Force Magazine, July 2005, 69-74; John C. Lonnquest 

and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold War Missile Program, United 

States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 1996, 314; Brig. Gen. T. J. 

Hayes III, “ICBM Site Construction,” TME, Vol 54, No 362, November-December 1962, 399-403. 
Endnotes 691

199 Robinette E. McCabe, “Largest Rocket Test Stand,” TME, Vol 51, No 339, January-February 1959, 

9-11. 

200 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 48; Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 202. 

201 Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1959, n.p., AHO; Oral history interview, Brig. Gen. 

Sheldon J. Lustig (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, November 2004, 27-28. 

202 Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1959, n.p., AHO; “Thor Missile Deployment in the 

U.K.,” Carpetbagger Aviation Museum, accessed December 2011, http://harringtonmuseum.org.uk/ThorUK.

htm. 

203 “Thor Missile Deployment in the U.K.,” Carpetbagger Aviation Museum, accessed December 2011, 

http://harringtonmuseum.org.uk/ThorUK.htm; “Thor Missile,” Strategic-Air-Command.com, accessed December 

2011, http://www.strategic-air-command.com/missiles/Thor/Thor_Missile_Home_Page.htm.

204 Ibid.

205 Ibid.

206 “Thor Missile Deployment in the U.K.,” Carpetbagger Aviation Museum, accessed December 2011, 

http://harringtonmuseum.org.uk/ThorUK.htm; “Thor Missile,” Strategic-Air-Command.com, accessed December 

2011, http://www.strategic-air-command.com/missiles/Thor/Thor_Missile_Home_Page.htm; Brig. Gen. Sheldon 

J. Lustig (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, 26-34; John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the 

United States Cold War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, 

Champaign, Illinois, 1996, 52. 

207 Donald R. Baucom, “Eisenhower and Ballistic Missile Defense, the Formative Years, 1944-1961,” Air 

Power History, Winter 2004, 10; “Early Developments,” Federation of American Scientists, accessed December 

2011, http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/icbm/early.htm.

208 Mark Cleary, “Remembering the Titans,” Missileer (Patrick AFB newspaper), 27 Apr 07, 9. 

209 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 44; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “The Civil Engineer as Partner: ICBM Facility Construction,” Air Force Civil 

Engineer, Vol 2, No 6, September-October 1994, 2-3; Col. Stanley W. Dzuiban, “Bases for Deterrence,” TME, 

Vol 52, No 349, September-October 1960, 375-376. 

210 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 79; Col. Stanley W. Dzuiban, “Bases for Deterrence,” TME, Vol 52, No 349, September-October 1960, 

375-376.

211 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 68-69; Hayes, 399-403; John T. Correll, “How the Air Force Got the ICBM,” Air Force Magazine, July 

2005, 69-74.

212 John T. Correll, “How the Air Force Got the ICBM,” Air Force Magazine, July 2005, 69-74; Fred 

Hamlin, “Can Air Force Bases Stay in Step?” Armed Forces Management, November 1958, 14; John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold War Missile Program, 

United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 1996, 85; Brig. Gen. 

Sheldon J. Lustig (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, November 2004. 40-41; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “The Civil Engineer as Partner: ICBM 

Facility Construction,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 6, September-October 1994, 2-3.

213 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “The Civil Engineer as Partner: ICBM Facility Construction,” Air Force Civil 

Engineer, Vol 2, No 6, September-October 1994, 2. 

214 “Finding Tract Homes for Air Force Ballistic Missiles,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 1, February 

1961, 4-5. 

215 Finding Tract Homes for Air Force Ballistic Missiles,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 1, February 

1961, 6; Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1958, n.p., AHO.

216 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 440. 

217 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 440-441; Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1959, n.p., AHO. 

218 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 374. 

219 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “The Civil Engineer as Partner: ICBM Facility Construction,” Air Force Civil 
692 Leading the Way

Engineer, Vol 2, No 6, September-October 1994, 3. 

220 1st Lt. Ernest D. Strait and D. T. Gunderson, “Canopy for the Atlas,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, 

No 2, May 1961, 4-6. 

221 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 70-71; Brig. Gen. T. J. Hayes III, “ICBM Site Construction,” TME, Vol 54, No 362, November-December 

1962, 401-402. 

222 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 322; John T. Correll, “How the Air Force Got the ICBM,” Air Force Magazine, July 2005, 69-74. 

223 Directorate of Civil Engineering Histories, July-December 1959, July-December 1960, n.p., AHO. 

224 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 71-72. 

225 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 73; Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1958, n.p., AHO.

226 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 73; Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1959, n.p. AHO; John T. Correll, “How the Air Force 

Got the ICBM,” Air Force Magazine, July 2005, 69-74. 

227 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 366; Directorate of Civil Engineering History, July-December 1959, n.p., AHO. 

228 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program, United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

1996, 4-6. 

229 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1954, n.p., AHO. 

230 Lawrence C. Landis, The Story of the U.S. Air Force Academy, New York. Rinehart & Company, Inc., 

1960, 54-55.

231 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Building an Institution: The Construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy,” 

U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 5, July-August 1994, 15-17; Directorate of Installations History, July 

1949-June 1950, n.p., AHO. 

232 Lawrence C. Landis, The Story of the U.S. Air Force Academy, New York. Rinehart & Company, Inc., 

1960, 59-61. 

233 HQ Command General Order 32, 4 June 1954; Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, JanuaryJune 1954, AHO; “Meet Col. James A. Barnett, PE,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 8, No 2, May 1967, 7; 

Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 9, November 1954, 5. 

234 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Building an Institution: The Construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy,” U.S.

Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 5, July-August 1994, 15-17; Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, 

January-June 1954; Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1955, n.p., AHO. 

235 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1954, n.p., AHO. 

236 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1954, n.p., AHO; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, 

“Building an Institution: The Construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy,” U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 

2, No 5, July-August 1994, 15-17. 

237 Col. Albert E. Stoltz, “Plans for the United States Air Force Academy,” TME, Vol 48, No 326, November-December 1956, 446-447; Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1955; Installations 

Engineer Beacon, Vol 16, June 1955, 2. 

238 Robert Bruegmann, ed., Modernism at Mid-Century. The Architecture of the United States Air Force 

Academy, Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1994. 

239 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1955, n.p., AHO; Assistant Chief of Staff, 

Installations History July-December 1955, n.p., AHO. 

240 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, July-December 1954, January-June 1955, n.p., AHO; 

Lawrence C. Landis, The Story of the U.S. Air Force Academy, New York. Rinehart & Company, Inc., 1960, 69. 

241 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Building an Institution: The Construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy,” U.S. 

Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 5, July-August 1994, 15-17; Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, 

January-June 1955, n.p., AHO. 

242 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, July-December 1955, n.p., AHO. 

243 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1956, n.p., AHO; Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1958; July-December 1958; January-June 1959, n.p., AHO. 

244 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1956; January-June 1957, n.p., AHO. 

245 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Building an Institution: The Construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy,” U.S.

Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 5, July-August 1994, 15-17; Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, 

July-December 1955; Duane Boyle, USAFA/CEPD to Lois Walker, Email, 22 Aug 07, AHO. 
Endnotes 693

246 Lawrence C. Landis, The Story of the U.S. Air Force Academy, New York. Rinehart & Company, 

Inc., 1960, 68-69; Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1957; Directorate of Installations 

History, July-December 1958, n.p., AHO. 

247 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1957, n.p., AHO. 

248 Ibid. 

249 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations, History, January-June 1957, n.p., AHO. 

250 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Building an Institution: The Construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy,” U.S.

Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 5, July-August 1994, 15-17; Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, 

January-June 1957, n.p., AHO; U.S. Air Force Biographies: Lt. Gen. Hubert R. Harmon and Maj. Gen. James 

E. Briggs, U.S. Air Force, accessed various dates, www.af.mil/information/bios.

251 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Building an Institution: The Construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy,” 

U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 5, July-August 1994, 15-17; Directorate of Installations History, JulyDecember 1957, n.p., AHO. 

252 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-July 1956, January-June 1957, AHO; Directorate 

of Installations History, January-June 1958, July-December 1958, n.p., AHO.

253 Air Force General Order 20, 23 April 1958; USAFA General Order 13, 30 June 1958; Directorate of 

Installations History, January-June 1958, n.p., AHO. 

254 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1958; January-June 1959, n.p., AHO. 

255 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1958, n.p., AHO. 

256 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1959, n.p., AHO; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Building 

an Institution: The Construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy,” U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 5, 

July-August 1994, 15-17.

257 See note above.

258 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Building an Institution: The Construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy,” U.S.

Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 5, July-August 1994, 15-17; Directorate of Installations History, JanuaryJune 1959, n.p., AHO. 

259 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Building an Institution: The Construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy,” 

U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 5, July-August 1994, 15-17.

260 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1952; January-June 1954, n.p., AHO.

261 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 147-149, 124-125; Frederick J. 

Shaw, ed., Locating Air Force Base Sites, History’s Legacy, Air Force History and Museum Program, Washington, 

D.C., 2004, 60.

262 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 109; Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States 

Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., 

New York, 1974, 191-193; Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1952; January-June 1953, n.p., 

AHO.

263 Robert P. Grathwol and Donita M. Moorhus, Building for Peace: U.S. Army Engineers in Europe, 

1945 – 1991, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Center of Military History, United States Army 2005, 101.

264 Ibid. 102.

265 David H. Tulley, “The Military Construction Program,” TME, Vol 46, No 314, November-December 

1954, 408.

266 Robert P. Grathwol and Donita M. Moorhus, Building for Peace: U.S. Army Engineers in Europe, 

1945 – 1991, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Center of Military History, United States Army 2005, 102-104.

267 Brig. Gen. John D. Peters (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 16-17.

268 Robert P. Grathwol and Donita M. Moorhus, Building for Peace: U.S. Army Engineers in Europe, 

1945 – 1991, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Center of Military History, United States Army 2005, 115-116.

269 W.K. Wilson, Jr. “Overseas Military Construction,” TME, Vol 50, No 337, September-October 1958, 

330.

270 Lt. Col. Bernard Card, “The Role of Engineers in the Air Force,” Research report, Air War College, 

Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1948, 61-62; Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air 

Force Civil Engineering Wartime and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis, Air University, 

AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, 1985, 117.

271 “Pigskin Parable,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 1, No 2, May 1960, 3-4; Maj. Gen. Lee B. Washbourne, 

“Installations Engineer Career Field of the Air Force,” Journal, Washington, D.C., 31 October 1953; Col. Joel 

Yates, “Growth of UASF Physical Plant,” Civil Engineer Beacon, Vol 6, No 60, August-October 1959, 8-9.

272 Maj. Gen. Lee B. Washbourne, “Installations Engineer Career Field of the Air Force,” Journal, Washington, D.C., 31 October 1953.

273 Army Air Forces Regulation 20-42, Buildings and Grounds Post Engineer, 13 July 1944, 18 July 1944; 

Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “History Lesson: What’s In a Name?,” The U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 2, No 2, 

March 1994, 2-3.

274 Army Air Forces Regulation 20-42, Organization Post Engineer, 20 February 1945.
694 Leading the Way

275 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “History Lesson: What’s In a Name?,” The U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 

2, No 2, March 1994, 2-3; Army Air Forces Regulation 20-42, 3 January 1947.

276 Air Force Regulation 20-42, Air Installation Officer, 6 February 1948, 1.

277 Ibid.

278 Continental Air Command, “Air Installations,” Manual 50-10, Vol 1, January 1952, 14-15.

279 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 7, November 1954, n.p.; Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 26, 

April 1956, 2.

280 Air Force Regulation 20-42A, Installations Engineer Management and Organization Program, 24 

October 1956, 3 September 1957.

281 Air Force Regulation 20-42, Air Installation Officer, 6 February 1948, 1.

282 Ibid., 1; Air Installations, Vol 1, Continental Air Command Manual 50-10, January 1952, 1.

283 “Air Force Engineer Staff,” TME, Vol 40, No 276, October 1948, 473; “Air Installation Officers 

Needed,” TME, Vol 41, No 280, March-April 1949, 124.

284 Col. Edwin M. Eads, “The Air Force Installations Representatives,” TME, Vol 48, No 325, SeptemberOctober 1956, 362-363; Maj. Gen. Lee B. Washbourne, “Installations Engineer Career Field of the Air Force,” 

Journal, Washington, D.C., 31 October 1953.

285 “Air Force Installations Officers,” TME, Vol 47, No 315, January-February 1955, 59.

286 Brig. Gen. John D. Peters (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, iii-v.

287 Ibid. v.

288 Ibid.

289 Air Force Regulation 20-42, Installations Engineer Management and Organization Program, 24 

October 1956, 1-6.

290 Air Force Regulation 20-42, Air Installation Officer, 6 February 1948; Air Installations, Vol 1, Continental Air Command Manual 50-10, January 1952, 10-11. 

291 Air Force Regulation 20-42, Installations Engineer Management and Organization Program, 24 

October 1956, 3, 12.

292 Air Staff History, January-June 1951, AHO; Air Force Regulation 85-5, Maintenance of Installations, 

30 June 1951.

293 Brig. Gen. John D. Peters (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 12.

294 Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, 

AFCESA HQ, Tyndall, AFB, Florida, 2000, ii-iv.

295 Ibid. v, 36-38, 41.

296 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, July-December 1955, AHO.

297 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 22, December 1955, 8; Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 20, 

October 1955, 7.

298 Air Force Regulation 85-5, Maintenance of Installations, 30 June 1951; Air Force Regulation 20-42, 

Installations Engineer Management and Organization Program, 24 October 1956.

299 Air Force Regulation 20-42, Installations Engineer Management and Organization Program, 24 

October 1956, 2.

300 Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1958, n.p., AHO; Installations Engineer Beacon Vol 

17, July 1955, 7

301 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1959, n.p., AHO.

302 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 37-40, 61-62.

303 Directorate of Installations History, July 1949-June 1950, n.p., AHO.

304 Directorate of Installations History, July 1949-June 1950, n.p., AHO; Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1950, n.p., AHO.

305 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 2001, 53.

306 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1951, n.p., Files of AFCESA History Office, 

Tyndall, AFB, Florida.

307 Col. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Construction, Its Organization and Planning,” Thesis, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1954, 129-130. 

308 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1954, n.p., AHO.

309 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, July-December 1954, n.p., AHO.

310 Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, 

AFCESA HQ, Tyndall, AFB, Florida, 2000, 42.

311 Army Air Forces Regulation 20-42, Post Engineer, 18 July 1944, 1.

312 Lt. Col. Bernard Card, “The Role of Engineers in the Air Force,” Research report, Air War College, 

Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1948, 69; “Langley Fire Department Maintains Splendid Record,” The Tailspinner, 

Langley Field, Virginia, 16 June 1944, 5.

313 Continental Air Command, Air Installations, Volume II, May 1949, 247.
Endnotes 695

314 “Langley Fire Department Maintains Splendid Record,” The Tailspinner, Langley Field, Virginia, 16 

June 1944, 5. 

315 Douglas E. Courchene, Pioneers with Intent, Memoirs of an Air Force Fire Fighter, Air Force Civil 

Engineer Support Agency, Tyndall AFB July 2003, 45, 43, 69.

316 Air Force Regulation 20-42, Air Installation Officer, 3 January 1947, 1.

317 Air Force Regulation 20-42, Air Installation Officer, 6 February 1948; Air Force Regulation 20-42, 

Installations Engineer Management and Organization Program, 24 October 1956.

318 Continental Air Command, Air Installations, Volume II, May 1949, 243, 248.

319 Douglas E. Courchene, Pioneers with Intent, Memoirs of an Air Force Fire Fighter, Air Force Civil 

Engineer Support Agency, Tyndall AFB July 2003, 4-5.

320 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 13, March 1955, 5.

321 Air Staff History July-December 1949, January-June 1952, January-June 1953, n.p., AHO.

322 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 19, September 1955, 11; Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 6, No 

60, August-October 1959, 9.

323 Air Staff History July-December 1949, January-June 1952, January-June 1953, n.p., AHO.

324 “33d Annual Meeting of The Society,” TME, Vol 45, No 304, March-April 1953, 87-88.

325 Air Staff History July-December 1951, AHO; Douglas E. Courchene, Pioneers with Intent, Memoirs 

of an Air Force Fire Fighter, Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency, Tyndall AFB July 2003, 72, 76.

326 Staff History January-June 1952, n.p., AHO; G.Y. Coats, “A History of USAF Fire Protection Training 

at Chanute AFB 1964-1976,” Chanute Technical Training Center, February 1977, n.p.

327 Air Staff History, January-June 1955, n.p., AHO; Douglas E. Courchene, Pioneers with Intent, Memoirs 

of an Air Force Fire Fighter, Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency, Tyndall AFB July 2003, 33, 39-40.

328 Air Staff History, January-June 1959, n.p., AHO.

329 Capt. Joe G. Ballard, “An Organizational History of Air Force Fire Protection,” Thesis, Department 

of the Air University, AFIT, 1987, 28-29; Douglas E. Courchene, Pioneers with Intent, Memoirs of an Air Force 

Fire Fighter, Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency, Tyndall AFB July 2003, 33, 78-79.

330 Air Force Regulation 20-42, Air Installation Officer, 6 February 1948; Air Force Regulation 20-42, 

Installations Engineer Management and Organization Program, 24 October 1956.

331 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 27, May 1956, 5.

332 Fred Hamlin, “Can Air Force Bases Stay in Step?,” Armed Forces Management, November 1958, 

12-14.

333 Claude F. Browning, “Utility Service Contracts,” Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 56, January 1959, 

11-12; Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, “Cost Reduction,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 5 No 2 May 1964, 1. 

334 Directorate of Installations History July-December 1959, n.p., AHO.

335 Air Force Regulation 20-42A, Installations Engineer Management and Organization Program, 24 

October 1956.

336 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 37, April 1957, 1-2.

337 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 52, July 1958, 1-3.

338 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1951, January-June 1953, n.p., AHO; Assistant 

Chief of Staff, Installations History, July-December 1954, n.p., AHO.

339 Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force 1907-1957, D. Van Nostrand Company, 

Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, 1957, reprint, Arno Press, Inc., New York, 1974, 194-195.

340 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1955, n.p., AHO; Installations Engineer 

Beacon, Vol 23, January 1956, 4.

341 “AFIT History,” AFIT, accessed December 2008, http://www.afit.edu/about.cfm?a=history; Ashdown, 

13.

342 “AFIT History,” AFIT, accessed December 2008, http://www.afit.edu/about.cfm?a=history; Ashdown, 

13; Eugene E. Peer, History of the Civil Engineering School, AFIT, November 1976, 4, AHO.

343 Eugene E. Peer, History of the Civil Engineering School, AFIT, November 1976, 5-7, AHO.

344 “USAF Institute of Technology,” Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 10, December 1954, 6.

345 Ibid.

346 “AFIT History,” AFIT, accessed December 2008, http://www.afit.edu/about.cfm?a=history; Ashdown, 

13; Eugene E. Peer, History of the Civil Engineering School, AFIT, November 1976, 8-9, AHO; “USAF Institute 

of Technology,” Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 10, December 1954, 6; “Installations Engineering School 

to Begin New Advanced Course in September,” Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 26, April 1956, 1.

347 “AFIT History,” AFIT, accessed December 2008, http://www.afit.edu/about.cfm?a=history; Ashdown, 

13; Eugene E. Peer, History of the Civil Engineering School, AFIT, November 1976, 4, AHO.

348 Lois E. Walker and Shelby E. Wickman, From Huffman Prairie to the Moon, The History of WrightPatterson Air Force Base, United States Air Force Logistics Command, U.S. Government Printing Office, 

Washington, DC, 1986, 414.

349 Ibid. 414-415.

350 Thomas A. Manning, Dr. Bruce A. Ashcroft, Richard E. Emmons, Ann K. Hussey, and Dr. Joseph L. 

Mason, History of Air Education and Training Command 1942-2002, Office of History and Research Headquarters, Air Education and Training Command, Randolph AFB, Texas, 2005, 47-51, accessed December 2008, 
696 Leading the Way

www.aetc.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-061109-022.pdf.

351 Ibid. 51-42. 

352 Office of History, HQ 82d Training Wing, “A Brief History of Sheppard AFB and the 82d Training 

Wing,” Office of History, HQ 82d Training Wing, Sheppard AFB, Texas, 1 July 2006, 30, accessed January 

2011, www.sheppard.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-061113-068.pdf. 

353 Thomas A. Manning, Dr. Bruce A. Ashcroft, Richard E. Emmons, Ann K. Hussey, and Dr. Joseph L. 

Mason, History of Air Education and Training Command 1942-2002, Office of History and Research Headquarters, Air Education and Training Command, Randolph AFB, Texas, 2005, 48, 61, accessed December 2008, 

www.aetc.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-061109-022.pdf; Lt. Col. George Talbot, PE, “Training for...Civil 

Engineering Technicians,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 4, No 4, November 1963, 18; CMSgt. Chuck Perry 

and STTC Team, “USAF Civil Engineering Training – Leading the Way!,” The U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, 

Vol 1, No 7, September-October 1993, 13; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Training Experiment: The Aviation Engineer 

Force,” The U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 1, No 7, September-October 1993, 10-11.

354 Douglas E. Courchene, Pioneers with Intent, Memoirs of an Air Force Fire Fighter, Air Force Civil 

Engineer Support Agency, Tyndall AFB, Florida July 2003, 53- 56.

355 Air Staff History, January-June 1955, n.p., AHO.

356 Ashdown, 10.

357 Brig. Gen. John D. Peters (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 10-11.

358 Ashdown, 11. 

359 Col. Eric Duggan, “Some Implications of Transferring the Aviation Engineers to the Air Force,” Thesis, 

Air War College, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, April 1954, 15-18.

360 Lt. Col. Benjamin Card, “The Role of Engineers in the Air Force,” Thesis, Air War College, Maxwell 

AFB, Alabama, February 1948, 103. 

361 William C. Baldwin, “Engineers and the Berlin Airlift, 1948-1949,” Engineer, April 1998, 35-37; 

Daniel F. Harrington, “The Air Force Can Deliver Anything!” A History of the Berlin Airlift, USAFE Office 

of History, May 1998, 1, 30; Maj. Herbert J. Gall, “Flugplatz Tempelhof,” TME, Vol 42, No 288, July-August 

1950, 289-290.

362 Brig. Gen. William Leonhard (USAF, Retired), “Interview of Brig. Gen. William Leonhard (USAF, 

Retired),” Interviewed by Dr. John Lonnquest, Office of History, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2001, 25, 26, 

28, AHO.

363 Directorate of Installations Histories, July 1949-June 1950, January-June 1951, n.p., AHO

364 Directorate of Installations Histories, July 1949-June 1950, January-June 1951; July-December 1951, 

n.p., AHO

365 Directorate of Installations History, January-June 1951, n.p., AHO. 

366 Aviation Engineer Force, “An Analysis of Operational Activities, 1951-1956,” 5, AHO. 

367 Col. H. R. Hallock, “Troop Operations in the North,” TME, Vol 48, No 323, May-June 1956, 214-217; 

Directorate of Installations Histories, July 1949-June 1950 and July-December 1950, n.p., AHO. 

368 Robert P. Grathwol and Donita M. Moorhus, Building for Peace: U.S. Army Engineers in Europe, 

1945-1991, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Office of History, 2006, 64; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, USAFE/HO to 

Lois Walker, AFCESA/HO, Email, 21 June 02; “SCARWAF Units in Europe,” AHO.

369 S.D. Sturgis, Jr., “Air Power as Affected by Airdrome Construction,” TME, Vol 40, No 274, August 

1948, 355-357; S.D. Sturgis, Jr., “Air Power as Affected by Airdrome Construction,” TME, Vol 40, No 275, 

September 1948, 416-419.

370 John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War. A New History, The Penguin Press, New York, 2005, 41.

371 Ibid.

372 Robert F. Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953, Revised Edition, Office of Air 

Force History, U.S. Air Force, Washington, D.C., 1983, 498.

373 Ashdown, 16-17.

374 Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering Wartime 

and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis, Air University, AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, 1985, 123; 

Robert F. Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953, Revised Edition, Office of Air Force History, 

U.S. Air Force, Washington, D.C., 1983, 61-62.

375 Ashdown, 17.

376 Don K Tomajan, III, “Aviation Engineer Contributions to the Air War in Korea,” Air Force Civil 

Engineer, Vol 9, No 4, Winter 2001, 13-21; Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air 

Force Civil Engineering Wartime and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis, Air University, 

AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, 1985, 123.

377 William E. Leonhard, “Use of Civilian Contractors For Air Force Construction,” Research Paper, Air 

War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1952, Appendix A.

378 Don K Tomajan, III, “Aviation Engineer Contributions to the Air War in Korea,” Air Force Civil

Engineer, Vol 9, No 4, Winter 2001, 13-21; Ashdown, 17.

379 John G. Westover, U.S. Army In Action Series; Combat Support in Korea,” Center of Military History, 

U.S. Army, Washington, D.C.
Endnotes 697

380 Robert F. Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953, Revised Edition, Office of Air Force 

History, U.S. Air Force, Washington, D.C., 1983, 65; Don K. Tomajan III, “Aviation Engineer Contributions to 

the Air War in Korea, 1950-1953,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 9 No 4, Winter 2001, 13-21.

381 “Summary History of Engineer Effort in Korea 25 June 1950 – 1 November 1950,” 2, AHO; Ashdown, 

18.

382 Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering Wartime 

and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis, Air University, AFIT, September 1985, 136.

383 “Air Force Construction in Korea 1950-1953,” 1, AHO; Lt. Col. Joseph L. Albert and Capt. Billy C. 

Wylie, “Air War in Korea: IV Problems of Airfield Construction in Korea,” Air University Quarterly Review,

Vol 5, No 1, Winter 195,189; Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil 

Engineering Wartime and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis, Air University, AFIT, 

September 1985, 136-137.

384 Lt. Col. Mitchell Goldenthal, “K-6 Air Base Construction,” TME, Vol 46, No 309, January-February 

1954, 38. 

385 Ashdown, 18-19.

386 Ibid. 20.

387 “Review of Airfield Construction and the Related Problems in the Korean Theater of Operations from 

1 July 1950 to 31 May 1951,” 5AF Deputy for Installations, 9 Jun 1951, 5-9, AHO; Ashdown, 19. 

388 “Review of Airfield Construction and the Related Problems in the Korean Theater of Operations from 

1 July 1950 to 31 May 1951,” 5AF Deputy for Installations, 9 Jun 1951, 9-10, AHO.

389 Maj. Alfred B. Hicks, Jr., “Statements of Belief Relating to the Combat Employment of Civil Engineering Forces,” Student Report, Air Command and Staff College, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1986, 40.

390 Ronald B. Hartzer, From Sandbags to MAAS: Aircraft Arresting Systems, AHO.

391 H.E. Burchell, “Aircraft Arresting Barriers,” TME, Vol 59, No 390, July-August 1967,267.

392 History of Directorate of Installations, HQ Fifth Air Force, February 1953, n.p., AHO.

393 H.E. Burchell, “Aircraft Arresting Barriers,” TME, Vol 59, No 390, July-August 1967,267.

394 James H. White, “Runway Arresting Barriers,” Civil Engineering Beacon, Vol 6, No 58, April-May 

1959, 6.

395 H.E. Burchell, “Aircraft Arresting Barriers,” TME, Vol 59, No 390, July-August 1967,267.

396 “FEAF Korean War Report: SCARWAF Engineering Aviation Units—Our Chosen Construction 

Forces,” Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, AHO. 

397 Ashdown, 15. 

398 Ashdown, 29; Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering Wartime and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis, Air University, AFIT, September 

1985, 150-151. 

399 Maj. Leonard B. Reppert, “The Installations Squadron in Korea,” Air University Quarterly Review, 

Spring 1952, 87-97; Ashdown, 29; Maj. Alfred B. Hicks, Jr., “Statements of Belief Relating to the Combat 

Employment of Civil Engineering Forces,” Student Report, Air Command and Staff College, Maxwell AFB, 

Alabama, 1986, 37.

400 “Review of Airfield Construction and the Related Problems in the Korean Theater of Operations from 

1 July 1950 to 31 May 1951,” 5AF Deputy for Installations, 9 June 1951, 3, AHO.

401 “September 1951 Report,” Deputy for Installations, HQ Seoul, Korea, AHO; Capt. L. Dean Waggoner 

and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering Wartime and Contingency Problems from 

1941 to the Present,” Thesis, Air University, AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, September 1985, 155. 

402 Ashdown, 25

403 Ibid. 25-28.

404 John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War. A New History, The Penguin Press, New York, 2005, 50.

405 Don K. Tomajan, III, “Aviation Engineer Contributions to the Air War in Korea,” Air Force Civil 

Engineer, Vol 9, No 4, Winter 2001, 13; Ashdown, 32; “An Analysis of Operational Activities 1951-1956,” 7, 

AHO.

406 Maj. Alfred B. Hicks, Jr., “Statements of Belief Relating to the Combat Employment of Civil Engineering Forces,” Student Report, Air Command and Staff College, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1986, 42-46.

407 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Training Experiment: The Aviation Engineer Force,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 1, No 7, September-October 1993, 10; Col. George A. Bohlen, USAF Engineer Heavy Repair/Troop 

Construction Capability, Research Report No. 9, Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Air War College, May 1977, 1. 

408 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Training Experiment: The Aviation Engineer Force,” Air Force Civil Engineer, 

Vol 1, No 7, September-October 1993, 10; Monthly Historical Report, Deputy for Installations, HQ Seoul, Korea, 

Jul 1951; “Summary History of Engineer Effort in Korea, 25 Jun 50-1 Nov 50,” 7. 

409 AEF, “An Analysis of Operational Activities,” iv, 22; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Training Experiment: 

The Aviation Engineer Force,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 1, No 7, September-October 1993, 10. 

410 AEF, “An Analysis of Operational Activities,” iv-v, AHO. 

411 Ibid.; Brig. Gen. Ehrgott Air Force bio; Brig. Gen. Guy Goddard Air Force bio. 

412 “Fort Huachuca Timeline,” Fort Huachuca Museum, accessed December 2011, http://www.huachuca.

army.mil/sites/history/PDFS/FHTIME.PDF.
698 Leading the Way

413 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Training Experiment: The Aviation Engineer Force,” Air Force Civil Engineer, 

Vol 1, No 7, September-October 1993, 10.

414 AEF, “An Analysis of Operational Activities,” 19, AHO. 

415 Ibid. 1-2. 

416 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Training Experiment: The Aviation Engineer Force,” Air Force Civil Engineer, 

Vol 1, No 7, September-October 1993, 10. 

417 AEF, “An Analysis of Operational Activities,” 2-3, AHO. 

418 Ibid., 11; AFR 50-20, “Aviation Engineer Training,” 25 Apr 1950, which superseded Air Force Letter 

50-34, 6 Oct 1948. 

419 AEF, “An Analysis of Operational Activities,” 4-5, AHO. 

420 Ibid.; History of the 820th Engineer Aviation Battalion, 1 March 52–25 September 1955, 107-8, AHO. 

421 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Training Experiment: The Aviation Engineer Force,” Air Force Civil Engineer, 

Vol 1, No 7, September-October 1993, 10-11. 

422 AEF, “An Analysis of Operational Activities,” 27-28, AHO. 

423 Ibid, 18; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Training Experiment: The Aviation Engineer Force,” Air Force Civil 

Engineer, Vol 1, No 7, September-October 1993, 11. 

424 AEF, “An Analysis of Operational Activities,” 12, AHO. 

425 Ibid. 12-13. 

426 Ibid. 9; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Training Experiment: The Aviation Engineer Force,” Air Force Civil 

Engineer, Vol 1, No 7, September-October 1993, 11. 

427 “SCARWAF Units in Europe,” AHO.

428 Ashdown, 14.

429 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1954, AHO.

430 Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, February 2003, iv, 6.

431 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1955, AHO.

432 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 2001, 42. 

433 Reuben B. Robertson, Jr., Memorandum for the Secretary of the Army and the Secretary of the Air 

Force, Subject: Special Category, Army Units with Air Force (SCARWAF), Washington, D.C., 2 December 

1955, AHO.

434 “SCARWAF Units in Europe,” AHO.

435 “Military Notes Around the World,” Military Review, February 1965, 68.

436 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1957; Directorate of Installations History, 

July-December 1957, n.p., AHO.

437 “Military Notes Around the World,” Military Review, February 1965, 68.

438 “Single Army-Air Force Engineer Service,” TME, Vol 48, No 321, January-February 1956, 61.

439 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, January-June 1956, AHO.

440 Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations History, July-December 1956, Files of AFCESA History Office, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida.

441 Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering Wartime 

and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis, Air University, AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, 1985, 190.

442 David A. Byrd, “Lebanon Crisis: Operation BLUE BAT,” Warnock, A. Timothy, Ed., Ed. Short of War: 

Major USAF Contingency Operations, Air Force History and Museums Program, Air University Press, Maxwell 

AFB, Alabama, 2000, 11-21; Ashdown, 35; Stanley Kachel, “Lebanon 1958, CE Mobile Team Concept Reborn 

after Emergency,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 3, No 3, 1962, 6-7.

443 Ashdown, 36.

444 Robert D. Little and Wilhelmine Burch, Air Operations in the Lebanon Crisis of 1958,” USAF Historical 

Division Liaison Office, Oct 1962, 71, 74, AHO.

445 Capt. L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering Wartime 

and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis, Air University, AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, September 

1985, 193-194; Stanley Kachel, “Lebanon 1958, CE Mobile Team Concept Reborn after Emergency,” Air Force 

Civil Engineer, Vol 3, No 3, 1962, 6-7.

446 Installations Engineer Beacon, Vol 29, July 1956, 1.

447 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 35-36.

448 Ibid.

449 “Air Force Civil Engineers,” TME, Vol 51, No 335, May-June 1959, 234; General Order 13, 19 March 

1959; Civil Engineering Beacon, Vol 6, No 57, February-March 1959, 2.
Endnotes 699

Chapter 3 Endnotes

1 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interview by Dr. Ronald 

B. Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, iii; “Maj. Gen. Augustus M. 

Minton,” Air Force Civil Engineer [hereafter cited as AFCE], Vol 4, No 3, August 1963, 8-9.

2 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Professionalism Personified: Maj. Gen. A.M. Minton,” Air Force Engineering 

& Services Quarterly, [hereafter cited as ESQ] Vol 26, No 1, Spring 1985, 21.

3 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interview by Dr. Ronald 

B. Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, iii.

4 Ibid. “Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton,” AFCE, Vol 4, No 3, August 1963, 8-9.

5 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 2003, v.

6 “Reflections on the Past,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 3, May 1968, 7-8.

7 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, “The Director Says...Let’s Clean Up the Air and Water Pollution!,” AFCE, 

Vol 9, No 2, May 1968, 1.

8 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 2003, 46.

9 Ibid., v.

10 “Reflections,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, February 1972, 7-8.

11 Major General Guy H. Goddard, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald 

B. Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, February 2003, v, 17; “Reflections,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, February 1972, 7-8.

12 See Note Above.

13 Lois E. Walker, “A Tradition of Excellence,” The CE, Vol 7, No 3, Summer 1999, 35.

14 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Remembering a Founder” Maj. Gen. M.R. (Tex) Reilly,” U.S. AFCE, Vol 1, 

No 10, December 1993, 16-17; “What’s Ahead?,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, February 1974, 1-9.

15 “What’s Ahead?,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, February 1974, 1-9.

16 “Major General B.J. McGarvey Named Director,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, February 1974, 10; Maj. Gen. 

Billie J. McGarvey, “From the Director...More Than Ever Before, AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, May 1974, 1; Maj. Gen. 

Billie J. McGarvey, “In Retrospect...An Open Letter from the Departing Director,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, May 

1975, 7.

17 “The Directorate of Civil Engineering, Headquarters, U.S. Air Force,” The Military Engineer [hereafter 

cited as TME] Vol 63, No 415, September-October 1971, 319-320.

18 “Directorate of Civil Engineering,” TME, Vol 52, No 349, September-October 1960, 384.

19 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interview by Dr. Ronald 

B. Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 54.

20 “Directorate of Civil Engineering,” TME, Vol 52, No 349, September-October 1960, 384.

21 “Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton,” AFCE, Vol 4, No 3, August 1963, 8-9.

22 Maj. Gen. Maurice R. Reilly, “Air Force Civil Engineering: What’s Ahead?” TME, Vol 66, No 429, 

January-February 1974, 10-12. 

23 Air Staff History January-June 1960, Files of AFCEC History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida [hereafter 

cited as AHO]

24 “AFOCE Reorganization,” AFCE, Vol 1, No 2, May 1960, 20-21. 

25 Air Staff History July-December 1961, AHO.

26 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, Chronology of Significant Organizational Changes HQ USAF Civil Engineering, 

n.d., AHO.

27 Air Staff History, July-December 1962, n.p.

28 “Directorate of Civil Engineering U.S. Air Force,” TME, Vol 56, No 373, September-October 1964, 

366.

29 “Directorate of Civil Engineering U.S. Air Force,” TME Vol 56, No 374, November-December 1964, 

447.

30 Col. Robert C. Gardner, “The Civil Engineering Center,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, February 1969, 2-4; 

William D. Gilbert, “Directorate of Civil Engineering Reorganizes,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, February 1969, 6-7; 

Air Staff History, January-June 1968, n.p.; Guy H. Goddard, “Concepts of Operations New AFOCE Organization, AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, May 1970, 10-12.

31 William D. Gilbert, “Directorate of Civil Engineering Reorganizes,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, February 

1969, 6-7.

32 Ibid., 6.

33 Ibid., 6-7.

34 Mr. Harry P. Rietman, (Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, November 2004, iii.

35 William D. Gilbert, “Directorate of Civil Engineering Reorganizes,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, February 

1969, 6-7; Guy H. Goddard, “Concepts of Operations New AFOCE Organization, AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, May 

1970, 10-12.

36 See Note Above.
700 Leading the Way

37 Air Staff History, January- June 1971, n.p., AHO.

38 Guy H. Goddard, “Concepts of Operations New AFOCE Organization, AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, May 1970, 

10-12; “The Directorate of Civil Engineering,” TME, Vol 63, No 415, September-October 1971, 319-320.

39 Air Staff History, July-December 1970, 183.

40 “Air Force Engineer Note,” TME, Vol 63, No 413, May-June 1971, 201; The Directorate of Civil 

Engineering,” TME, Vol 63, No 415, September-October 1971, 319-320.

41 See Note Above.

42 Air Staff History, January-June 1971, n.p., AHO.

43 “The ‘New Look’ at AF/PRE,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 1, February 1973, 3; Air Staff History, January-June 

1972, n.p., AHO.

44 “New Division in AFCE,” TME, Vol 67, No 436, March-April, 1975, 104.

45 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969, 42 U.S.C 4321-4347.

46 Lt. Col. A.M. Nemetz, “A New Standard Civil Engineering Command Structure,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 

3, August 1965, 36-37.

47 Air Force Regulation 23-4, 2 June 1965, 1-5.

48 Air Staff History, January-June 1973, n.p., AHO.

49 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, “Message from the Director...Farewell,” AFCE, Vol 4, No 3, August 

1963, 1.

50 Ibid.

51 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interview by Dr. Ronald 

B. Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 30.

52 Ibid., 33.

53 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Professionalism Personified: Maj. Gen. A.M. Minton,” Air Force Engineering&

Services Quarterly, Vol 26, No 1, Spring 1985, 20.

54 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, “Message from the Director...,” AFCE, Vol 2, No 3, August 1961, 1.

55 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, “The Director Says...New Director Stresses Better Use of Our Engineering 

Capability, Vol 4, No 4, August 1963, 1.

56 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, “The Director Says...BALANCE-A System Responsive to Management 

Needs,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 3, August 1967, 1.

57 George K. Dimitroff, Editor, “A Chronicle of Progress 1960-1969, AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, February 1970, 

3.

58 “Hail the ‘AFCE’ – Farewell to the Beacon,” Civil Engineering Beacon, November-December 1959, 

1.

59 Lois E. Walker, electronic mail to Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, 31 March 2006, AHO; George K. Dimitroff, 

Editor, “A Chronicle of Progress 1960-1969, AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, February 1970, 2-5. Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, 

“The Air Force Civil Engineer Magazine Turns Fifty,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 1, 2010, 5-8.

60 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, Memorandum, Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 1, No 1, February, 1960, 

3; H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Professionalism Personified: Maj. Gen. A.M. Minton,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 1, Spring 

1985, 18.

61 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Professionalism Personified: Maj. Gen. A.M. Minton,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 1, 

Spring 1985, 18-21.

62 “Air Force Civil Engineer Innovations,” AFCE, Vol 2, No 4, November 1961, 1.

63 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 13.

64 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Professionalism Personified: Maj. Gen. A.M. Minton,” Air Force Engineering& 

Services Quarterly, Vol 26, No 1, Spring 1985, 21.

65 “Journal Marks 13th Year with Aims Toward New Goals,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 2, May 1971, back cover.

66 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “The Air Force Civil Engineer Magazine Turns Fifty!” Air Force Civil Engineer, 

Vol 18, No 1, 2010, 5-8. 

67 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interview by Dr. Ronald 

B. Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 30.

68 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, “The Director Says...A Program for Professional Growth,” AFCE, Vol 

6, No 4, November 1965, 1.

69 Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard, “The Director Says...Seed Professional Development,” AFCE, Vol 12, 

No 4, November 1971, 1.

70 “The Air Force Civil Engineer: Our Ten Commandments of Job Performance,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 2, 

May 1965, 37.

71 Maj. John J. Lieb, “Why Registration?,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 5, No 1, February 1964, 12-13.

72 Sam S. Nigro, “PRIDE,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 4, November 1971, 8-9.

73 Lt. Gen. Walter K. Wilson, Jr., “TME as Engineer-Manager,” TME, Vol 56, No 371, May-June 1964, 

165-166.

74 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, “Message from the Director...,” AFCE, Vol 3, No 4, November 1962, 

1.

75 George K. Dimitroff, Editor, “A Chronicle of Progress 1960-1969, AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, February 1970, 
Endnotes 701

2; Lewis Shockey, “New Cost Accounting System for Civil Engineering, AFCE, Vol 1, No 1, February 1960, 5.

76 George K. Dimitroff, Editor, “A Chronicle of Progress 1960-1969, AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, February 1970, 

2. 

77 Col. G.J. Anzelon, “Network Techniques in Civil Engineering Management-Part I,” AFCE, Vol 3, No 

3, August 1962, 14-17; Col. G.J. Anzelon, “Network Techniques in Civil Engineering Management-Part II,” 

AFCE, Vol 3, No 4, November 1962, 32-33.

78 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, “Message from the Director...,” AFCE, Vol 3, No 4, November 1962, 

1.

79 1st Lt. Donald C. Koford, “Application of CPM in AFRCE-NP MCP Construction,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 

2, May 1965, 23.

80 Capt. Jimmy Dishner, “Management by Critical Path in Civil Engineering,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 4, 

November 1966, 26-27.

81 Capt. Jimmy G. Dishner, “Reorganization Network,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 3, August 1967, 14; Capt. David 

E. Clapp, “CPM/PERT for Staff Planning,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 3, August 1967, 15.

82 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, “The Director Says...BALANCE-A System Responsive to Management 

Needs,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 3, August 1967, 1.

83 Edward R. Berkowitz, “Balance: Management by Results,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 4, November 1968, 2-4, 

29.

84 Ibid.

85 Ibid.

86 Robert E. Brandon, “PEACE,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 4, November 1969, 2-4.

87 Air Staff History, January-June, 1969, n.p., AHO.

88 Air Staff History, July-December 1968, n.p., AHO.

89 “Major Civil Engineering Objectives for FY1969,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, May 1968.

90 Air Staff Histories, January-June and July-December 1972, n.p., AHO.

91 A.S. Richards, “Standard Base Civil Engineer Management Review Program,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, 

August 1969, 33.

92 Air Staff History, January-June, 1971, n.p., AHO.

93 Air Staff History, July-December, 1969, n.p., AHO.

94 Air Staff History, January-June 1970, n.p., AHO.

95 Air Staff History, July-December 1970, n.p., AHO.

96 A.M. Crawford, “Air Force Civil Engineering Management-A Progress Report,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, 

February 1972, 2-5.

97 Brig. Gen. Guy H. Goddard, “AFLC’s Long Range O&M Program,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 4, November 

1965, 22-23.

98 Lt. Col. Henry G. Snider and Maj. Lewis D. Hollis, “Automation of Total Programming,” AFCE, Vol 

11, No 2, May 1970, 14-15, 30.

99 Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard, “The Director Says...“Integrated Management Systems,” AFCE, Vol 10, 

No 1, February 1969, 1.

100 Lt. Col. Henry G. Snider and Maj. Lewis D. Hollis, “Automation of Total Programming,” AFCE, Vol 

11, No 2, May 1970, 14-15, 30.

101 Orlando M. Holland, “Total Facility Study,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 2, May 1967, 26-28.

102 Air Staff History, January-June 1968, n.p., AHO.

103 Lt. Col. Henry G. Snider and Maj. Lewis D. Hollis, “Automation of Total Programming,” AFCE, Vol 

11, No 2, May 1970, 14-15, 30.

104 A.M. Crawford, “Air Force Civil Engineering Management-A Progress Report,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, 

February 1972, 2-5.

105 Air Staff History, July-December 1973, n.p., AHO.

106 Air Staff History, July-December 1975, n.p., AHO.

107 James A. Gedra and Lt. Col. Joseph Adamo, “AFLC Pilot Test for USAF...Quality Assurance Program,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, August 1969, 30-32.

108 Capt. Norbert A. O’Hare and Capt. William L. O’Dell, “Building Blocks for a Productive QC&E 

Program,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 1, February 1971, 10-11.

109 Formal Report of the Civil Engineering Manpower Study Group (Project Prime Beef), 1964, 7.

110 Maj. Albert M. Nemetz, “New Civil Engineering AFSC’s,” AFCE, Vol 4, No 3, August 1963, 20-22.

111 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 2003, 38.

112 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, :Message from the Director...,” AFCE, Vol 4, No 3, August 1963, 1.

113 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 2003, 38.

114 Maj. Hubert S. Nethercot, “Prime BEEF Base Recovery Forces,” Research Study submitted to the 

Faculty of Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 11, 1973, 13-14.

115 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 54.
702 Leading the Way

116 Formal Report of the Civil Engineering Manpower Study Group (Project Prime BEEF), 1964, 2-4.

117 Ibid., 7.

118 Ibid.

119 Ibid.

120 Ibid., 6.

121 Ibid.

122 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 55.

123 Lt. Col. William E. Meredith, “Project Prime BEEF Base Engineer Emergency Force,” Air Force 

Engineer, Vol 5, No 4, November 1964, 3-5.

124 Ibid., 3-4.

125 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 57.

126 Formal Report of the Civil Engineering Manpower Study Group (Project Prime BEEF), 1964, 12.

127 Ibid., 12-15.

128 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, “Project Prime BEEF: Base Engineer Emergency Force,” AFCE, Vol 

5, No 4, November 1964, 2-5.

129 Maj. Hubert S. Nethercot, “Prime BEEF Base Recovery Forces,” Research Study submitted to the 

Faculty of Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1973, 14-15.

130 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 161-162.

131 Maj. Hubert S. Nethercot, “Prime BEEF Base Recovery Forces,” Research Study submitted to the 

Faculty of Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1973, 17, 12.

132 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Base Engineers’ Emergency Forces,” TME, Vol 57, No 376, 

March-April 1965, 109.

133 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 2001, 59-60.

134 Capt L. Dean Waggoner and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe, “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering Wartime 

and Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present,” Thesis for Air University Air Force Institute of Technology, September 1985 [hereafter cited as Waggoner & Moe], 218.

135 Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard, “The Director Says...Use Prime BEEF “E” Team,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 1, 

February 1971, 1; Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard, “The Director Says...Prime BEEF and RED HORSE Evolution,” 

AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, August 1970, 1.November 1967

136 Maj. Hubert S. Nethercot, “Prime BEEF Base Recovery Forces,” Research Study submitted to the 

Faculty of Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1973, 24.

138 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, “The Director Says...Prime BEEF vs RED HORSE,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 

4, November 1966, 1.

139 Air Staff History, July-December 1975, AHO.

140 Prime Beef Deployments, 1965-1976, AHO.

141 Maj. Thomas S. Collings, “Classification of Civil Engineering Officers,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, May 

1969, 36.

142 William W. Payne, “Standard Base Engineering Position Descriptions...A Program for the Future,” 

AFCE, Vol 12, No 4, November 1971, 26-27.

143 Major General Guy H. Goddard, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald 

B. Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, February 2003, 14.

144 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 45.

145 Maj. Craig, Major Rabb, Maj. Yow, Capt. Carlstrom, “Palace Blueprint,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, May 

1970, 2-4; Marvin T. Howell, “Palace Blueprint: Six Years Later,” Air Force Engineering & Services Quarterly, 

Vol 17, No 2, May 1976, 31-32, 36; “Project Palace Blueprint, Air Force Times, 19 November 1969, 2.

146 Air Staff History, January-June 1969, n.p., AHO.

147 Lt. Col. R. L. DuBose, “RCAF Construction Engineering,” AFCE, Vol 3, No. 4, November 1962, 7-9.

148 “Civil Engineering Officer Exchange Program,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, February 1975, 13-16.

149 “Meet...John R. Gibbens,” AFCE, Vol 3, No 1, February 1962, n.p.; “Deputy Air Force Civil Engineers,” AFCE, Vol 19, No 4, 2011, 7; “Deputy Air Force Civil Engineers,” AFCE, Vol 19, No 4, 2011, 7.

150 “Two Civil Engineering Air men Make History with Reenlistments,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, August 

1969, 19.

151 Air Staff History, July-December 1975, n.p., AHO.

152 Msg, HQ AFESC to Multiple Addressees, “Combat Exclusion Policy Regarding Women in the Air 

Force,” 042101Z Aug 88, in History of 554th Civil Engineering Squadron Heavy Repair, Jan-Jun 88, AHO.

153 Col. Susanne M. Waylett,(USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2000, iii-iv, 6, 88.

154 Memo, Maj.Gen. Robert H. Curtin to Multiple Addressees, Subj: Establishment of the Civil Engineering Construction Operations Group, 15 Mar 1966, AHO; Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, (USAF, Retired), “Oral 
Endnotes 703

History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, December 2003, 45.

155 Air Force Regulation 85-52, “Civil Engineer Construction Operations Group,” 16 Sep 1966, AHO.

156 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 2001, viii, 59; William D. Gilbert, “Directorate of Civil 

Engineering Reorganizes,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, February 1969, 7; Col. Robert G. Gardner, “The Civil Engineer 

Center,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, February 1969, 2-3.

157 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 2001, 63.

158 Ibid., 64.

159 Ibid., 69.

160 Guy H. Goddard, “Concepts of Operations New AFOCE Organization, AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, May 

1970, 10-12.

161 Air Staff History, January-June 1968, AHO.

162 Col. Robert G. Gardner, “The Civil Engineer Center,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, February 1969, 2-4; Air 

Staff History, July–December 1968, n.p.

163 Col. Robert G. Gardner, “The Civil Engineer Center,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, February 1969, 2-4.

164 Capt. John Pelleck, “A Consolidated Effort to Assist CE Organizations Worldwide,” AFCE, Vol 13, 

No 4, November 1972, 13-15.

165 Col. Robert G. Gardner, “The Civil Engineer Center,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, August 1970, 30-33.

166 Air Staff History, July-December 1971, n.p., AHO.

167 Air Staff History, January-June 1971, n.p., AHO.

168 Capt. Robert L. Bell, “How to Accomplish a Base Development Plan,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, February 

1972, 17-18.

169 Capt. Robert L. Bell, “How to Accomplish a Base Development Plan,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, February 

1972, 17-18; Maj. Richard J. Bergholz, “Contingency Planning: A Look into the Future,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 4, 

November 1971, 18-19.

170 Air Staff History, January-June 1971, n.p., AHO.

171 Air Staff History, January-June 1970, n.p., AHO.

172 Maj. Robert E. Boyer, “Aircraft Technology vs. Pavement Technology,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, February 

1974, 23-26.

173 Air Staff History, January-June 1970, n.p., AHO.

174 Capt. John E. Goin and Capt. William H. Davis, “Technology That’s Available to Civil Engineers,” 

AFCE, Vol 14, No 3, August 1973, 12-13; Air Staff History, January-June 1971, n.p., AHO.

175 Air Staff History, January-June 1971, n.p., AHO.

176 Air Staff History, January-June 1971, 134, Air Staff History, July-December 1971, n.p., AHO.

177 Air Staff History, July-December 1971, n.p., Air Staff History, January-June 1972, n.p., AHO.

178 Capt. John E. Goin and Capt. William H. Davis, “Technology That’s Available to Civil Engineers,” 

AFCE, Vol 14, No 3, August 1973, 12-13; Air Staff History, July-December 1971, n.p., AHO.

179 Maj. Hermann R. Engelbach, Jr., and Capt. Peter LoPresti, “The Focus Is On Contingency Planning,” 

AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, August 1971, 12-13.

180 Col. Robert G. Gardner, “The Civil Engineer Center,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, August 1970, 30-33.

181 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 37; Capt. John Pelleck, “A Consolidated Effort to 

Assist CE Organizations Worldwide,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, November 1972, 13-15; Capt. Robert W. Donley 

and MSgt. Richard H. Dalrymple, History of Air Force Civil Engineering Center, 29 June 1972 – 30 June 1973, 

6.

182 Col. John R. Harty, “An Analysis of Air Force Civil Engineering Research and Development Management,” Thesis presented to the Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1978, 15.

183 Capt. John Pelleck, “A Consolidated Effort to Assist CE Organizations Worldwide,” AFCE, Vol 13, 

No 4, November 1972, 13-15; Capt. Robert W. Donley and MSgt. Richard H. Dalrymple, History of Air Force 

Civil Engineering Center, 29 June 1972 – 30 June 1973, 11; Air Staff History, January-June 1972, n.p., AHO.

184 Lt. Col. Robert E. Crawford, “The Civil Engineering Branch of the Air Force Weapons Laboratory, 

Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 9, No 2, May 1969, 2-5; Lt. Col. John R. Harty, “An Analysis of Air Force Civil 

Engineering Research and Development Management,” Thesis presented to the Air War College, Air University, 

Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1978, 8. 

185 Lt. Col. Robert E. Crawford, “The Civil Engineering Branch of the Air Force Weapons Laboratory, 

Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 9, No 2, May 1969, 2-5; Lt. Col. John R. Harty, “An Analysis of Air Force Civil 

Engineering Research and Development Management,” Thesis presented to the Air War College, Air University, 

Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1978, 9. 

186 Col. David S. Chamberlain, “Civil Engineering Research,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 2, May 1966, 10-11.

187 Lt. Col. John R. Harty, “An Analysis of Air Force Civil Engineering Research and Development 

Management,” Thesis presented to the Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1978, 10.

188 Ibid., 11-13.
704 Leading the Way

189 Capt. Robert W. Donley and MSgt. Richard H. Dalrymple, History of Air Force Civil Engineering 

Center, 29 June 1972 – 30 June 1973, 5-7.

190 Ibid., 1-4.

191 Ibid., 16-18.

192 Lt. Col. John R. Harty, “An Analysis of Air Force Civil Engineering Research and Development 

Management,” Thesis presented to the Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1978, 17.

193 Major Charles Lindbergh and Captain David Currin, “Field Repair of Airfield Landing Mat Surfacing,” 

TME, Vol 64, No 42, November-December 1972, 410.

194 “Technical Review of Rapid Runway Repair History,” October 1986, 2, AHO.

195 Guy P. York and Raymond S. Rollings, “Research in Support of Readiness,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 4, 

November 1977, 27.

196 History of Air Force Civil Engineering Center, June 1974 – 30 June 1975, 5-6; Telegram, September 

1975, AHO.

197 Air Force Systems Command Regulation 23-12, 30 December 1975, 3 pages.

198 History of Air Force Civil Engineering Center, June 1974 – 30 June 1975, 3-5, AHO; Air Staff History, 

July-December 1975, n.p., AHO.

199 AHO; Air Staff History, July-December 1975, n.p., AHO.

200 James Penn, “Engineering and Services Reservists...Ready Now!,” Air Force Engineering & Services 

Quarterly, Vol 26, No 2, Summer 1985, 31-33; Col. William L. Deneke, “Civil Engineering in the Air National 

Guard,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 4, November 1966, 14-16.

201 Col. William L. Deneke, “Civil Engineering in the Air National Guard,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 4, November 

1966, 14-16.

202 Ibid.

203 James Penn, “Engineering and Services Reservists...Ready Now!” Air Force Engineering & Services 

Quarterly, Vol 26, No 2, Summer 1985, 31-33.

204 Ibid.

205 Ibid., 32.

206 Ibid., 32.

207 Ibid., 32.

208 Maj. Ernest E. Walkup, Jr., “Modulars-Key to Air Force Flexibility Response,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, 

November 1970, 18-19.

209 Maj. Matthew M. Cafiso, “Quality is their Hallmark,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 4, November, 1973, 15-16.

210 Ibid., 14, 16, 18.

211 Maj. James H. Sams and Henry Sauter, “A Highly Professional Force,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 4, November, 

1973, 15, 17, 19.

212 James Penn, “Engineering and Services Reservists...Ready Now!,” Air Force Engineering & Services 

Quarterly, Vol 26, No 2, Summer 1985, 32.

213 “RED HORSE Unit Histories,” REDHORSE Association, online at http://www.redhorseassociation.

org.

214 James Penn, “Engineering and Services Reservists...Ready Now!,” Air Force Engineering & Services 

Quarterly, Vol 26, No 2, Summer 1985, 32.

215 Air Force Regulation 23-33, 1 December 1961, 12 pages.

216 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, “Message from the Director...,” AFCE, Vol 1, No 4, November 1960, 

1.

217 “Maintenance Management,” AFCE, Vol 1, No 4, November 1960, 3.

218 Col. Henry J. Stehling, “The Control Center Complex-Centralized Complex Boosts Efficiency and 

Economy,” AFCE, Vol 2, No 4, November 1961, 10-11.

219 Ibid.

220 Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2000, v; “Maintenance Management,” AFCE, Vol 1, No 4, November 1960, 

3.

221 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, “From the Director,” AFCE, Vol 1, No 4, November 1960, 1.

222 Air Staff History, July-December 1971, n.p., AHO.

223 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 52.

224 “BCE Control Center,” AFCE, Vol 2, No 2, May 1961, 29.

225 Ray Johnson, “The Control Center: Nerve Center of Base Civil Engineering,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, 

November 1970, 8, 37.

226 Air Force Regulation 23-33, 1 December 1961, 12 pages; Air Force Regulation 23-33A, 16 December 

1964.

227 Air Force Regulation 23-33, 1 December 1961, 3-5. 

228 Ibid., 12. 

229 Col. Henry J. Stehling, “The Control Center Complex,” AFCE, Vol 2, No 4, November 1961, 10-12; 

Air Force Regulation 23-33, 1 December 1961, 12 pages.
Endnotes 705

230 See Note Above.

231 Air Staff History, January-June 1964, AHO.

232 Air Staff History, July-December 1963, n.p., AHO; “Four Model Bases Certified,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 

3, August 1965, 17; Air Staff History January-June 1967, n.p., AHO.

233 Lt. Col. Norris H. Goodwin, “Control Center Improves Maintenance Effectiveness,” AFCE, Vol 3, No 

3, August 1962, 25.

234 John Ward, Jr., “AFR 23-33 Revision Test,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 4, November 1966, 6-8.

235 Archie S. Mayes, “Three Keys to Base Civil Engineering Productivity,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, August 

1971, 14-15.

236 Ibid.

237 Col. Charles W. Sampson, “Get SMART,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, November 1970, 5-7.

238 Lois E. Walker, “A Tradition of Excellence,” The CE, Vol 7, No 4, Winter 1999-2000, 28-29.

239 “Directorate of Civil Engineering, U.S. Air Force,” TME, Vol 57, No 375, January-February 1965.

240 Air Staff History, January-June 1966, n.p., AHO.

241 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, “The Director Says...The Impact of Austere Funding,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 

1, February 1968, 1.

242 Archie S. Mayes, “Three Keys to Base Civil Engineering Productivity,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, August 

1971, 14-15.

243 Air Staff History, January-June 1971, n.p.; Air Staff History, July-December 1971, n.p.; Air Staff History, January-June 1972, n.p.; AHO.

244 Air Staff History, January-June 1963, n.p., AHO.

245 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, “Message from the Director...,” AFCE, Vol 2, No 4, November 1961, 

1.

246 Mr. Hugh A. Pike, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, 5.

247 “The P-15,” Air Force Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 17, No 2, May 1976, 24.

248 Charles A. Legates and Sgt. William L. Hause, Jr., “Training with the CB Fire Extinguisher,” AFCE

August 1968, n.p.

249 “Directorate of Civil Engineering, U.S. Air Force,” TME, Vol 58, No 382, March-April 1966, 127.

250 Air Staff History, January-June 1963, AHO.

251 Maj.Willet R. Stallworth, “Air Force Fire Fighting Equipment: Second to None!” AFCE, Vol 15, No 

3, August 1974, 6; CMsgt. Robert E. Reyff, “Deliveries Announced: P-23 Now Replacing P-2s Worldwide,” 

AFCE, Vol 1, No 3, April 1993, 7.

252 Air Staff History, January-June 1972, n.p., AHO.

253 “Fire Fighter Badge Approved,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, August 1970, back cover.

254 John W. Ward, Jr., “Air Force Cost Reduction Program,” AFCE, Vol 5, No 2, May 1964, 2-4.

255 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, “The Director Says...Cost Reduction,” AFCE, Vol 5, No 2, May 1964, 1.

256 M.J. McAllister, “Cost Reduction Achievements,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 3, August 1966, 10-11.

257 “Meet...Mr. Lewis E. Turner,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 4, November 1965, 7.

258 “Air Force Policy,” AFCE, Vol 3, No 2, May 1962, 15.

259 Air Staff History, July-December 1964, n.p., AHO.

260 Air Staff History, July-December 1965, n.p., AHO.

261 Air Staff History, January-June 1965, n.p., AHO; Charles K. McLeod, “BEAMS: What it Means to 

the BCE,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 8, No 3, August 1967, 2-3.

262 Air Staff History, January-June 1966, n.p., AHO; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “BEAMS: Firstgen IT for 

Civil Engineering,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 18, No 2, 2010.

263 Air Staff History, July-December 1967, n.p., AHO.

264 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, “The Director Says...Improved Management Systems,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 

1, February 1967, 1.

265 Donald L. Mang, “BEAMS Today,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, November 1970, 16; Charles K. McLeod, 

“BEAMS: What it Means to the BCE,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 8, No 3, August 1967, 2-3.

266 “Beams,” TME, Vol 59, No 387, January-February 1967, n.p.; Donald L. Mang, “BEAMS Today,” 

AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, November 1970, 16.

267 Air Staff History, July-December 1967, n.p., AHO.

268 Donald L. Mang, “BEAMS Today,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, November 1970, 16-17, 25.

269 Ibid., 25.

270 Air Staff History, July-December 1970, n.p., AHO.

271 Air Staff History, January-June 1971, n.p., AHO.

272 Donald L. Mang, “BEAMS Today,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, November 1970, 16-17, 25.

273 Air Staff History, July-December 1970, n.p.; Air Staff History, January-June 1971, n.p., AHO.

274 Environmental Protection Agency, “The Challenge of the Environment: A Primer on EPA’s Statutory 

Authority,” accessed 31 December 2008, http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/fwpca/05.htm. 

275 Environmental Protection Agency, “Origins of Modern Air Pollution Regulations,” accessed 3 December 2008, http://www.epa.gov/apti/course422/apc1.html.
706 Leading the Way

276 Maj. Bobbie L. Griffin and Maj. George R. Velasco, The Air Force Environmental Quality Program: 

A Historical Look at Air Force Efforts to Achieve Environmental Excellence, a research paper for Air Command 

and Staff College, April 1996, 13.

277 Air Staff History, July-December 1970, n.p., AHO.

278 Air Staff History, 1953, n.p., AHO. 

279 Air Staff History, 1952, n.p., AHO.

280 Air Staff History, July – December 1965, AHO.

281 TME, Vol 58, No 382, March-April 1966, 127.

282 Air Staff History, 1968, AHO.

283 Air Staff History, 1966, AHO; Air Staff History, 1967, AHO.

284 TME, Vol 58, No 383, May-June 1966, 202.

285 Air Staff History, 1967, AHO.

286 National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, 16 U.S.C. 470; Air Staff History, July-December 1969, 

AHO.

287 Richard Nixon, Executive Order 11593 Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment 15 

May 1971.

288 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969, 42 U.S.C 4321-4347.

289 Executive Order 12372—Intergovernmental review of Federal programs, 14 July 1982.

290 Air Staff History, 1969, AHO.

291 “Air Force Engineer News,” TME, January-February 1971, p. 54.

292 Air Staff History, July-December 1970, 1, AHO.

293 Air Staff History, 1973, AHO.

294 TME, Vol 71, No 461, May-June 1979, 198, AHO.

295 Air Staff History, July-December 1970, 183.

296 “Air Force Engineer Note,” TME, Vol 63, No 413, May-June 1971, 201; The Directorate of Civil 

Engineering,” TME, Vol 63, No 415, September-October 1971, 319-320.

297 Air Staff History 1970, AHO. 

298 Environmental Protection Agency, “Regulations for Open Dumps, Landfills, and Transfer Stations,” 

accessed 11 March 2009, http://www.epa.gov/region09//waste/tribal/reg.html.

299 Capt. Clifford E. Richardson, “Recycling Today for Better Tomorrow,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 1, February 

1973, 21.

300 Air Staff History 1971, AHO.

301 Capt Francis T. Sanpei, and Vernon A. Justice, Jr., “Why Environmental Statements?” AFCE, Vol 14, 

No 1, February 1973, 27.

302 Air Staff History 1971, AHO.

303 Air Staff History 1972, AHO.

304 Environmental Planning, Charles Hudson papers, AHO.

305 Maj. Gen. Robert C. Thompson, “Environmental Planning and the Decision Process,” TME, Vol 68, 

No 441, January-February 1976, 12.

306 Jackson County, MO v Jones, 7 Feb 1978, No 77-1739; Air Staff History, Jan-Jun 1977, Environmental 

Planning Division, 16, AHO.

307 “United States Air Force Pledge to Environmental Protection,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, February 1974, 

back cover.

308 Air Staff History 1971, AHO.

309 Maj. Gen. Billy J. McGarvey, “From the Director: Meeting Challenges Through Environmental Planning,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, February 1975, 1-2; “Current Emphasis,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 14, No 1, 

February 1973, 1.

310 Brig. Gen. William C. Hall, “The Challenges for Military Engineering in 1975,” TME, Vol 67, No 435, 

January-February 1975, 6.

311 Gary D. Vest AIP, “Contemporary Forum of Cooperative Planning,” ESQ, Vol 17, No 3, August 1976, 

9.

312 Ibid.

313 Brigadier General William C. Hall, “The Challenges for Military Engineering in 1975,” TME, Vol 67, 

No 435 January-February 1975, 6.

314 Col. William J. Poad Chief, Engineering Division, “Noise Exposure Forecast (NEF) Implementation,” 

Department of the Air Force, Headquarters USAF, Washington D.C., 31 October 1973.

315 Colonel Daniel W. Cheatham, Jr. “Implementation of Military Aircraft Noise Standards” Department 

of the Air Force, Air Force Aero Propulsion Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, 17 July 1974, AHO.

316 Air Staff History 1974, AHO. 

317 Air Staff History 1972, AHO.

318 James A. Hill, Lt. Gen, USAF, Deputy Chief of Staff “Air Installation Compatible Use Zone (AICUZ) 

– policy” Department of the AF, Headquarters USAF, Washington D.C., 17 December 1974.

319 Gary D. Vest AIP, “Contemporary Forum of Cooperative Planning,” Air Force Engineering & Services 

Quarterly, Vol 17, No 3, August 1976, 9.
Endnotes 707

320 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 86.

321 Roman A. Metz, “No More Yet No Less,” ESQ, Vol 17 No 3 August 1976, 13. 

322 Nicholas J. Lardis, “Energy Crisis and the Air Force,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 3, August 1973, 3-5.

323 Air Staff History 1973, AHO.

324 Air Staff History 1974, AHO.

325 Air Staff History 1973, AHO.

326 Colonel Vito D. Stipo, “The Defense Energy Conservation Investment Program,” TME, Vol 68, No 

442, March-April 1976, 111. 

327 Nicholas J. Lardis, “Energy Crisis and the Air Force,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 3, August 1973, 3-5.

328 “Solar Energy Demonstration,” TME, Vol 67, No 439, September-October 1975, 300.

329 “Solar Heating Demonstration,” TME, Vol 67, No 440, November-December 1975, 363.

330 “Energy Conservation Project,” TME, Vol 67, No 440, November-December 1975, 363.

331 Capt. Anthony Eden and Capt. Michael A. Aimone, “Solar Energy Applications,” Air Force Engineer 

& Services Quarterly, Vol 17, No 3, August 1976, 29.

332 Ibid.

333 Capt. Anthony Eden and Paul F. Neal, “Electricity from the Sun,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 3, August 1977.

334 Air Staff History 1975, AHO.

335 Ibid.

336 Maj. Gen. Maurice R. Reilly, “Air Force Construction Program,” TME, Vol 64, No 419, May-June 

1972, 169.

337 Ibid.

338 Ibid.

339 Col. James F. Carney and Lt. Col. Don B. Moon, “The Air Force Regional Civil Engineers,” AFCE, 

Vol 4 No 3, August 1963, 32-35.

340 “What’s Ahead?,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, February 1974, 1-9.

341 “AFCE Leaders You Should Know...James F. Boatright,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, February 1972, 10.

342 Maj. H.W. Underhill, Jr., “WADD Proves Air Force is Design Agency,” AFCE, Vol 1 No 1, February 

1960, 3-4, 28.

343 Air Staff History, July-December 1972, n.p., AHO.

344 “AFCE Leaders You Should Know...James F. Boatright,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, February 1972, 10; A. 

M. Crawford, “Air Force Civil Engineering Management-A Progress Report,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, February 

1972, 2-5.

345 Maj. Gen. M.R. Reilly, “Air Force Construction Program,” TME, Vol 64, No 419, May-June 1972, 

169; T. E. Lawson, “Two Step Procurement,” AFCE, Vo. 6, No 3, August 1965, 15.

346 T. E. Lawson, “Two Step Procurement,” AFCE, Vo. 6, No 3, August 1965, 15.

347 Air Staff History, January- June 1969, n.p.

348 Thomas L. Lord, “More and Better Housing for Air Force Families,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, November 

1972, 10-11. 

349 Capt. Michael Burrill, “Good Houses for Unknown Clients,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, May 1975, 16-21.

350 Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard, “The Director Says...Industrialized Construction,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 

May 1971, 1.

351 Air Staff History, January-June 1971, n.p., AHO.

352 Air Staff History, July-December 1971, n.p., AHO.

353 Air Staff History, January-June 1971, n.p., AHO; Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard, “The Director Says...

Industrialized Construction,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, May 1971, 1.

354 Air Staff History, July-December 1972, n.p., AHO.

355 Ibid.

356 Col. John R. Harty, An Analysis of Air Force Civil Engineering Research and Development Management, Thesis presented to the Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1978, 8.

357 Robert J. Alexander, “The ACFE’s Place in Space,” AFCE, Vol 4, No 1, February 1963, 18-19; 2d Lt. 

B.A. Collins, Jr., “486L MED COM,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 1, February 1966, 6-7.

358 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interview by Lois E. Walker 

and Douglas H. Merkle, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, vi.

359 Lt. Col. Alfred Kaufman, “AFCE’s Responsible for Rapid Evolution,” AFCE, Vol 3, No 2, May 1962, 

4-5.

360 1st Lt. James R. Hawkins, “Mandatory Engineering Registration for Air Force Civil Engineers,” AFCE, 

Vol 3, No 3, August 1962, 11-12.

361 Capt R.C.B. Wright, “TITAN III and the Air Force Civil Engineer,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 1, February 1965, 

9.

362 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler. To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program. United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

Sponsored by Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program, 1996, 79; Capt. RCB Wright, 

“TITAN III and the Air Force Civil Engineer,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 1, February 1965, 6-9.
708 Leading the Way

363 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler. To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program. United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

Sponsored by Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program, 1996, 52, 241; Office of the 

Historian HQ SAC, “Snark to Peacekeeper A Pictorial History of Strategic Air Command Missiles,” HQ SAC, 

Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, 1990, 13-15; Timothy C Hanley and Harry N Waldron, “Historical Overview 

Space and Missile Systems Center, 1954-1995. Electronic document available at www.fas.org/spp/military/

program/SMC_hist, Accessed 2 March 2009, Federation of American Scientists.

364 Air Staff History, Directorate of Civil Engineering, January-June 1962, n.p., AHO.

365 “ICBM Facility Program Wins ASCE Award,” AFCE, Vol 3, No 2, May 1962, 2.

366 Robert J. Alexander, “The AFCE’s Place in Space,” AFCE, Vol 4, No 1, February 1963, 19-21.

367 Ibid.

368 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler. To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold 

War Missile Program. United States Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, 

Sponsored by Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program, 1996, 234.

369 Maj. Bill E. Polasek, Jr., “Missile Support Training for Civil Engineers,” AFCE, Vol 5, No 3, August 

1964, 18-20.

370 1st Lt. John G. Terino, “A New Breed...the CE Missile Officer,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 2, May 1965, 18.

371 Gene T. Mahoney, “SAC Grouting Team Does it Again!,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 3, August 1967, 30-31.; 

Capt. William E. Craig, “One of a Kind...The SAC Grout Team,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 4, November 1971, 14-16.

372 Office of the Historian HQ SAC, “Snark to Peacekeeper A Pictorial History of Strategic Air Command 

Missiles,” HQ SAC, Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, 1990, 43.

373 “A Bold Concept in Air Force Passenger Terminals, AFCE, Vol 14, No 2, May 1973, 4-6.

374 Ibid.

375 Capt. John F. Gaver, “Breakthrough in Air Cargo Terminals,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 14, No 4, 

November 1973, 7-10. 

376 Ibid.

377 John F. Maiorano, “Modernized Logistics Depots,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 4, November 1973, 2-6.

378 Ibid.

379 John F. Maiorano, “Modernized Logistics Depots,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 4, November 1973, 2-6; Air 

Staff History, January-June 1972, 77; January-June 1973, n.p.; January-June 1974, 96; July-December 1974, 

96; January-June 1975, 96, AHO.

380 Air Staff History, January-June 1970, n.p., AHO.

381 Air Staff History, July-December 1972, n.p., AHO.

382 Capt. Eugene A. Lupia, PE, “TLQs: A People Program,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 1, February 1973, 16.

383 Department of Defense, “NASA Aeronautics Facilities Critical to DoD Report to Congress,” January 

2007, 3. 

384 Directorate of Installations History, July-December 1950, AHO.

385 Arnold Engineering Development Center, “2008 Test Facility Guide, Test Before Flight,” 2008, 1-2; 

“Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility,” U.S. Air Force Fact Sheet, accessed 12 November 2008, http://www.

arnold.af.mil/library/factsheets/. 

386 Maj. Chandis Klinger and Gottfried M. Arnold, “Correcting a Serious Deficiency,” AFCE, Vol 15, 

No 2, May 1974, 26-29; Donald J. Horan, Director Procurement, Logistics, and Readiness Division, Letter to 

Senator Sasser, 30 September 1982, Cost Overrun on the Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility, AHO.

387 Air Staff History 1974, AHO.

388 Maj. Chandis Klinger and Gottfried M. Arnold, “Correcting a Serious Deficiency,” AFCE, May 1974, 

26-29; Marvin J. Kudroff, “The Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility,” TME, Vol 67, No 437, May-June 1975, 

n.p; “Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility,” U.S. Air Force Fact Sheet, accessed 12 November 2008, http://

www.arnold.af.mil/library/factsheets/.

389 Air Staff History 1976, AHO; “Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility,” U.S. Air Force Fact Sheet, 

accessed 12 November 2008, http://www.arnold.af.mil/library/factsheets/; Department of Defense, “NASA 

Aeronautics Facilities Critical to DoD Report to Congress,” January 2007, 3. 

390 Air Staff History 1974, AHO; Air Staff History 1976, AHO; Arnold Air Force Base, “Aeropropulsion 

Systems Test Facility,” U.S. Air Force Fact Sheet, accessed 12 November 2008, http://www.arnold.af.mil/library/

factsheets/. 

391 North American Aerospace Defense Command and United States Space Command, “The Cheyenne 

Story,” ca. 1995, from the AHO.

392 Maj. Gen. Augustus Minton, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, February 2001, 49; John M. Norvell, “What 

Have We Learned for NORAD’s Cheyenne Mountain?,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, August 1968, 18-21.

393 Air Force Space Command, “Fact Sheet Peterson AFB,” 1992, AHO; Merwin H. Howes, “Methods 

and Costs of Constructing the Underground Facility of North American Air Defense Command at Cheyenne 

Mountain, El Paso County, Colorado,” information circular 8294, U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of 

Mines, 1966, 1;4-5;49. 

394 Maj. Gen. Augustus Minton, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. 
Endnotes 709

Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, February 2001, 49.

395 Air Force Space Command, “Fact Sheet Peterson AFB,” 1992, from the AHO.

396 North American Aerospace Defense Command and United States Space Command, “The Cheyenne 

Story,” ca. 1995, from the AHO.

397 Ibid.

398 Air Force Space Command, “Fact Sheet Peterson AFB,” 1992, from the AHO

399 Brig. Gen. Billie J. McGarvey, “The New Air Force Museum,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 1, February 1971, 

2-5.

400 Ibid.

401 Brig. Gen. Billie J. McGarvey, “The New Air Force Museum,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 1, February 1971, 

2-5; National Museum of the U.S. Air Force, accessed 18 July 2011, http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/index.

asp.

402 National Museum of the U.S. Air Force, accessed 18 July 2011, http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/

index.asp. 

403 Simon Duke, United States Military Forces and Installations in Europe, Oxford University Press, New 

York, 1989, 149-151.

404 Simon Duke, United States Military Forces and Installations in Europe, Oxford University Press, New 

York, 1989, 149-151.; “Withdrawal from France 1966-67 Operation FRELOC (Fast Relocation), n.d., 1-3, AHO.

405 Col. Robert T. Greigg, “Operation FRELOC,” AFCE, Vol 9 No 1, Feb 1968, 8-10; “Withdrawal from 

France 1966-67 Operation FRELOC (Fast Relocation), n.d., 1-3, AHO.

406 Maj.Ulrich H. Lettau, “ COBs in Europe,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 2, Summer 1981, 21.

407 Lt. Col. Charles Lindbergh, “USAFE Operational Readiness: A Challenge to Military Engineering,” 

Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 18, No 4, November 1977, 18; CMSgt. Dave Brown, CMSgt. (Ret.) 

Marshall B. “Doc” Dutton, SMGt. Marshall G. “Baby Doc” Dutton, “Air Force EOD’s Move, USAF Exploded 

Ordnance Disposal (EOD), From Maintenance to Civil Engineering,” no date, AHO.

408 Capt. Robert M. Gogal, “Passive Defenses for Air Bases” TME, Vol 61, No 404, 416-417.

409 Maj. Herbert G. Campbell, “Protective Aircraft Shelter,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, May 1969, 3; History 

of 560th Civil Engineering Squadron (Heavy Repair), 1 Jul-31 Dec 1967, AHO

410 Air Staff History, July –December 1966, n.p., AHO.

411 Lt. Col. Floyd A. Ashdown, “A History of the Warfighting Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering,” 

Research Report, Air War College Air University Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, May 1984, 65; 69; Col. 

Robert G. Gardner, “The Civil Engineer Center,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, August 1970, 30-33.

412 Maj. Herbert G. Campbell, “Protective Aircraft Shelter,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, May 1969, 2-5.

413 Air Staff History, July-December 1969, n.p.; 1st Lt. Richard C. Eddy, “History, 554th Civil Engineering 

Squadron (HR) 1 Jan-31 Mar 1970,” 35, AHO

414 Maj. Herbert G. Campbell, “Protective Aircraft Shelter,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, May 1969., 3

415 Ibid.

416 Capt. Paul Y. Thompson, “Aircraft Shelters in Vietnam,” TME, Vol 61, No 402, July-August 1969, 

n.p.; Col. Lindsey M. Silvester, USAF Director of Tactical Evaluation DCS/Operations; Letter of Transmittal 

PACAF CORONA HARVEST Studies, 23 October 1970, 170; Capt. Robert M. Gogal, “Passive Defenses for 

Air Bases” TME, Vol 61, No 404, 416-417.

417 Lt. Col. Floyd A. Ashdown, “A History of the Warfighting Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering,”

Research Report, Air War College Air University Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, May 1984,79-80; Air Staff 

History, July-December 1970, n.p.; Lt. Col. Rudolph V. Matalucci, “Meeting an Operational Need,” Engineering 

& Services Quarterly, Vol 18, No 1 February 1977, 7-10.

418 Air Staff History, January-June 1969, n.p.; Air Staff History, January-June 1970, n.p.; Air Staff History, 

July-December 1970, n.p.; Air Staff History, January-June 1971, n.p.

419 Air Staff History, July-December 1974.

420 Lt. Col. Charles Lindbergh, “USAFE Operational Readiness, A Challenge to Military Engineering,” 

ESQ, Vol 18, No 4, November 1977, 21.

421 Air Staff History, January-June 1969, n.p.; Air Staff History, January-June 1970, n.p.; Air Staff History, 

July-December 1970, n.p.; Air Staff History, January-June 1971, n.p.

422 Capt. Donald W. Klick, “Project ICE WAY,” AFCE, Vol 3, No 2, May 1962, 32-33.

423 Ibid., 32-35.

424 “Special Short Course Programs for AFCE,” AFCE Magazine, Vol 4, No 2, May 1963, 20.

425 Maj Gen. Robert H. Curtin, “Air Force Base Engineers’ Emergency Forces,” TME, March-April 1965, 

108.

426 “Civil Engineer Center Changes Name; Becomes Civil Engineering School,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, May 

1968, 33; Ernest A. Pinson, “AFIT Anniversary, the First Fifty Years,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, August 1969, back 

cover.

427 “Operation Cool School,” AFCE, Vol 2, No 4, November 1961, 34-36.

428 Ibid.

429 Maj. Gen. Augustus Minton, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, February 2001, 30-31.
710 Leading the Way

430 “Operation Cool School,” AFCE, Vol 2, No 4, November 1961, 34-36; Eugene E. Peer, “History of 

the Civil Engineering School,” November 1976, manuscript, AHO.

431 “Operation Cool School,” AFCE, Vol 2, No 4, November 1961, 34-36.

432 Maj. Gen. Augustus Minton, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, February 2001, 31.

433 “Operation Cool School,” AFCE, Vol 2, No 4, November 1961, 34-36; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Operation COOL SCHOOL,” AFCE, May 1990, 3-4; Mr. Harry P. Rietman, (Retired), “Oral History Interview,” 

Interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, November 2004, 30-31.

434 “Applied Engineering Course,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 2, May 1965, 15; Eugene E. Peer, “History of the 

Civil Engineering School,” November 1976, manuscript, AHO.

435 Lt. Col. B.C. Wylie, “AFCE Professional Education and TWI Programs,” AFCE Magazine, Vol 3, No 

4, November 1962, 30; 1st Lt. Michael H. Perry, “Education-With-Industry Program for Engineers,” AFCE 

Magazine, Vol 8, No 2, May 1967, 17; Maj.Donald W. Campbell, PE, “IBM’s EWI Program,” AFCE Magazine, 

Vol 5, No 4, November 1964, 22.

436 Lt. Col. B.C. Wylie, “AFCE Professional Education and TWI Programs,” AFCE Magazine, Vol 3, No 

4, November 1962, 30.

437 Maj.Donald W. Campbell, PE, “IBM’s EWI Program,” AFCE Magazine, Vol 5, No 4, November 1964, 

21-22.

438 Capt Michael H. Perry, “EWI an Unequaled Educational Experience,” AFCE Magazine, Vol 9, No 4, 

November 1968, 6, 29.

439 Ibid.

440 Ibid.

441 “Special Short Course Programs for AFCE,” AFCE Magazine, Vol 4, No 2, May 1963, 20; “Civil 

Engineering FY-66 Short Courses,”AFCE, Vol 6, No 2, May 1965, 16.

442 Lt. Col. B. C. Wylie, “AFCE Professional Education and TWI Programs,” AFCE Magazine, Vol 3, No 

4, November 1962, 30-31.

443 Maj.Robert L. Sims, Associate Professor of Management Sciences, “2 New Degree Programs for Civil 

Engineers, Civil Engineering Facilities Management,” AFCE Magazine, Vol 14, No 2, May 1973, 11-13.

444 “Professor J. Richardson “Rich” Johnson, “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Mrs. Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 2003, 21; Eugene E. Peer, “History of the Civil Engineering School,” November 1976, manuscript, AHO.

445 Col. Winston C. Fowler, PE, “The Civil Engineering Curriculum at the USAF Academy,” AFCE Magazine, Vol 8, No 2, May 1967, 2-3.

446 Col. Winston C. Fowler, PE, “The Civil Engineering Curriculum at the USAF Academy,” AFCE Magazine, Vol 8, No 2, May 1967, 2-3; “Outstanding Cadet Award Presented at Air Force Academy,” AFCE Magazine, 

Vol 13, No 3, 1972, 29.

447 Lt. Col. George Talbot, PE, “Training for...Civil Engineering Technicians,” AFCE Magazine, Vol 4, 

No 4, November 1963, 18.

448 Ibid., 18-20.

449 Maj. Bill E. Polasek, Jr., “Missile Support Training for Civil Engineers,” AFCE, Vol 5, No 3, August 

1964, 18-20.

450 1st Lt. John G. Terino, “A New Breed...the CE Missile Officer,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 2, May 1965, 18.

451 Douglas E. Courchene, Pioneers with Intent, Memoirs of an Air Force Fire Fighter, Air Force Civil 

Engineer Support Agency, Tyndall AFB July 2003, 56; “Air Force & DOD Fire Academy History,” n.d., AHO.

452 Eugene E. Peer, PE, “The Professional Degree Program,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 4, November 1971, 2-5.

453 Capt. Herbert L. Hollar, “Making the Civil Engineering Program Work,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, May 

1974, 18-20.

454 1st Lt. Edward M. Carpenter, “Education for Civilians,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 2, May 1967, 12.

455 Robert P. Grathwol and Donita M. Moorhus, Building for Peace: U.S. Army Engineers in Europe, 

1945-1991, Government Printing Office, U.S. Army Center for Military History, Washington, D.C., 2005, 133.

456 Brig. Gen. Oran O. Price, “Berlin – 1961, Facility Buildup a Challenge to the AFCE,” AFCE, Vol 3, 

No 3, August 1962, 2-5.

457 Lt. Col. Floyd A. Ashdown, “A History of the Warfighting Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering,”

Research Report, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama May 1984, 38.

458 Brig. Gen. Oran O. Price, “Berlin – 1961, Facility Buildup a Challenge to the AFCE,” AFCE, Vol 3, 

No 3, August 1962, 2-5.

459 Robert P. Grathwol and Donita M. Moorhus, Building for Peace: U.S. Army Engineers in Europe, 

1945-1991, Government Printing Office, U.S. Army Center for Military History, Washington, D.C., 2005.

460 Brig. Gen. Oran O. Price, “Berlin – 1961, Facility Buildup a Challenge to the AFCE,” AFCE, Vol 3, 

No 3, August 1962, 5.

461 Stephen Ambrose, Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy 1938-1970, Penguin Books, Inc., 

Baltimore, Maryland, 1971, 289.

462 Maj. Gen. Augustus M. Minton, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker and Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 45.
Endnotes 711

463 Maj. Morris B. Rubenstein, “We Opened Opalocka,” AFCE, Vol 4, No 4, November 1963, 8-9.

464 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Douglas Merkle, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 18.

465 Maj. Hubert S. Nethercot, “Prime BEEF Base Recovery Forces,” Research Study submitted to the 

Faculty of Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1973, 11.

466 Capt. Maurice K. Robinson, “Bare Base,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 3, May 1967, 18.

467 Richard A. Haggerty, editor, Dominican Republic: A Country Study, Government Printing Office, 

Washington, D.C., 1989, viewed online May 2011, http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic.

468 Capt. R. J. Oelke, EIT, “Prime BEEF Goes to Santo Domingo,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 1, February 1966, 

16-18.

469 Ibid.

470 Ibid.

471 R.R. Palmer and Joel Colton, A History of the Modern World, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, New York, 

1978, 920.

472 Ibid.

473 Ibid.

474 John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War. A New History, The Penguin Press, New York, New York, 2005, 

132.

475 Waggoner & Moe, 204.

476 John Schlicht, A War Too Long: The USAF in Southeast Asia 1961-1975, Air Force History and 

Museums Program, 1996, 10, 5-6, 8, 11.

477 John Schlicht, The War in South Vietnam: The Years of the Offensive, 1965-1968, Air Force History 

and Museums Program, 1999, 5.

478 John Schlicht, A War Too Long: The USAF in Southeast Asia 1961-1975, Air Force History and 

Museums Program, 1996, 10, 5-6, 8, 11.

479 Stephen E. Ambrose, Rise to Globalism. American Foreign Policy 1938-1970, Penguin Books, Inc., 

Baltimore, Maryland, 1971, 311.

480 John Schlicht, A War Too Long: The USAF in Southeast Asia 1961-1975, Air Force History and 

Museums Program, 1996, 17.

481 Waggoner & Moe, 204.

482 Chester G. Hearn, Air Force: An Illustrated History, Zenith Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 2008, 

131-132.

483 Waggoner & Moe, 204; John Schlicht, The War in South Vietnam: The Years of the Offensive, 1965-

1968, Air Force History and Museums Program, 1999, 5.

484 See Note Above.

485 USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 1965-31 December 

1969, 150-152, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama; Waggoner & Moe, 206.

486 Col. I.H. Impson, “Southeast Asia 1962,” AFCE, Vol 4, No 1, February 1963, 2-6.

487 Lt. Col. Maynard G. Hamilton, “Base Operation and Maintenance, SEA” AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, May 

1968, 14-15.

488 USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 1965-31 December 

1969, 152, 150, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

489 Ibid., 150-151.

490 Waggoner & Moe, 206.

491 Ibid., 226.

492 Steve Canton, “This Air Force Colonel Wears Four Hats,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 1, 1967, 2-7.

493 Col. I.H. Impson, “Southeast Asia 1962,” AFCE, Vol 4, No 1, February 1963, 2-6.

494 Lt. Col. Floyd A. Ashdown, “A History of the Warfighting Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering,” 

Research Report, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama May 1984, 44-46.

495 USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 1965-31 December 

1969, 164, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

496 Capt. David M. De Blonk and Col. Robert G. Gardner, “A HQ USAF Directorate of Civil Engineering 

(AFOCE) Activity Input to Project Corona Harvest on Civil Engineering Support in SEA 1 January 1965 – 31 

March 1968,” Submitted 18 December 1969 by the USAF Civil Engineering Center, 6-7.

497 Maj. David G. Kestner, “The Changing Role of the AFRCE in Vietnam,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, May 

1970, 8-9, 37.

498 USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 1965-31 December 

1969, 153-154, 160, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

499 Ibid., 153-154.

500 Lt. Col. Warren B. Graves, “The Military Construction Program in Action,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, May 

1968, 28-29.

501 USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 1965-31 December 

1969, 153-154, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.
712 Leading the Way

502 Ibid., 155.

503 Steve Canton, “This Air Force Colonel Wears Four Hats,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 1, 1967, 2-7.

504 Maj. Gen. R. H. Curtin, “The Director Says...Let’s Be Ready...Professionally,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 3, 

August 1965, 1.

505 “Regional Civil Engineer SEA,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 3, Aug 1965, 16; Maj. David G. Kestner, “The 

Changing Role of the AFRCE in Vietnam,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, May 1970, 8-9, 37; Steve Canton, “This Air 

Force Colonel Wears Four Hats,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 1, 1967, 2-7.

506 Steve Canton, “This Air Force Colonel Wears Four Hats,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 1, 1967, 2-7; Brig. Gen. 

Archie S. Mayes, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2000, 63.

507 Capt. David M. De Blonk and Col. Robert G. Gardner, “A HQ USAF Directorate of Civil Engineering 

(AFOCE) Activity Input to Project Corona Harvest on Civil Engineering Support in SEA 1 January 1965 – 31 

March 1968,” Submitted 18 December 1969 by the USAF Civil Engineering Center, 15, 85-86, 234-5.

508 Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2000, 62.

509 Ibid.

510 Maj. David G. Kestner, “The Changing Role of the AFRCE in Vietnam,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, May 

1970, 8-9, 37.

511 Steve Canton, “This Air Force Colonel Wears Four Hats,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 1, 1967, 2-7.

512 Ibid.

513 Ibid.

514 Col. I.H. Impson, “Southeast Asia 1962,” AFCE, Vol 4, No 1, February 1963, 2-6.

515 Steve Canton, “This Air Force Colonel Wears Four Hats,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 1, 1967, 2-7.

516 Maj. Gen. R. H. Curtin, “The Director Says...Prime BEEF Teams...’Excellent’,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 1, 

February 1966, 1.

517 Lt. Col. Howard B. Arnold, Jr. “A New Image for the AFCE in Vietnam,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 2, May 

1966, 6-7.

518 Col. Kaufman, Lt. Col. Torr, Maj. Fearn, and Capt. Bratton, “Vietnam Report: Prime BEEF in Action,” 

AFCE, Vol 7, No 1, February 1966, 3; John Schlight, The Years of the Offensive, 1965-1968, Office of Air Force 

History, Washington DC, 1988, 45; “Civil Engineers Killed During Contingency Operations, AHO.

519 Col. Kaufman, Lt. Col. Torr, Maj. Fearn, and Capt. Bratton, “Vietnam Report: Prime BEEF in Action,” 

AFCE, Vol 7, No 1, February 1966, 2-5; Steve Canton, “This Air Force Colonel Wears Four Hats,” AFCE, Vol 

8, No 1, 1967, 2-7.

520 Mr. Jean Martin, SSgt Douglas W. Stephens, SSgt Robert F. Jakob, Historical Division, Directorate 

of Information, Headquarters Seventh Air Force, “Airfield Construction in Southeast Asia, July 1965-March 

1967,” 1-13, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

521 Ibid.; Prime BEEF Team 6 Historical Report, 1966, 3, AHO; Capt. Gary B. Lauson, “Civil Engineering 

Combat Experiences during the Vietnam War: An Exploratory Study,” Thesis for Air Force Institute of Technology, WPAFB, Ohio, 1989, 22-23.

522 Prime Beef Deployments, 1965-1976, AHO.

523 Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2000, 63.

524 Directorate of Civil Engineering (DCS/P&R), “Air Staff History,” January-June 1966, n.p., AHO; 

Steve Canton, “This Air Force Colonel Wears Four Hats,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 1, 1967, 2-7.

525 Steve Canton, “This Air Force Colonel Wears Four Hats,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 1, 1967, 2-7.

526 Maj. Gen. R. H. Curtin, “The Director Says...Prime BEEF Teams...’Excellent’,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 1, 

February 1966, 1.

527 Secretary of Defense, Memorandum for the Secretary of the Air Force, 10 May 1965.

528 USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 1965-31 December 

1969, 160, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

529 Ibid.

530 Lt. Col. Floyd A. Ashdown, “A History of the Warfighting Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering,” 

Research Report, Air War College Air University Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama May 1984, 52.

531 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 68.

532 Air Force Office of Civil Engineering, “A Study: Prime BEEF Heavy Repair Squadrons,” Sep 1965, 

AHO.

533 Ibid.

534 Department of the Air Force, Headquarters U.S. Air Force, AFOMO 457n, Subject: Activation of the 

554th and 555th Civil Engineering Squadrons (Heavy Repair). 1 October 1965.

535 Maj. Gen. R. H. Curtin, “The Director Says...Prime BEEF Teams...’Excellent’,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 1, 

February 1966, 1.

536 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 63; Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes, “Oral History Interview,” 
Endnotes 713

Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2000, 168.

537 “Dedication of BCEC Class 66B To “RED HORSE”,” Force Civil Engineer, Vol 7, No 2, May 1966. 

7.

538 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2003, 41.

539 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 64. The exact definition of the RED HORSE acronym has 

experienced numerous permutations over the years. Air Force Regulation 85-25, Project RED HORSE, that formally established the RED HORSE program, defined it as Rapid Engineer Deployable Heavy Operations Repair 

Squadrons, Engineer. A 1966 article in the Air Force Civil Engineer Magazine that introduced the concept to 

the career field identified it as Rapid Engineer Deployment, Heavy Operational Repair Squadrons, Engineering. 

Air Force Regulation 93-9 offered another alternative in 1983, Rapid Engineer Deployable, Heavy Operational 

Repair Squadron, Engineer. Finally, in 1988, RED HORSE was adopted as an approved nickname and no longer 

had to be identified as an acronym. In June 2011, Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, The Air Force Civil Engineer, 

reaffirmed this change and approved the use of RED HORSE as a nickname. 

540 Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes, “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2000, 66.

541 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 64, 68-69, 202; Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes, “Oral History 

Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2000, 168.

542 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 64-67.

543 Ibid., 65.

544 Ibid., 67.

545 Ibid., 68.

546 Project RED HORSE,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 2, May 1966, 2-4.

547 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 63, appendix F, 205.

548 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2003, 41.

549 Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2000, 61.

550 Ibid., 89.

551 Ibid., 168-169.

552 Ibid., 89.

553 Quoted in Jean Martin, SSgt. Douglas W. Stephens, SSgt. Robert F. Jakob, USAF Airfield Construction 

in South Vietnam July 1965 – March 1967, Vol I, 101, Historical Division Directorate of Information, HQ 7th 

AF, no date, AHO.

554 Department of the Air Force Staff Summary Sheet, Subject: Additional Air Force Civil Engineering 

Squadrons (Heavy Repair), 8 June 1966, AHO.

555 Jean Martin, SSgt. Douglas W. Stephens, SSgt. Robert F. Jakob, USAF Airfield Construction in South 

Vietnam July 1965 – March 1967, Vol I, 104, Historical Division Directorate of Information, HQ 7th AF, no 

date, AHO.

556 Capt. David D. Currin, “Major Construction Projects-A RED HORSE Reality,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 1, 

February 1968, 32-33.

557 Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2000, 68-70.

558 Ibid., Appendix E “End of Tour Report HQ Seventh Air Force Directorate of Civil Engineering,” 129.

559 Col. George A. Bohlen, “Research Report No. 9, USAF Engineer Heavy Repair/Troop Construction 

Capability,” A Research Report Submitted to the Faculty, Air War College, Air University, USAF, Maxwell AFB, 

Alabama, 25 May 1977, 17.

560 “RED HORSE and the Civil Engineering Field Activities Center,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 4, November 

1967, 2-4.

561 George K. Dimitroff, “Training With RED HORSE,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 4, November 1967, 5-7.

562 Lt. Col. Francis E Torr, “Air Operations in Vietnam, The AF Civil Engineer’s Role in Counterinsurgency” AFCE, Vol 6, No 3, August 1965, 2.

563 Historical Brochure of SEA Engineering Development 1961-1964, prepared by DCES, AFCESA 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, 62-63. 

564 1st Lt. John G. Terino, “Vietnam Report No. 2 Prime BEEF Team No. 2,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 2, May 

1966, 4.

565 Col. I.H. Impson, “Southeast Asia 1962,” AFCE, Vol 4, No 1, February 1963, 2-6.

566 USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 1965-31 December 

1969, 156, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

567 USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 1965-31 December 
714 Leading the Way

1969, 152, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama; Edward 

F.C. Lau, “The Base Civil Engineer and Environmental Engineering Control in Southeast Asia,” AFCE, Vol 9 

No 4, November 1968, 10-12.

568 “Vietnam Report No 3, Air Force Engineering Projects at Bien Hoa Top $9 Million Mark,” AFCE, Vol 

7, No 3, August 1966, 22-23.

569 “Pleiku Civil Engineers have 20-Fold Construction Increase,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 4, November 1966, 

23.

570 “History of 823d Civil Engineering Squadron (HR), 1 July 66 – 30 June 67,” 46, AHO.

571 Waggoner & Moe, 219; Steve Canton, “This Air Force Colonel Wears Four Hats,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 

1, 1967, 2-7.

572 Capt. David M. De Blonk and Col. Robert G. Gardner, “A HQ USAF Directorate of Civil Engineering 

(AFOCE) Activity Input to Project Corona Harvest on Civil Engineering Support in SEA 1 January 1965 – 31 

March 1968,” Submitted 18 December 1969 by the USAF Civil Engineering Center, 278; 369.

573 Waggoner & Moe, 219-220.

574 Capt. David M. De Blonk and Col. Robert G. Gardner, “A HQ USAF Directorate of Civil Engineering 

(AFOCE) Activity Input to Project Corona Harvest on Civil Engineering Support in SEA 1 January 1965 – 31 

March 1968,” Submitted 18 December 1969 by the USAF Civil Engineering Center, 279.

575 Lt. Col. Donald R. Woods, “Turn Key Status Report,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 3, August 1967, 11. 

576 Capt. David M. De Blonk and Col. Robert G. Gardner, “A HQ USAF Directorate of Civil Engineering 

(AFOCE) Activity Input to Project Corona Harvest on Civil Engineering Support in SEA 1 January 1965 – 31 

March 1968,” Submitted 18 December 1969 by the USAF Civil Engineering Center, 280-1.

577 Ibid., 281.

578 James J. Claps, “ The Air Force Modular Relocatable Facilities Program,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 4, 

November 1970,14-15

579 Col. Winston H. Clisham, “ Relocatable Concept Validated,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, August 1970, 8-9.

580 George R. Taylor and John F. Heise, “How AFLC Civil Engineers Back Up the Troops in Southeast 

Asia,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 1, February 1967, 24.

581 Waggoner & Moe, 238.

582 Engineering Lessons Learned in Southeast Asia 1964-1969, PACAF Civil Engineering, Preliminary 

Report June 12 1969, AHO.

583 Capt. David M. De Blonk and Col. Robert G. Gardner, “A HQ USAF Directorate of Civil Engineering 

(AFOCE) Activity Input to Project Corona Harvest on Civil Engineering Support in SEA 1 January 1965 – 31 

March 1968,” Submitted 18 December 1969 by the USAF Civil Engineering Center, 59.

584 USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 1965-31 December 

1969, 171-172, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

585 Waggoner & Moe, 234; USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 

1965-31 December 1969, 169, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, 

Alabama. 

586 Waggoner & Moe, 235. 

587 Capt. David M. De Blonk and Col. Robert G. Gardner, “A HQ USAF Directorate of Civil Engineering 

(AFOCE) Activity Input to Project Corona Harvest on Civil Engineering Support in SEA 1 January 1965 – 31 

March 1968,” Submitted 18 December 1969 by the USAF Civil Engineering Center, 269-270.

588 E.T. Lyons, “Aluminum Matting Runways in Vietnam,” TME, Vol 58, No 384, July-August 1966, 245.

589 Major Donald A. Haas, “Phan Rang Air Base,” TME, Vol 58, No 386, November-December 1966, 433.

590 E.T. Lyons, “Aluminum Matting Runways in Vietnam,” TME, Vol 58 No 384, July-August 1966, 246.

591 “Directorate of Civil Engineering U.S. Air Force” TME, Vol 58, No 382, March-April 1966, 126.

592 Capt. David M. De Blonk and Col. Robert G. Gardner, “A HQ USAF Directorate of Civil Engineering 

(AFOCE) Activity Input to Project Corona Harvest on Civil Engineering Support in SEA 1 January 1965 – 31 

March 1968,” Submitted 18 December 1969 by the USAF Civil Engineering Center, 265.

593 Lt. Col. Maynard G. Hamilton, “Base Operation and Maintenance, SEA” AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, May 

1968, 14-15.

594 Lt. Col. Francis E. Torr, “Air Operations in Vietnam, The Air Force Civil Engineers Role in Counterinsurgency” AFCE, Vol 6, No 3, August 1965, 2-6.

595 Edward F.C. Lau, “The Base Civil Engineer and Environmental Engineering Control in Southeast 

Asia,” AFCE, Vol 9 No 4, November 1968, 10-12. 

596 Lt. Col. Francis E. Torr, “Air Operations in Vietnam, The Air Force Civil Engineers Role in Counterinsurgency” AFCE, Vol 6, No 3, August 1965, 2-6.

597 USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 1965-31 December 

1969, 173-175, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

598 Waggoner & Moe, 221.

599 MSgt George J. Frank, “Bien Hoa Holocaust,” Aerospace Historian, No. 27 September 1980, 195-198.

600 Capt. David M. De Blonk and Col. Robert G. Gardner, “A HQ USAF Directorate of Civil Engineering 

(AFOCE) Activity Input to Project Corona Harvest on Civil Engineering Support in SEA 1 January 1965 – 31 

March 1968,” Submitted 18 December 1969 by the USAF Civil Engineering Center, 170.
Endnotes 715

601 Waggoner & Moe, 220; 223; Col. Kaufman, Lt. Col. Torr, Maj. Fearn, Capt. Bratton, “Vietnam Report 

Prime BEEF in Action”, AFCE, Vol 7, No 1, February 1966, 5; Prime BEEF Team #1 Historical Report, 6 Aug 

– 2 Dec 1965, AHO.

602 “Da Nang Slab Revetments,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, November 1970, 30.

603 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 79.

604 USAF Logistics Activities in Support of Operations in Southeast Asia 1 January 1965 – 31 December 

1969, 170, AHO.

605 Capt. David M. De Blonk and Col. Robert G. Gardner, HQ USAF Directorate of Civil Engineering 

(AFOCE) Activity Input to Project Corona Harvest on Civil Engineering Support in SEA 1 January 1965 – 31 

March 1968, USAF Civil Engineering Center, 18 December 1969, 27.

606 Col. Lindsey M. Silvester, USAF Director of Tactical Evaluation DCS/Operations; Letter of Transmittal 

PACAF CORONA HARVEST Studies, 23 October 1970, 1. 

607 SMSgt. Earl L. Walsh, “Fire Protection for Vietnam,” AFCE August 1967, 32-33. 

608 Ibid. 

609 Ibid.

610 Douglas E. Courchene, Pioneers with Intent, Memoirs of an Air Force Fire Fighter, Air Force Civil 

Engineer Support Agency, Tyndall AFB, July 2003, 78; Capt. Joe G. Ballard, An Organizational History of Air 

Force Fire Protection, Synopsis of AFIT Thesis from the AHO, 28.

611 USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 1965-31 December 

1969, 168, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama; “Feasibility 

Study for Tuy Hoa Air Base, Republic of Vietnam,” Adrian Wilson and Assoc., 4 Oct 1965; “Feasibility Study 

for Phan Rang Air Base, Republic of Vietnam,” Adrian Wilson and Assoc., 9 Sep 1965; “Feasibility Study for 

Phu Cat (Qui Nhon) Air Base, Republic of Vietnam,” Adrian Wilson and Assoc., 14 Apr 1966, AHO.

612 Capt. David M. De Blonk and Col. Robert G. Gardner, “A HQ USAF Directorate of Civil Engineering 

(AFOCE) Activity Input to Project Corona Harvest on Civil Engineering Support in SEA 1 January 1965 – 31 

March 1968,” Submitted 18 December 1969 by the USAF Civil Engineering Center, 5-6; 13.

613 Lt. Col. Floyd A. Ashdown, “A History of the Warfighting Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering,”

Research Report, Air War College Air University Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama May 1984, 56; Capt. David 

M. De Blonk and Col. Robert G. Gardner, “A HQ USAF Directorate of Civil Engineering (AFOCE) Activity Input 

to Project Corona Harvest on Civil Engineering Support in SEA 1 January 1965 – 31 March 1968,” Submitted 

18 December 1969 by the USAF Civil Engineering Center, 116.

614 Lt. Col. Floyd A. Ashdown, “A History of the Warfighting Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering,” 

Research Report, Air War College Air University Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama May 1984, 57.

615 Maj. Donald A. Haas, “Phan Rang Air Base,” TME, Vol 58, No 386 November-December 1966, 431.

616 E.T. Lyons, “Aluminum Matting Runways in Vietnam,” TME, Vol 58, No 384, July-August 1966, 246. 

617 Jean Martin, SSgt. Douglas W. Stephens, SSgt. Robert F. Jakob, USAF Airfield Construction in South 

Vietnam July 1965 – March 1967, Vol I, 30-39, Historical Division Directorate of Information, HQ 7th AF, no 

date, AHO.

618 Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, February 2003, 10. 

619 Waggoner & Moe, 245.

620 Lois E. Walker, “A Tradition of Excellence,” The CE, Vol 7, No 4, Winter 1999-2000, 28-29.

621 USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 1965-31 December 

1969, 160, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

622 Brig. Gen. Archie Mayes, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, Appendix B.

623 USAF Logistics Activities in Support Operations On Southeast Asia, 1 January 1965-31 December 

1969, 160, Project Corona Harvest, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

624 Lt. Col. Floyd A. Ashdown, “A History of the Warfighting Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering,” 

Research Report, Air War College Air University Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama May 1984,61.

625 Steve Canton, “Operation Turn Key,” The Civil Engineer November 1966, 4; Maj. Gen. Robert H. 

Curtin, “Turn Key Project at Tuy Hoa,” TME, Vol 59, No 389, May-June 1967, 163; Lt. Col. Floyd A. Ashdown, 

“A History of the Warfighting Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering,” Research Report, Air War College 

Air University Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama May 1984, 60.

626 “Meet Col. David S. Chamberlain, PE,” AFCE, Vol 8 No 4, November 1967, 13.

627 Brig. Gen. Archie Mayes, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ron Hartzer, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, Appendix B; Waggoner & Moe, 245. 

628 Waggoner & Moe, 246.

629 Steve Canton, “Operation Turn Key” AFCE, Vol 7, No 4, November 1966, 2. 

630 Major Jeffrey L. Tyley, Project Turnkey Construction of Tuy Hoa Air Base, South Vietnam – A Historical 

Perspective – Is There Future Application? Air Command and Staff College, Air University April 1987, 6-7.

631 Ibid., 17. 
716 Leading the Way

632 Brig. Gen. Archie Mayes, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, Apendix B.

633 Brig. Gen. John D. Peters, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 34-35.

634 Brig. Gen. Archie Mayes, (USAF, Retired),”Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 73.

635 Brig. Gen. John D. Peters, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 34.

636 Mr. Gary S. Flora, (SES, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker and Dr. 

Douglas H. Merkle, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2005,14.

637 Major Jeffrey L. Tyley, Project Turnkey Construction of Tuy Hoa Air Base, South Vietnam – A Historical 

Perspective – Is There Future Application, Air Command and Staff College, Air University, April 1987,13-15.

638 Jean Martin, SSgt. Douglas W. Stephens, SSgt. Robert F. Jakob, USAF Airfield Construction in South 

Vietnam July 1965 – March 1967, Vol I, 90-91, Historical Division Directorate of Information, HQ 7th AF, no 

date, AHO; Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, “Turn Key Project at Tuy Hoa,” TME, Vol 59, No 389, May-June 1967, 

160.

639 Brig. Gen. Archie Mayes, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001,75.

640 Brig. Gen. John D. Peters, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 33.

641 Brig. Gen. Archie Mayes, (USAF, Retired),”Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 83.

642 Lt. Col. Donald R. Woods, “Turn Key Status Report,” AFCE, Vol 8, No 3, August 1967, 11.

643 Mr. Gary S. Flora, (SES, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker and Dr. 

Douglas H. Merkle, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2005,16

644 Brig. Gen. Archie Mayes, (USAF, Retired),”Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 83.

645 Brig. Gen. John D. Peters, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 33.

646 Maj. Jeffrey L. Tyley, Project Turnkey Construction of Tuy Hoa Air Base, South Vietnam – A Historical 

Perspective – Is There Future Application?, Air Command and Staff College, Air University, April 1987,13-15; 

Jean Martin, SSgt. Douglas W. Stephens, SSgt. Robert F. Jakob, USAF Airfield Construction in South Vietnam 

July 1965 – March 1967, Vol I, 94, Historical Division Directorate of Information, HQ 7th AF, no date; Herman 

S. Wolk, “USAF Plans and Policies, Logistics and Base Construction in Southeast Asia, 1967,” USAF Historical 

Division Liaison Office, October 1968, 30, AHO.

647 Brig. Gen. Archie Mayes, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 83.

648 Maj. Jeffrey L. Tyley, Project Turnkey Construction of Tuy Hoa Air Base, South Vietnam – A Historical 

Perspective – Is There Future Application?, Air Command and Staff College, Air University, April 1987,13-15; 

Jean Martin, SSgt. Douglas W. Stephens, SSgt. Robert F. Jakob, USAF Airfield Construction in South Vietnam 

July 1965 – March 1967, Historical Division Directorate of Information, HQ 7th AF, no date.

649 Brig. Gen. John D. Peters, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 35; 

Waggoner & Moe, 248.

650 Brig. Gen. Archie Mayes, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001, 70.

651 Ibid., Appendix B; Maj.Allan D. Aikens, History of the 820th Civil Engineering Squadron (Heavy 

Repair), Jan-Mar 1967, AHO. 

652 Lt. Col. Floyd A. Ashdown, “A History of the Warfighting Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering,” 

Research Report, Air War College Air University Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama May 1984, 58.

653 Lois E. Walker, “A RED HORSE Roundup,” The CE, Vol 8, No 3, Fall 2000, 28-30.

654 Col. F.A. DeMartino, “Mailbox,” The CE, Vol 5, No 3, Fall 2000, 11.

655 Mr. Gary S. Flora, (SES, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker and Dr. 

Douglas H. Merkle, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2005, 16.

656 Maj. Gen. Guy H. Goddard, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, February 2003, 12.

657 “Meet Col. David S. Chamberlain, PE,” AFCE, Vol 8 No 4, November 1967, 13.

658 Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes (USAF, Retired), Oral Interview with Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, 1988, 5.

659 Capt Juventino R. Garcia, History of the 6175th Air Base Group, Kunsan AB, Korea, 1 Jan-31 Mar 

1968, AHO.

660 Ibid., June 2001, 94-95.

661 William D. Middleton, “Military Construction in Korea,” TME, Vol 64, No 417, January-February 

1972, 30-32; “Operation Combat Fox,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, August 1969, 2-6.

662 Air Staff History, January-December 1968, n.p., AHO.
Endnotes 717

663 Memo, Brig. Gen. Archie S. Mayes to Col. W. H. Clisham, 29 May 1969, included in 557th Yearbook, 

Sep 68-Oct 69, AHO.

664 William D. Middleton, “Military Construction in Korea,” TME, Vol 64, No 417, January-February 

1972, 30-32; “Operation Combat Fox,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, August 1969, 2-6.

665 Maj. Gen. Robert H. Curtin, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. Walker 

and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2003, 45-46.

666 Waggoner & Moe, 204; George Brown Tindall and David E. Shi, America, A Narrative History. W.W. 

Norton and Company, New York, New York, 1992, 1387.

667 R.R. Palmer and Joel Colton, A History of the Modern World, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, New York, 

1978, 923.

668 John Schlicht, A War Too Long: The USAF in Southeast Asia 1961-1975, Air Force History and 

Museums Program, 1996, 101, 103-106.

669 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 102-104.

670 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 53-55; Lt. Col. Floyd A. Ashdown, “A History of 

the Warfighting Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering,” Research Report, Air War College, Air University, 

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama May 1984, 66.

671 Lt. Charles B. Prior, “History of the 554th Civil Engineering Squadron Heavy Repair, July-September 

1974,”; Lt. Charles B. Prior, “History of the 554th Civil Engineering Squadron Heavy Repair, Oct-Dec 1974;” 

Air Force Historical Research Agency, “Lineage and Honors History of the 554th RED HORSE Squadron,” 29 

Feb 2000.

672 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 54.

673 Capt. John M. Ledden, “What Is Corona Harvest?,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, May 1968, 33.

674 Bare Base Development Program Project 3782, Corona Harvest, 24 January 1969, 1. 

675 Ibid., 7.

676 Ibid., 2.

677 Ibid., 7.

678 Ibid., 2.

679 Ibid., 7.

680 Ibid., 7.

681 U.S. Air Force/Fact Sheet, Bare Base Concept 70-4, 2.

682 Ibid., 1.

683 Bare Base Mobility, Project 3782, 7-8.

684 U.S. Air Force/Fact Sheet, Bare Base Concept 70-4, 3.

685 Ibid. 

686 Quoted in “A Pacific Air Forces Activity Input to Project Corona Havest on In-Country and Out-Country 

Strike Operations in Southeast Asia, Vol IV-Support, Civil Engineers, 1 April 1968 – 31 December 1969, 19, 

AHO.

687 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 107.

688 Maj. John L. Moore, “How to Employ RED HORSE in the CONUS,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 

13, No 3, August 1972, 1-5, 13.

689 Ibid.

690 John A. McAndrews, editor, Air Force Contribution to U.S. Public Works, Study No. 143, 1974, 91, 

on file at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama.

691 Ibid.

692 Francis A. Sanders, “Air Force Engineers in Civic Actions,” TME, Vol 57, No 378, July-August 1965, 

246.

693 Ibid.

694 Col. Francis A. Sanders, “Air Force Civil Engineers in...Community Relations,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 3, 

August 1966, 6-7.

695 Brig. Gen. William T. Meredith, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2001, 86.

696 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Oh! For a Horse with Wings,” U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 1, No 6, 

August 1993, 7.

697 Max W. Day, “Civic Action: A New Role for Prime BEEF,” TME, Vol 64, No 418, March-April 1972, 

109; Capt. Marcus B. Moses, “A New Kind of Air Force Civil Engineer,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, August 1971, 

16-18.

698 Air Staff History, January-June 1970, n.p., AHO.

699 Max W. Day, “Civic Action: A New Role for Prime BEEF,” TME, Vol 64, No 418, March-April 1972, 

109; Capt. Marcus B. Moses, “A New Kind of Air Force Civil Engineer,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, August 1971, 

16-18.
718 Leading the Way

Chapter 4 Endnotes

1 Maj. Gen. M.R. Reilly, “Air Force Civil Engineering, What’s Ahead?” The Military Engineer [hereafter 

cited as TME], Vol 66, No 429, January-February 1974, 10.

2 Air Staff History 1 January through 30 June 1976, np, Files of AFCEC History Office, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida [hereafter cited as AHO].

3 Brig. Gen. Robert C. Thompson, “On Breaking With Tradition,” Air Force Civil Engineer [hereafter 

cited as AFCE], Vol 16, No 2, May 1975, 1.

4 Charles Joseph Gross, The Air National Guard and the American Military Tradition, Historical Services 

Division, National Guard Bureau, Washington, D.C., 1995, 114.

5 Maj. Gen. M.R. Reilly, “Air Force Civil Engineering, What’s Ahead?” TME, Vol 66, No 429, JanuaryFebruary 1974, 10; Brig. Gen. Bernard C. Meredith, PE, “What’s New in Programming,” Air Force Engineering 

& Services Quarterly [hereafter cited as ESQ], Vol 18, No 1, February 1977, 36.

6 Brig. Gen. Bernard C. Meredith, PE, “What’s New in Programming,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 1, February 

1977, 34-37.

700 Capt. Marcus B. Moses, “A New Kind of Air Force Civil Engineer,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, August 1971, 

16-18.

701 Max W. Day. “Civic Action: A New Role for Prime BEEF,” TME, Vol 64, No 418, March-April 1972, 

109; Capt. Marcus B. Moses, “A New Kind of Air Force Civil Engineer,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, August 1971, 

16-18.

702 Max W. Day, “Civic Action: A New Role for Prime BEEF,” TME, Vol 64, No 418, March-April 1972, 

108-109; Air Staff History, January-June 1972, n.p., AHO.

703 Air Staff History, January-June 1973, n.p., AHO.

704 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interviewed by Lois E. 

Walker, AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, v, 55-56; “Four Related First-hand Accounts of the 

Vietnam Refugee Operations in the Pacific,” Col. Donald Kane, USAF Ret, Nov 2013, AHO.

705 Maj. P.A. Peckham, Capt. P.G. Arnold, and Capt. J.L. Davis, “Transition to a New Life,” Air Force

Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 16, No 3, August 1975, 13-17.

706 Ibid.

707 Ibid.

708 Kenneth T. Sawyer, “The Alaska Earthquake, Effects, Reaction, and Recovery,” TME, Vol 56, No 372, 

July-August 1964, 247.

709 James R. Powers, “An Engineering Glimpse of The Alaskan Earthquake,” AFCE, Vol 6, No 1, February 

1965, 4.

710 Kenneth T. Sawyer, “The Alaska Earthquake, Effects, Reaction, and Recovery,” TME, Vol 56, No 372, 

July-August 1964, 247.

711 Directorate of Civil Engineering U.S. Air Force, TME, Vol 57, No 377, May-June 1965, 204.

712 Capt. Joseph A. Ahearn, “A Prime BEEF Team in Action,” AFCE, Vol 7, No 3, August 1966, 18-19.

713 Thomas Sweat and CMSgt. Carl L. Keatts, “Project Prime BEEF-Its Value in Natural Disasters,” AFCE, 

Vol 9, No 1, February 1968, 28-29; Thomas Sweat and CMSgt. Carl L. Keatts, “Prime BEEF and the Alaska 

Flood,” TME, Vol 60, No 393, January-February 1968, 26-27.

714 Directorate of CE (DCS/P&R), Air Staff History, January-June 1967, n.p., AHO.

715 Lucille T. Garrett and Edward Sanchez, “Camille and the Engineers,” TME, Vol 61, No 404, NovemberDecember 1969, 407-409.

716 William B. Musick “Hurricane Camille: Prime BEEF Tested Again,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, February 

1970, 17.

717 Edward M. Smith, “They Stayed Until the Job was Done – Hurricane Agnes,” Air Force Civil Engineer, 

Vol 14, No 1, February 1973, 4-7.

718 Ibid., 6-7.

719 Edward E. Vigee, “Engineers Help a Community Recover,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 1, February 1973, 8-10.

720 Robert J. Adamcik, “Tornado Cleanup,” TME, Vol 66, No 432, July-August 1974, 225-7.

721 “Xenia Tornado Disaster, Civil Engineers Lend a Helping Hand,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 3, August 1974, 

28-29.

722 Maj. Gen. M.R. Reilly, “Air Force Civil Engineering, What’s Ahead?” TME, Vol 66, No 429, JanuaryFebruary 1974, 10.

723 Ibid. 

724 Ibid., 10-12.

725 Ibid.

726 Maj. Gen. Billie G. McGarvey, “In Retrospect-An Open Letter from the Departing Director,” AFCE, 

Vol 16, No 2, May 1975, 7.
Endnotes 719

7 Walton S. Moody and Jacob Neufeld, “Carrying Out National Policy,” Winged Shield, Winged Sword, 

A History of the United States Air Force, Vol II, Government Printing Office, 1997, Washington DC, 373-402; 

Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, “Air Force Engineering Meeting Global Challenges,” TME, Vol 73, No 471, 

January-February 1981, 10.

8 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, “Air Force Engineering Meeting Global Challenges,” TME, Vol 73, No 

471, January-February 1981, 10.

9 Walton S. Moody and Jacob Neufeld, “Carrying Out National Policy,” Winged Shield, Winged Sword, 

A History of the United States Air Force, Vol II, Government Printing Office, 1997, Washington DC, 373-402; 

U.S. Army Environmental Center, Thematic Study and Guidelines: Identification and Evaluation of U.S. Army 

Cold War Era Military-Industrial Historic Properties, 1997, 53-55.

10 Capt. Dean Fox, “Air Force 2000,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 4, Winter 1982-1983, 4.

11 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, “Air Force Engineering Meeting Global Challenges,” TME, Vol 73, No 

471, January-February 1981, 10.

12 “Prime BEEF Combat Support Team Implementation Guidance,” HQ AFESC/DEO, 1 Nov 1986, AHO; 

Lt. Col. O.F. Smith, EIT, “Our Ability to Fly and Fight: A Matter of Readiness,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 4, November 

1977, 3-7.

13 Col. Darrell G. Bittle, “Air Base Survivability,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 1, Spring 1982, 7-13.

14 Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 3, August 1977, 11.

15 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 69.

16 Brig. Gen. Bernard C. Meredith, PE, “What’s New in Programming,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 1, February 

1977, 34-37.

17 Arthur B. Markowitz, “The ‘Forum’,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 3, Fall 1985, 28. 

18 Col. Harry Glaze, “Keep off the Grass,” ESQ, Vol 27, No 2, Summer 1986, 4-5.

19 “Air Force Engineering and Services Agency,” TME, Vol 69, No 450, July-August 1977, 267-268.

20 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 61.

21 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 48.

22 Ibid. 33-34, 49, 58. 

23 Gen. Wilbur L. Creech, “In Dedication...General Creech’s Comments: Dedication of the Air Force 

Engineering and Services Center Building in Memory of Major General Robert C. Thompson, USAF, Tyndall 

AFB, Florida, July 1, 1982,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 3, Fall 1982, 24.

24 Lois Walker, “A Tradition of Excellence,” The CE, Vol 7, No 4, Winter 1999-2000, 31.

25 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, “Decade of the Challenge...the 1980s,” ESQ, Vol 21, No 1, February 

1980, 6.

26 Ibid., 4-5; Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, “Needed: Managers, Engineers, Leaders,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 

3, Fall 1981, 4-5.

27 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, iii-v; , 58; Lois Walker, “A Tradition of Excellence,” The 

CE, Vol 7, No 3, Fall 1999, 34.

28 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr., “Strategy for Tomorrow Moving Forward with a Strategic Plan,” 

ESQ, Vol 25, No 1, Spring 1984, 3-6.

29 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 2, Summer 1983, 23.

30 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr., “Strategy for Tomorrow Moving Forward with a Strategic Plan,” 

ESQ, Vol 25, No 1, Spring 1984, 3-6.

31 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, viii. 

32 Ibid., 111. 

33 Lois Walker, “A Tradition of Excellence,” The CE, Vol 7, No 4, Winter 1999-2000, 31.

34 Gen. George E. Ellis, “General Ellis at AFIT: Highlights of his presentation before new CEs at AFIT,” 

ESQ, Spring 1986, 3.

35 Ibid.; “4 Keys to Excellence,” Air Force Engineering & Services Center Update, January 1989, 2.

36 “General Ellis at AFIT: Highlights of his presentation before new CEs at AFIT,” ESQ, Vol 27, No 1, 

Spring 1986, 4-6.

37 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 96, xi.

38 Commander’s Page: Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn, Air Force Engineering & Services Center Update, 

April-May, 1989, 4.

39 Air Staff History, Directorate of Civil Engineering, July-December 1974; Air Staff History, Directorate 

of Civil Engineering, July-December 1975.

40 Air Staff History, Directorate of Civil Engineering, January-June 1974; January-June 1975.

41 Air Staff History, Directorate of Civil Engineering, January-June 1975.

42 TME, Vol 67, No 440, November-December 1975, 363.
720 Leading the Way

43 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 49, 33-34. 

44 Ibid., 58. 

45 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, v, 58.

46 Ibid., 57.

47 Ibid., 57-58.

48 Capt. Richard A. Probst and Capt. Thomas T. Taylor, “BAS/A La Carte: A Future in Air Force Feeding?,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 2, May 1977, 14-15.

49 Capt. David B. White, “Services: Necessary for Survival,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 1, Spring 1982, 46.

50 Ibid.

51 Lt. Col. Roy G. Kennington, “Services into the 1980s,” ESQ, Vol 21, No 1, February 1980, 8.

52 Ibid., 7-10.

53 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 69.

54 Lt. Col. Roy G. Kennington, “Services into the 1980s,” ESQ, Vol 21, No 1, February 1980, 9.

55 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 69.

56 Lt. Col. Roy G. Kennington, “Services into the 1980s,” ESQ, Vol 21, No 1, February 1980, 8-9.

57 Maj. Ronald C. Bunch, “The Traveling Teams of the AFESC,” ESQ, Vol 20, No 4, November 1979, 

12.

58 Lt. Col. George T. Murphy, “BAT TAC’s Approach to Billeting Excellence,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 1, Spring, 

1984, 14-15.

59 “Air Force Engineering and Services Agency,” TME, Vol 69, No 450, July-August 1977, 267-268.

60 Capt. Kathryn Wagner, “Beirut in Retrospect,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 4, Winter 1984-1985, 14-15.

61 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 61. 

62 AFESA SO G-1, 1 April 1977, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

63 “Air Force Engineering and Services Agency,” TME, Vol 69, No 450, July-August 1977, 267; Lt. Col. 

Joseph “Bud” Ahearn, and Henry A. Collin, Jr., “Air Force Engineering and Services Agency,” ESQ, Vol 18, 

No 2, May 1977, 2 ; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Civil Engineering’s First Super FOA,” AFCE, Vol 20, No 1, 2012, 

24-25.

64 Lt. Col. Joseph “Bud” Ahearn, and Henry A. Collin, Jr., “Air Force Engineering and Services Agency,” 

ESQ, Vol 18, No 3, May 1977, 2.

65 Rudy Anthony and Capt. Kenneth G. Marx, “History of the Air Force Engineering & Services Agency 

(AFESA), 1 Jan-31 Dec 1977, 102. 

66 “Air Force Engineering and Services Agency,” TME, Vol 69, No 450, July-August 1977, 267-268.

67 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 61.

68 DAF/PRM to AFESC, Subj: HQ Air Force Civil Engineering and Services Center, a Separate Operating 

Agency, Memo, 21 June 1978.

69 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, v.

70 Ibid., 66-67.

71 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 61-62.

72 Ibid., v-viii.

73 George K. Dimitroff, “Air Force Engineering and Services Center: A New Focal Point for Worldwide 

Activities,” ESQ, Vol 19, No 4, November 1978, 19; Department of the Air Force to AFESC, Letter, “HQ Air 

Force Engineering and Services Center, a Separate Operating Agency, 21 June 1978.

74 George K. Dimitroff, “Air Force Engineering and Services Center: A New Focal Point for Worldwide 

Activities,” ESQ, Vol 19, No 4, November 1978, 19-20. 

75 CMSgt. Larry L. Testerman, compiler, History of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 

January 1978 – 31 December 1978, Vol 1, 1979, 5.

76 George K. Dimitroff, “Air Force Engineering and Services Center: A New Focal Point for Worldwide 

Activities,” ESQ, Vol 19, No 4, November 1978, 19-20.

77 CMSgt. Larry L. Testerman, compiler, History of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 

January 1978 – 31 December 1978, Vol 1, 1979, ii; CMSgt. Larry L. Testerman, compiler, History of the Air 

Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 January – 31 December 1979, Vol 1, 1980, ii.

78 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 61; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “AFESC Celebrates its 

Birthday,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, July-August 1989, 12-13.

79 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Foundations for the Future: A Brief History of Air Force Civil Engineers,” ca. 

2005. 

80 CMSgt. Larry L. Testerman, compiler, History of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 
Endnotes 721

January 1978 – 31 December 1978, Vol 1, 1979, 6-11.

81 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 61; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “AFESC Celebrates its 

Birthday,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, July-August 1989, 12-13.

82 George K. Dimitroff, “Air Force Engineering and Services Center: A New Focal Point for Worldwide 

Activities,” ESQ, Vol 19, No 4, November 1978, 20.

83 “Engineering and Services Center Relocated,” TME, Vol 72, No 466, March-April 1980, 119; Maj. 

Jeffrey H. Markey, PE, “New Home for the Air Force Engineering and Services Center,” ESQ, Vol 20, No 4, 

November 1979, 2-5; Gen. Wilbur L. Creech, “In Dedication...General Creech’s Comments: Dedication of the 

Air Force Engineering and Services Center Building in Memory of Major General Robert C. Thompson, USAF, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, July 1, 1982,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 3, Fall 1982, 24.

84 Public Announcement, “Air Force Decision to Realign Departmental Headquarters and Reduce Staff 

in the National Capital Region (NCR),” 14 Apr 1978; History of the Directorate of Engineering and Services, 

DCS/P&R, 1 Jan-30 Jun 1978, 128. 

85 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 66.

86 CMSgt. Larry L. Testerman, compiler, History of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 

January – 31 December 1979, Vol 1, 1980, 3.

87 Ibid.

88 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, “Decade of the Challenge...the 1980s,” ESQ, Vol 21, No 1, February 

1980, 3-4; U.S. Air Force Engineering and Services Center, U.S. Air Force Fact Sheet 82-35, 1982.

89 CMSgt. Larry L. Testerman, compiler, History of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 

January – 31 December 1979, Vol 1, 1980, 11, 73.

90 “AFESC Seeks Design for Symbolic Seal,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 19, No 4, November 

1978, n.p.

91 “A New Emblem for the AFESC,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 20, No 4, November 1979, 

n.p.

92 U.S. Air Force Engineering and Services Center, U.S. Air Force Fact Sheet 82-35, 1982; CMSgt. Larry 

L. Testerman, compiler, History of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 January – 31 December 

1979, Vol 1, 1980, 8-9.

93 Maj. Ronald C. Bunch, “The Traveling Teams of the AFESC,” ESQ, Vol 20, No 4, November 1979, 

10-12. 

94 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “AFESC Celebrates its Birthday,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, 

July-August 1989, 12-13.

95 U.S. Air Force Engineering and Services Center, U.S. Air Force Fact Sheet 82-35, 1982.

96 Maj. Edward L. Parkinson, “Getting a Handle on Co$t,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 1982, 20-24.

97 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 90.

98 “AFCESA Technologies Cited by CERF,” Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency, CE Update, 

Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 12.

99 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr., “Strategy for Tomorrow Moving Forward with a Strategic Plan,” 

ESQ, Vol 25, No 1, Spring 1984, 4; “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 24, 

No 1, Spring 1983, 30.

100 “New AFESC Directorate Formed,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 3, Fall 1983, 28; MSgt James P. Denney, History 

of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 Jan - 31 Dec 83, 71-73.

101 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 2, Summer 1983, 23.

102 Maj. Theodore M. Golondzinier, “Doing More with Less,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 8.

103 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “AFESC Celebrates its Birthday,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, 

July-August 1989, 12-13.

104 Maj. Gen. George E. Ellis, “Strength Through Partnership,” TME, January-February 1988, 26-28.

105 CMSgt. Larry L. Testerman, compiler, History of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 

January 1978 – 31 December 1978, Vol 1, 1979, 17, 42; CMSgt. Larry L. Testerman, compiler, History of the 

Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 January – 31 December 1979, Vol 1, 1980, 9.

106 DAF/PRM 072q, 24 March 1977, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama; 

DAF/MPM, 198q, 29 September 178 and HQ AFESC SO G-36, 8 October 1978, Air Force Historical Research 

Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama; HQ AFESC SO G-2, 12 March 1979, Air Force Historical Research Agency, 

Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

107 DAF/PRM 072q, 24 March 1977, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama; 

DAF/MPM 198q, 29 September 1978 & HA AFESC AO G-36, 8 October 1978, Air Force Historical Research 

Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama; DAF/MEM 226a, 5 March 1979 & HQ AFESC SO-G-3, 12 March 1979, Air 

Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

108 Lt. Col. John R Harty, “An Analysis of Air Force Civil Engineering Research and Development Management,” Research Report, Air War College, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1978, 20; “Civil Engineering Laboratory,” 

AHO.
722 Leading the Way

109 Lt. Col. John R Harty, “An Analysis of Air Force Civil Engineering Research and Development Management,” Research Report, Air War College, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1978, 21. 

110 HQ AFESC SO G-42, 15 November 1978, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, 

Alabama; HQ AFSC SO G-163, 17 November 1978, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, 

Alabama.

111 CMSgt. Larry L. Testerman, compiler, History of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 

January – 31 December 1979, Vol 1, 1980, 9.

112 Ibid.

113 Robert E. Boyer and Philip T. Nash, “North Field,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 2, Summer 1981, 16.

114 CMSgt. Larry L. Testerman, compiler, History of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 

January – 31 December 1979, Vol 1, 1980, 56.

115 Robert E. Boyer and Philip T. Nash, “North Field,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 2, Summer 1981, 16.

116 “Civil Engineering Laboratory,” AHO.

117 William D. Gilbert, “Air Force Engineering Meeting Global Challenges,” TME, Vol 73, No 471, 

January-February 1981, 10-11.

118 “Civil Engineering Laboratory,” AHO.

119 K. Stuart Millard, “Airfield Pavements...A Valuable Resource,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 2, Summer 1983, 

24.

120 Anthony J. Kwan and J.D. Wilson, “On the Razor’s Edge of Technology,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 1, Spring 

1982, 29-30.

121 “Mr. ‘B’ Retires,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Fall 1984, 21

122 Anthony J. Kwan and J.D. Wilson, “On the Razor’s Edge of Technology,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 1, Spring 

1982, 30.

123 Ibid., 30-32.

124 Lt. Col. Michael J. Ryan, “Environmental Quality R&D: Investigating Tomorrow’s Problems Today,” 

ESQ, Vol 23 No 4, Winter 1982-1983, 14-15.

125 Ibid.

126 “Tecnotes,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 2, Summer 1983, 39.

127 Capt. Anthony J. Kwan and Capt. J.D. Wilson, “On the Razor’s Edge of Technology,” ESQ, Vol 23, 

No 1, Spring 1982, 29-30.

128 “Mr. ‘B’ Retires,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 3, Fall 1984, 21. 

129 “Civil Engineering Laboratory.” AHO.

130 “New E&S Laboratory Construction Begins,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, Fall 1984, 

22.

131 “Civil Engineering Laboratory.” AHO.

132 Mr. Henry A. Collin was selected to serve as the first Deputy Director of Program, but passed away 

before his Senior Executive Service appointment was approved and the position was never filled. Maj. Gen. 

George E. Ellis, “Air Force Civil Engineering: Shaping Our Future Combat Capability,” TME, Vol 81, 519, 

January-February 1989, 22-25.

133 “New Division Formed: Installation Development Division Gets Charter in Reorganization,” Air Force 

Engineering & Services Update, January-February 1989, 5.

134 “New Division Created in Washington,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, April-May 1989, 

6.

135 “AFESC SOA Review,” Col. Marshall Nay, 15 Aug 90, AHO: Biography, Brig. Gen. David M. Cannan, 

2002.

136 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 109, xii.

137 Kenneth Miller, Email to Ron Hartzer, 23 May 2011, AHO; Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, 

Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 89.

138 Brig. Gen. Bernard C. Meredith, PE, “What’s New in Programming,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 1, February 

1977, 34-37; H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “J.B. Cole Retires at AFCEE,” The U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 1, No 

10, December 1993, 14.

139 See Note Above.

140 Col. Joseph A. (Bud) Ahearn, “If it Ain’t in the POM it Ain’t in the Budget: Interview with Col. Joseph 

A. (Bud) Ahearn,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 1982, 34.

141 Ibid.

142 Col. G.E. “Jud” Ellis, “CESMET: An Update,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 3, August 1977, 16-17.

143 Brig. Gen. Bernard C. Meredith, PE, “What’s New in Programming,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 1, February 

1977, 34-37. 

144 Col. Joseph A. (Bud) Ahearn, “If it Ain’t in the POM it Ain’t in the Budget: Interview with Col. Joseph 

A. (Bud) Ahearn,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 1982, 34-37.

145 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 58.
Endnotes 723

146 Col. Joseph A. (Bud) Ahearn, “If it Ain’t in the POM it Ain’t in the Budget: Interview with Col. Joseph 

A. (Bud) Ahearn,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 1982, 34-37.

147 Arthur B. Markowitz, “The ‘Forum’,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 3, Fall 1985, 28-30. 

148 Col. Joseph A. (Bud) Ahearn, “If it Ain’t in the POM it Ain’t in the Budget: Interview with Col. Joseph 

A. (Bud) Ahearn,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 1982, 34-37.

149 Col. G.E. “Jud” Ellis, “CESMET: An Update,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 2, August 1977, 16-17.

150 Col. Joseph A. (Bud) Ahearn, “If it Ain’t in the POM it Ain’t in the Budget: Interview with Col. Joseph 

A. (Bud) Ahearn,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 1982, 34-37.

151 Lt. Col. Jeffrey H. Markey, “Golden Opportunity,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 1, Spring 1985, 22-23.

152 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 89.

153 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 90; Maj. Edward L. Parkinson, “Getting a Handle on 

Co$t,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 1982, 20-24.

154 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “J.B. Cole Retires at AFCEE,” The U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 1, No 10, 

December 1993, 14

155 Lt. Col. O.F. Smith, EIT, “Our Ability to Fly and Fight: A Matter of Readiness,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 3, 

November 1977, 3-7; Lt. Col. Eugene A. Lupia, “When the Balloon Goes Up,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, 

Spring 1982, 24-27; Directorate of Engineering and Services History, 1 July – 31 December 1976, 82-84, AHO.

156 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 72.

157 Lt. Col. O.F. Smith, EIT, “Our Ability to Fly and Fight: A Matter of Readiness,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 3, 

November 1977, 3-7.

158 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 72; Formal Report of the Civil Engineering Manpower 

Study Group (Project Prime Beef), 1964, 2-4.

159 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 72

160 Ibid., 70.

161 Ibid., 70-71.

162 Lt. Col. O.F. Smith, EIT, “Our Ability to Fly and Fight: A Matter of Readiness,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 3, 

November 1977, 3-7.

163 Ibid.

164 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 69-72.

165 Ibid.

166 Department of Defense Directive Number 1315.6, 26 August 1978, 2-3.

167 CMSgt. Larry L. Testerman, compiler, History of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 

January – 31 December 1979, Vol 1, 1980, 73-74; Capt. David G. Wingad, “Readiness through Prime BEEF: 

A Look Into the Future,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 18, No 4, November 1977, 9-10.

168 Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 4, Winter 1981-1982, 

23.

169 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, “Reflections,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 1982, 47.

170 Ibid.

171 Maj. Robert J. Courter, Jr., “Base Level Management Plan: a systematic approach to managing, analysis 

and problem solving,” ESQ, Vol 19, No 2, May 1978, 3.

172 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired) “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 57-59.

173 Ibid., 59.

174 Ibid.

175 Ibid., 87-88.

176 Maj. Paul Hains, “Image,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 1, Spring 1984, 8-9; “Image,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 3, Fall 

1984, 13. 

177 “Image,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 3, Fall 1984, 13. 

178 Maj. Paul Hains, “Image,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 1, Spring 1984, 8-9; Maj. Patrick M. Coullahan, “Building 

Image: Innovative Management Achieves Greater Effectiveness,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 1, Spring 1985, 14-17. 

179 “Image,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 3, Fall 1984, 13. 

180 “Image,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 3, Fall 1984, 13. 

181 Maj. Paul Hains, “Image,” ESQ, Spring 1984, 8-9; “Image,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 3, Fall 1984, 13; Capt. 

John E. Bravo, “Designing the right tools, adequate communications and a productive place to work...,” ESQ, 

Spring 1986, 30-32. 

182 Maj. Patrick Coullahan, “Building IMAGE, Innovative Management Achieves Greater Effectiveness,” 

ESQ, Vol 26, No 1, Spring 1985, 16; Booz, Allen & Hamilton, “Base Civil Engineering General Purpose Vehicle 

Evaluation Study,” Jan 1988, AHO; AFESC Weekly Activity Report, 9 Mar 88, Files of AFCES History Office, 
724 Leading the Way

Tyndall AFB, Florida. 

183 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, viii.

184 Ibid., 91.

185 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “An Interview with Brigadier General Jud Ellis the Innovator,” ESQ, Vol 24, 

No 4, Winter 1983, 10; Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, 

HQ AFCESA Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2008, 13; Walter J. Boyne, “The Genius of this Singular Officer Lives 

on in the Modern United States Air Force, Creech,” Air Force Magazine, March 2005, 73.

186 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “An Interview with Brigadier General Jud Ellis the Innovator,” ESQ, Vol 24, 

No 4, Winter 1983, 11.

187 Ibid., 10-11.

188 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert (USAF, Retired) “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 110; Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), 

“Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 42; 

Walter J. Boyne, “The Genius of this Singular Officer Lives on in the Modern United States Air Force, Creech,” 

Air Force Magazine, March 2005, 73.

189 Lea G. Blake, “One-of-a-Kind Team,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 4, Winter 1983, 16.

190 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 91; Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy, “Oral History 

Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, June 2005, 39-41

191 “Installation Design,” Air Force Manual 88-43, 1981, 2.

192 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “An Interview with Brigadier General Jud Ellis the Innovator,” ESQ, Vol 24, 

No 4, Winter 1983, 10-11.

193 Walter J. Boyne, “The Genius of this Singular Officer Lives on in the Modern United States Air Force, 

Creech,” Air Force Magazine, March 2005, 73.

194 18th Wing Public Affairs, “Kadena Wins CINC’s Installation Excellence Award for PACAF,” 9 October 

2010, accessed April 2011, http://www.kadena.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123225820, accessed. 

195 Lt. Col. Richard J. Toner, “The Total Force Concept,” Air University Review, November-December 

1972, accessed May 2011, www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1972/nov-dec/toner.html.

196 Ibid.

197 Lt. Gen. Philip C. Gast, “Operators & Engineers: Readiness Partners,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 4, Winter 

1981-1982, 10.

198 “Civil Engineering Officer Exchange Program,” ESQ, Vol 16, No 1, February 1975, 33.

199 Maj. Richard L. Brown, “The AFCE in a Joint Environment,” ESQ, Vol 20, No 4, November 1979, 

22-28.

200 U.S. Army Environmental Center, Thematic Study and Guidelines: Identification and Evaluation of 

U.S. Army Cold War Era Military-Industrial Historic Properties, 1997, 61.

201 Lt. Col. Peter W. Chiarelli, “Goldwater-Nichols Revisited: A Proposal for Meaningful Defense Reorganization,” Thesis, Army War College, 1993, 1-7.

202 Maj. Gen. George E. Ellis, “Air Force Civil Engineering: Shaping Our Future Combat Capability,” 

TME, Vol 81, No 519, January-February 1989, 22-23.

203 Ibid.

204 Maj. Donald R. Barrett, “Facilities to Support our People,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 1982, 26.

205 U.S. Department of the Air Force, AF Regulation 85-10, Operation and Maintenance of Real Property, 

Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1975.

206 H. Perry Sullivan, “A Change at the Top,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 1982, 30; Maj.Gen. Clifton D. 

Wright, Jr., “Image with a Small I,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 1, Spring 1985, 4.

207 “Be Visible: An Interview that Worked-McClellan’s BCE Discusses Plans Programs and Issues,” ESQ, 

Vol 25, No 3, Fall 1984, 36-38.

208 Lt. Col. Eugene Garove, “Successful O&M Work Planning,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 16, No 1, 

February 1975, 6.

209 Ibid., 7.

210 “Be Visible: An Interview that Worked-McClellan’s BCE Discusses Plans Programs and Issues,” ESQ, 

Vol 25, No 3, Fall 1984, 36-38.

211 Col. George E. Ellis, “CESMET...in Support of the Mission and People,” ESQ, Vol 16, No 3, August 

1975, 3.

212 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 34. 

213 Col. George E. Ellis, “CESMET...in Support of the Mission and People,” ESQ, Vol 16, No 3, August 

1975, 3; “Civil Engineering and Services Management Evaluation Team (CESMET) History,” 2006, AHO.

214 Col. George E. Ellis, “CESMET...in Support of the Mission and People,” ESQ, Vol 16, No 3, August 

1975, 3; Col. G.E. ‘Jud’ Ellis, “CESMET: An Update,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 3, August 1977, 16-17.

215 “CESMET Tips,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 3, Fall 1982, 33

216 “CESMET Tips,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 29; “CESMET Tips,” ESQ, Vol 21, No 2, May 
Endnotes 725

1980, 31; “CESMET Tips,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 1, Spring 1982, 22.

217 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 49.

218 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May and October 2002 (draft), 26.

219 “From the Director: BMAG: Search for a Better Tomorrow,” ESQ, Vol 17, No 1, February 1976, n.p.

220 Maj, Gen. Eugene A. Lupia (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May and October 2002 (draft), 26.

221 Maj. Gen. Robert C. Thompson, Communication from Robert C. Thompson Maj. Gen. USAF Director, “Base Management Action Group (BMAG) Concept Paper – Base Planning and Management,” April 1976, 

AHO.

222 H. Collin, Col. G. Ellis, Lt. Col. R. Hamel, L. Henriksen, Lt. Col. W. Sims, “Blue Print for Base Planning and Management Actions Book Two, AAF BMAG,” April 1976, AHO. 

223 While rejected in 1976, Services was transferred to the Department of Morale, Welfare, and Recreation 

in 1991.

Lt. Col. Gary C. Bradham, “Executive Research Project for the Industrial College of the Armed Forces 

National Defense University Integrating AF Services and MWR Organizations: Impacts, Assessment, and 

Recommendations,” 1992; Air Staff Civil Engineering History, “Restructuring of Base Civil Engineering Organization,” n.p., January-June 1977, AHO.

224 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May and October 2002 (draft), 28.

225 Maj. Robert J. Courter, Jr PE, “Base Level Management Plan: A Systematic Approach to Managing 

Analysis and Problem Solving,” ESQ, Vol 19, No 2, May 1978, 2-5, 9.

226 Air Staff History, “History of Directorate of Engineering and Services: 1 July – 31 December 1976,” 

73, AHO.

227 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 40.

228 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “An Interview with Brigadier General Jud Ellis the Innovator,” ESQ, Vol 24, 

No 4,Winter 1983, 11.

229 “General Ellis at AFIT: Highlights of his Presentation before new CEs at AFIT,” Engineering & Services 

Quarterly, Spring 1986, 7-8.

230 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “An Interview with Brigadier General Jud Ellis the Innovator,” ESQ, Vol 24, 

No 4, Winter 1983, 12.

231 Ibid., 12-14.

232 Ibid., 14.

233 Ibid., 12-13.

234 Bill Hamill, Barry R. Wentland, Tom Risher, and James F. Ruth, “When You Need It! The Way You 

Want It!” ESQ, Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 12-15.

235 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr., “Strategy for Tomorrow Moving Forward with a Strategic Plan,” 

ESQ, Vol 25, No 1, Spring 1984, 4-6.

236 Ibid.

237 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 1, Spring 1985, 29.

238 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 2, Summer 1985, 35.

239 Maj. Theodore M. Golondzinier, “Doing More with Less,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 8-11.

240 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 2, Summer 1981, 12.

241 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 2, Summer 1984, 12; 

Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr., “Strategy for Tomorrow Moving Forward with a Strategic Plan,” ESQ, Vol 25, 

No 1, Spring 1984, 4.

242 Air Training Command History 1989, Vol 21.

243 Maj. Theodore M. Golondzinier, “Doing More with Less,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 8-11.

244 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 2, Summer 1984, 12.

245 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 1, Spring 1985, 26.

246 Capt. Richard A. Probst and Capt. Thomas T. Taylor, “BAS/A La Carte: A Future in Air Force Feeding?,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 2, May 1977, 14-15.

247 Maj. Gary Bain, “Good Things A’Cookin’ Lowry TTC Update,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 3, Fall 1982, 17.

248 Eleanor Linder and Maj. Jim Blanco, “Services Information Management System for Billeting,” ESQ, 

Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 12; Capt. Richard A. Probst and Capt. Thomas T. Taylor, “BAS/A La Carte: A Future 

in Air Force Feeding?,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 2, May 1977, 14-15.

249 Eleanor Linder and Maj. Jim Blanco, “Services Information Management System for Billeting,” ESQ, 

Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 12; Capt. Walter T. Kelly, “Automated Food Service,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 

1982, 40-43.

250 Maj. Theodore M. Golondzinier, “Doing More with Less,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 8-11.

251 Capt. Walter T. Kelly, “Automated Food Service,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 1982, 40-43; Capt. 

James H. Cox, Jr., “SIMS: The Computers are Coming,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Fall 1984, 26.
726 Leading the Way

252 Eleanor Linder and Maj. Jim Blanco, “Services Information Management System for Billeting,” ESQ, 

Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 12; Capt. James H. Cox, Jr., “SIMS: The Computers are Coming,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 

3, Fall 1984, 25-28.

253 Capt. James H. Cox, Jr., “SIMS: The Computers are Coming,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 3, Fall 1984, 25-28.

254 Eleanor Linder and Maj. Jim Blanco, “Services Information Management System for Billeting,” ESQ, 

Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 12; Capt. James H. Cox, Jr., “SIMS: The Computers are Coming,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 

3, Fall 1984, 25-28.

255 Eleanor Linder and Maj. Jim Blanco, “Services Information Management System for Billeting,” ESQ, 

Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 12-13.

256 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 1, Spring 1984, 10.

257 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 1, Spring 1985, 26.

258 SMSgt. Michael Guyne, “The Engineering and Services Era: A Decade of Services Automation,” CE 

Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 10.

259 Robert E. Dant, “The Computer Comes to PACAF’s Construction Program,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 1, Spring 

1984, 34-35.

260 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 1, Spring 1985, 26.

261 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 2, Summer 1985, 35.

262 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 3, Fall 1985, 23.

263 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 27, No 1, Spring 1986, 38.

264 Robert J. Smith, George W. Bradley, James M. George, John Q. Smith, Vincent C. Breslin, Beatrice 

A.Waggener, and Alice F. Ferrell, History of Tactical Air Command 1 January-31 December 1987, 103-106.

265 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 27, No 2, Summer 1986, 23.

266 Robert J. Smith, George W. Bradley, James M. George, John Q. Smith, Vincent C. Breslin, Beatrice 

A.Waggener, and Alice F. Ferrell, History of Tactical Air Command 1 January-31 December 1987, 103-106.

267 Air Training Command History 1989, Vol 21.

268 SMSgt. Michael Guyne, “The Engineering and Services Era: A Decade of Services Automation,” CE 

Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 10-11.

269 “Computer A&D Update,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, Vol 2, No 9, November 1990, 

25.

270 Maj. Theodore M. Golondzinier, “Doing More with Less,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 8-11.

271 Maj. John Dleltz, “Study Justifies WIMS Use by Base-Level Units,” Air Force Engineering & Services

Update, Vol 2, No 5, June 1990, 12.

272 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 101.

273 Maj. Theodore M. Golondzinier, “Doing More with Less,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 8-11.

274 John J. Lieb, PE and Capt. David G. Beers, “Quality Control—Quality Assurance for Service Contract 

Surveillance,” ESQ, Vol 19, No 2, May 1978, 10-14.

275 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 49.

276 Douglas Dalessio, “Material Support,” ESQ, Vol 19, No 2, May 1978, 17-20.

277 Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 4, November 1977, 12.

278 Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 1, February 1977, 12.

279 Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 2, Summer 1981, 11.

280 Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 2, May 1977, 11.

281 J.D. Hunley, The San Antonio Real Property Maintenance Agency: A Case Study of Centralization, 

History and Research Office, Headquarters Air Training Command, 1990, 1-2, 15.

282 J.D. Hunley, The San Antonio Real Property Maintenance Agency: A Case Study of Centralization, 

History and Research Office, Headquarters Air Training Command, 1990, 105-107; Report, “In-Depth Review 

of the San Antonio Real Property Maintenance Agency (SARPMA): Prepared at the request of the Vice Chief of 

Staff of the United States Air Force,” Programs and Long Range Planning Directorate, DCS Plans, Air Training 

Command, November 1983, AHO.

283 Maj. Donald R. Barrett, “Facilities to Support our People,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 1982, 26-28. 

284 John J. Lieb, PE and Capt. David G. Beers, “Quality Control—Quality Assurance for Service Contract 

Surveillance,” ESQ, Vol 19, No 2, May 1978, 10-14.

285 Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Spring 

1985, 31.

286 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 102; Dr Ronald B. Hartzer, “10 USC 2667 Visitors 

Quarters Projects History,” 1988, AHO.

287 Perry Sullivan, “Air Force Breaks Ground for Private Development,” E&S Update, April-May, 1990, 

5; Rick Baker, “New Hotel Opens at Wright-Patterson: Vision Becomes Reality,” E&S Update, January 1991, 

8-9.

288 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 102.
Endnotes 727

289 “Build/lease for Housing Nears Test,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 1, Spring 1984, 18.

290 Capt. Kurt Kaisler, “SABER Now a Way of Life for Bases,” ESQ, Vol 2, No 7, July 1990, 7; “SABER 

Cuts Through Time and Costs,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, July-August 1989, 22.

291 “SABER Cuts Through Time and Costs,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, July-August 

1989, 22.

292 Capt. Kurt Kaisler, “SABER Now a Way of Life for Bases,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, 

Vol 2, No 7, July 1990, 7.

293 “SABER Cuts Through Time and Costs,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, July-August 

1989, 22.

294 Ibid.

295 Capt. Kurt Kaisler, “SABER Now a Way of Life for Bases,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, 

Vol 2, No 7, July 1990, 6.

296 “Proposed AFB Closings,” TME, Vol 69, No 447, January-February 1977, 49.

297 “Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC),” GlobalSecurity.org, accessed January 2010, www.globalsecurity.org.

298 “Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC),” GlobalSecurity.org, accessed January 2010, www.globalsecurity.org; Frederick J. Shaw, Ed. Locating Air Force Base Sites: History’s Legacy, Air Force History and 

Museums Program, United States Air Force, Washington DC, 2004, 151-94.

299 “Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC),” GlobalSecurity.org, accessed January 2010, www.globalsecurity.org.

300 Harry P. Rietman, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, 19.

301 Capt. Ronald Andreas, Jr., “The Blizzard of ’79,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 1, February 1981, 30-32; Col. 

Charles W. Sampson, PE, “Get SMART,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, November 1970, 5-7.

302 Sheldon J. Lustig, “The Military Family Housing U-Fix-It Store,” ESQ, August 1975, 21-24.

303 SMSgt. David A. Tanner, “Air Force Self-help Centers: The Wave of the Future,” Air Force Engineering 

& Services Update, Vol 2, No 9, November 1990, 14.

304 “MSgt. Cherry Receives $750 for Suggestion,” The Spangled Banner, Spangdahlem, Germany, Vol 4, 

No 11, 30 May 1975, 1, 5.

305 “Readiness and Ownership Oriented Management (ROOM), Strategic Air Command, nd. AHO; Harry 

P. Rietman, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, , HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 

November 2004, 19.

306 Maj. Michael D. Cooley, “Zonal Maintenance: Old Idea, New Promise,” Air Force Engineering & 

Services Update, Vol 2, No 8, September 1990, 6-7; “Zonal Maintenance Guide,” prepared by HQ AFESC, 1990, 

n.p.

307 E-mail, Col. Ray Schwartz, USAF (Ret) to Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “CE History Book Review,” 7 Nov 

13, AHO. 

308 “Zonal Maintenance Guide,” prepared by HQ AFESC, 1990, n.p.

309 Ibid.

310 “Room at the Top,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, Vol 1, No 1, August 1988, 8.

311 Maj. Michael D. Cooley, “Zonal Maintenance: Old Idea, New Promise,” Air Force Engineering & 

Services Update, Vol 2, No 8, September 1990, 6-7; “Zonal Maintenance Guide,” prepared by HQ AFESC, 1990.

312 Eugene A. Lupia, “The Operations Flight,” The Civil Engineer, Winter 1997-98, n.p.

313 Col. William M. Shaw PE, John B. Frounfelker PE, and Robert H. Keegan PE, “Energy Productivity 

A Major Air Force Initiative To Light the Way” ESQ, Vol 19 No 1, February 1978, 3.

314 Mrs. Lois E. Walker, “Oral History Interview with Mr. Freddie L. Beason,” 28 March 1999, 20-22. 

315 Lt. Col. William R. Gaddie, PE and Capt.Thomas F. Wilson “Air Force Facility Energy Program,” 

ESQ, Vol 20 No 4, November 1979, 7; AFESC History, CY 1978, 9. 

316 Tetra Tech Inc, U.S. Air Force Energy Plan 1978, prepared for Chief of Staff USAF, July 1978, 1, 

AHO; Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, “Air Force Engineering Meeting Global Challenges,” TME, Vol 73, No 

471, January-February 1981, 8-9; “Air Force Energy Program Policy Memorandum,” 2 October 1985 AHO.

317 Col. James R. Hawkins, PE “Contemporary Issues: Air Force Facility Energy Program,” ESQ, Vol 19 

No 1, February 1978, 9.

318 “Air Force Facility Energy Plan FY76-85” Vol II, 1 July 1979, AHO. 

319 Maj. Ronald C. Bunch, “The Traveling Teams of the AFESC,” ESQ, Vol 20, No 4, November 1979, 

11. 

320 John Ginovsky, “Air Force Looks to Alternate Sources for Light, Heat,” AF Times 10 December 1985. 

321 Roman A. Metz PE, “No More Yet No Less” ESQ, Vol 17, No 3, 1976, 13.

322 Tetra Tech Inc, U.S. Air Force Energy Plan 1978, prepared for Chief of Staff USAF, July 1978, 1, 

AHO.

323 John Ginovsky, “Energy Use Increases in Family Housing,” AF Times 16 December 1985; Freddie L. 

Beason, “Air Force Approach to Energy Conservation,” Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency Update, 

Vol 4, No 3, September 1992, 8.

324 “Bullet Background Paper on Air Force Facility Energy Program History, AFCESA, Tyndall AFB” 
728 Leading the Way

AHO.

325 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr, “Commander’s Column: The Energy Challenge,” Air Force Engineering & 

Services Update, Vol 2, No 9, November 1990, 4. 

326 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, “Air Force Engineering Meeting Global Challenges,” TME, Vol 73, No 

471, January-February 1981, 9. 

327 Freddie L. Beason, “Air Force Approach to Energy Conservation,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 3 September 

1992, 8. 

328 Maj. Gen. Billy J. McGarvey, “From the Director: Meeting Challenges Through Environmental Planning,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, February 1975, 1-2.

329 Maj. Gen. Billy J. McGarvey, “From the Director: Meeting Challenges Through Environmental Planning,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, February 1975, 1-2; Maj. Gen. Billy J. McGarvey, “Air Force Environmental 

Planning,” TME, Vol 67, No 435, January-February 1975, 5-7; Staff History, Directorate of Civil Engineering, 

July-December 1973.

330 Gil Dominguez, “Urban Encroachment Continues to Dog Installations,” CenterViews Spring 2001, 3. 

331 “Air Force News: AICUZ Studies,” TME, Vol 69, No 448, Mar-April 1977, 125.

332 Maj. Bobbie L. Griffin and Maj. George R. Velasco, The Air Force Environmental Quality Program: 

A Historical Look at Air Force Efforts to Achieve Environmental Excellence, research paper for Air Command 

and Staff College, April 1996, 14-16.

333 Joan Scott and Capt. Stephen Hann, “Roots: Preserving Our History,” ESQ, Vol 21, No 4 November 

1980.

334 Lt. Col. Thomas E. Peot, “Challenges From the Environment,” ESQ, Vol 21 No 4 November 1980 

3; “National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES),” Environmental Protection Agency, accessed 

April 5, 2011, http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/. 

335 U.S. General Accounting Office, “Hazardous Waste Status of Air Force’s Installation Restoration 

Program,” Briefing Report to Representative Vic Fazion, House of Representatives, December 1982, 1-6; Air 

Force Engineering and Services Center, “Air Force Installation Restoration Program Management Guidance,” 

July 1985, 1-3. 

336 SrA. Sheri L. Sams, “AMC Base Attains Environmental Cleanup ‘First,’” AFCE, Vol 4 No 1 Spring 

1996, 9.

337 USAF, AFI 32-7045, Environmental Compliance Assessment and Management Program ECAMP, 1 

July 1985, 3, accessed April 5, 2011, www.keesler.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-070221-022.pdf . 

338 Weekly Activity Report, “Environmental Quality Division, 12 Oct 1990, AHO; Notes on Interview 

with Don Kane, AHO; HQ AFCEE, “PROACT Fact Sheet: ECAMP,” October 2005, 1, accessed April 2011, 

www.afcee.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-070924-128.pdf.

339 Notes on Interview with Don Kane, AHO.

340 History, HQ USAF/ILE, Environmental Division, July-December 1986; Notes on Interview with Don 

Kane, AHO. 

341 National Agricultural Library Special Collections, Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange, 

Department of the Air Force Environmental Statement on the Disposition of Orange Herbicide by Incineration, 

November 1974, 4, accessed February 2, 2011, www.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/findaids/agentorange. 

342 National Agricultural Library Special Collections, Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange, Pamela 

W. Smith, “Agent Orange: Veterans’ Complaints Concerning Exposure to Herbicides in South Vietnam Issue 

Brief Number IBS0040,” Science Policy Research Division, September 6 1979, 1, accessed February 2, 2011, 

www.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/findaids/agentorange.

343 National Agricultural Library Special Collections, Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange, Pamela 

W. Smith, “Agent Orange: Veterans’ Complaints Concerning Exposure to Herbicides in South Vietnam Issue 

Brief Number IBS0040,” Science Policy Research Division, September 6 1979, 2, accessed February 2, 2011, 

www.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/findaids/agentorange; Committee to Review the Health Effects in Vietnam Veterans 

of Exposure to Herbicides, Division of Health Promotion & Disease Prevention, Institute of Medicine, Veterans 

and Agent Orange: Health Effects of Herbicides Used in Vietnam, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 

1994, 30. 

344 National Agricultural Library Special Collections, Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange, Pamela 

W. Smith, “Agent Orange: Veterans’ Complaints Concerning Exposure to Herbicides in South Vietnam Issue 

Brief Number IBS0040,” Science Policy Research Division, September 6, 1979, 6, accessed February 2, 2011, 

www.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/findaids/agentorange ; Maj. William A. Buckingham, Jr., “Operation Ranch Hand: 

Herbicides In Southwest Asia,” Air University Review, July-August 1983.

345 National Agricultural Library Special Collections, Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange, Pamela 

W. Smith, “Agent Orange: Veterans’ Complaints Concerning Exposure to Herbicides in South Vietnam Issue 

Brief Number IBS0040,” Science Policy Research Division, September 6, 1979, 7-8, accessed February 2, 2011, 

www.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/findaids/agentorange.

346 Ibid.

347 National Agricultural Library Special Collections, Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange, Albert 

N. Rhodes, “Herbicide Orange Monitoring Program Addendum I, January 1980 – February 1985,” Engineering 

& Services Laboratory, Air Force Engineering & Services Center, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 1985, 1, accessed 
Endnotes 729

February 3, 2011, www.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/findaids/agentorange/index.htm. 

348 National Agricultural Library Special Collections, Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange, U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency, Transcript: Public Hearing – “Incinerate Herbicide Orange at Sea,” 7 April 

1977, 4-5; accessed 2 February 2011, www.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/findaids/agentorange.

349 National Agricultural Library Special Collections, Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange, Pamela 

W. Smith, “Agent Orange: Veterans’ Complaints Concerning Exposure to Herbicides in South Vietnam Issue 

Brief Number IBS0040,” Science Policy Research Division, September 6 1979, 7-8, accessed February 2, 2011, 

www.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/findaids/agentorange.

350 Col. Donald Kane, Note to author, 6 Nov 13. 

351 National Agricultural Library Special Collections, Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange, Albert 

N. Rhodes, “Herbicide Orange Monitoring Program Addendum I, January 1980 – February 1985,” Engineering 

& Services Laboratory, Air Force Engineering & Services Center, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 1985, 2, accessed 

February 3, 2011, www.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/findaids/agentorange/index.htm. 

352 National Agricultural Library Special Collections, Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange, Colonel 

Walter J. Rabe, Memorandum “Reevaluation Review of Draft USAF SON 2-81,” attachment “Draft USAF SON 

#2-81 Statement of Operational Need for Reclamation of Herbicide Orange Contaminated Sites,” 7 April 1981, 

accessed February 3, 2011, www.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/findaids/agentorange/index.htm; National Agricultural 

Library Special Collections, Alvin L. Young Collection on Agent Orange, Albert N. Rhodes, “Herbicide Orange 

Monitoring Program Addendum I, January 1980 – February 1985,” Engineering & Services Laboratory, Air 

Force Engineering & Services Center, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 1985, 3, accessed 3 February 2011, www.nal.

usda.gov/speccoll/findaids/agentorange/index.htm.

353 “Environics Laboratory,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, Vol 1 No 1 August 1988, 6; 

“AFESC Completes Gulfport Cleanup Project,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, Vol 1, No 1, January 

1989, 2.

354 Maj. Gen. Maurice R. Reilly, “Air Force Construction Program,” TME, Vol 64, No 419, May-June 

1972, 169.

355 Col. Elo Mussetto, “Air Force Regional Civil Engineer,” ESQ, November 1979, 34-36.

356 “Family Housing,” TME, Vol 67, No 439, September-October 1975, 300.

357 Lester H. Henriksen and Gary D. Vest AIP, “Mission Effectiveness & Base Livability A Hypothesis,” 

ESQ, Vol 17, No 4, November 1976, 5-6.

358 Glen R. Schauer, RA “Air Force Reshapes Man’s Castle,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 2, May 1977, 30.

359 Ibid., 31.

360 AFESC History, CY 1982; AFESC History, CY 1985; Lt. Col. David F. Honeycutt, “TLFs Make 

Moving Less Costly,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 2, Summer 1984, 30.

361 H. Perry Sullivan, ed., “A Change at the Top,” ESQ, Summer 1982, 30. 

362 Air Staff Histories, 1984 January – June; Air Staff Histories, 1984 July-December.

363 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold War 

Missile Program, U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, Sponsored 

by Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program, 1996, 125; Lt. Col. Thomas L. Bozarth, “A 

Super Project Special Report: It is the...M-X Weapon System...an Essential Element of Strategic Deterrence, 

Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 21, No 2, May 1980, 3; “AFRCE MX Established at Norton AFB,” 

Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 21, No 2, May 1980, 7; Office of the Historian HQ SAC, “Snark to 

Peacekeeper A Pictorial History of Strategic Air Command Missiles,” HQ SAC, Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, 

1990, 43.

364 “Air Force Regional Civil Engineer History,” AHO; John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend 

and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold War Missile Program, U.S. Army Construction Engineering 

Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, Sponsored by Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program, 1996, 125; “AFRCE MX Established at Norton AFB,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 

21, No 2, May 1980, 7.

365 Lt. Col. Thomas L. Bozarth, “A Super Project Special Report: It is the...M-X Weapon System...an 

Essential Element of Strategic Deterrence,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 21, No 2, May 1980, 6.

366 E-mail, Col. William R. Sims and Brig. Gen. Michael A. McAuliffe to Author, 26 Nov 13, AHO. 

367 Ibid.; Air Staff History, Environmental Planning Division, Jan-Jun 1984, np, AHO.

368 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold War 

Missile Program, U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, Sponsored 

by Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program, 1996, 125-126.

369 “Air Staff Histories, Office of the Special Assistant, July-December 1981,” n.p., AHO.

370 Ibid.

371 Lt. Col. Thomas L. Bozarth, “A Super Project Special Report: It is the...M-X Weapon System...an 

Essential Element of Strategic Deterrence, Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 21, No 2, May 1980, 5.

372 “Air Staff Histories, Office of the Special Assistant, July-December 1981,”n.p., AHO.

373 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold War 

Missile Program, U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, Sponsored 

by Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program, 1996, 125-126.
730 Leading the Way

374 Edgar Ulsamer, “Gains and Gaps in Strategic Forces,” Air Force Magazine, September 1985, 126,132.

375 John C. Lonnquest and David Winkler, To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold War 

Missile Program, U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, Champaign, Illinois, Sponsored 

by Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program, 1996, 125-126; Alwyn T. Lloyd, A Cold 

War Legacy: A Tribute to Strategic Air Command 1946 - 1992, Pictorial Histories Publishing Company, Inc., 

Missoula, Montana, 1999, 631-633; Lauren Hasinger, Senior Airman, “Air Force Says farewell to most powerful ICBM,” accessed 17 March 2009, http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?storyID=123011829; 2d Lt. Joshua S. 

Edwards, “Peacekeeper Missile Mission Ends During Ceremony,” USAF Print News, 20 September 2005, n.p.

376 History of the Directorate of Engineering and Services, DCS/L&E, 1 Jul-31 Dec 1985, Plans Division, np; History of the Directorate of Engineering and Services, DCS/L&E, 1 Jul-31 Dec 1984, Environmental 

Division, np; “Secretary Rice Issues Air Force Statement,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, March 1992, 5. 

377 Alwyn T. Lloyd. A Cold War Legacy: A Tribute to Strategic Air Command 1946 - 1992. Pictorial 

Histories Publishing Company, Inc., Missoula, Montana, 1999, 633; Office of the Historian HQ SAC, “Snark to 

Peacekeeper A Pictorial History of Strategic Air Command Missiles,” HQ SAC, Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, 

1990, 43, 47, 49.

378 President George H. W. Bush, “Address to the Nation on Reducing United States and Soviet Nuclear 

Weapons,” George Bush Presidential Library and Museum, College Station, Texas, 27 September 1991, Electronic document, available at http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu, accessed May 2011.

379 TSgt. Merrie Shilter, “Air Force Pushes to Have SLC-6 Ready by October,” Air Force News Service, 

Kelly AFB, Texas, n.d., 7, AHO; William R. Doemer and Anastasia Toutexis, “Space: New Pad for the Space 

Shuttle,” Time, 5 March 1984, n.p., accessed February 14, 2011, www.time.com. 

380 Lt. Col. Thomas L. Bozarth, “Space Shuttle Update: Into the Construction Phase,” Air Force Engineering & Services, Vol 21, No 2, May 1980, 8. 

381 William R. Doemer and Anastasia Toufexis, “Space: New Pad for the Space Shuttle,” Time, 5 March 

1984, n.p., accessed February 14, 2011, www.time.com. The engineering complexity of the design for the facilities was recognized by the The American Council of Engineering Companies on 18 April 1985 when it awarded 

Sverdrup & Parcel and Asssociates, of St. Louis, Missouri, their “Grand Conceptor Award,” for their role in the 

“Space Shuttle Launch Complex, Vandenberg Air Force Base California.” This annual award was the single 

and highest award among the 110 awards given for projects across the United States at that ceremony.

382 William R. Doemer and Anastasia Toufexis, “Space: New Pad for the Space Shuttle,” Time, 5 March 

1984, n.p., accessed February 14, 2011, www.time.com.

383 Lt. Col. Thomas L. Bozarth, “Space Shuttle Update: Into the Construction Phase,” Air Force Engineering & Services, Vol 21, No 2, May 1980, 8.

384 William R. Doemer and Anastasia Toutexis, “Space: New Pad for the Space Shuttle,” Time, 5 March 

1984, n.p., accessed February 14, 2011, www.time.com; TSgt. Merrie Shilter, “Air Force Pushes to Have SLC-6 

Ready by October,” Air Force News Service, Kelly AFB, Texas, n.d., 10, AHO.

385 William R. Doemer and Anastasia Toutexis, “Space: New Pad for the Space Shuttle,” Time, 5 March 

1984, n.p., accessed February 14, 2011, www.time.com.

386 TSgt. Merrie Shilter, “Air Force Pushes to Have SLC-6 Ready by October,” Air Force News Service, 

Kelly AFB, Texas, n.d., 9, AHO.

387 TSgt. Merrie Shilter, “Air Force Pushes to Have SLC-6 Ready by October,” Air Force News Service, 

Kelly AFB, Texas, n.d., 9-10, AHO; William R. Doemer and Anastasia Toutexis, “Space: New Pad for the Space 

Shuttle,” Time, 5 March 1984, n.p., accessed February 14, 2011, www.time.com.

388 TSgt. Merrie Shilter, “Air Force Pushes to Have SLC-6 Ready by October,” Air Force News Service, 

Kelly AFB, Texas, n.d., 10, AHO.

389 Ibid., 11.

390 Ibid., 15. 

391 TSgt. Merrie Shilter, “Air Force Pushes to Have SLC-6 Ready by October,” Air Force News Service, 

Kelly AFB, Texas, n.d., 13, AHO; “Colonel Gibson ‘Slick Six’ Project Officer Retires in June,” Air Force 

Engineering & Services Update, Vol 2, No 3 May 1990, 13.

392 HQ AFESC, “Final Report on Project Touchdown: A Comprehensive Evaluation of Northrup Strip 

Airfield, White Sands Missile Range, As a Landing Site for the Space Shuttle Orbiter,” prepared for National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration , February 1981, 1.

393 HQ AFESC, “Final Report on Project Touchdown: A Comprehensive Evaluation of Northrup Strip 

Airfield, White Sands Missile Range, As a Landing Site for the Space Shuttle Orbiter,” prepared for National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, February 1981,1; “Worth Noting: Hard Surface Assured for Columbia 

Landing,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 1, Spring 1982, 40; Maj. James I. Clark, “Project Touchdown: A Comprehensive 

Evaluation of the Northrup Strip Airfield, White Sands Missile Range, as a Landing Site for the Space Shuttle 

Orbiter,” prepared for National Aeronautics and Space Administration, July 1979, 1. 

394 Maj. James I. Clark, “Project Touchdown: A Comprehensive Evaluation of the Northrup Strip Airfield, 

White Sands Missile Range, as a Landing Site for the Space Shuttle Orbiter,” prepared for National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration July 1979; “Worth Noting: Hard Surface Assured for Columbia Landing,” ESQ, Vol 

23, No 1 Spring 1982, 40.

395 Maj. James I. Clark, “Project Touchdown: A Comprehensive Evaluation of the Northrup Strip Airfield, 
Endnotes 731

White Sands Missile Range, as a Landing Site for the Space Shuttle Orbiter,” prepared for National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration July 1979, 5-6.

396 Ibid., 7.

397 Maj. James I Clark, “Project Touchdown: Lending a Hand,” ESQ, Vol 21, No 2, May 1980, 11. 

398 Maj. James I. Clark, “Project Touchdown: A Comprehensive Evaluation of the Northrup Strip Airfield, 

White Sands Missile Range, as a Landing Site for the Space Shuttle Orbiter,” prepared for National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration July 1979, 9-10; Maj. James I Clark, “Project Touchdown: Lending a Hand,” ESQ, 

Vol 21, No 2, May 1980, 12.

399 Maj. James I. Clark, “Project Touchdown: A Comprehensive Evaluation of the Northrup Strip Airfield, 

White Sands Missile Range, as a Landing Site for the Space Shuttle Orbiter,” prepared for National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration, July 1979, 4; 31-32.

400 HQ AFESC, “Final Report on Project Touchdown: A Comprehensive Evaluation of Northrup Strip 

Airfield, White Sands Missile Range, As a Landing Site for the Space Shuttle Orbiter,” prepared for National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration, February 1981, 2.

401 “Worth Noting: Hard Surface Assured for Columbia Landing,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 1, Spring 1982, 40; 

AFESC, “Air Force Engineering and Services Center History,” 1981, 11, AHO.

402 Norman Polmar, Strategic Air Command: People, Aircraft, and Missiles, The Nautical and Aviation 

Publishing Company of America, Inc., Annapolis, Maryland, 1979, 201-203; Office of the Historian, Head- quarters Strategic Air Command, From Snark to Peacekeeper: A Pictorial History of Strategic Air Command 

Missiles, Headquarters Strategic Air Command, Offutt AFB, Nebraska, 1990, 69. 

403 Maj. Gerald L. Robinson, Capt. S.M. Tully, PE, and Capt. B.E. Wilson, “Air Launched Cruise Missile 

Construction Program,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 2, No 2, May 1980, 28, 37; Col. William R. 

Andrews, Jr. and Bob Hipschman, “ALCM Beddown: More Construction for the Money Through Cooperation,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 1, Spring, 1984, 28-29; Capt. Michael B. Perini, “The Still Mighty Eighth,” Air Force 

Magazine, December 1982, n.p.

404 Maj. Gerald L. Robinson, Capt. S.M. Tully, PE, and Capt. B.E. Wilson, “Air Launched Cruise Missile 

Construction Program,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 2, No 2, May 1980, 28, 37; Col. William R. 

Andrews, Jr. and Bob Hipschman, “ALCM Beddown: More Construction for the Money Through Cooperation,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 1, Spring, 1984, 28-29; Capt. Michael B. Perini, “The Still Mighty Eighth,” Air Force 

Magazine, December 1982, n.p.

405 Donald J. Horan, Director Procurement, Logistics, and Readiness Division, Letter to Senator Sasser, 

30 September 1982, Cost Overrun on the Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility, AHO. 

406 Ibid.

407 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr., “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 73-74.

408 Ibid.

409 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 79.

410 Air Staff History 1976, AHO; “Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility,” U.S. Air Force Fact Sheet, 

accessed 12 November 2008, http://www.arnold.af.mil/library/factsheets/; Department of Defense, “NASA 

Aeronautics Facilities Critical to DoD Report to Congress,” January 2007, 3. 

411 Arnold Air Force Base, “Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility,” U.S. Air Force Fact Sheet, accessed 

12 November 2008, http://www.arnold.af.mil/library/factsheets/.

412 Lt. Col. Joseph J. Loncki, “On Time and Under Budget: Construction of the Consolidated Operations 

Space Center,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 4, Winter 1985/86, 4-7. 

413 Gen. James V. Hartinger, “The Air Force Space Command: An Update,” (based on an address by Gen. 

James V. Hartinger to the Air Force Engineering and Services Conference on Programming, Jan. 30, 1984, 

Peterson AFB, CO), ESQ, Vol 25, No 2, Summer 1984, 6. 

414 Lt. Col. Joseph J. Loncki, “On Time and Under Budget: Construction of the Consolidated Operations 

Space Center,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 4, Winter 1985/86, 4-7.

415 Ibid., 6-7.

416 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Profiles in Leadership, Interviewing a man who got the job done: J.B. Cole 

Retires at AFCEE,” The U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 1, No 10, December 1993, 13.

417 Capt. Patrick M. Coullahan, “Maintaining Top Cover for America,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 4, Winter 1981-

1982, 40-43; John Haile Cloe, Top Cover for America: The Air Force in Alaska, 1920-83, 239-40.

418 “Arctic Renewal,” Air Force Engineering and Services Quarterly, Vol 24, No 2, Summer 1993, 8-11; 

Capt. Patrick M. Coullahan, “Maintaining Top Cover for America,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 4, Winter 1981-1982, 40-43. 

419 Frank N. Schubert, Building Air Bases in the Negev: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in Israel, 

1979-1982, Office of History, Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., 1992, 7-16; Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, 

(USAF, Retired) “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 

September 2002, 73-74.

420 “Israeli Air Base Construction Program” Air Staff History January-June 1979, AHO. 

421 “IAB Program Procedures for Program Conclusion Program Management,” AHO.

422 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 
732 Leading the Way

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002, 73-74.

423 Harry P. Rietman, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, 75.

424 “IAB Program Procedures for Program Conclusion Program Management,” AHO. 

425 Ibid. 

426 Col. Clarence D. Gilkey, “Fast Tracking the Israeli Air Bases,” TME Vol 61, No 469, October 1980, 

316; Capt. Karsten H. Rothenberg, “Israeli Air Base Construction Program” ESQ Vol 21, No 2, May 1980, 13; 

“Israeli Air Base Construction Program” Air Staff History January-June 1979, AHO; Frank N. Schubert, Building Air Bases in the Negev: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in Israel, 1979-1982, Office of History, Corps 

of Engineers, Washington, D.C., 1992, 125.

427 “IAB Program Procedures for Program Conclusion Program Management,” AHO. 

428 Charles F. Lewis, AICP, “Point Paper on Operational and Development Concepts of Israeli Air Force 

(IAF) Bases,” 5 April 1989, AHO; Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired) “Oral History Interview,” 

interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 76-77. 

429 Frank N. Schubert, Building Air Bases in the Negev: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in Israel, 

1979-1982, Office of History, Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., 1992, 129

430 “Israeli Air Base Construction Program,” Air Staff History July-December 1980, AHO. 

431 “Israeli Air Base Construction Program” AHO; Air Staff History July-December 1982, AHO; Frank 

N. Schubert, Building Air Bases in the Negev: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in Israel, 1979-1982, Office 

of History, Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., 1992, 230-32. 

432 SAME Medals Honor USAF Generals,” ESQ, Vol 23 No 2, Summer 1982, 18; E-mail, Karsten H. 

Rothenberg to Author, 20 Dec 13, AHO.

433 Lt. Col. Harry W. Glaze and Lt. Col. Larry G. Garrison, “The Saudi Arabian Construction Program,” 

ESQ, Vol 21, No 2, May 1980, 20-23; HQ AFLC/DE “History of Engineering and Services in Air Force Logisitics Command,” Dec 1985, AHO; Robart P. Grathwol and Donita M. Moorhus, Bricks, Sand, and Marble: U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers Construction in the Mediterranean and Middle East, 1947-1991, Center of Military 

History and Corps of Engineers, Washington DC, 2009, 379-84.

434 Air Staff History July-December 1981, AHO; Lt. Col. Harry W. Glaze and Lt. Col. Larry G. Garrison, 

“The Saudi Arabian Construction Program,” ESQ, Vol 21, No 2, May 1980, 20-23. 

435 Air Staff History, Jan-Jun 1982, Office of Special Assistant, 101-2, AHO; Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, 

Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 

May 2002, 77.

436 Nomination for Newman Medal: Colonel Karsten H. Rothenberg, 31 Oct 1990, Files of the AFCESA 

History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida; Capt. Phil Melancon, HQ AFMC, CEOO, “What is AFMC all about?” 

CE Update, Vol 4 No 3, Sep 1992, 16-21. 

437 CMSgt. Joseph H. Smith and CMSgt. Wade H. Grimm, “Project Peace Pharoah Mobility at its Best,” 

Air Force Engineering and Services Quarterly Vol 21, No 3, August 1980, 17.

438 Ibid., 16-17.

439 .Robert P. Grathwol and Donita M. Moorhus, Bricks, Sand, and Marble: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction in the Mediterranean and Middle East, 1947-1991, Center of Military History and Corps of 

Engineers, Washington D.C., 2009, 547; History of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 1 Jan-31 

Dec 1982, 57, AHO.

440 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 64. 

441 Ibid., 75.

442 Ibid., 75-76.

443 Ibid., xi.

444 Ibid., 74.

445 Maj. Jack T. Baker, “The Ground-launched Cruise Missile in Europe, An International Challenge,” 

Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 25, No 1, Spring 1984, 32-33.

446 Dr. Jack Baker, Welcome to Comiso, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, North Charleston, 

SC, 2013, 97-130; Maj. Jack T. Baker, “The Ground-launched Cruise Missile in Europe, An International Challenge,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 25, No 1, Spring 1984, 32-33; Maj. Jack T. Baker and Sgt. Lea 

Blake, “COSMISO: GLCM at the Crossroad of History,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Summer 1983, 

33-34.

447 Lt. Col. Charles Lindbergh, PE, “USAFE Operational Readiness: A challenge to Military Engineering,” 

Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 18, No 1, Nov 1977, 18-22. 

448 Maj. Ulrich H. Lettau, “COBs in Europe,” AFCE Vol 22, No 2, Summer 1981, 20-21.

449 Christopher J. Bowie, “The Lessons of Salty Demo,” Air Force Magazine, March 2009, accessed 

September 30, 2010, www.airforce-magazine.com.

450 Jack Neufeld, Air Staff History, Chapter on Logistics and Engineering, 1988, 15, AHO.

451 Lt. Col. Clifton T. Windham and Joseph H. Smith, “Bare Base: A New Frontier,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 4, 

Winter 1983, 24-26. 

452 Joseph H. Smith, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 
Endnotes 733

Florida, November 2004, 38, 40, 42; Capt. Kenneth M. Weaver, “An Historical Analysis of the Air Force’s Bare 

Base Concept and Equipment,” Thesis, School of Systems and Logistics of AFIT, Air University, 1989, 23.

453 Weekly Activity Report, AFESC Director of Readiness, 11 Sep 91 and 27 Nov 91, AHO. 

454 Joseph H. Smith, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, 38, 40, 42.

455 Department of the Air Force, Air Force Pamphlet 10-219, Bare Base Conceptual Planning Guide, Vol 

5 1 June 1996, 9; Capt. Kenneth M. Weaver, “An Historical Analysis of the Air Force’s Bare Base Concept and 

Equipment,” Thesis, School of Systems and Logistics of AFIT, Air University, 1989, 17, 24-45.

456 Capt. Kenneth M. Weaver, “An Historical Analysis of the Air Force’s Bare Base Concept and Equipment,” Thesis, School of Systems and Logistics of AFIT, Air University, 1989, 24-45.

457 Jack Neufeld, Air Staff History, Chapter on Logistics and Engineering, 1988, 15, AHO.

458 Joseph H. Smith, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, 44.

459 Eugene E. Peer and Maj. Richard A. Thompson, ”History of the Civil Engineering School,” June 

1979, AHO.

460 Lt. Col. Marvin T. Howell, PE, “Palace Blueprint: Six Years Later,” ESQ, Vol 17, No 2, May 1976, 

31-32.

461 Maj. Richard M. Bierly, PE, “Readiness is People,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 4, November 1977, 14, 37.

462 Lt. Col. Ronald E. Knipfer, PE and Lt. Col. Patrick J. Sweeney, PE, “AFIT’s Facilities Management 

Program,” ESQ, Vol 18, No 3, August 1977, 24.

463 Ibid.

464 Maj. Joe Munter and Maj. Allan E.M. Tucker, “GEM: Decade of Progress,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 3, Fall 

1984, 8-10.

465 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “An Interview: ESQ talks with the Commandant of the Air Force Institute of 

Technology (Brig. Gen. James T. Callaghan),” ESQ, Vol 25, No 3, Fall 1984, 4-7.

466 Maj. Roger S. Alexander, Program Manager, “EWI: What Does it Mean?,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 3, Fall 

1981, 31-32; Capt. Thomas M. Riggs, “EWI with DFW,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 3, Fall 1981, 35.

467 Col. Marshall N. Nay, Jr., “To PhD or not to..., is that your Question?,” Air Force and Engineering & 

Services, Vol 27, No 2, Summer 1986, 30-31.

468 Harry P. Rietman, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, iii, 89; Charles T. Johnson, “E&S Civilian Career Management Program: Civilian 

Careers,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 3, Fall 1982, 42-43.

469 Harry P. Rietman, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, 90.

470 Charles T. Johnson, “E&S Civilian Career Management Program: Civilian Careers,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 

3, Fall 1982, 42-43.

471 Ibid.

472 Ibid., back cover.

473 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “An Interview with the Associate Director Harry P. Rietman,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 

3, Fall 1983, 22-25.

474 Charles T. Johnson, “E&S Civilian Career Management Program: Civilian Careers,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 

3, Fall 1982, 42-43.

475 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 2, Summer 1984, 13.

476 Ibid., No 3, Fall 1984, 34.

477 Charles T. Johnson, “E&S Civilian Career Management Program: Civilian Careers,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 

3, Fall 1982, 42-43.

478 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 4, Winter 1984-1985, 

34.

479 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 2, Summer 1985, 38.

480 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 27, No 2, Summer 1986, 25.

481 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 2, Summer 1985, 38; 

“Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 3, Fall 1985, 22; Charles T. 

Johnson, “E&S Civilian Career Management Program: Civilian Careers,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 3, Fall 1982, 42-43; 

“Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 4, Winter 1985-1986, 35.

482 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 4, Winter 1985-1986, 

35.

483 “Directorate of Engineering and Services Current Emphasis,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 3, Fall 1985, 23.

484 Col. Robert F. Darden, Jr., “Not Under a Shade Tree,” ESQ, Vol 19, No 3, August 1978, 7; Capt. Deal 

H. Bayless, “Electronic Courses Changed at Sheppard,” E&S Update Vol 2, No 2, Mar 90, 10; Capt. James 

Rayner, “Understanding Technical Training for the Civil Engineering Community,” E&S Update, Jan 1989, 9; 

A Brief History of the 82d Training Wing and Sheppard AFB, accessed 18 Jul 12, http://www.sheppard.af.mil/

shared/media/document/AFD-120424-046.pdf.

485 Douglas E. Courchene, Pioneers with Intent, Memoirs of an Air Force Fire Fighter, Air Force Civil 

Engineer Support Agency, Tyndall AFB July 2003, 61.
734 Leading the Way

486 Ibid.; Maj. Robert L. Gott, “Fire Protection Training School Program,” ESQ, Vol 19, No 3, August 

1978, 12.

487 Maj. Gen. William D. Gilbert, “From the Director: The First Priority Mission,” ESQ, Vol 20, No 4, 

November 1979, n.p.

488 Maj. Max W. Day, PE and Lt. Col. George T. Murphy, “The Wartime Role of Engineering and Services,” 

ESQ, Vol 20, No 4, November 1979, 18-19.

489 “From the Director, The First Priority Mission,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, November 1979, 

n.p.

490 Maj. Max W. Day, PE and Lt. Col. George T. Murphy, “The Wartime Role of Engineering and Services,” 

ESQ, Vol 20, No 4, November 1979, 18-19.

491 Conversation between Col. Roy G. Kennington and Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, 14 Dec 2010.

492 Maj. Max W. Day, PE and Lt. Col. George T. Murphy, “The Wartime Role of Engineering and Services,” 

ESQ, Vol 20, No 4, November 1979, 20-21.

493 Lt. Col. Roy G. Kennington, “Services into the 1980s,” ESQ, Vol 21, No 1, February 1980,10.

494 Maj. Max W. Day, PE and Lt. Col. George T. Murphy, “The Wartime Role of Engineering and Services,” 

ESQ, Vol 20, No 4, November 1979, 21.

495 Lt. Col. Roy G. Kennington, “Services into the 1980s,” ESQ, Vol 21, No 1, February 1980,10.

496 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 68.

497 Lt. Col. Willis O. Pickering, Jr., “Prime RIBS Wartime Readiness,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 3, Fall 1982, 

13-14.

498 Lt. Col. Willis O. Pickering, Jr., “Prime RIBS Wartime Readiness,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 3, Fall 1982, 

13-14.

499 Ibid., 14.

500 Ibid., 12.

501 Ibid.; Maj. Max W. Day and Lt. Col. George T. Murphy, “Prime BEEF and Prime RIBS, The Wartime 

Role of Engineering and Services,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 20, No 4, November 1979.

502 Capt. Pat Coullahan, “Civil Engineering Wartime Manpower Study,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 2, Summer 

1982, 29; Lt. Matthew Durham, “History of the Air Force Engineering and Services Center,” 1 Jan-31 Dec 1982, 

53-55; HQ AFESC/DEO, “Prime BEEF Team Restructuring, 10 Nov 1983, Files of the AFCESA History Office, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida.

503 Maj. Robert J. Bittner, “The New Prime BEEF Mobility Team Structure, A Flexible Approach,” ESQ, 

Vol 25, No 2, Summer 1984, 34-38.

504 Staff Summary Sheet, Col. Warren C. Dickerson, Director of Readiness, AFESC, “Restructuring 

of Civil Engineering Wartime Mobility Forces,” nd; Report, AFESC Directorate of Readiness, “Prime BEEF 

Combat Support Team Implementation Guidance,” 1 Nov 1986; AHO. 

505 CMSgt. Joseph H. Smith, “Dynamic Role of Readiness Training,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, 

Vol 21, No 3, August 1980, 3-4.

506 Ibid., 4.

507 Ibid., 5.

508 Air Reserve Forces Review Magazine/Air Reserve Forces Review (ARFR), November 1972, 10.

509 Charles Joseph Gross, The Air National Guard and the American Military Tradition, Historical Services 

Division, National Guard Bureau, Washington, D.C., 1995, 115.

510 Air National Guard Readiness Center, Survey of the Architectural and Archeological Cultural Resources 

at the Virginia Air National Guard Installations at the Richmond International Airport, Henrico County and 

the State Military Reservation, Camp Pendleton, City of Virginia Beach, Virginia, prepared by R. Christopher 

Goodwin & Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, 2007, 4-24.

511 Charles Joseph Gross, The Air National Guard and the American Military Tradition, Historical Services 

Division, National Guard Bureau, Washington, D.C., 1995, 114-115.

512 James Penn, “Engineering and Services Reservists...Ready Now!” ESQ, Vol 26, No 2, Summer 1985, 

33.

513 Ibid.

514 Col. James P. Penn, “On the AFRES Menu- Prime RIBS,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 2, Summer 1981, 27.

515 Lt. Col. James P. Blanco, “Prime RIBS: Realistic Practice is the Key,” ESQ, Vol 27, No 2, Summer 

1986, 14-15.

516 James Penn, “Engineering and Services Reservists...Ready Now!” ESQ, Vol 26, No 2, Summer 1985, 

33.

517 Ibid.

518 Dick George, “’Home Away from Home’,” ESQ, Vol 26, No 2, Summer 1985, 30.

519 Air National Guard Readiness Center, Survey of the Architectural and Archeological Cultural Resources 

at the Virginia Air National Guard Installations at the Richmond International Airport, Henrico County and 

the State Military Reservation, Camp Pendleton, City of Virginia Beach, Virginia, prepared by R. Christopher 

Goodwin & Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, 2007, 6-11.

520 James Penn, “Engineering and Services Reservists...Ready Now!” ESQ, Vol 26, No 2, Summer 1985, 
Endnotes 735

31-33.

521 Ibid., 33.

522 Lt. Col. James P. Penn, “Bulldozer University? Nobody Laughs Anymore!” ESQ, Vol 21, No 3, August 

1980, 18-19.

523 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr. “Whatever Happened to Bulldozer U?” ESQ, Vol 26, No 1, Spring 1985, 26-27.

524 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr. “Whatever Happened to Bulldozer U?” ESQ, Vol 26, No 1, Spring 1985, 26-27.

525 Capt. Patrick M. Coullahan and CMSgt. Robert B. Wertman, “Jack Frost 79,” ESQ, Vol 21, No 3, August 

1980, 6-7.

526 Ibid., 8.

527 Ibid.

528 Col. Darrell G. Bittle, “Air Base Survivability,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 1, Spring 1982, 7-13.

529 Col. Darrell G. Bittle, “Air Base Survivability,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 1, Spring 1982, 7-13.

530 Ibid., 12. 

531 CMSgt. Dave Brown, CMSgt. (Retired) Marshall B. “Doc” Dutton, SMGt. Marshall G. “Baby Doc” 

Dutton, “Air Force EOD’s Move, USAF Exploded Ordnance Disposal (EOD), From Maintenance to Civil 

Engineering,” n.d., AHO.

532 Col. Darrell G. Bittle, “Air Base Survivability,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 1, Spring 1982, 12. 

533 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 72. 

534 Maj. Gen. Clifton D. Wright, Jr. (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. 

Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002, 99.

535 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. Merkle and Lois 

E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 46. 

536 Ibid.

537 Maj. Robert L. Bell, “Rapid Runway Repair...a Civil Engineering Mission” AFCE Vol 16, No 1, 

February 1975, 22. 

538 Joseph H. Smith, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, Contingency Support Directorate AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, November 2004, 45; “Technical Review of Rapid Runway Repair History,” 

October 1, 1986, AHO.

539 Lt. Col. Robert E. Boyer and Philip T. Nash, “North Field Meeting the Triple R Challenge,” ESQ, Vol 

22, No 2, Summer 1981, 18. 

540 Tidal McCoy, “Task One: Air Base Operability,” Armed Forces Journal International, Sept 1987, 54.

541 “Position Paper on Functional Realignment of Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) under Engineering 

and Services,” AHO. 

542 CMSgt. Dave Brown, CMSgt. (Ret) Marshall B. “Doc” Dutton, SMGt Marshall G. “Baby Doc” Dutton, 

“Air Force EOD’s Move, USAF Exploded Ordnance Disposal (EOD), From Maintenance to Civil Engineering,” 

n.d., AHO.

543 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Airfield Damage Repair: The Beginning,” AFCE, Vol 20, No 2, 2012, 28-31; 

Joseph H. Smith, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, Contingency Support Directorate 

AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, November 2004, 47.

544 “Fiberglass Mats Delivered, Tactical Air Warfare Center Accepts Folded FG Mats” TME, Vol 82, No 

528, August 1990, 53. 

545 Sgt Marvin Gardner, “Rodeo!” ESQ, Vol 25, No 4, Winter 1984/85, 24-28; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer,“History 

of Readiness Challenge,” AHO

546 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “History of Readiness Challenge,” AHO.

547 Ken Perrotte, “AFLC Prime BEEF Really Cooks at Air Force Competition,” ESQ, Vol 27, No 2, Summer 

1986, 18-20; “History of Readiness Challenge,” AHO.

548 “History of Readiness Challenge,” AHO.

549 Ibid.

550 Ibid.

551 Capt. R.A. Torgerson and Maj. K.A. Kolz, “A Horse of a Unique Color,” Engineering & Services Quarterly, Vol 21, No 3, August 1980, 24-25; “RED HORSE Unit Histories,” RED HORSE Association, accessed 

April 1, 2009, www.redhorseassociation.org/unithistories819.html.

552 Col. Dibrell C. Stowell, “End of Tour Report, July 1979 – June 1982, 819th Civil Engineering Squadron/

Heavy Repair RED HORSE, 1982, AHO, 64-5; Capt. Steven H. Wiebke, “RED HORSE in the Sudan,” ESQ, 

Vol 23, No 1, Spring 1982, 38.

553 Capt. Steven H. Wiebke, “RED HORSE in the Sudan,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 1, Spring 1982, 38-39.

554 Ibid.

555 Maj. George E. Ehnert, Capt. Ronald V. Descheneaux, and Capt. Terrence E. Kolet, “Proud Phantom, 

TAC Tackles the Sahara,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 2, Summer 1981, 4-5.

556 Ibid., 5.

557 Ibid.

558 Ibid.

559 Ibid., 5-6.
736 Leading the Way

560 Ibid., 7-8.

561 Capt. Edward L. Miller, “Pulling Together,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 3, Fall 1981, 25-28.

562 Ibid.

563 Ibid., 28.

564 “Weekly Activity Report of Team Spirit,” 1983, 1984, 1988, AHO; “Team Spirit,” GlobalSecurity.org, 

accessed April 10, 2009, www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/team-spirit.htm.

565 Capt. Neil H. Fravel, “On the Move,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 2, Summer 1981, 23; Air Staff History, “History 

of Directorate of Engineering and Services: 1 January through 30 June 1976.” AHO.

566 Capt. Emmitt G. Smith, “Truk’N On...,” ESQ, Vol 23, No 3, Fall 1982, 44-46.

567 Capt. Neil H. Fravel, “On the Move,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 2, Summer 1981, 23; Capt. Fred Eng, “Traveling 

Worldwide,” ESQ, Vol 25, No 2, Summer 1984, 14-15.

568 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Engineers and Natural Disaster Recovery,” The CE, Vol 3, No 3, Winter 1995, 

27.

569 “Earthquake in Italy,” TME, Vol 68, No 445, September-October 1976, 402; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, 

“Engineers and Natural Disaster Recovery,” The CE, Vol 3, No 3, Winter 1995, 17.

570 Capt. Ronald Andreas, Jr., “The Blizzard of ’79,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 1, February 1981, 30-32.

571 SSgt Run Mucha, “CE responds to old Frederic,” Keesler News, 21 Sep 1979; History of HQ Air Force 

Engineering and Services Center, 1 Jan – 31 Dec 1979, 77, AHO.

572 Capt. Jeffrey L. Tyley and Lt. Kurt D. Reynertson, “A Pain in the Ash,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 1, February 

1981, 16-19. 

573 Air Staff History, “History of the Directorate of Engineering and Services, Volume I, 1 January 1980 

through 30 June 1980, 48, AHO.

574 Capt. Neil H. Fravel, “On the Move,” ESQ, Vol 22, No 2, Summer 1981, 23

575 Sgt. Lea Blake, “Base Civil Engineers...the ‘active’ effort,” ESQ, Vol 24, No 1, Spring 1983, 24-25. 

576 Ibid.; E-mail, Col. Marvin Fisher, USAF (Ret) to Dr Ronald B. Hartzer, “History Review,” 24 Nov 

13, AHO. 

577 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Engineers and Natural Disaster Recovery,” The CE, Vol 3, No 8, 1995, Winter, 

17.

578 Maj. Alexander M. Earle, Jr., “823d RED HORSE Responds from Hurlburt Field,” Air Force Engineer- ing & Services Center Update, Vol 2, No 1, 1 February 1990, 8-9.

579 “AF Units Deploy for Hugo Cleanup Effort,” Air Force Engineering & Services Center Update, Vol 

1, No 1, March 1990, n.p.

580 “Hurricane Hugo Restoration,” Air Force Engineering & Services Center Update, Vol 2, No 5, June 

1990, 22; Lt. Col. Richard C. Woodworth, “USAF Contributes to Hurricane Hugo Restoration,” Air Force 

Engineering & Services Center Update, Vol 2, No 7, July 1990, 12.

581 U.S. Army Environmental Center, Thematic Study and Guidelines: Identification and Evaluation of 

U.S. Army Cold War Era Military-Industrial Historic Properties, 1997, 61; Robert P. Grathwol and Donita M. 

Moorhus, American Forces in Berlin ’45 – ’94: Cold War Outpost, DoD, Legacy Resource Management Program, 

Cold War Project, Washington, D.C. 1994, 160-176.

582 U.S. Army Environmental Center, Thematic Study and Guidelines: Identification and Evaluation of 

U.S. Army Cold War Era Military-Industrial Historic Properties, 1997, 61; Robert P. Grathwol and Donita M. 

Moorhus, American Forces in Berlin ’45 – ’94: Cold War Outpost, DoD, Legacy Resource Management Program, 

Cold War Project, Washington, D.C. 1994, 160-176.

583 Air Staff History, Logistics and Engineering, 1987, 7.

584 Ibid., 8.

585 Air Staff History, Logistics and Engineering, 1989, 1,7-10; “Maj. Gen. Ahearn Addresses AFESC 

Headquarters Team,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, October-December 1989, 34-35.

586 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 80.

587 Ibid., 96, 106.

588 Ibid.
Endnotes 737

Chapter 5 Endnotes

1 Donald B. Rice, “Global Reach Global Power: The Evolving Air Force Contribution to National 

Security,” Air Force White Paper prepared by the Department of the Air Force, December 1992, 2. 

2 Walter J. Boyne, Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the United States Air Force 1947-1997, St. 

Martin’s Press, New York, 283-284; Donald B. Rice, “Global Reach Global Power: The Evolving Air Force 

Contribution to National Security,” Air Force White Paper prepared by the Department of the Air Force, December 1992, 1.

3 Frederick J. Shaw, “History’s Footprints: USAF Continental Bases,” Air Force Historical Research 

Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 2004, n.p.

4 Donald B. Rice, “Global Reach Global Power: The Evolving Air Force Contribution to National 

Security,” Air Force White Paper prepared by the Department of the Air Force, December 1992, 2-3.

5 Ibid., 3.

6 Ibid., 3, 14-15.

7 Gen. James E. McCarthy, “CEs Building Quality,” TME [hereafter cited as TME] Vol 86, No 563, May 

1994, 49.

8 “Air Force Restructure,” Air Force White Paper, September 1991, Files of AFCEC History Office, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida [hereafter cited as AHO]; “Force Restructuring, Secretary Rice Remarks to Air Force 

Association,” HQ Air Force News Center, 20 September 1991, AHO.

9 Walter J. Boyne, Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the United States Air Force 1947-1997, St. 

Martin’s Press, New York, 315-316, 334-337, 418-419.

10 “Building the Team: An Interview with Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, the Air Force Civil Engineer,” 

The CE, Vol 3, No 3, Winter 1995, 6.

11 Gen. James E. McCarthy, “Civil Engineering: Foundation of Air Force Readiness,” TME, Vol 87, No 

571, June-July 1995, 38-40.

12 Air Force Doctrine Document 2-3, “Military Operations Other Than War,” 3 July 2000, 12.

13 “An Extended Family,” The CE, Vol 4, No 4, Winter 1997, 5.

14 “Global Engagement: A Vision for the 21st Century Air Force,” 1996, accessed April 2011, www.au.af.

mil/au/awc/awcgate/global/nuvis.htm.

15 Maj. Gregory A. Cummings, “Civil Engineer Blue Suit Wartime Requirements Review,” The CE, Vol 

5, No 3, Fall 1997, 7.

16 The first three recipients were: Gen. Charles A. Gabriel (1986), Hon. Casper W. Weinberger, (1988), 

and Gen.Larry D. Welch (1990).

17 H. Perry Sullivan, “The Maj. Gen. Ahearn Legacy: Change with a Vision,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 

1, March 1992, 2-3; Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. 

Douglas H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, xii-xiii; Lois E. 

Walker, “A Tradition of Excellence,” The CE, Vol 7, No 3, Fall 1999, 34.

18 Gary S. Flora, SES, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois Walker and Dr. Douglas H. Merkle, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2005, 43-44.

19 Ibid.; iv-v; H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Gary S. Flora Retires,” The U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer, [hereafter 

cited as USAFCE] Vol 2, No 2, March 1994, 12-16.

20 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas 

H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 91.

21 Ibid., v-vii.

22 Ibid.,vii; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Readiness is Job One,” The CE, Vol 3, No 2, Summer 1995, 5-6, 

42-43, 50-51.

23 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, Draft 2002; “Building the Team: An Interview 

with Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, the Air Force Civil Engineer,” The CE, Vol 3, No 3, Winter 1995, 5.

24 Kenneth Miller, Email to Ron Hartzer, 23 May 2011, AHO; Kenneth Miller, “Communicate at All 

Levels,” The CE, Vol 5, No 1, Spring 1997, 5.

25 “From the Top: Feedback from the Field,” The CE, Vol 4, No 1, Spring 1996, 2.

26 Lt. j.g., USN Shay Meskill, “Navy/Air Force Exchange Program: The ‘Bee and The Horse,” AFCE, 

Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 17. 

27 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Building a Team,” The CE, Vol 3, No 3, Winter 1995, 4-9; “Maintaining the 

Readiness Core,” The CE, Vol 7, No 2, Summer 1999, 4-9.

28 “Relevant, Right-sized, and Ready: An Interview with the Air Force Civil Engineer, Brig. Gen. Earnest 

O. Robbins II,” The CE, Vol 7, No 3, Fall 1999, 4-9.

29 Walter J. Boyne, Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the United States Air Force 1947-1997, St. 

Martin’s Press, New York, 313-315.

30 Defense Management Report Decision No. 967, December 1990, 1.

31 Ibid., 1, 6-10, 14.

32 Donald B. Rice, Secretary of the Air Force, Memorandum for the Department of Defense Controller, 

Subject: Defense Management Report Decision (DMRD) 967, Base Engineering Services,, 1990.

33 Defense Management Report Decision No. 967, 1990, 11.
738 Leading the Way

34 Donald B. Rice, Secretary of the Air Force, Memorandum for the Department of Defense Controller, 

Subject: Defense Management Report Decision (DMRD) 967, Base Engineering Services, 1990.

35 Ibid.

36 Defense Management Report Decision No. 967, 1990, 6.

37 Donald B. Rice, “Memorandum for the Department of Defense Controller, Subject: Defense Management Report Decision (DMRD) 967,” Base Engineering Services, 1990.

38 Lt. Col. Emmitt G. Smith, “Air Force Engineer Squadrons: Shifting Sands or Solid Foundation,” 

research report submitted to Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1996, 18-19.

39 Ibid, 18-20; Maj. Valerie L. Hasberry, USAF, “Engineering the Future: Organizing United States Air 

Force Civil Engineers for Joint Operations and the Projection of Airpower,” Research paper submitted to U.S. 

Marine Corps Command and Staff College, Quantico, Virginia, 2002, 4.

40 Walter J. Boyne, Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the United States Air Force 1947-1997, St. 

Martin’s Press, New York, 315.

41 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn, “Protectors of the Environment,” TME, Vol 82, No 525, January-February 

1990, 11.

42 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, xii; “General Ahearn Briefs New 

Civil Engineering, Services Order,” Engineering and Services Update, Vol 3, No 2, February-March 1991, 1.

43 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 86-87.

44 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas 

H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, vi, vii, 69.

45 Ibid., 72.

46 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 85.

47 Gary S. Flora, SES, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois Walker and Dr. Douglas H. Merkle, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2005, 39-40.

48 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2008, 28.

49 Reorganization Meeting, 13 March 1991, HQ AFESC Directors Main Conference Room, AHO.

50 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2008, 27-28.

51 Reorganization Meeting, 13 March 1991, HQ AFESC Directors Main Conference Room, AHO.

52 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2008, 27-28.

53 Gary S. Flora, SES, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois Walker and Dr. Douglas H. Merkle, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2005, 39-40.

54 “Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefing,” May-June 1991, AHO; Maj. Wes Somers, “Civil Engineering 

Readiness into the 1990s,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, August 1992, 10.

55 “Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefing,” May-June 1991, AHO; “Staff Summary Sheet, Subject: AF/

CE Reorganization Approval,” 26 June 1991, AHO; Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 

June 2005, 59.

56 “Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefing,” May-June 1991, AHO.

57 Maj. Wes Somers, “Civil Engineering Readiness into the 1990s,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, August 

1992, 10; “Air Force Restructure,” Air Force White Paper, September 1991, AHO.

58 Col. David S. O’Brien, “The Year of Operations and Maintenance: Getting the Job Done at the Base 

Level,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, August 1992, 4. 

59 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Winds of Change: What’s in a Name?,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 

1991, 6.

60 “Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefing,” May-June 1991, AHO; “Staff Summary Sheet, Subject: AF/

CE Reorganization Approval,” 26 June 1991, AHO.

61 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2008, 28-29.

62 “Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefing,” May-June 1991, AHO; “Staff Summary Sheet, Subject: AF/

CE Reorganization Approval,” 26 June 1991, AHO; Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 

June 2005, 59.

63 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Winds of Change: What’s in a Name?,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 

1991, 6.

64 “Air Force Real Property Agency,” U.S. Air Force Fact Sheet, accessed March 2011, www.af.mil/

information/factsheets.

65 “EOD, DP, ABO Now Part of AFCE Organization,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 15.

66 E-mail, CMSgt (Ret) John J. Glover to Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “EOD History,” 5 Dec 2013, AHO.
Endnotes 739

67 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 86, xii.

68 CMSgt. John J. Glover, “Explosive Ordnance Disposal Begins New Year with AFCESA,” USAFCE, 

Vol 1, No 1, February 1993, 13.

69 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 85-86.

70 Department of the Air Force, Memorandum Subject: USAF Field Operating Agencies, 17 September 

1991; “Air Force Restructure,” Air Force White Paper, September 1991, AHO; Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Winds 

of Change: What’s in a Name?,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 4.

71 TSgt. Sarah L. Hood, “A New Vision for the Air Force,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 1; 

Donald B. Rice, “The Air Force Vision,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 2.

72 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn, “AFCE Outlines A Civil Engineering Vision,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, 

December 1991, 1.

73 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy, “CEs Building Quality,” TME, Vol 86, No 563, May 1994, 50.

74 “Air Force Restructure,” Air Force White Paper, September 1991, AHO.

75 Lt. Col. Emmitt G. Smith, “Air Force Engineer Squadrons: Shifting Sands or Solid Foundation,” 

research report submitted to Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1996, 22.

76 Ibid., 23.

77 Ibid., 23-25.

78 H. Perry Sullivan, “Storm at the Pentagon: AF/CEO Faces Daily Challenges,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 

1, August 1992, 4-5.

79 “Staff Summary Sheet: Results of the Objective Civil Engineering Squadron Study,” 21 May 1992, 

AHO.

80 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas 

H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 72.

81 Lt. Col. Emmitt G. Smith, “Air Force Engineer Squadrons: Shifting Sands or Solid Foundation,” 

research report submitted to Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1996, 26.

82 H. Perry Sullivan, “Objective Wing Approved,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, August 1992, 1.

83 Col. David S. O’Brien, “The Year of Operations and Maintenance: Getting the Job Done at the Base 

Level,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, August 1992, 3; Maj. Wes Somers, “Civil Engineering Readiness into the 

1990s,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, August 1992, 10.

84 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “AFMC Civil Engineer Talks Changes, Manpower Cuts,” The CE, Vol 2, No 8, 

Winter 1995, 4-5, 7, 22-23.

85 Ibid.; Sue Alexander, “Looking Ahead: An Interview with Brig. Gen. Todd I Stewart,” The CE, Vol 4, 

No 2, Summer 1996, 4-7.

86 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Brig. Gen. Michael A. (Mick) McAuliffe (USAF, Ret.): Warrior, Manager, 

Planner, Believer in Empowerment,” USAFCE, Vol 2, No 1, February 1994, 12-16; History, Air Combat Command, Jan-Dec 1992, 320; Jan-Dec 1994, 294-97..

87 Robert Fox, “Air Mobility Command—Global Reach for America, Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency, Update, Vol 4, No 4, Nov 1992, 20; Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia (USAF, Retired), “Oral History 

Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, Draft 

2002, 72.

88 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “RD&A to AFMC,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 1, February 1993, 4-5.

89 H. Perry Sullivan, “New AFI Covers Air Force Civil Engineering and Environmental Quality RD&A 

Requirements,” USAFCE, Vol 2, No 1, February 1994, 18-19.

90 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas 

H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 59-60.

91 H. Perry Sullivan, “New AFI Covers Air Force Civil Engineering and Environmental Quality RD&A 

Requirements,” USAFCE, Vol 2, No 1, February 1994, 18-19.

92 Gary S. Flora, SES, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois Walker and Dr. Douglas H. Merkle, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2005, 34-35; “Key Changes Announced by AFCE,” USAFCE, 

Vol 2, No 2, March 1994, 21.

93 H. Perry Sullivan, “Gary S. Flora Retires,” USAFCE, Vol 2, No 2, March 1994, 14.

94 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy, “CEs Building Quality,” TME, Vol 86, No 563, May 1994, 50. 

95 “Plans and Programs Update,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 2, November 1992, 26.

96 Lt. Col. Emmitt G. Smith, “Air Force Engineer Squadrons: Shifting Sands or Solid Foundation,” 

research report submitted to Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1996, 27-29.

97 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Readiness is Job One,” The CE, Vol 3, No 2, Summer 1995, 5-6.

98 Walter J. Boyne, Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the United States Air Force 1947-1997, St. 

Martin’s Press, New York, 314.

99 “Air Force Civil Engineering Manpower Statistics,” AHO.

100 Message, HQ USAF/CE to ALMAJCOM/CE, “Name Change for Civil Engineer Function,” 041900Z 

Feb 94, Files of the AFCESA History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “What’s In a Name?,” 

USAFCE, Vol 2, No 2, March 1994, 1.
740 Leading the Way

101 TSgt. John Meekins, “New Civil Engineering Occupational Badge Expected in 1 Year,” USAFCE, Vol 

1, No 7, September-October 1993, cover, 2.

102 “Civil Engineers Adopt Career-Field Badge,” The CE, Vol 2, No 8, Winter 1995, 10; “Badge Elements 

Link Engineering Profession Principles,” The CE, Vol 2, No 8, Winter 1995, 11.

103 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, Draft 2002, 95-96.

104 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “Forging Tomorrow’s Installations,” TME, Vol 88, No 578, June-July 

1996, 49.

105 Maj. Drew Jeter, Maj. Drew Wright, and Capt. Jeffery Vinger, “The Air Force Civil Engineer Outsourcing and Privatization Program,” The CE, Vol 4, No 4, Winter 1997, 12-13.

106 Col. John W. Mogge, “Civil Engineers and the Enhanced Air Force Corporate Structure,” The CE, Vol 

3, No 3, Winter 1995, 12-14.

107 Col. Scott Smith, “Air Staff Reorganization,” The CE, Vol 4, No 4, Winter 1997, 14.

108 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “Forging Tomorrow’s Installations,” TME, Vol 88, No 578, June-July 

1996, 49.

109 Maj. Gregory A. Cummings, “Civil Engineer Blue Suit Wartime Requirements Review,” The CE, Vol 

5, No 3, Fall 1997, 7, 21; Col. H. Dean Bartel, “End of Tour Report,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 1999, 3.

110 Joseph H. Smith, “Retirement Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, 33-34.

111 “Readiness Update,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 3, No 4, July-August 1991, 25.

112 Maj. Wes Somers, “Civil Engineer Readiness Into the 1990s,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, August 1992, 

10-11.

113 The construction at Al Kharj AB in Saudi Arabia between November 1990 and January 1991 came to 

typify the model bare base beddown. Joseph H. Smith, “Retirement Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, November 2004, 34.

114 Ibid., 44.

115 Ibid., 44-45.

116 Ibid., 45, 65.

117 Maj. Gregory A. Cummings, “Manpower Briefing,” May 1998, AHO.

118 Maj. Gregory A. Cummings, “Civil Engineer Blue Suit Wartime Requirements Review,” The CE, Vol 

5, No 3, Fall 1997, 7, 21.

119 Maj. Gregory A. Cummings, “Manpower Briefing,” May 1998, AHO; Col. H. Dean Bartel, “End of 

Tour Report,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 1999, 4-5.

120 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2002, Draft, 106.

121 William S. Cohen, “Chapter 8: Total Force Integration,” in Annual Report to the President and the 

Congress, 1998, accessed March 2011, www.defenselink.mil/execsec/adr1999/chap8.html.

122 “Partnership That’s Right for the Air Force,” The CE, Vol 7, No 1, Spring 1999, 4-6.

123 Ibid.

124 Col. Greg Cunningham and Lt. Col. Jim West, “The Austere ‘S-Teams’,” The CE, Vol 7, No 2, Summer, 

1999, 14-16.

125 William S. Cohen, “Chapter 8: Total Force Integration,” in Annual Report to the President and the 

Congress, 1998, accessed March 2011, http://www.defenselink.mil/execsec/adr1999/chap8.html.

126 “Future Total Force,” The CE, Vol 7, No 4, Winter 1999-2000, 4-6.

127 “Partnership That’s Right for the Air Force,” The CE, Vol 7, No 1, Spring 1999, 4-6.

128 “Future Total Force,” The CE, Vol 7, No 4, Winter 1999-2000, 4-6.

129 Sue Alexander, “Air Force Stand Up New RED HORSE Unit,” The CE, Vol 5, No 3, Fall 1997, 20.

130 “819th RED HORSE Squadron Chronology,” AHO. 

131 Malstom Air Force Base, “819th RED HORSE Squadron Fact Sheet,” accessed June 2011, www.

malmstrom.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=4683. 

132 “Lineage and Honors History of the 819th RED HORSE Squadron (ACC),” AHO.

133 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Paving the Way: The Original 819th RED HORSE Squadron’s First Year,” 

The CE, Vol 5, No 3, Fall 1997, 19.

134 Malstrom Air Force Base, “819th RED HORSE Squadron Fact Sheet,” accessed June 2011, www.

malmstrom.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=4683.

135 “Doctrine Chronology,” AHO.

136 Ibid.; “E&S Winner: Maj. Alfred Barrett Hicks, Jr.,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 2, No 1, 

February 1990, 18.

137 Air Force Manual 3-2 Civil Engineer Combat Support Doctrine, 1991, Foreword.

138 Ronald B. Hartzer, “Validating Air Force Civil Engineering Combat Support Doctrine in the Gulf 

War,” Air Power Journal, Summer 1994, 62-71; Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History 

Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 

2008, 80-81.
Endnotes 741

139 Ibid., Chapter 2.

140 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Civil Engineers Implement Revised Doctrine,” The CE, Vol 3, No 2, Summer 

1995, 12-13, 47; Air Force Doctrine Document 42: Civil Engineer, 28 December 1994.

141 “Doctrine Chronology,” AHO.

142 Maj. Alfred Barrett Hicks, Jr., “A Gathering of Our Founders,” Air Force Engineering & Services Center 

Update, July-August, 1989, 10-11; Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” 

interview by Dr. Douglas H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 

111-112.

143 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 96, 106.111.

144 Maj. Alfred Barrett Hicks, Jr., “A Gathering of Our Founders,” Air Force Engineering & Services 

Center Update, July-August, 1989, 10-11.

145 Capt. Francis J. Mondo, “Analysis of Air Force Civil Engineering Strategic Planning,” Thesis, AFIT, 

Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 2003, 30.

146 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “Forging Tomorrow’s Installations,” TME, Vol 88, No 578, June-July 

1996, 49.

147 Department of the Air Force, Civil Engineer Strategic Plan, Volume 1, HQ USAF/ILE, June 1999; 

Department of the Air Force, Civil Engineer Strategic Plan, Volume 2, HQ USAF/ILE, September 2000.

148 Capt. Francis J. Mondo, “Analysis of Air Force Civil Engineering Strategic Planning,” Thesis, AFIT, 

Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 2003, 31-33; Maj. Valerie L. Hasberry, “Engineering the Future: Organizing United States Air Force Civil Engineers for Joint Operations and the Projection of Air Power,” Thesis, 

U.S. Marine Corps Command and Staff College, Quantico, Virginia, 2002, 15-16.

149 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Linking Planning to Programming,” The CE, Vol 8, No 4, Winter 

2000, 2.

150 Capt. Francis J. Mondo, “Analysis of Air Force Civil Engineering Strategic Planning,” Thesis, AFIT, 

Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 2003, 34-36.

151 Maj. Valerie L. Hasberry, “Engineering the Future: Organizing United States Air Force Civil Engineers 

for Joint Operations and the Projection of Air Power,” Thesis, U.S. Marine Corps Command and Staff College, 

Quantico, Virginia, 2002, 24-28.

152 Quoted from the Civil Engineer Strategic Plan, Vol 2, 2000, 10-12 in Capt. Francis J. Mondo, “Analysis 

of Air Force Civil Engineering Strategic Planning,” Thesis, Graduate School of Engineering and Management, 

AFIT, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 2003, 34.

153 Ibid., 29-30.

154 “Maintaining the Readiness Core,” The CE, Vol 7, No 2, Summer 1999, 9; Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Linking Planning to Programming,” The CE, Vol 8, No 4, Winter 2000, 2.

155 Maj. Valerie L. Hasberry, “Engineering the Future: Organizing United States Air Force Civil Engineers 

for Joint Operations and the Projection of Air Power,” Thesis, U.S. Marine Corps Command and Staff College, 

Quantico, Virginia, 2002, 29-30.

156 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Linking Planning to Programming,” The CE, Vol 8, No 4, Winter 

2000-2001, 2.

157 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn, “Protectors of the Environment,” TME, Vol 82, No 525, January-February 

1990, 11; “Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefing,” May-June 1991, AHO.

158 Col. Roy G. Kennington, “Glue, Paper and Flies,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 2, No 3, May 

1990, 4. 

159 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2008, 24.

160 “ATC E&S Conference: Center’s Support to Desert Shield/Storm Outlined,” Engineering & Services 

Update, Vol 3, No 3, May-June 1991, 1.

161 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “When the Chips are Down E&S is There,” Engineering & Services Update, 

Vol 2, No 8, September 1990, 4; Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 83-84.

162 Department of the Air Force, Memorandum Subject: “USAF Field Operating Agencies and Direct 

Reporting Units,” 4 February 1991, Files of Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Florida.

163 “Air Force Restructure,” Air Force White Paper, September 1991, AHO.

164 “Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefing,” May-June 1991, AHO.

165 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Winds of Change: What’s in a Name?,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 

1991, 6.

166 Department of the Air Force, Memorandum Subject” “USAF Field Operating Agencies,” 17 September 

1991, Files of Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Florida.

167 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “What’s In a Name?,” USAFCE, Vol 2, No 2, March 1994, 1.

168 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Winds of Change: What’s in a Name?,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 

1991, 5.

169 “Systems Engineering: Designed for Customer Service,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 8.

170 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Winds of Change: What’s in a Name?,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, Dec 1991, 
742 Leading the Way

6-7. 

171 “CE Notes: Civic Action Teams,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 13.

172 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas 

H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 58-59.

173 CMSgt. John A. Glover, “Anniversary: Explosive Ordnance Disposal Begins New Year with AFCESA,” 

USAFCE, Vol 1, No 1, February 1993, 13. 

174 “History of the Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) in the Air Force Logistics Command – A Chronol- ogy,” AHO. 

175 CMSgt. John A. Glover, “Anniversary: Explosive Ordnance Disposal Begins New Year with AFCESA,” 

USAFCE, Vol 1, No 1, February 1993, 13.

176 MSgt. Jeffrey Schley, “Clearing the Jungles of Panama,” The CE, Vol 7, No3, Fall 1999, 10.

177 Ibid., 11. 

178 FY2000 EOD Annual Report, n.d., n.p., AHO.

179 Ibid.

180 APFD 32-30, Explosive Ordnance Disposal, 3 March 1993, n.p., AHO. 

181 FY2000 EOD Annual Report, n.d., n.p., AHO; Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, “JPAC Mission 

Overview,” accessed March 2011, www.jpac.pacom.mil/index. 

182 Lois E. Walker, “A Tradition of Excellence,” The CE, Vol 7, No 4, Winter 1999-2000, 30.

183 Larry Hull, “Air Force Emergency Management History,” 3-4, AHO. 

184 Ibid., 6, AHO.

185 Ibid., 8-9, AHO. 

186 TSgt. Eddie C. Riley, “Kelly CEMIRT Site Shuts Down After Achieving ‘Hero’ Status,” The CE, Vol 

4, No 1, Spring 1996, 22.

187 “CEMIRT History Notes,” AHO.

188 Sue Alexander, “Combined CEMIRT Team Saves Ridley’s Generators,” Air Force Civil Engineer Vol 

5, No 3, Fall 1997, 21. 

189 1997 Annual History Input AFCESA/CEM, Field Support Directorate, AHO. 

190 Portia R. McCracken, “Bird Strikes and the Air Force,” Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center 

for Bird Control Seminars Proceedings, University of Nebraska, 1976, 68.

191 Maj. Ronald L. Merritt, “US Air Force Bird Aircraft Strike Hazard (BASH): Summary Report for 

1993,” AHO. 

192 Air Force Pamphlet 91-212, Bird/Wildlife Aircraft Strike Hazard (BASH) Management Techniques, 

1997, 7-15.

193 Maj. Ronald L. Merritt, “US Air Force Bird Aircraft Strike Hazard (BASH): Summary Report for 

1993,” AHO. 

194 “AFCESA Technologies Cited by CERF,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 12.

195 “Civilian of the Year: Tom Burns Earns Honor,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, March 1992, 12.

196 “Automated Cost Engineering System (ACES) Meeting,” Engineering &Services Update, Vol 2, No 

8, November 1990, 18.

197 “CCMAS Update,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, March 1992, 28.

198 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Patent: CCMAS Now Protected,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 2, November 1992, 3.

199 Ed Page, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force Validates AFCESA Cost Analysis Programs,” 

USAFCE, Vol 1, No 4, May-June 1993, 10.

200 “Civilian of the Year: Tom Burns Earns Honor,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, March 1992, 12.

201 “CCMAS Update,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, March 1992, 28.

202 “Construction Cost Update,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 4, November 1992, 25.

203 “Construction Cost Update,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 2, March 1993,16.

204 Ed Page, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Air Force Validates AFCESA Cost Analysis Programs,” 

USAFCE, Vol 1, No 4, May-June 1993, 10.

205 “AFCESA Web News,” Vol 7, July 2001, AHO.

206 “New AFCESA Commander Pledges Support to Squadrons,” USAFCE, Vol 2, No 5, July-August 

1994, 23. 

207 Col. Paul Hains, “Agency Relook” Briefing, 7 Nov 1994, Files of AFCESA History Office; “New 

AFCESA Ready for the Future,” USAFCE, Vol 2, No 7, November-December 1994, 19.

208 See note above.

209 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “AFCESA Takes New Structure, New Direction,” The CE, Vol 2, No 8, Winter 

1995, 14, 15, 29.

210 Ibid.

211 Col. Paul W. Hains III, “From the Top: AFCESA—Meeting the Challenge of a Changing World,” The 

CE, Vol 2, No 8, Winter 1995, 2.

212 “Kloeber Leaves AFCESA,” The CE, Vol 4, No 2, Summer 1996, 7; Dennis Firman, “Agency Establishes Board of Advisors,” The CE, Vol 3, No 2, Summer 1995, 39.

213 Lois Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 1999, n.p., AHO.
Endnotes 743

214 “AFCESA Earns Air Force Award,” The CE, Vol 7, No 1, Spring 1999, 33.

215 History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 January – 31 

December 2000, Chronology, 1, AHO.

216 Joseph H. Smith, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, vi, 50-54.

217 Sue Alexander, “AFCAP and the New Multiplication,” The CE, Vol 5, No 2, Summer 1997, 26, 29.

218 Ibid.

219 Joseph H. Smith, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, 51-52, 54.

220 Joseph H. Smith, “Bullet Background Paper: Update of AFCAP Activities,” October 2000, Files of 

AFCESA History Office, AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida.

221 Col. Frank J. Destadio, “Focus On Team Building,” The CE, Vol 6, No 1, Spring 1998, 6.

222 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency, 1 January – 31 

December 1997, AHO.

223 Ibid.

224 Joseph H. Smith, “Bullet Background Paper: Update of AFCAP Activities,” October 2000, AHO.

225 “Keesler AFB Activates AFCAP,” The CE, Vol 6, No 3, Fall 1998, 20.

226 Joseph H. Smith, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, 51-52, 54.

227 Joseph H. Smith, “Bullet Background Paper: Update of AFCAP Activities,” October 2000, AHO.

228 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency, 1 January – 31 

December 1999,” Appendix H.

229 Lois E. Walker, “Air Force Engineer Support to Kosovo Operations, JTF Allied Force (Operation 

Noble Anvil), JTF Shining Hope (Operation Sustain Hope),” History Office, AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 

1999, 47, 12, 31, 42.

230 “Support the Mission,” The CE, Vol 8, No 1, Spring 2000, 5.

231 TSgt. Michael Ward, “AFCAP Implemented to Aid Earthquake Victims,” The CE, Vol 7, No 4, Winter 

1999-2000, 22; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency 1 January – 31 

December 1999,” Appendix H.

232 TSgt. Michael Ward, “AFCAP Used to Help Kosovars Survive Winter,” The CE, Vol 8, No 1, Spring 

2000, 25; Joseph H. Smith, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, 52-53.

233 Joseph H. Smith, “Bullet Background Paper: Update of AFCAP Activities,” October 2000, AHO.

234 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency 1 January – 31 

December 2000,” Appendix H, n.p., and Chronology, 14,16; “AFCAP Recruits Power Pros,” The CE, Vol 8, 

No 4, Winter 2000-2001, 24-25.

235 Joseph H. Smith, “Bullet Background Paper: Update of AFCAP Activities,” October 2000, AHO.

236 “General Ahearn to Retire Feb. 1,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991. 

237 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “What’s In a Name?,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 6.

238 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Environment: Leadership Conference Series a Success,” Engineering & Services 

Update, Vol 3, No 1, January 1991, 1-2; Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” 

interview by Dr. Douglas H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 

54-55.

239 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 101.

240 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas 

H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 62.

241 Ibid.

242 Ibid., 63.

243 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Environment: A Complex Challenge,” Engineering & Services Update, 

Vol 3, No 4, July-August 1991, 4.

244 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas 

H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 54.

245 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2008, 27-28; Gary S. Flora, SES, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois Walker 

and Dr. Douglas H. Merkle, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2005, 39-40.

246 “Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefing,” May-June 1991, AHO; “Staff Summary Sheet, Subject: AF/

CE Reorganization Approval,” 26 June 1991, AHO.

247 Gil Dominguez, “Past Leaders Shaped Center’s Future,” CenterViews, Vol 7, No 3, Summer 2001, 7; 

H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “J.B. Cole Retires at AFCEE,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 10, December 1993, 14-15.

248 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas 

H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 53.

249 Office of The Civil Engineer, Memorandum, Subject: General Notice on Establishment of Air Force 

Center for Environmental Excellence, July 1991; Department of the Air Force, Memorandum, Subject: HQ, 
744 Leading the Way

AFCEE, 23 July 1991; Gil Dominguez, “Past Leaders Shaped Center’s Future,” CenterViews, Vol 7, No 3, 

Summer 2001, 7; Gil Dominguez, “Reorganization Continues Legacy,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2004, 

8.

250 “Celebrating a Decade of Excellence,” CenterViews, Vol 7, No 3, Summer 2001, 5.

251 “AFCEE is Dedicated at Kelly,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 15.

252 “Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefing,” May-June 1991, AHO.

253 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “What’s In a Name?,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 6.

254 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas 

H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 59-60.

255 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “J.B. Cole Retires at AFCEE,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 10, December 1993, 15; H. 

Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Col. Joe Saenz: Texan with Two Missions,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, March 1992, 15; Gil 

Dominguez, “Past Leaders Shaped Center’s Future,” CenterViews, Vol 7, No 3, Summer 2001, 8-9.

256 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “J.B. Cole Retires at AFCEE,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 10, December 1993, 14-15.

257 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Col. Joe Saenz: Texan with Two Missions,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, March 

1992, 15.

258 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “J.B. Cole Retires at AFCEE,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 10, December 1993, 14-15.

259 “Coming Back to AFCEE,” CenterViews, Vol 7, No 3, Summer 2001, 12; H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “J.B. 

Cole Retires at AFCEE,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 10, December 1993, 15.

260 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “J.B. Cole Retires at AFCEE,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 10, December 1993, 14-15.

261 Gil Dominguez, “Air Force Environmental Experts Meet,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 2, March 1993, 9.

262 “Small Beginning, Big Success,” CenterViews, Vol 7, No 3, Summer 2001, 13; “AFCEE Marks 15th 

Anniversary,” CenterViews, Vol 12, No 2, Summer 2006, 13.

263 “Service is Spelled PRO-ACT,” Vol 7, No 3, Summer 2001, 14; “PROACT Provides the Answers to 

Environmental Questions,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2004, 26.

264 Gil Dominguez, “Past Leaders Shaped Center’s Future,” CenterViews, Vol 7, No 3, Summer 2001, 9.

265 Gil Dominguez, “Thirty Years of Design Excellence,” CenterViews, Vol 11, No 3, Fall 2004, 4-7.

266 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “J.B. Cole Retires at AFCEE,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 10, December 1993, 14-15; 

“Director Reflects on AFCEE’s First Two Years,” CenterViews, July-August 1993, 4-5.

267 “Interview with the Commander,” CenterViews, March-April-May 1994, 4-5.

268 “Center Contracts Top $1.24 Billion,” CenterViews, June-July 1994, 1.

269 Jennifer Schneider, “The Man Behind the AFCEE Shield,” Air Force Print News, accessed July 2011, 

www.afcee.af.mil/news/story_print.

270 AFCEE, “About AFCEE,” accessed March 2011, www.afcee.af.mil/about; “Ceremony Marks Start of 

New AFCEE Building,” Centerviews, June-July 1994, 1; “After Four Years, a Place to Call ‘Home’,” CenterViews, Vol 7, No 3, Summer 2001, 11.

271 Gil Dominguez, “Reorganization Continues Legacy,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2004, 9-10.

272 “Gary Erickson New Director of AFCEE,” The CE, Vol 4, No 2, Summer 1996, 28.

273 “Safeguarding the Future,” The CE, Vol 5, No 2, Summer 1997, 4-6.

274 “AFCEE Celebrates a Decade of Service,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 9, No 2, Summer 2001, 34.

275 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy, “Meeting the Future,” TME, Vol 85, No 555, March-April 1993, 35-38.

276 Andrew R. Jackson, Jr., “Civil Engineering Objective Squadron Update,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 5, July 

1993, 8. 

277 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr. “Objective Wing Approved,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, August 1992, 1.

278 Col. David S. O’Brien, “The Year of Operations and Maintenance: Getting the Job Done at the Base 

Level,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, August 1992, 3.

279 Andrew R. Jackson, Jr., “Civil Engineering Objective Squadron Update,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 5, July 

1993, 8. 

280 Air Force Pamphlet 32-1005 “Working in the Engineering Flight,” 1 October 1999, 6.

281 Col. David S. O’Brien, “The Year of Operations and Maintenance: Getting the Job Done at the Base 

Level,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, August 1992, 3-4.

282 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 99.

283 Col. David S. O’Brien, “The Year of Operations and Maintenance: Getting the Job Done at the Base 

Level,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, August 1992, 3-4.

284 Ibid.; SMSgt. Doorbal, “Bullet Background Paper on Military Multi-skilling,” 17 October 1997, AHO; 

Air Force Pamphlet 32-1004, “Working in the Operations Flight,” 1 September 1998, 34.

285 Lt. Col. Susanne M. Waylett, AF CE Objective Civil Engineering Squadron-Initiatives, 2 December 

1992, Attachment 1 to letter to HQ USAF/CEOO, HQ AFCESA/EN/DX, AFCEE/ES, AHO.

286 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas 

H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 74.

287 Ibid.

288 “CE Briefs,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 8, 20.

289 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Transition Training,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 1, February 1993, 2.

290 Lt. Col. Susanne M. Waylett, AF CE Objective Civil Engineering Squadron-Initiatives, 2 December 
Endnotes 745

1992, Attachment 1 to letter to HQ USAF/CEOO, HQ AFCESA/EN/DX, AFCEE/ES, AHO.

291 CMSgt. Kenneth Miller, “Multiskilling...Just Do It,” The CE, Vol 3, No 3, Winter 1995, 10-11. 

292 Zonal Maintenance Guide, Prepared by AFCESA, 1990; Air Force Instruction 32-1031, “Operations 

Management,” 11 March 1994, Section 1.11.

293 Zonal Maintenance Guide, Prepared by AFCESA, 1990.

294 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas 

H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 73.

295 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “The Operations Flight,” The CE, Vol 5, No 4, Winter 1998, 2.

296 Andrew Jackson, “Update on the Operations Flight,” The CE, Vol 6, No 2, Summer 1998, 7.

297 CMsgt. Robert E. Reyff, “Deliveries Announced: P-23 Now Replacing P-2s Worldwide,” U.S. Air 

Force Civil Engineer, Vol 1, No 3, April 1993, 7.

298 Sue Alexander, “Air Force Training Pit Commissioning Program Gains Ground at Fairchild,” The CE, 

Vol 6, No 2, Summer 1998, 18-21.

299 Tech. Sgt. Eddie C. Riley, “McConnell Fire Station is Air Force “Model” Facility,” The CE, Vol 4, No 

2, Summer 1996, 18-20.

300 Col. H. Dean Bartel, “End of Tour Report,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, June 1999, 1.

301 Ibid., 1-3.

302 Larry Belcher, “Tinker Engineers Air Oklahoma Rescue Efforts,” The CE, Vol 3, No 2, Summer 1995, 

8-11.

303 “Firefighters Respond to Anthrax Threat,” The CE, Vol 6, No 3, Fall 1998, 25.

304 Lois E. Walker, “A Tradition of Excellence,” The CE, Vol 7, No 4, Winter 1999-2000, 30.

305 Chief Master Sgt. James E. Podolske, Jr. “Recognizing DoD’s Best Firefighters,” The CE, Vol 6, No 

2, Summer 1996, 22. 

306 Larry Hull, “Air Force Emergency Management History,” ca. 2007, 3-4, AHO. 

307 Ibid., 6, AHO.

308 Department of the Air Force, Air Force Handbook 34-4014, USAF Operations in a Chemical and 

Biological (CB) Warfare Environment, Planning and Analysis, 1 March 1998, 12-13.

309 Ibid., 9, 12.

310 Larry Hull, “Air Force Emergency Management History,” ca. 2007, 9, AHO; “Disaster Preparedness: 

Operating Location ‘M’ on Board with AFCESA at Lowry,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 14.

311 TSgt. Steve Reed, “Disaster Preparedness Sets for Merger,” The CE, Vol 3, No 2, Summer 1995, 52.

312 Lois E. Walker, “A Tradition of Excellence,” The CE, Vol 7, No 4, Winter 1999-2000, 29-30; Larry 

Hull, “Air Force Emergency Management History,” ca. 2007, 3-4, AHO.

313 United States Air Force, Force Protection, Air Force Doctrine Document 2-4.1, 29 October 1999, 2-4. 

314 “Commanders Facility Assessment Program,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 4, May-June 1993, 22; “Commander’s Facility Assessment,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 10, December 1993, 10.

315 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy, “CEs Building Quality,” TME, Vol 86, No 563, May 1994, 51-52; Maj. 

Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. Merkle and 

Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 84.

316 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Merging Philosophies: AFMC Civil Engineer Talks Changes, Manpower Cuts,” 

The CE, Vol 2, No 8, Winter 1995, 7.

317 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy, “CEs Building Quality,” TME, Vol 86, No 563, May 1994, 51-52.

318 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy, “Civil Engineering: Foundation of the Air Force,” TME, Vol 87, No 

571, June-July 1995, 38-40.

319 Perry Sullivan, “Profile in Leadership: Brig. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, Deputy Chief of Staff, Civil Engineering, HQ Air Mobility Command, Scott AFB, Ill.” Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency Update,” 

Vol 4, No 2, Nov 1992, 22; Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by 

Dr. Douglas H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, Draft 2002, 64-5; Air Mobility 

Command, Commander’s Guide to Facility Excellence,” Jan 1993, i.

320 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy, “CEs Building Quality,” TME, Vol 86, No 563, May 1994, 51.

321 “Defense Reform Initiative Directive # 36 – Disposal/Demolition of Excess Structures,” 5 May 1998, 

accessed April 2011, www.defense.gov/dodreform/drids.htm.

322 Air Force Defense Reform Initiative Directive (DRID) #36 Demolition Status, ILER WAR 2 May 

2003, AHO.

323 CMSgt. Vickie M. Graham, “Interview: Gary Vest,” Airman, April 1992, 19.

324 MSgt. Phil Rhodes, “An Eye on 2000,” Airman, April 1992, 31.

325 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., Professional Technical Letter – Air Force Civil Engineering Environmental 

Awareness Program, 2 July 1992, AHO.

326 CMSgt. Vickie M. Graham, “A Little Big Deal,” Airman, April 1992, 21.

327 Department of the Interior, “White House Closing the Circle Awards,” accessed March 2011, www.

doi.gov/greening/awards/whawards.html. 

328 AFCEE, “Success Story, Spotlight on McClellan AFB,” Pro Act Fact Sheet, October 1998, accessed 

March 2011, www.afcee.af.mil/.
746 Leading the Way

329 “Bases Win Environmental Awards,” The CE, Vol 6, No 2, Summer 1998.

330 AFCEE, “U.S. Air Force Installation Pollution Prevention Program Guide and Sample Pollution Prevention Management Action Plan,” HQ AFCEE/EP, July 1996, 5. 

331 AFCEE, “Pollution Prevention Opportunity Assessments,” May 2005, 1-2, accessed March 2011, www.

afcee.af.mil/.

332 Air Force Instruction 32-7080, Pollution Prevention Programs, 12 May 1994, 5. 

333 Maj. John Cawthorne, “International Partners in Environmental Security,” The CE, Vol 6, No 2, Summer 

1998, 14-15.

334 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “Farewell Friend,” The CE, Vol 6, No 1, Spring 1998, 8-10. 

335 John Bale, “AICUZ Links with Community Action: Joint-Use Land Studies Prevent Encroachment,” 

Engineering & Services Update, Vol 2, No 8, September 1990, 10. 

336 Air Force Instruction 32-7065: Cultural Resources Management, 1994, 1.

337 MSgt. Louis A. Arana-Barradas, “Preserving Air Force History,” The CE, Vol 3, No 3, Winter 1995, 

27.

338 U.S. Department of the Interior, National Register of Historic Places, List of National Register Listed 

Air Force properties, 1991. From RCGA, Inc. files.

339 MSgt. Louis A. Arana-Barradas, “Preserving Air Force History,” The CE, Vol 3, No 3, Winter 1995, 

27.

340 Department of Defense, “Defense Department Compliance with the NHPS: Section 202 (a)(6) Evaluation Report,” 1994, accessed April 2011, www.achp.gov/defenseexcerpt.html.

341 Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, News Release No. 202-99, 27 April 1999, accessed April 

2011, www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=2070.

342 Col. Marshall W. Nay, Jr., “Energy Awareness,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 3, September 1992, 6.

343 Freddie L. Beason, “Air Force Approach to Energy Conservation,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 3, September 

1992, 8-10.

344 “Bullet Background Paper on Air Force Facility Energy Program History,” 23 Apr 2007, AHO.

345 Ibid.. 

346 Ibid.

347 “DMRD 924 Software Design Activity (SDA) Working Group),” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 

3, No 4, July-August 1991, 27; Maj. Dennis Anderson, “Moving Automation Toward the 21st Century,” The 

CE, Vol 4, No 2, Summer 1996, 13.

348 Maj. Barry Wentland, “WIMS Marches On,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 3, No 2, FebruaryMarch 1991, 12.

349 Maj. Barry Wentland, “Software Progress Report: Delivery Rate Increases,” Engineering & Services 

Update, Vol 3, No 1, January 1991, 10.

350 Maj. Barry Wentland, “WIMS Marches On,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 3, No 2, FebruaryMarch 1991, 12.

351 “BEAMS Elimination Delayed,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, May-June 1991, 23.

352 “BEAMS Evolution,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 3, December 1991, 25.

353 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “AFCESA Takes New Structure, New Direction,” The CE, Vol 2, No 8, Winter 

1995, 14, 15, 29.

354 Robert D. Wolff and Robert Clearwater, “Automation Strategic Plan,” The CE, Vol 4, No 1, Spring 

1996, 10.

355 Ibid., 10, 12.

356 Ibid.

357 “An Extended Family,” The CE, Vol 4, No 4, Winter 1997, 5.

358 Maj. Dennis Anderson, “Moving Automation Toward the 21st Century,” The CE, Vol 4, No 2, Summer, 

13.

359 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101, 1 

January – 31 December 1998, Chronology, 1999, n.p., AHO.

360 Maj. Dennis Anderson, “Moving Automation Toward the 21st Century,” The CE, Vol 4, No 2, Summer, 

13.

361 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 1999, Chronology, ix, AHO.

362 “CE Briefs,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 8, November 1993, 20.

363 Maj. Drew Jeter, Maj. Drew Wright, and Capt. Jeffery Vinger, “The Air Force Civil Engineer Outsourcing and Privatization Program,” The CE, Vol 4, No 4, Winter 1997, 12-13.

364 Lt. Col. Emmitt G. Smith, “Air Force Engineer Squadrons: Shifting Sands or Solid Foundation,” 

research report, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1996, 29-30.

365 Maj. Drew Jeter, Maj. Drew Wright, and Capt. Jeffery Vinger, “The Air Force Civil Engineer Outsourcing and Privatization Program,” The CE, Vol 4, No 4, Winter 1997, 12-13.

366 Capt. Andrew D. Pope, “The Military Construction (MILCON) Program and Privatization: A Comparative Analysis,” Thesis, AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio September 1990, 9.

367 Maj. Drew Jeter, Maj. Drew Wright, and Capt. Jeffery Vinger, “The Air Force Civil Engineer Outsourcing 
Endnotes 747

and Privatization Program,” The CE, Vol 4, No 4, Winter 1997, 12-13.

368 Patricia Coyle, “A-76 Help Desk in Full Operation,” The CE, Vol 7, No 1, Spring 1999, 27.

369 Maj. Drew Jeter, Maj. Drew Wright, and Capt. Jeffery Vinger, “The Air Force Civil Engineer Outsourcing and Privatization Program,” The CE, Vol 4, No 4, Winter 1997, 12-13.

370 Ibid.

371 Patricia Coyle, “A-76 Help Desk in Full Operation,” The CE, Vol 7, No 1, Spring 1999, 27.

372 Lt. Col. Alberto Armesto and Capt. Vicki Buschur, “Civil Engineering Outsourcing: What Does It All 

Mean?,” The CE, Vol 5, No 4, Winter 1998, 7, 27.

373 Ibid.

374 Sue Alexander, “Looking Ahead: An Interview with Brig. Gen. Todd I Stewart,” The CE, Vol 4, No 2, 

Summer 1996, 4-7.

375 AFMC Commanders’ Conference Briefing, 8-9 April 1997, History of the Air Force Materiel Command 1 October 1996-30 September 1997, Appendix 2, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, 

Alabama.

376 Lt. Col. Kathy Ward, “Rightsourcing Tips from the Field,” The CE, Vol 6, No 2, Summer 1998, 28.

377 Letha Cozart, “2000 Civil Engineer Worldwide Conference,” The CE, Vol 8, No 4, Winter 2000-2001, 

11

378 Maj. Drew Jeter, Maj. Drew Wright, and Capt. Jeffery Vinger, “The Air Force Civil Engineer Outsourcing and Privatization Program,” The CE, Vol 4, No 4, Winter 1997, 12-13.

379 AFCEE, “U.S. Air Force Housing Privatization,” accessed April 2011, www.afcee.af.mil/resources/

housingprivatization/index.asp; Maj. Drew Jeter, Maj. Drew Wright, and Capt. Jeffery Vinger, “The Air Force 

Civil Engineer Outsourcing and Privatization Program,” The CE, Vol 4, No 4, Winter 1997, 12-13.

380 AFCEE, “AFCEE’s Role,” accessed April 2011, www.afcee.af.mil/resources/housingprivatization/

afceerole/index.asp.

381 Binks Franklin, “The Continuing Saga of Privatizing AF Family Housing,” The CE, Vol 6, No 2, 

Summer 1998, 26.

382 “Air Force Tests New Legislation to Privatize Housing Construction,” The CE, Vol 5, No 1, Spring 

1997, 26.

383 Capt. Stacie A. Remy Vest, “Military Housing Privatization Initiative: A Guidance Document for Wading 

Through the Legal Morass,” The Air Force Law Review, Vol 53, 2002, 10, accessed 9 March 2011, www.afjag.

af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-081204-025.pdf.

384 37th Training Wing Public Affairs, “Housing Privatization Gaining Ground at Lackland,” The CE, Vol 

6, No 3, Fall 1998, 12. 

385 Binks Franklin, “The Continuing Saga of Privatizing AF Family Housing,” The CE, Vol 6, No 2, 

Summer 1998, 26-27.

386 Rachel Fish, “Robins, Dyess Celebrate 10 Years of Housing Privatization,” CenterViews, Vol 17, No 

1, Jan-March 2011, 15.

387 National Transportation Safety Board, “Pipeline Accident Report: Natural Gas Explosion and Fire, 

Department of Defense/Army, Fort Benjamin Harrison, Indianapolis, Indiana, December 9, 1990,” 8 April 1992, 

Files of the AFCESA History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida. 

388 “Defense Reform Initiative Directive # 9 – Privatizing Utility Systems,” 10 December 1997, accessed 

April 2011, www.defense.gov/dodreform/drids.htm; “Defense Reform Initiative Directive # 49 – Privatizing Utility Systems,” 23 December 1998, accessed April 2011, www.defense.gov/dodreform/drids.htm; TSgt. Michael 

Ward, “Why Privatize Utilities?,” The CE, Vol 8, No 1, Spring 2000, 14.

389 Maj. Drew Jeter, Maj. Drew Wright, and Capt. Jeffery Vinger, “The Air Force Civil Engineer Outsourcing & Privatization Program,” The CE, Vol 4, No 4, Winter 1997, 12; Maj. Jeff Vinger, “The New Air Force 

Utilities Privatization Process,” The CE, Vol 5, No 4, Winter 1998, 8.

390 Brfg, Maj. Gregory A. Cummings, AFCESA, “Balancing Wartime Requirements and Utilities 

Privatization,” Nov 1998; Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: 

HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 January – 31 December 1998, Chronology, n.p., AHO.

391 Memo, Gen. Michael E. Ryan, CSAF, to ALMAJCOM/CC and HQ USAFA/CC, Subj: Air Force Utilities Privatization Program Changes, 8 Feb 1999; Lizette Richardson, “Texas Utilities Privatization Underway,” 

The CE, Vol 6, No 3, Fall 1998, 11; Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency 

(RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101, 1 January – 31 December 1999, Chronology, 1999, n.p., AHO.

392 Maj. Bill Owens, “Utilities Privatization Update: Phase II,” The CE, Vol 8, No 1, Spring 2000, 14; 

TSgt. Michael Ward, “Why Privatize Utilities?,” The CE, Vol 8, No 1, Spring 2000, 14; Maj. Richard Doran 

and Capt. Bill Owens, “Utilities Privatization Update,” The CE, Vol 7, No 1, Spring 1999, 11.

393 Maj. Richard Doran and Capt. Bill Owens, “Utilities Privatization Update,” The CE, Vol 7, No 1, 

Spring 1999, 11.

394 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 1998, Chronology, n.p., AHO.

395 Ibid.;Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 

1 January – 31 December 2000, Chronology, n.p., AHO.

396 Maj. Bill Owens, “Utilities Privatization Update: Phase II,” The CE, Vol 8, No 1, Spring 2000, 14.
748 Leading the Way

397 Frederick J. Shaw, “History’s Footprints: USAF Continental Bases,” Air Force Historical Research 

Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 2004, 153-60; “Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC),” accessed January 

2010, www.globalsecurity.com.

398 Frederick J. Shaw, “History’s Footprints: USAF Continental Bases,” Air Force Historical Research 

Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 2004, 151-94.

399 TSgt. David P. Masko, “Base Transition,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 1, August 1992, 12.

400 Frederick J. Shaw, “History’s Footprints: USAF Continental Bases,” Air Force Historical Research 

Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 2004, 151-94

401 Ibid.

402 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “A Facility Strategy for Global Engagement,” TME, Vol 89, No 585, 

June-July 1997, 60-62.

403 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas 

H. Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 93.

404 Harry R. Fletcher, Air Force Bases Vol II: Air Bases Outside the United States of America, Center for 

Air Force History, U.S. Air Force, Washington, D.C., 1993, Appendix 2; Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “A Facility 

Strategy for Global Engagement,” TME, Vol 89, No 585, June-July 1997, 60-62.

405 C.R. Anderegg, The Ash Warriors, Office of History, Pacific Air Forces, 2000; “Cops, Cooks, Civil 

Engineers: Fiery Vigil Challenges PACAF E&S Teams,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 3, No 4, JulyAugust 1991, 1-2; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Engineers and Natural Disaster Recovery,” The CE, Vol 3, No 3, 

Winter 1995, 27.

406 Walter J. Boyne, Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the United States Air Force 1947-1997, St. 

Martin’s Press, New York, 417.

407 “Statement of John B. Goodman Deputy Under Secretary of Defense,” accessed March 2011, www.

dod.gov/dodgc/olc/docs/test97-3-13Goodman.htm.

408 Sheila E. Widnall, “Report of the Secretary of the Air Force,” 1996, accessed March 2011, www.dod.

gov/execsec/adr96/airforce_report.html; Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “Maintaining the Readiness Core,” The 

CE, Vol 7, No 2, Summer 1999, 5.

409 Katie Halvorson, Maj. Scott Jarvis, and Capt. Jonathan Webb, “Unaccompanied Doesn’t Mean Uncomfortable,” The CE, Vol 4, No 4, Winter 1997, 18.

410 Ibid.; Robert E. Bayer, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense (Installations), “Military Housing 

Privatization Initiative” March 7 1996, Before the Subcommittee on Military Installations and Facility of the 

House Committee on National Security,” accessed 9 March 2010, www.dod.gov/pubs. 

411 SSgt. Chris Miller, “Scott AFB Breaks Ground for First “1 Plus 1” Dormitory,” The CE, Vol 4, No 2, 

Summer 1996, 15.

412 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “From the Top: Planning for Our Future,” The CE, Vol 6, No 1, Spring 

1998, 2. 

413 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “Maintaining the Readiness Core,” The CE, Vol 7, No 2, Summer 1999, 

5-6.

414 MSgt. Louis A. Arana-Barradas, “Enlisted to get Single Dorm Rooms,” The CE, Vol 2, No 8, Winter 

1995, 8; Jean August, Herbert P. Carlin, William Elliott, Kathi R. Jones, Carol H. Parks, Layne B. Peiffer, William W. Suit, and John D. Webber, “History of the Air Force Materiel Command 1 October 1993-30 September 

1994,” Volume XVII: Supporting Documents F-1—F-60, Office of the Command Historian, HQ Air Force 

Materiel Command, WPAFB, Ohio.

415 Binks Franklin, “The Continuing Saga of Privatizing AF Family Housing,” The CE, Vol 6, No 2, 

Summer 1998, 26.

416 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy, “Civil Engineering: Foundation of Air Force Readiness,” TME, Vol 87, 

No 571 June-July, 1995, 39; Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “Forging Tomorrow’s Installations,” TME, Vol 88, No 

578, June-July 1996, 46.

417 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “Planning for the Millennium,” TME, Vol 90, No 592, June-July 1998, 

43.

418 Jean August, Herbert P. Carlin, William Elliott, Kathi R. Jones, Carol H. Parks, Layne B. Peiffer, William W. Suit, and John D. Webber, “History of the Air Force Materiel Command 1 October 1993-30 September 

1994,” Volume XVII: Supporting Documents F-1—F-60, Office of the Command Historian, HQ Air Force 

Materiel Command, WPAFB, Ohio.

419 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “A Facility Strategy for Global Engagement,” TME, Vol 89, No 585, 

June-July 1997, 61.

420 AFPD 32-60, Housing, 9 July 1993, Muir S. Fairchild Research Information Center, Air University, 

Maxwell AFB, Alabama. 

421 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “Forging Tomorrow’s Installations,” TME, Vol 88, No 578, June-July 

1996, 47.

422 Warren Wright, Maj. Paul Vitucci, Bob Van Vonderen, and Jack Gibson, “CE Team: Supports Space 

Along the Eastern Range,” USAFCE, Vol 2, No 6, September-October 1994, 8; Patrick Air Force Base, “45SW 

Range and Launch Operations,” accessed March 2011, www.patrick.af.mil/library/factsheets.

423 Warren Wright, Maj. Paul Vitucci, Bob Van Vonderen, and Jack Gibson, “CE Team: Supports Space 
Endnotes 749

Along the Eastern Range,” USAFCE, Vol 2, No 6, September-October 1994, 8-9.

424 Ibid.

425 Ibid., 10.

426 Ibid.

427 Ibid.

428 Ibid.

429 Ibid.

430 Capt. Cynthia Rivera, “Vandenberg CEs Supports Space and Ballistic Launches,” USAFCE, Vol 2, 

No 6, September-October 1994, 16-17.

431 Ibid.

432 Robert Mueller, Air Force Bases, Vol I, Active Air Force Bases Within the United States of America 

on 17 September 1982, 583-90, Office of Air Force History, Washington, D.C. 1989, 583-90; MSgt Michael A. 

Ward, “Back in Style: Base planners fashion new look for Whiteman AFB,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 11, 

No 4, Winter 2003, 18-21.

433 James Schumacher, “USAFE Drawdown Requires: Mildenhall Beddown,” USAFCE, Vol 2, No 7, 

November-December 1994, 26-27.

434 Alan Riding, “Torrejon Journal; The F-16 Drama (Cont.): Happy Landing in Italy,” The New York 

Times, 6 February 1990, accessed March 2011, www.nytimes.com/.

435 Lt. Col. Jack L. Johnson, Rebasing the 401st Tactical Fighter Wing—Here, There, or Anywhere?, 

prepared for the National War College, 22 February 1990, 1, accessed March 2011, www.dtic.mil/. 

436 Ralph E. Jackson, “Relocating the 401st Tactical Fighter Wing,” Thesis, AFIT, University of Maryland, 

College Park, 3 May 1991, 7, accessed March 2011, www.dtic.mil/.

437 “New NATO Air Base Project Causes Controversy,” The Washington Post, 10 June 1990, accessed March 2011, 

http://articles.dailypress.com/1990-06-10/news/9006100051_1_air-base-military-families-base-construction

438 Lt. Col. Douglas M. Fraser, “Memorandum for General McPeak,” 11 October 1990, Files of Air Force 

Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama; Lt. Col. Jack L. Johnson, Rebasing the 401st Tactical 

Fighter Wing—Here, There, or Anywhere?, National War College, 22 February 1990, 4, accessed March 2011, 

www.dtic.mil/.

439 William M. Butler and Lt. Col. Glen W. Moorhead III, “History of Headquarters Sixteenth Air Force 1 

January 2003-31 December 2003 Assigned to United States Air Forces in Europe Stationed at Aviano Air Base,” 

Italy, 26 January 2005, Files of Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama. 

440 TSgt. Niklaas A. Waller, Fifty Years of Friendship and Cooperation A History of Aviano Air Base 

1955-2005, Office of History, HQ 31st Fighter Wing Aviano AB, 1 February 2005, 6-7.

441 Louis Arna-Barradas, “Aviano Undergoes Renaissance,” Airman Magazine, November 2000, accessed 

March 2011, www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123069313.

442 Lt. Col. Marvin Fisher and Capt. Jeff Mathieu, “Aviano 2000 Developing the “Jewel of the Mediterranean,” The CE, Vol 5, No 4, Winter 1998, 10.

443 Jim Weslowski, “Aviano Today,” The CE, Vol 10, No 3, Fall/Winter 2002, 4-9.

444 Lt. Col. Marvin Fisher and Capt. Jeff Mathieu, “Aviano 2000 Developing the ‘Jewel of the Mediterranean,’” The CE, Vol 5, No 4, Winter 1998, 10; Louis Arna-Barradas, “Aviano Undergoes Renaissance,” Airman 

Magazine, November 2000, accessed March 2011, www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123069313.

445 William M. Butler and Lt.Col. Glen W. Moorhead III, “History of Headquarters Sixteenth Air Force 1 

January 2003-31 December 2003 Assigned to United States Air Forces in Europe Stationed at Aviano Air Base,” 

Italy, 26 January 2005, Files of Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

446 History of the United States Air Forces in Europe, 1 Jan-31 Dec 1998, 88-89; “Putting People First: 

An Interview with The Air Force Civil Engineer, Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox,” The Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 

11, No 2, Summer 2003, 8.

447 David M. Johnson, “Rebuilding Ramstein: Force Realignment Requires New Mission Beddown,” The 

CE, Vol 5, No 2, Summer 1997, 8-11.

448 “Beddown Projects Underway,” The CE, Vol 2, No 8, Winter 1995, 33; David M. Johnson, “Rebuilding 

Ramstein: Force Realignment Requires New Mission Beddown,” The CE, Vol 5, No 2, Summer 1997, 8-11.

449 David M. Johnson, “Rebuilding Ramstein: Force Realignment Requires New Mission Beddown,” The 

CE, Vol 5, No 2, Summer 1997, 8-9.

450 “The Schoolhouse: AFIT Will Bring it to You,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 5, July 1993, 2.

451 Capt. Greg Schmidt, “New AFIT Building: Not Just a Building—a Teaching Tool,” USAFCE, Vol 1, 

No 8, November 1993, 6-7; “Moving Experience: New AFIT Schoolhouse Almost Ready,” USAFCE, Vol 2, 

No 7, November-December 1994, 21.

452 AFIT, “The Civil Engineer School at the Air Force Institute of Technology, History,” accessed March 

2011, www.afit.edu; Lt. Col. Mark Goltz, “Air Force Institute of Technology, Engineering and Environmental 

Management Program Update,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 5, July 1993, 17.

453 Maj. John A. Arin, “New Emphasis on Early Education of CEs: Initial Skills Training at AFIT,” 

USAFCE, Vol 2, No 7, November-December 1994, 12-13.

454 Ibid.

455 Ibid., 13.
750 Leading the Way

456 Lt. Col. Alfred E. Thal, “The GEEM Program, Graduate Education with an Air Force Focus,” Air Force 

Civil Engineer, Vol 9, No 2, Summer 2001, 18.

457 Lt. Col. Alfred E. Thal, “The GEEM Program, Graduate Education with an Air Force Focus,” Air 

Force Civil Engineer, Vol 9, No 2, Summer 2001, 18; Lt. Col. Steven T. Lofgren, Lt. Col. Michael L. Shelley, 

and Maj. W. Brent Nixon, “GEEM at AFIT,” The CE, Vol 4, No 2, Summer 1996, 30.

458 Lt. Col. Steven T. Lofgren, Lt. Col. Michael L. Shelley, and Maj. W. Brent Nixon, “GEEM at AFIT,” 

The CE, Vol 4, No 2, Summer 1996, 30.

459 Ibid., 30-31.

460 Ibid., 31-33.

461 Capt. Karla K. Mika, “AFIT: One Student’s Perspective,” The CE, Vol 5, No 2, Summer 1997, 35.

462 Lt. Col. Mike Duncan, “Graduate Education for CE Professionals,” The CE, Vol 4, No 2, Summer 

1996, 32-33.

463 Ibid.

464 Ibid.

465 Barbara Bryant, “Academy Cadets Launch into New Training,” The CE, Vol 2, No 8, Winter 1995, 20.

466 Ibid.

467 Ibid., 31.

468 Ibid.

469 “AFCESA History: Inter-service Training Review Organization,” 1993, n.p., AHO; SMSgt. Frank 

Vandevander, “Consolidated CE Training in Military’s Future,” The CE, Vol 3, No 2, Summer 1995, 45.

470 AFCESA History: Implementation of AF/CC Year of Training (YOT) Initiatives, 1992, n.p., AHO; 

“CFETP – The Roadmap to a Successful Career,” The CE, Vol 4, No 1, 28.

471 Lt. Col. Allen W. Poerner, “Doing more with less...the smart way,” The CE, Vol 5, No 1, Spring 1997, 

28-29; AFCESA History: Implementation of AF/CC Year of Training (YOT) Initiatives, 1992, n.p., AHO; Maj. 

Andy Johnson, “Training to Succeed,” The CE, Vol 5, No 2, Summer 1997, 34-35.

472 CMSgt. Chuck Perry and the STTC Team, “USAF Civil Engineering Training—Leading the Way!,” 

USAFCE, Vol 1, No 7, September-October 1993, 12-13.

473 Ibid., 14-15.

474 “Fire Academy History,” from the AHO; Douglas E. Courchene, Pioneers with Intent, Memoirs of an 

Air Force Fire Fighter, Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency, Tyndall AFB July 2003, 62. 

475 “EOD School Consolidated at Eglin,” The CE, Vol. 7 No. 1, Spring 1999, 29; Lt. Col. Tom Dombrowsky, “EOD Memorial Moves to Eglin,” The CE, Vol 7, No 4, Winter 1999-2000, 32.

476 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “A History of the Tyndall Silver Flag Exercise Site,” n.d., AHO; Col. Marshall 

W. Nay, Jr., “What’s In a Name?,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 6-7; Perry Sullivan, “Silver Flag 

Site: RED HORSE Takes Over Silver Flag Site,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 6, August 1993, 2; Brig. Gen. Michael 

McAuliffe, “Telecon on Genesis of the Silver Flag Exercise Site,” with Lois Walker and Dr. Merkle, 19 September 

2002, 2-3, AHO.

477 Maj. Daniel P. Gosselin and Maj. Timothy R. McLean, “Silver Flag Exercise Site Program: Readiness 

Training for the Future,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 6, August 1993, 4-5.

478 Ibid.

479 CMSgt. David A. Bolin, “Key Changes Made: Curriculum Used at Silver Flag Exercise Site Validated 

by Study Panel,” USAFCE, Vol 2, No 1, February 1994, 2-3.

480 Maj. Daniel P. Gosselin and Maj. Timothy R. McLean, “Silver Flag Exercise Site Program: Readiness 

Training for the Future,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 6, August 1993, 4-5.

481 Teresa Hood, “Guard Provides Hands-On Training,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 

6; CMSgt McLeod, “Point Paper on Regional Equipment Operator Training Site Concept,” 6 September 1989, 

AHO.

482 CMSgt McLeod, “Point Paper on Regional Equipment Operator Training Site Concept,” 6 September 

1989, AHO; CMSgt Robert K. Williams, “Readiness Update, Validation of the Regional Operators Training 

Sites,” Air Force Engineering & Services Update, Vol 3, No 1, January 1991, 16; Teresa Hood, “Guard Provides 

Hands-On Training,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 6.

483 Perry Sullivan, “Expedient Repairs Score Well in SAC, PACAF Demonstrations,”, CE Update,” Vol 

3, No 4, December 1991, 26; Capt. Nick Desport, “15th CES Supporting Foal Eagle,” U.S. Air Force Civil 

Engineer, Vol 2, No 4, May-June 1994, 18-19.

484 TSgt. Darla J. Ernst, “Eielson Engineers Keep Tent City Running Smoothly,” The CE, Vol 5, No 4, 

Winter 1998, 31.

485 Capt. Nick Desport, “15th CES Supporting Foal Eagle,” USAFCE, Vol 2, No 4, May-June 1994, 18-19.

486 TSgt. Steven C. Prier, “Civil Engineers Participate in Exercise Green Flag 95,” The CE, Vol 3, No 3, 

Winter 1995, 26.

487 Capt. D. Scott Vaughn, “Return to Cambodia,” The CE, Vol 4, No 4, Winter 1997, 20-21.

488 Ibid.

489 Brig. Gen. James E. McCarthy, “Readiness Challenge: BEST EVER!,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 4, MayJune 1993, 11.

490 Maj. Gen. James E. McCarthy (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 
Endnotes 751

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005, 71; Brig. Gen. James E. McCarthy, 

“Readiness Challenge: BEST EVER!,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 4, May-June 1993, 14-15; “Det 1 Relocates to 

Tyndall,” Official Newspaper of Readiness Challenge IV, Vol 3, No 2, April 25, 1993, 3-5, AHO.

491 TSgt. Andra Higgs, “Let the Games Begin!,” The CE, Vol 3, No 2, Summer 1995, 24-26.

492 Ibid.; TSgt Andra Higgs, “Services Competes in RC-V,” The CE, Vol 3, No 2, Summer 1995, 32-33.

493 TSgt. Eddie C. Riley, “RC-VI Committee: Plans Well Under Way,” The CE, Vol 4, No 3, Fall 1996, 9; 

Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, “From the Top, Readiness Challenge Winners,” The CE, Vol 5, No 1, Spring 1997, 

2; Sue Alexander, “Chaplains Provide Spiritual Support at RC-VI,” The CE, Vol 5, No 1, Spring 1997, 24; Sue 

Alexander, “RIBS At the Ready,” The CE, Vol 5, No 1, Spring 1997, 24; Sue Alexander, “We Are Ready!,” The 

CE, Vol 5, No 1, Spring 1997, 14-15.

494 See note above.

495 Sue Alexander, “We Are Ready!,” The CE, Vol 5, No 1, Spring 1997, 16-17; Maj. Gen. Eugene A. 

Lupia, “From the Top, Readiness Challenge Winners,” The CE, Vol 5, No 1, Spring 1997, 2.

496 “When Duty Calls...Balkan Operations Put Readiness Challenge VII on Hold,” The CE, Vol 7, No 2, 

Summer 1999, 22-23.

497 Col. Frank J. Destadio,“Focus on Team-Building,” The CE, Vol 6, No 1, Spring 1998, 6; Maj. Gen. 

Eugene A. Lupia, “From the Top, Readiness Challenge Winners,” The CE, Vol 5, No 1, Spring 1997, 2.

498 Brig. Gen. Michael A. McAuliffe, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, Duane 

Knutson, and Norm Falk, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, July 1991, 10.

499 Ronald L. Smith, “Organizing Air Force Civil Engineers For Peace, War, and Military Operations 

Other Than War (MOOTW),” Research Report, Air War College, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1996, 13.

500 “Reflecting on a Dynamic Career,” The CE, Vol 4, No 3, Fall 1996, 6-7.

501 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “We’re All on the Same Team,” The CE, Vol 8, No 3, Fall 2000, 2.

502 Perry D. Jamieson, Lucrative Targets: The U.S. Air Force in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations, Air 

Force History and Museums Programs, USAF, Washington, D.C., 2001, 1-4; Col. Walter J. Boyne (USAF, 

Retired), Beyond the Wild Blue, St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1997, 290-294. 

503 Col. Walter J. Boyne (USAF, Retired), Beyond the Wild Blue, St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1997, 

297; Perry D. Jamieson, Lucrative Targets: The U.S. Air Force in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations, Air Force 

History and Museums Programs, USAF, Washington, D.C., 2001, 9.

504 Perry D. Jamieson, Lucrative Targets: The U.S. Air Force in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations, Air 

Force History and Museums Programs, USAF, Washington, D.C., 2001, 7.

505 Col. Walter J. Boyne (USAF, Retired), Beyond the Wild Blue, St. Martin’s Press, New York, 1997, 

299, 301,308; “General Ahearn Briefs New Civil Engineering, Services Order,” Engineering & Services Update, 

Vol 3, No 2, February-March 1991, 1.

506 Brig. Gen. Michael A. McAuliffe, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, Norm 

Falk, and Duane Knutson, HQ TAC/DE, Langley AFB, Virginia, July 1991, 2. When General McAuliffe retired 

from the Air Force in 1994, the annual award for the outstanding Housing Flight was named in his honor.

507 “Newman Medal Goes to Colonel Rothenberg,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 3, No 2, FebruaryMarch 1991, 21.

508 Ibid.

509 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 83-84.

510 “ATC E&S Conference: Center’s Support to Desert Shield/Storm Outlined,” Engineering & Services 

Update, Vol 3, No 3, May-June 1991, 1.

511 H. Perry Sullivan, Jr., “Gilbert Winners Cited for Staff Excellence,” Engineering & Services Update, 

Vol 3, No 2, February-March, 1991, 23; H. Perry Sullivan, “Southwest Asia: HQ AFESC Responds to Crisis in 

the Persian Gulf,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 2, No 8, September 1990, 1, 3.

512 H. Perry Sullivan, “Around-the-Clock, 6 Weeks, Operation Desert Shield,” Engineering & Services 

Update, Vol 2, No 8, September 1990, 2-3; “Operation Desert Shield,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 2, 

No 9, November 1990, 17.

513 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008, 83-84.

514 H. Perry Sullivan, “Southwest Asia: HQ AFESC Responds to Crisis in the Persian Gulf,” Engineering 

& Services Update, Vol 2, No 8, September 1990, 1.

515 Ibid.; H. Perry Sullivan, “Around-the-Clock, 6 Weeks, Operation Desert Shield,” Engineering & 

Services Update, Vol 2, No 8, September 1990, 2-3.

516 Directorate of Readiness, “Weekly Activity Report,” 9 Jan 91, Files of the AFCESA History Office, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida; “Desert Shield Equipment Buy,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 2, No 9, November 

1990, 17.

517 “New Mobile Kitchen Developed for Desert Storm,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 3, No 2, 

February-March 1991, 10.

518 H. Perry Sullivan, “Southwest Asia: HQ AFESC Responds to Crisis in the Persian Gulf,” Engineering 

& Services Update, Vol 2, No 8, September 1990, 1; H. Perry Sullivan, “Around-the-Clock, 6 Weeks, Operation 

Desert Shield,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 2, No 8, September 1990, 2-3.
752 Leading the Way

519 “Folded Fiberglass Mats: AFESC Team Goes to Desert Shield,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 

2, No 9, November 1990, 3.

520 Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Ahearn, “General Ahearn Comments on Desert Shield,” Engineering & Services 

Update, Vol 2, No 8, September 1990, 3.

521 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Gulf War History,” n.d., 23-24, AHO.

522 Ibid., 60-63.

523 Maj. David Sanders, Lt. Joel Holtrop, and Lt. Brian Duffy, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. 

Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 25 Sep 1991, 6

524 “Readiness Update,” Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Engineering & Services Update, Vol 

3, No 2, February-March 1991, 25.

525 H. Perry Sullivan, “Brig. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, Deputy Chief of Staff, Civil Engineering HQ Air 

Mobility Command, Scott AFB, Illinois,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 2, November 1992, 21-22.

526 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Gulf War History,” n.d., 17, AHO.

527 Gen. Robert H. Scales, Certain Victory: The US Army in the Gulf War, US Army Command and 

General Staff College Press, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, 1994, 43; Capt. Wayland H. Patterson, “Oral History 

Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, July 1991, 6.

528 Capt. Wayland H. Patterson, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ 

AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, July 1991, 6.

529 Col. Wayne McDermott, “Role of Engineering & Services in Operation Desert Shield/Storm,” Briefing 

for Space Command, n.d., AHO; Lt. Col. David J. Ruschmann, “Air Force Engineering and Services Participation in Operation Desert Shield from a TAC Engineering and Services Readiness Planners Perspective,” Jul-Sep 

1990, n.p, AHO.

530 Lt. Col. David J. Ruschmann, “Air Force Engineering and Services Participation in Operation Desert 

Shield from a TAC Engineering and Services Readiness Planners Perspective,” Jul-Sep 1990, n.p., AHO.

531 Ibid.

532 Lt. Col. David J. Ruschmann, “Air Force Engineering and Services Participation in Operation Desert 

Shield from a TAC Engineering and Services Readiness Planners Perspective,”Jul-Sep 1990, n.p., AHO; Gen. 

Robert H. Scales, Certain Victory: The US Army in the Gulf War, US Army Command and General Staff College 

Press, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, 1994, 44.

533 Lois Walker, “Gulf War Retrospective,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 9, No 1, Spring 2001, 7.

534 Department of the Air Force, Air Force Pamphlet 10-219, Bare Base Conceptual Planning Guide, Vol 

5, 1 June 1996, 21.

535 Ibid., 22.

536 Ibid., 37.

537 Capt. Marvin N. Fisher, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, August 1991, Introduction, 4.

538 Ibid.

539 Ibid., 5-6.

540 Ibid., 6.

541 SSgt. Detroit Whiteside, “Others Promise; They Produce,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 2, No 

8, November 1990, 1-2; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Gulf War History,” n.d., 21, AHO.

542 Capt. Wayland H. Patterson, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ 

AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 10 July 1992, 42.

543 Capt. Marvin N. Fisher, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida 12, August 1991, 23.

544 Lt. Col. Rodney L. Hunt, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer and Duane 

Knutson, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 1991, 5-8.

545 Ibid., 8.

546 MSgt William L. Hinegardner, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ 

AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 1990, 22.

547 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Gulf War History,” n.d., 21-22, 24, AHO; “RED HORSE in Desert Shield/

Storm,” n.d., n.p, AHO.

548 “820th RED HORSE Squadron Deployment Summary 1987-2009,” n.d., 2, AHO.

549 Department of the Air Force, Headquarters U.S. Air Force, AF Regulation 93-9, 15 April 1983, 10.1, 

13.

550 Ibid.; 13; “RED HORSE Realignment,” PowerPoint Presentation, 1996, AHO.

551 See note above.

552 See note above.

553 Lt. Col. Ronald P. McCoy, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, August 1991, 6-7, 26.

554 Col. Thomas F. Wilson, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, Duane Knutson, 

and Peter Hart, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, October 1991, 5, 7, 8.

555 “Desert Shield/Desert Storm, 823 RED HORSE CES, After Action Report,” n.d., n.p., AHO.

556 Maj. Timothy Bridges, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer and Duane 
Endnotes 753

Knutson, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 1 August 1991, 29.

557 “Shaikh Isa,” AHO.

558 United States Central Command Air Forces (USCENTAF/DE) Engineering & Services, History Volume 

I, (CENTAF/DE, AFCOMS, CEMIRT, Mortuary, RED HORSE), Operation Desert Storm, Col. Rothenberg 

C+120 to C+150, n.d., n.p., AHO; Col. Thomas F. Wilson, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald 

B. Hartzer, Duane Knutson, and Peter Hart, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, October 1991, 5.

559 United States Central Command Air Forces (USCENTAF/DE) Engineering & Services, History Volume 

I, (CENTAF/DE, AFCOMS, CEMIRT, Mortuary, RED HORSE), Operation Desert Storm, 14 March 1991 

“After Action Report – 823 RED HORSE Civil Engineering Squadron Deployed” To HQ CENTAF/DE, n.d., 

n.p., AHO.

560 Capt. Chris Unger, “Profile of a Winner: Whiteman Earns Curtin Award,” CE Update, Vol 4, No 2, 

August 1992, 18.

561 Lt. Col. Alfred B. Hicks, Jr., “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer and Duane 

Knutson, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 23 January 1992, 7.

562 Ibid.,10.

563 Ibid.

564 Capt. Wayland H. Patterson, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ 

AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 10 July 1992,44.

565 Capt. Mark D. Wright, “Civil Engineering Lessons Learned Report, 1640th TAWP/DE, Operations 

Desert Shield and Desert Storm,” for HQ TAC BS/DE 27 March 1991, AHO.

566 TSgt. Dale Warman, “Bare Base Work Continues,” AHO.

567 United States Central Command Air Forces (USCENTAF/DE) Engineering & Services History Volume 

1 (CENTAF/DE, AFCOMS, CEMIRT, MORTUARY, RED HORSE) Operation Desert Storm, AHO.

568 After Action Report, CMSgt Hans Finkbeiner, USCENTAF/DE, 7 Oct 90 to 1 Mar 91, Files of the 

AFCESA History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida; Interview, Maj. David Sanders, 22d CES, with Dr Ronald B. 

Hartzer, 25 Sep 91, Files of the AFCESA History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida.

569 Capt. Mark D. Wright, “Civil Engineering Lessons Learned Report, 1640th TAWP/DE, Operations 

Desert Shield and Desert Storm,” for HQ TAC BS/DE 27 March 1991, AHO.

570 TSgt. William Caballero, “1701 AFREFW(P) Fire Protection History at Jeddah AB, AHO.

571 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Gulf War History,” n.d., 41, AHO; Lt. Col. Timothy Beally, “Oral History 

Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, Duane Knutson, Jim Rosa, and Peter Hart, 27 Aug 91, Files 

of the AFCESA History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida; New Mexico Engineering Research Institute, Lessons 

Learned by Civil Engineering, Services, Air Base Operability, Disaster Preparedness, and Explosive Ordnance 

Disposal during Desert Shield/Desert Storm Proven Force/Provide Comfort, prepared for Deputy Chief of Staff 

for Civil Engineering Headquarters, Air Combat Command and Headquarters Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency, Volume II, 1992, 207. 

572 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Engineering and Services in Operation Desert Shield,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 

4, December 1991, 27.

573 New Mexico Engineering Research Institute, Lessons Learned by Civil Engineering, Services, Air 

Base Operability, Disaster Preparedness, and Explosive Ordnance Disposal during Desert Shield/Desert Storm 

Proven Force/Provide Comfort, prepared for Deputy Chief of Staff for Civil Engineering Headquarters, Air 

Combat Command and Headquarters Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency, Volume I, 1992, 68.

574 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Lessons Learned: Desert Shield/Storm Study Complete,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 

3 April 1993, 18.

575 New Mexico Engineering Research Institute, “Part G-Explosive Ordnance Disposal,” Lessons Learned 

by Civil Engineering, Services, Air Base Operability, Disaster Preparedness, and Explosive Ordnance Disposal 

during Desert Shield/Desert Storm Proven Force/Provide Comfort, prepared for Deputy Chief of Staff for 

Civil Engineering Headquarters, Air Combat Command and Headquarters Air Force Civil Engineering Support 

Agency, Volume I, 1992, II 272-302.

576 Point Paper, “Harvest Falcon Desert Shield Assets,” Larry Kalivoda, HQ AFESC/DEOP, 5 Oct 90; 

CENTAF/DE, “Weekly Status Report,” 19 January 1991.31. Personal History, Lt. Col. Ronald P. McCoy, 

CENTAF/DE, 7 Sep 90 - 6 Oct 90, Files of the AFCESA History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida.

577 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Gulf War History,” n.d., 34, 47, AHO; Lt. Col. Ronald P. McCoy, “Oral History 

Interview,” interview by Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, August 1991, 6.

578 Lt. Col. Ronald P. McCoy, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, August 1991, 20; Maj. David Sanders, Lt. Joel Holtrop, and Lt. Brian Duffy, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 1991, 19; 

Capt. Jeffrey Byer, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, July 1991, 18-19; Lt. Col. Alfred B. Hicks, Jr., “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. 

Hartzer, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, January 1992, 64.

579 Col. Wayne McDermott, “Role of Engineering & Services in Operation Desert Shield/Storm,” Briefing 

for Space Command, n.d., n.p., AHO.

580 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Gulf War History,” n.d., 34, 47, AHO; New Mexico Engineering Research 

Institute, Lessons Learned by Civil Engineering, Services, Air Base Operability, Disaster Preparedness, and 
754 Leading the Way

Explosive Ordnance Disposal during Desert Shield/Desert Storm Proven Force/Provide Comfort, Vol I, “Part 

C – Services,” Prepared for Deputy Chief of Staff for Civil Engineering Headquarters, Air Combat Command, 

and Headquarters Air Force Civil Engineering Support Agency, 1992, II-157; “ATC E&S Conference: Center’s 

support to Desert Shield/Storm Outlined,” Engineering & Services Update, Vol 3, No 3, May-June 1991, 3; Col. 

Wayne McDermott, “Role of Engineering & Services in Operation Desert Shield/Storm,” Briefing for Space 

Command, n.d., n.p, AHO.

581 “USAF Port Mortuary, Dover AFB, DE, Desert Shield/Desert Storm, After Action Report,” 1 June 91, 

pp 1-3

582 Ibid., pp 5-7

583 Ibid., pp 3-5

584 “ATC E&S Conference: Center’s Support to Desert Shield/Storm Outlined,” Engineering & Services 

Update, Vol 3, No 3, May-June 1991, 1-2; Jack Struebing, “Bullet Background Paper on Harvest Bare Power 

Distribution Centers,” 31 August 1990, AHO.

585 “ATC E&S Conference: Center’s Support to Desert Shield/Storm Outlined,” Engineering & Services 

Update, Vol 3, No 3, May-June 1991, 1-2.

586 Ibid.

587 Joseph H. Smith, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, November 2004, 49; “ATC E&S Conference: Center’s Support to Desert Shield/Storm Outlined,” 

Engineering & Services Update Vol 3, No 3, May-June 1991, 1-2.

588 United States Central Command Air Forces (USCENTAF/DE) Engineering & Services, History Volume 

I, (CENTAF/DE, AFCOMS, CEMIRT, Mortuary, RED HORSE), Operation Desert Storm, Col. Rothenberg 

C+120 to C+150, n.d., n.p., AHO.

589 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Al Kharj AB: The Model Bare Base Beddown,” The CE, Vol 5, No 2, Summer 

1997, 25.

590 Maj. Richard Norris, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, Duane Knutson, 

and MSgt. David Beal, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, October 1991, 17.

591 Ibid.

592 Ibid., 47.

593 HQ USAFE ES&ABO, “The Tip of the Sword: We Keep the Fighters in the Fight,” 3 January 1992, 

13-17, AHO..

594 Ibid.

595 Ibid., 18, AHO.; Capt. Donald Gleason, “Bullet Background Paper on Mobility Training Requirements,” 

6 December 1991, AHO. 

596 HQ USAFE ES&ABO, “The Tip of the Sword: We Keep the Fighters in the Fight,” 3 January 1992, 

6, AHO.

597 . “820th RED HORSE Desert Shield/Desert Storm After Action Report,” 1991, AHO.

598 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Gulf War History,” n.d., 81-82, AHO; Col. Thomas F. Wilson, “Oral History 

Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, Duane Knutson, and Peter Hart, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, October 1991, 23.

599 “1965-2000 RED HORSE Hall of History Dedication and ‘I Was There’ Symposium, 35 Years of 

Excellence,” 2000, n.p, AHO; “Desert Shield/Desert Storm 823 RED HORSE CES After Action Report, Tab F, 

Operation Desert Finale, AHO.

600 Lois Walker, “Gulf War Retrospective,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 9, No 1, Spring 2001, 7-8; Dr. 

Ronald B. Hartzer, “Gulf War History,” n.d., 81-82, AHO; Maj. Raymond Bruce Torgerson, “Services Readiness 

Came of Age,” CE Update, Vol 3, No 4, December 1991, 11.

601 United States Central Command Air Forces (USCENTAF/DE) Engineering & Services, History Volume 

I, (CENTAF/DE, AFCOMS, CEMIRT, Mortuary, RED HORSE), Operation Desert Storm, 363 CES History 

Report (3 Feb – 4 March), Recorded by Lt. Jim McEachen, Al Dhafra, n.d., n.p., AHO; Lt. Col. Timothy Beally, 

“Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, Duane Knutson, Jim Rosa, and Peter Hart, HQ 

AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, August 1991, 53; 1st Lt. Michele Madden, “What Goes Up Comes Down,” 

Engineering & Services Update, Vol 3, No 2, Feb-March 1991, 2.

602 Lt. Col. Timothy Beally, “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, Duane Knutson, 

Jim Rosa, and Peter Hart, 2d Civil Engineering Squadron, Barksdale AFB, Louisiana, 27 August 1991, 53.

603 1st Lt. Michele Madden, “What Goes Up Comes Down,” Air Force Engineering and Services Center, 

Engineering & Services Update, Vol 3, No 2, February-March 1991, 2.

604 Lt. Col. Alfred B. Hicks, Jr., “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ 

AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, January 1992, 40.

605 Capt. Steven T. Rose, “Operation Provide Comfort: An Engineer’s Show,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 1, 

February 1993, 17; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Gulf War History,” n.d., 83, AHO.

606 See note above.

607 See note above.

608 Capt. Steven T. Rose, “Operation Provide Comfort: An Engineer’s Show,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 1, 

February 1993, 17-18; Ronald J. Brown, Humanitarian Operations in Northern Iraq, 1991: With Marines in 

Operation Provide Comfort, History and Museums Division Headquarters, US Marine Corps, Washington, DC, 
Endnotes 755

1995, 37; Capt. Jonathan Driskill, “36th CES Getting the Job Done,” Bitburg Skyblazer, October 1991, 23; 

Gordon W. Rudd, Humanitarian Intervention: Assisting the Iraqi Kurds in Operation Provide Comfort, 1991, 

U.S. Army Center of Military History, Washington, DC, 2004, 52-56.

609 Capt. Steven T. Rose, “Operation Provide Comfort: An Engineer’s Show,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 1, 

February 1993, 23.

610 Ibid., 21-22; Capt. Jonathan Driskill, “36th CES Getting the Job Done,” Bitburg Skyblazer, October 

1991, 23.

611 Lt. Col. Alfred B. Hicks, Jr., “Oral History Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, HQ 

AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, January 1992, 37.

612 Capt. Eric S. Turner, “Operation Pacific Haven,” The CE, Vol 5, No 1, Spring 1997, 34-35.

613 Ibid.

614 Ibid.

615 Philip Shenon, “23 U.S. Troops Die in Truck Bombing in Saudi Base,” NY Times, 26 June 1996, 

accessed March 2011, http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/africa/062696binladen.html. 

616 Lt. Col. Robbin Schellhous, “I Was There When the Bomb Went Off...,” The CE, Vol 4, No 3, Fall 

1996, 32.

617 Ibid., 33; Perry D. Jamieson, Khobar Towers: Tragedy and Response, Washington DC, 2008, 43-52, 

210-11.

618 Sr. MSgt. Jim Katzaman, “Secretary of Defense Issues Khobar Towers Findings,” Air Force News 

Service, 1 August 1997, accessed March 2011, www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/khobar/n19970801_970946.htm.

619 Sue Alexander, “We Build It and They Will Come,” The CE, Vol 4, No 3, Fall 1996, 15. 

620 United States Air Force, Air Force Handbook 10-222 Civil Engineer Guide to Expeditionary Force 

Protection, Vol 3, 1 May 2008, 18.

621 Lt. Col. Myron L. Freeman, USAF Force Protection: Is It Really Everyone’s Responsibility?, prepared 

for Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 9 December 2002, 16; United States Air Force, Air 

Force Handbook 10-222 Civil Engineer Guide to Expeditionary Force Protection, Vol 3, 1 May 2008, 12-13.

622 MSgt. Scott Melton, “Force Protection Through Engineering,” The CE, Vol 7, No 1, Spring 1999, 

26-27.

623 Joint Doctrine for Military Operations Other Than War, Joint Publication 3-07, 16 June 1995, I-1.

624 Ibid., vii, I-7.

625 Military Operations Other Than War, Air Force Doctrine Document 2-3, 3 July 2000, 12.

626 Fraser Cameron, US Foreign Policy After the Cold War: Global Hegemon or Reluctant Sheriff?, 

Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, New York, second edition, 2005, 18, 20-22.

627 “RED HORSE: Hurricanes and Hope,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 6, August 1993, 8-9.

628 Ibid.; “RESTORE HOPE: The 823d Provides Help,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 1, February 1993, 23.

629 Capt. Efren V.M. Garcia, “RED HORSE Revets Mogadishu Airport,” USAFCE, Vol 1, No 10, December 1993, 2-3.

630 Fraser Cameron, US Foreign Policy After the Cold War: Global Hegemon or Reluctant Sheriff?, 

Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, New York, second edition, 2005, 18, 20-22.

631 Dr. Daniel L. Haulman, “Air Force Humanitarian Airlift Operations 1991-2000,” 21 January 2010, 

accessed March 2011, www.afhra.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-100125-098.pdf. 

632 Alan P. Dobson and Steve Marsh, US Foreign Policy Since 1945, Second Edition, Routledge Taylor 

& Francis Group, New York, 2006, 188-190.

633 Thomas R. Wilson, “Joint Intelligence and Uphold Democracy,” Joint Force Quarterly, Spring 1995, 

54-55, accessed March 2011, www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/jfq_pubs/jfq1407.pdf. 

634 820th RED HORSE Squadron Deployment Summary, AHO; Capt. Nathan D. Broshear, “Airmen 

Rediscover RED HORSE Legacy in Haiti,” 22 February 2010, accessed March 2011, www.
756 Leading the Way

Chapter 6 Endnotes

 

1 Dr. Rebecca Grant, The War of 9/11, Air Force Association Special Report, February 2005, 1.

2 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Farewell to the Troops,” Air Force Civil Engineer [hereafter cited as AFCE], 

Vol 14, No 2, 2006, 2.

3 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia, (USAF, Retired), “Oral History Interview,” Interview by Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle and Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2002, Draft, 84-85.

4 Fraser Cameron, US Foreign Policy After the Cold War: Global Hegemon or Reluctant Sheriff?, 

Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, New York and London, 2005, 137-139.

5 Ibid., 150-152.

6 Department of Defense, Quadrennial Defense Review, 30 September 2001, iii, 21, accessed May 2011, 

www.defense.gov/pubs/qdr2001.pdf.

7 Ibid., iii, iv, accessed May 2011, www.defense.gov/pubs/qdr2001.pdf.

8 Ibid., 13-16, accessed May 2011, www.defense.gov/pubs/qdr2001.pdf.

9 Ibid., 32, accessed May 2011, www.defense.gov/pubs/qdr2001.pdf.

10 Department of Defense, Quadrennial Defense Review, 6 February 2006, 1, accessed May 2011, www.

defense.gov/qdr/report/report20060203.pdf.

11 Ibid., 19, accessed May 2011, www.defense.gov/qdr/report/report20060203.pdf.

12 MSgt. Mitch Gettle, “Air Force Releases New Mission Statement,” Air Force Print News Today, 8 

December 2005, accessed May 2011, www.af.mil/news/story_print.asp?id-123013440.

13 SSgt. C. Todd Lopez, “Air Force Improving Production with Smart Operations 21,” Air Force Print 

News Today, 9 January 2006, accessed May 2011, www.af.mil/news/story_print.asp?id-123013978; SSgt. C. 

Todd Lopez, “Smart Operations 21 Office Formed at Pentagon,” Air Force Print News Today, 9 January 2006, 

accessed May 2011, www.af.mil/news/story_print.asp?id-123020236.

14 The Air Force Smart Operations for the 21st Century CONOPS and Implementation Plan, Draft, 7 

February 2006, accessed 2011, www.acc.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-070807-054.pdf; The Air Force 

Smart Operations for the 21st Century Playbook, May 2008, accessed 2011, www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/af/

afd-090327-040_afso21-playbook.pdf.

15 ILE Annual History, Section VI, 2006, n.p.

16 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Remaining the Best,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, Fall 2003, 2.

17 Michael Culver, “Transforming the CE Enterprise,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 4.

18 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “USAF: Enabling Air Force Priorities,” The Military Engineer [hereafter cited 

as TME], Vol 101, No 659, May-June 2009, 85-87. 

19 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Heritage to Horizons: Commemorating 60 Years of Air Force Civil Engineer 

History,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 3, 2007, 23.

20 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Focus on Reconstruction,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 3.

21 “Brilliant at the Basics: Interview with Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 3, 2009, 4-9.

22 “Relevant, Right-sized, and Ready: An Interview with the Air Force Civil Engineer, Brig. Gen. Earnest 

O. Robbins II,” The CE, Vol 7, No 3, Fall 1999, 4-9.

23 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force Engineering: Global Vigilance, Reach, Power,” TME, 

Vol 93, No 612, July-August 2001, 25-27.

24 ILE Annual History, 2004, n.p.; ILE Annual History, 2005, n.p.

25 “HQ Air Force A7C Divisions,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 18, No 4, 2010, 8.

26 “Relevant, Right-sized, and Ready: An Interview with The Air Force Civil Engineer, Brig. Gen. Earnest 

O. Robbins II,” The CE, Vol 7, No 3, Fall 1999, 4-9.

27 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, Statement to the House Armed Services Committee, 9 March 2000, 

Files of AFCEC History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida [hereafter cited as AHO].

28 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force Engineering: Global Vigilance, Reach, Power,” TME, Vol 

92, No 612, July-August 2001, 25-27.

29 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force: Engineering Readiness,” TME, Vol 94, No 618, JulyAugust 2002, 30-31.

30 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force Engineering: Global Vigilance, Reach, Power,” TME, 

Vol 93, No 612, July-August 2001, 25-27.

31 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “We’re All on the Same Team,” The CE, Vol 8, No 3, Fall 2000, 2.

32 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force Engineering: Global Vigilance, Reach, Power,” TME, 

Vol 93, No 612, July-August 2001, 25-27.

33 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Stay the Course,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, Fall 2001, 2.

34 Ibid.

35 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Thank you and Farewell,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 2

36 “Farewell Boss,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 18.

37 Maj. Gen. Eugene A. Lupia was the first USAFA graduate to serve as The Civil Engineer. “Key CE 

Personnel Changes,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 34.

38 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “A Rewarding Year,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 2004, 2.

39 “Putting People First: Interview with Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 

4-8.
Endnotes 757

40 Ibid.

41 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Leading the Way into a New Year...,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 2.

42 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Recognizing the Best,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 1, 2006, 2.

43 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Leading the Way into a New Year...,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 2.

44 “Fare Thee Well, Sir,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 2, 2006, 18.

45 “Eulberg Named AF Civil Engineer,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 1, 2006, 32.

46 “Farewell, General Eulberg,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 18-19.

47 “Listen, Learn and Lead: An Interview with Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 3, 2006, 4-9.

48 Ibid.

49 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Lessons Learned are Vital to our Capabilities,” Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 3.

50 “Listen, Learn and Lead: An Interview with Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 3, 2006, 4-9.

51 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Leadership in Support of the Joint Warfighter,” Vol 14, No 3, 2006, 2.

52 AFCE Almanac, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 5.

53 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Final Salute,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 3.

54 “Brilliant at the Basics: Interview with Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 3, 2009, 4-9.

55 Ibid.

56 Ibid.

57 Teresa Hood, “Command Focus: Air Combat Command,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 1, 2006, 4-5.

58 Department of Defense, Quadrennial Defense Review, 30 September 2001, 49-53, accessed May 2011, 

www.defense.gov/pubs/qdr2001.pdf.

59 Michael Culver, “Transforming the CE Enterprise,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 4-12.

60 Department of Defense, Quadrennial Defense Review, 30 September 2001, 25-27, accessed May 2011, 

www.defense.gov/pubs/qdr2001.pdf.

61 Ibid., 10, 47, 69, accessed May 2011, www.defense.gov/pubs/qdr2001.pdf.

62 Ibid., 49-53, accessed May 2011, www.defense.gov/pubs/qdr2001.pdf.

63 “Lean Management,” Fact Sheet in 2004, IL Annual History, 2004.

64 ILE, Annual History, Section VI, 2005, n.p.

65 Michael Culver, “Transforming the CE Enterprise,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 4-12.

66 Ibid.

67 “Maximum Combat Support: An Interview with Brig. Gen. Del Eulberg,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 

2003, 4-7.

68 Lt. Col. Mike Hutchinson, “AMC Implements A7 Proposal,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 2003, 8.

69 “Maximum Combat Support: An Interview with Brig. Gen. Del Eulberg,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 

2003, 4-7.

70 Ibid.

71 Ibid.

72 Lt. Col. Mike Hutchinson, “AMC Implements A7 Proposal,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 2003, 8.

73 Teresa Hood, “Command Focus: Air Force Space Command,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 2, 2005, 4; “Mission 

Support Directorate at HQ AFSPC,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, Spring 2003, 33.

74 ILE Annual History, 2004, organizational charts.

75 Department of Defense News Release: Air Force Reorganizes Staff Structure, No 082-06, 30 January 

2006, accessed May 2011, www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspz?releaseid=9268.

76 ILE Annual History, 20 October 2006, organizational chart.

77 Department of Defense News Release: Air Force Reorganizes Staff Structure, No 082-06, 30 January 

2006, accessed May 2011, www.defense.gove/releases/release.aspz?releaseid=9268.

78 “HQ Air Force A7C Divisions,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 8.

79 Ibid.

80 Ibid., 8-9.

81 “HQ Air Force A7C Divisions,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 18, No 4, 2010, 10.

82 Michael Culver, “Transforming the CE Enterprise,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 7-8.

83 AFCE Almanac, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 13, 17, 25; AFCE Almanac, Vol 16, No 4, 2008, 13, 17, 25.

84 “New Deputy Civil Engineer on Board,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2002, 28

85 “Key Personnel Changes,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 3, 2007, 34.

86 Biography, Mr. Mark A. Correll, AHO.

87 “Civil Engineering Gains New SES Position,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2002, 28.

88 “Key CE Personnel Changes,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2002, 33.

89 “Key Personnel Changes,” AFCE, Vol 19, No 2, 2010, 35.

90 Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Leading the Way into a new Year...,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 2.

91 “Going to the Guard: Interview with Colonel Janice M. Stritzinger,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, Summer, 

2001, 4-5.

92 “Key Personnel Changes,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 1, 2010, 41.

93 “Facing the Challenges: An Interview with James R. Pennino,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, Fall, 2003, 4-7.

94 “Key Personnel Changes,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 1, 2010, 41; Biography, Mr. Timothy K. Bridges, AHO.

95 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “Building the Future,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 4, 2009, 4; Maj. Robert C. 
758 Leading the Way

Lance, “Building Great Leaders by Keeping Young Officers,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 2, 2010, 10-11.

96 Teresa Hood, “Former ‘dirt boy’ retires as Air Force’s top enlisted Airman,” AFCEC News Release, 

28 January 2013.

97 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Transforming the CE Career Field,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 4-7.

98 Col. Doug Troyer, “Program Budget Decision 720, Force Shaping: Why Now?,” Air Force Print News 

Today, 28 August 2007, accessed May 2011, www.vance.af.mil/news/story_print.asp?id=123066206; “PBD 720 

and Force Shaping,” Roll Call, 14 -21 December 1006, accessed May 2011, www.af.mil/shared/media/document/

AFD-061218-013.pdf; Michael Culver, “Transforming the CE Enterprise,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 7.

99 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Transforming the CE Career Field,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 4-7.

100 “Force Shaping – Explaining the Numbers,” Roll Call, 12-16 January 2007, accessed May 2011, www.

af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-070112-002.pdf; Josh Rogin, “Air Force to Reduce IT Personnel,” Federal 

Computer Week, 21 August 2006, accessed May 2011, http://fcw.com/articles/2006/08/21/air-force-to-reduceit-personnel.aspx.

101 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “USAF: At Home and Abroad,” TME, Vol 98, No 641, May-June 2006, 83-85.

102 Michael Culver, “Transforming the CE Enterprise,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 7.

103 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Farewell to the Troops,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 2, 2006, 2.

104 “Force Shaping – Explaining the Numbers,” Roll Call, 12-16 January 2007, accessed May 2011, www.

af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-070112-002.pdf. 

105 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Transforming the CE Career Field,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 4-7.

106 Ibid.

107 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Transforming the CE Career Field,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 4-7; Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, USAF, Program Action Directive 07-02, 19, April 2007, 

3, IV-1-2.

108 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Transforming the CE Career Field,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 4-7; Michael 

Culver, “Transforming the CE Enterprise,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 7.

109 Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, USAF, Program Action Directive 07-02, 

19 April 2007, i.

110 Ibid., 1.

111 Ibid., 2.

112 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Transforming the CE Career Field,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 4-7.

113 Ibid.; Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, USAF, Program Action Directive 

07-02, 19 April 2007, 3, II-1-2; Concept of Operations For Fire Prevention and Consequence Management, 

USAF, 15 June 2007.

114 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Transforming the CE Career Field,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 4-7; Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, USAF, Program Action Directive 07-02, 19 April 2007, 

3, III-1-2.

115 Teresa Hood, “Re-Engineering AFMC,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, 2007, 6-7.

116 CMSgt. Karl Deutsch, “RED HORSE: Saddled Up and Ready,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 14-15; 

SSgt. Drew Nystrom, “Air Force Beefs Up RED HORSE Capabilities,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 37; MSgt. 

Mike R. Smith, “A RED HORSE Rises in Ohio,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 38.

117 ILE, Annual History, Section VI, 2004, n.p.

118 ILE, Annual History, Section VI, 2005, n.p.

119 Ibid.

120 Maj. Christoff Gaub, “Business Process Reengineering,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 13.

121 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Transforming the CE Career Field,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 4-7.

122 Michael Culver, “Transforming the CE Enterprise,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 4-12; Maj. Gen. Del 

Eulberg, Transformation One Year Later, video briefing, May 2008.

123 See note above.

124 Michael Culver, “Transforming the CE Enterprise,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 4-12.

125 Maj. Gen. Del Eulerg, “Asset Management,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, 2007, 2.

126 Ibid.

127 USAF Memorandum from AF/A7C, Subject: Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Governance, 25 

July 2007.

128 Michael Culver, “Transforming the CE Enterprise,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 4-12; Maj. Christopher 

Gaub, “Business Process Reengineering,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 13.

129 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, Transformation One Year Later, video briefing, May 2008.

130 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “Connecting the Transformation Dots,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 

18, No 1, 2010, 9-11.

131 HQ USAF, Program Action Directive 12-03, “Implementation of Enterprise-Wide Civil Engineer 

Transformation,” 26 October 2012, 8-9.

132 Michael Culver, “Transforming the CE Enterprise,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 4-12.

133 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, Transformation One Year Later, video briefing, May 2008.

134 Ibid., “Final Salute,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 3.

135 Michael Culver, “Transforming the CE Enterprise,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 4-12; Maj. Gen. Del 
Endnotes 759

Eulberg, “Managing Air Force Assets,” Air Force Civil Engineer, Vol 16, No 1, 2008. 5.

136 ILE, Annual History, Section VI.i., 2004, n.p.

137 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Transforming the Way We Work,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 2.

138 ILE, Annual History 2004, Section VI.ac, n.p.

139 ILE, Annual History 2005, Section VI, n.p.

140 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Strategic Planning: Keeping us Focused,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2009, 3.

141 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Focus on Reconstruction,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 3.

142 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Final Salute,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 3.

143 “Brilliant at the Basics: Interview with Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 3, 2009, 4-9.

144 Maj. Gen. Timothy Byers, “Air Force Civil Engineering: Efficiencies through Sustainability,” TME, 

Vol 103, No 671, 98-100.

145 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 2001, Vol I, Chronology, 12.

146 Ibid., 11.

147 Col. Richard A. Fryer, Jr., “AFCESA,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 3, 2007, 31.

148 MSgt. Michael A. Ward, “$19 Billion AFCAP Award,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 30.

149 Brian Poyant, “Connecting the CE Community,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 2, 2005, 33.

150 “A-Grams Go Electronic,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2002, 32.

151 Brian Poyant, “Connecting the CE Community,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 2, 2005, 33.

152 Sandra Scott, “Call a CoP!,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 30.

153 AFCESA Reach Back Center, AFCESA A-Gram 05-08, June 2005, AHO

154 Brian Poyant, “Connecting the CE Community,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 2, 2005, 33; AFCESA Reach Back 

Center, AFCESA A-Gram 05-08, June 2005, AHO.

155 Capt. Chrissy Cuttita, “Moving Forward by Reaching Back,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 3, 2007, 36.

156 “SRM Moving to New Home,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 2004, 32.

157 Sustainment, Restoration and Modernization (S/R&M), Air Force Fact Sheet, accessed May 2011, 

www.afcesa.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet_print.asp?fsID=8952&page=1.

158 Capt. Chrissy Cuttita, “S/R&M: A Complete Solution,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 2, 2006, 12-13.

159 “SATOC Contract Award Announced,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 29.

160 “AFCESA,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 34-35.

161 “AFCESA,”AFCE Almanac, Vol 17, No 4, 2009, 34-35.

162 AFCESA, Fact sheet, February 2007, accessed January 2010, www.af.mil/information/factsheets/

factsheet.asp?id=140.

163 CenterViews, Vol 12, No 3, Fall 2006, 2.

164 “AFCESA,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 34-35; “AFCESA,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 16, No 4, 

2008, 34-35; “AFCESA,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 17, No 4, 2009, 34-35; “AFCESA,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 18, No 

4, 2010, 35-36.

165 Capt. Chrissy Cuttita, “Moving Forward by Reaching Back,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 3, 2007, 36; MSgt. 

Darius Johnson, “Learning from Your Experiences,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 8-9; Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, 

“Lessons Learned Are Vital to Our Capabilities,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 3.

166 Pat Mumme, “Going Green: AFCESA Facility Energy Program,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 2004, 8-9; Col. 

Richard Fryer, Jr., “AFCESA,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, 2007, 33.

167 Bullet Background Paper on Air Force Facility Energy Program History, AHO; Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, 

“Meeting our Energy Challenges,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 4.

168 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Meeting Our Energy Challenges,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 4. 

169 “AFCESA,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 34-35.

170 Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency, brochure, 2010-2011, 20 pages.

171 Ibid. 

172 MSgt. Mike Chapman, “Ensuring a Safe Landing,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 12.

173 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 2001, Vol I, Chronology.

174 Ibid.

175 TSgt. Michael A. Ward, “Pavements Team Brings Expertise to the Flight,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 4, 2001, 

9. 

176 2d Lt. Joseph Wierenga, “From Rubble to Runway,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 1, 2006, 8-10.

177 Peter M. Semen, Charles J. Korhonen, Raymond S. Rollings, U.S. Army ERDC, “We’ve Got it Down 

Cold,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 4, 2004, 29.

178 2d Lt. Joseph Wierenga, “From Rubble to Runway,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 1, 2006, 8-10.

179 Col. Mark Ruse and Mark Dent, “Dover’s Runway Undergoes ‘Reconstructive Surgery,’” AFCE, Vol 

17, No 3, 2009, 22-23.

180 R. Craig Mellerski and Craig A. Rutland, “The New Face of Rapid Airfield Repair,” AFCE, Vol 17, 

No 3, 2009, 26.

181 Jere L. Brinkley and 1st Lt. Andrew Kopeikin, “Future of Airfield Damage Assessment,” AFCE, Vol 

18, No 1, 2010, 33.
760 Leading the Way

182 R. Craig Mellerski and Craig A. Rutland, “The New Face of Rapid Airfield Repair,” AFCE, Vol 17, 

No 3, 2009, 27.

183 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 2001, Input HQ AFECSA/CEM, Field Support Directorate.

184 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 2001, Vol I, Chronology. 

185 CMSgt. Glenn Deese, “Securing a Safe Landing,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Spring 2003, 28. 

186 Ibid., 29. 

187 Dan Nash, “Doing More With Less,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, 2005, 22.

188 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 2001, Vol I, Appendix H, n. p.

189 Ibid., Chronology, 1, 2, 12.

190 Ibid., Appendix H, n. p.

191 Ibid.

192 Joseph H. Smith, “Retirement Interview,” Interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, 2004, 53.

193 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force Civil Engineers – Serving Proudly,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 4, 

Winter 2001, 2.

194 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 2001, Vol I, Appendix H, n. p.

195 Joseph H. Smith, “Retirement Interview,” Interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, 2004, 54.

196 “Air Force Contract Augmentation Program (AFCAP),” accessed May 2011, www.globalsecurity.org/

military/agency/usaf/afcap.htm; Joseph H. Smith, “Retirement Interview,” Interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ 

AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2004, 58-59.

197 “Air Force Augmentation Program,” SourceWatch, 2006, accessed May 2011, www.sourcewatch.org/

index.php?title=Air_Force_Augmentation_Program.

198 “Air Force Contract Augmentation Program (AFCAP),” accessed May 2011, www.globalsecurity.org/

military/agency/usaf/afcap.htm.

199 “A Stealth Beddown,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 9; “Help Arrives from CEMIRT, AFCAP,” 

AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 10.

200 “CE Goes to War,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 4; “Help Arrives from CEMIRT, AFCAP,” AFCE, 

Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 10.

201 Joseph H. Smith, “Retirement Interview,” Interview by Lois E. Walker, HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, 2004, 58-59.

202 “Air Force Contract Augmentation Program (AFCAP),” accessed May 2011, www.globalsecurity.org/

military/agency/usaf/afcap.htm.

203 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Supporting Airmen Throughout the World,” TME, May-June 2005, Vol 97, 

No 635, n.p. 

204 MSgt. Michael A. Ward, “$10 Billion AFCAP Award,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 30.

205 “$10B AFCAP III Program Contract Provides ‘Expeditionary Engineering’,” Defense 

Industry Daily (DID), 10 November 2005, accessed May 2011, www.defenseindustrydaily.

com/10b-afcap-iii-program-contract-provides-expeditionary-engineering-01468.

206 MSgt. Michael A. Ward, “$19 Billion AFCAP Award,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 30.

207 Wayland Patterson, “AFCAP Begins a New Decade,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 3, 2007, 8-10.

208 Ibid.

209 “AFCEE Director Earns Presidential Honor,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2002, 30.

210 Gil Dominguez, “Reorganization Continues Legacy,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 1 Spring 2004, 6.

211 Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, USAF, Program Action Directive 07-02, 

19 April 2007, I-4.

212 Paul A. Parker, “No Rest for the Center of Excellence,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 4, Winter 2004/2005, 

3.

213 Ibid., “The Technical Directorate: AFCEE’s ‘Brain Trust’,” CenterViews, Vol 11, No 5, Winter 

2005/2006, 3. 

214 Gil Dominguez, “Reorganization Continues Legacy,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2004, 6-7.

215 Ibid., 7.

216 AFCEE’s Iraq Reconstruction Chronology, 2007, AHO.

217 Gil Dominguez, “AFCEE Helping in Rebuilding Iraq,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2004, 

6-10; Gil Dominguez, “IRAQ Contracting gets Top Attention,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2004, 11-12.

218 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Building Partnerships Through Reconstruction,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 

4-6; WERC Chronology, 2007 AHO.

219 Gil Dominguez, “IRAQ Contracting gets Top Attention,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2004, 

11-12.

220 WERC Chronology, 2007, AHO.
Endnotes 761

221 Ibid.

222 Gil Dominguez, “AFCEE Helping in Rebuilding Iraq,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2004, 

8-9; Paul Parker, “View from the Center,” CenterViews, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2005, 3.

223 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Building Partnerships Through Reconstruction,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 

4-6.

224 Lt. Gen. David Petraeus, MNSTC-I, E-mail to Lt. Gen. Donald Wetekam, HQ USAF/IL “AFCEE 

Contract Support in Iraq,” 18 September 2004.

225 Paul Parker, “View from the Center,” CenterViews, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2005, 3.

226 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Building Partnerships Through Reconstruction,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 

4-6.

227 “Work at Al Kasik In Final Stages,” CenterViews, Vol 11, No 1, Summer 2005, 6-8.

228 Gil Dominguez, “Iraq Contracting gets Top Attention,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2004, 

11-12.

229 “Work at Al Kasik In Final Stages,” CenterViews, Vol 11, No 1, Summer 2005, 6-8.

230 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Building Partnerships Through Reconstruction,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 

4-6.

231 Gil Dominguez, “IRAQ Contracting gets Top Attention,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2004, 

11-12.

232 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Building Partnerships Through Reconstruction,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 

4-6.

233 Paul Parker, “View from the Center,” CenterViews, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2005; Maj. Gen. L. Dean 

Fox, “Supporting Airmen Throughout the World,” TME, May-June 2005, Vol 97, No 635, n.p.

234 Marti D. Ribeiro, “Wells to Provide Water to Iraq Border Forts,” CenterViews, Vol 13, No 2, Summer 

2007, 13.

235 Paul Parker, “AFCEE,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 3, 2007, 31.

236 SSS to CSAF, Subject: AFCEE’s exit strategy from Iraq, 24 August 2005, WERC Chronology, 2007, 

AHO.

237 Paul Parker, “AFCEE,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 3, 2007, 31.

238 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Building Partnerships Through Reconstruction,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 

4-6.

239 Elaine Eliah, “Calling All Contractors: AFCEE Meets with Companies Doing Work in Iraq,” CenterViews, Vol 12, No 3, Fall 2006, 15-16.

240 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Building Partnerships Through Reconstruction,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 

4-6.

241 “Change, Achievement Mark 2007,” CenterViews, Vol 13, No 4, Winter 2007, 5.

242 Gil Dominguez, “Increased Business, Iraq Work Mark 2004,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 4, Winter 

2004/2005, 4-6.

243 Ibid.

244 “Center Announces Award of $6 Billion Contract Package,” CenterViews, Vol 12, No 1, Spring 2006, 

21.

245 “Small Business Gets Share of HERC Contracts, CenterViews, Vol 12, No 2, Summer 2006, 10.

246 US Air Force Family Housing Guide for Planning, Programming, Design, and Construction, 5-6, 

August 2004, Files of the AFCESA History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida. 

247 Gil Dominguez, “Increased Business, Iraq Work Mark 2004,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 4, Winter 

2004/2005, 4-6.

248 “No Shortage of Big Stories in 2006,” CenterViews, Vol 12, No 4, Winter 2006/2007, 26-27; “New 

Keesler AFB Housing is Warm and Inviting,” 10 March 2010, WLOX-ABC-Channel 13, accessed May 2012, 

www.wlox.com/story/12118497/new-keesler-afb-housing-is-warm-and inviting.

249 “Keelser’s First Energy, Environmental-Friendly Home Certified,” Air Force Print News, 8/28/2008, 

accessed May 2012, www.af.mil/news/story_print.asp?id=123112477; “AFCEE,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 18, No 

4, 2010, 34.

250 “Housing Privatization Continues to Achieve Milestones,” Air Force Print News, 10/20/2010, accessed 

May 2012, www.afcee.af.mil/news/story_print.asp?id=123227169.

251 Gen. John P. Jumper, “Memorandum: Military Family Housing (MHF) Privatization – Rescission of 

Severability Policy,” Department of the Air Force Office of the Chief of Staff, September 2003, AHO.

252 SSgt. C. Todd Lopez, “Air Force Reaches Privatization Milestone,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 2, 2005, 26.

253 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force Engineering: Global Vigilance, Reach, Power,” TME, 

Vol 93, No 612, July-August 2001, 27.

254 “Robins, Dyess Celebrate 10 Years of Housing Privatization,” 20 October 2010, Air Force Center for 

Engineering and the Environment, accessed May 2012, www.afcee.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123227162; SSgt. 

C. Todd Lopez, “Air Force Reaches Privatization Milestone,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 2, 2005, 26.

255 “AFCEE Marks 15th Anniversary,” CenterViews, Vol 12, No 2, Summer 2006, 13.

256 Maj. Bo Bloomer, “Military Housing Still Safe and Secure,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 2, 2006, 4-6.

257 “AFCEE,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 32.
762 Leading the Way

258 “AFCEE,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 18, No 4, 2010, 34.

259 “Housing Privatization Continues to Achieve Milestones,” Air Force Print News, 10/20/2010, accessed 

May 2012, www.afcee.mil/news/story_print.asp?id=123227169.

260 “AFCEE,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 19, No 4, 2010, 37; “Keelser Housing Privatization Begins Transi- tion in August,” Air Force Print News, 6/29/2011, accessed May 2012, www.keesler.af.mil/news/story_print.

asp?id=123262133.

261 Lisa Fisher, “Housing Privatization Program Continues to Achieve Milestones,” CenterViews, Vol 17, 

No 1, January-March 2011, 13-14.

262 “Keelser’s First Energy, Environmental-Friendly Home Certified,” Air Force Print News, 8/28/2008, 

accessed May 2012, www.af.mil/news/story_print.asp?id=123112477.

263 Paula Shaw and Tim Adams, “Sustainable Facilities: An Air Force Tradition,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 

2008, 12.

264 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Meeting Our Energy Challenges, AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 4. 

265 Gil Dominguez, “Thirty Years of Design Excellence,” CenterViews, Vol 11, No 3, Fall 2004, 4-7.

266 “Environmental Work Still Tops at AFCEE,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 4, Winter 2004/2005, 6-8.

267 Ibid.

268 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Continuing the Mission,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, 2004, 2.

269 “RPO Helps Get ‘More Bang for the Buck’,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 4, Winter 2004/2005, 16-17.

270 Ibid.

271 Roger Williams, “Using the Best Approach,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 14-15.

272 “First-of-its-kind Approach at MacDill,” CenterViews, Vol 13, No 1, Spring 2007, 22-23.

273 “Air Force Bids Goodbye to Old System, CenterViews, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2004, 25.

274 “REOs Serve as Air Force ‘Eyes and Ears’,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 3, Fall 2004, 8-9.

275 “PROACT Provides the Answers to Environmental Questions,” CenterViews, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 

2004, 26.

276 Jennifer Schneider, “When PRO-ACT was the ANSR,” CenterViews, Vol 17, No 3, July-September 

2011, 20.

277 Gil Dominiguez, “Give Me A ‘W’: WEB University ‘Campus’ Thriving,” CenterViews, Vol 11, No 2, 

Summer 2005, 18.

278 Gil Dominguez, “AFCEE Looking for ‘Leaner’ Way To Do Business,” CenterViews, Vol 11, No 3, 

Fall 2005, 10-11.

279 “No Shortage of Big Stories in 2006,” CenterViews, Vol 12, No 4, Winter 2006/2007, 26-27.

280 Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, USAF, Program Action Directive 07-02, 

19 April 2007, 2; Paul A. Parker, “The Air Force Center For Environmental Excellence is No More,” Center- Views, Vol 13, No 1, Spring 2007, 4.

281 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Transforming the CE Career Field,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 4-7.

282 Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, USAF, Program Action Directive 07-02, 

19 April 2007, I-2; Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “USAF: Engineering for the Future,” TME, Vol 100, No 653, MayJune 2008, 77-79.

283 Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, USAF, Program Action Directive 07-02, 

19 April 2007, I-5.

284 Gil Dominiguez, “Air Force Transformation Changing AFCEE,” CenterViews, Vol 12, No 4, Winter 

2006/2007, 5-6.

285 Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, USAF, Program Action Directive 07-02, 

19 April 2007, I-2; Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, USAF: Engineering for the Future, TME, Vol 100, No 653, MayJune 2008, 77-79; Gil Dominiguez, “Air Force Transformation Changing AFCEE,” CenterViews, Vol 12, No 4, 

Winter 2006/2007, 5.

286 See note above.

287 “AFCEE Combines Housing and Military Construction Missions,” CenterViews, Vol 13, No 4, Winter 

2007, 6.

288 “AFCEE,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 32.

289 “AFCEE,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 17, No 4, 2009, 32.

290 “AFCEE,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 32; “AFCEE,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 18, No 4, 2010, 

34.

291 Paul A. Parker, “The Air Force Center For Environmental Excellence is No More,” CenterViews, Vol 

13, No 1, Spring 2007, 4.

292 “Key Personnel,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 32; “Mr. Dennis Firman Retires,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 3, 

2010, 33.

293 “Key Personnel Updates,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 4, 47.

294 Air Force Center for Engineering and the Environment, HQ, Organizational details – actions, printout 

from Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama; Air Force Center for Engineering and the 

Environment, accessed May 2011, www.afcee.af.mil/about/organizationalchart/index.asp.

295 Organizational Chart, AF Center for Engineering and the Environment, accessed May 2011, www.

afcee.af.mil/about/organizationalchart/index.asp.
Endnotes 763

296 Lineage and Honors Fact Sheet, “Air Force Real Property Agency (USAF), 2010, AHO; “AFRPA,” 

AFCE Almanac, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 36.

297 Air Force Real Property Agency, accessed March 2011, www.af.mil.information/factsheets.

298 Linda Geissinger, “Challenging and Changing,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 2, 2005.

299 Ibid.

300 USAF HQ USAF/ILE, Memorandum to All Major Command Headquarters, Subject: New EnhancedUse Leasing Policy, signed by Michael A. Aimone, The Deputy Civil Engineer, DCS/Installations & Logistics, 

14 June 2000.

301 Office of the Secretary of Defense, Memorandum to Secretaries of the Military Departments, Chairman 

of the Joint Chiefs of Staff under Secretaries of Defense, etc., Subject: Section 2667 of Title 10, United States 

Code: Enhanced-Use Leasing, signed by Randall A. Yim, Deputy Under Secretary (Installations), 10 May 2011.

302 USAF SAF/IEI, Memorandum to AF/ILE, Subject: Enhanced Use Leasing Initiatives, signed by W. 

Kuhn, Deputy Assistant of the Air Force (Installations), 14 April 2003.

303 Teresa Hood, “Command Focus: Air Force Materiel Command,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, 2007, 4-5; Linda 

Geissinger, “Recouping Value with EULs,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 18-19.

304 “AFRPA,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 36-37.

305 Ibid.

306 2005 Defense Base Closure and Realignment Commission Report, 2005, 223-224, accessed May 2011, 

www.brac.gov/finalreport.html.

307 “AFRPA,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 16, No 4, 2008, 36-37.

308 Ibid.

309 Linda Geissinger, “Recouping Value with EULs,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 18-19.

310 Teresa Hood, “Let’s Make a Deal,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 2, 2005, 5-8.

311 Linda Geissinger, “Recouping Value with EULs,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 18-19.

312 “AFRPA,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 17, No 4, 2009, 36-37.

313 Ibid.

314 Ibid.; Armando Perez, “Enhanced Use Lease Projects Break Ground in Utah and Nevada,” AFCE, Vol 

17, No 1, 2009, 32.

315 “AFRPA,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 17, No 4, 2009, 36-37.

316 “AFRPA,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 18, No 4, 2010, 38-39.

317 Air Force Real Property Agency, Fact Sheet, accessed March 2011, www.af.mil.information/factsheets.

318 “Going to the Guard: Interview with Col. Janice M. Stritzinger,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, Summer 2001, 

4.

319 TSgt. Michael A. Ward, “A Tale of Two Squadrons,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2002, 27; Maj. Wil- liam K. Giezie, “Taking the Reins,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 23.

320 “Putting People First: Interview with Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 

4-8.

321 “C-23 crashes in Georgia, 21 dead,” St. Augustine, Florida (AFPN), 4 March 2001, AHO; Maj. Debbie 

Magaldi, “203rd RED HORSE Dedicates Memorial to Fallen Airmen,” Virginia National Guard, 14 March 2002, 

accessed April 2011, http://vko.va.ngb.army.mil.

322 Maj. Debbie Magaldi, “203rd RED HORSE Dedicates Memorial to Fallen Airmen,” Virginia National 

Guard, 14 March 2002, accessed April 2011, http://vko.va.ngb.army.mil; “Memorial to Honor Fallen Horsemen,” 

AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, Summer 2001, 31.

323 Maj. Debbie Magaldi, “203rd RED HORSE Dedicates Memorial to Fallen Airmen,” Virginia National 

Guard, 14 March 2002, accessed April 2011, http://vko.va.ngb.army.mil; Cotton Puryear, “203rd RED HORSE 

Holds Memorial Service for Airmen, Soldiers Lost in Airplane Crash 10 Years Ago,” 4 March 2011, accessed 

April 2011, http://vko.va.ngb.army.mil/VirginiaGuard/news/mar11/203rdmemorial.html

324 Lt. Col. Gerald A. Buckman, Sr., “Making the Future Total Force Work,” U.S. Army War College 

Strategy Research Project, U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania, 2006, 2, accessed May 

2011. 

325 John A. Tirpak, “Integrated Total Force,” Air Force Magazine, Vol 91, No 3, March 2008, 24.

326 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, Air Force Civil Engineer’s Commanders Call, video script, August 2007, n.p.

327 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “IT Transformation,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 4-7.

328 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Back to the Bases,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Spring 2003, 2. 

329 “Putting People First: Interview with The Air Force Civil Engineer, Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox,” AFCE, 

Vol 11, No 2, Spring 2003, 4-5.

330 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Remaining the Best!,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, Fall 2003, 2. 

331 “Back-to-Bases Task Force Final Report,” November 2003, Background and Introduction, AHO; Maj. 

Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Remaining the Best!,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, Fall 2003, 2. 

332 “Back-to-Bases Task Force Final Report,” November 2003, AHO; Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Happy 

New Year!,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 2003, 2.

333 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “A Winning Season!” AFCE, Vol 12, No 1, Spring 2004, 2. 

334 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Transitions,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 2. 

335 Maj. Gregory J. Rosenmerkel, “PACAF Programs Cover All Bases,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 2003, 
764 Leading the Way

16. 

336 Ibid., 17.

337 William L. Luthie, “A New Twist on an Old Concept,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 24.

338 Civil Engineer Squadron Reorganization Implementation Plan, Program Action Directive 07-02, Implementation of the Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, HQ AFCESA, USAF, 15 November 2007, 9-11.

339 Ibid. 

340 Ibid., 3.

341 Ibid., 2-3.

342 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, Transformation One Year Later, video briefing, May 2008.

343 Engineer Squadron Reorganization Implementation Plan, Program Action Directive 07-02, Implementation of the Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, HQ AFCESA, USAF, 15 November 2007, 3.

344 Ibid., 12-13.

345 Ibid., 12.

346 Lt. Col. Wade Lawrence, “Shifting to an Asset Management Culture,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 14.

347 Activity Management Planning (AMP) Handbook, Managing CE Service Delivery, 2 March 2011, 7. 

348 Lt. Col. Mark Madaus, “AMP Implementation Update,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 7.

349 A7C Annual History, 2009, Section VI, n.p.

350 Activity Management Planning (AMP) Handbook, Managing CE Service Delivery, 2 March 2011, 7.

351 Lt. Col. Mark Madaus, “AMP Implementation Update,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 7.

352 A7C Annual History, 2009, Section VI, n.p.; A7C Annual History, 2010, Section VI, n.p

353 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “Connecting the Transformation Dots,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 1, 2010, 9-11.

354 Geri Hart, “‘Room’ to Improve: New Possibilities Through Space Optimization,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 

2, 2009, 8-9.

355 Ibid.

356 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “Air Force Engineers: Building to Last and Leading Change,” TME, Vol 

102, No 665, May-June, 2010, 91-93.

357 A7C Annual History, 2009, Section VI, n.p.

358 A7C Annual History, 2010, Section VI, n.p.

359 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “S-File Key to 20/20 by 2020 Success,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 3, 2010, 4-5.

360 Ibid.

361 “Air Force Demolition Policy, HQ USAF White Paper, March 2009,” AHO; Waltrina Davis, “Demolition of Excess Facilities,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 10.

362 “Air Force Demolition Policy, HQ USAF White Paper, March 2009,” 2, Files of AFCESA History 

Office; Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, Transformation One Year Later, video briefing, May 2008; Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, 

“USAF: Enabling Air Force Priorities,” TME, Vol 101, No 659, May-June 2009, 85-87; Maj. Gen. Timothy A. 

Byers, “S-File Key to 20/20 by 2020 Success,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 3, 2010, 4-5.

363 Waltrina Davis, “Demolition of Excess Facilities,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 10.

364 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, Transformation One Year Later, video briefing, May 2008; Maj. Gen. Del 

Eulberg, “USAF: Enabling Air Force Priorities,” TME, Vol 101, No 659, May-June 2009, 85-87; Maj. Gen. 

Timothy A. Byers, “S-File Key to 20/20 by 2020 Success,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 3, 2010, 4-5.

365 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “S-File Key to 20/20 by 2020 Success,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 3, 2010, 4-5.

366 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Transforming the CE Career Field,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 4-7; Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, USAF, Program Action Directive 07-02, 19 April 2007, 

3, II-1-2; Concept of Operations For Fire Prevention and Consequence Management, USAF, 15 June 2007.

367 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Transforming Air Force Firefighting,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 3, 2007, 5. 

368 A1C. Erica Stewart, “VAFB Hot Shots Crew Helps Battle Blaze,” Air Force News, 3 October 2006, 

accessed 27 May 2011, www.vandenberg.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123029208. 

369 E-mail, Floyd A. Jones, Dep Fire Chief, Dyess AFB, TX to Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, 3 Dec 2013; USC 

Title 10 Section 2465, “Prohibition on contracts for performance of firefighting or security-guard functions.”

370 TSgt. Rey Ramon, “Firefighters Save Lives and Money,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 37.

371 John Staub, “Training Response-Ready Firefighters,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 2, 2010, 28. 

372 MSgt. John Olsen, “Working Together in the Millennium,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, Summer 2001, 8-9.

373 Jennifer Spanich, “Fighting Fire with Fire,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2002, 22-23.

374 “The Future of Air Force Firefighting,” John Burt, HQ AFCESA, 22 June 2011.

375 “Air Force Renames Firefighter Heroism Award,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 2, 2010, 34. 

376 MSgt. Paul Fazzini, “These Gates Don’t Stand Ajar,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, Fall 2005, 16-17. 

377 Ibid., 16.

378 Ibid., 17.

379 Ibid., 16-17. 

380 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 2001, Vol 1; Department of Defense, Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) 4-010-01, DoD 

Minimum Antiterrorism Standards for Buildings, 8 October 2003, accessed 26 May 2011, www.wbdg.org/ccb/

DOD/UFC/ufc_4_010_01.pdf.

381 Larry Hull, “Air Force Emergency Management History,” AHO. 
Endnotes 765

382 Sonni Sears, “The Air Force Incident Management System,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 3, Fall 2006, 12-13.

383 MSgt. Michael A. Ward, “Out with the Old, In with the New,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 2, Summer 2005, 

30. 

384 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 2001, Vol 1, CEXR History 2001 Readiness/NBCC.”

385 Michael Ates, “Safer Airfields: Doing Our Part,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2002, 18.

386 Air Force Tiger Team, Airfield Obstruction Reduction Initiative Report, 27 November 2000, 7, AHO.

387 Michael Ates, “Safer Airfields: Doing Our Part,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2002, 18

388 Air Force Tiger Team, Airfield Obstruction Reduction Initiative Report, 27 November 2000, 3, AHO.

389 Michael Ates, “Safer Airfields: Doing Our Part,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2002, 19.

390 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 2001, Vol I, Chronology.

391 Mohammad Iqbal and Steve LaFreniere, “Range Rehab,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 18. 

392 Lt. Col. Tom Dombrowsky, and David A. Brown, “Civil Engineer Explosive Ordnance Disposal Active 

Range Clearance Support,” 2001 AFCESA History, 1 January – 30 September 2001, AHO. 

393 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “EOD Airmen Sacrifice and Make a Difference,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, 2007, 

8-11.

394 Teresa Hood, “For EOD, Segway is ‘Da Bomb’,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 2004, 28.

395 A1C. Brigitte N. Brantey-Sisk, “EOD Team Trains with New Response Vehicle,” 20 October 2010, 

www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123227056. 

396 Karlene Leeper, “Aleut Remains Returned to Shemya Islands,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, Fall 2001, 26.

397 2d Lt. Joshua S. Edwards, “Renovating Warren’s Historic Homes,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, Winter 2005, 

29.

398 Ron Scharven, “Soil Reuse Plan Saves $10M,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, Fall 2001, 26.

399 2d Lt. Chris Sukach and MSgt. Steve Marciniak, “Dover Reaches Environmental Milestone,” AFCE, 

Vol 14, No 2, 2006, 30.

400 “The Enablers: Interview with Col. David W DeFoliart,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 4, Winter 2001, 12. 

401 Teresa Hood, “This Island’s for the Birds,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, 2004, 6-7.

402 Memorandum, HQ USAF/ILE to Multiple Addressees, Subj: Sustainable Development Policy, 19 Dec 

2001, AHO.

403 Paula Shaw and Tim Adams, “Sustainable Facilities: An Air Force Tradition,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 

2008, 12.

404 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Meeting Our Energy Challenges,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 4. 

405 Gil Dominguez, “‘Sustainability’ Not Just Another Buzzword,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 27.

406 Paula Shaw and Tim Adams, “Sustainable Facilities: An Air Force Tradition,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 

2008, 12.

407 SSgt. Tanya Holditch and 1st Lt. Nick Plante, “Keesler Leads with LEED Home,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 

3, 2008, 40. 

408 Paula Shaw and Tim Adams, “Sustainable Facilities: An Air Force Tradition,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 

2008, 12.

409 A1C. Christopher Reel, “Fitness center at Tyndall receives LEED Platinum award, 25 April 2011, 

www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123253212 

410 Jeffrey Nielson, “Vegetative Roofing,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 20-22.

411 Michael A. Ward, “Air Force Water, Energy Conservation Efforts Earn Federal Awards,” The CE, Vol 

8, No 4, Winter 2000-2001, 31.

412 “Preserving and Enhancing the Environment, 2001 Air Force an Secretary of Defense Environmental 

Award Winners,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2002, 34; Bill Autin, “CE Energy, Water Managers Earn Federal 

Awards,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, Winter 2002, 25.

413 “CE Energy, Water Managers Earn Federal Awards,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 2003. 25.

414 “Energy Program Wins Again,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 2, 2006, 31.

415 Gary Hein and Linda Sisk, “Energy Savings Performance Contracts,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 9.

416 Bullet Background Paper on Air Force Facility Energy Program History, AHO. 

417 Larry Strother, “Monitoring Energy Use with Meters,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 13.

418 United States Air Force Infrastructure Energy Strategic Plan, 2008, AHO; Gary Hein and Linda Sisk, 

“Energy Savings Performance Contracts,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 9.

419 Kim Holmes, “Renewable Energy in the Air Force,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 10.

420 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Meeting Our Energy Challenges,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 6.

421 Ibid.; Linda Sisk, “Meeting EISA 2007 Goals,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3 Fall 2008: 15; Kevin Wahlstrom, 

“Energy Savings Performance Contracts,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, Summer 2004, 14.

422 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Energy Awareness: Everyone’s Responsibility,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 

3.

423 Ibid.

424 Joseph Bodgan, “Energy Awareness Transforms McGuire,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 16.

425 Mike Santoro, “Renewable Energy – An Investment in Our Future,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 2003, 
766 Leading the Way

12.

426 Ibid.

427 Bullet Background Paper on Air Force Facility Energy Program History, AHO.

428 “Energy Program Wins Again,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 2, 2006, 31.

429 Jennifer Elmore, “Studies Identify Energy Sources at Bases,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 2, 2010, 9.

430 Kim Holmes, “Renewable Energy in the Air Force,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 11.

431 Ibid.

432 Jennifer Elmore, “Studies Identify Energy Sources at Bases,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 2, 2010, 9.

433 Quinn Hart, “Air Force Space Command Turns to Wind Power,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, 2001, 22.

434 Charles H. Clinchard RA, Gary Seifert, Craig Miller, and Shawn West, “Ascension Island Wind Farm,” 

AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 2004, 12.

435 Ron Scharven, “Lackland Turns to ‘Windtricity’ as Energy Source,” Air Force Print News, 11 October 

2002, accessed 3 February 2011, www.af.mil/stories/story_print.asp?storyID=101102285.

436 Ron Scharven, “‘Windtricity’ Supplies Power to Texas Base,” CenterViews, Vol 8, No 4, Fall-Winter 

2002, 4.

437 Tommie Baker, “Steady Winds Blow in Fuel Savings,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 25.

438 2d Lt. Jennifer Richard, “Nellis to save $1 million annually with use of solar panels,” 4 December 

2007, www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123078071; Roger Williams, “Catching Some Rays at Nellis,” AFCE, Vol 

16, No 1, 2008, 25.

439 Sharon Gill, “Buckley AFB ‘Walls In’ Warmth,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 11, 18.

440 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Meeting Our Energy Challenges,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 6.

441 Gary Jacks, “H20 Alternative Sources,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 14.

442 Tom Denslow, “‘Effluency’ in Water Conservation,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, Summer 2004, 15. 

443 Maj. Brian Hughes, “Alternative Sources of Energy,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 3, 2009, 18-19.

444 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 2001, Vol I, Chronology, 2.

445 Peter Cerauskis, “One Air Force, One Portal, One Civil Engineer Community,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, 

Fall 2001, 23.

446 “Changing Times: Interview with Kathleen I. Ferguson,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003,13-15.

447 Jeffrey A. Coleman, “ACES on the Web,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, 2004, 34. Col. Gus G. Elliott, Jr., “End 

of Tour Interview,” interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, 9 August, 2006, 16-18.

448 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, Transformation One Year Later, video briefing, May 2008; Lt. Col. John 

Thomas, “Information Technology Transformation,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 15.

449 Lt. Col. John Thomas, “Information Technology Transformation,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 15.

450 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “IT Transformation,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 4-7.

451 Ibid.

452 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, Transformation One Year Later, video briefing, May 2008; Lt. Col. John 

Thomas, “Information Technology Transformation,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 15.

453 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “IT Transformation,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 4-7.

454 A7C Annual History, 2009, Section VI, n.p.

455 Lt. Col. John Thomas, “Information Technology Transformation,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 15.

456 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “IT Transformation,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 4-7; Lt. Col. John Thomas, 

“Driving CE Transformation with NexGen IT,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 6.

457 Lt. Col. John Thomas, “Information Technology Transformation,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 5, 2007, 15; Maj. 

Gen. Del Eulberg, “IT Transformation,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 4-7.

458 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “IT Transformation,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 4-7.

459 Lt. Col. John Thomas, “Driving CE Transformation with NexGen IT,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 6.

460 Alexander Earle, “NexGen IT to Deliver Mission-focused Capabilities in 2012,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 1, 

2010, 12.

461 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “Connecting the Transformation Dots,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 1, 2010, 9-11.

462 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “S-File Key to 20/20 by 2020 Success,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 3, 2010, 4-5; 

A7C Annual History, 2009, Section VI, n.p.; A7C Annual History, 2010, Section VI, n.p.

463 Alexander Earle, “NexGen IT to Deliver Mission-focused Capabilities in 2012,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 1, 

2010, 12.

464 Timothy Beerman, “United States Air Force Academy GeoBase Program,” ca. 2004, accessed May 

2011, http://proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/proc04/docs/pap1306.pdf. 

465 Col. Brian Cullis, “A Vision of ‘One Installation...One Map’: U.S. Air Force GeoBase,” AFCE, Vol 

11, No 4, Winter 2003, 22-24.

466 Ibid.

467 Ibid., 22-23.

468 “Building a Strong GeoBase Foundation,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 2003, 24.

469 ESRI, “GIS in Defense Installation and Environmental Management,” 2007, 42, accessed 2011, www.

esri.com/library/brochures/pdfs/gis-in-defense-installation.pdf.

470 Col. Brian Cullis, “A Vision of ‘One Installation...One Map’: U.S. Air Force GeoBase,” AFCE, Vol 

11, No 4, Winter 2003, 22-23.
Endnotes 767

471 MSgt. Paul C. Loeber, “An Investigation of GeoBase Mission Data Set Design, Implementation, and 

Usage within Air Force Civil Engineer Electrical and Utilities Work Centers,” Thesis, AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, 

2005, 1, 18-23.

472 “The Three Domains of GeoBase,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 2003, 24.

473 MSgt. Paul C. Loeber, “An Investigation of GeoBase Mission Data Set Design, Implementation, and 

Usage within Air Force Civil Engineer Electrical and Utilities Work Centers,” Thesis, AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, 

2005, 1, 18-23

474 ESRI, “GIS in Defense Installation and Environmental Management,” 2007, 10-11, accessed 2011, 

www.esri.com/library/brochures/pdfs/gis-in-defense-installation.pdf.

475 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Peppe, “Explosives Site Planning – A Team Effort,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 

2002, 12-13.

476 ESRI, “GIS in Defense Installation and Environmental Management,” 2007, 12, 26-29, 52, accessed 

2011, www.esri.com/library/brochures/pdfs/gis-in-defense-installation.pdf.

477 “The Three Domains of GeoBase,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 2003, 24.

478 MSgt. Paul C. Loeber, “An Investigation of GeoBase Mission Data Set Design, Implementation, and 

Usage within Air Force Civil Engineer Electrical and Utilities Work Centers,” Thesis, AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, 

2005, 1, 18-23.

479 “The Enablers: Interview with Col. David W. Defoliart,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 4, Winter 2001, 10-12; “The 

Three Domains of GeoBase,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 2003, 24.

480 ESRI, “GIS in Defense Installation and Environmental Management,” 2007, 6, 40, accessed 2011, 

www.esri.com/library/brochures/pdfs/gis-in-defense-installation.pdf.

481 “The Enablers: Interview with Col. David W. Defoliart,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 4, Winter 2001, 10-12.

482 “Supporting Freedom: Interview with Brig. Gen. Patrick A. Burns,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2002, 

4-7.

483 Capt. Marc R. Vandeveer, “ GeoReach-An Evolution I Beddown Planning,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, Fall 

2003, 14-16.

484 “Trimble Wins U.S. Air Force GeoBase Program Contracts,” 20 January 2004, accessed May 2011, 

http://investor.trimble.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=191416.

485 ILE Annual History, 2004, Section VII.a, 10.

486 ILE Annual History, 2005, Section VI, n.p.; Col. Hal Tinsley, “GeoBase: Mapping the Future,” AFCE, 

Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 9.

487 ESRI, “GIS in Defense Installation and Environmental Management,” 2007, 21, accessed 2011, 

www.esri.com/library/brochures/pdfs/gis-in-defense-installation.pdf; Col. Hal Tinsley, “GeoBase: Mapping 

the Future,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 9.

488 A7C Annual History, 2006, Section IV, n.p.

489 USAF GeoBase Program Goals and Future Direction, Powerpoint presentation, Headquarters U.S. 

Air Force, May 2007, accessed May 2011, http://proceedings.ndia.org/jsem2007/Cray.pdf; Col. Hal Tinsley, 

“GeoBase: Mapping the Future,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 9.

490 “The Training Flightline: Interview with Col. Rusty Gilbert,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, Fall 2001, 12-14.

491 “A Steady State of Readiness: Interview with Col. J. Carlton Tickel,” The CE, Vol 8, No 4, Winter 

2000-2001, 4-6.

492 “Facing the Challenges: Interview with James R. Pennino,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, Fall, 2003, 4-7.

493 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Transforming the CE Career Field,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 4-7; Implementation of Civil Engineer (CE) Transformation Plan, USAF, Program Action Directive 07-02, 19 April 2007, 

3, III-1-2.

494 Teresa Hood, “Command Focus: Air Force Reserve Command,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, 2005, 4-5.

495 Mike Giniger and Ken Miller, “Holistic Approach to Air Force Utilities Privatization,” AFCE, Vol 17, 

No 1, 2009, 14; Brian P. Stahl, Richard C. Woodworth, and Robert D. Patterson, “The Road to Revitalizing Air 

Force Utility System Infrastructure,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 16. 

496 Brian P. Stahl, Richard C. Woodworth, and Robert D. Patterson, “The Road to Revitalizing Air Force 

Utility System Infrastructure,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 16.

497 HQ AFCESA/CENU, “Utilities Privatization FAQs,” accessed March 2011, www.afcesa.af.mil/questions/topic.asp?id=1089.

498 ILE Annual History, 2004, Section VI.a.

499 “Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC),” ca. 2004, accessed January 2010, http://www.globalsecurity.

org/military/facility/brac.htm.

500 Ibid.

501 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “From the Top: Transitions,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 2.

502 2005 Defense Base Closure and Realignment Commission Report, September 2005, iii-iv, accessed 

May 2011, www.brac.gov/finalreport.html.

503 Frank Smolinsky, “Halfway Through BRAC Implementation,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 12-13.

504 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “USAF: At Home and Abroad,” TME, Vol 98, No 641, May-June 2006, 83-85.

505 Frank Smolinsky, “Halfway Through BRAC Implementation,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 12-13.

506 2005 Defense Base Closure and Realignment Commission Report, September 2005, vi-vii, accessed 
768 Leading the Way

May 2011, www.brac.gov/finalreport.html.

507 Frank Smolinsky, “Halfway Through BRAC Implementation,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 12-13.

508 2005 Defense Base Closure and Realignment Commission Report, September 2005, 219-221, accessed 

May 2011, www.brac.gov/finalreport.html.

509 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “From the Top: Transitions,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 2.

510 Ibid.,

511 2005 Defense Base Closure and Realignment Commission Report, September 2005, 219-221, accessed 

May 2011, www.brac.gov/finalreport.html.

512 AF/A7C &AF/A7S History Inputs, 2009, Section VI, n.p.

513 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force: Engineering Readiness,” TME, Vol 94, No 618, JulyAugust 2002, 30-31.

514 Maj. Dan Guinan, “Air Force Involvement in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act,” AFCE, 

Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 11. 

515 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force Engineering: Global Vigilance, Reach, Power,” TME, 

Vol 93, No 612, July-August 2001, 26.

516 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “ A Rewarding Year,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 2004, 2. 

517 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “Air Force Engineers: Building to Last and Leading Change,” TME, Vol 

102, No 665, July-August 2010, 91-93.

518 SrA. Donald Church, “Design-Build Project Underway at Charleston,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 1, 2001, 25.

519 MSgt. Michael A. Ward, “Back in Style Base Planners Fashion New Look for Whiteman AFB,” Air 

Force Civil Engineer, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 2003, 19-22.

520 Mark O. Hunt, “Providing a Roost for the Raptor,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 9.

521 “Facing the Challenges: Interview with James R. Pennino,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, Fall 2003, 5.

522 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force Engineering: Global Vigilance, Reach, Power,” TME, 

Vol 93, No 612, July-August 2001, 27.

523 “The Enablers: Interview with Col. David W. DeFoliart,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 4, Winter 2001, 11-12.

524 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force: Engineering Readiness,” TME, Vol 94, No 618, JulyAugust 2002, 31.

525 SSgt. Chris Stagner, “‘Movin’ On Up’ at Nellis AFB,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 2004, 23; HQ USAF, Office 

of the Civil Engineer, Housing Division, “ Unaccompanied Housing Design Guide,” January 2006, AHO.

526 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “A Rewarding Year,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 2004, 2.

527 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “USAF: Civil Engineering,” TME, Vol 99, No 647, May-June 2007, 71.

528 Judith Teague, “Housing Program Promotes Sense of Community,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 1, 2010, 21.

529 Maj. Gen. Timothy Byers, “Air Force Engineers: Building to Last and Leading Change,” TME, Vol 

102, No 665, May-June 2010, 92-93.

530 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Command Focus United States Air Forces in Europe,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 

2004, 4-5. 

531 Jim Weslowski, “Aviano Today,” The AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, Fall 2002, 4.

532 Kent Harris, “Air Force Makes Progress,” Stars and Stripes, 30 April 2004, www.stripes.com/news/

aviano-will-be-humming-with-more-construction-1.19409.

533 “Bullet Background Paper on Bretella Project at Aviano,” included in William M. Butler and Lt. Gen. 

Glen W. Moorhead III, History of Headquarters Sixteenth Air Force 1 January 2003-31 December 2003 Assigned 

to United States Air Forces in Europe Stationed at Aviano Air Base, Italy, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

534 Kent Harris, “Aviano Will be Humming with More Construction,” Stars and Stripes, 30 April 2004, 

accessed 2011, www.stripes.com/news/aviano-will-be-humming-with-more-construction-1.19409; William M. 

Butler and Lt. Gen. Glen W. Moorhead III, History of Headquarters Sixteenth Air Force 1 January 2003-31 

December 2003 Assigned to United States Air Forces in Europe Stationed at Aviano Air Base, Italy, Maxwell 

AFB, Alabama. 

535 United States Air Forces in Europe, Rhein-Main Transition Program Management Document, 7 November 2003, 2-3, 21, AHO.

536 Ibid., 22-27, AHO.

537 “KMCC Exchange at Ramstein opens Monday,” Stars and Stripes European Edition, 19 Sep 2009.

538 GAO, “Observations on Mismanagement of the Kaiserslautern Military Community Center,” 28 Jun 2007, accessed 2011, www.gao.gov/products/GAO-07-1039T; 

Elizabeth Newell, “Defense’s Largest construction project still behind schedule, over budget,” National Journal Group, Inc., Government Executive, 25 Jun 2008, accessed 2011, www.govexec.com/defense/2008/06/

defenses-largest-construction-project-still-behind-schedule-over-budget/27137.

539 Stephen Escude, Ben Roth, Capt. Todd Rupright, “Big Project Presents Big Challenges,” AFCE, Vol 

12, No 2, 2004, 20-21.

540 Louis A. Arana-Barradas, “Ramstein’s Transformation Edging Toward Fruition,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 

1, 2006, 30-31.

541 MSgt. John Lasky, “Ramstein Airstrip Makeover,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 3, 2006, 28. 

542 SSgt. Toby Dunlap, “USAFE CTS Celebrates 50 Years of Service,” The CE, Vol 8, No 4, Winter 

2000-2001, 29; “Unit Spotlight: Others Promise- We Produce,” The CE, Vol 8, No 1, Spring 2000, 7.
Endnotes 769

543 SSgt. Toby Dunlap, “USAFE CTS Celebrates 50 Years of Service,” The CE, Vol 8, No 4, Winter 

2000-2001, 29.

544 Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, “Countdown to Closure,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 2004, 6-7.

545 United States Air Forces in Europe, Rhein-Main Transition Program Management Document, 7 November 2003, 22-27, AHO.

546 Peter Smith, “Fast-Track Restoration,” AFCE, Vol 11 No 4, Winter, 2003, 25.

547 Sarah Gregory, “Building Up Andersen AFB,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 4, 2004, 27. 

548 Capt. Nichole K.A. Scott and Lt. Col. Mark A. Zimmerhanzel, “Changing the Face of an Island,” Air 

Force Civil Engineer, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 10.

549 Col. Patrick M. Coullahan, “Bedding Down the X-Band Radar: A new Mission Proposed for Eareckson 

Air Station,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 1, Spring 1999, 20-22; 2d Lt. Andrew Harris, “Tail end of the chain, tip of the 

sword: Eareckson AF,” Joint Base Elmendorf –Richardson News Service, 21 July 2009. 

550 “The GEEM Program, Graduate Education with an Air Force Focus: Interview with Lt. Col. Alfred E. 

Thal,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, Summer 2001, 19-20.

551 Ibid.; Sgt A. J. Bosker, “AFIT Provides Advanced Degree Opportunities to NCOs,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 

1, Spring 2003, 21.

552 “Opportunity Knocks, AFIT’s Graduate Education Program Boosts Air Force Careers: Interview with 

Col. George K. Haritos,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, Summer 2001, 16-17.

553 Capt. Lance D. Clark, “Views from the Field, A Student’s Perspective of AFIT,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, 

Fall 2001, 20-21.

554 Capt. Brian J. Ballweg, Capt. Ryan J. Novotny, “Expanding Design Skills,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 

34.

555 Capt. Jonathan Gray, Capt. Brian Ballweg, and Capt. John Volcheck, “Tech Courses On Target,” AFCE, 

Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 38; Col. Barry S. Mines, “Current Trends in AFIT Continuing Education,” AFCE, Vol 15, 

No 2, 2007, 16-17.

556 Rachel M. Walkenbach, “Joint Engineer Operations Course Overview,” Engineer, the Professional 

Bulletin of Army Engineers, Headquarters Department of the Army, U.S. Army Engineer School, Fort Leonard 

Wood, Missouri, Vol 38, PB 5-08-1, 26-27.

557 Ibid.; Maj. Chris Stoppel, “AFIT Hosting Summer JEOC,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 12.

558 See note above.

559 Maj. Christopher Stoppel, “Improving Contingency Education,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 34-35.

560 Rachel M. King (formerly Rachel M. Walkenbach) and Dwayne E. Boeres, “JEOC, Joint Engineer 

Operations Course,” Engineer, the Professional Bulletin of Army Engineers, Headquarters Department of the 

Army, U.S. Army Engineer School, Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, Vol 38, PB 5-09-1, 26-27; Lt. Col. Shawn P. 

Howley and Maj. Charles R. McGinnis, “Joint Engineer Operations Course: A Combined Approach,” Engineer, 

the Professional Bulletin of Army Engineers, Headquarters Department of the Army, U.S. Army Engineer School, 

Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, Vol 41, PB 5-11-1, 26-27.

561 CMSgt. Clarence H. Walsh, “AFIT Course Hones Strategic Thinking for Enlisted Civil Engineers,” 

AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 29.

562 Maj. David Gwisdalla and Capt. Joel Sloan, “Civil and Environmental Engineering at the U.S. Air 

Force Academy,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, 2007, 20

563 Ibid.

564 Ibid., 20-21.

565 C1C. Matt Mumm and C1C. Will Ferries, “Not Just HORSE-ing Around,” Air Force Civil Engineer, 

Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 28.

566 Maj. David Gwisdalla and Capt. Joel Sloan, “Civil and Environmental Engineering at the U.S. Air 

Force Academy,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, 2007, 20-21.

567 Ibid., 22-23.

568 Maj. Don Ohlemacher, Capt. Patrick Suermann, and Dr. Jim Pocock, “Building a Project Manager,” 

AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 32-33.

569 MSgt. Austin Carter, “Keeping the Promise, New Strategies for Providing Quality Technical Training 

to Utilities Craftsmen,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 1, Spring 2001, 18-19; “Trained and Ready Airmen – Fundamental to 

CE Mission Success: Interview with CMSgt. Michael F. Doris,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 1, Spring 2001, 5.

570 MSgt. Austin Carter, “Keeping the Promise, New Strategies for Providing Quality Technical Training 

to Utilities Craftsmen,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 1, Spring 2001, 18-19.

571 SSgt. Faith Kassan, “CE Troops Wave the Silver Flag,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, Fall 2001, 18-19.

572 Maj. David B. Chisenhall, Jr., “Integrating Training,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 22-23.

573 Letha Cozart, “Stepping up to the Challenge,” AFCE Vol 8, No 2. Summer 2000, 18-27; “Readiness 

Challenge VIII Planning Underway,” AFCE, Vol 19, No 2, Summer 2001, 30; “Readiness Challenge VIII 

Canceled for 2002,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 4, Winter 2001, 32; “Readiness Challenge VIII Postponed Indefinitely,” 

AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, Fall/Winter 2002, 21.

574 SSgt. Simon Wess, “Dedicated Instructors, Excellent Facilities,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, Fall 2001, 15.

575 MSgt. Robert Bartlebaugh, “The Magnificent 7, Training Tomorrow’s Air Force Civil Engineers Today,” 

AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2002, 24.
770 Leading the Way

576 “Maximum Combat Support; Interview with Brig. Gen. Del Eulberg,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 

2003, 6-7.

577 Ibid.

578 Lt. j.g. Shay Meskill, “’Horse Training Solves Real Problem,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 16; CMSgt. 

Karl Deutsch, “RED HORSE Saddled Up and Ready,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 14-15.

579 Stephanie Ritter, “EOD: Defending the Base One Threat at a Time,” 355th Wing Public Affairs Office, 

n.d., AHO.

580 Michael Werner, “A Principal Mission with a Nuclear Focus,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 2, 2010, 30-32.

581 James Prater, “CoBRA Strikes at Warrior Training,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 22-23.

582 John T. Correll, “New Horizons for the Total Force,” Air Force Magazine, Vol 85, No 8, August 2002, 

61; Teresa Hood, “Command Focus, Air National Guard,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 5; Teresa Hood, “Guard 

Provides Hands-On Training,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 6-7.

583 “Putting People First: Interview with Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 

4-8.

584 Lt. Col. Gregory J. Schmidt, “Filling the Joint Engineer Gap – Preparing to Staff a JTF,” The CE, Vol 

8, No 2, Summer 2000, 28-29.

585 MSgt. Michael A. Ward, “A New Understanding,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 1, 2004, 11.

586 ILE, Annual History, Section VI.y, 2004, n.p.

587 “Listen, Learn and Lead: Interview with Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 3, 2006, 4-9.

588 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “We’re All on the Same Team,” The CE, Vol 8, No 3, Fall 2000, 2; 

Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force: New Challenges, New Solutions,” TME, Vol 92, No 604, MarchApril 2000, 48-51.

589 “Putting People First: Interview with Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 

4-8; ILE Annual History 2004, Section VI.x, 8.

590 Joint Engineer Operations, Joint Publication 3-34, 2007, I-7.

591 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Civil Engineering After the Gulf War: A New Focus,” AFCE, Vol 

9, No 1, Spring 2001, 2.

592 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force: New Challenges, New Solutions,” TME, Vol 92, No 604, 

March-April 2000, 48-51.

593 “Relevant, Right-sized, and Ready: An Interview with the Air Force Civil Engineer, Brig. Gen. Earnest 

O. Robbins II,” The CE, Vol 7, No 3, Fall 1999, 4-9.

594 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force Engineering: Global Vigilance, Reach, Power,” TME, 

Vol 93, No 612, July-August 2001, 25-27.

595 Letha Cozart, “Chiefs Panel Meets at Luke,” The CE, Vol 8, No 3, Fall 2000, 20-21.

596 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “The Expeditionary Aerospace Force Steps Forward,” The CE, Vol 

8, No 1, Spring 2000, 2.

597 Maj. Shannon E. O’Boyle, “Today’s Air Expeditionary Force: A Time for Change,” Research Report, 

Faculty of Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, April 2007, 3-4.

598 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Evolving with the Aerospace Expeditionary Force,” AFCE, Vol 10, 

No 1, Spring 2002, 2.

599 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force Civil Engineers – Serving Proudly,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 4, 

Winter 2001, 2.

600 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Air Force: Engineering Readiness,” TME, Vol 94, No 618, JulyAugust 2002, 30-31.

601 Maj. Shannon E. O’Boyle, “Today’s Air Expeditionary Force: A Time for Change,” Research Report, 

Faculty of Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, April 2007, iv, 4-6.

602 Ibid., 7.

603 Ibid., 7-9.

604 SrA. Kara Manning, “The Air Force Civil Engineer Tours SWA,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 2, 2005, 20; Maj. 

Gen. L. Dean Fox, “USAF: At Home and Abroad,” TME, Vol 98, No 641, May-June 2006, 83-85. 

605 Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins II, “Evolving with the Aerospace Expeditionary Force,” AFCE, Vol 10, 

No 1, Spring 2002, 2.

606 “Putting People First: Interview with Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 

4-8.

607 SMSgt. Dennis Cook, “New UTCs for CE Teams,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 3, 2007, 11-12.

608 Ibid.

609 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Back to the Bases,” TME, Vol 96, No 630, July-August 2004, 39-40.

610 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “A Rewarding Year,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 2004, 2.

611 AFCE Almanac, Vol 16, No 4, 2008, 5.

612 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “Air Force Engineers: Building to Last and Leading Change,” TME, Vol 

102, No 665, May-June 2010, 91-93.

613 Department of the Air Force, Air Force Handbook 10-222, “Civil Engineer Guide to Expeditionary 

Force Protection,” Vol 3, 1 May 2008, 25; 32

614 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 
Endnotes 771

January – 31 December 2001, Vol I, Chronology.

615 Letha Cozart, “Responding to Tragedy: Operation Noble Eagle,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, Fall 2001, 4-5; 

Lt. Col. Gregory A. Cummings and Lt. Col. R. John Martin, “At WAR with Terrorism,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 4, 

Winter 2001, 4-5.

616 Letha Cozart, “Responding to Tragedy: Operation Noble Eagle,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, Fall 2001, 5-6.

617 Ibid., 4.

618 Ibid., 4-6.

619 Maj. Richard C. Sater, “A Life-Saving Mission,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, Fall 2001, 7.

620 Letha Cozart, “Responding to Tragedy: Operation Noble Eagle,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, Fall 2001, 4-6; 

Adam J. Hebert, “Homeland Air Force,” Air Force Magazine, Vol 87, No 1, January 2004, 37; Lt. Col. Gregory 

A. Cummings and Lt. Col. R. John Martin, “At WAR with Terrorism,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 4, Winter 2001, 4-5; 

Dr. Rebecca Grant, “The War of 9/11, Air Force Association Special Report, Arlington, Virginia, 2005, 15.

621 Adam J. Hebert, “Homeland Air Force,” Air Force Magazine, Vol 87, No 1, January 2004, 37-38; Adam 

J. Hebert, “Noble Eagle Without End,” Air Force Magazine, Vol 88, No 2, February 2005, 44.

622 Dr. Rebecca Grant, The War of 9/11, Air Force Association Special Report, Arlington, Virginia, 2005, 

4-5.

623 “CENTAF re-establishes CE Function,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring, 2002, 7.

624 “No One Comes Close!: Interview with Col. Tom Ryburn,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, Summer, 2002, 4-6.

625 Forrest L. Marion, “Building USAF ‘Expeditionary Bases’ for Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, 2001-2002,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online Journal, 18 November 2005, accessed April 

2011, www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/marion.html.

626 “Supporting Freedom: Interview with Brig. Gen. Patrick A. Burns,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2002, 

5.

627 Lt. Col. Gregory A. Cummings and Lt. Col. R. John Martin, “At War with Terrorism,” AFCE, Vol 

9, No 4, Winter 2001, 5; Forrest L. Marion, “Building USAF ‘Expeditionary Bases’ for Operation Enduring 

Freedom – Afghanistan, 2001-2002,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online Journal, 18 November 

2005, accessed April 2011, www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/marion.html.

628 Forrest L. Marion, “Building USAF ‘Expeditionary Bases’ for Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, 2001-2002,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online Journal, 18 November 2005, accessed April 

2011, www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/marion.html.

629 Ibid.; Maj. Jeff Perham, 374th CES, Moody AFB, Georgia, “Operation Enduring Freedom Interview,” 

16 Apr 2002, 15, AHO.

630 Forrest L. Marion, “Building USAF ‘Expeditionary Bases’ for Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, 2001-2002,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online Journal, 18 November 2005, accessed April 

2011,www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/marion.html.

631 Ibid.

632 Ibid.; John Hendren, “Beddown in Bishkek,” Air Force Magazine, Vol 85, No 7, July 2002, 58.

633 MSgt Randy G. Bergeron, Deployment of the 86th Contingency Response Group to Kyrgyzstan 

(USAFE Historical Study 2002, Mar 02), pp 64-74.; Forrest L. Marion, “Building USAF ‘Expeditionary Bases’ 

for Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, 2001-2002,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online 

Journal, 18 November 2005, accessed April 2011, www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/marion.html.

634 Forrest L. Marion, “Building USAF ‘Expeditionary Bases’ for Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, 2001-2002,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online Journal, 18 November 2005, accessed April 

2011, www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/marion.html.

635 SSgt. Pamela Smith, “Meeting the Challenge,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 13. 

636 Forrest L. Marion, “Building USAF ‘Expeditionary Bases’ for Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghani- stan, 2001-2002,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online Journal, 18 November 2005, accessed April 

2011, www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/marion.html.

637 Peter Grier, “The RED HORSE Way,” Air Force Magazine, Vol 86, No 2, February 2003, 72-73; Lt. 

Col. Michael P. Skomrock, “At the Tip of the Spear: RED HORSE Performs Runway Repair under Cover of 

Darkness,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 6-7.

638 Lt. Col. Michael P. Skomrock, “At the Tip of the Spear: RED HORSE Performs Runway Repair under 

Cover of Darkness,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 6-7, 8.

639 Ibid., 6-7; Peter Grier, “The RED HORSE Way,” Air Force Magazine, Vol 86, No 2, February 2003, 

72-73.

640 Maj. William K. Giezie, “Taking the Reigns, (sic)” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 25.

641 Ibid.

642 Ibid., 23.

643 Forrest L. Marion, “Building USAF ‘Expeditionary Bases’ for Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghani- stan, 2001-2002,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online Journal, 18 November 2005, accessed April 

2011, www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/marion.html.

644 “Service Before Self,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 4, Winter 2001, 7; Daniel L. Haulman, “Footholds for the 

Fighting Force,” Air Force Magazine, Vol 89, No 2, February 2006, 78; Maj. Gen. Earnest O. Robbins, II, “Stay 

the Course,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 3, Fall 2001, 2.
772 Leading the Way

645 Forrest L. Marion, “Building USAF ‘Expeditionary Bases’ for Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, 2001-2002,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online Journal, 18 November 2005, accessed April 

2011, www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/marion.html; SrA. Matt Donegan, “Ramping Up an Air Base: 

RED HORSE buildings MILCON Project in Qatar,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2002, 10-11; Peter Grier, “The 

RED HORSE Way,” Air Force Magazine, Vol 86, No 2, February 2003, 70-71; Daniel L. Haulman, “Footholds 

for the Fighting Force,” Air Force Magazine, Vol 89, No 2, February 2006, 78.

646 Forrest L. Marion, “Building USAF ‘Expeditionary Bases’ for Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, 2001-2002,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online Journal, 18 November 2005, accessed April 

2011, www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/marion.html.

647 Capt. Ryan J. Novotny, “RED HORSE Triumphs with Technology,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 

5-6.

648 Ibid., 5.

649 Ibid., 6-7.

650 Ibid., 7.

651 Forrest L. Marion, “Building USAF ‘Expeditionary Bases’ for Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, 2001-2002,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online Journal, 18 November 2005, accessed April 

2011, www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/marion.html; Maj. George Runkle, “One Team, One Fight,” 

AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2002, 10.

652 Forrest L. Marion, “Building USAF ‘Expeditionary Bases’ for Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan, 2001-2002,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online Journal, 18 November 2005, accessed April 

2011, www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/marion.html; Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, USAF Fact Sheet RED 

HORSE History, June 2007, accessed April 2011, www.afcesa.af.mil/library/factsheets.

653 SSgt. Pamela Smith, “Meeting the Challenge,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 12.

654 A1C. Jasmine Campa, “Eielson ‘Icemen’ Battle Blazes in Afghanistan,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 

2003, 8-9. 

655 SSgt. Pamela Smith, “Meeting the Challenge,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 13. 

656 Ibid.

657 Ibid., 14.

658 Daniel L. Haulman, “Footholds for the Fighting Force,” Air Force Magazine, Vol 89, No 2, February 

2006, 78.

659 “No One Comes Close!: Interview with Col. Tim Ryburn,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2002, 6.

660 Maj. Derek Ferland, “Closing K2,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 1, 2006, 12-13.

661 SSgt. Oshawn Jefferson, “FET Keeps Bagram Improving, Growing,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 3, 2007, 26-27.

662 Kent Harris, “Newer Buildings Replacing Plywood Huts at Bagram,” Stars and Stripes, 31 May 2008, 

accessed April 2011, www.stripes.com.

663 SSgt. Rachel Martinez, “Civil Engineer Crews Improve Bagram Infrastructure,” USAF Print News, 

12 December 2008, n.p., accessed 2011, www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123127806.

664 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Building Partnerships Through Reconstruction,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 

6-7.

665 Capt. Shawn Kreuzberger, “Engineering from a PRT Perspective,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 3, 2009, 13. 

666 “Civil Engineers Build Partnership Capacity in Afghanistan,” The Engineer’s Compass, Vol 1, No 2, 

October 2008, 3.

667 Capt. Vincent A. Rea, “Assault Airfield,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 3, 2009, 16-17; SSgt. Stacia Zachary, 

“RED HORSE Airmen Bring Combat Outpost into Fight,” USAF Print News, 16 September 2009, n.p., accessed 

2011, www.centaf.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123168015.

668 Capt. W. Donald Horn, “Putting the Red in Readiness,” AFCE, Vol 19 No3, 2011, 14-15. 

669 Maj. Kevin Osborne, “History in the Making: Birth of the Expeditionary Prime BEEF Squadrons in 

Afghanistan,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 1, 2010, 14-15; 1st Lt. John Kim, “577 Expeditionary Prime BEEF Group 

Enhance U.S. Forces-Afghanistan Installation Support,” USAF Print News, 28 December 2010, n.p., accessed 

2011, www.bagram.afcent.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123236314; Capt. Ben Carlson, Lt. Col. Randy Whitecotton, 

Lt. Col. J.D. Brands, and Maj. Eric Sosa, “The Proof is in the Product,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 3, 2010, 20.

670 Capt. Ben Carlson, Lt. Col. Randy Whitecotton, Lt. Col. J.D. Brands, and Maj. Eric Sosa, “The Proof 

is in the Product,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 3, 2010, 20-21.

671 Department of the Air Force, By Order of the Secretary of the Air Force, Air Force Pamphlet 10-219, 

Volume 1, “Contingency and Disaster Planning,” 9 June 2008, 204-205; 1st Lt. Eric H. Mannion, “Military 

Airfield Revival, RED HORSE Provides Peacetime Engineer Support to Camp Snoopy,” The CE, Vol 8, No 4, 

Winter 2000-01, 8-10.

672 AFCE Staff Report, “CE Goes to War,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 4.

673 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 2001, Vol I, Chronology.

674 Department of the Air Force, By Order of the Secretary of the Air Force, Air Force Pamphlet 10-219, 

Volume 1, “Contingency and Disaster Planning,” 9 June 2008, 205.

675 Capt. Michael Dunlap, SMSgt. Charles A. Dewar, and MSSgt. Robert Stewart, “Special Efforts: Air 

Force Special Operations CEs Respond Quickly and Expertly to OIF Missions,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 
Endnotes 773

2003, 10; Department of the Air Force, By Order of the Secretary of the Air Force, Air Force Pamphlet 10-219, 

Volume 1, “Contingency and Disaster Planning,” 9 June 2008, 205.

676 Capt. Michael Dunlap, SMSgt. Charles A. Dewar, and MSSgt. Robert Stewart, “Special Efforts: Air 

Force Special Operations CEs Respond Quickly and Expertly to OIF Missions,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 

2003, 10-11.

677 AFCE Staff Report, “CE Goes to War,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 1, Spring 2003, 4.

678 Ibid.

679 Adam J. Hebert, “Adventures in Bare Bones Basing,” Air Force Magazine, Vol 86, No 10, October 

2003, 71-73.

680 Maj. Jon Anderson and MSgt. Mike Hague, “Air Expeditionary Warriors, Buzz and Boom,” AFCE, Vol 

11, No 2, Summer 2003, 16; Capt. Karson Sandman, “Air Expeditionary Warriors, Beddown at a Bare Base,” 

AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 17.

681 Maj. Jon Anderson, “Air Expeditionary Warriors, No More Bare Bases,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 

2003,16-17; Maj. Jon Anderson, “Tallil Services and CE Troops Help Make Expeditionary Life Less ‘Expeditionary,’” The Tallil Times, Vol 1, No 3, 30 May 2003, 6-7; MSgt. Deb Smith, “RED HORSE Team Arrives,” 

The Tallil Times, Vol 1, No 7, 27 June 2003, 1.

682 MSgt. Don Perrien, “Bigger & Better, 407th ECES Builds Tallil Air Base from Barren Landscape to 

Busy City,” The Tallil Times, Vol 1, No 12, 1 August 2003, 6.

683 MSgt. Don Perrien, “Tent City Floor Project Begins,” The Tallil Times, Vol 1, No 18, 12 September 

2003, 1.

684 Airman 1st Class Kara Philip, “Support, Teamwork Go Hand-in-Hand,” The Tallil Times, Vol 1, No 

23, 17 October 2003, 4.

685 MSgt. Jon Hanson, “Keeping It Cool, HVAC in Iraq,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 2 2006, 22.

686 TSgt. Paul Dean, “407th ECES Expands Clinic,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 23. 

687 Interview, Maj. Richard Reid and MSgt. David Moreno with Dr Ronald B. Hartzer, 7 Oct 2003, AHO.

688 Department of the Air Force, By Order of the Secretary of the Air Force, Air Force Pamphlet 10-219, 

Volume 1, “Contingency and Disaster Planning,” 9 June 2008, 206-207.

689 TSgt. Brian Davidson, “Keeping the Water Flowing,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 19.

690 1st Lt. Eric D. Omundson, “Red Tail Engineers Keep Balad Going,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 26-27.

691 Capt. Kevin Cramer, “Paving Your Way to Success,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, 2005, 25. 

692 Capt. James E. Adams, “Fixing Up the Joint,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 26-27. 

693 Capt. Alesandra Neiman, “Out-Planning ‘Murphy,’” AFCE, Vol 14, No 2, 2006, 20-21. 

694 SSgt. Ruth Curfman, “Cementing Balad Hospital in History,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, Summer 2008, 39.

695 Ibid.; National Museum of Health & Medicine, “Exhibit Featuring Emergency Room from Air Force 

Hospital in Balad, Iraq Opens at National Museum of Health & Medicine,” News Release, 25 November 2008, 

accessed 26 May 2011, www.nmhm.washingtondc.museum/news/AF_hospital_balad.html.

696 SrA. Thomas Trower, “Firefighters Contain 2-Alarm Blaze at Balad,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 39. 

697 1st Lt. Lisa Spilinek, “Renamed U.S. Military Base in Iraq Reflects Joint Status,” USAF Print News 

17 June 2008, n.p., accessed 2011, www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123103084.

698 Department of the Air Force, By Order of the Secretary of the Air Force, Air Force Pamphlet 10-219, 

Volume 1, “Contingency and Disaster Planning,” 9 June 2008, 207.

699 Lt. Col. Jeffery A. Vinger, “Airmen-Soldiers in Iraq,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, 2004, 8.

700 Interview, Col. Karl S. Bosworth, 2 February 2005, AHO; Briefing, “732d ECES” Lt. Col. Jeffrey 

A. Vinger, n.d. AHO; “732 EMSG Commander Exit Interview: Lessons and Observations,” Col. Gary Shick, 

Commander, interview by Maj. Jeffery N. Wood, USCENTAF/XOL, 16 July 2005, AHO.

701 Lt. Col. Jeffery A. Vinger, “Airmen-Soldiers in Iraq,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, 2004, 8-10.

702 Ibid., 10.

703 Ibid., 8-10.

704 Briefing, “732d ECES” Lt. Col. Jeffrey A. Vinger, n.d. Files of the AFCESA History Office.

705 Interview, Lt. Col. Jeffery A. Vinger with Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, 3 February 2005, AHO. 

706 Maj. Marie Kokotajlo, “Working Outside the Wire,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, 2005, 8-9.

707 Ibid.

708 Ibid.

709 TSgt. Simon Wess, “Airmen Provide Labor, Expertise to Army,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 29. 

710 SSgt. Ruth Curfman, “Lending a Hand,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 28.

711 “Listen, Learn and Lead: An Interview with Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 3, 2006, 7.

712 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Building Partnerships Through Reconstruction,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 

6.

713 Brig. Gen. Patrick A. Burns, “Interview, Supporting Freedom,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2002, 4.

714 Ibid.; Forrest L. Marion, “Building USAF ‘Expeditionary Bases’ for Operation Enduring FreedomAfganistan, 2001-2002,” Air & Space Power Journal, Chronicles Online Journal, 18 November 2005, accessed 

May 2011, www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/marion.html. 

715 Wesley Frank Craven, and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II, Vol 7: Services 

Around the World, Office of Air Force History, Washington, D.C., 1983, 301-302; Karl C. Dod, United States 

Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers: The War Against Japan, Office of the 
774 Leading the Way

Chief of Military History, United States Army, Washington D.C., 1966, 455; Ronald B. Hartzer, “Engineers Take 

to the Air...Again,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 1, 2004, 16. 

716 Capt. Kevin Osborne, “Red Horse Goes Airborne,” TME, May-June 2003, 54-55.

717 Ibid.; Lt. Col. Gary Chesley and Capt. Kevin Osborne, “Jumping Horses,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, Fall/

Winter 2002, 10.

718 Lt. Col. Gary Chesley and Capt. Kevin Osborne, “Jumping Horses,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, Fall/Winter 

2002, 10-11.

719 “RED HORSE Engineer Goes Airborne,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2002, 30; Lt. Col. Gary Chesley 

and Capt. Kevin Osborne, “Jumping Horses,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, Fall/Winter 2002, 10-11.

720 Maj. Stephen D. Wood, “Rigged, Ready and RED,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 1, 2004, 12-13.

721 Maj. Hector Jamili, “RED HORSE Meets Prime BEEF,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 2, 2005, 9-10.

722 Ibid.

723 Ibid.

724 Maj. Richard Sater, “Ride the RED HORSE,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 23.

725 SSgt. Julie Weckerlein, “RED HORSE Airmen Support Army in Southern Baghdad,” USAF Print 

News, 9 July 2007, n.p., accessed 2011, www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123060052.

726 SSgt. Julie Weckerlein, “RED HORSE Airmen Support Army in Southern Baghdad,” USAF Print 

News, 9 July 2007, n.p., accessed 2011, www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123060052.

727 Capt. Edward Dice, “Ready to Roll, Balad RED HORSE Airmen Undertake Convoy Missions to Get 

the Job Done,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 19.

728 Ibid.

729 SSgt. Pamela Smith, “Meeting the Challenge,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 13; CMSgt. Art 

Foltz, “Defusing Explosive Situations,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, 2003, 8-9; Maj. Jon Anderson, “Buzz and Boom,” 

n.d., AHO; MSgt. Terry Nelson, “EOD Experts Keep Airmen Safe,” Tallil Times, n.d., AHO; Maj. Robert-Couse 

Baker, “Cleaning Up,” Citizen Airmen, December 2003.

730 CMSgt. Art Foltz, “Defusing Explosive Situations,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, 2003, 8.

731 Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Building Partnerships Through Reconstruction,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 

4; CMSgt. Art Foltz, “Defusing Explosive Situations,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, 2003, 9; MSgt. Joseph D. Cross II 

and TSgt. Anthony Blackman, “Fire in the Hole,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, 2003, 18-19.

732 MSgt. Joseph Kunkle, “Welcome to Baghdad, a Day in the Life of an EOD Team,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 

3, 2003, 10-12.

733 “Contingency Year in Review,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 43.

734 SSgt. Pamela Smith, “Meeting the Challenge,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 13; 1st Lt. Jeff 

Clark, “EOD Team Member Named 1 of 12 Outstanding Airmen of the Year,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 2004, 33; 

Maj. Robert-Couse Baker, “Cleaning Up,” Citizen Airmen, December 2003.

735 “Ensign Elizabeth Allen, “EOD School Dedicates Joint Task Force Troy Memorial,” U.S. Navy News 

Release, 11 Apr 2013; Maj.Gen. Del Eulberg, “EOD Airmen Sacrifice and Make a Difference,” AFCE, Vol 15, 

No 2, 2007, 8-11.

736 Maj.Gen. Del Eulberg, “EOD Airmen Sacrifice and Make a Difference,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, 2007, 

8-11.

737 “Hill AFB CEs Remembered in Memorial Services,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 1, 2007, 21. 

738 Maj.Gen. Del Eulberg, “EOD Airmen Sacrifice and Make a Difference,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, 2007, 

8-11. 

739 “Contingency Year in Review,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 43.

740 “Contingency Year in Review,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 4, 2008, 47.

741 Maj. D. Landon Phillips, EOD Program Director, HAF A7/CXR, email 19 December 2011, AHO.

742 2d Lt. Kelly George, “EOD Airmen Receive Medals,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, 2007, 35; “Air Force EOD 

Civil Engineers Honored and Remembered,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 3, 2010, 34. 

743 SrA. Karah Manning, “The Air Force Civil Engineer Tours SWA,” AFCE, Vol 13, No, 2, 2005, 20. 

744 CMSgt. Joseph Rivera, “Helping Build Iraq’s Civil Defense,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, 2004, 16-17.

745 SMSgt. Trish Freeland, “AF Firefighters Relocate, Expand Iraqi Fire Training Course,” Air Force Link, 

12/29/2008, viewed online; SSgt. Tim Beckham, “Airmen Train Firefighter Managers, Iraqis Graduate,” Air 

Force Link, 2/9/2009, viewed online; Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Building Partnerships Through Reconstruction,” 

AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 7.

746 SMSgt. John P. Smith III, “Forging the Iraqi Air Force’s Fire Service,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 3, 2009, 28. 

747 SSgt. Nathan Gallahan, “Airmen Train Iraqis to Save Lives,” Air Force Link, 3/25/2008, viewed online.

748 “Contingency Year in Review,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 42; “Contingency Year in Review,” 

AFCE Almanac, Vol 16, No 4, 2008, 46; Maj. Gen. Del Eulberg, “Building Partnerships Through Reconstruction,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 2009, 4-7.

749 Lt. Col. Douglas P. Wise, “Promoting Stability in Iraq,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 3, 2008, 30-31.

750 Capt. Emil Rebik, “Joint Deployment: Habbaniyah,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, 2007, 24-25.

751 Capt. Josh R. Aldred, “The Journey of a Thousand Miles begins with One Step,” AFCE Vol 16, No 3, 

2008, 26-29; Sgt Jason Stadel, “Village of Hope Gives Iraqis New Perspective,” American Forces Press Service, 

7 Apr 2008; SMSgt Trish Freedland, “RED HORSE Airmen Close Chapter with Iraqis,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 1, 
Endnotes 775

2009, 23; Monthly Summary, 557 ERHS & 1 ERHG, Feb 2008, AHO.

752 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “Air Force Engineers: Building to Last and Leading Change,” TME, Vol 

102, No 665, May-June 2010, 91-93.

753 Alicia Embrey, “First U.S. Air Force Officer Takes Command of Gulf Region Division South District, 

AFCE, Vol 17, No 3, 2009, 38.

754 White House Press Release: “Facts and Figures on Drawdown in Iraq,” 2 August 2010, accessed May 

2012, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/facts-and-figures-drawdown-iraq.

755 Airman 1st Class Allison M. Boehm, “RED HORSE Builds up for Drawdown,” USAF Print News, 6 

April 2010, n.p., accessed 2011, www.332aew.afcent.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123198410; Sgt. Chad Menegay, 

“All American Square Accommodates PAX Overflow,” Expeditionary Times, Vol 4, No 10, 21 July 2010, 8.

756 MSgt. Darrell Habisch, “First in – Last out: Members of first RED HORSE squadron back in Iraq,” 

17 May 2010, accessed 2011, www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123204908. 

757 MSgt. Michael A. Ward, “Building the ARRK,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 1, Spring 2004, 6.

758 Ibid., 7.

759 Capt. Michael Dunlap, SMSgt. Charles A. Dewar, MSgt. Robert Stewart, “Special Efforts: Air Force 

Special Operations CEs Respond Quickly and Expertly to OIF Mission,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, Winter 2003, 11.

760 Ibid.

761 Department of the Air Force, “Air Force Handbook 10-247, Guide to Services Contingency Planning, 

Beddown,” 10 February 2005. 

762 SSgt. Jeremy Larlee, “Providing Shelter is a BEAR,” Air Force News, 22 January 2008, accessed 

25 May 2011, www.af.mil/nmews/story_pring.asp?id=123083107; Airman Sondra M. Wieseler, “BEAR Goes 

BOB,” Air Force News, 5 August 2008, accessed 25 May 2011, www.holloman.af.mil/news/story_pring.

asp?id=123109418; CMsgt. Richard Sheridan, “49th Materiel Maintenance Group BEAR,” Powerpoint presentation, 13 January 2009, accessed 25 May 2011, www.same-satx.org/briefs/090113-sheridan.pdf. 

763 1st Lt. Michael E. Crosse, “BEAR Necessities,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 4, 2003, 14-15.

764 2d Lt. Olivia Duer Nelson, “New Structure Offers Protection from Chemical Attack,” AFCE, Vol 9, 

No 4,Winter 2001, 30.

765 Ibid.

766 “‘Mechanical’ Engineers,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 2, 2005, 18-19.

767 TSgt. Mitch Shimmel, “A Clearing in the Desert,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 1, Spring 2001, 11.

768 “EOD Evolves with Fight,” Air Force Magazine, 3 April 2007, www.airforce-magazine.com/DRArchive/Pages/2007/April%202007/April%2013%202007/1090EOD.aspx. 

769 Rod Fisher, Richard Peck, and Paul Sand, “Energy Initiatives for Expeditionary Bases,” AFCE, Vol 

18, No 3, 2010, 22. 

770 Ibid., 23.

771 Ibid.

772 “RED HORSE Deploys to Israel,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 1, Spring 2002, 26.

773 USCG PO3 Gail E. Dale, “CEs Bring Light in the Night,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 29.

774 Lt. Col. James Starnes, “The Red Bull Construction Company,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 8-10.

775 Ibid.

776 MC2. Nathaniel Moger, “474th ECES Continues Work at Gitmo,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 34.

777 Lt. Col. James Starnes, “The Red Bull Construction Company,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 2, 2008, 8-10.

778 Combined Joint Task Force- Horn of Africa Fact Sheet, 2010, accessed May 2011, www.hoa.africom.

mil/AboutCJTF-HOA.asp.

779 Capt. Matthew “Scott” Stanford, “RED HORSE Rides ‘Round the Horn,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, 2005, 

18-20.

780 “Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa,” 2010, accessed May 2011, www.globalsecurity.org/

military/agency/dod/cjtf-hoa.htm.

781 U.S. Africa Command, Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa Projects Fact Sheet, 2011, accessed 

May 2011, www.hoa.africom.mil/pdfFiles/CJTF-HOA%202007-10%20Fact%20Sheet%20-%20Projects.pdf.

782 1st Lt. Megan Poyant and CMSgt. Michael Drumming, “Six Months on a Tropical Island,” AFCE, Vol 

13, No 2, 2005, 14-15.

783 “CE Teams Support Micronesia,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, Fall/Winter 2002, 21-22.

784 Lois E. Walker, History of the Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (RCS: HAF-HO[A]7101), 1 

January – 31 December 2001, Vol I, Chronology, 13.

785 “CE Teams Support Micronesia,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 3, Fall/Winter 2002, 21-22.

786 1st Lt. Megan Poyant and CMSgt. Michael Drumming, “Six Months on a Tropical Island,” AFCE, Vol 

13, No 2, 2005, 14-15.

787 Capt. Christopher Bulson, “Island Engineering,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2008, 27.

788 Ibid.

789 Teresa Hood, “Keeping the ‘Pieces’ in Play,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, 2005, 6-7.

790 Ibid.

791 “New Horizons 2001: Readiness Training and Humanitarian Assistance,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, Summer 

2001, 28.
776 Leading the Way

792 Maj. Rich Curry, “Success Against the Odds,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2002, 12-13.

793 SrA. Stephen Hudson, “RED HORSE Joins New Horizons-Jamaica,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 

2002, 13.

794 MSgt. Mike McGuire, “Building the Intangible,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 2004, 31.

795 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Total Force-Supporting the Warfighter,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, 2005, 2.

796 “Reservists Support Joint Exercises,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, 2005, 26.

797 “CE Rotates to El Salvador ‘for the children’,” On-Final, 507th Air Refueling Wing, Tinker AFB, 

Oklahoma, July 2005, Vol 25, No 7, 4-5.

798 “Contingency Year in Review,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 15, No 4, 2007, 43; Capt. Billy S. Allen, “Juntos 

Podemos: Together We Can,” AFCE, Vol 16, No 1, 2008, 22-23.

799 New Horizons/Beyond the Horizon Factsheet, accessed March 2011, www.jtfb.southcom.mil/library/

factsheets.

800 “Air Force General Hits Back Over ‘Soft Power’,” accessed May 2011, www.wired.com/dangerroom/2009/01/air-force-gener/; “Contingency Year in Review,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 16, No 4, 2008, 48.

801 “New Horizons Guyana,” United States Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM)-fact file, accessed 

March 2011, www.southcom.mil/appssc/factFiles.php?id=123.

802 Teresa Hood, “Keeping the ‘Pieces’ in Play,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 1, 2005, 6-7.

803 Ruby Zarzyczny, “CEs Deploy to Help Washoe Nation,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 2, 2006, 33.

804 TSgt. Stephen Bailey, “Reserve Airmen Build Homes, Relationships,” AFCE, Vol 15, No 2, 2007, 38.

805 MSgt. Jon Dyer, “ANG CEs Join Canadian Engineers on ‘Road to High Readiness’ Exercise,” AFCE, 

Vol 17, No 3, 2009, 29.

806 Capt. Robert Baran and MSgt. Larry Lenneman, “A Well-Formed Idea,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 1, 2004, 

26.

807 Capt. Jerry Otto, “CEs Help ‘Bail Out’ Coast Guard,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 2, 2004, 30.

808 SSgt. Andrea Knudson, “RED HORSE Squadrons Unite in the Fight,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 2, 2006, 27.

809 Maj. Donna M. Prigmore, “Building a Brighter Future,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 2, Summer 2001, 6-7.

810 Maj. Thomas DeFazio, “Prime BEEF Goes to Sea,” AFCE, Vol 17, No 2, 2009, 14-17.

811 1st Lt. Dan Wilcoxen, “Special OPS CEs Respond Quickly to Haiti Earthquake,” AFCE, Vol 18, No 

1, 2010, 22-23; Lt. Col. John C. Blackwell, “Port-au-Prince, Haiti: CEs Key to Safer Shelter Strategy,” AFCE, 

Vol 18, No 2, 2010, 14-15.

812 “CE Volunteers Built Homes in England,” The CE, Vol 8, No 3, Fall 2000, 33.

813 “Kunsan CEs Battle Floods, Mudslides,” The CE, Vol 8, No 3, Fall 2000, 32.

814 MSgt. Louis A. Adams, “From Drought to Flood,” AFCE, Vol 9, No 4, Winter 2001, 24-25.

815 “CE Teams Aid Andersen Typhoon Recovery,” AFCE, Vol 10, No 2, Summer 2002, 32.

816 “Tinker Tornado Damage Exceeds $10 Million,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 2, Summer 2003, 32.

817 “Cleaning Up After Isabel,” AFCE, Vol 11, No 3, Fall 2003, 18-19.

818 Ibid.

819 “When Stormy Winds Do Blow,” AFCE, Vol 12, No 3, 2004, 18-19.

820 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Transitions,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 2.

821 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “Leading the Way into a New Year...,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 4, 2.

822 “Katrina Batters Keesler,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 6-7; 1st Lt. Nathan D. Broshear, “RED HORSE 

Rides to Keesler,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 24.

823 Msgt. Michael E. Ward, “CEMIRT’s Got the Power,” AFCE, Vol 13, No 3, 2005, 22.

824 Maj. Gen. L. Dean Fox, “USAF: At Home and Abroad,” TME, Vol 98, No 641, May-June 2006, 83-85.

825 Teresa Hood, “CEs Put Keesler Back on Top,” AFCE, Vol 14, No 3, 2006, 16-19.

826 “Contingency Year in Review,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 16, No 4, 2008, 46.

827 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “Building to New Heights,” AFCE Almanac, Vol 18, No 4, 2010, 4.
Endnotes 777

Epilogue Endnotes

1 Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “Keynote Speech, AFCEC Activation Ceremony,” 1 Oct 2012, Files of the 

AFCESA History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida.

2 Memo, SECDEF Mr. Robert M. Gates to Secretaries of the Military Departments, “Improving Department of Defense Business Operations,” 4 Jun 2010; Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, CEnterline Video Script, “CE 

Transformation Update,” 4 June 2012; Air Force Civil Engineer Strategic Communications, “CE Transformation...Accelerated,” 26 March 2012, Files of AFCEC History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida.

3 Air Force Civil Engineer Strategic Communications, “CE Transformation...Accelerated Communication 

Guidance Card,” 14 Feb 2012, Files of AFCEC History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida; HQ USAF/CE Strategic 

Communications, “CE Transformation...Accelerated,” Air Force Civil Engineering Fact Sheet, Nov 2011

4 HQ USAF, Special Order GI-003, 27 Sep 2012, Files of the AFCESA History Office, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida; Maj. Gen. Timothy A. Byers, “Keynote Speech, AFCEC Activation Ceremony,” 1 Oct 2012, Files of 

the AFCESA History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida.

5 Memo, Lt. Gen. Judith L. Fedder, HQ USAF/A4/7 to Mr. Terry A. Yonkers, SAF/IE, Subj: Response 

to Field Operating Agency (FOA) Way Ahead, 30 July 2012,” 6 Aug 2012, Files of AFCESA History Office, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida; HQ USAF, Program Action Directive (PAD) 12-03, “Implementation of Enterprise-Wide 

Civil Engineer Transformation,” 26 Oct 12, 64-5.

6 HQ USAF, “CE Transformation...Accelerated Fact Sheet, Spiral 3,” November 2011, Files of AFCESA 

History Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida; HQ USAF, Program Action Directive (PAD) 12-03, “Implementation of 

Enterprise-Wide Civil Engineer Transformation,” 26 Oct 12, 47-60.

7 HQ USAF, Program Action Directive (PAD) 12-03, “Implementation of Enterprise-Wide Civil Engineer 

Transformation,” 26 Oct 12, 19-23, 103; Factsheet, “Planning and Integration Directorate, 6 September 2012. 

8 HQ USAF, Program Action Directive (PAD) 12-03, “Implementation of Enterprise-Wide Civil Engineer Transformation,” 26 Oct 12, 107-111; Brig. Gen. Dave Howe, “CE Transformation Supplemental Video: 

MAJCOM CE Staff of the Future,” 31 July 2012. 

779

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SUMMARY OF SOURCES

Items from the following four sources are not cited individually in this bibliography: Air Force Civil 

Engineer Magazine; Centerviews; The Military Engineer; and, the files of the AFCEC History Office, 

Tyndall, AFB, Florida. Instead, the sources are summarized below to provide a better understanding 

of the range of information they offered for this publication. Detailed citations on all items from these 

sources are found within the endnotes.

Air Force Civil Engineer Magazine

Air Force Civil Engineer magazine provided a significant amount of information for this book. Articles within the publication provided applicable histories, current events, and overviews of various 

programs, activities, and missions. The magazine also provided personal accounts that permitted a 

valuable understanding of struggles and losses, as well as accomplishments. 

The magazine debuted February 1, 1960 and was originally published by the Civil Engineering Center of the Air Force Institute of Technology at Wright-Patterson AFB. The new periodical was designed to be the equivalent of other military engineering journals with the broader mission of promoting increased professionalism and facilitating communication among civil engineers at the director’s 

office, major commands, and the bases. General Minton wrote in the inaugural issue, that the purpose 

of the new magazine was “to provide a medium of exchange of professional ideas and information 

which will result in a more effective civil engineering function in the Air Force.” General Minton 

wanted a journal that would encourage civil engineers to seek professional registration, to serve as a 

forum to share management improvement ideas, and to promote Air Force engineering achievements 

and challenges.

The magazine was published four times per year at Wright-Patterson AFB. General Minton encouraged authorship of articles and gained sponsorship of an award for the best article published each year. 

The yearly award was named in his honor. Throughout the years, the magazine has changed its name 

and format several times. The magazine’s name became the Engineering and Services Quarterly after 

Services and Civil Engineering were merged in 1975. Publication of the quarterly magazine ceased 

in 1986 during a period of cost reduction. The Air Force Engineering and Services Center began to 

publish a modest newsletter in August 1988. This newsletter initially was titled the Engineering and 

Services Update, and later the CE Update. In April 1993, the U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer magazine 

debuted. Full color illustrations were introduced in summer 1995. 

The magazine is now published quarterly by the Public Affairs staff at AFCEC, Tyndall AFB, Florida. 

In 1999, the magazine was made available as an online resource. It continues to provide articles regarding current and past achievements as well as information on advancing technologies, efficient 

solutions, and educational opportunities. 

Centerviews

This magazine was produced by the Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence (AFCEE) Public 

Affairs office beginning in 1992. It was the official news and information publication for AFCEE and 

covered the center’s varied activities. It was published quarterly until 2012 when AFCEE became part 

of the Air Force Civil Engineer Center.
780 Leading the Way

The Military Engineer

Articles from The Military Engineer were useful particularly in providing a broad context of the challenges faced by military engineers. Topics such as airport engineering, airfield construction, training, 

building bases, and environmental issues were essential to understanding the Air Force civil engineer 

role within the larger world of military engineers. 

The Military Engineer magazine began in 1909 as a collection of articles on engineering; it was 

named Professional Memoirs. The articles were circulated by the Army Engineer Bureau’s School 

Board. During World War I the publication focused on wartime topics, including transportation related construction, medical facilities, and barracks in France. In 1919, The Society of American Military 

Engineers (SAME) was created and given responsibility for publishing Professional Memoirs, which 

was renamed The Military Engineer. The magazine included articles on the postwar military, but also 

covered civilian engineering techniques and new developments. During the 1950s and 1960s, topics 

in the magazine ranged from advancements in weapons technology to the interstate highway system 

and the space program. Civilian engineers increased their contributions to the magazine, producing a 

high percentage of articles during this period. 

In 2005, The Military Engineer was made available as an online resource. In 2008, the name The 

Military Engineer was replaced with the acronym TME. The magazine continues to provide a combination of topics on engineering, covering military, technology, energy, sustainability, achievements, 

and current innovations. 

Files of the AFCEC History Office

The AFCEC History Office is located at Tyndall AFB, Florida. The office holds a collection of current and historical information on Air Force civil engineering including: publications, AFCEC annual 

histories, oral history interviews, chronologies, background papers, essays, presentations, conference 

materials, briefings, fact sheets, theses, squadron histories, deployment summaries, photographs, 

manpower statistics, annual histories assembled by Air Staff agencies and commands, RED HORSE 

unit histories, and numerous other items related to Air Force civil engineering. The collection primarily is organized topically, and includes entire groups of material dedicated to particular squadrons, 

operations, projects, and themes. The files are continually updated to include information on current 

events and changes within the AFCESA structure. 

The collection was started in 1985 and covers materials from World War I to current day. The collection continues to preserve and maintain an assembly of key documents related to the history of Air 

Force Civil Engineering and serves as a repository for research and analysis.

Books

Air National Guard Readiness Center. Survey of the Architectural and Archeological Cultural Resources at 

the Virginia Air National Guard Installations at the Richmond International Airport, Henrico County and 

the State Military Reservation, Camp Pendleton, City of Virginia Beach, Virginia. Prepared by R. Christopher Goodwin & Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, 2007.

Ambrose, Stephen. Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy 1938-1970. Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin 

Books, Inc., 1971. 

Arnold, Henry H. Global Mission. New York: Harper, 1949.

Beck, Alfred M., et al. United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers: 

The War Against Germany. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1985. 
781

Boyne, Walter J. Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the United States Air Force 1947-1997. New York: St. 

Martin’s Press, 1998.

Cameron, Fraser. US Foreign Policy After the Cold War: Global Hegemon or Reluctant Sheriff? 2nd ed. New 

York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2005.

Courchene, Douglas E. Pioneers with Intent: Memoirs of an Air Force Fire Fighter. Tyndall AFB, Florida: 

AFCESA History Office, July 2003.

Craven, Wesley Frank, and James Lea Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol 1, Plans & Early 

Operations, January 1939 to August 1942. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1983.

———. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol 2, Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to December 

1943. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1983.

———. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol 3, Europe: Argument to V-E Day, January 1944 to May 1945. 

Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1983.

———. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol 4, The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 

1944. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1983.

———. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol 5, The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 

1945. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1983.

———. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol 6, Men and Planes. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force 

History, 1983. 

———. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol 7, Services Around the World. Washington, D.C.: Office of 

Air Force History, 1983.

Davis, Richard G. Anatomy of a Reform, The Expeditionary Aerospace Force. Air Force History and Museums Program, 2003.

Dobson, Alan P. and Steve Marsh. US Foreign Policy Since 1945. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge Taylor & 

Francis Group, 2006.

Dod, Karl C. United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps of Engineers: The War 

Against Japan. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1966.

Duke, Simon. United States Military Forces and Installations in Europe. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Fine, Lenore and Jesse A. Remington. United States Army in World War II, The Technical Services, The Corps 

of Engineers: Construction in the United States. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 

1989.

Fletcher, Harry R. Air Force Bases Vol II: Air Bases Outside the United States of America. Washington, D.C.: 

Center for Air Force History, U.S. Air Force, 1993.

Fowle, Barry W., ed. Builders and Fighters: U.S. Army Engineers in World War II. Fort Belvoir, Virginia: Office of History, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1992.

Frazier, Capt. Everette. The Saga of Tsili Tsili. San Antonio, Texas: E.E. Frazier, 1992.

Gaddis, John Lewis. The Cold War: A New History. New York: The Penguin Press, 2005.

Glover, Lt. Col. Ralph C. The History of the 808th Engineer Aviation Battalion. SWPA File A167. Files of Air 

Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

Goldberg, Alfred, ed. A History of the United States Air Force. Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1957. Reprint, New York: Arno Press, Inc., 1974.

Grathwol, Robert P. and Donita M. Moorhus. American Forces in Berlin ’45 – ’94: Cold War Outpost. U.S. 

Department of Defense, Legacy Resource Management Program, Cold War Project, Washington, D.C. 

1994.

———. Building for Peace: U.S. Army Engineers in Europe, 1945 – 1991. Washington D.C.: Center of Military History, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, 2005.

Gross, Charles Joseph. The Air National Guard and the American Military Tradition. Washington, D.C.: Historical Services Division, National Guard Bureau, 1995.

Haggerty, Richard A., ed. Dominican Republic: A Country Study. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing 

Office, 1989. http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic.
782 Leading the Way

Haile, John and Ron Dalby. Top Cover and Global Engagement: A History of the Eleventh Air Force. Anchorage, Alaska: Alaska Quality Publishing, 2001. 

Harrington, Daniel F. “The Air Force Can Deliver Anything!” A History of the Berlin Airlift. Ramstein Air 

Base, Germany: U.S. Air Force Europe, Office of History, U.S. Air Force, 1998.

Hearn, Chester G. Air Force: An Illustrated History. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Zenith Press, 2008.

Hennessy, Juliette A. The United States Army Air Arm, April 1861 to April 1917. Washington, D.C.: Office of 

Air Force History, 1985.

The History of IX Engineer Command: From its beginning to V-E Day, Schlangenbad, Germany 1945.

Hunley, J.D. The San Antonio Real Property Maintenance Agency: A Case Study of Centralization. History 

and Research Office, HQ Air Training Command, 1990.

Jamieson, Perry D. Khobar Towers: Tragedy and Response. Washington D.C.: Air Force History and Museums Program, U.S. Air Force, 2008.

Jamieson, Perry D. Lucrative Targets: The U.S. Air Force in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations. Air Force 

History and Museums Programs, U.S. Air Force, Washington, D.C., 2001.

Kenney, Gen. George C. General Kenney Reports: A Personal History of the Pacific War. Washington, D.C.: 

Air Force History and Museums Program, 1997.

Lee, Ulysses. The Employment of Negro Troops. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 

U.S. Army, 1966.

Lloyd, Alwyn T. A Cold War Legacy A Tribute to Strategic Air Command 1946 – 1992. Missoula, Montana: 

Pictorial Histories Publishing Company, Inc., 1999.

Lonnquest, John C. and David Winkler. To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold War Missile Program. Champaign, Illinois: U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories, 1996. 

Manufacturers Aircraft Association, Inc. Aircraft Year Book. Doubleday, New York, New York: Page and 

Company for the Manufacturers Aircraft Association, Inc., 1920.

Maurer, Maurer. Aviation in the U.S. Army 1919-1939. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, U.S. 

Air Force, 1987.

Maurer, Maurer, ed. The U.S. Air Service in World War I. Vol IV, Postwar Review. The Albert F. Simpson 

Historical Research Center, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1978.

Mead and Hunt, Inc. “The Missile Plains: Frontline of America’s Cold War, Historic Resource Study, Minuteman Missile National Historic Site, South Dakota.” Prepared for U.S. Department of the Interior National 

Park Service Midwest Regional Office. http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/mimi/hrs.htm.

Miller, Roger G. A Preliminary to War: The 1st Aero Squadron and the Mexican Punitive Expedition of 1916. 

Washington, D.C.: Air Force History and Museums Program, 2003.

Morton, Louis. U.S. Army in World War II: The Fall of the Philippines. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military 

History, 1953.

Nalty, Bernard C., ed. Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History of the United States Air Force, Vols I and II. 

Washington, D.C.: Air Force History and Museums Program, 1997.

Nauman, Robert Allen. On the Wings of Modernism, The United States Air Force Academy. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2004.

Office of Air Force History. “Condensed Analysis of the Ninth Air Force in the European Theater of Operations.” Washington D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1984.

Office of the Historian HQ SAC. “Snark to Peacekeeper A Pictorial History of Strategic Air Command Missiles.” HQ SAC, Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, 1990.

Palmer, R.R. and Joel Colton. A History of the Modern World. New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978.

Peeler, Kirsten, Christine Heidenrich, Katherine E. Grandine, and Dean A. Doerrfeld. “Housing an Air Force 

and a Navy: The Wherry and Capehart Solutions to the Postwar Family Housing Shortage (1949-1962).” 

Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Air Force and the U.S. Department of the Navy by R. Christopher 

Goodwin and Associates, Inc., Frederick, Maryland, June 2007.

Polmar, Norman. Strategic Air Command: People, Aircraft, and Missiles. Annapolis, Maryland: The Nautical 

and Aviation Publishing Company of America, Inc., 1979.
783

Reynolds, Capt. Cecil L. “Construction for United States Air Forces in Europe, 8 May 1945-1 July 1947.” HQ 

U.S. Air Force Europe, 1 August 1948.

Rudd, Gordon W. Humanitarian Intervention: Assisting the Iraqi Kurds in Operation Provide Comfort. U.S. 

Army Center of Military History, Washington, D.C., 2004.

Scales, Gen. Robert H. Certain Victory: The US Army in the Gulf War. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: U.S. Army 

Command and General Staff College Press, 1994.

Schlicht, John. The War in South Vietnam: The Years of the Offensive, 1965-1968. Air Force History and 

Museums Program, 1999.

Schlicht, John. A War Too Long: The USAF in Southeast Asia, 1961-1975. Air Force History and Museums 

Program, 1996.

Schubert, Frank N. Building Air Bases in the Negev: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in Israel, 1979-1982. 

Washington, D.C.: Office of History, Corps of Engineers, 1992.

Shaw, Frederick J. “History’s Footprints: USAF Continental Bases.” Air Force Historical Research Agency, 

Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 2004.

Shaw, Frederick J., ed. Locating Air Force Base Sites, History’s Legacy. Washington, D.C.: Air Force History 

and Museum Program, 2004.

Walker, Lois E., and Shelby E. Wickam. From Huffman Prairie to the Moon: The History of Wright-Patterson 

AFB. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1986.

Webster, Donovan. The Burma Road: The Epic Story of the China-Burma-India Theater. New York: Farrar, 

Straus & Giroux, 2003.

Warnock, A. Timothy, Ed., Ed. Short of War: Major USAF Contingency Operations, Air Force History and 

Museums Program, Air University Press, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 2000. 

Winkler, David F. Searching the Skies the Legacy of the United States Cold War Defense Radar Program. HQ 

U.S. Air Force Air Combat Command, Langley AFB, Virginia, 1997.

Wolk, Herman S. Planning and Organizing the Postwar Air Force 1943-1947. Washington, D.C.: Office of 

Air Force History, U.S. Air Force, 1984. 

Interviews

Ahearn, Maj. Gen. Joseph A. (USAF, Retired). “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Douglas H. Merkle 

and Lois E. Walker. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, March 2008.

Bridges, Maj. Timothy. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer and Mr. Duane Knutson. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 1 August 1991.

Byer, Capt. Jeffrey. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall 

AFB, Florida, July 1991.

Crockett, Rufus D. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Lois E. Walker. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, 

Florida, April 2005.

Curtin, Maj. Gen. Robert H. (USAF, Retired). “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Lois E. Walker and Dr. 

Ronald B. Hartzer. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2003.

Davison, Brig. Gen. Donald. Interview. 21 June 1943. Unpublished manuscript, Air Force Historical Research 

Agency, 638.951, Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

Fisher, Capt. Marvin N. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall 

AFB, Florida, August 1991.

Flora, Mr. Gary S. (SES, Retired). “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Lois E. Walker and Dr. Douglas H. 

Merkle. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2005.

Gilbert, Maj. Gen. William D. (USAF, Retired). “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Lois E. Walker. HQ 

AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 2002. 

Goddard, Maj. Gen. Guy H. (USAF, Retired). “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer 

and Lois E. Walker. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, February 2003.
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Hicks, Lt. Col. Alfred B., Jr. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer and Mr. Duane 

Knutson. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 23 January 1992.

Hinegardner, MSgt. William L. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer. HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 1990.

Hunt, Lt. Col. Rodney L. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer and Duane Knutson. 

HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 1991.

Leonhard, Brig. Gen. William (USAF, Retired). “Interview of Brigadier General William Leonhard, USAF 

(Retired).” Interview by Dr. John Lonnquest. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Office of History, 2000-2001.

Lucas, Col. Rio G. (USAF, Retired). “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Lois E. Walker. HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, July 1999.

McAuliffe, Brig. Gen. Michael A. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, Mr. Duane 

Knutson, and Mr. Norm Falk. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, July 1991.

McCarthy, Maj. Gen. James E. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Douglas H. Merkle and Lois E. 

Walker. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2005.

McCoy, Lt. Col. Ronald P. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, August 1991.

Mayes, Brig. Gen. Archie S. (USAF, Retired). “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Lois E. Walker. AFCESA HQ, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2000.

Meredith, Brig. Gen. William T. (USAF, Retired). “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Lois E. Walker. HQ 

AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, December 2001. 

Minton, Maj. Gen. Augustus M. (USAF, Retired). “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Lois E. Walker and 

Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001.

Norris, Maj. Richard. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, Duane Knutson, and 

MSgt. David Beal. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, October 1991.

Patterson, Capt. Wayland H. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer. HQ AFCESA, 

Tyndall AFB, Florida, July 1991.

Peters, Brig. Gen. John D. (USAF, Retired). “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Lois E. Walker and Dr. 

Ronald B. Hartzer. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, June 2001.

Rietman, Mr. Harry P. (Retired). “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Lois E. Walker. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, November 2004.

Sanders, Maj. David, Lt. Joel Holtrop, and Lt. Brian Duffy. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Ronald 

B. Hartzer. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, September 1991.

Smith, Joseph H. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Lois E. Walker. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 

November 2004.

Waylett, Col. Susanne M. (USAF, Retired). “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Lois E. Walker. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, 2000.

Wilson, Col. Thomas F. “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Dr. Ronald B. Hartzer, Duane Knutson, and 

Peter Hart. HQ AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, October 1991.

Wright, Maj. Gen. Clifton D., Jr. (USAF, Retired). “Oral History Interview.” Interview by Lois E. Walker. HQ 

AFCESA, Tyndall AFB, Florida, May 2002. 

Academic Theses

Ashdown, Lt. Col. Floyd A. “A History of the Warfighting Capability of Air Force Civil Engineering.” Thesis, 

Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1984.

Bohlen, Col. George A. “Research Report No. 9, USAF Engineer Heavy Repair/Troop Construction Capability.” Research Report, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 25 May 1977.

Bradham, Lt. Col. Gary C. “Integrating AF Services and MWR Organizations: Impacts, Assessment, and 

Recommendations.” Executive Research Project for the Industrial College of the Armed Forces National 
785

Defense University, 1992. 

Brown, Jerold E. “Where Eagles Roost: A History of Army Airfields Before World War II.” Ph. D. diss., Department of History, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, September 1977. 

Buckman, Lt. Col. Gerald A., Sr. “Making the Future Total Force Work.” U.S. Army War College Strategy 

Research Project, U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania, 2006. http://www.dtic.mil/

cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA448838.

Cannan, Maj. David M. “Base-Level Civil Engineering Forces of the Twenty-First Century.” Report submitted to Air Command and Staff College, Maxwell AFB, 1984.

Card, Lt. Col. Bernard. “The Role of Engineers in the Air Force.” Research report, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1948.

Chiarelli, Lt. Col. Peter W. “Goldwater-Nichols Revisited: A Proposal for Meaningful Defense Reorganization.” Thesis, Army War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1993.

Freeman, Lt. Col. Myron L. USAF Force Protection: Is It Really Everyone’s Responsibility? Prepared for Air 

War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 9 December 2002.

Griffin, Maj. Bobbie L. and Maj. George R. Velasco. “The Air Force Environmental Quality Program: A Historical Look at Air Force Efforts to Achieve Environmental Excellence.” Research report, Air Command 

and Staff College, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, April 1996.

Harty, Lt. Col. John R. “An Analysis of Air Force Civil Engineering Research and Development Management.” Research Report, Air War College, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1978.

Hasberry, Maj. Valerie L., U.S. Air Force. “Engineering the Future: Organizing United States Air Force Civil 

Engineers for Joint Operations and the Projection of Airpower.” Research paper submitted to U.S. Marine 

Corps Command and Staff College, Quantico, Virginia, 2002.

Johnson, Lt. Col. Jack L. Rebasing the 401st Tactical Fighter Wing—Here, There, or Anywhere? Prepared for 

the National War College. 22 February 1990. http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA437312. 

Jackson, Ralph E. “Relocating the 401st Tactical Fighter Wing.” Thesis AFIT, submitted to University of 

Maryland, College Park, 3 May 1991. http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a281968.pdf.

Mondo, Capt. Francis J. “Analysis of Air Force Civil Engineering Strategic Planning.” Thesis, AFIT, Air 

University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 2003.

Lauson, Capt. Gary B. “Civil Engineering Combat Experiences during the Vietnam War: An Exploratory 

Study.” Thesis, AFIT, WPAFB, Ohio, 1989.

Loeber, MSgt. Paul C. “An Investigation of GeoBase Mission Data Set Design, Implementation, and Usage 

within Air Force Civil Engineer Electrical and Utilities Work Centers.” Thesis, AFIT, Wright-Patterson 

AFB, Ohio, 2005.

O’Boyle, Maj. Shannon E. “Today’s Air Expeditionary Force: A Time for Change.” Research report, Air 

Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, April 2007.

Pope, Capt. Andrew D. “The Military Construction (MILCON) Program and Privatization: A Comparative 

Analysis.” Thesis, AFIT, Wright Patterson AFB, September 1990.

Smith, Lt. Col. Emmitt G. “Air Force Engineer Squadrons: Shifting Sands or Solid Foundation.” Research 

report, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1996.

Smith, Ronald L. “Organizing Air Force Civil Engineers For Peace, War, and Military Operations Other Than 

War (MOOTW).” Research Report, Air War College, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1996.

Tyley, Major Jeffrey L. Project Turnkey Construction of Tuy Hoa Air Base, South Vietnam – A Historical Perspective – Is There Future Application? Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, 

Alabama, April 1987.

Waggoner, Capt. L. Dean and 1st Lt. M. Allen Moe. “A History of Air Force Civil Engineering Wartime and 

Contingency Problems from 1941 to the Present.” Thesis 85S-23, AFIT, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, 

September 1985.
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Articles

“$10B AFCAP III Program Contract Provides ‘Expeditionary Engineering.’” Defense Industry Daily (DID), 

10 November 2005. http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/10b-afcap-iii-program-contract-provides-expeditionary-engineering.

18th Wing Public Affairs. “Kadena Wins CINC’s Installation Excellence Award for PACAF.” 9 October 2010. 

http://www.kadena.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123225820. 

Air Reserve Forces Review Magazine. Washington D.C.: Department of the Air Force (November 1951). 

Air Reserve Forces Review Magazine. Washington D.C.: Department of the Air Force (November 1972). 

Albert, Lt. Col. Joseph L., and Capt. Billy C. Wylie. “Air War in Korea: IV Problems of Airfield Construction 

in Korea.” Air University Quarterly Review Vol 5, No 1 (Winter 1951-1952).

“Amchitka Airstrip Built in 20 Days...” Aviation Engineer Notes No 15 (September 1943).

“American Engineers Rush Bomber Bases in England.” Aviation Engineer Notes No 8 (August 1942).

Anderson, Maj. Jon. “Tallil Services and CE Troops Help Make Expeditionary Life Less ‘Expeditionary,’” 

The Tallil Times, Vol 1, No 3, 30 May 2003. http://kumite.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/20030530-

tallil-times-newspaper.pdf.

“An Engineer Job in the Aleutian Islands.” Aviation Engineer Notes No 14 (August 1943).

Arna-Barradas, Louis. “Aviano Undergoes Renaissance.” Airman Magazine (November 2000). www.af.mil/

news/story.asp?id=123069313.

“The Aviation Engineers in North Africa.” Aviation Engineer Notes No 14 (August 1943).

“Aviation Engineers on Saipan.” Aviation Engineer Notes No 32 (February 1945).

Baldwin, William C. “Engineers and the Berlin Airlift, 1948-1949.” Engineer (April 1998).

———. “Wherry and Capehart: Army Family Housing Privatization Programs in the 1950s.” Engineer (April 

1996).

Bentley, David. “Operation Sea Signal: U.S. Military Support for Caribbean Migration Emergencies 

May 1994 to February 1996.” National Defense University, Strategic Forum Institute for Strategic 

Studies, No 3, May 1996. http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.

pdf&AD=ADA394323. 

Boehm, Airman 1st Class Allison M. “RED HORSE Builds up for Drawdown.” USAF Print News, 6 April 

2010. http://www.332aew.afcent.af.mil/news/story_print.asp?id=123198410.

Bowie, Christopher J. “The Lessons of Salty Demo.” Air Force Magazine (March 2009). http://www.airforcemagazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2009/March%202009/0309salty.aspx.

Brantey-Sisk, Airman 1st Class Brigitte N. “EOD Team Trains with New Response Vehicle.” 20 October 

2010. http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123227056. 

Broshear, Capt. Nathan D. “Airmen Rediscover RED HORSE Legacy in Haiti.” 22 February 2010. http://

www.acc.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123190902.

Buckingham, Maj. William A., Jr. “Operation Ranch Hand: Herbicides In Southwest Asia.” Air University 

Review (July-August 1983). http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1983/Jul-Aug/

buckingham.html. 

“C-23 crashes in Georgia, 21 dead.” St. Augustine, Florida (AFPN). 4 March 2001. Files of AFCEC History 

Office, Tyndall AFB, Florida.

Caples, Maj. W. G. “Airfield Construction on Leyte.” Aviation Engineer Notes No 33 (March 1945).

 “Civil Engineers Build Partnership Capacity in Afghanistan.” The Engineer’s Compass Vol 1, No 2 (October 

2008).

“CE Rotates to El Salvador ‘for the children.’” On-Final. 507th Air Refueling Wing, Tinker AFB, Oklahoma, 

July 2005 Vol 25, No 7. http://www.507arw.afrc.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-051221-022.pdf.

“Commendation of Aviation Engineers.” Aviation Engineer Notes No 5 (April 1942).

Correll, John T. “How the Air Force Got the ICBM.” Air Force Magazine (July 2005).

Correll, John T. “New Horizons for the Total Force.” Air Force Magazine (August 2002).
787

“Criteria for Dispersed Airdromes.” Aviation Engineer Notes No 8 (August 1942) and No 14 (August 1943).

Danielson, Brig. Gen. W. A. “Wings Over Panama: A Defense Airfield in Panama’s Jungle.” Quartermaster 

Review (July-August 1941).

Doemer, William R. and Anastasia Toutexis. “Space: New Pad for the Space Shuttle.” Time, 5 March 1984. 

http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,952355,00.html. 

Driskill, Capt. Jonathan. “36th CES Getting the Job Done.” Bitburg Skyblazer. October 1991.

Edwards, 2nd Lt. Joshua S. “Peacekeeper Missile Mission Ends During Ceremony.” USAF Print News, 20 

September 2005. http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?storyid=123011845.

 “EOD Evolves with Fight.” Air Force Magazine (3 April 2007). http://www.airforce-magazine.com/DRArchive/Pages/2007/April%202007/April%2013%202007/1090EOD.aspx. 

“Fall and Winter Airfield Construction in France.” Aviation Engineer Notes No 34 (April 1945).

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797

a la carte food service, 333

A-76 Process, 333, 349, 455-56, 584-85

Aberdeen Proving Ground, 470

Abu Ghraib, 625

Activity Management Plans, 568-69, 654-55

Adabelle Lykes, 270

Aero Squadrons

435th Aero Squadron, 10

462d Aero Squadron, 10-11

48th Provisional Squadron, 10

Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility, 230, 238, 319, 

329, 366

Aerospace Defense Command, 314, 543, 606

Aerospace Expeditionary Force, 524, 602

4th Air Expeditionary Force

Afghanistan, 397, 520, 523, 546-48, 550, 555, 583, 

594, 603, 606-10, 612, 614-19, 627, 629, 632-36, 

638-39, 651

Agent Orange, 355, 356, 450

Ahearn, Joseph A, “Bud,” 123, 124, 233, 253, 298, 

309, 310, 313, 314, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 

332, 346, 372, 373, 389, 398, 399, 402, 407, 408, 

409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 422, 426, 435, 437, 

438, 480, 482

Air Force Order of the Sword, 402

Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefings, 409-

10, 414, 438

Maj. Gen. Ahearn Enlisted Leadership Award, 

402

Aimone, Michael, 353, 516, 532

Air Base Operability, 388-89, 411, 413-14, 442-43, 

448

Air Base Survivability Systems Management Office, 

388

Air Combat Command (ACC), 401, 405, 414-15, 

427, 434-35, 443, 452, 457, 459, 470, 472, 479, 

510, 523, 528, 532, 536, 560, 566, 571, 584, 588, 

599-600, 606-07, 627, 655

Air Corps Act, 15

Air Corps, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 

25, 30, 31, 32, 33, 44, 50, 90

Aircraft Control and Warning, 109, 115

Aircraft Rescue Field Assistance and Evaluation 

Team, 207

Aircraft types

B-17s, 35, 38, 51, 55

B-2, 239, 463, 506, 549, 550, 588, 600

B-24, 64, 67

B-26, 38, 39, 165

B-29, 29, 59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 68, 71, 74, 75

B-47, 463

B-52, 103, 221, 365, 506

B-57, 261, 279

C-123, 255

C-124, 126, 150, 164, 173

C-130, 372, 465, 478, 490, 495, 497-98, 501, 

571, 623, 641, 650

C-17, 592, 611, 650

C-45, 161

C-47, 27, 69, 157

C-5, 220, 236, 238, 372

CG-4A Waco, 27, 70

F/A 22, 367, 588

F-15, 244, 371, 508

F-15C, 588

F-16, 372, 375, 488, 573

F-86, 162

FB-111, 244

KC-130, 619

KC-135, 612, 619

P-51, 61

Air Defense Command, 82, 87, 98, 103, 109, 112-13, 

115-16, 136, 190, 222, 239, 260-62, 264, 299, 314

Air Engineer Plan, 85

Air Engineer, 29, 30, 38, 47, 71, 77, 79, 83, 85, 156

Air Force Academy, 84, 91, 105, 131-36, 175, 223, 

229, 248, 260, 334, 344, 390, 404, 459, 469-70, 

476-77, 517, 519, 525-26, 552, 577, 578, 581, 593, 

595-96

Chapel, 132-36, 

Field Engineering and Readiness Laboratory, 

469-70, 596

Operation Civil Engineering Air Force, 596

Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, 132

Air Force Academy Construction Agency, 91, 131-36

Air Force Assistant Chief of Staff, (The Civil Engineer), 402, 408, 411

Air Force Assistant Chief of Staff, Installations, 89, 

91, 96, 102, 104, 109, 110, 131, 146, 172

Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, 119, 122-23, 

126-27, 130

Air Force Base Conversion Agency, 458, 532, 560, 

586

Air Force Base Disposal Agency, 411, 459

Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence 

(AFCEE), 402, 410-11, 415, 418, 435, 437-42, 456, 

458, 468, 518, 531-32, 536, 541, 543-44, 551-61, 

566, 575, 582, 585-86, 632, 647, 650, 653

Centralization of MILCON, Housing, and Environmental Restoration, 535-6

Housing Privatization, 456, 

Initial Organizational Structure, 438

Iraqi/Afghanistan Reconstruction, 552-55

Mission statement, 560

INDEX
798 Leading the Way

Origins, 410-11, 435-38

Pollution Prevention Conference, 439

PRO-ACT, 439, 558

Renamed the Air Force Center for Engineering 

and the Environment, 559

Transfer of S/R&M to AFCESA 543-44

Air Force Chaplain Services, 477

Air Force Civil Engineer Center, 538, 540, 652-54

Origins, 652-53

NEPA Center of Excellence, 654

Air Force Civil Engineering Center, 208-11, 220, 

227-29, 295, 314-16, 320, 323, 430

Origins and move to Tyndall, 208-11

R&D, 209-11

Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (AFCESA), 220, 375, 402, 408, 410, 412-13, 415, 418-20, 

426-29, 431-34, 438, 443-49, 453-55, 457-58, 468, 

471, 473, 506, 509, 518, 531, 535, 541-49, 551, 

558, 566, 571, 573, 575, 579, 582, 595, 597-599, 

601, 604-6, 633, 638, 642, 649-50, 653

AFCAP, 433-35, 548-51

Agency Relook, 431

Air Force Facility Energy Center, 545

Building 1117, 323-24

Building 1120, 318

Designation as FOA, 426

Disaster Preparedness, 429

EOD, 428-29

IT role, 453-54, 

Mission statement, 410, 432

Reach-Back Center, 543, 545, 566

Origins and Redesignated as AFCESA, 412

S/R&M Mission, 543-44

Transfer of Laboratory, 415

Transfer of Services, 427

Utilities Privatization, 457-58

Air Force Civil Engineering mission statement, 332, 

334, 412, 541

Air Force Commissary Service, 314, 316

Air Force Contract Augmentation Program (AFCAP), 433-35, 508-10, 542, 548-51, 614, 649

Air Force Council, 404, 408, 416, 418

Air Force Deputy Chief of Staff, Installations and 

Logistics, 418

Air Force Deputy Director of Engineering and Services, 315, 316, 383, 435

Air Force Director of Air Installations, 82-83, 85, 

316

Air Force Director of Civil Engineering, 79, 97, 174, 

177-85, 191-92, 195, 201, 203, 224, 232, 240, 242, 

245, 259-60, 272, 285, 293, 300-2, 306, 349, 366, 

415, 525, 614

Construction Division, 182, 184-85, 324, 560

Air Force Directorate of Engineering and Services, 

228, 303-6, 311-12, 315, 324, 325, 327-28, 332, 

345, 359-60, 408, 482

Merger of Engineering and Services, 311-13, 

339

Air Force Directorate of Installations, 87-91, 93-94, 

99, 101, 104, 106, 109, 130-31, 136, 141, 146, 151, 

156, 158, 174

Construction Division, 90, 95, 99, 101, 109, 110, 

131, 136,

Air Force Doctrine Document 421-22

Air Force Dormitory Plan, 588

Air Force Engineering and Services Agency, 314, 

316, 320

Air Force Engineering and Services Center (AFESC), 189, 303, 306-7, 309, 312-20, 322-24, 328-

29, 331, 344-46, 352-53, 355, 356, 359, 364-65, 

381, 383-84, 386, 390, 394, 396, 407-10, 412, 422, 

426-27, 435, 472, 481, 491-92, 513

Construction Cost Program, 319-20, 328-9

Contingency Training, 381, 383-84, 410

DMRD 967, 406-8

Emblem, 318

Energy, 353

Gulf War role, 426, 481

Laboratory, 320-23

McPeak Review, 408-10

Mission statement, 315, 332, 334, 412, 432, 522, 

541, 560

Origins, 309, 315-16

Organizational structure, 317

WIMS/SIMS, 343-46

Air Force Engineering and Services Quarterly, 339

Air Force Environmental Information Management 

 System, 558

Air Force Engineering Technology Office, 316, 320

Air Force Environmental Protection Committee, 356

Air Force Facility Energy Center, 544-45, 576

Air Force Installations Representative, 91, 95, 99-

101, 109, 113-17, 123, 137

Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT), 60, 79, 

153-55, 226, 245-48, 250, 329, 375-76, 379, 436, 

466-69, 519, 593-95

Applied Engineering Course, 246

Air Installations Engineering Special Staff Officer Course, 141, 153

Civil Engineer Superintendents Course, 595

Cool School, 245

Education with Industry, 246-47, 376-77

Environmental courses, 226 

Graduate Engineering and Environmental Management, 467-69, 593

Graduate Engineering Management, 376

Air Installations School, 153

Officer field education, 467, 472
799

Origins, 153-55 

Short Course Program, 246-47, 375

Air Force Management Engineering Agency, 346, 

382, 413

Air Force Manual 3-2, 421

Air Force Materiel Command, 401, 415, 476, 532, 

584, 598

Air Force Museum, 240, 241

Air Force Real Estate Agency, 411

Air Force Real Property Agency (AFRPA), 560-63, 

586, 653

Air Force Regional Civil Engineer (AFRCE). See 

also Air Force Installations Representative, 101, 

183, 185, 191, 230, 235, 240, 259, 262, 285, 314, 

316, 324, 328, 334, 343, 355, 357-61, 365, 367-70, 

403, 408, 410, 428, 431, 438-39

Renamed AFRCE, 101

AFRCE-BMS, 361

AFRCE-MX, 359, 360

Disestablished, 428, 438

Saigon AFRCE, 259 

Thailand AFRCE, 259

Air Force Research Laboratory, 572, 638, 653

Air Force Reserve, 211, 212, 385-87, 390, 396-97, 

470, 563, 585, 601, 613, 617, 644

Air Force Safety Agency, 430

Air Force Services Office, 314, 316

Air Force Smart Operations 21, 522, 529-30, 535, 

570

Air Force Space Command, 240, 401, 523, 562, 584, 

598

Air Force Special Operations Command, 401, 635, 

646

Air Force Standard Systems Center, 453-54

Air Force Systems Command, 180, 185, 208, 230, 

233, 238, 296, 320-23, 347, 361, 366, 391, 401

Air Force Weapons Laboratory, 200, 209-10, 220, 

240, 242, 322, 323

Air Installation Compatible Use Zone, 181-82, 211, 

227-28, 354

Air installation officer, 87, 88, 90, 139, 140, 141, 

142, 145, 146, 147, 148, 153

Air-launched cruise missile, 365

Air Materiel Command, 99, 117, 209, 428

Air Mobility Command, 401, 415, 439, 450, 503, 

530, 584

Air National Guard, 87, 211-13, 251, 252, 385-86, 

393, 420-21, 426, 454, 470, 474, 479, 482, 511-13, 

523, 533, 537, 551, 561, 563-64, 582, 597, 601, 

603-5, 610-13, 617, 622, 628, 638-40, 642-45, 649

Pink Pony, 212

Air Rapid Response Kit, 636, 637, 646

Air Training Command, 155, 168, 268, 344, 347, 444

Airborne RED HORSE, 621, 627-28

Airborne Aviation Engineers, 27, 38, 55, 57, 68-70, 

72-73, 606, 618, 622-23, 627

Airborne Aviation Engineer’s Song, 73

Aircraft arresting systems, 162, 547, 601

BAK-6, 162

MA-1A, 162

Aircraft Crash Rescue, 140, 147-49, 185, 207

Airfield Pavement Evaluation Team, 206, 542, 546

Airfield Pavement Evaluation, 506, 542, 545, 546

Airmen’s Council, 404

Al Asad, 633

Al Dhafra, 483, 484, 485, 488, 549, 550, 607, 613, 

614

Al Kasik, 552

Al Kharj, 419, 482, 487, 490, 492, 493, 495, 500

Al Minhad, 487

Al Qaeda, 520, 606, 634, 640, 651

Al Udeid AB, 607, 611, 612, 614,618, 620, 636

Albrook AB, 32

Ali AB (Tallil AB), 621, 628-29, 633

Ali Al Salem, 430, 495, 549, 618

Alkire, Gary, 371

All-Purpose Remote Transport System, 510, 574, 

609, 638

Altus AFB, 231, 395, 584

AM-2 matting, 210, 266, 271, 277-78, 283, 286, 292, 

389, 393, 474, 547, 619

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, 

588

An Numinayah, 552

An Shas Air Base, 372

Andersen AFB, 296, 297, 434, 498, 517, 587, 592, 

645, 647

Andrews, Evander, 612, 636

Andrews, George, 291

Antigua Air Station, 462

Anzio, 40, 41, 42

Aqueous Film-Forming Foam, 220, 446

Arin, John A., 467

ARMCO revetment, 260, 264, 279

Armour, Charles, 411

Armstrong Laboratory, 415, 470

Army Air Corps, 1, 21, 30, 53, 89, 92, 97

Army Air Forces, 1, 3, 22-27, 29-30, 35, 39, 47, 59, 

65, 68, 76-78, 80-86, 89, 138-39, 147, 155

Army Signal Corps, 1

Arnold Engineering Development Center, 230, 238, 

366

Arnold, Henry, H. “Hap,” 3, 6, 20, 23, 25, 27-28, 31, 

39, 59, 65, 72, 76, 82

Ascension Auxiliary Airfield, 462

Ascension Island, 461, 577

Asensio, Manuel, 22

Asset Management, 567-68
800 Leading the Way

Assisi, Italy, 516

A-Staff Configuration, 525, 530, 531

Atlas Missile, 118-21, 123-30, 233-34

Australia, 35, 53-6, 66, 76, 286

Automated Civil Engineer System (ACES), 433, 

454, 579-81

Aviano 2000, 464, 589

Zappala, 464

Aviano AB, 244, 295, 394, 434, 464-65, 486, 507-8, 

516, 589, 590

Aviation Engineer Force, 167-68

Aviation Engineer Notes, 29

Aviation engineers, 11, 27, 29, 30, 37-39, 47, 58, 

60, 64, 67-71, 74-78, 80-81, 83, 85, 141, 156, 159, 

164, 167-71

Airborne Aviation Engineers, 27, 38, 55, 57, 68, 

69, 70, 72, 73

Board of Officers, 78-80

Bucking Bulldozer emblem, 40

Engineer Aviation Battalions, 27-29, 32-39, 41-

43, 46, 52-56, 58, 65-68, 71-75, 77, 85, 109, 

155, 158, 160-61, 167, 169, 170, 627

Equipment/Vehicles, 27

Korean Conflict, 116-125

IX Engineer Command, 37, 42-48, 50, 77-79, 82

World War II; African-American, 27, 71, 74; 

Alaska, 30-2; Atlantic and Caribbean Bases, 

33-34; Australia, 53-55; Central Pacific, 58-

64; China-Burma-India, 68-75; England, 35-

37; Hawaii and the Pacific, 34-35; Iwo Jima 

and Okinawa, 75-76; Normandy to V-E Day, 

42-51; North Africa, 37-39; North Pacific, 

51- 53; Panama, 32-34; Pearl Harbor, 51; 

Philippines, 64-68; Sicily, Italy, and Southern 

France, 39-42; South Pacific, 55-56; Southwest Pacific, 56-58 

Aviation Engineer Battalion

69th EAB, 110, 167

71st EAB, 167

802d EAB, 32, 52, 160

803d EAB, 29, 35, 51, 65

804th EAB, 29, 34-35, 51, 58, 60, 65

805th EAB, 32, 60, 90

806th EAB, 60, 158

807th EAB, 32, 52, 109

808th EAB, 53-54, 56, 160-61, 165

809th EAB, 35, 38, 41, 158

810th EAB, 27-28, 54-56

811th EAB, 54-55, 75, 160

813th EAB, 52, 109

814th EAB, 38-39, 41

815th EAB, 38, 41-42

817th EAB, 36, 38, 41-42

819th EAB, 43

821st EAB, 55

822d EAB, 55-56, 160

824th EAB, 33

828th EAB, 55, 68

830th EAB, 36

831st EAB, 36, 77

834th EAB, 37, 43, 46, 51

835th EAB, 42

836th EAB, 58, 68

839th EAB, 160

844th EAB, 167

848th EAB, 71

849th EAB, 71

850th EAB, 77

852d EAB, 77-78

853d EAB, 71

854th EAB, 58

858th EAB, 71, 74

862d EAB, 77

864th EAB, 68

871st EAB, 38

873d EAB, 55

879th EAB, 70-71

887th EAB, 38

900th EAB, 68-69

923d EAB, 167

930th EAB, 160

1874th EAB, 66-67

1875th EAB, 71

1876th EAB, 68

1877th EAB, 71

1878th EAB, 60

1879th EAB, 68

1881st EAB, 66

1883d EAB, 71

1884th EAB, 58

1887th EAB, 58

1888th EAB, 71

1891st EAB, 74

1894th EAB, 60

1903d EAB, 161

Aviation Engineer Group

45th EAG, 167

304th EAG, 167

322d EAG, 159

327th EAG, 167

Aviation Engineer Regiment

21st EAR, 27-9, 33, 38

28th EAR, 31

931st Engineer Aviation Regiment, 58, 160

933d Engineer Aviation Regiment, 76

935th Engineer Aviation Regiment, 76

Bacon, Tyree, 606
801

Baghdad, 621, 629, 631-33, 636-37

Baghdad International Airport, 622, 623, 625

Bagram, Afghanistan, 550, 607, 610, 611, 614-17

Bahrain, 373, 482, 487, 511, 619-20

Balad AB, Iraq, 550, 623-24, 626, 629, 632-33, 635-

36

Baledogle, Somalia, 501

Balfour, Arthur J., 8

Balikesir, Turkey, 434, 508

Balkans, 39, 464, 500, 503, 515

Ballistic Missile Early Warning System, 116-17, 197

Ballistic Missile Office, 329, 360

Bare base. See also, Harvest Bare; Harvest Eagle; 

Harvest Falcon, 176, 276, 292-93, 300, 375, 383, 

391-92, 419, 473, 476, 480, 483, 485, 488, 492, 

500, 503, 508, 583, 604, 607, 611, 622, 636-37, 

643

Barker, Daniel J., 473

Barksdale AFB, 16-20, 155, 339, 343-44, 361, 397, 

515, 517, 576, 643, 645

Bartel, H. Dean, 447, 457

Barthold, Bruce A. 543, 598

Base Civil Engineer, 174, 193, 214-15, 218, 297, 

300, 339, 464, 467, 566, 605, 648

Base Consolidated Asset Management Plan, 568

Base Engineer Automated Management System, 178, 

180, 222-23, 302, 338, 341-43, 454, 580

Base Engineer Emergency Force. See Prime BEEF

Base Engineer Emergency Team, 199

Base Missile Early Warning System, 116-17, 197

Basic Expeditionary Airfield Resources, 637

Bateen AB, 488

Beally, Timothy, 496

Beason, Fred, 353

BEEF-C, 199-200

BEEF-F, 199-200

BEEF-M, 199

BEEF-R, 199

Bell, Bryan R., 636 

Bell, William, 282

Bennett, John, 268

Bergman, Gary, 552

Berlin Airlift, 156-57, 175

Berlin Wall, 176, 250-51, 304, 309, 398

Berky, Bryan D., 636 

Bessoneaux hangars, 10

Beyond the Horizon, 644

Bien Hoa AB, Vietnam, 200, 243, 255, 258, 261-62, 

264, 272, 275-76, 278-79, 281

Bierly, Richard M., 376

Biggs AFB, 264

Bin Laden, Osama, 520, 651

Bin Thuy AB, Vietnam, 257, 258, 282

Bird Aircraft Strike Hazard, 211, 225, 319, 356, 430

Biskra, 38

Bitburg AB, Germany, 242, 244, 488, 494, 496-97

Bitterwine kits, 276

Bittle, Darrell G., 388

Bizerte, 39

Blair Lakes, Alaska, 294

Blue Suit Review, 534-535

Manpower wartime requirements review, 419

Base Management Action Group, 340, 341

Backlog of Maintenance and Repair, 348

Board of Officers, 78, 80

Boatright, James, 411

Bolling AFB, 14, 33, 104, 183, 185, 192, 223, 314, 

348, 359, 409, 411, 458-59, 549, 552, 587

BOMARC missile, 118, 120-21

Bombot, 574, 638

Bone, 39

Boone, Timothy, 608

Booz, Allen & Hamilton, 334

Bordner, William H., 260

Bosnia, 401, 421, 479, 503-5, 508, 518, 524

Bosworth, Karl “Boz”, 624

Bowers, Jim, 280

Bozarth, Thomas L., 359

BRAAT (Base Recovery After Attack), 303, 383, 

384, 388, 476, 547

BRAC (Base Relocation and Closure), 350, 398, 418, 

438-39, 450, 458-59, 472, 525, 527, 530, 537, 541, 

552, 561-63, 570, 585-87, 592

Brandenburg, Jeffery, 635

Bratton, Richard V., 264

Bridges, Timothy K., 487, 533, 536

Bright Star, 391, 392, 493

Brookley, 20

Brooks AFB, 90, 347, 410, 415, 437-39, 441, 470, 

532, 560

Brown, Norma E., 379

Buildings and Grounds Division, 23-24, 44

Buildings and Grounds Office, 14, 15

Buildings and Grounds Section, 8, 13, 20, 24

Bulldozer U, 387

Bunch, Claude H., 264

Buras, Michael J., 636 

Burch, Harold, 498

Burgess, Danny N., 359

Burma Road, 68, 72, 74

Burns, Patrick A., 607,627

Bush, George H. W., 362, 400, 479, 496, 501-2

Bush, George W., 520, 551

Byers, Timothy A., 414, 528-29, 533, 536, 538-39, 

541-42, 569-70, 581, 605, 634, 651-53

CE Transformation-Accelerated, 538-9, 653-55

Centerline videos, 529
802 Leading the Way

Goals, 528-29

Social Media, 529

Cairo West AB, 372, 392, 429, 489

Callahan, James T., 376

Cam Ranh Bay, 258, 261, 270, 272, 274, 277-78, 

282-83, 286, 292

Camp Blanding, Florida, 386

Camp Darby, 392, 508

Camp Habbaniyah, 633

Camp Hope, 509-10

Camp Justice, 639-40

Camp Lemonier, 640

Camp Murray, 454

Camp Perry, 213, 386, 610, 628

Camp Ripper, 628

Camp Snoopy, 618-19

Camp Taji, 550

Campbell, Anthony C., Jr., 636

Can Do, Will Do, 176, 275

Can Tho, 255

Canadian Air Force, 110, 202, 476

Cannan, David M., 325, 411

Cannon AFB, 268, 352

Cape Canaveral, 118, 122, 125, 452, 458, 461-62

Capehart Housing, 84, 105-8, 134-35, 151, 178-79, 

213, 585

Capra, Anthony, 636 

Career Field Education and Training Plans, 471

Carey, Robert H., 272

Carswell AFB, 395-96, 561

Carswell ARS, 513

Carter, Theresa C., 414, 533

Cassidy, William F., 270

CEMIRT (Civil Engineer Maintenance, Inspection, 

and Repair Team), 314, 319, 396, 410, 426, 429-30, 

432, 434, 481, 492, 506, 517, 542, 547-49, 603, 

647-49

CenterViews, 439

CerTest, 444-47

Chamberlain, David S., 285

Chanute AFB, 7, 9, 13, 24, 97, 207, 249, 344, 350, 

379-80, 459, 472

Cheyenne Mountain, 209, 239-40

Chief Signal Officer, 1, 3, 4, 7

Chiefs’ Council, 325, 404, 444

Chindit, 69-70

Chizé, France, 137, 138

Chou Lai, 265

Civic Action Teams, 394, 513, 641

Civil and Environmental Engineering Development 

Office (CEEDO), 314, 320

Civil Engineer Groups

1st CEG, 272, 274

86th CEG, 465, 508

Civil Engineer Management Team, 566 

Civil Engineer Mission Essential Tasks, 425

Civil Engineer Mobile Team Concept, 173-74

Civil Engineering shortened to Civil Engineer, 417

Civil Engineer Occupational Badge, 417

Civil Engineer publications, 178, 188-89, 192, 198, 

202, 249, 276, 363, 439, 540

Air Force Civil Engineer Magazine, 188-89, 432

Aviation Engineer Notes, 29

CenterViews, 439

Engineering & Services Quarterly, 306, 340, 393

Installations Engineer Beacon, 96

Military Engineer Magazine, 12

Civil Engineer Squadrons

1st CES, 648

3d CES, 647

4 CES, 493

5th CES, 645

8th CES, 647

10th CES, 581

12th CES, 647

16th CES, 544, 608, 620

31st CES, 507

36th CES, 488

37th CES, 647

40th CES, 394

45th CES, 461-62, 649

47th CES, 396

47th CES, 396

49th CES, 364, 469, 613

52d CES, 505, 507

81st CES, 650

88th CES, 499

99th CES, 484

100th CES, 505

103th CES, 397

106th CES, 605

107th CES, 605

109th CES, 605

114th CES, 622

120th CES, 421

121st CES, 639

122d CES, 639

128th CES, 639

150th CES, 639

158th, CES, 639

163d CES, 639

176th CES, 645

179th CES, 397, 582

254th CES, 645

301st CES, 644

319th CES, 517

363d CES, 483
803

375th CES, 395

435th CES, 489

440th CES, 397

564th CES, 497

507th CES, 643

514th CES, 606

821st CES, 300

834th CES, 296

633d CES, 517

653d CES, 517

932d CES, 395

796th CES, 649

934th CES, 643

611th CES, 578, 639

2750th CES, 390

2852th CES, 397

2854th CES, 397

7319th CES, 485, 487

Civil Engineer Squadrons (Expeditionary)

320th ECES, 614

321st ECES, 631

332d ECES, 621-24, 635

366th ECES, 612

376th ECES, 609

384th ECES, 631

407th ECES, 621-22, 633

474th ECES, 639

447th ECES, 623, 631

455th ECES, 615

506th ECES, 630

732d ECES, 624-26

755th ECES, 615

732d ECES, 617, 626

USAFE Construction and Training Squadron, 

591

Civil Engineer Technical Support Office, 414 

Civil Engineer Transformation Plan (PAD 07-02), 

527, 535, 537-38, 559, 566, 570, 585, 652-655

20/20 by 2020, 527, 529, 541

Civil Engineer Transformation, 523, 527, 530, 531, 

537, 538, 541, 544, 652

PBD 720, 534-35, 585

Civil Engineer Transformation—Accelerated, 538, 

653, 655

Program Action Directive (PAD) 12-03, 538, 

653, 655

Civil Engineering Construction and Operations 

Group (CECOG), 178, 204-05, 264

Civil Engineering Center, 98, 180, 184-85, 188, 204-

8, 210, 226, 246, 314-15

Civil Engineering Field Activities Center, 274

Civil Engineering and Services Management Evalua

 tion Team, 311, 313, 316, 339, 340

Civil Engineering Management Evaluation Team, 

339 

Civil Engineering Manpower Study Group. See also, 

Prime BEEF, 196-98

Civil Engineering Materiel Acquisition System, 344, 

347, 454

Civilian Conservation Corps, 19

Clark AB, 292, 296, 459

Clark Field, 35, 67

Clark, Dale, 559

Clear AS, 116

Clemmons, Brad A., 636 

Clinton, William, 400, 416, 479, 502, 503

Closing the Circle Awards, 451

Closure Integration Office, 411

Combat Battlefield Ready Airman, 600

Coen, Kelly, 363

Cole, J.B., 324, 329, 368, 437, 440

College Park, 2, 3

Collin, Henry, 340

Collocated Operating Base, 242, 374

Columbus AFB, 223, 343, 513, 584

Combat Oriented Results Engineering, 352

Combined Joint Task Force-HORN OF AFRICA, 

 640-41

Combined Joint Task Force Troy, 632

Combined Task Force Falcon, 514

Comiso, 39, 41, 373

Commander’s Facility Assessment, 449

Communities of Practice, 543

Computer-Aided Design and Drafting, 346

Concrete Youth, 201

Consolidated Space Operations Center, 367-68

Construction Cost Management, 319, 328-29, 426-

27, 431

Construction Criteria for Korean Theater of Operation Air Bases, 164

Construction Service, 13, 15

Conti, James, 268

Continuing Promise 08, 646

Contractor Operated Civil Engineer Supply Store, 

218, 219, 347

Contingency Response Group, 609

Control Center, 127, 130, 178, 195, 214, 215, 216, 

217, 221, 317, 328, 341, 363, 395, 414, 501, 517, 

647

Cool School, 245-46

Cool Sentry, 369

Coolidge, Calvin, 15

Cooper, Bryan, 621

Cornell, David M., 371

Corona Harvest, 292

Correll, Mark A., 532

Corrosion Analysis Team, 207, 319

Courter, Robert J. Jr., 414, 480
804 Leading the Way

Cozart, Letha, 189

Craig AFB, 350

Craig, William R. (Reed), 324

Critical Runway Assessment and Repair, 547

Creech, Wilbur, 305, 334, 335, 336, 450

Critical Path Method, 191, 285

Crockett, Rufus “Davey,” 110-11, 184, 191

Cross, Joe, 631

Crotone AB, 463-64

401st Tactical Fighter Wing, 463-64

Crystal City, 520

Cuban missile crisis, 176, 189, 250-53

Cuban refugees, 395, 503

Cullis, Brian, 581

Cummings, Greg, 534, 605

Curtin, Robert H., 79, 90, 94, 101, 177-79, 182-83, 

188-89, 191, 195, 200, 204, 222, 253, 259, 265, 

267-68, 270, 290-91

Maj. Gen. Curtin Award, 179

Curtiss, Glenn, 2, 3

Da Nang AB, 255, 258, 262-64, 272, 279-80, 282, 

292

Dangriga, Belize, 515

Daniels, Darren, 497

Daniels, Larry R., 274, 325, 326

Darwin, Australia, 35, 53-54

Davis, Bennie L., 361

Davis-Monthan AFB, 249, 344-45, 623, 639

Davison, Donald A., 27, 30, 38-39, 82

Day, Max W., 295

Dayton Peace Accords, 503

Decimomannu AB, 42

DeFazio, Thomas, 645-46

Defense Management Report Decision 924, 453

Defense Management Report Decision 967, 406-07, 

413, 418, 443

Multi-skilling, 404, 407, 442-45

Defense Reform Initiative Directive #36, 450, 457

DeMartino, Frank. A., 289

Department of Civil Engineering Training, 155, 196, 

249

Deployable pavement repair system, 610

Design Awards, 335, 439, 440

Design Group, 438-41

Destadio, Frank J., 478

Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, 136, 371, 483-85, 491, 499

Diego Garcia, 482, 488

Dimitroff, George K., 189, 275

Disaster Preparedness, 207, 210, 388, 411, 429, 442, 

448, 490, 573

Disaster Preparedness Resource Center, 411, 

429, 448

Dishner, Jimmy G., 491

Distant Early Warning Line, 110-13, 116

Diyarbakir, Turkey, 620, 637

Djibouti, 640, 641

Dobbins, ARB, 264

Doctrine Development, 421

DoD Directive 1315.6, 172, 197, 331

DoD Fire Academy, 472

Doha, 485, 486, 618

Doolittle, James “Jimmy,” 38

Doris, Michael, 595, 597

Dormitories, 102, 104, 109, 212, 218, 229, 289-92, 

304-5, 311-12, 332-33, 358, 369, 373, 395, 405, 

412, 424, 460, 498-99, 517, 532, 588-92, 650

“1+1” dormitories, 460

Douville, Daniel L., 636 

Dover AFB, 220, 231, 236, 313-14, 396, 426, 429, 

491, 502, 547, 556, 574, 648

Duncan, Dave, 440

DYE Stations, 113-14

Dyess AFB, 361, 366, 457, 513, 556, 571, 575-78

Eagle Flag, 599-600

Eagle, E. I., 8

Eckert, C.A. “Bud,” 90, 97, 131, 245

Edgar, Clinton G., 8

Education with Industry, 246-47, 376-77

Edwards AFB, 125, 130, 169, 344, 364, 391, 452, 

557, 563, 575-78, 585, 588

Edwards, Terry, 560, 652-653

Eglin AFB, 27, 112, 120, 158, 169, 189, 223, 242, 

264, 274-75, 294, 296, 314, 343, 345, 357, 380-84, 

388-92, 395, 415, 450, 454, 469, 472, 476, 481, 

493, 517, 536, 562-63, 577, 585, 600, 608, 649

Field 4, 383-84, 493

Egypt, 172, 303, 370-75, 392, 429, 482, 489

Ehrgott, Herbert, 167

Eielson AFB, 298, 349, 387, 474, 614

Einsiedlerhof AS, 494

Eisenhower, Dwight, D., 30, 82, 95, 121, 125-26, 

131, 134, 154, 172

Elliott, Gus, 543

Ellis, George E. “Jud,” 232, 308-09, 315, 334-35, 

337, 339, 341-43, 346, 351, 356, 383, 476

“Nine Commandments,” 309

Ellsworth AFB, 216, 299-300, 361, 446, 644

Elmendorf AFB, 31, 51, 53, 169, 297, 298, 387, 459, 

556, 562, 574, 587, 592, 639, 647

Emblems, 168, 221, 290, 318, 440

Emmons, Delos C., 28

Energy Savings Performance Contracts, 453, 575

Engineer Aviation Battalions, 27-29, 32-39, 41-43, 

46, 52-56, 58, 65-68, 71-75, 77, 85, 109, 155, 158, 

160-61, 167, 169, 170, 627
805

Engineer Capstone Exercise 96, 475

Engineer Construction Command, 78

Engineering and Services Laboratory, 316, 320-24, 

357, 389, 435

Laboratory Transfer, 415

Enhanced Use Lease, 561-63

Environmental Estimating, 431

Environics Division, 321, 357

Environmental Planning, 186, 223, 226, 316-18, 320, 

340, 353, 358, 359

Environmental Program’s four pillars, 436

Environmental Protection Agency, 356, 360, 562

Environmental Protection Group, 185-86, 225

Erickson, Gary, 441, 551

Erkilla, Mark, 364

Engineering and Services Civilian Career Management Program 377-79

Eskan Village, 430, 485, 487, 495

Estrada, Jonathan, 616

Ethiopia, 294, 640-41

Eulberg, Del, 526-28, 530, 534, 537-38, 540-41, 544, 

565, 567, 570, 574-75, 579-80, 599-600, 602, 626, 

652

European Aviation Engineer Command, 77-78

Evans, Kermit, 636

Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD), 388-89, 411, 

413-14, 419-20, 425, 428-29, 433, 442-43, 446, 

449, 462-63, 472, 476, 490, 495, 500, 503-4, 507, 

509-10, 529, 535-36, 545, 563, 565-67, 573-74, 

582, 584, 597, 600, 602-5, 609, 614, 621, 623-24, 

628, 630-32, 637-38

1st Explosive Ordnance Disposal Squadron, 428

Bombot, 574, 638

Casualties, 264, 636

Combat Battlefield Ready Airman Training, 600

Combined Joint Task Force Troy, 632

Counter-IED, 632

Improvised Explosive Device (IED), 600, 604, 

625, 629-32, 638

Pacbot, 638

Talon, 637-38

F.E. Warren, 127, 128, 168, 225, 360, 361, 452, 574, 

584

Fadok, Faith H., 533

Fairchild AFB, 141, 145, 361, 395, 576

Falcon AFS, 367

Falcon Hill Aerospace Research Park, 562

Family Housing, 184, 213, 589. See also Military 

Family Housing; Housing Privatization

Family Housing Master Plan, 460, 555, 556, 588

Far East Air Forces, 68, 78, 99, 160, 164, 170

Farr, Gordon, 62

Ferguson, Kathleen I., 532, 579, 586

Field Engineering and Readiness Laboratory, 469-70, 

596

Feucacourt, 10

Fidiam, Aaron, Jr., 264

Fifth Air Force, 68, 159, 289, 290, 641

Figueroa, Jesus, 605

Fire Protection, 21, 85, 139, 141-43, 147-49, 150, 

164, 183, 185, 187, 197-98, 207-8, 212-14, 219-21, 

249, 281, 282, 295, 316, 320-21, 323, 333, 338, 

379, 414, 418-20, 425-27, 443, 446-47, 482, 489-

90, 494, 505-7, 536, 545, 563, 566, 570-72, 598, 

603-5, 609, 612, 614-15, 624-25, 631-33, 647

Aircraft Crash Rescue, 140, 147-49, 185, 207

PEDRO, 151, 282

Revised Concept of Operations, 536

Fire Protection Vehicles

O-10, 150

O-11A, 150

P-19, 490, 572

P-2, 220-21, 282, 446

P-23, 446

P-341, 303, 326

Firefighter Badge, 220

Firman, Dennis, 427, 560

First Aero Squadron, 3, 4

Fisher, Marvin, 396, 464-65, 483-84, 562

Flora, Gary, 289, 402, 403, 408, 409, 415, 419

Florennes AB, 373

Field Operating Agency, 408, 410-11, 426, 437, 518, 

529, 560. See also Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence; Air Force Center for Engineering and the Environment; Air Force Civil Engineer 

Center; Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency; 

Air Force Real Property Agency

Foal Eagle, 474

FOB Dwyer, 616-17

FOB Hammer, 633

FOB Kalsu, 629

Fogleman, Ronald, 450, 455

Folded fiberglass mats, 389, 481

Food Management Assistance Team, 313, 319

Food service, 267, 305, 311-16, 332, 339, 342, 344-

47, 349, 380-81, 385, 392, 395, 412, 472, 494, 497

Foote, Steve, 489

Forbes AFB, 272

Force Provider, 504, 608

Ford, George B., 15

Foreign Military Sales, 371-72

Forgaria, Italy, 394

Fort Belvoir, 49

Fort Dix, 36, 599

Fort Indiantown Gap, 213, 386, 474, 601, 610, 628

Fort Kamehameha, 5

Fort Leonard Wood, 379, 429, 448, 470, 543, 594-95, 
806 Leading the Way

598-99, 605

Fort McClellan, Alabama, 429, 448

Fort Myer, 1, 2, 131

Fort Richardson, 31, 297

Fort Sam Houston, 2, 4-5, 9, 347

Fort Wainwright, 298

Foss, Claudia, 649

Foulois, Benjamin, 2, 4-5, 18

Founders, 423

Fox, L. Dean, 465, 520, 522, 525-26, 552-53, 557, 

563, 566, 586-87, 601-2, 629, 632

Back to Bases, 525, 565-66

Frank, George J., 279

Frankfurt Flughafen, 465, 590

Franks, Tommy R., 606

Fraser, John, 473

Frazier, Everette, 57

Fryer, Richard A., Jr., 544

Fuller, Van, 512

Gaddie, William, 353

Gander, 33

Garcia, Efren, 501

Gardiner, Grandison, 89

Gardner, Robert G., 205-6

Garland, Louis F., 249, 472

Geiger Field, 155

General Accounting Office, 347

General Headquarters, Air Force 19-21

General Services Administration, 334, 569

Geographical Information System, 557, 581-84

GeoBase, 542, 565, 581-83, 601

GeoReach, 583, 605

George AFB, 231, 350

Giant Voice, 481

Gibbens, John R., 93, 184, 202

Gideon, Francis C., 293

Giezie, William, 611

Gilbert, Rusty, 584

Gilbert, William D., 58, 107, 208, 228, 296, 302-3, 

306, 311, 313, 315-17, 327-28, 330-33, 340-41, 

354, 358, 369, 377, 380

Ginett, Adam K., 636 

Gleason, Donald, 497

Global Hawk, 592

Global Reach - Global Power, 400-1, 406

Global War on Terror, 520, 523, 527, 592, 594-96, 

600, 603, 604, 640. See also Operation Enduring 

Freedom; Operation Iraqi Freedom

Glover, John J., 411

Goddard, Guy H., 107, 167-68, 170, 177, 179-80, 

183-84, 189, 191-94, 201, 203-4, 212, 232, 243, 

283-84, 287

Goddard Medal, 180

Godfrey, Stuart, 29, 38, 71

Golbransson, Miles, 269

Goldwater-Nichols Act, 336

Goodfellow AFB, 458, 472, 556, 571, 576, 584

Goodman, John B., 460

Goose Bay, 113, 253

Gorbachev, Mikhail, 397

Gorges, Thomas, 440-41

Governance Structure, 538, 542

Grand Forks AFB, 229, 249, 361, 546

Gray Eagle, 253-54, 276, 286, 292

Green Flag, 475

Greenville AFB, 249

Gregory, Rita, 319, 329

Griffiss AFB, 229, 365, 562

Grissom ARB, 513

Gross, Tom, 396

Ground-Launched Cruise Missile, 329, 366, 373

Groups

86th Contingency Response Group, 609

Guam, 35, 59-60, 76-78, 97, 156, 160, 255, 296, 429, 

434, 459, 498, 517, 587, 592, 640-41, 645, 647

Guantanamo Bay, 503, 639

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, 255

Gulf Region Division, 634

Gulf War. See Operation Desert Shield; Operation 

Desert Storm

Gulfport, 269-70, 356, 357, 470, 649

Guyana, 514, 644-46

Haeusser, Horst, 422

Hains, Paul, 352, 431-32

Haiti, 401, 500, 502-3, 514, 518, 646-47

Hall, Gil, 45

Halvorson, Kathryn, 561

Hamilton AFB, 216

Hamkari Baraye, 618

Hamski, Joseph, 636 

Hanscom AFB, 397

Hansell, Haywood, 65

Hardened aircraft shelters. See also Theater Air Base 

Vulnerability Estimate and Evaluation, 178, 210, 

272, 280, 291, 294, 374, 549

Harding, Warren G., 14

Haritos, George K., 593

Hartinger, James V., 367

Hartung, Paul, 209, 369-70, 380

Harty, John R., 494

Hartzer, Ronald B., 50, 422, 432

Harvest Bare, 206, 297, 374-75, 379, 392-93, 476, 

492

Harvest Eagle, 276, 290, 292, 374-75, 382, 387-88, 

392-93, 492, 503, 507-8, 608, 635-36

Harvest Falcon, 374-75, 419, 426, 433, 476, 483-
807

85, 488, 490, 492-93, 497, 500-1, 508, 547, 607, 

635-37

Haywood, Kelvin, 629

Heavy Engineering Repair and Construction, 555

Henneke, Markus, 623

Henriksen, Lester, 340

Herbicide Orange, 356, 357

Hessian Matting, 45, 47

Hickam, 20, 29, 34, 51, 296, 429, 452, 459, 517, 548, 

560, 575, 587, 588, 647

Hicks, Alfred “Barrett,” 421, 488, 494, 496-8

Hill AFB, 194, 237, 242, 390, 453, 536, 548, 561-63, 

576, 585

Historian for Civil Engineering, 307, 422, 432

Historic Preservation, 224, 355, 452, 574

HMT Rohna, 71

Ho Chi Minh, 254, 255

Hodge, Charles, 630

Hodge, Ralph, 369

Hollandia, 58

Holley, I.B., 422

Holloman AFB, 364, 381, 392, 434, 469, 508, 549, 

611, 613

Homestead AFB, 189, 298, 516, 557

Hurricane Andrew, 476, 516

Hood, Teresa, 189

Hope Hotel, 348

Horn, Clinton V., 473

Horner, Charles, 480, 482, 492, 495

Housing Privatization, 456, 556, 559-60, 565

Howe, Dave C., 655

Hubbard, David L., Jr., 264

Hudson, Charlie, 340

Human Systems Division, 438

Humphreys, Frederic, 2, 12

Hunt, Rodney, 484-85

Hurlburt, 296, 395-96, 469, 478, 482, 504, 508, 516-

17, 544, 564, 577, 600, 608, 612, 620, 639-40, 646, 

648-49

Hurricane Agnes, 298

Hurricane Andrew, 476, 516

Hurricane Betsy, 298

Hurricane Camille, 200, 298

Hurricane Charley, 518

Hurricane Frances, 649

Hurricane Frederic, 395

Hurricane Hugo, 396-97, 517

Hurricane Isabel, 648

Hurricane Ivan, 649

Hurricane Jeanne, 649

Hurricane Katrina, 544, 556, 582, 589, 649, 650

Hurricane Keith, 435

Hurricane Mitch, 515-16

Hussein, Saddam, 479-80, 497, 510, 520, 621

Hutto, Earl, 323

Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, 119-30, 233-35, 

361-62, 463, 571

Improvised Explosive Device (IED), 600, 604, 625, 

629-32, 638

Impson, I.H., 260

In Lieu Of taskings, 338, 523, 526, 603, 624, 626, 

629, 632-33

Incirlik, 172, 173, 244, 494, 496, 516

Inflatable shelters, 277

Installation Excellence Award, 336

Installation Restoration Program, 431, 439, 450

Installations Engineer Beacon, 96

Installations Engineering School, 153

Installations Executive Council, 540

Installations Representative Offices, 88

Installation Restoration Program, 355, 431, 450, 

574-75

Internal Look 90, 482-83

Interservice Training Review Organization, 470, 

598-99

Iraq, 400, 479-82, 493, 495-99, 510, 520, 523-24, 

547, 550, 552-55, 594, 600, 604, 614, 616-17, 619, 

621, 624-36, 638-39, 651

Iraqi Reconstruction, 552

Israel, 303, 369-70, 598, 638

Israeli Airbase Construction Program, 369-70

Ovda, 369, 370

Ramon, 369, 370

Issoudun, 10-11

Jack Frost 79, 387, 388

Jalibah, 495, 630

Jeddah, 490, 496

Johnson, Daniel, 636 

Johnson, Hubert “Hub,” 288

Johnson, Lyndon, 243, 255

Johnston Island, 356-57, 575

Joint Base San Antonio, 533, 587

Joint Basing, 585, 587

Joint Construction Agency, 99, 137-38

Joint Contingency Construction Requirements Study, 

329

Joint Engineer Operations Course, 594-95

Joint Expeditionary Taskings, 626. See also In Lieu 

Of Taskings

Joint Operational Engineering Board, 602

Joint Task Force Para Los Ninos, 642, 643

Jones, David, 311, 339, 340

Jonkers, Anthony R., 411

Jumper, John P., 510, 522, 603, 627

K-1 (Pusan West), 160
808 Leading the Way

K-13 (Suwon), 161

K-14 (Kimpo), 161

K-2 (Taegu), 160

K2, 608, 615

K-6 (Pyontaek), 161

Kabul, 550, 608

Kadena AB, 75-6, 292, 518, 571, 588, 597

Kahn, Albert, 6, 8

Kaiserslautern Military Community Center, 590-91

Kaisler, Kurt, 573

Kandahar, 546, 607, 609-10, 614, 616-18, 636

Kane, Donald, 356

Kapisa Provincial Reconstruction Team, 616

Karshi-Khanabad, 546

Kauch, Robert, 24, 82, 85, 89

Kee, Franklin Travis, 628

Keesler AFB, 23, 298, 395, 434, 518, 544, 556, 557, 

 575, 584, 589, 649, 650

Hurricane Katrina, 544, 556, 582, 589, 649-50

Keflavik, 33, 113

Kelly AFB, 2, 6, 7, 10, 13-15, 23, 203, 222, 231, 237, 

 314, 347, 386, 396, 397, 426, 429, 438, 492, 515, 

 518, 560, 561, 652

Kennedy, John, 251, 252, 294, 362-64

Kenney, George C., 54, 56

Kennington, Roy G., 320, 426

Kenya, 501, 640, 641

Khamis Mushait AB, 485

Khasab, 372

Khobar Towers, 449, 499-500

Lester, Christopher B., 499

Kimpo AB, 161, 277, 289

Kincheloe AFB, 120, 350

Kindley Field, 35, 65

King Khalid Military City, 482, 490, 493, 495

Kirkuk, 550, 552, 630, 632, 637

Kirschbaum, Max, 544

Kirtland AFB, 209, 242, 456, 457, 556, 561

Kloeber, Peter, 433

Knippel, Jeffry D., 634-35

Kokotajlo, Marie, 625

Korean Conflict. See also SCARWAF, 84, 93-94, 99, 

102, 159, 162, 165, 167, 170, 175, 275, 289

Construction Criteria for Korean Theater of 

Operational Air Bases, 164

K-1 (Pusan West), 160

K-13 (Suwon), 161

K-14 (Kimpo), 161

K-2 (Taegu), 160

K-3 (Pohang), 160

K-6 (Pyontaek), 161

Kosovo, 401, 428, 434-35, 478-79, 503, 506, 509-11, 

518, 524

Kristoff, Joe, 259

Kross, Walter, 415

Kunsan AB, 277, 289, 645, 647

Kurds, 496-98

Kuwait, 400, 479-80, 482-83, 493, 495, 510, 547, 

549, 555, 618, 624

Kwang-ju, 289

Kyrgyzstan, 546, 555, 607-9

Lackland AFB, 134, 203, 223, 345, 347, 456-57, 500, 

556, 560, 574, 577, 647, 649

LaGassey, Gary C., 464, 589

Lahm, Frank, 2, 4, 16

Lamb, Charles W., 287, 289, 359, 371

Langley AFB, 6, 8, 13-14, 16, 19, 27, 28, 62, 120, 

148, 222, 259, 422, 434, 480-81, 483, 518, 528, 

587-88, 606, 620, 623, 648

Hurricane Isabel, 648

Larivee, Mark, 492

Latson, Harvey, 283, 285

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, 

324, 557, 575

Le Bourget, 45-46

Lebanon, 172-75, 251, 313

Ledo Road, 68-69, 71-72, 74-76

LeMay, Curtis, 130, 154, 157, 234, 265, 602

Leonhard, William, 88, 118-19, 122, 123, 157

Lessons learned, 78-81, 120, 165, 242, 250, 252, 

254, 292-93, 339, 344-45, 400, 456, 472-74, 519, 

527-28, 543-45, 568, 594-96, 602

Lester, Christopher B., 499

Lisle en Barrois, 10

Little Rock AFB, 361, 584, 620

Little, Augustine Patterson, Jr., 45

Loeschner, Theodore, 248, 260

Loncki, Elizabeth A., 636 

Loncki, Joseph J., 367

Loring AFB, 99, 145, 344, 350-51

Louisiana Maneuvers, 27-28

Lowas, Albert F., Jr., 561

Lowry AFB, 20, 130-35, 149, 155, 229, 249, 347, 

380, 411, 429, 448

Disaster Preparedness Resource Center, 411, 

429, 448

Lucas, Rio, 107

Lundgren, Samuel, 421

Lupia, Eugene A., 340-41, 404-5, 415, 417-20, 424, 

445, 447, 450-52, 457, 476-78, 482, 511, 519

Maj. Gen. Lupia Award, 405

Lynn, Gary, 439

MacArthur, Douglas, 54-55, 66, 78

MacDill AFB, 27, 90, 343, 352, 456, 549, 558

MacKenzie, James S., 375
809

Maggart, Robert E., 275

MAJCOM Activity Management Plan, 568

Mallott, Stephen, 648

Malmstrom AFB, 130-31, 234, 361, 421, 584, 644

Manas, 546, 607, 608, 609

Renamed Peter J. Ganci, Jr., AB, 609

Mannion, Eric H., 619

Manta AB, Ecuador, 434, 435, 548

March Field, 14

Marien, Harry R. (Hank), 324

Markin, Joe, 572

Marshall, George, 22, 25, 34, 82

Martin, Charles H., 264

Masirah, 372, 489, 607, 612-13

Mather AFB, 350

Maxwell AFB, 16, 24, 94, 101, 106, 166, 199, 452, 

454, 458, 584

Mayes, Archie S., 145, 147, 216-18, 248, 259-60, 

264, 268, 271-72, 274, 283-89, 291-93, 376

Mayo, George, 29, 47

Mazar-e-Sharif, 617

McAllister, Robert A., 572

McAuliffe, Michael A., “Mick,” 414-15, 473, 478, 

480-81

McCarthy, James E., 370, 388, 403-4, 408, 413, 415-

17, 419, 422, 428, 432-33, 435-37, 443-45, 459, 

470-71, 476, 480

McChord AFB, 236, 355, 489, 587

McClellan AFB, 237, 338-39, 344, 390, 397, 561

McConnell AFB, 272, 395-97, 447

McConnell, John P., 272

McCook Field, 7, 13, 17

McCoy, Ronald P., 491

McCoy, Tidal, 389

McDermott, Wayne, 476, 480-81

McFeron, Ernest, 264

McGarvey, Billy J., 177, 181-82, 241, 301, 305

McGuire, 120, 548, 576, 587, 638

McNamara, Robert, 265-66, 270, 283-84

McPeak, Merrill, 400-01, 403, 406, 408-9, 411-13, 

416-17, 419, 436-38, 444, 470-72

Meredith, William T., 92-93, 171, 196-200, 204, 267-

69, 274-75, 280, 292-93, 390-91, 476, 598

Micronesia, 295, 428, 640-41

Mika, Karla K., 468

Military Airlift Transport Service, 92-93, 136, 199

Military Airlift Command, 236, 380, 390, 396, 401, 

450

Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, 256, 258-

59, 272, 275-76, 284, 638

Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, Director of Construction, 259

Military Construction, 307, 325-28, 357-58, 369, 

431, 433, 441, 450, 456, 460, 462-63, 465, 524-25, 

534, 536-37, 549, 552, 555-56, 559, 569, 586-89, 

592, 604, 612, 614, 617

Military Construction Program, 90, 95, 99, 101-3, 

120, 128, 153, 178, 184-85, 194, 211, 224, 227-30, 

232, 234, 237, 244, 258, 283, 326, 329, 333, 353-

54, 357-58, 373, 436

Two-step procurement, 180, 230, 231, 237

Military Engineer Magazine, 12

Military family housing, 105, 180, 221, 229, 232, 

349, 358, 405, 418, 441, 456, 460, 462, 465, 555-

57, 571

Capehart Housing, 84, 105-8, 134-35, 151, 178-

79, 213, 585

Wherry Housing, 84, 89, 105-8, 139, 213, 585

Miller, Daniel B., Jr., 636

Miller, Kenneth, 404

Miller, Susan, 322

Mims, Forrest M., Jr., 264

Minot AFB, 351, 361, 608, 645

Minton, Augustus M., “Gus,” 91-92, 97, 107, 174, 

177-78, 182, 187-90, 197, 213-14, 219, 239-40, 

245-46, 252, 376

Maj. Gen. Minton Award, 178

Renaming career field, 174

Minuteman missile, 119, 130-31, 209, 234-35, 360-

61, 463

Mitchel Field, 6

Mitchell, Billy, 11, 13

Mobile Combat Support Team, 199

Mobility Support Squadron

4449th Mobility Support Squadron, 392, 485

Mogadishu, 501-2

Mogge, John, 414-15, 464, 481

Momyer, William, 293

Moody AFB, 392, 431, 454

Moore, Herbert H., 43

Moore, Joseph H., 261, 284

Moore, Robert, 562, 652-53

Morale Welfare, Recreation and Services, 466

Morale, Welfare, and Recreation, 340, 412, 491

Morocco, 37-38, 99, 109, 136-37, 294

Morris, Robert, 439

Morrow Board, 15

Mortuary Affairs, 313-14, 316, 345, 491, 492

Moseley, T., Michael, 534

Moss, Walter, Jr., 636

Mother of All Craters, Baghdad International Airport, 

622

Mottley, Ray, 650

Mount Pinatubo, 459

Mt. St. Helens, 395

Mugg, Steven, 467

Multi-skilling, 404, 407, 442-45

Murrah Building, 447-48
810 Leading the Way

Musharraf, Pervez, 607

MX Missile, 235, 278, 303, 359, 360, 361

Myers, Colby, 89, 636

Myers, Phillip A., 636 

Myitkyina, 68, 70-72, 74

Myrtle Beach AFB, 223, 253, 391, 561

Naha AB, 295

Nakhon Phanom RTAFB, 292

National Environmental Policy Act, 211, 224-26, 

350, 354, 439, 186, 350

National Guard, 4, 6, 87, 141, 152, 170, 180, 195, 

211, 213, 265, 293, 330-31, 337, 385, 387, 394, 

397, 405, 416, 420, 432, 457-59, 471, 474, 476, 

506, 511, 513, 515-18, 523, 543, 564, 597, 605, 

639-40, 643, 645

National Historic Preservation Act, 224, 355, 452, 

574

National Incident Management System, 573

National Register of Historic Places, 224-25, 355, 

452, 574

NATO, 138, 158, 170, 173, 177, 242-44, 251-52, 

303, 329, 336, 372-74, 388, 391, 398, 411, 463-65, 

479, 503, 506, 520, 591, 616

Naval Construction Battalion Center, 356-57

Naval Facilities Engineering Command, 354, 357, 

524, 555

Navy OICC, 257, 258, 259, 283

Nay, Marshall W., Jr, 79, 334, 409, 426, 453

Civil Engineer Reorganization Briefings, 409-

10, 414, 438

NCO exchange program, 404

Nees, Louis, 184

Nellis, 212, 294, 299-300, 348, 384, 474-75, 484, 

502, 508, 514-15, 562, 577-78, 589, 612, 642, 645

Neufeld, David, 111

New Guinea, 54-58, 66, 76

New Horizons, 512-16, 642-43

Newman, James B., 24, 43, 44, 48, 62, 89

Newman, William N., 636 

NexGen IT, 529, 579-81

Nha Trang, 255-56, 258, 282

Niagara Falls ARS, 513

Ninth Air Force, 30, 42, 44, 46, 47, 510

Nissen huts, 10

Nixon, Richard, M., 177, 225, 291, 298, 385

NORAD, 113, 239-40, 249

Normandy, 37, 39, 42-45, 47, 51, 79

Norris, Richard, 493

North Island, 3, 4

Norton AFB, 169, 236-37, 350, 359, 438

Nottingham, Wesley D., 378

Nuevos Horizontes. See New Horizons

Nurse, Howard, 15

O’Gorman, Georg, 362

O’Keefe, Truman, 204, 268

O’Loughlin, Earl, 340

Objective squadron, 403-4, 413-14, 419, 424, 443, 

448, 518

Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance, 548-49, 551

Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force of 

Installations, Environment and Logistics, 560

Office of The Civil Engineer. See also Air Force 

Assistant Chief of Staff, (The Civil Engineer), 355, 

408-11, 418, 437, 455, 460, 520, 522, 525, 531, 

538, 540-41, 555, 570, 580-1, 587

Offutt AFB, 90, 128, 202, 229, 483, 574

Okinawa, 68, 75, 76, 78, 99, 109, 141, 160, 248, 255

Omaha Beach, 43

Oman, 372-73, 375, 482-84, 489, 492-93, 555, 607, 

612, 614

Operation Allied Force, 434, 506

Operation Desert Shield, 371, 391, 400, 402, 407, 

430, 465, 472-83, 487, 489-92, 494-95, 518-19, 

606-7, 611, 627

Operation Desert Storm. See also Operation Proven 

Force, 373, 400, 402, 420, 426, 430, 465, 472-82, 

487, 489-91, 494-97, 499-500, 518-19, 606-7, 611, 

621, 627

9-1 kitchen, 490, 491

Al Kharj beddown, 492-93

CEMIRT, 492 

Firefighters, 489-90

Initial Deployments, 481-84

Iraqi Air Base runway denial, 495

Port Mortuary, Dover AFB, 491

RED HORSE, 484-86, 495

Services, 490-92

Summary, 495-96

Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), 520, 523-26, 

536, 546, 548-49, 563, 583, 591, 594, 598, 599, 

602-9, 611, 614, 616, 619, 627, 629, 632, 637-38, 

640

Airfield Pavement Evaluations, 546, 610

Casualties, 612, 636

Expeditionary Prime BEEF units, 617-18

Initial deployments, 606-10

Provincial Reconstruction Teams, 523, 615-16

RED HORSE, 603-4, 607, 610-16, 618-19

Operation Fast Relocation, 243

Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), 520-21, 523-26, 536, 

548, 550, 583, 591, 594, 598-99, 603-4, 618-21, 

624, 627, 629, 631-32, 634, 637-38

732d ECES, 617, 624-26

Build-up, 619-20

Casualties, 636

Drawdown, 635

EOD, 623-24, 628, 630-32, 638
811

In lieu of taskings, 624, 626, 629, 632-33

Iraqi Reconstruction, 552-55

Knippel assumes command of Corps District, 

634-5

RED HORSE, 621-23, 627-29, 634-35

Theater Hospital, Balad, 623

Village of Hope, 634

Weapons Intelligence Team, 631

Operation Joint Endeavor, 503, 506

Operation Noble Anvil, 434, 506, 508

Operation Noble Eagle, 520, 547, 605, 606

Operation Northern Watch, 511, 524, 602, 603

Operation Proven Force, 494, 496-97

Operation Provide Comfort, 496-98

Operation Ranch Hand, 356

Operation Restore Hope, 502

Operation Restore Iraqi Oil, 631

Operation Sea Signal, 503

Operation Shining Hope, 434, 508-10

Operation Southern Watch, 421, 430, 499-500, 510, 

524, 547-48, 602-3

Osan AB, 164, 289-90, 292, 459, 474, 517-18

Outsourcing and privatization, 455, 518

Owendoff, Jim, 328

Pacific Air Forces (PACAF), 256-61, 265, 277-79, 

284, 289, 291-92, 295, 309, 311, 345, 375, 377, 

401, 434, 457, 459, 473, 478, 517-18, 551, 566, 

571, 583, 588, 592, 599, 647

Pacific Haven, 498-99

Pagan Island, 295-96

Pakistan, 546, 548-49, 607, 636, 651

Palace Blueprint, 201, 377

Palau, 58, 516, 641-42

Panama, 6, 14-15, 22, 30, 32, 34, 90, 294, 295, 375, 

428, 514, 643, 644

Pappas, Gus J., 259

Park, James W., 45

Parker, Paul, 532, 551, 554, 557, 560

Parkinson, Ed, 319

Patrick, Mason, 10-14, 122

Patterson, Wayland H., 482, 488, 551

Peace Hawk, 371

Peace Pharaoh, 372

Peace Shield, 371

Peace Sun, 371

Peacekeeper Missile, 328, 360-62

Pearl Harbor, 5, 20, 27, 29-30, 34, 50-51, 53, 65, 587

Pease AFB, 350-51, 459

Pease, Birney, 353

Penn, James P., 385

Pennino, James, 533, 584

Perham, Jeff, 607

Perrien, Don, 621

Perry, Rich, 440

Pershing, John, 5-6, 11-12

Peters, John, 123, 137, 141, 145, 156, 245, 272, 280, 

283, 285-87, 289

Peters, Whitten, 510-12

Peterson AFB, 233, 314, 397, 426, 429, 457, 530, 

575, 584

Petraeus, David, 569

Phan Rang AB, 258, 270-72, 274, 276, 278, 282-83, 

286, 292

Philippines, 4-5, 14, 34-35, 51, 53-55, 58, 65-68, 75-

78, 248, 255, 257, 292, 296, 459

Phu Cat AB, 258, 260, 272, 274, 276-78, 282-83, 286

Pick, Lewis A., 74

Pierced steel plank, 28, 46, 49-50, 58, 68, 77, 157, 

160-62, 166, 210, 262, 278

Pinetree, 110, 113

Plattsburgh AFB, 129, 354

Pleiku AB, 255, 258, 276, 281

Plunkett, Marvin, 268

Pohang, 160

Policy Council, 377

Pollution Prevention Act of 1990, 451

Pollution Prevention Conference, 439

Program Objective Memorandum, 326-28, 450, 569

Pope AFB, 396, 489, 452, 518

Port Hueneme, 295, 470, 595

Port Moresby, 54-56

Port Mortuary, Dover AFB, 491

Potter, Richard W., 496

Potter, Waldo, 289

Preventive Maintenance, 142-45, 215

Price, Oran, 79, 156, 186, 196, 198, 200, 251, 252

Prime BEEF, 81, 174-78, 181, 185-86, 195, 198-200, 

203-5, 208, 210-13, 243, 250, 253-54, 260-68, 275, 

277, 279-80, 289-91, 293-300, 303, 307, 318, 321-

22, 330-32, 339, 372, 380-85, 387-88, 390, 393-96, 

418-20, 424-25, 428, 432, 449, 472-74, 481-85, 

488, 492-95, 497- 498, 502, 505, 507-8, 511, 514-

15, 517, 523, 535-37, 549, 563, 599, 604-5, 617-22, 

625, 628, 639, 649

Civil Engineering Manpower Study Group, 195-

98

Expeditionary Prime BEEF units, 617-18

First deployment, 253

First deployment to Vietnam, 260-64

Naming Prime BEEF, 198

Teams and Duties, 381

Prime BEEF Group (Expeditionary)

577th EPBG, 617-18

Prime BEEF Squadron (Expeditionary)

577th EPBS, 617

777th EPBS, 617-18

877th EPBS, 617-18
812 Leading the Way

Prime RIBS, 307, 318, 332, 345, 380-88, 390, 393-

95, 476, 477, 481-82, 490-92, 494-98

Emblem, 382

Naming Prime RIBS, 380

Reserve/ANG Teams, 385

Teams and Duties, 381, 383

Prince Sultan AB, 430, 500, 509, 547, 549, 606, 631

Program Action Directive (PAD) 12-03, 538

Program Budget Decision 720, 534-35, 585

Program Review Committee, 327

Project Concrete Sky, 242-43

Project IMAGE, 306, 333-34

Proud Phantom, 392-93

Provincial Reconstruction Teams, 523, 615-16

Quadrennial Defense Review, 521-22, 525, 529-30, 

534-35, 601

Quality of Life, 332-33

Quarles, Donald, 171

Quartermaster Corps, 1, 3-4, 6, 13, 15-17, 21, 24-25, 

32, 62, 102

Construction Division, 7-8, 13, 16, 25, 62

Transfer of Air Force work, 25

Quartermaster Department, 3

Quartermaster General, 6, 7, 16, 24

Cantonment Division, 7

Qui Nhon AB, 255

Rabe, Walter J., 357

Remedial Action Cost Estimating and Requirements, 

431

RAF Alconbury, 647

RAF Greenham Common, 373

RAF Mildenhall, 236, 392, 463, 505

RAF Upper Heyford, 244

RAF Wethersfield, 391, 392

Ramey AFB, 34, 97, 174, 645

Ramstein AB, 243-44, 248, 303, 374, 381, 434, 465, 

491, 494, 496-97, 504, 507-8, 516, 560, 587, 590-

91, 597, 609

Randolph AFB, 15-17, 21, 23, 201, 268, 316, 347, 

378, 452, 454, 456, 458, 575, 584, 587, 647

Taj Mahal, 16, 17

Rangel, Ray, 636

Rapid City Flooding, 299

Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force, 372

Rapid Runway Repair (RRR), 303, 380, 382-83, 

387-88, 390-91, 474, 476, 547

Readiness and Ownership Oriented Management, 

351-52

Readiness Challenge, 390-91, 432, 472, 476, 477-78, 

519, 597-98

Canadian participation, 476, 598

Fog-of-War event, 391

Foreign Observers, 477, 598

Meredith Trophy, 390-91, 476, 598

Prime BEEF Rodeo, 390

United Kingdom participation, 478

Reagan, Ronald, 225, 303, 328, 349, 360-61, 396-97

Real Estate Agency, 183, 185, 411

Real Estate Division, 411

Real Estate, 24, 89, 90, 91, 182, 183, 185, 224, 316, 

324, 340, 408, 411, 560, 562, 563

Reaves, Donald R., 276

Rebik, Emil, 633

Red Bulls, 639

RED HORSE, 11, 40, 81, 176, 178, 181, 185-86, 

203-8, 210, 212-13, 242-43, 250, 260, 265-77, 280, 

283, 288-98, 300, 303, 318, 321, 330-31, 364, 380, 

384, 386, 391-93, 395-97, 404-5, 410, 418, 420-21, 

424-25, 432, 459, 472-74, 479, 481-82, 484-87, 

492-93, 495-96, 500-5, 507-9, 511, 513-18, 523, 

535-37, 549-50, 563, 564, 592, 599-600, 603-4, 

607, 610-16, 618-19, 621-23, 627-29, 634-35, 639-

40, 642-51

Airborne RED HORSE, 621, 627-28

Civil Engineering Field Activities Center, 274

Desert Storm, 484-86, 495

Expeditionary RED HORSE Units

1st ERHG, 621

219th ERHS, 613

820th ERHS, 643

809th ERHS, 616-17

557th ERHS, 628, 629, 635

McNamara Memo, 265

Operation Enduring Freedom, 603-4, 607, 610-

16, 618-19

Operation Iraqi Freedom, 621-23, 627-29, 634-

35

Origins, 265-68

RED HORSE Echelons, 486-87

RED HORSE Flights

201st RHF 213, 386, 563, 610, 611, 618, 619, 

628, 635, 643

254th RHF, 563

RED HORSE mascot, 269

RED HORSE Song, 268

Southeast Asia, 265-77, 288-89

RED HORSE Squadrons

200th RHS, 213, 386, 563, 610, 611, 618, 619, 

 628, 635, 643

202d RHS, 386, 643, 649

203d RHS, 386, 564, 643

 Plane Crash, 564

219th RHS, 421, 516, 638, 644

307th RHS, 386, 396-97, 515, 518, 599, 621, 

643, 645, 647

554th RHS, 268, 270-72, 283, 292, 459, 518, 
813

563, 592, 645

555th RHS, 268, 270, 283, 563, 644-45

556th RHS, 272, 295

557th RHS, 277, 290-91, 294

560th RHS, 242, 274, 537

567th RHS, 537

819th RHS, 43, 272, 283, 294, 298, 391-92, 421, 

515-16, 599, 613, 621, 627-28, 644

820th RHS, 43, 167, 169, 272, 274, 288-89, 294, 

299-300, 364, 484, 486-87, 495, 496, 502-3, 

508, 513-16, 550, 599, 612, 614, 627-28, 642-

46

823d RHS, 71-72, 243, 272, 296, 364, 392-93, 

395-96, 410, 472-73, 485-87, 495-96, 500-2, 

504-5, 508-9, 515-16, 600, 612, 621, 627-28, 

639-40, 643, 648-50

 Detachment 1, 472, 515, 575, 643

RED HORSE Group

1st CEG, 272, 274

Reese AFB, 346

Regional environmental offices, 438, 441, 558

Regional Training Sites, 601

Reid, Richard, 622

Reilly, Maurice, 177, 180-81, 184, 229, 300-01

Reinhardt, Edwin (Doug), 287

Regional Equipment Operator Training Site, 474, 

601

Research and Development. See also Engineering 

and Services Laboratory, 121, 130, 235, 303, 316, 

320-23, 338, 360, 366, 389, 415

Reserves, 81, 85, 87-88, 102, 141, 152, 170, 172, 

179-80, 203, 205, 211-13, 265, 294, 330-31, 347, 

357, 375, 385-87, 390, 393, 397, 405, 411, 415-16, 

420, 438, 441, 454, 459, 471, 474, 479, 482, 491, 

511-13, 515, 518, 523, 536-37, 543, 551, 561-64, 

582, 585-86, 596, 601, 603-4, 638, 640, 642-45

Reynolds, David L., 544, 652-653

Rhein-Main AB, 77, 157, 159, 236, 313, 465, 494, 

571, 587, 590-91

Rhein-Main Transition Program, 587, 591

Rice Donald, 400, 406-7, 412

Richards-Gebaur, 226

Riemer, Frederick, 449

Rietman, Harry, 184, 245, 350, 369, 377, 378

Riggs, Thomas M., 376

Rinas Airport, 508-9

Riyadh AB, 430

RMK-BRJ, 257-58, 283

Robbins, Earnest O., II, 405, 417, 479, 511, 523-24, 

555, 573, 575, 581, 603, 605

Robins AFB, 237, 268, 457, 517, 536, 556, 585

Rockwell Field, 3

Rodenhauser, J. F., 90

Rodriguez, Rodolfo, 636 

Rohlof, Kent, 439

Romag, Mitch, 629

Rose, Jack, 275

Roseires-en-Haye, 10

Rothenberg, Karsten, 370, 480, 492

Roy, James, 534

Rumsey, Kevin, 608

Ruschmann, David J., 483

Russell, Tom, 439

Ryan, Michael E., 465, 480, 510, 598

Ryburn, Tom, 606, 614

S/R&M Acquisition Task Order Contract, 544

Saber Yukon, 368

SAC Grout Team, 235

Sacramento Air Depot, 20

Saenz, Joe, 439

Sailer, Allen J., 351

Saipan, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65

Salty Demo, 388-89, 411

San Antonio Real Property Maintenance Agency 

(SARPMA), 347-48, 407

San Isidro AB, 253, 254

Sanborn, Ralph, 447

Saroni, Vincent M., 653

Sater, Richard, 629

Saudi Arabia, 109, 136, 371, 373, 419, 430, 479-88, 

492-94, 496, 499-501, 509-10, 547, 549, 555, 606, 

623, 631

Schellhous, Robbin, 499

Schriever, Bernard, 118, 121, 126, 367

Schwartz, Matthew S., 636

Schwartz, Ray, 351

Schwarzkopf, Norman H., 480, 530

Sciabica, Joe, 652-53

Scott AFB, 223, 226, 378, 395, 460

Scott Field, 7, 14

Seabees, 54-56, 58-59, 76, 298, 404, 475, 497-98, 

503, 515, 610, 617, 645

Seeb, Oman, 372, 490, 614

Seidler, Matthew R., 636 

Self-help, 282, 351, 481

Selfridge Field, 7, 9, 13-14, 16, 20, 104

Sembach AB, 295

Senior Executive Service, 202, 304, 329, 377, 403, 

408, 437, 441, 454, 532, 551, 560-62

Services Information Management System (SIMS), 

344-45, 453

Seventh Air Force, 259, 262, 272-73, 282

Seymour Johnson AFB, 216, 344, 483, 493, 517-18, 

537

S-File, 569, 581

Shahbaz AB, 607

Shaikh Isa AB, 487, 511, 619-20
814 Leading the Way

Shaw AFB, 344-45, 396, 480, 483, 485, 517, 575, 

648

Sheppard AFB, 23, 155, 196, 216, 229, 235, 249, 

338, 379, 470-71, 584, 599

Silopi, 497-98

Silva, Donald G., 314

Silver Flag, 467, 469, 472-74, 476, 478, 571, 597-

600

Simplified Acquisition of Base Engineering Requirements (SABER), 349-50, 353, 373, 434

Sims, William, 248

Sirsenk, 497

Sitka, 31

Skelton, Ike, 463

Skelton, Matt, 630

Skomrock, Michael P., 610

Smiley, Chuck, 517

Smith, Emmitt, 555

Smith, Fred, 122

Smith, Jerry A., 323

Smith, Joseph “Joe,” 384, 419, 550

Smith, Leighton, 505

Smith, William T., 89

Smyser, Rudolph E. “Jerry,” 82

Soc Trang, 255, 278

Society of American Military Engineers, 12, 44, 89, 

179-80, 189, 370, 596, 601

Soils Control School, 29

Solar energy, 229, 301, 375, 563, 577-78

Solesbee, Kristoffer, 636 

Somalia, 401, 420, 479, 500-2, 518, 640

Southeast Asia refugees, 296

Spaatz, Carl, 30, 39, 82

Space and Missile Systems Center, 562

Space utilization, 569-70

Spangdahlem AB, 244, 386, 388-89, 485, 505, 507, 

587, 590-91

Special Category ARmy personnel With Air Force 

(SCARWAF), 109, 141, 156, 158-60, 163-65, 167-

72, 175

St. Laurent-sur-Mer, 43

Starnes, James, 639

S-Team, 420

Stehling, Fritz, 214, 257, 265, 284, 289

Stewart, Todd, 21, 416, 417, 605

Stone, Robert A., 335, 398

Stoppel, Christopher, 595

Strategic Air Command (SAC), 82-83, 87, 90, 98, 

103-4, 125-26, 130, 136, 145, 196, 202, 214, 216-

19, 223-35, 248, 258, 262, 264, 315, 347, 351-52, 

361, 365, 383, 401, 414-15, 447, 488

Strategic plans, 307, 343, 424-25, 454, 524, 541-42, 

557, 581

Stratemeyer, George, 170

Stritzinger, Janice M., 533, 563

Strom, Oren, 375

Strother, Larry, 353

Structural Maintenance and Repair Team (SMART), 

218, 351-53, 395

Stryzak, Gerald, 429

Sturgis, Samuel, 85, 156

Super Typhoon Paka, 434

Sullivan, H. Perry, 189

Sustainment, restoration, and modernization, 524-25, 

529, 543-44, 588-89

Suwon AB, 161, 289, 645

Swafford, Bruce, 277

Tacloban, 66-67

Tactical Air Command, 82, 87, 199, 206, 212, 219, 

222, 231, 251-54, 262, 268, 271, 274, 289, 292-93, 

296, 299, 305, 313, 334-36, 341-43, 345, 348, 352, 

375, 385, 390, 391, 401, 414, 431, 478, 481, 483, 

605

Taegu AB, 160, 162, 289, 474

Tafaraoui, 38

Tallil, 495, 621-22, 628, 630, 637

Tan Son Nhut AB, 255, 258, 259, 260, 262, 264, 277, 

279, 295

Tanzania, 640-41

Tapao, 262, 292

Taszar AB, 503, 506

Team Spirit, 393-94

Tegel, 157, 252

Templehof, 157

Temporary Living Quarters, 237

Temporary Living Facility, 358, 460

Terzaghi, Karl, 110

Texas Towers, 114-16

Thailand, 178, 200, 255-60, 262, 272, 275, 282, 291-

92, 296, 370, 420

The Military Engineer, 12, 50, 317, 325

Theater Air Base Vulnerability Estimate and Evaluation (TABVEE), 242, 244, 280, 320

Thomas, E.G., 16

Thompson, John, 587

Thompson, Robert, 302, 305, 311, 314-15, 317, 332, 

339-40

Maj. Gen. Thompson Award, 305

Merger of Engineering and Services, 311-13, 

339

Thor, 118-19, 121, 123-26

Thule, 116-17, 137, 244, 245

Thumrait AB, 372, 483, 492-93

Timberlake, Patrick, 89

Tin City Long Range Radar Station, 578

Tinian, 59-60, 62, 296

Tinker AFB, 237, 344, 397, 447-48, 574, 585, 643, 
815

648

Tirana, 508-9

Titan missile, 118-20, 123, 125-27, 129-30, 233-35, 

249, 360

Todd, Jeff, 535

TOP DOG, 256

Torr, Francis, 261, 264, 277

Torrejon, 463-64, 494, 497

Total Force, 212, 336, 385, 419-21, 426, 476-77, 

482, 511-12, 563-64, 605

Tours, France, 10

Training-With-Industry, 246

Training Squadron

363d Technical Training Squadron, 471

366th Training Squadron, 470-71, 598-99

Transfer of Services to MWR, 311, 427

Travis AFB, 207, 236, 426, 429, 434, 619, 620

Tri-Service Automated Cost Engineering System, 

431

Troop construction, 83, 85-86, 155, 159, 171-72, 

176, 180, 265, 

Tropical Hammer, 644

Tropical Storm Alberto, 517

Truk Island, 641

Truman, Harry S., 84, 86, 106

Tsili Tsili, 57

Turek, Dan, 552

Turner, Lew, 287-88, 293

Tuskegee, 23-24

Tuy Hoa AB, 178-79, 182, 233, 258-60, 272, 276, 

278, 283-89

Tuzla AB, 434, 503-5

4100th Group (Provisional), 504

Two-step procurement, 180, 230, 231, 237

Tyndall AFB Physical Fitness Center, 575

Tyndall AFB, 44, 142, 149, 191, 208-10, 226-27, 

263, 273, 298, 307, 314-17, 320, 323-24, 345, 359, 

375, 390-91, 409-10, 415, 426-27, 429-30, 433, 

435, 454, 467, 469, 472-73, 476, 481, 517, 548, 

551, 562, 575, 584, 597-98, 600-601, 648-49, 653

Typhoon Chata’an, 647

Typhoon Omar, 420, 476, 517

U Tapao RTAFB, 282, 296

U.S. Africa Command, 640

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1, 2, 10, 12, 22, 

24-27, 29-36, 60, 62, 65, 85-90, 93, 99, 102-3, 

106-7, 109, 113, 117, 119-20, 122-23, 127-28, 130, 

137-38, 141, 147, 151, 153, 155-57, 159, 167, 172-

74, 185, 229-230, 232, 234, 239, 267, 270, 290, 

297-98, 330, 354, 357, 359, 365-67, 370-73, 441, 

455, 461, 467, 516, 524, 546, 550, 553, 555, 592, 

634, 638

70th Engineering Battalion, 629

U.S. Army Services of Supply, 37, 42, 78, 80-81

U.S. Army Signal Corps, 1-4, 6-9

U.S. Central Command, 482, 487, 536, 603, 606, 

609, 617, 632

U.S. Central Command Air Forces/Engineering and 

Services, 480-82, 489, 491-92

U.S. Southern Command, 513-14, 640, 642, 645

U.S.S. Mount Whitney, 640

U.S.S. Pueblo, 212, 289

U.S.S.R., 84, 118, 120-21, 126, 136, 157, 159, 165, 

176, 251, 302-4, 357, 397-98, 400, 479

Ubon RTAFB, 292

Um Qasr, Iraq, 552

United Arab Emirates, 373, 482, 549

Uphold Democracy, 503, 514

United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE), 77, 79, 

99, 157, 159, 173-174, 236, 242-44, 251, 309, 311, 

315, 341, 358, 373-75, 380, 386, 388-90, 398, 401, 

411, 434, 443, 452, 457, 459, 463-65, 473, 489, 

491, 494, 503, 506, 551, 583, 587, 589-90, 599

Utah Beach, 43

Unit Type Code, 195, 331, 418-20, 425, 472, 535-37, 

603- 604

Utilities privatization, 418, 457-58, 541, 597

Uzbekistan, 546, 607-8, 615

Vadelaincourt, 10

Vandenberg AFB, 108, 118, 122-26, 133, 360, 362-

64, 430, 452, 462-63, 571, 574, 582, 584

Space Launch Complex, 362

Viccellio, Joseph, 435

Vietnam War, 11, 176-81, 200, 206, 209-10, 218, 

220, 233, 241-43, 248, 250, 254-65, 268, 270-72, 

274-80, 282-86, 289, 291-96, 300, 302, 330, 356, 

374, 420, 475, 572, 628

2d Air Division, 257, 259, 261, 271

TOP DOG, 256

Tuy Hoa AB, 178-79, 182, 233, 258-60, 272, 

276, 278, 283-89

Villa, Pancho, 5-6

Village of Hope, 634

Ville Coublay, 48

Vinger, Jeffery A., 624

Visiting officers’ quarters, 348

Vulcanus, 356

Wake Island, 296

Walter Kidde Constructors, Inc., 285-86

Wang, 209, 341-42, 344-46, 454

War Department Circular No. 388, 86

War Department Circular No. 36, 147

Ward, Larry, 417

Washbourne, Lee, 90-91, 95-96, 131, 139, 171, 174

Waylett, Susanne, (Ocobock), 203, 504-5, 533

Weapons Intelligence Team, 631
816 Leading the Way

Webb AFB, 350

Wehmeyer, Michael R., 622

Weiner, Timothy R., 636

Western Development Division, 118-19, 123, 130

Westover AFB, 298

Westover, Oscar, 20

Wetekam, Donald L., 552

Wheelus AB, 136

Wherry Housing, 84, 89, 105-8, 139, 213, 585

White Sands Missile Range, 364

White, David B., 312

Whiteman AFB, 361, 430, 463, 558, 588, 600

Wiesbaden AB, 77, 157, 243

Wilbur Wright Field, 7-9, 153

Wilcox Act of 1935, 19

Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, 298-99

Wilson, Ed, 353

Wilson, Louis, Jr., 311

Wilson, Thomas, 487, 495

Wilson, Woodrow, 7

Wingate, Orde, 69

Winters, Walter L., Jr., 386

Wise, Douglas P., 633

Woenstrecht AB, 373

Wolff, Dr. Robert, 454

Wolters AFB, 167, 170

Work Information Management System (WIMS), 

343-46, 433, 453-54, 579-81

Works Progress Administration, 18-19, 24

World Trade Center, 520, 604-5

World War I, 3, 6, 7, 10-14, 21, 44

435th Aero Squadron, 10

462d Aero Squadron, 10, 11

48th Provisional Squadron, 10

American Expeditionary Force, 10

Construction Service, 13, 15

World War II. See also Aviation Engineers, 1, 3, 7, 

11, 13, 18, 24-25, 29-30, 44, 50, 60, 62, 65, 76, 81, 

82, 85, 87, 89, 90, 92-93, 97-99, 102-3, 105, 108, 

122-23, 130, 134, 136, 139, 147-48, 151, 155-56, 

158-62, 165, 176, 181, 236, 238, 251, 267, 286, 

292, 295-96, 323, 371, 447, 463, 466, 574, 588, 

592, 627

Alaska, 30-2; Atlantic and Caribbean Bases, 33-

34; Australia, 53-55; Central Pacific, 58-64; 

China-Burma-India, 68-75; England, 35-37; 

Hawaii and the Pacific, 34-35; Iwo Jima and 

Okinawa, 75-76; Normandy to V-E Day, 

42-51; North Africa, 37-39; North Pacific, 

51- 53; Panama, 32-34; Pearl Harbor, 51; 

Philippines, 64-68; Sicily, Italy, and Southern 

France, 39-42; South Pacific, 55-56; Southwest Pacific, 56-58;

Airborne Aviation Engineers, 27, 38, 55, 57, 68, 

69, 70, 72, 73

Hessian Matting, 45-47

Pierced steel plank, 28, 46, 49-50, 58, 68, 77

Worldwide Environmental Restoration and Construction, 552-55, 632

Wright, Clifton D. “Duke,” 123, 238, 302, 305-8, 

314-16, 328, 334-35, 339-41, 349, 356, 366, 377, 

388, 390

Wright, Drew, 489

Wright-Patterson AFB, 79, 98, 149, 153, 155, 178, 

180, 185, 187-88, 194, 204, 206-9, 216, 223, 228, 

230-31, 240-41, 248, 269, 292, 295, 300, 344, 348, 

375, 390, 409, 415, 428, 452, 454, 466, 499, 503, 

532, 556, 562, 574, 585

Wurtsmith AFB, 361, 365

Wüschheim AB, 373

Yakutat, 31-32, 51

Yokota AB, 236, 517

York, Guy, 366

Zonal maintenance, 350-53, 407, 442-45

Combat Oriented Results Engineering, 352

Readiness and Ownership Oriented Management, 351-52

Zugay, Tony, 441
817
Front Cover: Aviation engineers clearing debris on the island of Saipan take a break to pose with their equipment, 1944. (U.S. Air Force photo)

Back Cover: Airman 1st Class Joshua Toth, a heavy equipment operator with the 455th Expeditionary Civil 

Engineer Squadron, smooths wet concrete on Thanksgiving Day, Nov. 27, 2008, at Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan. (U.S. Air Force photo/Staff Sgt. Samuel Morse)

Leading the Way describes how the men and women of Air Force Civil Engineering have provided the basing that enabled the Air Force to Fly, Fight, and Win. This book depicts how engineers built hundreds of 

bases during World Wars I and II, Korea, Vietnam, the Gulf War, and Operations ENDURING FREEDOM

and IRAQI FREEDOM. At the same time, these engineers operated and maintained a global network of 

enduring, peacetime bases. It describes the engineers’ role in special projects such as the ballistic missile 

program, the Arctic early warning sites, and construction of the U.S. Air Force Academy. Using hundreds of 

sources, this detailed narrative tells the story of how civil engineers have been organized, trained, equipped, 

and employed for more than 100 years. From the beaches of Normandy to the mountains of Afghanistan, civil 

engineers have forged an unmatched record of success and built a solid foundation for today’s Air Force.